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diff --git a/old/54694-0.txt b/old/54694-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index b124d56..0000000 --- a/old/54694-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4258 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of International Language and Science, by -L. Couturat and O. Jespersen and W. Ostwald and L. Pfaundler and R. Lorenz - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: International Language and Science - Considerations on the Introduction of an International - Language into Science - -Author: L. Couturat - O. Jespersen - W. Ostwald - L. Pfaundler - R. Lorenz - -Translator: F. G. Donnan - -Release Date: May 9, 2017 [EBook #54694] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE *** - - - - -Produced by MWS, John Campbell and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - - - TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE - - Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. - - Bold text is denoted by @at signs@. - - Some unusual letters and symbols are accurately represented with - Unicode characters. (Some handheld devices may not support combining - diacriticals such as the circumflex.) These are: - consonants with a circumflex accent ĉ ĝ ĥ ĵ ŝ; - letter c with an acute accent ć; - the diphthong ou with macrons ōū (many platforms do not support - the combining double macron); - and the calculus integral symbol ∫. - - Some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book. - - - - - INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE - AND SCIENCE - - - - - INTERNATIONAL - LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE - - - Considerations on the Introduction of an - International Language into Science - - - BY - - L. COUTURAT - - Formerly Professor at the - University of Caen. - - O. JESPERSEN - - Professor at the University - of Copenhagen. - - R. LORENZ - - Professor at the Federal - Polytechnicum of Zürich. - - W. OSTWALD - - Professor emeritus of the University - of Leipzig. - - L. PFAUNDLER - - Professor at the University - of Graz. - - - TRANSLATED BY - - F. G. DONNAN - - Professor at the University - of Liverpool. - - - LONDON - CONSTABLE & COMPANY LIMITED - 10 ORANGE STREET LEICESTER SQUARE W.C. - - 1910 - - - - - BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO. LD., PRINTERS, - LONDON AND TONBRIDGE - - - - -PREFACE - - -The question of a so-called world-language, or better expressed, an -international auxiliary language, was during the now past Volapük -period, and is still in the present Esperanto movement, so much -in the hands of Utopians, fanatics and enthusiasts, that it is -difficult to form an unbiassed opinion concerning it, although a -good idea lies at its basis. Both the Volapükists and Esperantists -confused the linguistic aspect of the question with so many side -issues that, not only was it difficult to see the former in its -true light, but also the leaders of the various movements were -unable to guide them in the right direction. For this reason -discussions concerning an international auxiliary language appeared -with good reason to many people to be unpractical, impossible, or -indeed even ridiculous. Matters have, however, changed since the -_Délégation pour l'adoption d'une langue auxiliaire internationale_ -has taken the matter up. This International Commission, with its -headquarters in Paris, and consisting of literary and scientific -men of eminent reputation, was entrusted with the task of -investigating the general question of an international auxiliary -language. The Delegation has, in the course of an activity -extending over seven years, succeeded in showing that a sound idea -lies at the root of the various movements for a universal language. -Freed from all extraneous considerations, this idea involves the -purely linguistic question of the introduction of an international -auxiliary language. On the other hand, the Delegation has found -that neither Volapük nor Esperanto have succeeded in solving the -problem. As, however, Esperanto was found to contain a number of -good principles, the Commission finally resolved to work out on -purely scientific principles an international auxiliary language -on the basis of Esperanto. The whole question of the introduction -of an international auxiliary language has thus arrived at a stage -in which it appears worthy of serious discussion. Under these -circumstances, the writers of this brochure considered it their -first duty to draw the attention of scientific and literary men to -the matter, and so initiate discussion. - -The object of this book will have been attained, should they have -succeeded in explaining the present state of the question, and in -showing that it is already possible to discuss the introduction -of an international auxiliary language into science, and indeed -even seriously to make the attempt to carry it out. It may be -remarked that the five authors of this book live in five different -countries, and belong to three different languages. The very -considerable correspondence required for the production of their -book was carried out with the greatest success in the _Linguo -Internaciona_, whenever any two of the correspondents possessed -different mother-tongues. - - Paris, Copenhagen, Zürich, Gross-Bothen, Graz. - - L. COUTURAT, O. JESPERSEN, R. LORENZ, - W. OSTWALD, L. PFAUNDLER. - - _March, 1909._ - - - - -TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE - - -The scientific attitude of mind is necessarily critical, but -never sceptical without proper investigation and knowledge. The -Translator hopes, therefore, that English-speaking men of science -will not judge the question of international language before they -have quietly and dispassionately examined the arguments so ably -set forth in the following pages. It is not a question of "another -language"; it is a question of the final solution by the methods of -science of one of the greatest of scientific problems. - -Internationalisation of thought is the motto of the twentieth -century, the device on the banner of progress. Science, the -Super-Nation of the world, must lead the way in this as in all -other things. Amidst the clangour and the clamour of political and -commercial strife, the quiet empire of knowledge grows, noiseless -and unseen. Let all those who believe that this peaceful empire is -destined to become the controlling force of the world assist in the -attunement of its common language. - -The Translator wishes to thank his friend and colleague, Professor -J. P. Postgate, for having very kindly revised the translation of -Chapters III. and IV. - - F. G. DONNAN. - - UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL, - _March, 1910_. - - - - -TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - Preface v - - - CHAPTER - - I. The need for a common scientific language, by L. Pfaundler 1 - - II. The _Délégation pour l'adoption d'une langue auxiliaire - internationale_, by R. Lorenz 11 - - III. Linguistic principles necessary for the construction of an - international auxiliary language, with an appendix on - the criticism of Esperanto, by O. Jespersen 27 - - IV. On the application of logic to the problem of an international - language, by L. Couturat 42 - - V. The relationship of the international language to science, - by R. Lorenz 53 - - VI. The question of nomenclature, by W. Ostwald 61 - - VII. Conclusion; Reading, Writing, and Speaking, by L. - Pfaundler 69 - - - APPENDIX I. _Linguo Internaciona di la Delegitaro_; grammar, - word-formation, list of grammatical words 75 - - " II. Specimen pages from the International-English - Dictionary 82 - - " III. An experiment in double translation 84 - - " IV. _Uniono di l'amiki di la linguo internaciona_; - extracts from the provisional statutes, and - membership form 86 - - - - -INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE NEED FOR A COMMON SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE - - -All who are occupied with the reading or writing of scientific -literature have assuredly very often felt the want of a common -scientific language, and regretted the great loss of time and -trouble caused by the multiplicity of languages employed in -scientific literature. - -The remarkable and regrettable feature of this state of affairs is -that we once possessed, and have now lost, such a common language, -namely, Latin. Even in the first third of the last century Gauss -wrote a portion of his mathematical and physical papers in Latin, -and up to the middle of the last century the dissertations of the -scientific candidates at the German universities were translated -into Latin by their philological colleagues, since the former were -no longer sufficiently conversant with that language. The fall -of Latin as the language of scholars and men of science could -not, however, be prevented, nor does there exist the faintest -chance of its ever recovering its lost position. The reasons for -this are known to all. The rise and development of science, for -the expression of whose ideas the language of Cicero no longer -sufficed, the fall of scholasticism, with its Church Latin, the -diffusion of knowledge amongst people not possessing a university -training, the foundation of technical high schools, and, finally, -the growing national sentiment and jealousy of nations who sought -to further the spread of their national languages by using them -in the works of their scientific men--all this has contributed -to displace Latin by the modern national languages. The result -is that, instead of one common language for scholars and men of -science, we now possess three. - -It is required or supposed that every scholar or man of science -should know at least German, French, and English. For the majority -of German scholars and men of science this may hold good, but in -the case of the French it is less true, and in the case of the -English least of all. The knowledge of these three languages is, -however, no longer sufficient, and that for the following reasons. - -In the first place, several other languages must be taken into -account, for many Italians write only Italian, many Dutchmen -only Dutch, whilst numerous Russians, Poles, Czechs, Hungarians, -Scandinavians, and Spaniards employ only their national languages. -In this way much escapes general knowledge and recognition, or is -only accessible in a belated or mutilated form. - -In the second place, the difficulty of a quick mutual understanding -is great, even for those who can command these three chief -languages. If one is possessed of a little natural talent, one can -by dint of industry and much loss of time easily get so far as to -read or understand a paper or a letter in a foreign language, but -when it comes to writing (replying) the task is incomparably more -difficult. One can, however, not assume, when a German scholar or -man of science replies in German to a letter written in French or -English, that he will be always understood. - -The matter is much worse in the case of oral intercourse, -especially at scientific congresses. At these the three chief -languages mentioned above are usually now declared to be official, -that is to say, permissible for the delivery of papers. As a -matter of fact, however, the language of the country in which -the congress is held usually dominates. The German speaks French -in Paris, but the Englishman mostly only English, and demands, -as occurred at the recent Refrigeration Congress in Paris, the -translation into English of the papers read at the sectional -meetings. Only very few can take part in the discussions, and -many must be well content if they are able to understand the -usually rapidly delivered papers. Many an important criticism is -not made because one does not possess the expertness necessary -for discussing a question in a foreign language, and does not -wish to expose oneself to the chance of a rebuff, caused not so -much by ignorance of the matter in hand as by want of facility in -expression. - -Every member of a congress has noticed that whenever the language -employed in the papers changes, a considerable number of the -audience leave with more or less noise, in order to avoid being -compelled to listen to a paper which they do not understand. -Congresses would be certainly much better attended were it not that -these difficulties keep many away. - -One cannot hope that an increasing diffusion of the knowledge -of the three chief languages will cause these difficulties to -diminish, still less to disappear. They will, rather, increase -still more, since the number of national languages desiring to -take part in the work of civilisation is constantly growing. -Already, at the present time, Italian, Spanish, Dutch, and the -Scandinavian and Slavonic languages must be taken into account, -besides the three chief languages. National sentiment forces the -scientific men of these countries to use the national languages, -even when they perceive that this procedure does not conduce -to mutual understanding. Even if the scientific men themselves -were completely free from national _amour propre_, they would be -obliged by their fellow-countrymen to employ their own languages, -not so much for the purpose of advancing scientific knowledge and -learning as in order to contribute by means of their literary -and scientific works to the diffusion of their languages and the -advancement of their nations. Whoever has observed this phenomenon -will be forced to the conclusion that amongst scientific men, at -least in Europe, this state of affairs is getting worse rather than -better. - -The increase of the participating languages involves an increase -of the periodicals, just at a time when a concentration of the -periodical literature is most desirable. The cost of subscriptions, -translations, storing, and registration, and the labour and time -spent thereon, increase from year to year. Above all, there is a -want of translators; ordinary interpreters are not sufficient, -since a special knowledge of each subject is required. Where are -such persons to be found in sufficient numbers? And how few and far -between are those who, when they possess the requisite training, -are willing to content themselves with the poorly paid remuneration -of a translator! - -Bad or erroneous translations and faulty abstracts are very -harmful; it would be better in such cases that no translation -should exist, as then the original would have to be consulted. -These difficulties, many more of which could be mentioned, are well -known to all scientific men, since each has suffered more or less -from them. - -The question then is, What remedy can we apply? One proposal -is to introduce into secondary schools the teaching of modern -instead of classical languages, in order to render the students, -after matriculation at the universities, capable of taking part -in international scientific intercourse. This proposal has arisen -from the view that the learning of modern _added_ to that of the -classical languages would overburden the secondary schools, whilst -the learning of modern languages at the universities would cause -equal or greater difficulties. - -Few young people possess, during their years at the university, -sufficient keenness and moral courage to subject themselves to the -ordeal of linguistic studies, from which they have joyfully escaped -on their entrance into the university. Few possess at that age a -full conception of the usefulness and necessity of a knowledge of -languages. And it is just those young people who wish to devote -themselves to the professions of literature or science who ought to -devote their whole time and full powers to their professional work, -and not be obliged to break up their time with linguistic studies. - -The proposal to exclude the classical languages from the secondary -schools has encountered, however, from many quarters very weighty -objections, the force of which cannot be denied, even by the -opposite side. We shall, however, not enter into this much-debated -question, contenting ourselves with the remark that at the present -day insuperable obstacles stand in the way of a complete or partial -substitution of modern for classical languages. Experience shows -also that the teaching of modern languages in schools seldom leads -to a practical result, although it must be conceded that nowadays, -with newer methods, much better results are obtained than formerly, -when the grammar, but not the practical use, was taught. If, -therefore, the teaching of modern languages cannot well be carried -out either at the universities or in the schools, there remains -only the time before school studies. It is, in fact, possible (as -is done in many well-to-do families), by means of a French or -German governess, to teach a child, besides its mother tongue, one -of these languages, in so far as its mental development permits. It -is probably inadvisable to teach more than one new language in this -way, in order to avoid injury to the child's own mother tongue. -Such a knowledge, however, is quite insufficient for the needs of -the young scientific man, and so the acquaintance with a language -gained in this way requires constant extension and development. - -But even assuming that the young man continues the study of the -language that he has learnt as a child, or even indeed learns -another during his school days, he will possess at best that -approximate knowledge of the three chief languages which we -have characterised above as being neither qualitatively nor -quantitatively sufficient, because it does not suffice for oral -intercourse, and because other languages must be taken into account. - -The proposal has, therefore, been made to choose, by international -agreement, _one_ of the national languages as a universal -_intermediary_ language. If everybody learnt this language, then -the difficulty would be surmounted. - -This proposal is, however, still-born. Every attempt to realise -it is bound to be shipwrecked on the rock of national jealousy, -as has been often shown before, for it is evident that the nation -whose language was chosen would receive a very great advantage. -The widely spoken English language possesses, it is true, a very -simple grammar, but it would be very unsuitable for this purpose on -account of its extremely difficult pronunciation. - -Just as science has succeeded in giving to the world a uniform -system of weights and measures by choosing instead of a national -unit of length one common to all nations, namely, the length of an -earth quadrant, so only that language could find general acceptance -which was based on the common possession of those peoples for whom -it was intended. By that we mean the stock of words common to the -three great families of languages, the Germanic, Romance, and -Slavonic. - -Against this the objection will be raised: "An artificial -language; in other words, a Utopia! How could one think of -artificially creating a language, which, after all, is a living -and spontaneously developing organism? One might as well think of -artificially creating a live horse!" - -It is true that one cannot make a live horse, but one can make -an automobile, which under certain circumstances may replace the -horse, and even excel its performance. But no one would think on -that account of totally doing away with horses. In a similar manner -the partisans of an artificial language have no wish to displace -the natural languages. In poetry and imaginative literature, -wherein the soul of a nation finds its highest expression, the -mother-tongue will always be supreme.[1] - -"But it is unthinkable," one will say, "that an artificial language -would ever be generally accepted." - -Such statements must be received with caution, for they have turned -out more than once to be wrong. The introduction of a common system -of weights and measures was also declared to be impossible at one -time, nevertheless it has since been carried out in science. The -construction of a system of telegraph wires connecting the whole -civilised world and a telegraph alphabet common to all nations -was declared seventy years ago to be an impossibility. Now it is -ancient history. - -The maritime nations have agreed upon a common code of signals. -When the English sailor arrives at the Japanese coast, he -translates the sentences he wishes to transmit into numbers, which -he signals by means of flags, and the Japanese port official -translates the signalled numbers by means of the code into Japanese -sentences. Why should it therefore be impossible to introduce -instead of this intermediary _numerical_ language an intermediary -_word_ language, which would give expression to thought in a better -and more direct manner?[2] - -"Quite so, but such an intermediary language would be much more -difficult to create than a code of signals arranged for a limited -number of words and phrases." - -How would it be if this difficulty had been already overcome, -and the intermediary language already created and proved to be -serviceable? - -"But that would amount to adding a new language to be learnt to the -ones we already have to learn; there would be no advantage in that!" - -If, however, this "new" language was really not "new," consisting -mostly of words known to every educated person; if its grammar was -so simple that its principles could be learned within an hour; -and if, therefore, any educated person who knew a single Romance -language could learn the whole language in an incredibly short -time, would it not be an advantage to acquire it? - -To prove this is a simple problem of permutations and combinations, -and the proof possesses all the certainty of mathematical -reasoning. We shall demonstrate that by an example. - -Suppose a large town contains ten districts, each possessing a -pneumatic post-office. In order to connect each district with all -the others, one could lay from each of the ten post-offices nine -tubes to the remaining nine post-offices. That would require (10 -× 9)/2 = 45 tubes. The problem could, however, be solved much -more easily and cheaply by connecting each of the post-offices by -means of a single tube with a central post-office, which would -receive and distribute all the letters, as is actually the case in -practice. We should then require only ten tubes. - -Substitute now for the districts imagined above the languages, -German, French, English, Italian, Russian, Spanish, etc., with the -condition that every person speaking one language should be able -to correspond with everybody speaking a different language. In the -case of ten languages we should require for every correspondent -nine dictionaries, or altogether ninety dictionaries. - -Every correspondent would have to know nine languages besides his -own. If, however, we employed an intermediary language, each person -would only require to know this language besides his own. The -matter is so simple and the advantage so exceedingly obvious that -one can only wonder why it has not been recognised and carried out -long ago. - -It is quite self-evident that, if one wishes to become acquainted -with the imaginative literature and the inner thoughts and feelings -of a foreign nation, one cannot content oneself with translations, -but must study a language in its own country. But how many people -learn French in order to become acquainted with its literature? -The existence of an intermediary language would interfere with -such linguistic studies just as little as the invention of the -automobile prevents anybody from using a riding or carriage horse. -There is no necessity, therefore, for philologists or professional -linguists to be hostile to the project, since their sphere of work -and influence will not be in any way diminished thereby. On the -contrary, the creation of an artificial language has led to so -many interesting questions relating to the structure, and to such -a deeper insight into the nature of language, and has attracted so -many to its study, that this beautiful department of knowledge will -only derive advantage therefrom. - -It is also remarkable that the original work of Dr. Zamenhof, -which in its principles was characterised by genius, but in its -execution was imperfect and therefore insufficient, has only -through the reforming labours of distinguished philologists -attained to that perfection of form and principle required to make -it the international auxiliary language of the civilised world. -The difficulty of the undertaking no longer lies in the language -itself, but, rather, in the task of inspiring all concerned, and -especially the leading thinkers, with the conviction that it is -practically realisable. If this conviction can be sufficiently -spread, the introduction of the auxiliary language will only be a -matter of a few months. In order, however, to form an opinion on -the possibility of this realisation, it is, in the first place, -necessary to become acquainted with the main principles, structure, -and origin of the language which we recommend. - - L. PFAUNDLER. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -_THE "DÉLÉGATION POUR L'ADOPTION D'UNE LANGUE AUXILIAIRE -INTERNATIONALE"_ - - -One of the most important problems of present day civilisation is -the introduction of an international auxiliary language. - -We boast of our international intercourse. The civilised world -has extended to new nations and has embraced whole regions of the -earth, and yet, in spite of the magnificent means of material -communication, nothing of a similar nature has been done for the -purpose of uniting minds together in an equally practical manner. -Recently, however, an event has occurred at Paris which brings us -a step further in this direction. The _Délégation pour l'Adoption -d'une Langue Auxiliaire Internationale_, which was formed in 1900 -as a result of the Paris Exhibition, has, after an activity of -seven years, arrived at a definite decision. - -The very fact that modern international relations have brought -about such a delegation and entrusted it with work should be -sufficient to emphasise the importance of the problem. It is -not true that the need for an international auxiliary language -disappears with the knowledge of several national languages, -as has been asserted by many who, on account of their personal -knowledge, have not experienced it. This is especially true of some -philologists who overlook the fact that languages form the object -of their special studies, and draw conclusions from themselves -concerning the needs of others. Expertness in the use of languages -does not come so readily to the scientific investigator and the -technologist, whose work lies in other directions, and so it is -in these quarters that the movement for the introduction of an -international auxiliary language receives the greatest support. To -this must be added the fact that, as Ostwald has aptly remarked, -the scientific investigator regards language only as a means of -making himself understood. Language is _not_ for him something -"which thinks and poetises," but rather an instrument for conveying -his knowledge and wishes to other people, much after the fashion -whereby the musician is enabled to convey his feelings by means -of musical notation and the instruments of the orchestra. The -question of the suitability of a language is important in this -connection; and so it does not appear so very strange that it is -just the scientific investigators, technologists, and philosophers -who have never been quite satisfied with living or dead languages. -How otherwise can we explain the fact that it is just they who are -constantly solving philological problems and constantly occupied -with the invention not only of new signs and symbols (mathematical, -chemical, crystallographic), but also new words? The fact is that -science, philosophy, and technology are constantly waging a fierce -battle with existing languages. What they want is a language as -simple and clear as the fundamental laws of nature, as logical as -the precision of experiment, and as many-sided as the complexity -of the facts which it has to describe. And so they are constantly -working at the creation of this language, all the words invented -by science finding their way unceasingly through the channels of -technology into the general vocabulary. These words possess the -special property of being international, that is to say, understood -by all civilised nations, including the Japanese. We do not wish, -however, to stop at this stage of development; we wish to be able -to internationalise not only single ideas, but also the whole train -of thought. For this purpose it is impracticable to make use of -any of the national languages, since they are all so unsuitable, -illogical, capricious, and complicated that the student must learn -to steer clear of thousands of difficulties before he is able to -express himself fairly correctly. _It is possible to construct an -artificial language with such a regular structure that it can be -employed at once without making mistakes._ - -In accordance with these ideas, the programme of the Delegation was -as follows:-- - -"(1) It is desirable that an international auxiliary language -should be introduced which, though not intended to replace -the natural languages in the internal life of nations, should -be adapted to written and oral intercourse between persons of -different mother-tongues. - -"(2) Such an international language must, in order to fulfil its -object, satisfy the following conditions:-- - - "(a) It must be capable of serving the needs of science as well - as those of daily life, commerce, and general intercourse. - - "(b) It must be capable of being easily learnt by all persons of - average elementary education, especially those belonging to the - civilised nations of Europe. - - "(c) It must not be any one of the living national languages. - -"(3) The decision as to the choice of a language is to be referred -in the first place to the International Association of Academies, -but if the latter should refuse to consider the matter or come to -no decision, to the committee of the Delegation. - -"(4) Circulars are to be sent to learned, commercial, and legal -societies requesting them to signify their approval of the above -programme." - -The success of this appeal was extraordinary. It was now evident -for the first time how many thousands of people of all nations were -enthusiastically in favour of the introduction of an international -auxiliary language. The _État de la Délégation_, which the latter -published yearly, included on October 1st, 1907, in the list of -corporate bodies alone, the names of 310 clubs, societies, and -congresses, not a few of which possessed a membership exceeding -1,000. It is interesting to rapidly pass in review the extremely -varied character of the societies included therein. We find, for -example, commercial schools, chambers of commerce, merchants' -clubs, stenographers, the printing trade, correspondence bureaus, -photographic clubs, associations of municipal and other officials, -societies of shipping employés, legal clubs, pedagogic and -religious societies, officers' clubs, institutes for the deaf -and dumb and for the blind, sociological, medical, and health -societies, peace clubs, political and graphological societies, -touring, bicycle, and automobile clubs, sport clubs, bibliographic -societies and library staffs, and finally all sorts of special -scientific societies and congresses. Arranged according to -nationality, we find representatives of France, England, Germany, -Switzerland, Denmark, Spain, Greece, Italy, Belgium, Norway, -Sweden, Holland, Russia (including Poland), Roumania, Austria -(including Bohemia and Hungary), Mexico, Peru, the Argentine, -Algeria, Tunis, the United States, Chile, etc. There is also -the "academic list," which contains the names of no less than -1,250 professors, belonging to 189 universities, technical high -schools, and academies of science, and coming from 110 parts of -the globe, extending as far as India and Japan. It may be stated -without exaggeration that the programme of the Delegation found an -enthusiastic response in all parts of the world and from people -of nearly every occupation and profession, many persons and -societies expressing themselves in favour of the introduction of an -international auxiliary language on the condition that it should -not be one of the living languages. - -During the seven years of its existence the Delegation has -carried out the duties entrusted to it in an exemplary manner, -and has performed a gigantic amount of work. In May, 1907, the -Delegation considered the time had come to lay the matter before -the International Association of Academies. At that time the report -was very wide-spread that the Association had altogether refused to -consider the matter. In reality the Vienna Academy, as President of -that year, decided to bring the question before the Association, -but the latter declined to take the matter up (twelve votes to -eight, one member not voting). At this point the Delegation had -the right and the duty to speak out. It obtained an expression of -opinion from the representatives of all the associated societies -and clubs. The result of this was the formation of a working -committee, consisting of sixteen members, almost entirely scholars -and men of science of reputation and members of the different -scientific academies. With the representatives of natural science -and mathematics were associated philologists and linguists. The -committee began to sit on October 15th, 1907, and, after eighteen -sittings held in the Collège de France, arrived at a decision. - -Before we enter into this matter more fully it will be desirable -to give a brief sketch of the historical development of artificial -language. - -Anyone desiring to go more deeply into the history of this question -(already three hundred years old) and the practical attempts at its -realisation may be referred to the masterly work of L. Couturat and -L. Leau, _Histoire de la Langue Universelle_ (Paris, 1903). In what -follows only a few of the most important points will be mentioned. - -The oldest extant reference to the problem of an international -language appears to be contained in the letter written by -Descartes on November 20th, 1629, to his friend Mersenne. The -great philosopher here explains the principles which convinced him -that it would be possible to construct an artificial language -which could be used as an international auxiliary language. As -for Leibnitz, who was attracted throughout his whole life by this -problem, his language projects have been recently investigated -by L. Couturat by means of documents, many of which have never -before been published (_La Logique de Leibnitz_ and _Opuscules et -Fragments Inédits de Leibnitz_). There may further be mentioned the -_Ars signorum Vulgo Charakter Universalis et Lingua Philosophica_ -(London, 1661) of George Dalgarno, and the recently discovered -memoir of an unknown author entitled _Carpophorophili Novum -inveniendæ Scripturæ Œcumenicæ Consilium_ (Leipzig, 1734). The -last-mentioned system in particular strikes one as highly modern in -principle. - -It was only, however, at the end of the last century that the -era of practical things began with the Volapük of Schleyer. The -success of this language was very considerable. It possessed about -thirty journals, published in the most different countries, even -in Japan, and its literature has been estimated at from 300 to -400 works. The official lists published in 1889 contained the -names of 255 local groups belonging to the "Universal Language -Society," some of which possessed a very considerable membership. -The teaching of the language was highly organised, there being -900 teachers, 200 head teachers, and 50 "professors." This great -linguistic experiment was very instructive, and its significance -cannot be underrated. Important conclusions concerning the theory -and practice of artificial language can be drawn from it, and -especially from a consideration of the circumstances which finally -led to the downfall of Volapük. It turned out that this was due -to the errors which Volapük itself contained, showing us that in -these matters, as in others, practical experience is the best -teacher. The fate of Volapük was sealed when its supporters, in the -year 1889, made the experiment of organising a congress at which -Volapük should be spoken. Although a few Volapükists succeeded in -speaking the language, it was only too painfully evident that such -a goal could not be reached with this system. Almost simultaneously -with Volapük another artificial language had been invented. The -Russian medical man Dr. Zamenhof published his system in 1887 under -the pseudonym of "Doktoro Esperanto." But as Esperanto arrived -while Volapük was at its zenith, it failed at first to attract -general attention. It found, however, in France, an enthusiastic -supporter in the Marquis de Beaufront, who had himself worked out -an international language called "Adjuvanto." He gave this up as -soon as he came to know about Esperanto, and founded the _Société -Française pour la Propagation de l'Esperanto_ and the journal -_L'Esperantiste_ (now in its tenth year). France soon became the -centre of the new movement, and indeed almost the whole existence -and magnitude of the Esperanto movement was due to the influence of -this man. Since then Esperanto has extended to all countries. The -Esperanto journals appear mostly in a bilingual form, the number of -them being, as in the Volapük movement, about forty-five, whilst -there exist a few journals and periodicals published exclusively -in Esperanto. A special significance attaches to the international -congresses organised by the Esperantists, at which only Esperanto -is spoken. In 1905, at Boulogne-sur-Mer, there assembled 600 -members, belonging to about fifteen different nationalities. -The differences of pronunciation which, on account of certain -peculiarities of construction in Esperanto, must necessarily appear -amongst the Romance nationalities and the English, were not, we -are told, sufficiently marked to prevent mutual comprehension. -The second congress took place at Geneva in 1906. At the third -congress, in Cambridge, in 1907, there were present about 1,400 -members, whilst at the fourth congress, in Dresden, in 1908, there -assembled also 1,400 members. Whatever opinion one may hold about -these congresses, at which much confusion and misunderstanding, and -indeed even much that was ridiculous, took place, they represent, -without doubt, a great and remarkable philological experiment, -and one which demonstrates the possibility of synthetically -constructing a language that can be spoken. On the other hand, -however, the Esperanto congresses showed, according to the -concordant testimony of all persons of unbiassed opinion, that the -Esperanto language in no wise represents the final solution of the -problem. All farsighted leaders of the Esperanto movement have been -for a long time the more fully conscious of this state of affairs -the more profound their knowledge of the Esperanto language. Chief -amongst them may be mentioned M. de Beaufront himself, who has come -forward as one of the leaders of reform, a reform which in many -important respects was recognised as necessary by Dr. Zamenhof -himself in a series of interesting memoirs. The recommendations -of Dr. Zamenhof were, however, rejected in 1894 by the so-called -"Fundamentists" (157 votes to 107), who were supported by a few -great publishing firms interested in the preservation of Esperanto. -By reason of the fact that the Esperanto alphabet contains no -fewer than six special letters to be found in no ordinary printing -fount, the firms referred to possess the monopoly of the very -considerable trade in this literature. The Fundamentists hold the -view that, in spite of a few errors in the auxiliary language, its -success can only be assured by absolute conservatism. They have, -therefore, declared the grammar, together with the reading book and -vocabulary, published by Zamenhof under the title of _Fundamento de -Esperanto_, to be sacrosanct, and go so far in this matter as to -revere as "correct" and "classical" Esperanto the infringements of -his own rules, the grammatical errors, and even the misprints to be -found in the _Fundamento_. - -The idea of a powerful organisation has undoubtedly at first -sight something very attractive about it. One must, however, not -forget, even in the case of an international language, that no -organisation in the world can arrest the progress of a necessary -development. Every human contrivance and invention is subject to -change, errors and deficiencies being corrected. Especially is -a rational development inevitable in the case of things, such -as an international language, which are subject to the control -of our intelligence. Conversely it is not difficult to reply to -the question, How is it then possible, when a system has once -been chosen, to carry it out and preserve it? For there are two -fundamental qualities which, happily for us, are apparent in -the history of inventions, and each of which confers stability -quite apart from any conventions, namely, a high degree of -rational development based on the most profound knowledge and an -extraordinary empirical perfection. As examples of the latter may -be mentioned the notation of music, which since Guido d'Arezzo -(born in 990), or at any rate since Johann Sebastian Bach, has not -appreciably changed; the division of time into twenty-four hours -and of the hour into sixty minutes, which is at least three hundred -years old; the face, mechanism, and hands of a watch, which date, -with unimportant changes, from the Renaissance; and, finally, the -violin, which retains up to the present day the characteristic form -which the ancient Italians gave it. Is it not wonderful that this -strangely carved piece of wood must possess just that particular -form in order to yield its harmonious tones? - -As examples of the former may be quoted almost all modern -achievements. The metric and decimal systems have come to stay. The -bicycle, the motor car, and the typewriting machine have undergone -successive improvements till finally they have attained to their -more or less definite form. We see from this that when inventions -have once reached a certain degree of suitability they are not -afterwards easily replaced by others. There is, therefore, only one -adequate criterion of the stability of an international language, -namely, that of suitability or adaptation to its purpose, and -we maintain that it is only by means of continuous reforms and -improvements that it will succeed in satisfying this criterion -and so finally attain to stability. In the work of Couturat and -Leau, referred to above, there are described about ten artificial -languages which have sprung up during and after the period of -Volapük and Esperanto, and in which the experience of their -predecessors has been more or less made use of. A study of these -attempts leads to the surprising result that they often differ -amongst themselves less than, for example, the Romance languages. -If, then, one were to choose any one of these languages and to -direct its systematic development according to the principles -which experience and knowledge have shown to be requisite for the -construction of an international language, one would in each case -arrive finally at approximately the same result. - -At the present day the rapid development in every department of -life has made us only too ready to regard everything around us -as transient. We forget, however, that the rapidly accumulating -inventions and discoveries which startle and surprise us always -refer to new things. One must bear in mind that there also exist -things which in their essential features can _only be invented -once_, and that the international language in its final form is one -of these. - -An excellent means of convincing the incredulous is to demonstrate -the absence of arbitrariness in the character of an invention or -improvement, and the degree of general consent which a given system -has already obtained. Whenever one has recognised the natural and -logical basis of a discovery one perceives relationships which -restrict the ideas of chance and haphazard originally associated -with it in one's mind. It is, therefore, quite unnecessary in the -case of an international language to be afraid of "the arbitrary -action of private persons who possess neither the right nor the -authority to introduce reforms into Esperanto," as Dr. Zamenhof has -recently stated. One ought rather to feel sure that the best means -of defending an international language against arbitrary changes is -the degree of its concordance with sound theoretical principles. - -Wilhelm Ostwald has given us an account of the work of the -Delegation. The commission consisted of representatives of the -English, German, Italian, Scandinavian, and Slavonic languages. -Famous philologists such as Otto Jespersen, of Copenhagen, -and Baudouin de Courtenay, of St. Petersburg, as well as the -philosopher L. Couturat, of Paris, rendered priceless services. -The proceedings, which were held in the Collège de France, began -with the interviewing of a number of the inventors of artificial -languages or their representatives, all such people having been -invited to the conference. Where this procedure was not possible -the corresponding writings and documents were examined and -discussed. Concerning this work Ostwald writes, "Although these -labours were very fatiguing, they proved all the more effective for -the progressive elucidation of the problem in hand. From the very -multiplicity of the attempts at a solution and their discussion -there arose in the minds of the workers, in a manner never to be -forgotten, a clear conception of the main conditions required for -a successful solution of the problem, and a recognition of the -errors which a disregard of one or other of these conditions had -produced in the existing systems." Whilst an account of the nature -of these principles and of their application to the construction -of an international auxiliary language will be given by competent -authorities in the following chapters, we may here mention that the -Delegation decided that none of the existing systems satisfied -the conditions necessary for an international auxiliary language, -but that the widely known Esperanto could serve as a basis for -the working out of such a language, although it would require to -undergo a certain number of changes. - -A standing committee was elected, including Ostwald, Couturat, De -Beaufront, and Jespersen, which was entrusted with the task of -determining the new forms of the international auxiliary language -on the basis of the principles laid down in the sittings mentioned -above. - -The changes carried out by the committee of the Delegation -are embodied in the form of new grammars and dictionaries. -The Delegation succeeded not only in recognising, but also in -correcting in a competent manner, the errors of Esperanto, with -the result that we are to-day in possession of a language which in -respect of facility, lucidity, variety, and elegance of expression, -represents the high-water mark of international speech. - -The success which this reform achieved amongst the public and -also in Esperantist circles immediately after the publication -by the Delegation of the first specimen of the new language was -astonishing. That which the Esperantists had scarcely succeeded -in doing during six years of their existence took place with -astonishing rapidity before our eyes, and in scarcely as many -months there were formed in sixty towns of Europe and America local -groups of enthusiastic people affiliated to the Delegation. - -Unfortunately the Fundamentists persist in their obstinacy and -continue to manifest their discontent. Although the new language -has sprung from Esperanto and is based upon it, the Esperantists -have forbidden that the name Esperanto should be used. The -conventional name _Ido_ (_i.e._, a descendant) has therefore -been given to it. There exist already some periodicals in the -_linguo internaciona_. The chief organ of the new movement is the -periodical _Progreso_ (pronounced _Progresso_), "_oficiala organo -di la Delegitaro por adopto di linguo helpanta internaciona_." It -is edited by Professor L. Couturat in Paris, and owes its name, -programme, and policy to the advice and initiative of Ostwald. - -The superiority of Ido over Esperanto is so striking and is so -incontestably borne out by practical experience that one can -now really speak, after the Volapük and Esperanto periods, of -a third world-language movement which has started off with a -reaction-velocity hitherto unknown in this department of knowledge. -It is characteristic of the new language that it has been taken up -by the English and Americans, whilst an introduction of primitive -Esperanto amongst the Anglo-Saxons encountered insuperable -obstacles, for, as was pointed out with good reason, the English -language, especially in regard to its grammar, was superior to -Esperanto on account of a number of clumsy constructions and errors -which the latter contained. But, apart from the regularity of -pronunciation, Ido excels the English language both in regard to -grammar and, what is of great importance, brevity, a printed Ido -text being even briefer than the corresponding English one. - -For the benefit of those who are unacquainted with the nature of -international language and who still regard an artificial language -as an impossible monstrosity, we may remark that the new vocabulary -contains in round numbers 5,400 stems, and that, in spite of the -Romance character which the international language necessarily -possesses, 40 per cent. of these are common to the following six -languages: German, English, French, Italian, Russian, Spanish -(and to many others). Moreover, there are naturally innumerable -other stems which occur simultaneously in five or four of the -great languages. In the face of this overwhelming evidence, no -one can contest the possibility of an international language, for -the above numbers tell their tale with unmistakable clearness. -They _prove the existence of the international language apart from -every theory_. It is only necessary to select judiciously the words -common to the living languages, that is to say, by an artificial -process, in order to construct the international language. - -Besides the purely linguistic standpoint, the Delegation considered -the whole question of an international auxiliary language from -another and an essential point of view. It is natural, and -sufficiently well known, that in both the Volapük and Esperanto -movements the linguistic issue was mixed up with a large amount -of disorder, error, misunderstanding, and illusion. This was -due to the fact that these movements were largely directed by -scientifically untrained persons, and partly also fell into the -hands of fanatics and Utopians. Added to this was the desire to -soar to the summits of literature instead of confining themselves -to practical matters, and the truly childish confidence which led -them to spoil the classics of different nations by translating -them into a language intended for other purposes. This latter -trait was even more markedly pronounced in the Esperanto than in -the Volapük movement. The Delegation, as a commission of serious -men of science, has steadily laboured to free the question from -all extraneous considerations, of which we have mentioned only the -best known, and the standpoint which is taken in the periodical -_Progreso_ is in all respects a serious and scientific one. In this -way it has been possible to attain finally to a stage at which -the whole question can be discussed on its merits. The action of -the Delegation marks, therefore, without doubt the beginning of -a rational period in the history of the movement for a universal -language. Henceforth he who comes to mock will have nothing to -say, and the sceptic will have to search for serious and competent -reasons if he wishes to maintain his case. - -The point of view which the Delegation has taken is that the -solution of the problem of an international auxiliary language is -a purely scientific and technical question. Scientific in a double -sense of the word: in the first place, because the living germ of -an international language is already to be found in science and as -an expression of the civilisation of Europe and America, requiring -only an artificial development to bring it to maturity and to give -us the international auxiliary language in its final form; in the -second place, because the method of artificial development of -the international language forms itself the object of a science, -and that indeed a new one, namely, the philology of auxiliary -language. The question is also a technical one because the result -obtained by theory is destined for a practical purpose, namely, -the daily use of mankind. Our modern civilisation is signalised -by the application of science to practice. We are no longer pure -empiricists. Science penetrates into every department of daily -life, and all enlightened people are aware that the age of pure -empiricism is over. - -The movement for a universal language possesses its epochs, like -other things, but we may rest assured that the era of the attempts -to solve the problem of auxiliary language in a purely empirical, -or even indeed romantic, manner has passed away with the Volapük -and Esperanto periods. - -The work of the Delegation has also been in a high degree an -organising one. The beginning of the year 1909 gave birth to a -_Uniono di l'Amiki di la Linguo Internaciona_, extending over all -parts of the world. From this union are derived by election two -directing bodies: firstly, the _Komitato_, a commission which -looks after matters of organisation and business; and secondly, -an _Academy_, entrusted with the scientific investigation of -the international auxiliary language, which sees to its steady -progress, corrects the errors and deficiencies which are sure to -make their appearance, decides in doubtful cases, and regulates -the introduction of new words and constructions. - -The carrying out of this scientific and technical programme has now -become the duty of all who feel the necessity for an international -means of communicating thought. - - RICHARD LORENZ. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE LINGUISTIC PRINCIPLES NECESSARY FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF AN -INTERNATIONAL AUXILIARY LANGUAGE, WITH APPENDIX: CRITICISM OF -ESPERANTO - - -There exist more than sixty systems or attempts at an artificial -universal language, and considering the great diversity of these -languages, it might appear hopeless to arrive at unanimity -concerning any one of them. When, however, one considers the -question more closely, it appears that matters are not so bad as -one might imagine. Whereas twenty years ago the systems which -appeared were as different as day from night, at the present day -one perceives great lines of convergence, pointing to the time when -mankind shall have added to the other triumphs of civilisation -that of an auxiliary language recognised and used by everybody, -to the great advantage of all whose horizon is not limited by the -boundaries of their mother country. - -Is it possible in a single formula to express everything that is -requisite for a practical international language? I think so, and -a brief consideration of the two reasons which prevent us from -choosing one of the natural languages as an international language -will enable me to arrive very quickly at this formula. The first -reason is, that such a procedure would unfairly benefit one nation -at the expense of all the others and would infringe the fundamental -principle of neutrality, which is necessary in all international -affairs. The second reason is, that every language is too difficult -for foreigners. All existing languages swarm with difficulties -of pronunciation, spelling, grammar, vocabulary, and especially -idiom. It is very seldom that a foreigner succeeds, even after -years of study, in learning a language sufficiently well to avoid -occasionally making one of those mistakes which instantly betray -his origin to the natives; it may be a false stress, or a word -employed with an almost imperceptibly different shade of meaning, -or placed in a position in a sentence where the native would never -place it, or, finally, a phrase which, though logically correct, -is nevertheless not permitted by the usage of the language. On -account of their innumerable relationships and associations, which -is indeed what makes them so dear to the nations that employ them, -all natural languages are extraordinarily difficult, and therefore -unsuitable for the purpose of international intercourse. We -require, accordingly, a language which shall be not only neutral, -but also as easy as possible: easy to learn, easy to use, and easy -to understand. - -These considerations bring me to the sought-for formula, which we -may express in a form similar to the celebrated ethical dictum of -Hutcheson and Bentham ("That action is best which accomplishes the -greatest happiness for the greatest number"):-- - -_That international language is best which offers the greatest -facility to the greatest number._ - -It may be objected, however, that facility is a subjective idea: -what is easy for one is not always easy for another. Quite so, and -it is exactly that observation which will serve us as a guide in -the investigation of the important conclusions which may be drawn -from our fundamental principle. - -In the first place, as regards the alphabet and the pronunciation, -our fundamental principle leads to the choice of the Latin -alphabet, with the exclusion of all accented or otherwise -specially modified letters; neither _ä_, _ö_, _á_, _à_, _â_, _ç_, -nor the circumflexed _ĉ_, _ĝ_, _ĥ_, _ĵ_, _ŝ_, especially -invented by Dr. Zamenhof for Esperanto, can be tolerated, for -they hinder, and sometimes even render impossible, writing, -printing, and telegraphing. I have shown in the Introduction to -the international dictionaries of De Beaufront and Couturat how -our fundamental principle leads to the following alphabet and -the following sound values: _a_ (as in _father_), _b_, _c_ (like -_ts_), _d_, _e_ (like _e_ in _net_ or like _a_ in _fate_), _f_, -_g_ (always hard, as in _go_), _h_, _i_ (like _ee_ in _sweet_), -_j_ (either like E.[3] or like F.,[3] as in _journal_), _k_, _l_, -_m_, _n_, _o_ (as in _go_ or as in _not_), _p_, _q_ (_qu_, as in -G. or as in E.), _r_, _s_ (always unvoiced), _t_, _u_ (always like -_oo_, as in _too_), _v_, _x_ (as in G. or as in E. F. in the words -_exist_, _exister_), _y_ (as in E. F., and therefore like G. _j_), -_z_ (as in E. F., and therefore like the voiced North German _s_ in -_rose_), further the two double letters _ch_ (as in E., for example -_church_) and _sh_ (as in E., G. _sch_). - -The strict phonetic canon "One symbol, one sound," is therefore -followed in so far as the same sound is never arbitrarily written -one way in one word and another way in another word, and the same -letter is never pronounced differently in some words compared -with the majority. The small exception that _sh_ and _ch_ are not -equivalent to _s_ + _h_ and _c_ + _h_ respectively cannot cause the -least difficulty to anyone, and the use of _qu_ and _x_ enables us -to retain the international spelling of many words, and, moreover, -permits two different pronunciations which cause no difficulty of -comprehension and simplify the pronunciation for several nations. -Otherwise we should be faced with the difficult problem of -choosing between _kwala_ and _kvala_, _eksistar_ and _egzistar_. -It must not be forgotten, too, that for our purposes the purely -theoretical canon "One symbol, one sound," must be subordinated to -the fundamental principle of greatest facility, of which phonetic -simplicity is itself only a consequence. Practical considerations -must, in fact, overrule theoretical objections whenever a small -deviation from the fundamental principle "One symbol, one sound," -produces greater facility. - -There remains to be discussed a matter of very great importance -for the phonetics of international language. Whilst all nations -pronounce without difficulty a series of sounds in which the vowels -alternate with single consonants, and almost all nations have -no objections to certain groups of consonants which are easily -pronounced (such as _tr_, _sp_, _bl_, etc.), the pronunciation of -other heavier groups, especially at the end of words, presents the -greatest difficulty to many nations. The French usually simplify -too complicated groups by inserting an unwritten vowel (as, for -example, in _Félix(e)_ _Faure_), Italians who speak English do -almost the same thing in the case of such groups as _kstr_ (_Greek -Street_) or _ksp_ (_sixpence_), and the phonetic usages of other -nations do not permit even as many successive consonants as -the Italians. In order to make matters as easy as possible for -everybody, one must avoid the mistake of _Neutral Idiom_, many -of whose words contained very heavy groups of final consonants, -endeavouring rather to follow the example of Esperanto, which -succeeded very cleverly by means of its predominance of vowel -terminations in producing not only grammatical clearness, but also -as easy and flowing a pronunciation as possible. In this way the -language becomes musical and pleasant to the ear. - -We shall now proceed to the question of a vocabulary. In choosing -the majority of his stems, Dr. Zamenhof had already followed the -principle of maximum internationality, but the authors of _Neutral -Idiom_ were the first to carry out this principle scientifically -for the whole language. Their procedure was, however, somewhat -superficial, since in each particular case they calculated the -number of languages to which a given word was common. One must -not count the languages (and Latin especially must not be counted -along with the living languages), but the people who use them, for -languages are not organisms which possess an individual existence -independent of those who speak them. The proper rule, therefore, -for determining the internationality of a word or stem is to count -the number of people who understand it through their mother tongue. -This definition of the principle of maximum internationality is -simply a necessary consequence of the fundamental principle of the -greatest facility for the greatest number. It is natural that each -person would prefer the use of the greatest number of words which -are familiar to him, and so, to be impartial, we must attach the -same value to the individual preferences of the 120,000,000 who -speak English as to those of the 75,000,000 Germans, the 70,000,000 -Russians, or the 50,000,000 French or Spanish, etc. Even the -languages spoken by the smaller nations must be taken into account -in proportion to their numbers. - -The choice of the words for our neutral language is, therefore, a -pure question of arithmetic. Statistics of the number of people -who speak the different languages will not, however, furnish us -with a complete solution of the problem. In the first place, there -are to be found in the dictionaries technical words and special -terms which are only known to a minority of each nation. In the -second place, there occur cases where a word, though it does not -belong to a language, is, nevertheless, known through one or -more derivatives. For example, 100 is in English _hundred_, in -German _hundert_, in Danish _hundrede_, and yet the root _cent_ -(_zent_) has been long familiar to the world through the terms _per -cent._ (G. _prozent_), _centesimal_, _centimetre_, _centennial_, -_century_, _centenary_, G. _zentner_, Danish _centner_. In -the third place, even when "the same word" belongs to several -languages, it very often possesses different forms, due mostly -to a different phonetic development, with the result that the -choice of a proper form is very often a delicate matter. The -sounds of the word "change," which the English and French write -in the same way, are very different; but as we can employ neither -the nasal vowel of the French nor the diphthong (_ei_) of the -most usual English pronunciation, _chanj_ would appear to be the -most convenient form for all. In very many cases it is possible -to find a common denominator for the different forms. Had not in -English and German the external form of many etymologically closely -related words diverged so much that it is impossible to find a -middle form (for example, water, _wasser_; tooth, _zahn_; speak, -_sprechen_; soap, _seife_; week, _woche_), the Germanic element -would have been the dominating one on account of the great number -of those speaking these two related languages. Such being the case, -the Romance element in English usually decides the matter in the -majority of instances, since it coincides with the French, Spanish, -and Italian, or at least with one of these languages, the result -being that our language necessarily possesses a Romance form in -a much higher degree than one might have thought. Another very -important circumstance (which I have hinted at previously) acts in -the same direction, the circumstance, namely, that numerous Latin -derivatives have passed over into the Germanic languages even when -the stem does not occur there. For example, German possesses the -words _absentieren_, _abstinenz_, _artist_, _dentist_, _dental_, -_moral_, _populär_, which greatly facilitate for a German the -understanding of the words _absenta_, _abstenar_, _arto_, _dento_, -_moro_, _populo_, although he does not possess them in his own -language (with the exception of _pöbel_ = _populacho_). - -Sometimes there exists a very troublesome rivalry between two -words. In order to render the substantive "arm" (limb) the proper -word would seem to be the German, English, and Scandinavian "arm," -until one makes the discovery that the same root "arm" in the sense -of "weapon" is still more international (E., F., I., S., supported -by _armée_ G., E., F., R., _armata_ I., _armada_ S., _armieren_ -G., etc.), which compels us for "arm" (limb) to have recourse to -a Romance form. In other cases a more or less arbitrary change -of one of the series of words appears to be the only means of -avoiding confusing homonyms (namely, for door _pordo_ instead of -_porto_, on account of _port_ = carry), but this procedure must be -employed with great caution. Before everything else it is necessary -to avoid all disguising of words, which makes them unrecognisable, -aptly described by M. Blondel as a masquerade. This was set up as -a general principle in Volapük, and Esperanto is by no means free -from it. - -As an example of the conflicts which occur now and then may be -quoted the expressions for the idea of "soul." "Soul" is the word -which would be immediately understood by the greatest number of -people, but we cannot employ the English diphthong _ōū_, as we -must be very sparing in the use of diphthongs, since they cause -very great difficulties in pronunciation. We cannot take over -the word in the form _sol_, because we require this for the word -"alone" (I. S. _solo_, internationally used in music, E. _sole_, -F. _seul_). G. _seele_, supported by the Scandinavian _själ_, is -not familiar to a sufficient number of people, and, besides, we -require the word _sel_ for "saddle" (F. I. S.). The French word -_âme_ will not do either, because it is not sufficiently well known -outside France, and, besides, there is a difficulty here too, for -_am-_ is absolutely required for the idea of "love" on account of -F. I. S. and many derivatives in E., not to mention the god Amor. -The use of the Latin _anim-_, which is the basis of the Romance -forms, is impossible, since we cannot do without the adjectival -termination _-al_, and _animal_ would then mean partly "relating -to the soul," partly "animal," which cannot be permitted in an -international language. We must resort to the device of changing -_anim-_ a little, whereby we get _anmo_. This example will show how -complicated the task frequently is of finding an international word -which will give rise to no confusion or misunderstanding. - -The degree of internationality of the language of the Delegation -will be evident from the statistics of Couturat; he counted the -roots of the first dictionaries (5,379 in all) and found that of -these the following numbers occur in the national languages:-- - - French 4,880, _i.e._ 91 per 100 - Italian 4,454 " 83 " " - Spanish 4,237 " 79 " " - English 4,219 " 79 " " - German 3,302 " 61 " " - Russian 2,821 " 52 " " - -For all these languages the above numbers are relatively higher -than in the case of Esperanto. - -One of the most effective means of simplifying the vocabulary of -a language is a carefully worked-out system of word formation, -which enables everyone, by means of a series of regular prefixes -and suffixes, to form with the greatest ease a large number of new -words, which are immediately intelligible to all who know the rules. - -When one has judiciously chosen the roots which occur under -different forms in the various natural languages and also -selected the derivative terminations with all possible care, it -is astonishing to observe how great a number of words derived -with perfect regularity agree with the forms occurring in living -languages. - -With regard to grammar, the fundamental condition to be required -of every system claiming to be an international language is that -of perfect regularity. Every exception to the rules only serves to -produce complications and to render the employment of the language -difficult and uncertain. If one knows the conjugation of one verb, -one must know the conjugation of all verbs, and so on. - -In the choice of grammatical terminations the statistical method, -which served us for the purpose of the vocabulary, cannot be -strictly applied, because living languages diverge too much in -this matter. Nevertheless it does not leave us entirely in the -lurch. - -Such cases as the dative and genitive and also the ablative, -etc., must be expressed by prepositions in conformity with the -tendency of Western European languages. It is advisable to have an -inflection for the accusative, although this is only intended for -occasional use, because in the great majority of instances there -is no necessity to distinguish it from the nominative. As neither -the Romance languages nor English and Scandinavian possess any -accusative inflection, and as the Slavonic languages do not give -us any help here, we are obliged to fall back on German, which in -the feminine and neuter has no inflection. The masculine, however, -in many cases has an _-n_ (_den guten knaben_). The fact that this -termination is also mostly used for the dative, as well as for the -infinitive, need not prevent us employing it in our language for -the accusative. It necessitates the use, however, of forms ending -in a vowel for the nominative of substantives (and adjectives and -pronouns). It may be remarked that _-n_ as an accusative inflection -is also found in Greek and Finnish. - -The only vowels that can be employed in this connection are _o_ -and _a_, which, as a matter of fact, occur very frequently as -the terminations of substantives and adjectives in the Slavonic -languages, as well as in I. and S. Since grammatical gender, as -distinct from sex, cannot be permitted in an artificial language, -it is not possible to employ _o_ and _a_ as in natural languages, -where the former is often, though not exclusively, used for the -masculine (I. S., but in R. and Polish for the neuter), and the -latter similarly for the feminine. One might be inclined to employ -_o_ for the male and _a_ for the female sex, with the result that -one would have no termination for inanimate things, abstract -ideas, or living beings whose sex is not a matter of importance -at the moment. The carrying out of this rule, however, leads to -considerable difficulties which would take too long to enter into -here. (This is one of the points which led to most discussion -in the Delegation Committee.) As a matter of fact, a very great -deal can be said in favour of the Esperanto usage of _o_ for -the substantive and _a_ for the adjective, and, as Couturat has -remarked, _la bona viro_ is not any stranger than the Italian _il -buono poeta_. - -We need have no compunction in leaving the qualifying adjective -without inflection, as is done, for instance, in English. The -ending _-i_ is very suitable for the plural of substantives, being -used for this purpose in Italian, in Russian and the other Slavonic -languages, as well as in modern Greek; it is also tolerably -familiar to the English in foreign words, such as _banditti_. The -only termination which might dispute the honours with _-i_ is _-s_ -(F., although usually silent, S., E., G. partly, and Dutch), but -_-s_ cannot be used if we employ the accusative termination _-n_, -as neither _virosn_ nor _virons_ could be permitted. - -As regards the inflections of verbs, we are bound, if we want -a termination for the infinitive, to choose, according to our -fundamental principle, the _-r_ of all the Romance languages, -because neither the German _-n_, which we have used for other -purposes, nor the palatised Slavonic _-t_ (or _-ć_), can be -employed, and English possesses no inflection. We require a vowel -before the _-r_, the choice of which will be evident from what -follows. For the active and passive participles we need only -consider _-nt_ and _-t_ respectively, the vowels being also left -undecided for the present. The greatest difficulty, however, is -caused by the finite tenses, in which we must distinguish present, -past, and future. In this respect living languages differ so much -amongst themselves that the principle of maximum internationality -does not suffice, especially as the inflections of tense are -inextricably mixed up with those of person and number, which for -our purposes are quite unnecessary. The Delegation Committee have, -therefore, for the moment been unable to find anything better than -the Esperanto usage of _-as_ for the present, _-is_ for the past, -and _-os_ for the future. The same series of vowels may also be -employed for the infinitive and participles, so that the normal -forms are _-ar_, _-anta_, and _-ata_ (the final vowel _a_ here -being the adjectival termination), whilst _-ir_, _-inta_, _-ita_, -and _-or_, _-onta_, _-ota_, respectively may be retained for the -less frequent cases where one wishes to indicate expressly another -tense in the infinitive or participle. A few _à priori_ inflections -will not cause much harm in a grammar which is so easy that it may -be mastered in half an hour. - -I have now arrived at the end of my investigation, in which I -have endeavoured to show the method whereby the language of the -Delegation has been constructed. The result is a language that -everyone can easily master, and which possesses the advantage -over other languages that it is based on rational scientific -principles and, therefore, need not fear that some fine day it will -be replaced by another and sensibly different language. Naturally -improvements will be effected in details where the fundamental -principles have not been sufficiently worked out, but the -foundation is sound, and the common auxiliary language of mankind -cannot differ very much from our "Internaciona linguo," or, to give -it a shorter name, "Interlinguo," or, still shorter, "Ilo" (from -the initial letters). - - OTTO JESPERSEN. - - -APPENDIX - -CRITICISM OF ESPERANTO - - -In connection with the foregoing some critical remarks on Esperanto -may be made, from which one will readily perceive the reasons which -made it impossible for the _Délégation pour l'Adoption d'une Langue -Internationale_ to adopt Esperanto in its present form as the -international auxiliary language. - -Dr. Zamenhof has given us an interesting account of the way in -which his language gradually developed in his mind while he was -at the Warsaw Gymnasium. Before he arrived at the conviction that -the material for the vocabulary must be obtained from the Romance -and Germanic languages, and that the already existing stock of -international words must be used, he had "simply invented" his -words, that is to say, chosen them quite arbitrarily, but with -as much regard to system and brevity as possible. Although he -himself noticed that such words are difficult to learn and still -more difficult to remember, he has unfortunately retained in the -finished language a whole series of such _à priori_ formations, -which appear in words of such frequent occurrence as _who_, _how_, -_where_, _never_, _everywhere_, etc. The _nul tempe_ and _pro quo_ -chosen by the Delegation agree, however, much better with the -general character of language than the _neniam_ and _kial_ of Dr. -Zamenhof. - -Some peculiarities may be accounted for by the Slavonic mother -tongue of the author: for example, his preference for sibilants -and diphthongs, which is especially evident in the invented words -(_e.g._, _chi_, here; _chiu_, each; _ech_, even; _ghi_, that; -_ghis_, until, _gh_ and _ch_ being pronounced as E. _j_ and _ch_). -In an article in Zamenhof's _Krestomatio_ I find, for example (p. -288), _chiuj tiuj senantaujughaj kaj honestaj homoj_, _kiuj_, -_anstatau filizofadi pri ghi_, and (p. 293) _tion chi ankorau antau -la apero de la unua arta lingvo antauvidis kaj antaudiris chiuj -tiuj eminentaj kapoj_, _kiuj_, etc. The method of writing _x_ is -also Russian: _ekzameni_, _ekzemplo_, etc., and also _ekspedi_, -_eksplodi_; also _kv_ for _qu_. French words with _oi_ take _ua_ -in Esperanto when they are spelt in this way in Russian, _e.g._, -_trotuaro_, _tualeto_, _vuala_; otherwise they are spelt with _oi_ -or _oj_, _e.g._, _foiro_, _fojo_, _foino_. _Nacio_, _tradicio_, -etc., instead of _-iono_, is also Russian. Russian usage has -doubtless also inspired such word formations as _elparoli_ -and _senkulpigi_ instead of the international _pronuncar_ and -_exkuzar_ (R. _vygovarivat'_ and _izvin'at'_, corresponding to G. -_aussprechen_ and _entschuldigen_). The peculiarity of using the -adverb instead of the adjective in such cases as _estas necese -vidi_, "it is necessary to see," is probably to be ascribed -to the correspondence of the Russian adverb with the neuter -predicate adjective. This rule cannot be permitted, however, in an -international language, because, with a free word order, it would -be impossible to say whether _estas vere necese_ means "it is -really necessary" or "it is necessarily true." The compound perfect -(_mi estas aminta_, "I have loved" = "I am having loved") reminds -one of the Polish _kochal-em_. Finally, the frequent use of the -adjective (in _-a_) instead of the genitive (_Zamenhofa lingvo_) -and of the two sorts of action expressed by _ek_ and _ad_ (_ekvidi_ -and _vidadi_ used in many cases where the simple _vidi_ would be -sufficient) are to be accounted for by Russian usages. - -Naturally I do not object to the importation of national -peculiarities into the international auxiliary language when the -latter is enriched thereby. For example, one must make use of -the facility for forming compound words common to the Germanic -and Slavonic languages in preference to the poverty of Romance -languages in this respect, and combine it with the more Romance -characteristic of forming new words by means of derivative -syllables. But peculiarities of national language which render -mutual comprehension and international usage difficult must be most -carefully avoided. - -The unpractical nature of the circumflexed letters has been -indicated previously. It may be remarked here, however, that in -point of system Zamenhof's letters are very inferior to the similar -ones employed in the Czech language, since the parallelism in sound -between _s_ and _ŝ_, _z_ and _ĵ_, _dz_ and _ĝ_, is disguised by -the choice of letters. This produces a very amateurish effect. - -Besides the familiar parts of speech which are indicated by special -terminations, Zamenhof invented a new class characterised by the -termination _-au_ (_kontrau_, _almenau_); but the limits of this -class, which includes some, but not all, adverbs and prepositions, -are not clearly defined. - -Many words taken from existing languages are disguised, almost -after the fashion of Volapük: _boji_, F. _aboyer_; _parkere_, F. -_par cœur_; _shvit_, G. _schwitzen_, E. _sweat_; _char_, F. _car_; -_faruno_ instead of _farin_; _lerta_, F. _alerte_ (with a changed -meaning), etc. In this category is to be classed the astonishing -_nepre_ (entirely) which is derived from the Russian _nepremenno_, -just as if one were to take from the German word _unbedingt_ the -two first syllables and propose _unbe_ as an international word -instead of _absolute_. The economy in the use of stems was carried -much too far in Esperanto, necessitating the employment of all -sorts of compound words, the discovery of whose meaning requires -much racking of one's brains. The employment of all the derivative -syllables also as independent words is very ingenious, but produces -a very strange impression on the uninitiated. - -The method of word formation is greatly wanting in precision, the -limits of the so-called direct derivation in particular being -not sufficiently clearly indicated. One example will suffice. -Starting out from _kroni_ = to crown, _krono_ ought properly to -mean crowning, instead of which it signifies crown, so that one is -forced to use _kronado_ for crowning, whereas, according to the -rules of Esperanto, _kronado_ must mean continuous or repeated -crowning, as if a king were being constantly or repeatedly -crowned.[4] - -I have brought together here the most important defects in -Esperanto, the removal of which formed one of the tasks of the -Delegation Committee. The knowledge of these imperfections does not -prevent me from recognising the meritorious services of Zamenhof, -who, at a time when the question of the best construction of an -international language was not seriously discussed, succeeded in -producing one which was in many respects superior to the attempts -of that time, and which has proved in practice a serviceable, -though very imperfect, means of international communication. - - OTTO JESPERSEN. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -ON THE APPLICATION OF LOGIC TO THE PROBLEM OF AN INTERNATIONAL -LANGUAGE - - -The problem of an international language has a theoretical as -well as a practical importance. I have no intention of discussing -the latter here and of explaining once more the necessity of an -auxiliary language for international relations of every sort, and -the practical possibility of making oneself understood by means -of an artificial language, a possibility which has been proved by -experience. But an international language is also, according to the -words of the celebrated philologist H. Schuchardt, a desideratum -of science, in which connection it raises at once problems of -philology and logic. That these problems are worthy of the study -of scientific men is proved by the discussions of Professors Diels -and Gomperz, the reports made to the Academy of Sciences of Leipzig -by Professors Brugmann and Leskien, and, finally, the labours and -decisions of the Committee of the _Délégation pour l'Adoption d'une -Langue Internationale_. The latter, composed of highly competent -scientists and linguists, has determined the principles necessary -for an auxiliary language, and has practically realised them. - -My desire in what follows is to show briefly the connection of the -international language with logic, and its claims on the attention -and interest of philosophers. In the words of Leibnitz, "Languages -form the best mirror for the human spirit, and an exact analysis of -the meaning and relationship of words would be the best means of -disclosing the operations of the mind" (_N. Essais_, III., VII., -end). But the majority of philosophers (with some distinguished -exceptions, _e.g._, Professor Wundt) and the majority of linguists -(also with some distinguished exceptions, _e.g._, M. Bréal) have -given little attention to the study of language from the point -of view of psychology and logic. Now this study is particularly -easy and interesting in the case of an artificial language, since -the latter presents a structure analogous to that of our existing -languages, but much simpler and more regular. - -The words of the international language consist of invariable -elements (morphemes) of three sorts: stems, derivative affixes -(prefixes and suffixes), and grammatical inflections which, as in -the case of European languages, are always final letters or final -syllables. The stems themselves can be divided into two categories: -verb stems, which express a state, action, or relation, _e.g._, -_dorm_, _parol_, _frap_; and non-verbal or nominal stems, which -denote an object (living being or thing), or express an aspect of -it, _e.g._, _hom_, _dom_, _bel_, _blind_. The latter can produce -directly only names (substantives or adjectives): man, house, -beautiful, blind (in Ido, _homo_, _domo_, _bela_, _blinda_); the -former, on the contrary, produce directly verbs: to sleep, to -speak, to strike (in Ido, _dormar_, _parolar_, _frapar_), but -they can also give rise to nouns: sleep, word, blow (in Ido, -_dormo_, _parolo_, _frapo_). The proper _rôle_ of the grammatical -terminations is to determine the grammatical function of a stem -word and to indicate the category to which the word belongs, -whether verb, substantive, or adverb. Thus _parol-ar_ = to speak; -_parol-o_ = (spoken) word; _parol-a_ = oral; _parol-e_ = orally. -The _same_ idea, namely, that expressed by the stem word, always -runs through the various categories. This follows from a principle -which dominates the whole structure of the international language: -"Every word element" (morpheme) "represents an elementary idea, -which is always the same, so that a combination of elements has a -meaning determined by the combination of the corresponding ideas." -This principle is only a corollary to the general principle of -uniqueness so clearly enunciated by Ostwald: "There exists a -unique and reciprocal correspondence between the ideas and the -morphemes which express them." This principle represents evidently -the ideal of all language, for a language, being essentially a -system of symbols, is only theoretically perfect (and useful and -convenient in practice) when there exists a unique correspondence -between the symbol and the idea symbolised. - -Now it follows from this principle that it is quite incorrect to -say, as is often done, "Being given a stem, it suffices to add -to it _-ar_ to form a verb, _-o_ to form a substantive, _-a_ to -form an adjective"; we require to define the sense possessed by -this verb, substantive, and adjective. In other words, to every -derivative of form there must correspond a derivative of sense -which is in no wise arbitrary, but determined by general rules. -If _dorm-ar_ = to sleep, _dorm-o_ cannot mean indifferently the -sleeper, the dormitory, or the desire to sleep; if _blind-a_ = -blind, _blind-o_ cannot signify at pleasure either blindness or the -act of blinding. The rule which must guide us here is the principle -enunciated above, namely, that a stem always preserves the same -sense and expresses the same idea; if one wishes to express another -idea related to the former in a definite way, it is necessary -to add to the stem a morpheme expressing this relationship. The -morphemes which denote the relations of our ideas are the affixes -of derivation, which permit us to express a whole family of ideas -by the aid and as the function of one fundamental idea, and to -form correspondingly a family of words all derived from the same -stem, as occurs, as a matter of fact, in natural languages. Certain -of these affixes are wrongly classed amongst the grammatical -inflections, such as, for example, the participial suffixes -which serve to derive an adjective or a substantive from a verb, -denoting him who performs the action, or is affected by (subject -to) the state or relationship expressed by the stem: _dorm-ant-a_ -= _sleeping, arol-ant-a_ = _speaking_, whence, by simple change -of the final letter, _dorm-ant-o_ = _sleeper_, _parol-ant-o_ -= _speaker_. One will perceive thereby the difference between -_direct_ derivation, which is effected by means of the grammatical -inflections, and _indirect_ derivation, which is effected by means -of the addition of affixes. There is nothing arbitrary about this -distinction, for it rests on the logical principles enunciated -above, which determine the theoretical and practical value of the -international language. - -From these principles follow at once the rules of direct -derivation. If one starts from a verbal stem, what must be the -sense of the substantive directly derived from it? This sense can -be none other than the state or action expressed by the verb: -_dormar_ = _to sleep_, _dormo_ = _sleep_; _parolar_ = _to speak_, -_parolo_ = _a word_; _frapar_ = _to strike_, _frapo_ = _a blow_. -In these derived words we perceive the sense of the verb stem, and -the proof of that is that in our natural languages we often employ -the infinitive for this purpose: _le manger_, _le boire_, _le -dormir_, _le rire_; _das rennen_ (in English the verbal in _-ing_ -is employed with the sense of the infinitive). Indeed, one might -completely identify the verbal substantive with the infinitive. - -If one starts from a substantival stem, what must be the relation -between the adjective and substantive derived from it? They -must necessarily have the same sense, whichever of the two one -considers the primary word; if _avara_ = _avaricious_, _avaro_ = -_an avaricious person_; if _blinda_ = _blind_, _blindo_ = _a blind -person_. This rule is all the more necessary in practice as there -are a crowd of substantival stems concerning which one could not -say whether they produce at first a substantive or an adjective: -_vidva_ = _widowed_, _vidvo_ = _widower_; _nobela_ = _noble_, -_nobelo_ = _nobleman_; _santa_ = _holy_, _santo_ = _a saint_. This -is particularly true of the names of followers of this or that -doctrine: _katoliko_, _katolika_; _skeptiko_, _skeptika_, etc. -No one would think of using any suffix to derive one of these -words from the other. There is only a very slight difference of -meaning between a _katolika skeptiko_ and a _skeptika katoliko_, -the substantive indicating in each case the primary and fundamental -idea to which the other is superadded. - -This brings us to the enunciation of the _principle of -reversibility_, which may be formulated as follows: "Every -derivation must be _reversible_; that is to say, if one passes from -one word to another of the same family in virtue of a certain rule, -one must be able to pass inversely from the second to the first in -virtue of a rule which is exactly the inverse of the preceding." -That is an evident corollary of the _principle of uniqueness_, -for otherwise one would be led to give two meanings to the same -word. Let us suppose, for example, that from the noun _krono_, = -_a crown_, one imagines it possible to derive directly (as is the -case in certain languages) the verb _kronar_ = _to crown_. From -this verb one could deduce inversely in virtue of the general rule -the substantive _krono_ = _coronation_, so that the same word -_krono_ would then mean both _crown_ and _coronation_. That would -be, however, a logical error inadmissible in the international -language, however numerous may be the examples of it which occur -in living languages. On the contrary, thanks to the principle of -reversibility, one can proceed from any word whatsoever of a family -and arrive at any other word of the same family, or return to the -initial word, in an absolutely unique manner, whereas if one did -not observe this principle one would inevitably obtain two meanings -for the same word. - -The principle of reversibility fixes the rules of direct derivation -for the cases which are the converse of those we have studied. -Just as the substantive directly derived from a verb denotes the -state or action expressed by this verb (or, more strictly, by its -root), so a verb can be derived directly from a substantive only -if the latter expresses an action or a state. For example, _paco_ -= _peace_; can one form the verb _pacar_, and if so what will be -its meaning? This verb can only signify one thing, _to be in the -state of peace_, and not _to pacify_ or _make peace_, for in that -case _paco_ would mean _pacification_ or _conclusion of peace_, and -not the _state of peace_. Similarly, if one can and must convert an -adjective into a noun by the simple substitution of _-o_ for _-a_, -the adjective immediately derived from a substantive can only mean -"what is --." If _homo_ = _a man_ (a human being), _homa_ can only -mean _human_ in the sense of _which is a man_ (human being); _homa -ento_ = _a human being_. But if one wishes to obtain an adjective -signifying "which belongs to --," "which relates to --," "which -depends on --," it is necessary to employ a suffix (_-al_): _homala -manuo_ = _a human hand_. One might equally well say _manuo di homo_ -= _the hand of a man_ (human being). But just as the preposition -_di_ is indispensable for indicating the relationship between two -ideas which are not simply juxtaposed, but depend on each other, -so, if we wish to express one of the ideas in adjectival form, we -require a suffix which also expresses this relation or dependence. -Besides, a suffix of this nature exists under different forms -in all our languages: G. _-isch_; E. _-ic_, _-al_, _-ical_; F. -_-ique_, _-al_, _-el_; I. _-ico_; S. _-ico_. The choice of _-al_ -rather than _-ik_ was determined by reasons of euphony and also -internationality, the derivative adjectives employed in science -(the most international of all) ending often in _-al_: _mental_, -_vocal_, _spatial_; _rationnel_, _universel_, _fonctionnel_, etc. - -In this connection we shall make a general remark. The -international language borrows its _stems_ from the European -languages according to the principle of maximum internationality, -_i.e._, adopts for each idea the most international stem, namely, -that which is familiar to the greatest number of men. But it -cannot, and must not, borrow their derivatives from living -languages without losing all its theoretical and practical -advantages, because the natural derivatives are too irregular. -Sometimes the same affix has several different meanings; sometimes -the same relationship is expressed by different affixes. In virtue -of the principle of uniqueness, it is necessary to unify and -regularise the meaning and employment of the affixes, assigning -to each one a perfectly definite significance and function. -Undoubtedly one must endeavour to adopt for the affixes forms -which are international (as much as possible), or at least known -in some language (like the suffix _-in_ of the feminine, borrowed -from the German, _e.g._, _königin_, and the prefix _mal-_, denoting -"a contrary," borrowed from the French, _e.g._, _malheureux_), so -as to reproduce as much as possible international derivatives. -But it is chimerical to endeavour to reproduce them all, since -they are irregular and consequently incompatible with that -logical regularity of the language on which is based not only -its fertility, but also its simplicity in practical use and its -facility for _all nationalities_ (even for non-European peoples -who are not familiar with the anomalies and caprices of European -languages). The international language must be autonomous in its -formation of words; when the elements which it borrows from our -languages have been once chosen (in the best possible manner), it -must combine them freely according to its own rules, preserving -their form and sense rigorously invariable. It is by virtue of -this condition that it becomes a true language, richer in certain -respects than our own, since it can form all the useful derivatives -which are often wanting in one or the other, and not merely a -simple imitation or copy of our languages, which would be as -difficult as they, and which would require a previous knowledge of -them. - -We shall not explain here all the forms of indirect derivation, -or enumerate the forty-seven affixes used for this purpose. We -shall quote only a few of them for the sake of example, in order -to show the application of the principles enunciated above. If -there is one suffix which is particularly useful to philosophers, -it is that which enables one to derive from an adjective the name -of the corresponding abstract quality; that is the Greek suffix -_-otet_ and the Latin suffix _-itat_ (_-itud_), whence have come -the French _-ité_, the English _-ity_, the Italian _-ita_, the -Spanish _-itad_; and the German suffix _-heit_ or _-keit_, etc. -We perceive here a logical relation well known and made use of -in all our languages. It must find a place in the international -language, but by what suffix ought it to be represented? Now, if -one analyses the idea involved in this suffix, one will find that -_beauty_, _health_, _blindness_, are simply the states or facts -of being beautiful, healthy, blind. The idea involved in this -suffix is then the idea of _being_, not the idea of existence, but -the idea _of being_ such and such, the idea of attribution which -is expressed by the copula _est_. It is natural, therefore, to -represent it by the Indo-European stem of the verb _to be_, namely, -_es_; _bel-es-o_ = _beauty_; _san-es-o_ = _health_; _blind-es-o_ -= _blindness_. The fact that this suffix recalls a French suffix -(_richesse_), an Italian suffix (_bellezza_), and an English -suffix _-ness_ (_happiness_) employed in the same sense can only -serve as an accessory confirmation of the above choice, which -was dictated by logical motives. Moreover, this agrees perfectly -with our general rules; _to be well_ will be translated by _esar -sana_ or _san-esar_, and the fact of being well will be _saneso_ = -_health_. Conversely, if we start from _saneso_ = _health_, we can -form the verb _sanesar_ = _to be in (good) health_. Whatever may -be the point of departure, there is no fear of making a mistake or -"going off the rails" in forming these derivatives, if we observe -the principle of reversibility. It would, therefore, be not only -arbitrary, but absurd, to express _health_ by _sano_, which latter -can only mean a healthy being. For one must not imagine, as is -often stated, that an adjective expresses a quality; it expresses -precisely _he who, or that which, possesses the quality in -question_. That is why all our languages employ a suffix for the -purpose of deriving from an adjective the name of the corresponding -quality. - -But our languages often require to express the inverse relation, -namely, that of the individual possessing a quality to that -quality. For just as there are names of qualities which are derived -from adjectives, as _beauté_, _gaieté_, _bellezza_, _tapferkeit_, -_gleichheit_, so there are others which are primary and from -which, therefore, the corresponding adjectives are derived: -_courage_, _courageux_; _joie_, _joyeux_; _beauty_, _beautiful_; -_glück_, _glücklich_; _freude_, _freudig_. And, as one sees, our -languages employ in these cases a series of analogous suffixes. -The international language must evidently imitate them, for it -cannot decree that all the names of qualities shall be derivative, -nor that they shall all be primary; that would amount to an -arbitrary uniformity contrary to the spirit of our languages and -probably also to our logical instincts. The international language -must, therefore, have a suffix which will serve to derive from -the name of a quality the name of the possessor of that quality. -That will be _-oz_, a Latin suffix (_formosus_, _generosus_, -etc.), occurring very frequently in the Romance and even Germanic -languages (_mysteriös_, _mysterious_, _mystérieux_, _misterioso_). -This suffix is the logical inverse of the preceding one (_-es_) -and is quite as indispensable as it. It is a curious fact that -our languages exhibit examples of the superposition of these two -suffixes considered in respect of their sense, if not their form: -_glück_, _glücklich_, _glücklichkeit_; _beauty_, _beautiful_, -_beautifulness_. Latin has derived _formosus_ from _forma_; Spanish -in its turn has derived _hermosura_ from _hermoso_, etc. Languages -also provide us with frequent examples of the reciprocity of these -suffixes. - - On the one hand, On the other hand, - _gaie_ gives _gaieté_; _joie_ gives _joyeux_; - _gay_ " _gaiety_; _joy_ " _joyful_; - _allegro_ " _allegrezza_; _gioja_ " _giojoso_; - _fröhlich_ " _fröhlichkeit_; _freude_ " _freudig_. - -The international language is, therefore, faithful not only to -logic, but to the spirit of our languages, in admitting at the -same time the two inverse derivations: _gaya_, _gayeso_; _joyo_, -_joyoza_. A language which contained the suffix -es, and not the -suffix _-oz_, would be lame or one-armed. - -Besides, this lacuna would manifest itself very quickly in further -derivations, for the latter would violate the principle of -reversibility and therefore that of uniqueness. If from _joyo_ were -derived _joya_, from this adjective, analogous to _gaya_, one could -derive inversely _joyeso_ = _joyo_, thus producing two names for -the same quality (just as above _sano_ would have been synonymous -with _saneso_). If from _kurajo_ (_courage_) were derived _kuraja_ -(_courageous_), one could derive from the latter _kurajeso_, -synonymous with _kurajo_. And, on the other hand, _kurajo_ being -the substantive of _kuraja_, this word would signify both _courage_ -and _a courageous person_. From want of a single suffix the whole -series of derivations would become confused and illogical, just -as in a chain of reasoning a single error, or in an algebraical -calculation a single false equation, would lead to the most absurd -conclusions. - -To sum up, one must take care not to derive a word directly from -another, except when they both express the same idea (apart from -the difference of their grammatical _rôle_ in the sentence). -Consequently, whenever the sense changes, a word element must be -added or disappear, in order to translate the modification of the -idea. It is by virtue of this condition that the language will -become the exact and faithful expression of our thoughts, and -will conform to that indwelling and instinctive logic which, in -spite of all sorts of irregularities and exceptions, animates our -languages. In its system of derivation as well as in the rest of -its structure, the international language is nothing but a purified -and idealised extract, a quintessence of the European languages. -The logic which holds sway there is not the Aristotelian logic of -genus and species, but rather that logic newly constituted under -the name of the _logic of relationships_, which is, however, as -old as the world, since it lies, though obscurely, at the basis -of the formative processes in our natural languages. That is the -reason why the international language offers to philosophers a -particularly instructive field of study. It is worthy of their -interest in other respects. Not only does it offer to them, as it -does to all men, a _medium of communication_ between all countries, -but it furnishes them also with an _instrument of precision_ for -the analysis and exact expression of the forms of thought, which is -very superior, from the point of view of logic, to our traditional -languages, encumbered as these are with confused and ambiguous -expressions. It is their duty to contribute to the development and -perfecting of a language which, without losing anything of its -practical qualities, can and must realise by degrees the ideal of -human language; if it is true that there _does_ exist an ideal -in our languages, though hidden and irremediably disfigured by -all sorts of anomalies. To quote a saying of Schuchardt, _Was die -Sprache gewollt haben die Sprachen zerstört_.[5] - - L. COUTURAT. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE TO SCIENCE - - -Whilst the preceding chapters have sufficiently demonstrated that -the construction of an artificial international language is not -only possible, but already in all probability fixed as regards its -fundamental principles, it will be desirable here to give some -account of the inner relations between science and the auxiliary -language. - -Without doubt one of the most important conditions to be satisfied -by an artificial international language is, that it should be -capable of being employed in science. Considering the leading part -which science plays to-day in the life of nations, the system -which this intellectual Great Power will adopt cannot be a matter -of indifference; indeed, its capability of serving the needs -of science might well be regarded as the test of an artificial -language. It is, for example, conceivable that a particular system, -although unsuitable for the purposes of science, might work quite -well so far as commercial relations are concerned. - -Before we examine the relationship between science and auxiliary -language the question may be asked whether an international -language is at all necessary in science, and whether it is likely -to be introduced therein. We may consider that this question -has been settled by the discussions contained in the previous -chapters. The general question of the introduction of an artificial -auxiliary language having been answered in the affirmative, the -further question may be raised as to why, in spite of the existence -of different artificial auxiliary languages, such as Volapük, -Esperanto, Neutral Idiom, Novilatin, Universal, etc., science has -not long ago adopted and introduced one of them. Quite apart from -the actual circumstances which have prevented this, a perfectly -precise answer may be given to the above question. There have not -been wanting experiments in this direction. Already in the Volapük -period endeavours were made to translate scientific works into -Volapük in order to prove that this language could also be of -service to science. In particular the translations of Dr. Miess's -_Craniology_, Dr. Winkler's _Petrification of Fishes_, and the -_Eastern Travels_ of the Crown Prince Rudolph were boasted of by -the Volapükists. Esperanto has gone further, and is, as a matter of -fact, more capable of development in this direction. There appears -a periodical, _Scienca Revuo_, which in popular form conveys the -most important results of different sciences to Esperanto readers. -Fechner's little book on life after death and some others have -also been translated. All these attempts possess an extraordinary -interest for the great experiment in language on which mankind -has been engaged during the last twenty years, and the greatest -thanks are due to their authors. It is only, indeed, after many -attempts that an experiment can be successfully carried through. -But, without wishing to deny that very remarkable things have been -accomplished, all these experiments prove one fact beyond question, -namely, that the languages mentioned do not even approximately, and -cannot indeed possibly, satisfy the requirements which science must -demand of the artificial auxiliary language. Science could not, -therefore, have chosen any of these languages as the artificial -auxiliary language even had she wished, nor could she do so in the -future without experiencing failure. An examination of the reasons -for this state of affairs will enable us to arrive at the relation -between science and the international auxiliary language. It can -be shown what the nature of this relationship must be, and it -follows therefrom whether any particular system will or will not be -serviceable to science. There are two necessary criteria, namely, -internationality of vocabulary and logical precision of expression. - -One might be inclined to emphasise the importance of the second -criterion without paying any attention whatever to the first, -and to regard a system constructed on a purely logical basis as -alone worthy of science. But this would be a retrograde step, -for indeed the question of artificial language originated with -the idea of a so-called philosophical language in the mind of -Leibnitz and afterwards. If one takes the point of view that -the scientific auxiliary language should be constructed on an -ideographic basis (that is to say, a system of correlation between -symbols and ideas, which, however, as it is a language, must be -capable of being spoken), one arrives at an _à priori_ system, as -it is called in the theory of universal language. Thanks to the -laborious and self-sacrificing work of the thousands who during -the last twenty years have devoted and still devote themselves to -the great experiments in language, we are able nowadays to refer -this question to the test of experience. The latter has shown with -absolute certainty that _à priori systems cannot be spoken_. The -learning of any natural language, with all its irregularities, -peculiarities, and anomalies, is child's play compared to the -learning of an _à priori_ system. All experiments in this direction -have failed and need no longer be seriously considered. But even -when an artificial language has not been constructed _à priori_ -another error, producing much the same effect, may very greatly -injure its facility in practice. An otherwise so successful system -as Volapük came finally to grief through an error of this sort. -Although Volapük was constructed by a man of whom it is said that -he was master of, or at least acquainted with, fifty-five living -languages, and although, according to its whole nature, it appeared -to be modelled very closely on natural languages, nevertheless the -abbreviations which Schleyer introduced so often into the words -he took over (for example, _vol_ for _world_, _pük_ for _speak_, -_Melop_ for _America_) produced the same psychological effect as -if his word-formations had been _à priori_. Man is, in fact, a -psychological as well as a logical being. If there is to be any -practical outcome, we must, therefore, under all circumstances base -our work on the psychological principle of internationality. It -is only this which confers on the auxiliary language the quality -of being easily learnt and spoken, which is unconditionally -necessary for its practical use in science, as in other departments -of life. Such systems are called _à posteriori_, and experience -shows that the more _à posteriori_ elements are contained in -an international language the more it conforms to Jespersen's -fundamental principle of _the greatest ease for the greatest number -of people_. But, one may argue, does it not follow from this -that the best solution would be the introduction of a _national_ -language into science? Certainly not, for this would not offer the -greatest facility to the greatest number of people, because the -formation of the so-called idioms, which, apart from grammatical -difficulties, hinder the learning and use of a language, would -in the case of many national languages interfere with the -internationality of the vocabulary. These idioms have a very -similar effect to the _à priori_ word formations, and diminish the -intelligibility, lucidity, and facility of logical expression. The -only international auxiliary language which will be of practical -use in science will be constructed according to the _à posteriori_ -principle of maximum internationality, and will be almost or -entirely free from idioms. If we add to this that it must possess -that logical clearness of expression which we have described above -as the second criterion, we have the general conditions which must -be satisfied by an international language suitable for science. - -Apart from the practical value of the principle of -internationality, there exists in science another very special -reason for regarding it as a necessary condition to be satisfied by -an international auxiliary language. - -We may inquire, in fact, from a purely scientific standpoint, how -far the systems which have been devised up to the present have -adjusted themselves to the international language which already -exists in science. For all the thousands of words in scientific and -technical nomenclature which, apart from their nationality, the -scientific men of all countries have been inventing for centuries -according to very uniform principles, as well as the likewise -largely international expressions of "unofficial" nomenclature, -form a possession of modern scientific civilisation of such -magnitude, importance, and value, that it cannot on any account -be sacrificed. On the contrary, all these words, as well as many -similar ones derived from daily life, form the true, natural, and -practical basis of international language. - -_This_ international auxiliary language, which forms one of the -foundation stones of our general, scientific, and technical -culture, is so closely bound up with the life and existence of -science and has become so much the second nature of all scientific -men, especially investigators, that they have long become -accustomed to write and think in this language apart from their -nationality. It is an easily ascertained fact, and one that is well -known to the scientific men of all countries, that the latter can -read foreign scientific literature much more easily than newspapers -or novels written in the same languages. The explanation of this is -that the foreign scientific works, on account of their technical -vocabulary, are written in a language which possesses a much more -international character than that of the novels or newspapers. It -cannot, therefore, be denied that there actually exist already, -particularly in science, the beginnings of an international (and -largely artificially created) auxiliary language which is written, -spoken, and read. We find here ready made the first provisional -lexicon of the scientific international language. It cannot, -therefore, be urged that science should "select" any one of the -proposed artificial languages, because the selection of words is -by no means an arbitrary process. The only procedure possible to -science must be the construction of an international language -on the basis of the already existing foundations. Science can -never accept as an international language, one which destroys the -actually existing internationality of scientific nomenclature. - -As we see, these considerations, like the former, lead us to -the conclusion that the auxiliary language must be based on -the principle of maximum internationality; that is to say, its -vocabulary must be taken _à posteriori_ from the international -treasury, and must not be invented according to any _à priori_ -system or special idiom. It follows from this that the auxiliary -language of the future must inevitably be chiefly Romance in its -character, for Latin is the international auxiliary language which -still lives and flourishes for, and by means of, science. - -The objection might be made here that the simplest solution would -be the reintroduction of Latin into science as the auxiliary -language. But this contradicts one of our fundamental premises, for -Latin fails just as much as all other national languages to satisfy -our second criterion, namely, that of complete logical precision. -Besides, it is too difficult. - -Esperanto does not even approximately satisfy the necessary -conditions; it infringes, in fact, all three. On the one hand, -its vocabulary is very far from being constructed according to -the principle of maximum internationality; on the other hand, the -Esperantists are supposed to make up for this defect by the famous -principle of _vortfarado_ (_i.e._, word manufacture!), with the -result that their language falls into the error of creating idioms. -For example, in Esperanto the beginning of the sentence "A rotary -transformer might be called a motor-generator, but the latter -name is usually applied to machines with independent armatures," -is translated in the following way: _Turnighan alispecigilon oni -povas nomi motorproduktanto_, which literally translated reads, -"A self-turning otherwise-making instrument can be called a -motor-producer." - -Apart from these fundamental errors of Esperanto, it lacks a -systematic method of word formation, the importance of which -has been demonstrated in a masterly and convincing fashion by -Couturat in the previous chapter. Hundreds of times the puzzled -reader of an Esperanto text is in doubt about the sense of an -adjective, even such common expressions as _stony_ and _made of -stone_ being rendered in Esperanto by the _same word_ (_shtona_). -A phrase such as "It is perhaps possible" cannot be accurately -translated into Esperanto, since, on account of its "simplicity," -the words _perhaps_ and _possible_ are both rendered by the same -_à priori_ word, _eble_. With regard to choice of vocabulary, -other systems, in particular "Neutral Idiom," are exceedingly -superior to Esperanto. In this last product of the Volapük movement -the principle of internationality has been finally recognised. A -language academy was founded which constructed a lexicon according -to this principle. Unfortunately, as Jespersen has very fully shown -in Chapter III., this principle was not interpreted in the right -manner, so that the language lacks logical clearness in spite of -the international character of its vocabulary. - -We need not, therefore, be surprised that science has hitherto been -unable to adopt any of the artificial systems as the international -auxiliary language. That would have been a false step, and would -only have produced confusion. - -It is only at the present time that one has arrived at a clear -recognition of the principles on which such a language must -be based. The only artificial system which can claim that its -"inventors" have endeavoured in its "construction" to _combine_ -and consistently carry out the principles of internationality and -logical precision (namely, systematic choice of stems and a regular -system of derivation) is, as will be sufficiently evident from the -preceding chapters of this book, the language of the Delegation. -Without doubt the _internaciona linguo di la Delegitaro_ will -have to undergo changes and improvements, for one cannot expect -that such a gigantic task as the introduction of an international -auxiliary language can be accomplished all at once. We hold, -however, that "Ido" represents the first artificial language -concerning whose introduction into science serious discussion is -possible. We may state with full confidence to-day that, so far as -human calculation is possible, the attempt to carry this out will -be crowned with success. - -On the other hand, this introduction will not be without a useful -reaction on science, not only in respect to the development and -extension of its external life as an international Great Power, but -also with regard to the more perfect unification and extension of -its language and nomenclature on the lines of strict and complete -internationality. An expression of opinion on this point will be -given in the following chapter. - - RICHARD LORENZ. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -THE QUESTION OF NOMENCLATURE - - -If we take up a book or a paper dealing with mathematics -(especially analysis) printed in a language, such as Japanese, -which is quite unintelligible to us, we shall, nevertheless, soon -succeed in finding out what it is about and often in understanding -its main contents. The reason of this is, of course, that the -mathematical formulæ consist of symbols which are intelligible -to us because they are used in the same manner by all civilised -nations. The same thing holds good in physics, and especially -in chemistry; chemical formulæ contain at the present day such -detailed information concerning the relationships of the substances -symbolised, that one might conceive the possibility of writing a -chemical paper with formulæ alone. - -In the case of the descriptive natural sciences, the Latin names of -the genera and species, the Latin nomenclature of anatomy and other -similar groups, form a common international possession. Physiology, -biology, sociology, as well as history and ancient philology, -possess as yet, however, no system of internationally intelligible -terms. In modern philology (phonetics) practical endeavours have -already been made to construct an international system of sound -symbols. All these sciences possess naturally the designation of -numbers by means of numerals which have a perfectly international -character. Since in mathematics not only the quantities, but also -the operations, are denoted by universally understood symbols, -it is already possible, with comparatively few additions, to -express long trains of mathematical thought in a manner which is -internationally intelligible, that is, intelligible to those who -are acquainted with the science and its symbols. For a considerable -time Professor Peano, in Turin, has been publishing works written -in this manner. We perceive here the realisation of the ideal of a -purely ideographic language, which can be read by the specialist -without his requiring to translate it into the words of any -particular form of speech. - -To quote a similar example from chemistry, J. H. van't Hoff, in -one of the publications of his youth, avoided assigning names to -the chemical substances with which he dealt, considering that -his meaning would be much better conveyed by the corresponding -structural formulæ. Such a text would be quite intelligible to a -trained chemist without the formulæ calling up in his mind any -particular words, indeed without any such words existing at all. - -These well-known facts show _that the problem of an international -language has already been partly solved in science_. In so far as -definite and fairly stable concepts have been formed in science, -they may be designated by arbitrary symbols, which may if necessary -be universally accepted and understood. Hitherto such symbols have -been mainly employed for reading, that is to say intended for the -eye, and not for the voice and ear. For example, in different -languages quite different sounds are assigned to the numerals, so -that, whilst the written symbols are universally intelligible, the -spoken ones are not. - -However, there are a considerable number of exceptions to this -statement. The word _integral_ is quite as international as the -symbol ∫ and the chemical symbol Tl is pronounced everywhere -_thallium_, or something very like it. On looking through the table -of the chemical elements one finds that more than two-thirds of the -names possess similar sounds in the chief languages. Differences -occur only in the case of the well-known elements, where the words -employed in daily life have found their way into science, whilst -the newly discovered elements all possess international names. -It follows from this that the further problem of assigning an -international system of sounds to scientific concepts has been in -certain departments of science already approximately solved. It is -true that the sound is still somewhat dependent on the speech basis -of the particular nation, so that, for example, not inconsiderable -deviations may occur in English. But, as the written and printed -word is always simultaneously known, the recognition of a name as -pronounced by a foreigner does not cause any very great difficulty. - -There exists here a field of work for those who are interested in -the idea of an artificial language which is as fertile as it is -interesting. As is well known, we scientific men suffer a good deal -from the fact that the same words are frequently employed for the -vague ideas of daily life as well as for the perfectly definite -concepts of science. This is indeed one of the most important -reasons why new designations for scientific concepts should, as far -as possible, be taken from the dead languages, such designations -being thereby already international. It ought therefore to be a -comparatively easy task to devise by means of this international -material and the linguistic rules of the language of the Delegation -a system of international names for the clearly defined concepts of -the different sciences. - -Such a system possesses a double purpose. In the first place, it -could, I think, be used in our present natural languages. Certain -English expressions occurring in electrotechnics, such as _shunt_, -_extra current_, are employed in German and French just as if they -were national words. The international names in their international -form might be employed in every case where a precise scientific -terminology was required, without doing much violence to our -natural languages. The inflow of foreign words through the channels -of technology and science as well as those of commerce and music -has already shown itself to be irresistible, so that a strict -carrying out of the principle of "purity" in our national languages -has been a practical impossibility. In literature properly so -called one will endeavour nevertheless to adhere to this principle, -but where the chief question is one of precision of concepts, -as in science, language must be regarded as a handmaiden, whose -first duty is to obey. For language stands only in a secondary -relationship to the independently developed and determined concepts -of science, which have been already fixed by the symbols assigned -to them, just in the same way that language has fixed the concepts -of daily life. - -Independent of the above application, which one may or may not -consider practical, is the internationalisation of scientific -publications by means of a universally understood auxiliary -language, which is becoming every day more urgently necessary. - -This problem, too, cannot be attacked until the concepts of all -the sciences in question have received their proper designations. -The existing dictionaries of international auxiliary languages -contain mostly the expressions of daily life, so that at present -these languages are mainly applicable only for such communications. -Some success can indeed be obtained in the expression of the higher -trains of thought of philosophical reasoning, but here already -considerable uncertainty exists. It is clear, for instance, that -a paper in organic chemistry can only be successfully written in -the international language after the translations of the different -names for substances occurring in different languages have been -mutually agreed upon. - -Consequently the working out of the concepts of the different -sciences and the determination of their international designations -is the very first task which must be performed before the -further objects, international literature and international -oral intercourse in science, can be considered. It is the duty -therefore of the representatives of science who have joined the -_Uniono di l'Amiki di la Linguo Internaciona_ to apply themselves -in the first place to this problem, since the further success of -the whole question depends entirely on its at least provisional -solution. - -The first principle which must guide this work is undoubtedly the -general principle of maximum internationality, which has been used -in the construction of the auxiliary language. Its application is -rendered easy by the fact that, owing to the use of Greek and Latin -roots for the designation of scientific concepts, there is already -present a far-reaching internationality, which must naturally be -retained. - -In the second place, it will not always be possible to employ in -science the same expressions that are used in ordinary speech, -because the effect of the latter is to produce a blunting of the -precise connotation of concepts; whilst science, on the other hand, -requires clearly defined concepts, to which must correspond equally -distinct expressions. - -In the third place, those words which occur frequently in -combinations must be chosen _as short as possible_. Here I would -not shrink from a very considerable mutilation of the most -international forms. Such long names as _wasserstoff_ or "hydrogen" -cannot be permitted, and must be reduced to monosyllabic forms. -Every chemical author must have been times without number annoyed -by the terms of three and four syllables for the commonest -elements, and this defect is common to all languages. The objection -against such an artificial abbreviation, which is valid for the -language of daily life, namely, that it increases the difficulty -of the language for those of little education, does not hold in -the case of science, since it is a matter of indifference to the -beginner whether he learns the new name _oxygen_ or _oxo_ (or any -other similar abbreviation), because in any case he must learn it -by heart. Such a procedure satisfies also the second condition, -as it facilitates most easily the giving of a special form to -scientific terms, which is different from that of ordinary life. - -In the fourth place, it will be advisable in cases where -universally known symbols exist, which consist of letters or have -been derived from these (such as certain mathematical symbols), -to choose the name so _that it begins with the same letter_. For -example, the constant of gravitation is now universally denoted -by _g_, and the corresponding international word should therefore -begin with _G_. It appears to me doubtful, however, whether this -principle can be generally carried out. I have examined the names -of the chemical elements with this intent, and have arrived at -the conclusion that it would not work without doing considerable -violence to general usage. For example, it would be scarcely -possible to find an international name for _chlor_ (chlorine) -which, corresponding to the chemical symbol _Cl_, would begin with -_C_, for the latter letter is pronounced _ts_, whilst the word -_chlor_ (with corresponding terminations) is international, and, -according to its sound, must be written like _kloro_ or in some -similar way. - -These are the formal suggestions which I should like to make -with reference to the problem in hand; they are only intended -to indicate how one might proceed, and are not to be regarded -as either exhaustive or infallible. There arises now the second -question as to how such work is to be organised. - -As the same concepts occur in several related sciences, and must -receive the same designations, it would not be practicable to -entrust the construction of the vocabularies to special commissions -for each particular science. It would be more advisable to appoint -a certain number of persons to collect the material and to make -out lists of the concepts for which terms are required, and then -to appoint commissions representing a whole group of sciences to -discuss the necessary principles, after which the details could be -worked out and finally subjected to the examination and approval of -the whole body. To make matters at once more definite, I think the -exact sciences ought to be first taken into consideration, for in -their case the fixation of concepts is most highly developed. There -is no need for a replacement of the well-known Latin nomenclature -employed in the descriptive sciences, nor would any attempt in -this direction have any likelihood of success. We must look rather -to the distant future, when all other sciences will have already -adapted themselves to the international idiom for the translation -of the Latin names into the forms of the international language -(retaining the stems, however) in order to produce for æsthetic -reasons a uniform system throughout the whole of science. - -On the other hand, I consider it absolutely necessary to subject -the concepts of _logic_ and the _theory of cognition_ to the same -process of scientific delimitation and fixation. In the first -place, these sciences belong, at least theoretically, to the exact -sciences; and, in the second place, work in these departments of -knowledge is rendered extraordinarily difficult by the fact that -their concepts are expressed in the terms used in daily life, whose -elastic nature constantly frustrates exact work. - -Conversely, this great process of purification cannot fail to bring -to light much that is of value for the theory and systematisation -of scientific concepts. For one must be quite clear on a subject -oneself before one can make it clear to others. Indeed, even a -simple classified list of possibilities, in which one has earnestly -sought to omit nothing of importance, constitutes in itself a -scientific advance, which is rendered all the more desirable by -the fact that in general people have troubled very little about -questions of this sort. It may be already foreseen, and indeed with -pleasure, that such problems are not to be solved offhand, and -will probably require for their final settlement an international -congress, at which the final decisions will be made. For this -congress will probably be the first scientific gathering at which, -instead of three, four, or five languages, only one, and that the -international auxiliary language, will be spoken. - - WILHELM OSTWALD. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -CONCLUSION: READING, WRITING, AND SPEAKING - - -Anyone who wishes to swim without the help of others is faced by -a "vicious circle." In order to swim he must jump into the water, -but before he entrusts himself to the water he ought to be able -to swim. In spite of this, many people learn to swim without a -teacher. How do they do that? They go at first only into shallow -water, and splash about there until they have become more or less -familiar with this element. Then, when they perceive that they can -propel themselves in it, they go gradually into deeper water. - -If we wish to get scientific men to use the international language, -we must probably recommend the same method and advise them to -move about in the shallower regions of every-day language before -they venture into the deeper waters of science. The instruction -concerning the movements of swimming given by the swimming-master -on dry land corresponds to a lesson of a couple of hours on the -simple grammar of the international language. Further progress, -leading up finally to the introduction of the latter into science, -can be divided into three stages, which we may describe by the -words reading, writing, and speaking. - -I. _Reading._--The extraordinary ease with which every educated -person, and especially anyone who has learnt Latin or one of the -Romance languages, can read and understand the language of the -Delegation almost without any previous study, indicates that the -first stage will not be difficult of attainment. But one would -require scientific reading material in order to gain practice in -scientific reading, and there we are again faced by a vicious -circle. For, in order to create such reading material, we require -authors who can write it, and yet the latter can only learn to -express themselves in the international language by means of -already existing reading material. We must therefore at first make -use of the language of daily life and carry over into science -whatever is found to be suitable for scientific purposes, after -which more sharply defined meanings may be assigned to the words. -It has been indicated in the previous article how the remaining -special scientific nomenclature can be determined. When this -preliminary work is sufficiently advanced the following way will -lead quickest to the goal. - -There will be founded an _international journal_, divided into as -many divisions as correspond to the groups of sciences to be dealt -with. We have here in view more particularly the theoretical and -practical sciences of nature, because they have much more urgent -need of an international auxiliary language than the "humanities," -whose representatives are more likely to possess a sufficient -knowledge of languages. For example, mathematics, mathematical -astronomy, mathematical geography, mathematical physics, geodesy, -etc., might form one group; general and experimental physics, -chemistry and physical chemistry, electrotechnics and applied -chemistry, mechanics and mechanical engineering, etc., a second -group; mineralogy, petrography, crystallography, geology, etc., -a third group; biology, systematic and physiological zoology and -botany, morphology, etc., etc., a fourth group. Extensions of these -groups and other modes of arrangement might of course be introduced. - -The foundation at first of several separate periodicals would not -be advisable. - -The following remarks may be made concerning the contents of -this journal. In conformity with our plan, it should not at first -contain any original articles, for the international language is -not intended to replace the natural ones, but only to act as an -_intermediary_ between them. Besides, the journal must not contain -any insignificant or uninteresting articles if it is to attract and -interest readers. But eminent authors, even if they could command -the international language, would not publish important original -articles in a journal which naturally at first would not have any -very great circulation. - -The journal must therefore contain chiefly translations of -interesting articles from all branches of science and from all -languages, and also extracts from the more important literary -productions. The editorial committee of this journal should be -independent of the Language Academy, but nevertheless in close -contact with it, in order, on the one hand, to guarantee the -correctness of the language by means of the Academy, and, on the -other hand, to help the latter by acting as its scientific adviser. -The gradual dissemination of this periodical would have the effect -that a considerable number of scientific men, especially those of -the younger generation, would be induced to read and understand the -international language without any expenditure of trouble injurious -to their professional work. - -II. _Writing._--From reading a comparatively easy step leads to -writing. The number of scientific men would soon increase who -could either write directly in the international language, or, at -all events, translate a paper written in a natural language into -the international language. Owing to the gradually increasing -dissemination of the international Review, a first-hand publication -of such papers in the Review would soon be very much in the -interest of the authors, as the acceptance of their papers would -itself be a mark of honour, whilst the rapid distribution amongst -all nations would be likewise advantageous. - -III. _Speaking._--The speaking of the international language -at first in small and then gradually amongst wider circles and -finally at international congresses can only be attempted later. -This attempt must not, however, be made before its success is -fully assured, and the language has received a certain amount of -consolidation through its application to writing. - -We have already remarked in another place that the introduction of -the international language is not nearly so difficult as it appears -at first sight, almost the only difficulty being the establishment -of the _confidence_ that this goal _can_ be attained. - -When one tries to swim for the first time it seems as if one would -never succeed. But when, after a few lessons, one has seen one's -comrades moving safely and merrily in the water, courage comes, and -with it success. We shall therefore show in an appendix by means of -an example that the language of the Delegation is already capable -of expressing difficult passages with all possible fidelity. - -At a time when the language had only just been fixed and when -he had very little practice in its use, L. Couturat translated -into it a particularly difficult passage from the work of Gomperz -(the Viennese Academician) on _Grecian Thinkers_. The present -author, without having seen the original, retranslated it at -Graz from the international language into German, and sent this -to Gomperz at Vienna with the request, that he would give his -opinion on the accuracy of the retranslated passage. Gomperz -wrote characterising the reproduction as "astonishingly exact," -"the test as extraordinarily successful, and the result in a high -degree favourable to the possibility of employing the international -language." This test must certainly be regarded as a very -severe one, because the German language is foreign to the first -translator, whilst, owing to its philosophical nature, the subject -was not familiar to the second translator as a physicist. For the -sake of English readers, a similar experiment has just been made, -the results of which are given in Appendix III. A passage from -Professor W. James's _Talks to Teachers on Psychology_, dealing -with the laws of habit, was translated into Ido by Professor -Couturat, and the Ido text retranslated into English by Mr. P. -D. Hugon in London, who was unacquainted with the original. A -comparison of the two English texts demonstrates the marvellous -lucidity of Ido as a medium for the transmission of thought without -distortion. - -Two things are indispensable for the realisation of a great idea. -In the first place, the idea must, as regards its nature and -value, have a rational foundation, and its possibility must be -demonstrated. In the second place, there must be present courage, -energy, and persevering devotion in order to realise practically -that which has been recognised to be right and good. No amount of -energy, however great, can produce a lasting result from a mistaken -idea; but at the same time nothing great has ever been accomplished -by doubters and pessimists. The readers of our brochure will -concede to us that the idea of an international auxiliary language -and its realisation by means of the language of the Delegation have -in the foregoing chapters been fully examined in the cold light of -reason and shown to be good and practicable, whilst the appendices -will enable this opinion to be experimentally tested and confirmed. -Now that the head has done its work, the heart, the source of -courage and devotion, must do its part. We have full confidence, -therefore, in calling upon the representatives of science, who have -followed us so far, to assist us in the work, in the first place by -_joining the Uniono di l'Amiki di la Linguo Internaciona_ and by -making its labours known. This step can be taken also by those who -do not see in the language as at present constituted the final and -best solution of the problem, for before one can reach the topmost -heights one must traverse the intervening stages. We ourselves do -not consider that our language is the best possible, but we regard -it as one which is susceptible of continuous improvement without -its immediate and future use being injured thereby. - - LEOPOLD PFAUNDLER. - - - - -APPENDIX I. - -"LINGUO INTERNACIONA DI LA DELEGITARO." - -(IDO). - - -The Délégation pour l'Adoption d'une Langue Auxiliaire -Internationale, founded in Paris in 1901, has received the support -of 310 societies of many countries and the approval of 1,250 -professors and academicians. It elected in 1907 an international -committee, composed of eminent linguists and men of science, which, -after having studied all the projects for international language, -adopted Esperanto with certain modifications. These modifications, -whilst preserving the principles and essential qualities of Dr. -Zamenhof's language, aim at a more logical and strict application -of these principles and the elimination of certain unnecessary -complications. The following are the principal modifications:-- - -(1) Suppression of the accented letters, _thus permitting the -language to be printed everywhere_, and at the same time preserving -the phonetic and frequently re-establishing the international -spelling; - -(2) Suppression of certain useless grammatical rules which are -very troublesome to many nations, and _especially to persons -possessing only an elementary education_ (accusative, concord of -the adjective); - -(3) Regularisation of the method of derivation, this being the -only means of preventing the intrusion of idioms and of furnishing -a solid foundation for the working out of the _scientific and -technical vocabulary_ so indispensable for the propagation of the -language in the scientific world; - -(4) Enrichment of the vocabulary by the adoption of new stems -carefully chosen according to the _principle of maximum -internationality_. - -All the words have, in fact, been formed from international stems, -that is to say those which are common to the majority of European -languages, with the result that they are immediately recognised -by everyone of medium education. It is not necessary therefore -to learn a new language; _the international language is the -quintessence of the European ones_. It is, however, incomparably -more easy than any of them on account of its simplicity and -absolute regularity; there are _no useless rules_, and _no -exceptions_. It can be learnt by reading it; as soon as one can -read it one can write it; as soon as one can write it one can speak -it. And experience has proved that the differences of pronunciation -amongst people of the most diverse countries are insignificant and -cause no trouble at all. To sum up, the _linguo internaciona_ is -a simplified and improved Esperanto, very analogous to primitive -Esperanto, but possessing the advantage over the latter of being -immediately intelligible, so that it is destined to become _the_ -international language. Besides, it has already received the warm -approval and support of many of the earliest and best Esperantists. -It alone, thanks to the support of the scientific and literary men -of the Delegation and Committee, has a chance of being adopted some -day by Governments and of being introduced into the schools of all -countries. - -The following pages provide a key which enables one to read a text -in this language. - - -GRAMMAR. - -@Pronunciation.@--All letters are pronounced, and have always the -same sound: _a_ (as in _father_), _c_ (like _ts_), _e_ (like _e_ in -_set_, or _a_ in _fate_), _g_ (always hard, as in _go_), _i_ (like -_ee_ in _sweet_), _j_ (either as in English, or like the French _j_ -in _journal_), _o_ (like _o_ in _not_ or like _o_ in _go_), _q_ -(_qu_ as in English, or like _kv_), _s_ (unvoiced), _u_ (like _oo_ -in _too_), _x_ (like _ks_ or _gz_), _y_ (as in English), _z_ (as in -English), _ch_ (as in _church_), _sh_ (as in English), _au_ (like -_ow_ in _how_), _eu_ (= _e-u_). It will be seen that a _certain -amount_ of latitude is permitted, in order to suit the convenience -of different nations. _Stress_ (tonic accent) on the penultimate -syllable, except in the infinitive, when it falls on the last -syllable (@-ar@, @-ir@, @-or@). Since _y_ is a consonant, it does -not count as a separate syllable (@fluvyo@). - -@Definite Article.@--@La@, for all genders and numbers. - -@Substantive.@--Ends in _-o_ in the singular, in _-i_ in the plural. - -@Adjective.@--Is invariable, and ends in _-a_. - -@Personal Pronouns.@--@Me@ = _I_, @tu@ = _thou_, @vu@ = _you_ -(singular), @il@ = _he_ or _it_ (masculine), @el@ = _she_ or -_it_ (feminine), @ol@ = _it_ (thing); @ni@ = _we_, @vi@ = _you_ -(plural), @li@ = _they_ (all genders). If distinction is necessary, -@ili@ = _they_ (masculine), @eli@ = _they_ (feminine), @oli@ = -_they_ (neuter). - -@Possessive Pronouns.@--@Mea@ = _my_, _mine_, @tua@ = _thy_, -_thine_, @vua@ = _your_, _yours_ (singular), @sa@ = _his_, _her_, -_hers_, or _its_; @nia@ = _our_, _ours_, @via@ = _your_, _yours_ -(plural), @lia@ = _their_, _theirs_. In the plural the ending _-i_ -is substituted for _-a_ when the above words are used as true -possessive _pronouns_. - -@Reflexive Forms.@--@Su@ is used as an objective (reflexive) -personal pronoun (for singular and plural) in the third person. -The corresponding possessive forms are @sua@ and @sui@ (plural -_pronoun_). It may be remarked that the possessive pronominal -adjectives @sa@ (singular) and @lia@ (plural) may be made to -indicate sex in the following way:-- - - _Singular._ _Plural._ - Masculine @ilsa@ @ilia@ - Feminine @elsa@ @elia@ - Neuter @olsa@ @olia@ - -@Demonstrative Pronouns.@--@Ica@ = _this_, _these_; @ita@ = _that_, -_those_. The plural forms @ici@ = _these_, and @iti@ = _those_, -are only used as true demonstrative _pronouns_. The indeterminate -(neuter) forms are @ico@ = _this_, @ito@ = _that_. In all the above -words the initial _i_ is usually _omitted_, except where euphony -requires it. - -If it is required to indicate sex, or something which is not alive, -this may be done as follows:-- - - _This._ _That._ - Masculine @ilca@ @ilta@ - Feminine @elca@ @elta@ - Neuter @olca@ @olta@ - Plural } @ilci@ @ilti@ - Pronoun } etc. etc. - -@Relative and Interrogative Pronouns@: @qua@ = _who_, _which_, -_what_; plural, @qui@. @Quo@ = _what_ (indeterminate, general). - -@Accusative@ (objective case).--When the direct object of the verb -precedes the subject, the former is indicated by the inflexion -_-n_: @la homo quan vu vidis@ = _the person whom you have seen_. - -@Verb.@--Invariable in person and number. Endings of the principal -tenses:-- - - _Active_ _Passive_ - _Infinitive._ _Indicative._ _participle._ _participle._ - Present @-ar@ @-as@ @-anta@ @-ata@ - Past @-ir@ @-is@ @-inta@ @-ita@ - Future @-or@ @-os@ @-onta@ @-ota@ - Conditional, @-us@. Imperative, @-ez@. - -The auxiliary verb @esar@, _to be_, is used for the passive, and -for the compound tenses of the active. - -_Passive._ - - _Present_ @esas amata@, or @amesas@ = _I am (being) loved_. - _Past_ @esis amata@, or @amesis@ = _I was (being) loved_. - _Future_ @esos amata@, or @amesos@ = _I will be loved_. - _Conditional_ @esus amata@, or @amesus@ = _I would be loved_. - _Imperative_ @esez amata@, or @amesez@ = _be loved_. - _Infinite_ @esar amata@, or @amesar@ = _to be loved_. - -_Compound Tenses of the Active._ - - _Perfect_ @(me) esas aminta@ = _(I) have loved_. - _Pluperfect_ @(me) esis aminta@ = _(I) had loved_. - _Future perfect_ @(me) esos aminta@ = _(I) shall have loved_. - _Past conditional_ @(me) esus aminta@ = _(I) should have loved_. - -The past tenses of the passive (indicating _completed_ states) are -formed by means of the passive participle in @-ita@:-- - - @(me) esis amita@ = _(I) had been loved_. - @(me) esos amita@ = _(I) shall have been loved_. - @(me) esus amita@ = _(I) would have been loved_. - -Derived adverbs are formed by substituting the ending _-e_ for the -_-a_ of the adjective or the _-o_ of the noun: @bone@ = _well_; -@nokte@ = _at night_. - - -FORMATION OF WORDS. - -All words are composed of three elements, possessing an invariable -form and meaning: _stems_, _affixes_ (prefixes and suffixes), and -_grammatical terminations_. - -@Prefixes@:-- - - @ge-@, the two sexes united: @ge-patri@ = _parents_. - @bo-@, relation by marriage: @bo-patro@ = _father-in-law_. - @ex-@, former, ex-: @ex-oficero@ = _ex-officer_. - @mal-@, opposite, contrary: @mal-bela@ = _ugly_. - @mis-@, error, mistake: @mis-komprenar@ = _misunderstand_. - @mi-@, half: @mi-horo@ = _half an hour_. - @re-@, repetition: @re-dicar@ = _repeat_, _say again_. - @retro-@, backwards: @retro-sendar@ = _return (send back)_. - @ne-@, negation: @ne-utila@ = _useless_ (but @mal-utila@ = _harmful_). - @sen-@, want of: @sen-arma@ = _unarmed_. - -@Suffixes@:-- - - @-in@, female sex: @frat-ino@ = _sister_. - @-id@, descendant: @Sem-ido@ = _Semite_. - @-estr@, chief, director: @urb-estro@ = _mayor_. - @-an@, member of: @senat-ano@ = _senator_. - @-ism@, system, doctrine: @socialismo@ = _socialism_. - @-ist@, profession, occupation: @dent-isto@ = _dentist_. - @-er@, amateur: @fotograf-ero@ = _amateur photographer_. - @-ul@, person who is characterised by ...: @kuras-ulo@ = _cuirassier_. - @-aj@, concrete thing, consisting of, or made of: @lan-ajo@ = _woollen - goods_. - @-ur@, product, result: @pikt-uro@ = _a picture_. - @-ar@, collection of a number of similar things: @hom-aro@ = _mankind_. - @-il@, instrument, tool: @bros-ilo@ = _brush_. - @-ey@, place for ...: @kaval-eyo@ = _stable_; @dorm-eyo@ = _dormitory_. - @-uy@, container, recipient: @ink-uyo@ = _inkpot_. - @-yer@, that which bears or carries: @pom-yero@ = _apple tree_. - @-al@, relating to: @nacion-ala@ = _national_. - @-oz@, full of, provided with: @por-oza@ = _porous_. - @-atr@, similar, like: @spong-atra@ = _sponge-like_, _spongy_. - @-iv@, that which can, active possibility: @instrukt-iva@ = - _instructive_. - @-em@, addicted to: @babil-ema@ = _talkative_, _garrulous_. - @-ebl@, passive possibility, that which can be ...: @vid-ebla@ = - _visible_. - @-end@, that which is to be, or must be ...: @solv-enda@ = _to be - solved_, _requiring solution_. - @-ind@, worthy of being: @respekt-inda@ = _worthy of respect_. - @-es@, state of being: @san-esar@ = _to be well_, whence the - substantives expressing state or quality, _e.g._, @san-eso@ = - _health_. - @-esk@, to commence to do or to be: @dorm-eskar@ = _to fall asleep_. - @-ig@, to make or cause to do or to be: @bel-igar@ = _beautify_; - @dorm-igar@ = _to send to sleep_. - @-ij@, to become: @rich-ijar@ = _to get rich_. - @-iz@, to furnish or provide with: @arm-izar@ = _to arm_. - @-if@, to produce, bring forth: @frukt-ifar@ = _to fructify_. - @-ad@, repetition, continuation: @dans-ado@ = _dancing_. - @-eg@, augmentative: @bel-ega@ = _very beautiful_. - @-et@, diminutive: @mont-eto@ = _hill_, _hillock_. - @-ach@, derogative: @popul-acho@ = _populace_, _the mob_. - @-um@, indeterminate relationship (see the dictionary), - @-esm@, ordinal number: @un-esma@ = _first_. - @-opl@, multiplicative number: @du-opla@ = _double_. - @-on@, fractional number: @tri-ono@ = _a third_. - @-op@, distributive number: @quar-ope@ = _in fours_. - - -LEXIKO DI LA GRAMMATIKALA VORTI. - - @a@, @ad@ _to_, _towards_ - @ad maxime@ _at most_ - @ad minime@ _at least_ - @altra@, @-i@ _other_ (_s_) - @altru@ _another_ - @altro@ _another thing_, _something else_ - @anke@ _also_ - @ankore@ _still_, _yet_ - @ante@ _before_ (time) - @aparte@ _apart_ - @apene@ _scarcely_, _with difficulty_ - @apud@ _near_, _close by_, _at_ - @avan@ _before_ (place) - @balde@ _soon_ - @cent@ _hundred_ - @ceter-i@, @-o@ _the others_, _the rest_ - @che@ _at the house of_ - @cirke@ _around_, _about_ - @cis@ _on this side of_ - @da@ _by_ - @de@ _from_, _since_, _of_ - @dek@ _ten_ - @di@ _of_ - @do@ _therefore_, _hence_ - @dop@ _after_ (position); _behind_ - @du@ _two_ - @dum@ _during_ - @e@, @ed@ _and_ - @ek@ _out, out of_ - @en@ _in_ - @exter@ _outside of_, _besides_ - @for@ _far from_ - @forsan@ _perhaps_ - @frue@ _early_ - @hiere@ _yesterday_ - @hike@ _here_ - @ibe@ _there_ - @inter@ _between_, _among_ - @ips-a@, @-e@ _self_, _even any_ (_whatsoever_) - @irg-a@, @-u@ _anyone_ (_whatever_) - @irgo@ _anything_ (_whatever_) - @itere@ _again_, _anew_ - @ja@ _already_ - @jus@ _just at the moment_ - @kad@ _whether_ (general interrogative) - @kam@ _as_, _than_ (in comparisons) - @kande@ _when_ - @ke@ _that_ (conjunction) - @kelk-a@, @-i@ _some_ - @kin@ _five_ - @kontre@ _against_, _opposite_ - @kun@ _with_ - @lor@ _then_, _at that time_ - @malgre@ _in spite of_ - @max@ (@-ime@) _most_ - @mem@ _even_, _indeed_ - @mil@ _thousand_ - @min@ _less_ - @minime@ _least_ - @morge@ _to-morrow_ - @mult-a@ (@-i@) _much_, _many_ - @nam@ _for_, _because_ - @ne@ _not_ - @nek@ _neither_, _nor_ - @no@ _no_ - @nov@ _nine_ - @nu@ _well!_ _now!_ - @nul-a@ (@-u@) _no_, _no one_ - @nulo@ _nothing_ - @nun@ _now_ - @nur@ _only_ - @o@, @od@ _or_ - @ok@ _eight_ - @olim@ _formerly_ - @omn-a@ (@-i@) _each_, _all_ - @omno@ _all_, _everything_ - @or@ _now_ (conjunction) - @per@ _through_, _by means of_ - @plu@ _more_ - @plur-a@ (@-i@) _several_ - @po@ _for_ (the price of) - @poke@ _a little_ - @por@ _for_, _to_ (_in order to_) - @pos@ _after_ (time) - @precipue@ _especially_ - @preske@ _almost_, _nearly_ - @preter@ _past_, _beyond_ - @pri@ _concerning_, _on_ - @pro@ _for_, _on account of_ - @proxim@ _next_ - @qual-a@ _what_ (_sort of_) - @quale@ _how_, _as_ - @quankam@ _although_ - @quant-a@ (@-e@) _how much_, _how many_ - @quar@ _four_ - @quaze@ _as if_, _so to speak_ - @quik@ _at once_, _immediately_ - @sama@ _the same_ - @same@ _similarly_ - @sat@ (@-e@) _enough_, _sufficiently_ - @se@ _if_ - @sed@ _but_ - @segun@ _according to_ - @sempre@ _always_ - @sen@ _without_ - @sep@ _seven_ - @singl-a@ (@-e@ _single_, _singly_ - @sis@ _six_ - @sive@ _either_, _or_ - @sub@ _under_, _below_ - @super@ _above_, _over_ - @sur@ _on_, _upon_ - @tal-a@ _such a_, _such_ - @tal-e@ _thus_, _so_, _in such a way_ - @tam@ _as_ (in comparisons) - @tamen@ _nevertheless_, _yet_ - @tant-a@ (@-e@) _so much_, _as much_, _so_ - @tarde@ _late_ - @til@ _until_ - @tra@ _through_, _across_ - @trans@ _beyond_, _on the other side of_ - @tre@ _very_ - @tri@ _three_ - @tro@ _too_ - @ube@ _where_, _whither_ - @ula-@ (@-u@) _some_, _any_, _someone_, _anyone_ - @ulo@ _something_, _anything_ - @ultre@ _beyond_, _besides_ - @un@ (@-u@, @-a@ _one_ - @ve@ _alas!_ - @vice@ _in place of_, _vice_ - @ya@ _certainly_, _undoubtedly_ - @ye@ preposition of indeterminate meaning - @yen@ _here is_, _there is_, _behold_ - @yes@ _yes_ - - - - -APPENDIX II. - -@Specimen page from the INTERNATIONAL-ENGLISH DICTIONARY.@[6] - - @deskript-ar@: to describe; - @-o@: description; - @-iva@: descriptive [EFIS]. - - @desper-ar@: to despair; - @-o@: despair; - @-igar@: to drive to despair [EFIS]. - - @despit-ar@: to be vexed, to fret; - @-o@: spite, despite; - @-igar@: to vex [EFIS]. - - @despot-o@: despot; - @-eso@, @-ismo@: despotism [DEFIRS]. - - @destin-ar@: to destine; - @-o@, @-eso@: destination, destiny [EFIS]. - - @destrukt-ar@: to destroy; - @-o@: destruction; - @-iva@, @-ema@: destructive [EFIRS]. - - @detal-o@: detail; - @-a@, @-oza@: detailed; - @-e@, @-oze@: in detail [DEFIRS]. - - @detashment-o@ (military): detachment [DEFIRS]. - - @detektiv-o@: detective [EFR]. - - @determin-ar@: to determine; - @-o@, @-eso@: determination (not _decision_); - @-anta@, @-iva@: determinative; - @-ismo@: determinism [DEFIRS]. - - @detriment-ar@: to cause injury or prejudice to (_a person_); - @-o@: detriment, damage, injury (_moral_) [EFIS]. - - @dev-ar@: to be obliged to, ought, have to; - @-o@: duty [FIS]. - - @devast-ar@: to devastate; - @-o@, @eso@: devastation [EFIS]. - - @deviac-ar@ (_trans. and intrans._): to deviate; - @-o@: deviation [EFIS]. - - @deviz-o@: motto, device [DEFIRS]. - - @devlop-ar@: to develop; - @-o@, @-eso@: development [EFI]. - - @devot-a@: devoted; - @-eso@: devotion; - @-esar@, @-igar@, @-su@: to devote oneself [EFI]. - - @dextr-a@: right (_hand_, _side_); - @-e@: on the right [IS]. - - @dezert-a@: desert, deserted; - @-o@: a desert, wilderness [EFIS]. - - @dezir-ar@: to wish, desire; - @-o@: wish, desire [EFIS]. - - @di@: of (_preposition_). - - @di-o@, day (twenty-four hours); - @-ala@: daily [EIS]. - - @diabet-o@: diabetes [DEFIRS]. - - @diablo@: devil; - @-ala@: diabolical [DEFIRS]. - - @diadem-o@: diadem [DEFIRS]. - - @diafan-a@: transparent; - @-eso@: transparency [FIS]. - - -@Specimen page from the ENGLISH-INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY.@ - - to @describe@: deskriptar. - @description@: deskripto. - @descriptive@: deskriptiva. - to @desecrate@: profanigar. - a @desert@: dezerto. - to @desert@: desertar. - @deserted@: dezerta. - @deserter@: desert-anto, -into. - @desertion@: deserto, - to @deserve@: meritar. - @deserving@: merit-anta, -oza. - to @desiccate@ (_v. trans._): sikigar. - @desiccated@: sikigita. - @design@ (= drawing): desegno. - to @desire@: dezirar. - @desire@: deziro. - @desk@ (_writing_): pupitro. - " (_pulpit_): katedro. - to @despair@: desperar. - @despair@: despero. - @despair@, to @drive to@: desperigar. - a @desperado@: riskemo. - @despicable@: mal-prizinda. - to @despise@: mal-prizar. - @despite@ (_s._), despito. - " (_prep._) (= _in spite of_), malgre. - @despot@: despoto. - @despotism@: despot-eso, -ismo. - @desquamation@: squamifo. - @dessert@: desero. - @destination@: destin-o, -eso. - to @destine@: destinar. - @destiny@: destin-o, -eso. - " (= _fate_): fato. - to @destroy@: destruktar. - @destruction@: destrukto. - " , @utter@: nuligo. - @destructive@: destrukt-iva, -ema. - @detachment@ (military): detashmento. - @detail@: detalo, mal-grandajo. - " , @in@: detal-e, -oze. - @detailed@: detal-a, -oza. - @detective@: detektivo. - to @deter@: timigar, impedar. - @determination@ (_not decision_): determin-o, -eso. - @determinative@: determin-anta, -iva. - to @determine@: determinar. - " " (= decide): decidigar. - @determinism@: determinismo. - to @dethrone@: mal-tronizar. - @detriment@: detrimento. - to @devastate@: devastar. - @devastation@: devast-o, -eso. - to @develop@: devlopar. - " " (_photo._): rivelar. - @developer@ (_photo._): rivelilo. - @developing@ (_photo._): rivelo. - @development@: devlop-o, -eso. - to @deviate@ (_v. trans. and intrans._): deviacar. - @deviation@: deviaco. - - - - -APPENDIX III. - -EXPERIMENT IN DOUBLE TRANSLATION. - -THE LAWS OF HABIT. - -By Professor W. JAMES.[7] - - -I believe that we are subject to the law of habit in consequence -of the fact that we have bodies. The plasticity of the living -matter of our nervous system, in short, is the reason why we -do a thing with difficulty the first time, but soon do it more -and more easily, and finally, with sufficient practice, do it -semi-mechanically, or with hardly any consciousness at all. Our -nervous systems have (in Dr. Carpenter's words) _grown_ to the way -in which they have been exercised, just as a sheet of paper or a -coat, once creased or folded, tends to fall for ever afterward into -the same identical folds. - -Habit is thus a second nature, or rather, as the Duke of Wellington -said, it is "ten times nature," at any rate as regards its -importance in adult life, for the acquired habits of our training -have by that time inhibited or strangled most of the natural -impulsive tendencies which were originally there. Ninety-nine -hundredths or possibly nine hundred and ninety-nine thousandths of -our activity is purely automatic and habitual, from our rising -in the morning to our lying down each night. Our dressing and -undressing, our eating and drinking, our greetings and partings, -our hat-raisings and giving way for ladies to precede, nay, even -most of the forms of our common speech, are things of a type so -fixed by repetition as almost to be classed as reflex actions. To -each sort of impression we have an automatic, ready-made response. -My very words to you now are an example of what I mean, for, -having already lectured upon habit and printed a chapter about it -in a book, and read the latter when in print, I find my tongue -inevitably falling into old phrases and repeating almost literally -what I said before. - -So far as we are thus mere bundles of habit, we are stereotyped -creatures, imitators and copiers of our past selves. And since -this, under any circumstances, is what we always tend to become, -it follows first of all that the teacher's prime concern should be -to ingrain into the pupil that assortment of habits that shall be -most useful to him throughout life. Education is for behaviour, and -habits are the stuff of which behaviour consists. - - -LA LEGI DI L'KUSTUMO, - -Traduko en Ido da L. COUTURAT. - -Me kredas, ke ni esas submisata a la lego di l'kustumo per konsequo -di l'fakto, ke ni havas korpi. La plastikeso di la vivanta materyo -di nia nerva sistemo, esas, abreje, la kauzo ke ni facas un kozo -malfacile la unesma foyo, sed balde plu e plu facile, e fine, -kun suficanta praktiko, ni facas ol mi-mekanike, o kun preske -nula koncio. Nia nerva sistemi _kreskis_ (segun la vorti di Dr. -Carpenter) en la voyo en qua li esis exercita, exakte quale folyo -di papero, o vesto unfoye faldita o shifonigita, tendencas falar -sempre pose en la sama identa falduri. - -La kustumo esas duesma naturo, o prefere, quale dicis Duko de -Wellington, ol esas "dekople naturo," omnakaze per sa importo en -adulta vivo; nam la aquirita kustumi di nia eduko en ta tempo -impedis o strangulis max multa de la natural impulsiva tendenci, -qui existas origine. Novdek nov centoni, o, posible, novcent novdek -nov miloni de nia agemeso esas pure automatal e kustuma, de nia -levo matene a nia kusho omnanokte. Nia vestizo e malvestizo, nia -manjo e drinko, nia saluti ed adyi, nia chapel-levi et voyo-cedi -por siorini preteriranta, ya mem max multa formi di nia komuna -parolado, esas kozi de tipo tante fixigita per repeto, ke li povas -esar klasizita quale agi reflexa. Ad omna speco de impreso ni -havas automatal, tute pronta respondo. Mea ipsa paroli a vi nun -esas exemplo de to, quon me pensas: nam, pro ja facir lecioni pri -la kustumo ed imprimigir chapitro pri ol en libro, e lektir olca -dum imprimo, me trovas mea lango falanta neeviteble en sa malnuva -frazi, e repetanta preske litere, quon me dicis ante. - -Segun quante ni esas tale pura faski de kustumi, ni esas -stereotipita kreuri, imitanti e kopianti di nia propra pasinto. -E pro ke co, en omna supozi, esas to, quo ni sempre tendencas -divenar, konsequas, unesme, ke la precipua skopo di l'instruktisto -devas esar inkrustar en la lernanto ta asortajo de kustumi, qua -esos max utila ad il tra sa tuta vivo. L'eduko esas por la konduto, -e la kustumi esas la materyo, en qua la konduto konsistas. - - -THE LAWS OF HABIT. - -I believe that we are subject to the law of habit in consequence -of the fact that we have bodies. The plasticity of the living -material of our nervous system is, to put it briefly, the reason -why we do a thing with difficulty the first time, but soon more -and more easily, and finally, with sufficient practice, we do it -half mechanically, or almost without any consciousness. Our nervous -systems _have grown_ (in Dr. Carpenter's words) in the way in which -they were trained, just as a sheet of paper or a garment, once -folded or crumpled, tends to fall ever after in the same identical -creases. - -Habit is a second nature, or rather, as the Duke of Wellington -said, it is "tenfold nature," at any rate by its importance in -adult life, for the acquired customs of our education by that time -have impeded or strangled most of the natural impulsive tendencies -which existed originally. Ninety-nine hundredths or maybe nine -hundred and ninety-nine thousandths of our activity is purely -automatic and habitual, from our rising in the morning to our -retiring every night. Our dressing and undressing, our eating -and drinking, our greetings and leave-takings, our hat-raisings and -way-givings to ladies passing by, even indeed most forms of our -common speech, are things of a type so well fixed by repetition, -that they can be classified as reflex actions. For every kind of -impression we have an automatic, ever-ready response. My very words -to you now are an example of what I think, for through having -already given lessons about habit, and having had a chapter printed -about it in a book, and having read the latter in the course of -printing, I find my tongue falling unavoidably into its old phrases -and repeating almost literally what I have said before. - -Inasmuch as we are thus pure bundles of habits, we are stereotyped -creatures, imitators and copyists of our own past. And because -this, in any case, is what we always tend to become, it follows, in -the first place, that the teacher's chief object must be to incrust -in the learner that set of habits which will be most useful to him -throughout his whole life. Education makes for conduct, and habits -are the material which conduct consists of. - -[Retranslated into English by P. D. HUGON, who was unacquainted -with the original before doing the retranslation, 20th January, -1910.] - - - - -APPENDIX IV. - -"UNIONO DI L'AMIKI DI LA LINGUO INTERNACIONA." - - -The following excerpt from the provisional statutes of the _Uniono_ -is only intended to give an indication of its nature. The full -statutes will be willingly sent to anyone interested by one of the -authors of this brochure or by the Secretary of the _Uniono_, Herr -A. Waltisbühl, 46, Bahnhof Strasse, Zürich. - - -EXCERPT FROM THE PROVISIONAL STATUTES. - -(1) The sole purpose of the _Uniono di l'Amiki di la Linguo -Internaciona_ is to unite, for the purposes of common action, all -persons who recognise and approve of the idea of an international -language in the form given to it by the _Délégation pour l'Adoption -d'une Langue Auxiliaire Internationale_. - -(2) The Uniono accepts as the international auxiliary language the -_Linguo internaciona di la Delegitaro_ resulting from the labours -and decisions of the commission and the working committee of the -Delegation, but expressly declares that this language is not to be -regarded as "perfect" and "infallible." On the contrary, it takes -the view that the language is capable of continuous improvement -according to the principles resulting from the work of the -Delegation. - -(3) The _Uniono_ consists of members of both sexes of all -nationalities (at least eighteen years old) who are willing to -learn the language, to employ it on all suitable occasions in -intercourse with foreigners, and to take part in its propagation. - -(4) The yearly subscription amounts to 1·25 francs, 1 shilling, -1 mark, or 1·20 krone (Austrian). Half of this sum goes to the -Academy, the other half to the credit of the "Komitato." Permanent -membership is obtained by a single payment of 50 francs. Persons -paying at least 100 francs in a single payment become _membri -protektanta_. - -(5), (6), (7) All members take part in the election of the two -directing bodies of the _Uniono_ (the Academy and the "Komitato") -according to a specially arranged method of representation (in -which account is taken of the number of adherents belonging to each -nationality). - -(8), (9), (10) The Academy is concerned only with questions -relating to the development and improvement of the international -language. It has to reply within six months to all questions and -suggestions emanating from at least three elected representatives. -The official organ of the Academy is the journal _Progreso_ -(pronounced _Progresso_). The _Komitato_ has the practical -direction and organisation of the _Uniono_ which it controls and -represents. It is intended to found in the different countries -language courses, offices for the practical employment of the -language in commerce and travel, and translation bureaus. The -Academy and Komitato may unite for the purpose of discussing -general questions concerning the international language. - -(11), (12), (13) deal with local groups, change of statutes, -dissolution of the Society, etc. - -(14) All questions or proposals to be settled by the Academy or the -Komitato must be published in the journal _Progreso_ three months -before the decision in order to allow of general discussion. - - -ENTRANCE FORM. - - The undersigned declares his (or her) adherence to the - "Association of Friends of the International Language," as - constituted by the provisional statutes, and subscribes - - for the year 19.... - or in one { life member, - payment { _protektanta_ - as { _membro_. - - Signature. - - Christian name - and surname. - (Please write clearly.) - - Address. - - Profession or occupation - (optional). - - Natural language. - - Age. - - Send this form filled up, together with your subscription - (international money order), to the Secretary of the Society, - Herr A. Waltisbühl, 46, Bahnhofstrasse, Zürich, Switzerland. - - -UNIONO DI L'AMIKI DI LA LINGUO INTERNACIONA. - -ADHERILO. - -_Me subskribanta deklaras adherar a_ l'Uniono di l'Amiki di la -Linguo Internaciona, _tala quala ol esas definita en la_ Provizora -Statuti, _e me suskriptas_{1} - - { _por la yaro_ 19 ............................ - { - { _unfoye_ { _permananda_ } - { _quale_ { _protektanta_ } _membro_ ............ - - _Subskribo_: - - _Nomo e prenomo_ .............................. - - _Adreso_ ..................................... - - ................................................ - - _Profesiono_ (ne obliga indiko) ............... - - _Naturala linguo_ ............................ - - _Eco_ ................................ - -@Sendez ta adherilo kun la suskripto@ (@per internaciona valoro@) -_a la sekretaryo-kasisto_, @So. A. WALTISBÜHL, 46, Bahnhofstrasse, -Zürich@ (@Suiso@). - - {1} Minima suskripto: fr. 1·25, shilling 1, mark 1, dollar 0·25. - _Permananta membri_ pagas 50 fr. unfoye; _protektanta membri_ pagas - 100 fr. unfoye. - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] We do not therefore approve of the poetical attempts of -Zamenhof, or the dramatic representation of Goethe's _Iphigenia_. - -[2] For other comparisons, such as musical notation, chemical -formulæ, etc., compare the excellent brochure of W. Ostwald, -_Die Weltsprache_. Compare also L. Couturat, _Pour la Langue -Internationale_. - -[3] Here and elsewhere the following abbreviations will be -used:-- G. = German, E. = English, F. = French, I. = Italian, R. = -Russian, and S. = Spanish. - -[4] Concerning the criticism of Esperanto, cf. also Zamenhof, -_Pri Reformoj en Esperanto_, 1894, _represita per zorgo de E. -Javal_, 1907 (containing many important suggestions which the -Esperantists have now unfortunately forgotten); A. Liptay, -_Eine Gemeinsprache der Naturvölker_, 1891; E. Beermann, _Die -Internationale Hilfssprache Novilatin_, 1907; K. Brugmann and A. -Leskien, _Zur Kritik der Künstlichen Weltsprachen_, 1907; Couturat -and Leau, _Conclusions du Rapport_, 1907; L. Couturat, _Étude -sur la Dérivation en Esperanto_, 1907; Ido, _Les Vrais Principes -de la Langue Auxiliaire_, 1908; many articles in the periodical -_Progreso_, 1908; F. Borgius, _Warum ich Esperanto verliess_, 1908. - -[5] "What language aimed at languages have destroyed." The remarks -contained in this chapter have been developed and applied to -the criticism of Esperanto in my _Étude sur la Dérivation_ (1st -edition, unpublished, 1907, 2nd edition in French and in Ido, 1909). - -[6] The letters D, E, F, I, R, S, are the initial letters of the -names of the six chief European languages, and those placed after -any word indicate to which of these languages the corresponding -stem is common (D = Deutsch (German)). - -[7] "Talks to Teachers on Psychology," pp. 65, 66 (New York, H. -Holt & Co., 1907). - - - - -CONSTABLE & CO. LTD - - -CHEMISTRY - -PRACTICAL METHODS OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. By E. MOLLWO PERKIN, -Ph.D. 2_s._ 6_d._ net. - - CONTENTS:--Chapter I.--Introduction. Chapter II.--General - Preparations and Methods. Chapter III.--Salts. Chapter - IV.--Halogens and Halogen Compounds. Chapter V.--Metallic Oxides. - Chapter VI.--Acids. Chapter VII.--Preparation of Metals and - Metalloids. Chapter VIII.--Special Preparations. Index. - - _The Journal of the Faraday Society._--"This book cannot be too - strongly recommended." - _Educational News._--"Most valuable." - _The Lancet._--"The true educational method is set forth in this - little work." - _Journal of Education._--"It is useful both to teacher and to pupil." - -EXERCISES IN PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. By W. A ROTH, Ph.D., etc., Late -Professor of Chemistry in the University of Greifswald. Translated -for the use of Students by A. T. CAMERON, M.A., B.Sc., of the -University of Toronto. Price _6s._ net. Fully Illustrated. - - CONTENTS:--Chapter I.--Introductory. Chapter II.--The - Determination of Density. Chapter III.--Determination of - Molecular Weights in Solutions. Chapter IV.--Thermo-Chemistry. - Chapter V.--The Determination of Optical Constants. Chapter - VI.--The Thermostat. Chapter VII.--Chemical Statics and - Dynamics. ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY: Chapter VIII.--Foundations. Chapter - IX.--Electrical Conductivity. Chapter X.--Faraday's Law. - Transport Numbers. Chapter XI.--Measurement of Differences of - Potential. Chapter XII.--Electro-statics. Appendix. Index. SMALL - TABLES IN THE TEXT: Molecular elevation of the boiling point and - depression of the freezing point. Heat of combustion per gram at - constant volume. Spectrum lines for optical measurements. Atomic - refraction. Conductivities of some standard solutions. Dielectric - constants. - -INTRODUCTION TO THE CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS OF BUILDING MATERIALS. By -ALAN E. MUNBY, M.A. (Cantab). The elementary principles of science -which underlie the study of Building Materials in practice. Demy -8vo. 6_s._ net. - -TECHNICAL THERMODYNAMICS. By Dr. GUSTAV ZEUNER. First English -Edition. From the fifth complete and revised edition of "Grundzüge -der Mechanischen Wärmetheorie." Vol. I.--Fundamental Laws of -Thermodynamics; Theory of Gases. Vol. II.--The Theory of Vapours. -Authorised Translation by J. F. KLEIN, D.E., Professor of -Mechanical Engineering, Lehigh University. Illustrated. Two -Volumes. Demy 8vo. Price 36_s._ net. - -EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS OF THERMODYNAMICS TO -CHEMISTRY. By PROFESSOR WALTER NERNST, University of Berlin. Extra -Crown 8vo. 5_s._ net. - -ENTROPY: OR, THERMODYNAMICS FROM AN ENGINEER'S STANDPOINT, AND THE -REVERSIBILITY OF THERMODYNAMICS. By JAMES SWINBURNE, M.Inst.C.E., -M.I.E.E., etc. Illustrated with Diagrams. 4_s._ 6_d._ net. - - -ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING - -ELECTRICITY. By H. M. HOBART, B.Sc., M.Inst. C.E., etc. A -Text-Book designed in particular for Engineering Students. 208 -pages + xix. 43 Tables and 115 Illustrations. Demy 8vo. 6_s._ net. - - CONTENTS:--The "Generation" and Conduction of Electricity. - Copper, Aluminium, and other Conducting Materials. Energy. The - Kelvin. Electricity. Continuous Electricity and Ohm's Law. - The Magnetic Field. Conductors Moving in a Magnetic Field. - Alternating Electricity. Inductance. The Magnetic Circuit. - Insulating Materials. - - _The Engineer._--"A rapid glance at the illustrations contained - in this book is sufficient to show that it differs very - materially from most others having the same title. Indeed, it - may be said that the volume possesses that desirable but unusual - feature--originality. A chapter on the magnetic field contains - information which the student will find well worth acquiring, and - the same applies to that section of the book which deals with - conductors moving in a magnetic field. The alternating current - section is also good, and in a number of places it possesses the - merit of originality. The book, as we have already intimated, - is written on practical lines, and it is a decided improvement - on most books we have seen having for their title the word - 'Electricity'." - -CONTINUOUS CURRENT ENGINEERING. By ALFRED HAY, D.Sc., M.I.E.E. -About 330 pages. Fully Illustrated. Demy 8vo. 5_s._ net. - - A standard text-book for the practical student, giving a simple - account of the component parts of a continuous current lighting - and power plant, dynamos, motors, secondary cells, measuring - instruments, etc. - -DIRECT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT TESTING. By FREDERICK BEDELL, -Ph.D., Professor of Applied Electricity in Cornell University, and -CLARENCE A. PIERCE, Ph.D. 8_s._ net. - - CONTENTS:--Direct Current Generators. Direct Current Motors. - Synchronous Alternators. Single-Phase Currents. Transformers. - Polyphase Currents. Phase Changers. Potential Regulators, etc. - -THE THEORY OF ELECTRIC CABLES AND NETWORKS. By ALEXANDER RUSSELL, -M.A., D.Sc. Demy 8vo. 8_s._ net. - - _Mechanical Engineer._--" ... the work needs only to be known in - order to be well appreciated by the electrical profession." - -LABORATORY AND FACTORY TESTS IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING. By GEORGE -F. SEVER and FITZHUGH TOWNSEND, Second Edition. Thoroughly revised. -Demy 8vo. 282 pages. 10_s._ 6_d._ net. - - This book represents the laboratory work required in the - Electrical Engineering Course at Columbia University. It is - intended to serve as a text-book for the use of students, but - furthermore it may be found useful by those who are engaged in - the electrical profession. - -RADIO-TELEGRAPHY. By C. C. F. MONCKTON, M.I.E.E. With 173 Diagrams -and Illustrations. Extra Crown 8vo. 6_s._ net. - - CONTENTS:--Preface. Electric Phenomena. Electric Vibrations. - Electro-Magnetic Waves. Modified Hertz Waves used in - Radio-Telegraphy. Apparatus used for Charging the Oscillator. - The Electric Oscillator: Methods of Arrangement, Practical - Details. The Receiver: Methods of Arrangement, The Detecting - Apparatus, and other details. Measurements in Radio-Telegraphy. - The Experimental Station at Elmers End: Lodge-Muirhead System. - Radio-Telegraph Station at Nauen: Telefunken System. Station at - Lyngby: Poulsen System. The Lodge-Muirhead System, the Marconi - System, Telefunken System, and Poulsen System. Portable Stations. - Radio-Telephony. Appendices: The Morse Alphabet. Electrical Units - used in this Book. International Control of Radio-Telegraphy. - Index. - - _Nature._--"A very interesting and valuable book." - - -MATHEMATICS - -THE CALCULUS AND ITS APPLICATIONS. A PRACTICAL TREATISE FOR -BEGINNERS, ESPECIALLY ENGINEERING STUDENTS. With over 400 Examples, -many of them fully worked out. By ROBERT GORDON BLAINE, M.E., -Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Lecturer at the City Guilds' Technical College, -Finsbury, London, E.C. Author of "Hydraulic Machinery," "Lessons in -Practical Mechanics," "The Slide Rule," etc. Crown 8vo. 4_s._ 6_d._ -net. - - The difficulties which beset the beginner are fully explained, - and the principles of the differential and integral calculus, and - differential equations, are clearly set forth in the simplest - language; each rule being illustrated by practical examples. - Applications of the calculus to problems in engineering and - physics form a feature of the work, which concludes with an - up-to-date chapter on Harmonic Analysis, of special interest to - electrical engineers and students of electro-technics. - - -ENGINEERING - -ENGINEERING WORKSHOPS, MACHINES AND PROCESSES. By F. ZUR NEDDEN. -Translated by JOHN A. DAVENPORT. With an Introduction by SIR A. B. -W. KENNEDY, LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.M.E. Plates. Demy -8vo. 6_s._ net. - - A handbook of workshop practice for the young engineer. It fills - a gap in our books for the practical training of engineers. - -MACHINE DESIGN. By CHARLES H. BENJAMIN, Professor of Mechanical -Engineering in the Case School of Applied Science. Numerous -Diagrams and Tables. Demy 8vo. 8_s._ net. - - Prepared primarily as a text-book, but containing mainly what the - writer has found necessary in his own practice as an engineer. As - far as possible the formulas for the strength and stiffness of - machine details have been fortified by the results of experiments - or by the practical experience of manufacturers. - -THE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE: Being a Text-Book on Gas, Oil, and -Petrol Engines, for the use of Students and Engineers. By H. E. -WIMPERIS, M.A., Assoc.M. Inst.C.E., Assoc.M.Inst.E.E. Illustrated. -Crown 8vo. 6_s._ net. - - CONTENTS:--Introductory. Section I.--THEORY: Thermodynamic - Cycles. Combustion and Explosion. Thermodynamics. Section - II.--GAS ENGINES AND GAS PRODUCERS: The Gas Engine. The Gas - Producer. Blast Furnace and Coke-Oven Gases. Section III.--OIL - AND PETROL ENGINES: The Oil and Petrol Engine. Petrol Engine - Efficiency and Rating. Index. - -THE MODERN STEAM ENGINE: THEORY, DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, USE. A -Text-Book for Students. By JOHN RICHARDSON, M.Inst.C.E. With 300 -Illustrations. Demy 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ net. - - CONTENTS: Unit of Power. Natural Forces. Early Types of Engine. - The Watt Engine. The Use of Steam in Multiple Cylinder or - Compound Engines. Valve Gears. Double or Compound Slide Valves. - Releasing Valve Gear. Exhaust Valves and Valve Driving Gear. The - Governor. Electrical Regulation. Condensers. The Steam Turbine. - Design of Details. Examples of Various Types. Feed and Steam - Heating. Hints to Users. Appendix. Tables and Formulæ. Index. - - _Engineer._--"Essentially a practical treatise." - -THE CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES. Being -a Practical Manual for Gas Engine Designers, Repairs and Users. By -R. E. MATHOT. Translated by W. A. TOOKEY. Medium 8vo. With over 350 -Illustrations. 24_s._ net. - -THE ELEMENTS OF MECHANICS OF MATERIALS. A Text-Book for Students -in Engineering Courses. By C. E. HOUGHTON, A.B., M.M.E., Associate -Professor of Mechanical Engineering, New York University. 7_s._ -6_d._ net. - - CONTENTS: Chapter I.--APPLIED MECHANICS. Chapter - II.--APPLICATIONS. Chapter III.--BEAMS. Chapter IV.--TORSION. - Chapter V.--THE ELASTIC CURVE. Chapter VI.--LONG COLUMNS. Chapter - VII.--COMBINED STRESSES. Chapter VIII.--COMPOUND BARS AND BEAMS. - TABLES. - -HYDRAULICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS. By A. H. GIBSON, M.Sc., -Assoc.Mem.Inst.C.E., Victoria University, Manchester. 774 pages. -308 Figures. Demy 8vo. 15_s._ net. - - _Engineering Times._--"This is the best book to date on the subject." - -NATURAL SOURCES OF POWER. By ROBERT S. BALL, B.Sc., A.M.Inst.C.E. -With 104 Diagrams and Illustrations. Extra Crown 8vo. 6_s._ net. - - CONTENTS:--Preface. Units with Metric Equivalents and - Abbreviations Length and Distance. Surface and Area. Volumes. - Weights and Measures. Pressures. Linear Velocities. Angular - Velocities. Acceleration. Energy. Power. Introductory Water - Power and Methods of Measuring. Application of Water Power to - the Propulsion of Machinery. The Hydraulic Turbine. Various - Types of Turbines. Construction of Water Power Plants. Water - Power Installations. The Regulation of Turbines. Wind Pressure, - Velocity, and Methods of Measuring. The Application of Wind Power - to Industry. The Modern Windmill. Constructional Details. Power - of Modern Windmills. Appendices A, B, C. Index. - - -METALLURGY - -MALLEABLE CAST IRON. By S. JONES PARSONS, M.E. Illustrated. Demy -8vo. 8_s._ net. - - The information in this volume is thoroughly practical and - reliable, and the entire process of manufacture is clearly - explained, each stage being treated separately and in detail, - while much valuable information will be found in chapters dealing - with design, patterns, inspection, machining, supplementary - processes, and the application of the material, the use of which - has increased so enormously within the last few years that - it is now preferred to steel for many purposes. It is freely - illustrated with photographs and line drawings, and will be - invaluable to the professional man and the student. - -THE PRECIOUS METALS: COMPRISING GOLD, SILVER, AND PLATINUM. By T. -KIRKE ROSE, A.R.S.M., D.Sc. Extra Crown 8vo. 6_s._ net. - - CONTENTS:--History of Gold--Properties of Gold--Compounds - of Gold--Alloys of Gold--Occurrence of Gold in Nature: Gold - Ores--Extraction of Gold from its Ores: Gold Washing--Treatment - of Gold Ores by Crushing and Amalgamation--Treatment of Gold - Ores by Wet Methods--Silver and its Alloys--Compounds and Ores - of Silver--The Extraction of Silver from its Ores--Refining Gold - and Silver--The Assay of Gold and Silver Ores--The Assay of Gold - and Silver Bullion--Minting--Manufacture of Gold and Silver - Wares--Platinum--Production and Consumption of the Precious - Metals. - - -AGRICULTURE - -SOILS AND MANURES. By J. ALAN MURRAY, B.Sc. Demy 8vo. 6_s._ net. - - CONTENTS:--Preface. Chapter I.--Introductory. Chapter II.--The - Origin of Soils. Chapter III.--Physical Properties of Soils. - Chapter IV.--Chemistry of Soils. Chapter V.--Biology of - Soils. Chapter VI.--Fertility. Chapter VII.--Principles - of Manuring. Chapter VIII.--Phosphatic Manures. Chapter - IX.--Phospho-Nitrogenous Manures. Chapter X.--Nitrogenous - Manures. Chapter XI.--Potash Manures. Chapter XII.--Compound and - Miscellaneous Manures. Chapter XIII.--General Manures. Chapter - XIV.--Farmyard Manure. Appendices.--I. Valuation of Manures; II. - Composition and Manurial Value of Various Farm Foods. Index. - - -BOTANY - -PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY. By FREDERIC EDWARD CLEMENTS, Ph.D., -Professor of Botany in the University of Minnesota. With 125 -Illustrations. Demy 8vo. 10_s._ 6_d._ net. - -TIMBER. By J. R. BATERDEN, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Profusely Illustrated -from Photographs and Diagrams. Extra Crown 8vo. 6_s._ net. - - This is essentially a practical work, and botany is only - incidentally touched upon. The timbers dealt with are those in - most general use, either in their native districts or in the - timber trade, together with some others which are likely before - long to come into the market. - - -CYTOLOGY - -THE ESSENTIALS OF CYTOLOGY: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF LIVING -MATTER. By CHARLES EDWARD WALKER, Assistant Director of the -Cancer Research, Liverpool, and Honorary Lecturer in Cytology to -the School of Tropical Medicine in the University of Liverpool; -formerly Demonstrator of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, -London. Illustrated. Demy 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ net. - - -POLITICAL ECONOMY - -THE ELEMENTS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE. By STEPHEN LEACOCK, formerly -Lecturer on Political Science at McGill University, Montreal. Crown -8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ net. - - CONTENTS:--Part I.--THE NATURE OF THE STATE: I. Political - Science, the Theory of the State. II. The Origin of the State; - Fallacious Theories. III. The True Origin of the State. IV. The - Sovereignty of the State. V. The Liberty of the Individual. VI. - Relation of States to One Another. VII. The Form of the State. - Part II.--THE STRUCTURE OF THE GOVERNMENT: I. The Separation - of Powers. II. The Legislature. III. The Executive. IV. The - Judiciary and the Electorate. V. Federal Government. VI. Colonial - Government. VII. Local Government. VIII. Party Government. - Part III.--THE PROVINCE OF GOVERNMENT: I. Individualism. II. - Socialism. III. The Modern State. - - -PSYCHOLOGY - -PSYCHOLOGY: AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY OF THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF -HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS. By JAMES ROWLAND ANGELL. Demy 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ -net. - - -10 ORANGE STREET LEICESTER SQUARE W.C. - - - - - TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE - - Appendices I and II have several pages of 2-column data. These are - shown in the etext in single-column format. - - Appendix III consists of 3 side-by-side columns over two pages, - each rotated vertically in the original text. These are shown in - the etext with column 1 (the segment in English) first. 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