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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0aa0b4b --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #54694 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/54694) diff --git a/old/54694-0.txt b/old/54694-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index b124d56..0000000 --- a/old/54694-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4258 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of International Language and Science, by -L. Couturat and O. Jespersen and W. Ostwald and L. Pfaundler and R. Lorenz - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: International Language and Science - Considerations on the Introduction of an International - Language into Science - -Author: L. Couturat - O. Jespersen - W. Ostwald - L. Pfaundler - R. Lorenz - -Translator: F. G. Donnan - -Release Date: May 9, 2017 [EBook #54694] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE *** - - - - -Produced by MWS, John Campbell and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - - - TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE - - Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. - - Bold text is denoted by @at signs@. - - Some unusual letters and symbols are accurately represented with - Unicode characters. (Some handheld devices may not support combining - diacriticals such as the circumflex.) These are: - consonants with a circumflex accent ĉ ĝ ĥ ĵ ŝ; - letter c with an acute accent ć; - the diphthong ou with macrons ōū (many platforms do not support - the combining double macron); - and the calculus integral symbol ∫. - - Some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book. - - - - - INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE - AND SCIENCE - - - - - INTERNATIONAL - LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE - - - Considerations on the Introduction of an - International Language into Science - - - BY - - L. COUTURAT - - Formerly Professor at the - University of Caen. - - O. JESPERSEN - - Professor at the University - of Copenhagen. - - R. LORENZ - - Professor at the Federal - Polytechnicum of Zürich. - - W. OSTWALD - - Professor emeritus of the University - of Leipzig. - - L. PFAUNDLER - - Professor at the University - of Graz. - - - TRANSLATED BY - - F. G. DONNAN - - Professor at the University - of Liverpool. - - - LONDON - CONSTABLE & COMPANY LIMITED - 10 ORANGE STREET LEICESTER SQUARE W.C. - - 1910 - - - - - BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO. LD., PRINTERS, - LONDON AND TONBRIDGE - - - - -PREFACE - - -The question of a so-called world-language, or better expressed, an -international auxiliary language, was during the now past Volapük -period, and is still in the present Esperanto movement, so much -in the hands of Utopians, fanatics and enthusiasts, that it is -difficult to form an unbiassed opinion concerning it, although a -good idea lies at its basis. Both the Volapükists and Esperantists -confused the linguistic aspect of the question with so many side -issues that, not only was it difficult to see the former in its -true light, but also the leaders of the various movements were -unable to guide them in the right direction. For this reason -discussions concerning an international auxiliary language appeared -with good reason to many people to be unpractical, impossible, or -indeed even ridiculous. Matters have, however, changed since the -_Délégation pour l'adoption d'une langue auxiliaire internationale_ -has taken the matter up. This International Commission, with its -headquarters in Paris, and consisting of literary and scientific -men of eminent reputation, was entrusted with the task of -investigating the general question of an international auxiliary -language. The Delegation has, in the course of an activity -extending over seven years, succeeded in showing that a sound idea -lies at the root of the various movements for a universal language. -Freed from all extraneous considerations, this idea involves the -purely linguistic question of the introduction of an international -auxiliary language. On the other hand, the Delegation has found -that neither Volapük nor Esperanto have succeeded in solving the -problem. As, however, Esperanto was found to contain a number of -good principles, the Commission finally resolved to work out on -purely scientific principles an international auxiliary language -on the basis of Esperanto. The whole question of the introduction -of an international auxiliary language has thus arrived at a stage -in which it appears worthy of serious discussion. Under these -circumstances, the writers of this brochure considered it their -first duty to draw the attention of scientific and literary men to -the matter, and so initiate discussion. - -The object of this book will have been attained, should they have -succeeded in explaining the present state of the question, and in -showing that it is already possible to discuss the introduction -of an international auxiliary language into science, and indeed -even seriously to make the attempt to carry it out. It may be -remarked that the five authors of this book live in five different -countries, and belong to three different languages. The very -considerable correspondence required for the production of their -book was carried out with the greatest success in the _Linguo -Internaciona_, whenever any two of the correspondents possessed -different mother-tongues. - - Paris, Copenhagen, Zürich, Gross-Bothen, Graz. - - L. COUTURAT, O. JESPERSEN, R. LORENZ, - W. OSTWALD, L. PFAUNDLER. - - _March, 1909._ - - - - -TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE - - -The scientific attitude of mind is necessarily critical, but -never sceptical without proper investigation and knowledge. The -Translator hopes, therefore, that English-speaking men of science -will not judge the question of international language before they -have quietly and dispassionately examined the arguments so ably -set forth in the following pages. It is not a question of "another -language"; it is a question of the final solution by the methods of -science of one of the greatest of scientific problems. - -Internationalisation of thought is the motto of the twentieth -century, the device on the banner of progress. Science, the -Super-Nation of the world, must lead the way in this as in all -other things. Amidst the clangour and the clamour of political and -commercial strife, the quiet empire of knowledge grows, noiseless -and unseen. Let all those who believe that this peaceful empire is -destined to become the controlling force of the world assist in the -attunement of its common language. - -The Translator wishes to thank his friend and colleague, Professor -J. P. Postgate, for having very kindly revised the translation of -Chapters III. and IV. - - F. G. DONNAN. - - UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL, - _March, 1910_. - - - - -TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - Preface v - - - CHAPTER - - I. The need for a common scientific language, by L. Pfaundler 1 - - II. The _Délégation pour l'adoption d'une langue auxiliaire - internationale_, by R. Lorenz 11 - - III. Linguistic principles necessary for the construction of an - international auxiliary language, with an appendix on - the criticism of Esperanto, by O. Jespersen 27 - - IV. On the application of logic to the problem of an international - language, by L. Couturat 42 - - V. The relationship of the international language to science, - by R. Lorenz 53 - - VI. The question of nomenclature, by W. Ostwald 61 - - VII. Conclusion; Reading, Writing, and Speaking, by L. - Pfaundler 69 - - - APPENDIX I. _Linguo Internaciona di la Delegitaro_; grammar, - word-formation, list of grammatical words 75 - - " II. Specimen pages from the International-English - Dictionary 82 - - " III. An experiment in double translation 84 - - " IV. _Uniono di l'amiki di la linguo internaciona_; - extracts from the provisional statutes, and - membership form 86 - - - - -INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE NEED FOR A COMMON SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE - - -All who are occupied with the reading or writing of scientific -literature have assuredly very often felt the want of a common -scientific language, and regretted the great loss of time and -trouble caused by the multiplicity of languages employed in -scientific literature. - -The remarkable and regrettable feature of this state of affairs is -that we once possessed, and have now lost, such a common language, -namely, Latin. Even in the first third of the last century Gauss -wrote a portion of his mathematical and physical papers in Latin, -and up to the middle of the last century the dissertations of the -scientific candidates at the German universities were translated -into Latin by their philological colleagues, since the former were -no longer sufficiently conversant with that language. The fall -of Latin as the language of scholars and men of science could -not, however, be prevented, nor does there exist the faintest -chance of its ever recovering its lost position. The reasons for -this are known to all. The rise and development of science, for -the expression of whose ideas the language of Cicero no longer -sufficed, the fall of scholasticism, with its Church Latin, the -diffusion of knowledge amongst people not possessing a university -training, the foundation of technical high schools, and, finally, -the growing national sentiment and jealousy of nations who sought -to further the spread of their national languages by using them -in the works of their scientific men--all this has contributed -to displace Latin by the modern national languages. The result -is that, instead of one common language for scholars and men of -science, we now possess three. - -It is required or supposed that every scholar or man of science -should know at least German, French, and English. For the majority -of German scholars and men of science this may hold good, but in -the case of the French it is less true, and in the case of the -English least of all. The knowledge of these three languages is, -however, no longer sufficient, and that for the following reasons. - -In the first place, several other languages must be taken into -account, for many Italians write only Italian, many Dutchmen -only Dutch, whilst numerous Russians, Poles, Czechs, Hungarians, -Scandinavians, and Spaniards employ only their national languages. -In this way much escapes general knowledge and recognition, or is -only accessible in a belated or mutilated form. - -In the second place, the difficulty of a quick mutual understanding -is great, even for those who can command these three chief -languages. If one is possessed of a little natural talent, one can -by dint of industry and much loss of time easily get so far as to -read or understand a paper or a letter in a foreign language, but -when it comes to writing (replying) the task is incomparably more -difficult. One can, however, not assume, when a German scholar or -man of science replies in German to a letter written in French or -English, that he will be always understood. - -The matter is much worse in the case of oral intercourse, -especially at scientific congresses. At these the three chief -languages mentioned above are usually now declared to be official, -that is to say, permissible for the delivery of papers. As a -matter of fact, however, the language of the country in which -the congress is held usually dominates. The German speaks French -in Paris, but the Englishman mostly only English, and demands, -as occurred at the recent Refrigeration Congress in Paris, the -translation into English of the papers read at the sectional -meetings. Only very few can take part in the discussions, and -many must be well content if they are able to understand the -usually rapidly delivered papers. Many an important criticism is -not made because one does not possess the expertness necessary -for discussing a question in a foreign language, and does not -wish to expose oneself to the chance of a rebuff, caused not so -much by ignorance of the matter in hand as by want of facility in -expression. - -Every member of a congress has noticed that whenever the language -employed in the papers changes, a considerable number of the -audience leave with more or less noise, in order to avoid being -compelled to listen to a paper which they do not understand. -Congresses would be certainly much better attended were it not that -these difficulties keep many away. - -One cannot hope that an increasing diffusion of the knowledge -of the three chief languages will cause these difficulties to -diminish, still less to disappear. They will, rather, increase -still more, since the number of national languages desiring to -take part in the work of civilisation is constantly growing. -Already, at the present time, Italian, Spanish, Dutch, and the -Scandinavian and Slavonic languages must be taken into account, -besides the three chief languages. National sentiment forces the -scientific men of these countries to use the national languages, -even when they perceive that this procedure does not conduce -to mutual understanding. Even if the scientific men themselves -were completely free from national _amour propre_, they would be -obliged by their fellow-countrymen to employ their own languages, -not so much for the purpose of advancing scientific knowledge and -learning as in order to contribute by means of their literary -and scientific works to the diffusion of their languages and the -advancement of their nations. Whoever has observed this phenomenon -will be forced to the conclusion that amongst scientific men, at -least in Europe, this state of affairs is getting worse rather than -better. - -The increase of the participating languages involves an increase -of the periodicals, just at a time when a concentration of the -periodical literature is most desirable. The cost of subscriptions, -translations, storing, and registration, and the labour and time -spent thereon, increase from year to year. Above all, there is a -want of translators; ordinary interpreters are not sufficient, -since a special knowledge of each subject is required. Where are -such persons to be found in sufficient numbers? And how few and far -between are those who, when they possess the requisite training, -are willing to content themselves with the poorly paid remuneration -of a translator! - -Bad or erroneous translations and faulty abstracts are very -harmful; it would be better in such cases that no translation -should exist, as then the original would have to be consulted. -These difficulties, many more of which could be mentioned, are well -known to all scientific men, since each has suffered more or less -from them. - -The question then is, What remedy can we apply? One proposal -is to introduce into secondary schools the teaching of modern -instead of classical languages, in order to render the students, -after matriculation at the universities, capable of taking part -in international scientific intercourse. This proposal has arisen -from the view that the learning of modern _added_ to that of the -classical languages would overburden the secondary schools, whilst -the learning of modern languages at the universities would cause -equal or greater difficulties. - -Few young people possess, during their years at the university, -sufficient keenness and moral courage to subject themselves to the -ordeal of linguistic studies, from which they have joyfully escaped -on their entrance into the university. Few possess at that age a -full conception of the usefulness and necessity of a knowledge of -languages. And it is just those young people who wish to devote -themselves to the professions of literature or science who ought to -devote their whole time and full powers to their professional work, -and not be obliged to break up their time with linguistic studies. - -The proposal to exclude the classical languages from the secondary -schools has encountered, however, from many quarters very weighty -objections, the force of which cannot be denied, even by the -opposite side. We shall, however, not enter into this much-debated -question, contenting ourselves with the remark that at the present -day insuperable obstacles stand in the way of a complete or partial -substitution of modern for classical languages. Experience shows -also that the teaching of modern languages in schools seldom leads -to a practical result, although it must be conceded that nowadays, -with newer methods, much better results are obtained than formerly, -when the grammar, but not the practical use, was taught. If, -therefore, the teaching of modern languages cannot well be carried -out either at the universities or in the schools, there remains -only the time before school studies. It is, in fact, possible (as -is done in many well-to-do families), by means of a French or -German governess, to teach a child, besides its mother tongue, one -of these languages, in so far as its mental development permits. It -is probably inadvisable to teach more than one new language in this -way, in order to avoid injury to the child's own mother tongue. -Such a knowledge, however, is quite insufficient for the needs of -the young scientific man, and so the acquaintance with a language -gained in this way requires constant extension and development. - -But even assuming that the young man continues the study of the -language that he has learnt as a child, or even indeed learns -another during his school days, he will possess at best that -approximate knowledge of the three chief languages which we -have characterised above as being neither qualitatively nor -quantitatively sufficient, because it does not suffice for oral -intercourse, and because other languages must be taken into account. - -The proposal has, therefore, been made to choose, by international -agreement, _one_ of the national languages as a universal -_intermediary_ language. If everybody learnt this language, then -the difficulty would be surmounted. - -This proposal is, however, still-born. Every attempt to realise -it is bound to be shipwrecked on the rock of national jealousy, -as has been often shown before, for it is evident that the nation -whose language was chosen would receive a very great advantage. -The widely spoken English language possesses, it is true, a very -simple grammar, but it would be very unsuitable for this purpose on -account of its extremely difficult pronunciation. - -Just as science has succeeded in giving to the world a uniform -system of weights and measures by choosing instead of a national -unit of length one common to all nations, namely, the length of an -earth quadrant, so only that language could find general acceptance -which was based on the common possession of those peoples for whom -it was intended. By that we mean the stock of words common to the -three great families of languages, the Germanic, Romance, and -Slavonic. - -Against this the objection will be raised: "An artificial -language; in other words, a Utopia! How could one think of -artificially creating a language, which, after all, is a living -and spontaneously developing organism? One might as well think of -artificially creating a live horse!" - -It is true that one cannot make a live horse, but one can make -an automobile, which under certain circumstances may replace the -horse, and even excel its performance. But no one would think on -that account of totally doing away with horses. In a similar manner -the partisans of an artificial language have no wish to displace -the natural languages. In poetry and imaginative literature, -wherein the soul of a nation finds its highest expression, the -mother-tongue will always be supreme.[1] - -"But it is unthinkable," one will say, "that an artificial language -would ever be generally accepted." - -Such statements must be received with caution, for they have turned -out more than once to be wrong. The introduction of a common system -of weights and measures was also declared to be impossible at one -time, nevertheless it has since been carried out in science. The -construction of a system of telegraph wires connecting the whole -civilised world and a telegraph alphabet common to all nations -was declared seventy years ago to be an impossibility. Now it is -ancient history. - -The maritime nations have agreed upon a common code of signals. -When the English sailor arrives at the Japanese coast, he -translates the sentences he wishes to transmit into numbers, which -he signals by means of flags, and the Japanese port official -translates the signalled numbers by means of the code into Japanese -sentences. Why should it therefore be impossible to introduce -instead of this intermediary _numerical_ language an intermediary -_word_ language, which would give expression to thought in a better -and more direct manner?[2] - -"Quite so, but such an intermediary language would be much more -difficult to create than a code of signals arranged for a limited -number of words and phrases." - -How would it be if this difficulty had been already overcome, -and the intermediary language already created and proved to be -serviceable? - -"But that would amount to adding a new language to be learnt to the -ones we already have to learn; there would be no advantage in that!" - -If, however, this "new" language was really not "new," consisting -mostly of words known to every educated person; if its grammar was -so simple that its principles could be learned within an hour; -and if, therefore, any educated person who knew a single Romance -language could learn the whole language in an incredibly short -time, would it not be an advantage to acquire it? - -To prove this is a simple problem of permutations and combinations, -and the proof possesses all the certainty of mathematical -reasoning. We shall demonstrate that by an example. - -Suppose a large town contains ten districts, each possessing a -pneumatic post-office. In order to connect each district with all -the others, one could lay from each of the ten post-offices nine -tubes to the remaining nine post-offices. That would require (10 -× 9)/2 = 45 tubes. The problem could, however, be solved much -more easily and cheaply by connecting each of the post-offices by -means of a single tube with a central post-office, which would -receive and distribute all the letters, as is actually the case in -practice. We should then require only ten tubes. - -Substitute now for the districts imagined above the languages, -German, French, English, Italian, Russian, Spanish, etc., with the -condition that every person speaking one language should be able -to correspond with everybody speaking a different language. In the -case of ten languages we should require for every correspondent -nine dictionaries, or altogether ninety dictionaries. - -Every correspondent would have to know nine languages besides his -own. If, however, we employed an intermediary language, each person -would only require to know this language besides his own. The -matter is so simple and the advantage so exceedingly obvious that -one can only wonder why it has not been recognised and carried out -long ago. - -It is quite self-evident that, if one wishes to become acquainted -with the imaginative literature and the inner thoughts and feelings -of a foreign nation, one cannot content oneself with translations, -but must study a language in its own country. But how many people -learn French in order to become acquainted with its literature? -The existence of an intermediary language would interfere with -such linguistic studies just as little as the invention of the -automobile prevents anybody from using a riding or carriage horse. -There is no necessity, therefore, for philologists or professional -linguists to be hostile to the project, since their sphere of work -and influence will not be in any way diminished thereby. On the -contrary, the creation of an artificial language has led to so -many interesting questions relating to the structure, and to such -a deeper insight into the nature of language, and has attracted so -many to its study, that this beautiful department of knowledge will -only derive advantage therefrom. - -It is also remarkable that the original work of Dr. Zamenhof, -which in its principles was characterised by genius, but in its -execution was imperfect and therefore insufficient, has only -through the reforming labours of distinguished philologists -attained to that perfection of form and principle required to make -it the international auxiliary language of the civilised world. -The difficulty of the undertaking no longer lies in the language -itself, but, rather, in the task of inspiring all concerned, and -especially the leading thinkers, with the conviction that it is -practically realisable. If this conviction can be sufficiently -spread, the introduction of the auxiliary language will only be a -matter of a few months. In order, however, to form an opinion on -the possibility of this realisation, it is, in the first place, -necessary to become acquainted with the main principles, structure, -and origin of the language which we recommend. - - L. PFAUNDLER. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -_THE "DÉLÉGATION POUR L'ADOPTION D'UNE LANGUE AUXILIAIRE -INTERNATIONALE"_ - - -One of the most important problems of present day civilisation is -the introduction of an international auxiliary language. - -We boast of our international intercourse. The civilised world -has extended to new nations and has embraced whole regions of the -earth, and yet, in spite of the magnificent means of material -communication, nothing of a similar nature has been done for the -purpose of uniting minds together in an equally practical manner. -Recently, however, an event has occurred at Paris which brings us -a step further in this direction. The _Délégation pour l'Adoption -d'une Langue Auxiliaire Internationale_, which was formed in 1900 -as a result of the Paris Exhibition, has, after an activity of -seven years, arrived at a definite decision. - -The very fact that modern international relations have brought -about such a delegation and entrusted it with work should be -sufficient to emphasise the importance of the problem. It is -not true that the need for an international auxiliary language -disappears with the knowledge of several national languages, -as has been asserted by many who, on account of their personal -knowledge, have not experienced it. This is especially true of some -philologists who overlook the fact that languages form the object -of their special studies, and draw conclusions from themselves -concerning the needs of others. Expertness in the use of languages -does not come so readily to the scientific investigator and the -technologist, whose work lies in other directions, and so it is -in these quarters that the movement for the introduction of an -international auxiliary language receives the greatest support. To -this must be added the fact that, as Ostwald has aptly remarked, -the scientific investigator regards language only as a means of -making himself understood. Language is _not_ for him something -"which thinks and poetises," but rather an instrument for conveying -his knowledge and wishes to other people, much after the fashion -whereby the musician is enabled to convey his feelings by means -of musical notation and the instruments of the orchestra. The -question of the suitability of a language is important in this -connection; and so it does not appear so very strange that it is -just the scientific investigators, technologists, and philosophers -who have never been quite satisfied with living or dead languages. -How otherwise can we explain the fact that it is just they who are -constantly solving philological problems and constantly occupied -with the invention not only of new signs and symbols (mathematical, -chemical, crystallographic), but also new words? The fact is that -science, philosophy, and technology are constantly waging a fierce -battle with existing languages. What they want is a language as -simple and clear as the fundamental laws of nature, as logical as -the precision of experiment, and as many-sided as the complexity -of the facts which it has to describe. And so they are constantly -working at the creation of this language, all the words invented -by science finding their way unceasingly through the channels of -technology into the general vocabulary. These words possess the -special property of being international, that is to say, understood -by all civilised nations, including the Japanese. We do not wish, -however, to stop at this stage of development; we wish to be able -to internationalise not only single ideas, but also the whole train -of thought. For this purpose it is impracticable to make use of -any of the national languages, since they are all so unsuitable, -illogical, capricious, and complicated that the student must learn -to steer clear of thousands of difficulties before he is able to -express himself fairly correctly. _It is possible to construct an -artificial language with such a regular structure that it can be -employed at once without making mistakes._ - -In accordance with these ideas, the programme of the Delegation was -as follows:-- - -"(1) It is desirable that an international auxiliary language -should be introduced which, though not intended to replace -the natural languages in the internal life of nations, should -be adapted to written and oral intercourse between persons of -different mother-tongues. - -"(2) Such an international language must, in order to fulfil its -object, satisfy the following conditions:-- - - "(a) It must be capable of serving the needs of science as well - as those of daily life, commerce, and general intercourse. - - "(b) It must be capable of being easily learnt by all persons of - average elementary education, especially those belonging to the - civilised nations of Europe. - - "(c) It must not be any one of the living national languages. - -"(3) The decision as to the choice of a language is to be referred -in the first place to the International Association of Academies, -but if the latter should refuse to consider the matter or come to -no decision, to the committee of the Delegation. - -"(4) Circulars are to be sent to learned, commercial, and legal -societies requesting them to signify their approval of the above -programme." - -The success of this appeal was extraordinary. It was now evident -for the first time how many thousands of people of all nations were -enthusiastically in favour of the introduction of an international -auxiliary language. The _État de la Délégation_, which the latter -published yearly, included on October 1st, 1907, in the list of -corporate bodies alone, the names of 310 clubs, societies, and -congresses, not a few of which possessed a membership exceeding -1,000. It is interesting to rapidly pass in review the extremely -varied character of the societies included therein. We find, for -example, commercial schools, chambers of commerce, merchants' -clubs, stenographers, the printing trade, correspondence bureaus, -photographic clubs, associations of municipal and other officials, -societies of shipping employés, legal clubs, pedagogic and -religious societies, officers' clubs, institutes for the deaf -and dumb and for the blind, sociological, medical, and health -societies, peace clubs, political and graphological societies, -touring, bicycle, and automobile clubs, sport clubs, bibliographic -societies and library staffs, and finally all sorts of special -scientific societies and congresses. Arranged according to -nationality, we find representatives of France, England, Germany, -Switzerland, Denmark, Spain, Greece, Italy, Belgium, Norway, -Sweden, Holland, Russia (including Poland), Roumania, Austria -(including Bohemia and Hungary), Mexico, Peru, the Argentine, -Algeria, Tunis, the United States, Chile, etc. There is also -the "academic list," which contains the names of no less than -1,250 professors, belonging to 189 universities, technical high -schools, and academies of science, and coming from 110 parts of -the globe, extending as far as India and Japan. It may be stated -without exaggeration that the programme of the Delegation found an -enthusiastic response in all parts of the world and from people -of nearly every occupation and profession, many persons and -societies expressing themselves in favour of the introduction of an -international auxiliary language on the condition that it should -not be one of the living languages. - -During the seven years of its existence the Delegation has -carried out the duties entrusted to it in an exemplary manner, -and has performed a gigantic amount of work. In May, 1907, the -Delegation considered the time had come to lay the matter before -the International Association of Academies. At that time the report -was very wide-spread that the Association had altogether refused to -consider the matter. In reality the Vienna Academy, as President of -that year, decided to bring the question before the Association, -but the latter declined to take the matter up (twelve votes to -eight, one member not voting). At this point the Delegation had -the right and the duty to speak out. It obtained an expression of -opinion from the representatives of all the associated societies -and clubs. The result of this was the formation of a working -committee, consisting of sixteen members, almost entirely scholars -and men of science of reputation and members of the different -scientific academies. With the representatives of natural science -and mathematics were associated philologists and linguists. The -committee began to sit on October 15th, 1907, and, after eighteen -sittings held in the Collège de France, arrived at a decision. - -Before we enter into this matter more fully it will be desirable -to give a brief sketch of the historical development of artificial -language. - -Anyone desiring to go more deeply into the history of this question -(already three hundred years old) and the practical attempts at its -realisation may be referred to the masterly work of L. Couturat and -L. Leau, _Histoire de la Langue Universelle_ (Paris, 1903). In what -follows only a few of the most important points will be mentioned. - -The oldest extant reference to the problem of an international -language appears to be contained in the letter written by -Descartes on November 20th, 1629, to his friend Mersenne. The -great philosopher here explains the principles which convinced him -that it would be possible to construct an artificial language -which could be used as an international auxiliary language. As -for Leibnitz, who was attracted throughout his whole life by this -problem, his language projects have been recently investigated -by L. Couturat by means of documents, many of which have never -before been published (_La Logique de Leibnitz_ and _Opuscules et -Fragments Inédits de Leibnitz_). There may further be mentioned the -_Ars signorum Vulgo Charakter Universalis et Lingua Philosophica_ -(London, 1661) of George Dalgarno, and the recently discovered -memoir of an unknown author entitled _Carpophorophili Novum -inveniendæ Scripturæ Œcumenicæ Consilium_ (Leipzig, 1734). The -last-mentioned system in particular strikes one as highly modern in -principle. - -It was only, however, at the end of the last century that the -era of practical things began with the Volapük of Schleyer. The -success of this language was very considerable. It possessed about -thirty journals, published in the most different countries, even -in Japan, and its literature has been estimated at from 300 to -400 works. The official lists published in 1889 contained the -names of 255 local groups belonging to the "Universal Language -Society," some of which possessed a very considerable membership. -The teaching of the language was highly organised, there being -900 teachers, 200 head teachers, and 50 "professors." This great -linguistic experiment was very instructive, and its significance -cannot be underrated. Important conclusions concerning the theory -and practice of artificial language can be drawn from it, and -especially from a consideration of the circumstances which finally -led to the downfall of Volapük. It turned out that this was due -to the errors which Volapük itself contained, showing us that in -these matters, as in others, practical experience is the best -teacher. The fate of Volapük was sealed when its supporters, in the -year 1889, made the experiment of organising a congress at which -Volapük should be spoken. Although a few Volapükists succeeded in -speaking the language, it was only too painfully evident that such -a goal could not be reached with this system. Almost simultaneously -with Volapük another artificial language had been invented. The -Russian medical man Dr. Zamenhof published his system in 1887 under -the pseudonym of "Doktoro Esperanto." But as Esperanto arrived -while Volapük was at its zenith, it failed at first to attract -general attention. It found, however, in France, an enthusiastic -supporter in the Marquis de Beaufront, who had himself worked out -an international language called "Adjuvanto." He gave this up as -soon as he came to know about Esperanto, and founded the _Société -Française pour la Propagation de l'Esperanto_ and the journal -_L'Esperantiste_ (now in its tenth year). France soon became the -centre of the new movement, and indeed almost the whole existence -and magnitude of the Esperanto movement was due to the influence of -this man. Since then Esperanto has extended to all countries. The -Esperanto journals appear mostly in a bilingual form, the number of -them being, as in the Volapük movement, about forty-five, whilst -there exist a few journals and periodicals published exclusively -in Esperanto. A special significance attaches to the international -congresses organised by the Esperantists, at which only Esperanto -is spoken. In 1905, at Boulogne-sur-Mer, there assembled 600 -members, belonging to about fifteen different nationalities. -The differences of pronunciation which, on account of certain -peculiarities of construction in Esperanto, must necessarily appear -amongst the Romance nationalities and the English, were not, we -are told, sufficiently marked to prevent mutual comprehension. -The second congress took place at Geneva in 1906. At the third -congress, in Cambridge, in 1907, there were present about 1,400 -members, whilst at the fourth congress, in Dresden, in 1908, there -assembled also 1,400 members. Whatever opinion one may hold about -these congresses, at which much confusion and misunderstanding, and -indeed even much that was ridiculous, took place, they represent, -without doubt, a great and remarkable philological experiment, -and one which demonstrates the possibility of synthetically -constructing a language that can be spoken. On the other hand, -however, the Esperanto congresses showed, according to the -concordant testimony of all persons of unbiassed opinion, that the -Esperanto language in no wise represents the final solution of the -problem. All farsighted leaders of the Esperanto movement have been -for a long time the more fully conscious of this state of affairs -the more profound their knowledge of the Esperanto language. Chief -amongst them may be mentioned M. de Beaufront himself, who has come -forward as one of the leaders of reform, a reform which in many -important respects was recognised as necessary by Dr. Zamenhof -himself in a series of interesting memoirs. The recommendations -of Dr. Zamenhof were, however, rejected in 1894 by the so-called -"Fundamentists" (157 votes to 107), who were supported by a few -great publishing firms interested in the preservation of Esperanto. -By reason of the fact that the Esperanto alphabet contains no -fewer than six special letters to be found in no ordinary printing -fount, the firms referred to possess the monopoly of the very -considerable trade in this literature. The Fundamentists hold the -view that, in spite of a few errors in the auxiliary language, its -success can only be assured by absolute conservatism. They have, -therefore, declared the grammar, together with the reading book and -vocabulary, published by Zamenhof under the title of _Fundamento de -Esperanto_, to be sacrosanct, and go so far in this matter as to -revere as "correct" and "classical" Esperanto the infringements of -his own rules, the grammatical errors, and even the misprints to be -found in the _Fundamento_. - -The idea of a powerful organisation has undoubtedly at first -sight something very attractive about it. One must, however, not -forget, even in the case of an international language, that no -organisation in the world can arrest the progress of a necessary -development. Every human contrivance and invention is subject to -change, errors and deficiencies being corrected. Especially is -a rational development inevitable in the case of things, such -as an international language, which are subject to the control -of our intelligence. Conversely it is not difficult to reply to -the question, How is it then possible, when a system has once -been chosen, to carry it out and preserve it? For there are two -fundamental qualities which, happily for us, are apparent in -the history of inventions, and each of which confers stability -quite apart from any conventions, namely, a high degree of -rational development based on the most profound knowledge and an -extraordinary empirical perfection. As examples of the latter may -be mentioned the notation of music, which since Guido d'Arezzo -(born in 990), or at any rate since Johann Sebastian Bach, has not -appreciably changed; the division of time into twenty-four hours -and of the hour into sixty minutes, which is at least three hundred -years old; the face, mechanism, and hands of a watch, which date, -with unimportant changes, from the Renaissance; and, finally, the -violin, which retains up to the present day the characteristic form -which the ancient Italians gave it. Is it not wonderful that this -strangely carved piece of wood must possess just that particular -form in order to yield its harmonious tones? - -As examples of the former may be quoted almost all modern -achievements. The metric and decimal systems have come to stay. The -bicycle, the motor car, and the typewriting machine have undergone -successive improvements till finally they have attained to their -more or less definite form. We see from this that when inventions -have once reached a certain degree of suitability they are not -afterwards easily replaced by others. There is, therefore, only one -adequate criterion of the stability of an international language, -namely, that of suitability or adaptation to its purpose, and -we maintain that it is only by means of continuous reforms and -improvements that it will succeed in satisfying this criterion -and so finally attain to stability. In the work of Couturat and -Leau, referred to above, there are described about ten artificial -languages which have sprung up during and after the period of -Volapük and Esperanto, and in which the experience of their -predecessors has been more or less made use of. A study of these -attempts leads to the surprising result that they often differ -amongst themselves less than, for example, the Romance languages. -If, then, one were to choose any one of these languages and to -direct its systematic development according to the principles -which experience and knowledge have shown to be requisite for the -construction of an international language, one would in each case -arrive finally at approximately the same result. - -At the present day the rapid development in every department of -life has made us only too ready to regard everything around us -as transient. We forget, however, that the rapidly accumulating -inventions and discoveries which startle and surprise us always -refer to new things. One must bear in mind that there also exist -things which in their essential features can _only be invented -once_, and that the international language in its final form is one -of these. - -An excellent means of convincing the incredulous is to demonstrate -the absence of arbitrariness in the character of an invention or -improvement, and the degree of general consent which a given system -has already obtained. Whenever one has recognised the natural and -logical basis of a discovery one perceives relationships which -restrict the ideas of chance and haphazard originally associated -with it in one's mind. It is, therefore, quite unnecessary in the -case of an international language to be afraid of "the arbitrary -action of private persons who possess neither the right nor the -authority to introduce reforms into Esperanto," as Dr. Zamenhof has -recently stated. One ought rather to feel sure that the best means -of defending an international language against arbitrary changes is -the degree of its concordance with sound theoretical principles. - -Wilhelm Ostwald has given us an account of the work of the -Delegation. The commission consisted of representatives of the -English, German, Italian, Scandinavian, and Slavonic languages. -Famous philologists such as Otto Jespersen, of Copenhagen, -and Baudouin de Courtenay, of St. Petersburg, as well as the -philosopher L. Couturat, of Paris, rendered priceless services. -The proceedings, which were held in the Collège de France, began -with the interviewing of a number of the inventors of artificial -languages or their representatives, all such people having been -invited to the conference. Where this procedure was not possible -the corresponding writings and documents were examined and -discussed. Concerning this work Ostwald writes, "Although these -labours were very fatiguing, they proved all the more effective for -the progressive elucidation of the problem in hand. From the very -multiplicity of the attempts at a solution and their discussion -there arose in the minds of the workers, in a manner never to be -forgotten, a clear conception of the main conditions required for -a successful solution of the problem, and a recognition of the -errors which a disregard of one or other of these conditions had -produced in the existing systems." Whilst an account of the nature -of these principles and of their application to the construction -of an international auxiliary language will be given by competent -authorities in the following chapters, we may here mention that the -Delegation decided that none of the existing systems satisfied -the conditions necessary for an international auxiliary language, -but that the widely known Esperanto could serve as a basis for -the working out of such a language, although it would require to -undergo a certain number of changes. - -A standing committee was elected, including Ostwald, Couturat, De -Beaufront, and Jespersen, which was entrusted with the task of -determining the new forms of the international auxiliary language -on the basis of the principles laid down in the sittings mentioned -above. - -The changes carried out by the committee of the Delegation -are embodied in the form of new grammars and dictionaries. -The Delegation succeeded not only in recognising, but also in -correcting in a competent manner, the errors of Esperanto, with -the result that we are to-day in possession of a language which in -respect of facility, lucidity, variety, and elegance of expression, -represents the high-water mark of international speech. - -The success which this reform achieved amongst the public and -also in Esperantist circles immediately after the publication -by the Delegation of the first specimen of the new language was -astonishing. That which the Esperantists had scarcely succeeded -in doing during six years of their existence took place with -astonishing rapidity before our eyes, and in scarcely as many -months there were formed in sixty towns of Europe and America local -groups of enthusiastic people affiliated to the Delegation. - -Unfortunately the Fundamentists persist in their obstinacy and -continue to manifest their discontent. Although the new language -has sprung from Esperanto and is based upon it, the Esperantists -have forbidden that the name Esperanto should be used. The -conventional name _Ido_ (_i.e._, a descendant) has therefore -been given to it. There exist already some periodicals in the -_linguo internaciona_. The chief organ of the new movement is the -periodical _Progreso_ (pronounced _Progresso_), "_oficiala organo -di la Delegitaro por adopto di linguo helpanta internaciona_." It -is edited by Professor L. Couturat in Paris, and owes its name, -programme, and policy to the advice and initiative of Ostwald. - -The superiority of Ido over Esperanto is so striking and is so -incontestably borne out by practical experience that one can -now really speak, after the Volapük and Esperanto periods, of -a third world-language movement which has started off with a -reaction-velocity hitherto unknown in this department of knowledge. -It is characteristic of the new language that it has been taken up -by the English and Americans, whilst an introduction of primitive -Esperanto amongst the Anglo-Saxons encountered insuperable -obstacles, for, as was pointed out with good reason, the English -language, especially in regard to its grammar, was superior to -Esperanto on account of a number of clumsy constructions and errors -which the latter contained. But, apart from the regularity of -pronunciation, Ido excels the English language both in regard to -grammar and, what is of great importance, brevity, a printed Ido -text being even briefer than the corresponding English one. - -For the benefit of those who are unacquainted with the nature of -international language and who still regard an artificial language -as an impossible monstrosity, we may remark that the new vocabulary -contains in round numbers 5,400 stems, and that, in spite of the -Romance character which the international language necessarily -possesses, 40 per cent. of these are common to the following six -languages: German, English, French, Italian, Russian, Spanish -(and to many others). Moreover, there are naturally innumerable -other stems which occur simultaneously in five or four of the -great languages. In the face of this overwhelming evidence, no -one can contest the possibility of an international language, for -the above numbers tell their tale with unmistakable clearness. -They _prove the existence of the international language apart from -every theory_. It is only necessary to select judiciously the words -common to the living languages, that is to say, by an artificial -process, in order to construct the international language. - -Besides the purely linguistic standpoint, the Delegation considered -the whole question of an international auxiliary language from -another and an essential point of view. It is natural, and -sufficiently well known, that in both the Volapük and Esperanto -movements the linguistic issue was mixed up with a large amount -of disorder, error, misunderstanding, and illusion. This was -due to the fact that these movements were largely directed by -scientifically untrained persons, and partly also fell into the -hands of fanatics and Utopians. Added to this was the desire to -soar to the summits of literature instead of confining themselves -to practical matters, and the truly childish confidence which led -them to spoil the classics of different nations by translating -them into a language intended for other purposes. This latter -trait was even more markedly pronounced in the Esperanto than in -the Volapük movement. The Delegation, as a commission of serious -men of science, has steadily laboured to free the question from -all extraneous considerations, of which we have mentioned only the -best known, and the standpoint which is taken in the periodical -_Progreso_ is in all respects a serious and scientific one. In this -way it has been possible to attain finally to a stage at which -the whole question can be discussed on its merits. The action of -the Delegation marks, therefore, without doubt the beginning of -a rational period in the history of the movement for a universal -language. Henceforth he who comes to mock will have nothing to -say, and the sceptic will have to search for serious and competent -reasons if he wishes to maintain his case. - -The point of view which the Delegation has taken is that the -solution of the problem of an international auxiliary language is -a purely scientific and technical question. Scientific in a double -sense of the word: in the first place, because the living germ of -an international language is already to be found in science and as -an expression of the civilisation of Europe and America, requiring -only an artificial development to bring it to maturity and to give -us the international auxiliary language in its final form; in the -second place, because the method of artificial development of -the international language forms itself the object of a science, -and that indeed a new one, namely, the philology of auxiliary -language. The question is also a technical one because the result -obtained by theory is destined for a practical purpose, namely, -the daily use of mankind. Our modern civilisation is signalised -by the application of science to practice. We are no longer pure -empiricists. Science penetrates into every department of daily -life, and all enlightened people are aware that the age of pure -empiricism is over. - -The movement for a universal language possesses its epochs, like -other things, but we may rest assured that the era of the attempts -to solve the problem of auxiliary language in a purely empirical, -or even indeed romantic, manner has passed away with the Volapük -and Esperanto periods. - -The work of the Delegation has also been in a high degree an -organising one. The beginning of the year 1909 gave birth to a -_Uniono di l'Amiki di la Linguo Internaciona_, extending over all -parts of the world. From this union are derived by election two -directing bodies: firstly, the _Komitato_, a commission which -looks after matters of organisation and business; and secondly, -an _Academy_, entrusted with the scientific investigation of -the international auxiliary language, which sees to its steady -progress, corrects the errors and deficiencies which are sure to -make their appearance, decides in doubtful cases, and regulates -the introduction of new words and constructions. - -The carrying out of this scientific and technical programme has now -become the duty of all who feel the necessity for an international -means of communicating thought. - - RICHARD LORENZ. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE LINGUISTIC PRINCIPLES NECESSARY FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF AN -INTERNATIONAL AUXILIARY LANGUAGE, WITH APPENDIX: CRITICISM OF -ESPERANTO - - -There exist more than sixty systems or attempts at an artificial -universal language, and considering the great diversity of these -languages, it might appear hopeless to arrive at unanimity -concerning any one of them. When, however, one considers the -question more closely, it appears that matters are not so bad as -one might imagine. Whereas twenty years ago the systems which -appeared were as different as day from night, at the present day -one perceives great lines of convergence, pointing to the time when -mankind shall have added to the other triumphs of civilisation -that of an auxiliary language recognised and used by everybody, -to the great advantage of all whose horizon is not limited by the -boundaries of their mother country. - -Is it possible in a single formula to express everything that is -requisite for a practical international language? I think so, and -a brief consideration of the two reasons which prevent us from -choosing one of the natural languages as an international language -will enable me to arrive very quickly at this formula. The first -reason is, that such a procedure would unfairly benefit one nation -at the expense of all the others and would infringe the fundamental -principle of neutrality, which is necessary in all international -affairs. The second reason is, that every language is too difficult -for foreigners. All existing languages swarm with difficulties -of pronunciation, spelling, grammar, vocabulary, and especially -idiom. It is very seldom that a foreigner succeeds, even after -years of study, in learning a language sufficiently well to avoid -occasionally making one of those mistakes which instantly betray -his origin to the natives; it may be a false stress, or a word -employed with an almost imperceptibly different shade of meaning, -or placed in a position in a sentence where the native would never -place it, or, finally, a phrase which, though logically correct, -is nevertheless not permitted by the usage of the language. On -account of their innumerable relationships and associations, which -is indeed what makes them so dear to the nations that employ them, -all natural languages are extraordinarily difficult, and therefore -unsuitable for the purpose of international intercourse. We -require, accordingly, a language which shall be not only neutral, -but also as easy as possible: easy to learn, easy to use, and easy -to understand. - -These considerations bring me to the sought-for formula, which we -may express in a form similar to the celebrated ethical dictum of -Hutcheson and Bentham ("That action is best which accomplishes the -greatest happiness for the greatest number"):-- - -_That international language is best which offers the greatest -facility to the greatest number._ - -It may be objected, however, that facility is a subjective idea: -what is easy for one is not always easy for another. Quite so, and -it is exactly that observation which will serve us as a guide in -the investigation of the important conclusions which may be drawn -from our fundamental principle. - -In the first place, as regards the alphabet and the pronunciation, -our fundamental principle leads to the choice of the Latin -alphabet, with the exclusion of all accented or otherwise -specially modified letters; neither _ä_, _ö_, _á_, _à_, _â_, _ç_, -nor the circumflexed _ĉ_, _ĝ_, _ĥ_, _ĵ_, _ŝ_, especially -invented by Dr. Zamenhof for Esperanto, can be tolerated, for -they hinder, and sometimes even render impossible, writing, -printing, and telegraphing. I have shown in the Introduction to -the international dictionaries of De Beaufront and Couturat how -our fundamental principle leads to the following alphabet and -the following sound values: _a_ (as in _father_), _b_, _c_ (like -_ts_), _d_, _e_ (like _e_ in _net_ or like _a_ in _fate_), _f_, -_g_ (always hard, as in _go_), _h_, _i_ (like _ee_ in _sweet_), -_j_ (either like E.[3] or like F.,[3] as in _journal_), _k_, _l_, -_m_, _n_, _o_ (as in _go_ or as in _not_), _p_, _q_ (_qu_, as in -G. or as in E.), _r_, _s_ (always unvoiced), _t_, _u_ (always like -_oo_, as in _too_), _v_, _x_ (as in G. or as in E. F. in the words -_exist_, _exister_), _y_ (as in E. F., and therefore like G. _j_), -_z_ (as in E. F., and therefore like the voiced North German _s_ in -_rose_), further the two double letters _ch_ (as in E., for example -_church_) and _sh_ (as in E., G. _sch_). - -The strict phonetic canon "One symbol, one sound," is therefore -followed in so far as the same sound is never arbitrarily written -one way in one word and another way in another word, and the same -letter is never pronounced differently in some words compared -with the majority. The small exception that _sh_ and _ch_ are not -equivalent to _s_ + _h_ and _c_ + _h_ respectively cannot cause the -least difficulty to anyone, and the use of _qu_ and _x_ enables us -to retain the international spelling of many words, and, moreover, -permits two different pronunciations which cause no difficulty of -comprehension and simplify the pronunciation for several nations. -Otherwise we should be faced with the difficult problem of -choosing between _kwala_ and _kvala_, _eksistar_ and _egzistar_. -It must not be forgotten, too, that for our purposes the purely -theoretical canon "One symbol, one sound," must be subordinated to -the fundamental principle of greatest facility, of which phonetic -simplicity is itself only a consequence. Practical considerations -must, in fact, overrule theoretical objections whenever a small -deviation from the fundamental principle "One symbol, one sound," -produces greater facility. - -There remains to be discussed a matter of very great importance -for the phonetics of international language. Whilst all nations -pronounce without difficulty a series of sounds in which the vowels -alternate with single consonants, and almost all nations have -no objections to certain groups of consonants which are easily -pronounced (such as _tr_, _sp_, _bl_, etc.), the pronunciation of -other heavier groups, especially at the end of words, presents the -greatest difficulty to many nations. The French usually simplify -too complicated groups by inserting an unwritten vowel (as, for -example, in _Félix(e)_ _Faure_), Italians who speak English do -almost the same thing in the case of such groups as _kstr_ (_Greek -Street_) or _ksp_ (_sixpence_), and the phonetic usages of other -nations do not permit even as many successive consonants as -the Italians. In order to make matters as easy as possible for -everybody, one must avoid the mistake of _Neutral Idiom_, many -of whose words contained very heavy groups of final consonants, -endeavouring rather to follow the example of Esperanto, which -succeeded very cleverly by means of its predominance of vowel -terminations in producing not only grammatical clearness, but also -as easy and flowing a pronunciation as possible. In this way the -language becomes musical and pleasant to the ear. - -We shall now proceed to the question of a vocabulary. In choosing -the majority of his stems, Dr. Zamenhof had already followed the -principle of maximum internationality, but the authors of _Neutral -Idiom_ were the first to carry out this principle scientifically -for the whole language. Their procedure was, however, somewhat -superficial, since in each particular case they calculated the -number of languages to which a given word was common. One must -not count the languages (and Latin especially must not be counted -along with the living languages), but the people who use them, for -languages are not organisms which possess an individual existence -independent of those who speak them. The proper rule, therefore, -for determining the internationality of a word or stem is to count -the number of people who understand it through their mother tongue. -This definition of the principle of maximum internationality is -simply a necessary consequence of the fundamental principle of the -greatest facility for the greatest number. It is natural that each -person would prefer the use of the greatest number of words which -are familiar to him, and so, to be impartial, we must attach the -same value to the individual preferences of the 120,000,000 who -speak English as to those of the 75,000,000 Germans, the 70,000,000 -Russians, or the 50,000,000 French or Spanish, etc. Even the -languages spoken by the smaller nations must be taken into account -in proportion to their numbers. - -The choice of the words for our neutral language is, therefore, a -pure question of arithmetic. Statistics of the number of people -who speak the different languages will not, however, furnish us -with a complete solution of the problem. In the first place, there -are to be found in the dictionaries technical words and special -terms which are only known to a minority of each nation. In the -second place, there occur cases where a word, though it does not -belong to a language, is, nevertheless, known through one or -more derivatives. For example, 100 is in English _hundred_, in -German _hundert_, in Danish _hundrede_, and yet the root _cent_ -(_zent_) has been long familiar to the world through the terms _per -cent._ (G. _prozent_), _centesimal_, _centimetre_, _centennial_, -_century_, _centenary_, G. _zentner_, Danish _centner_. In -the third place, even when "the same word" belongs to several -languages, it very often possesses different forms, due mostly -to a different phonetic development, with the result that the -choice of a proper form is very often a delicate matter. The -sounds of the word "change," which the English and French write -in the same way, are very different; but as we can employ neither -the nasal vowel of the French nor the diphthong (_ei_) of the -most usual English pronunciation, _chanj_ would appear to be the -most convenient form for all. In very many cases it is possible -to find a common denominator for the different forms. Had not in -English and German the external form of many etymologically closely -related words diverged so much that it is impossible to find a -middle form (for example, water, _wasser_; tooth, _zahn_; speak, -_sprechen_; soap, _seife_; week, _woche_), the Germanic element -would have been the dominating one on account of the great number -of those speaking these two related languages. Such being the case, -the Romance element in English usually decides the matter in the -majority of instances, since it coincides with the French, Spanish, -and Italian, or at least with one of these languages, the result -being that our language necessarily possesses a Romance form in -a much higher degree than one might have thought. Another very -important circumstance (which I have hinted at previously) acts in -the same direction, the circumstance, namely, that numerous Latin -derivatives have passed over into the Germanic languages even when -the stem does not occur there. For example, German possesses the -words _absentieren_, _abstinenz_, _artist_, _dentist_, _dental_, -_moral_, _populär_, which greatly facilitate for a German the -understanding of the words _absenta_, _abstenar_, _arto_, _dento_, -_moro_, _populo_, although he does not possess them in his own -language (with the exception of _pöbel_ = _populacho_). - -Sometimes there exists a very troublesome rivalry between two -words. In order to render the substantive "arm" (limb) the proper -word would seem to be the German, English, and Scandinavian "arm," -until one makes the discovery that the same root "arm" in the sense -of "weapon" is still more international (E., F., I., S., supported -by _armée_ G., E., F., R., _armata_ I., _armada_ S., _armieren_ -G., etc.), which compels us for "arm" (limb) to have recourse to -a Romance form. In other cases a more or less arbitrary change -of one of the series of words appears to be the only means of -avoiding confusing homonyms (namely, for door _pordo_ instead of -_porto_, on account of _port_ = carry), but this procedure must be -employed with great caution. Before everything else it is necessary -to avoid all disguising of words, which makes them unrecognisable, -aptly described by M. Blondel as a masquerade. This was set up as -a general principle in Volapük, and Esperanto is by no means free -from it. - -As an example of the conflicts which occur now and then may be -quoted the expressions for the idea of "soul." "Soul" is the word -which would be immediately understood by the greatest number of -people, but we cannot employ the English diphthong _ōū_, as we -must be very sparing in the use of diphthongs, since they cause -very great difficulties in pronunciation. We cannot take over -the word in the form _sol_, because we require this for the word -"alone" (I. S. _solo_, internationally used in music, E. _sole_, -F. _seul_). G. _seele_, supported by the Scandinavian _själ_, is -not familiar to a sufficient number of people, and, besides, we -require the word _sel_ for "saddle" (F. I. S.). The French word -_âme_ will not do either, because it is not sufficiently well known -outside France, and, besides, there is a difficulty here too, for -_am-_ is absolutely required for the idea of "love" on account of -F. I. S. and many derivatives in E., not to mention the god Amor. -The use of the Latin _anim-_, which is the basis of the Romance -forms, is impossible, since we cannot do without the adjectival -termination _-al_, and _animal_ would then mean partly "relating -to the soul," partly "animal," which cannot be permitted in an -international language. We must resort to the device of changing -_anim-_ a little, whereby we get _anmo_. This example will show how -complicated the task frequently is of finding an international word -which will give rise to no confusion or misunderstanding. - -The degree of internationality of the language of the Delegation -will be evident from the statistics of Couturat; he counted the -roots of the first dictionaries (5,379 in all) and found that of -these the following numbers occur in the national languages:-- - - French 4,880, _i.e._ 91 per 100 - Italian 4,454 " 83 " " - Spanish 4,237 " 79 " " - English 4,219 " 79 " " - German 3,302 " 61 " " - Russian 2,821 " 52 " " - -For all these languages the above numbers are relatively higher -than in the case of Esperanto. - -One of the most effective means of simplifying the vocabulary of -a language is a carefully worked-out system of word formation, -which enables everyone, by means of a series of regular prefixes -and suffixes, to form with the greatest ease a large number of new -words, which are immediately intelligible to all who know the rules. - -When one has judiciously chosen the roots which occur under -different forms in the various natural languages and also -selected the derivative terminations with all possible care, it -is astonishing to observe how great a number of words derived -with perfect regularity agree with the forms occurring in living -languages. - -With regard to grammar, the fundamental condition to be required -of every system claiming to be an international language is that -of perfect regularity. Every exception to the rules only serves to -produce complications and to render the employment of the language -difficult and uncertain. If one knows the conjugation of one verb, -one must know the conjugation of all verbs, and so on. - -In the choice of grammatical terminations the statistical method, -which served us for the purpose of the vocabulary, cannot be -strictly applied, because living languages diverge too much in -this matter. Nevertheless it does not leave us entirely in the -lurch. - -Such cases as the dative and genitive and also the ablative, -etc., must be expressed by prepositions in conformity with the -tendency of Western European languages. It is advisable to have an -inflection for the accusative, although this is only intended for -occasional use, because in the great majority of instances there -is no necessity to distinguish it from the nominative. As neither -the Romance languages nor English and Scandinavian possess any -accusative inflection, and as the Slavonic languages do not give -us any help here, we are obliged to fall back on German, which in -the feminine and neuter has no inflection. The masculine, however, -in many cases has an _-n_ (_den guten knaben_). The fact that this -termination is also mostly used for the dative, as well as for the -infinitive, need not prevent us employing it in our language for -the accusative. It necessitates the use, however, of forms ending -in a vowel for the nominative of substantives (and adjectives and -pronouns). It may be remarked that _-n_ as an accusative inflection -is also found in Greek and Finnish. - -The only vowels that can be employed in this connection are _o_ -and _a_, which, as a matter of fact, occur very frequently as -the terminations of substantives and adjectives in the Slavonic -languages, as well as in I. and S. Since grammatical gender, as -distinct from sex, cannot be permitted in an artificial language, -it is not possible to employ _o_ and _a_ as in natural languages, -where the former is often, though not exclusively, used for the -masculine (I. S., but in R. and Polish for the neuter), and the -latter similarly for the feminine. One might be inclined to employ -_o_ for the male and _a_ for the female sex, with the result that -one would have no termination for inanimate things, abstract -ideas, or living beings whose sex is not a matter of importance -at the moment. The carrying out of this rule, however, leads to -considerable difficulties which would take too long to enter into -here. (This is one of the points which led to most discussion -in the Delegation Committee.) As a matter of fact, a very great -deal can be said in favour of the Esperanto usage of _o_ for -the substantive and _a_ for the adjective, and, as Couturat has -remarked, _la bona viro_ is not any stranger than the Italian _il -buono poeta_. - -We need have no compunction in leaving the qualifying adjective -without inflection, as is done, for instance, in English. The -ending _-i_ is very suitable for the plural of substantives, being -used for this purpose in Italian, in Russian and the other Slavonic -languages, as well as in modern Greek; it is also tolerably -familiar to the English in foreign words, such as _banditti_. The -only termination which might dispute the honours with _-i_ is _-s_ -(F., although usually silent, S., E., G. partly, and Dutch), but -_-s_ cannot be used if we employ the accusative termination _-n_, -as neither _virosn_ nor _virons_ could be permitted. - -As regards the inflections of verbs, we are bound, if we want -a termination for the infinitive, to choose, according to our -fundamental principle, the _-r_ of all the Romance languages, -because neither the German _-n_, which we have used for other -purposes, nor the palatised Slavonic _-t_ (or _-ć_), can be -employed, and English possesses no inflection. We require a vowel -before the _-r_, the choice of which will be evident from what -follows. For the active and passive participles we need only -consider _-nt_ and _-t_ respectively, the vowels being also left -undecided for the present. The greatest difficulty, however, is -caused by the finite tenses, in which we must distinguish present, -past, and future. In this respect living languages differ so much -amongst themselves that the principle of maximum internationality -does not suffice, especially as the inflections of tense are -inextricably mixed up with those of person and number, which for -our purposes are quite unnecessary. The Delegation Committee have, -therefore, for the moment been unable to find anything better than -the Esperanto usage of _-as_ for the present, _-is_ for the past, -and _-os_ for the future. The same series of vowels may also be -employed for the infinitive and participles, so that the normal -forms are _-ar_, _-anta_, and _-ata_ (the final vowel _a_ here -being the adjectival termination), whilst _-ir_, _-inta_, _-ita_, -and _-or_, _-onta_, _-ota_, respectively may be retained for the -less frequent cases where one wishes to indicate expressly another -tense in the infinitive or participle. A few _à priori_ inflections -will not cause much harm in a grammar which is so easy that it may -be mastered in half an hour. - -I have now arrived at the end of my investigation, in which I -have endeavoured to show the method whereby the language of the -Delegation has been constructed. The result is a language that -everyone can easily master, and which possesses the advantage -over other languages that it is based on rational scientific -principles and, therefore, need not fear that some fine day it will -be replaced by another and sensibly different language. Naturally -improvements will be effected in details where the fundamental -principles have not been sufficiently worked out, but the -foundation is sound, and the common auxiliary language of mankind -cannot differ very much from our "Internaciona linguo," or, to give -it a shorter name, "Interlinguo," or, still shorter, "Ilo" (from -the initial letters). - - OTTO JESPERSEN. - - -APPENDIX - -CRITICISM OF ESPERANTO - - -In connection with the foregoing some critical remarks on Esperanto -may be made, from which one will readily perceive the reasons which -made it impossible for the _Délégation pour l'Adoption d'une Langue -Internationale_ to adopt Esperanto in its present form as the -international auxiliary language. - -Dr. Zamenhof has given us an interesting account of the way in -which his language gradually developed in his mind while he was -at the Warsaw Gymnasium. Before he arrived at the conviction that -the material for the vocabulary must be obtained from the Romance -and Germanic languages, and that the already existing stock of -international words must be used, he had "simply invented" his -words, that is to say, chosen them quite arbitrarily, but with -as much regard to system and brevity as possible. Although he -himself noticed that such words are difficult to learn and still -more difficult to remember, he has unfortunately retained in the -finished language a whole series of such _à priori_ formations, -which appear in words of such frequent occurrence as _who_, _how_, -_where_, _never_, _everywhere_, etc. The _nul tempe_ and _pro quo_ -chosen by the Delegation agree, however, much better with the -general character of language than the _neniam_ and _kial_ of Dr. -Zamenhof. - -Some peculiarities may be accounted for by the Slavonic mother -tongue of the author: for example, his preference for sibilants -and diphthongs, which is especially evident in the invented words -(_e.g._, _chi_, here; _chiu_, each; _ech_, even; _ghi_, that; -_ghis_, until, _gh_ and _ch_ being pronounced as E. _j_ and _ch_). -In an article in Zamenhof's _Krestomatio_ I find, for example (p. -288), _chiuj tiuj senantaujughaj kaj honestaj homoj_, _kiuj_, -_anstatau filizofadi pri ghi_, and (p. 293) _tion chi ankorau antau -la apero de la unua arta lingvo antauvidis kaj antaudiris chiuj -tiuj eminentaj kapoj_, _kiuj_, etc. The method of writing _x_ is -also Russian: _ekzameni_, _ekzemplo_, etc., and also _ekspedi_, -_eksplodi_; also _kv_ for _qu_. French words with _oi_ take _ua_ -in Esperanto when they are spelt in this way in Russian, _e.g._, -_trotuaro_, _tualeto_, _vuala_; otherwise they are spelt with _oi_ -or _oj_, _e.g._, _foiro_, _fojo_, _foino_. _Nacio_, _tradicio_, -etc., instead of _-iono_, is also Russian. Russian usage has -doubtless also inspired such word formations as _elparoli_ -and _senkulpigi_ instead of the international _pronuncar_ and -_exkuzar_ (R. _vygovarivat'_ and _izvin'at'_, corresponding to G. -_aussprechen_ and _entschuldigen_). The peculiarity of using the -adverb instead of the adjective in such cases as _estas necese -vidi_, "it is necessary to see," is probably to be ascribed -to the correspondence of the Russian adverb with the neuter -predicate adjective. This rule cannot be permitted, however, in an -international language, because, with a free word order, it would -be impossible to say whether _estas vere necese_ means "it is -really necessary" or "it is necessarily true." The compound perfect -(_mi estas aminta_, "I have loved" = "I am having loved") reminds -one of the Polish _kochal-em_. Finally, the frequent use of the -adjective (in _-a_) instead of the genitive (_Zamenhofa lingvo_) -and of the two sorts of action expressed by _ek_ and _ad_ (_ekvidi_ -and _vidadi_ used in many cases where the simple _vidi_ would be -sufficient) are to be accounted for by Russian usages. - -Naturally I do not object to the importation of national -peculiarities into the international auxiliary language when the -latter is enriched thereby. For example, one must make use of -the facility for forming compound words common to the Germanic -and Slavonic languages in preference to the poverty of Romance -languages in this respect, and combine it with the more Romance -characteristic of forming new words by means of derivative -syllables. But peculiarities of national language which render -mutual comprehension and international usage difficult must be most -carefully avoided. - -The unpractical nature of the circumflexed letters has been -indicated previously. It may be remarked here, however, that in -point of system Zamenhof's letters are very inferior to the similar -ones employed in the Czech language, since the parallelism in sound -between _s_ and _ŝ_, _z_ and _ĵ_, _dz_ and _ĝ_, is disguised by -the choice of letters. This produces a very amateurish effect. - -Besides the familiar parts of speech which are indicated by special -terminations, Zamenhof invented a new class characterised by the -termination _-au_ (_kontrau_, _almenau_); but the limits of this -class, which includes some, but not all, adverbs and prepositions, -are not clearly defined. - -Many words taken from existing languages are disguised, almost -after the fashion of Volapük: _boji_, F. _aboyer_; _parkere_, F. -_par cœur_; _shvit_, G. _schwitzen_, E. _sweat_; _char_, F. _car_; -_faruno_ instead of _farin_; _lerta_, F. _alerte_ (with a changed -meaning), etc. In this category is to be classed the astonishing -_nepre_ (entirely) which is derived from the Russian _nepremenno_, -just as if one were to take from the German word _unbedingt_ the -two first syllables and propose _unbe_ as an international word -instead of _absolute_. The economy in the use of stems was carried -much too far in Esperanto, necessitating the employment of all -sorts of compound words, the discovery of whose meaning requires -much racking of one's brains. The employment of all the derivative -syllables also as independent words is very ingenious, but produces -a very strange impression on the uninitiated. - -The method of word formation is greatly wanting in precision, the -limits of the so-called direct derivation in particular being -not sufficiently clearly indicated. One example will suffice. -Starting out from _kroni_ = to crown, _krono_ ought properly to -mean crowning, instead of which it signifies crown, so that one is -forced to use _kronado_ for crowning, whereas, according to the -rules of Esperanto, _kronado_ must mean continuous or repeated -crowning, as if a king were being constantly or repeatedly -crowned.[4] - -I have brought together here the most important defects in -Esperanto, the removal of which formed one of the tasks of the -Delegation Committee. The knowledge of these imperfections does not -prevent me from recognising the meritorious services of Zamenhof, -who, at a time when the question of the best construction of an -international language was not seriously discussed, succeeded in -producing one which was in many respects superior to the attempts -of that time, and which has proved in practice a serviceable, -though very imperfect, means of international communication. - - OTTO JESPERSEN. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -ON THE APPLICATION OF LOGIC TO THE PROBLEM OF AN INTERNATIONAL -LANGUAGE - - -The problem of an international language has a theoretical as -well as a practical importance. I have no intention of discussing -the latter here and of explaining once more the necessity of an -auxiliary language for international relations of every sort, and -the practical possibility of making oneself understood by means -of an artificial language, a possibility which has been proved by -experience. But an international language is also, according to the -words of the celebrated philologist H. Schuchardt, a desideratum -of science, in which connection it raises at once problems of -philology and logic. That these problems are worthy of the study -of scientific men is proved by the discussions of Professors Diels -and Gomperz, the reports made to the Academy of Sciences of Leipzig -by Professors Brugmann and Leskien, and, finally, the labours and -decisions of the Committee of the _Délégation pour l'Adoption d'une -Langue Internationale_. The latter, composed of highly competent -scientists and linguists, has determined the principles necessary -for an auxiliary language, and has practically realised them. - -My desire in what follows is to show briefly the connection of the -international language with logic, and its claims on the attention -and interest of philosophers. In the words of Leibnitz, "Languages -form the best mirror for the human spirit, and an exact analysis of -the meaning and relationship of words would be the best means of -disclosing the operations of the mind" (_N. Essais_, III., VII., -end). But the majority of philosophers (with some distinguished -exceptions, _e.g._, Professor Wundt) and the majority of linguists -(also with some distinguished exceptions, _e.g._, M. Bréal) have -given little attention to the study of language from the point -of view of psychology and logic. Now this study is particularly -easy and interesting in the case of an artificial language, since -the latter presents a structure analogous to that of our existing -languages, but much simpler and more regular. - -The words of the international language consist of invariable -elements (morphemes) of three sorts: stems, derivative affixes -(prefixes and suffixes), and grammatical inflections which, as in -the case of European languages, are always final letters or final -syllables. The stems themselves can be divided into two categories: -verb stems, which express a state, action, or relation, _e.g._, -_dorm_, _parol_, _frap_; and non-verbal or nominal stems, which -denote an object (living being or thing), or express an aspect of -it, _e.g._, _hom_, _dom_, _bel_, _blind_. The latter can produce -directly only names (substantives or adjectives): man, house, -beautiful, blind (in Ido, _homo_, _domo_, _bela_, _blinda_); the -former, on the contrary, produce directly verbs: to sleep, to -speak, to strike (in Ido, _dormar_, _parolar_, _frapar_), but -they can also give rise to nouns: sleep, word, blow (in Ido, -_dormo_, _parolo_, _frapo_). The proper _rôle_ of the grammatical -terminations is to determine the grammatical function of a stem -word and to indicate the category to which the word belongs, -whether verb, substantive, or adverb. Thus _parol-ar_ = to speak; -_parol-o_ = (spoken) word; _parol-a_ = oral; _parol-e_ = orally. -The _same_ idea, namely, that expressed by the stem word, always -runs through the various categories. This follows from a principle -which dominates the whole structure of the international language: -"Every word element" (morpheme) "represents an elementary idea, -which is always the same, so that a combination of elements has a -meaning determined by the combination of the corresponding ideas." -This principle is only a corollary to the general principle of -uniqueness so clearly enunciated by Ostwald: "There exists a -unique and reciprocal correspondence between the ideas and the -morphemes which express them." This principle represents evidently -the ideal of all language, for a language, being essentially a -system of symbols, is only theoretically perfect (and useful and -convenient in practice) when there exists a unique correspondence -between the symbol and the idea symbolised. - -Now it follows from this principle that it is quite incorrect to -say, as is often done, "Being given a stem, it suffices to add -to it _-ar_ to form a verb, _-o_ to form a substantive, _-a_ to -form an adjective"; we require to define the sense possessed by -this verb, substantive, and adjective. In other words, to every -derivative of form there must correspond a derivative of sense -which is in no wise arbitrary, but determined by general rules. -If _dorm-ar_ = to sleep, _dorm-o_ cannot mean indifferently the -sleeper, the dormitory, or the desire to sleep; if _blind-a_ = -blind, _blind-o_ cannot signify at pleasure either blindness or the -act of blinding. The rule which must guide us here is the principle -enunciated above, namely, that a stem always preserves the same -sense and expresses the same idea; if one wishes to express another -idea related to the former in a definite way, it is necessary -to add to the stem a morpheme expressing this relationship. The -morphemes which denote the relations of our ideas are the affixes -of derivation, which permit us to express a whole family of ideas -by the aid and as the function of one fundamental idea, and to -form correspondingly a family of words all derived from the same -stem, as occurs, as a matter of fact, in natural languages. Certain -of these affixes are wrongly classed amongst the grammatical -inflections, such as, for example, the participial suffixes -which serve to derive an adjective or a substantive from a verb, -denoting him who performs the action, or is affected by (subject -to) the state or relationship expressed by the stem: _dorm-ant-a_ -= _sleeping, arol-ant-a_ = _speaking_, whence, by simple change -of the final letter, _dorm-ant-o_ = _sleeper_, _parol-ant-o_ -= _speaker_. One will perceive thereby the difference between -_direct_ derivation, which is effected by means of the grammatical -inflections, and _indirect_ derivation, which is effected by means -of the addition of affixes. There is nothing arbitrary about this -distinction, for it rests on the logical principles enunciated -above, which determine the theoretical and practical value of the -international language. - -From these principles follow at once the rules of direct -derivation. If one starts from a verbal stem, what must be the -sense of the substantive directly derived from it? This sense can -be none other than the state or action expressed by the verb: -_dormar_ = _to sleep_, _dormo_ = _sleep_; _parolar_ = _to speak_, -_parolo_ = _a word_; _frapar_ = _to strike_, _frapo_ = _a blow_. -In these derived words we perceive the sense of the verb stem, and -the proof of that is that in our natural languages we often employ -the infinitive for this purpose: _le manger_, _le boire_, _le -dormir_, _le rire_; _das rennen_ (in English the verbal in _-ing_ -is employed with the sense of the infinitive). Indeed, one might -completely identify the verbal substantive with the infinitive. - -If one starts from a substantival stem, what must be the relation -between the adjective and substantive derived from it? They -must necessarily have the same sense, whichever of the two one -considers the primary word; if _avara_ = _avaricious_, _avaro_ = -_an avaricious person_; if _blinda_ = _blind_, _blindo_ = _a blind -person_. This rule is all the more necessary in practice as there -are a crowd of substantival stems concerning which one could not -say whether they produce at first a substantive or an adjective: -_vidva_ = _widowed_, _vidvo_ = _widower_; _nobela_ = _noble_, -_nobelo_ = _nobleman_; _santa_ = _holy_, _santo_ = _a saint_. This -is particularly true of the names of followers of this or that -doctrine: _katoliko_, _katolika_; _skeptiko_, _skeptika_, etc. -No one would think of using any suffix to derive one of these -words from the other. There is only a very slight difference of -meaning between a _katolika skeptiko_ and a _skeptika katoliko_, -the substantive indicating in each case the primary and fundamental -idea to which the other is superadded. - -This brings us to the enunciation of the _principle of -reversibility_, which may be formulated as follows: "Every -derivation must be _reversible_; that is to say, if one passes from -one word to another of the same family in virtue of a certain rule, -one must be able to pass inversely from the second to the first in -virtue of a rule which is exactly the inverse of the preceding." -That is an evident corollary of the _principle of uniqueness_, -for otherwise one would be led to give two meanings to the same -word. Let us suppose, for example, that from the noun _krono_, = -_a crown_, one imagines it possible to derive directly (as is the -case in certain languages) the verb _kronar_ = _to crown_. From -this verb one could deduce inversely in virtue of the general rule -the substantive _krono_ = _coronation_, so that the same word -_krono_ would then mean both _crown_ and _coronation_. That would -be, however, a logical error inadmissible in the international -language, however numerous may be the examples of it which occur -in living languages. On the contrary, thanks to the principle of -reversibility, one can proceed from any word whatsoever of a family -and arrive at any other word of the same family, or return to the -initial word, in an absolutely unique manner, whereas if one did -not observe this principle one would inevitably obtain two meanings -for the same word. - -The principle of reversibility fixes the rules of direct derivation -for the cases which are the converse of those we have studied. -Just as the substantive directly derived from a verb denotes the -state or action expressed by this verb (or, more strictly, by its -root), so a verb can be derived directly from a substantive only -if the latter expresses an action or a state. For example, _paco_ -= _peace_; can one form the verb _pacar_, and if so what will be -its meaning? This verb can only signify one thing, _to be in the -state of peace_, and not _to pacify_ or _make peace_, for in that -case _paco_ would mean _pacification_ or _conclusion of peace_, and -not the _state of peace_. Similarly, if one can and must convert an -adjective into a noun by the simple substitution of _-o_ for _-a_, -the adjective immediately derived from a substantive can only mean -"what is --." If _homo_ = _a man_ (a human being), _homa_ can only -mean _human_ in the sense of _which is a man_ (human being); _homa -ento_ = _a human being_. But if one wishes to obtain an adjective -signifying "which belongs to --," "which relates to --," "which -depends on --," it is necessary to employ a suffix (_-al_): _homala -manuo_ = _a human hand_. One might equally well say _manuo di homo_ -= _the hand of a man_ (human being). But just as the preposition -_di_ is indispensable for indicating the relationship between two -ideas which are not simply juxtaposed, but depend on each other, -so, if we wish to express one of the ideas in adjectival form, we -require a suffix which also expresses this relation or dependence. -Besides, a suffix of this nature exists under different forms -in all our languages: G. _-isch_; E. _-ic_, _-al_, _-ical_; F. -_-ique_, _-al_, _-el_; I. _-ico_; S. _-ico_. The choice of _-al_ -rather than _-ik_ was determined by reasons of euphony and also -internationality, the derivative adjectives employed in science -(the most international of all) ending often in _-al_: _mental_, -_vocal_, _spatial_; _rationnel_, _universel_, _fonctionnel_, etc. - -In this connection we shall make a general remark. The -international language borrows its _stems_ from the European -languages according to the principle of maximum internationality, -_i.e._, adopts for each idea the most international stem, namely, -that which is familiar to the greatest number of men. But it -cannot, and must not, borrow their derivatives from living -languages without losing all its theoretical and practical -advantages, because the natural derivatives are too irregular. -Sometimes the same affix has several different meanings; sometimes -the same relationship is expressed by different affixes. In virtue -of the principle of uniqueness, it is necessary to unify and -regularise the meaning and employment of the affixes, assigning -to each one a perfectly definite significance and function. -Undoubtedly one must endeavour to adopt for the affixes forms -which are international (as much as possible), or at least known -in some language (like the suffix _-in_ of the feminine, borrowed -from the German, _e.g._, _königin_, and the prefix _mal-_, denoting -"a contrary," borrowed from the French, _e.g._, _malheureux_), so -as to reproduce as much as possible international derivatives. -But it is chimerical to endeavour to reproduce them all, since -they are irregular and consequently incompatible with that -logical regularity of the language on which is based not only -its fertility, but also its simplicity in practical use and its -facility for _all nationalities_ (even for non-European peoples -who are not familiar with the anomalies and caprices of European -languages). The international language must be autonomous in its -formation of words; when the elements which it borrows from our -languages have been once chosen (in the best possible manner), it -must combine them freely according to its own rules, preserving -their form and sense rigorously invariable. It is by virtue of -this condition that it becomes a true language, richer in certain -respects than our own, since it can form all the useful derivatives -which are often wanting in one or the other, and not merely a -simple imitation or copy of our languages, which would be as -difficult as they, and which would require a previous knowledge of -them. - -We shall not explain here all the forms of indirect derivation, -or enumerate the forty-seven affixes used for this purpose. We -shall quote only a few of them for the sake of example, in order -to show the application of the principles enunciated above. If -there is one suffix which is particularly useful to philosophers, -it is that which enables one to derive from an adjective the name -of the corresponding abstract quality; that is the Greek suffix -_-otet_ and the Latin suffix _-itat_ (_-itud_), whence have come -the French _-ité_, the English _-ity_, the Italian _-ita_, the -Spanish _-itad_; and the German suffix _-heit_ or _-keit_, etc. -We perceive here a logical relation well known and made use of -in all our languages. It must find a place in the international -language, but by what suffix ought it to be represented? Now, if -one analyses the idea involved in this suffix, one will find that -_beauty_, _health_, _blindness_, are simply the states or facts -of being beautiful, healthy, blind. The idea involved in this -suffix is then the idea of _being_, not the idea of existence, but -the idea _of being_ such and such, the idea of attribution which -is expressed by the copula _est_. It is natural, therefore, to -represent it by the Indo-European stem of the verb _to be_, namely, -_es_; _bel-es-o_ = _beauty_; _san-es-o_ = _health_; _blind-es-o_ -= _blindness_. The fact that this suffix recalls a French suffix -(_richesse_), an Italian suffix (_bellezza_), and an English -suffix _-ness_ (_happiness_) employed in the same sense can only -serve as an accessory confirmation of the above choice, which -was dictated by logical motives. Moreover, this agrees perfectly -with our general rules; _to be well_ will be translated by _esar -sana_ or _san-esar_, and the fact of being well will be _saneso_ = -_health_. Conversely, if we start from _saneso_ = _health_, we can -form the verb _sanesar_ = _to be in (good) health_. Whatever may -be the point of departure, there is no fear of making a mistake or -"going off the rails" in forming these derivatives, if we observe -the principle of reversibility. It would, therefore, be not only -arbitrary, but absurd, to express _health_ by _sano_, which latter -can only mean a healthy being. For one must not imagine, as is -often stated, that an adjective expresses a quality; it expresses -precisely _he who, or that which, possesses the quality in -question_. That is why all our languages employ a suffix for the -purpose of deriving from an adjective the name of the corresponding -quality. - -But our languages often require to express the inverse relation, -namely, that of the individual possessing a quality to that -quality. For just as there are names of qualities which are derived -from adjectives, as _beauté_, _gaieté_, _bellezza_, _tapferkeit_, -_gleichheit_, so there are others which are primary and from -which, therefore, the corresponding adjectives are derived: -_courage_, _courageux_; _joie_, _joyeux_; _beauty_, _beautiful_; -_glück_, _glücklich_; _freude_, _freudig_. And, as one sees, our -languages employ in these cases a series of analogous suffixes. -The international language must evidently imitate them, for it -cannot decree that all the names of qualities shall be derivative, -nor that they shall all be primary; that would amount to an -arbitrary uniformity contrary to the spirit of our languages and -probably also to our logical instincts. The international language -must, therefore, have a suffix which will serve to derive from -the name of a quality the name of the possessor of that quality. -That will be _-oz_, a Latin suffix (_formosus_, _generosus_, -etc.), occurring very frequently in the Romance and even Germanic -languages (_mysteriös_, _mysterious_, _mystérieux_, _misterioso_). -This suffix is the logical inverse of the preceding one (_-es_) -and is quite as indispensable as it. It is a curious fact that -our languages exhibit examples of the superposition of these two -suffixes considered in respect of their sense, if not their form: -_glück_, _glücklich_, _glücklichkeit_; _beauty_, _beautiful_, -_beautifulness_. Latin has derived _formosus_ from _forma_; Spanish -in its turn has derived _hermosura_ from _hermoso_, etc. Languages -also provide us with frequent examples of the reciprocity of these -suffixes. - - On the one hand, On the other hand, - _gaie_ gives _gaieté_; _joie_ gives _joyeux_; - _gay_ " _gaiety_; _joy_ " _joyful_; - _allegro_ " _allegrezza_; _gioja_ " _giojoso_; - _fröhlich_ " _fröhlichkeit_; _freude_ " _freudig_. - -The international language is, therefore, faithful not only to -logic, but to the spirit of our languages, in admitting at the -same time the two inverse derivations: _gaya_, _gayeso_; _joyo_, -_joyoza_. A language which contained the suffix -es, and not the -suffix _-oz_, would be lame or one-armed. - -Besides, this lacuna would manifest itself very quickly in further -derivations, for the latter would violate the principle of -reversibility and therefore that of uniqueness. If from _joyo_ were -derived _joya_, from this adjective, analogous to _gaya_, one could -derive inversely _joyeso_ = _joyo_, thus producing two names for -the same quality (just as above _sano_ would have been synonymous -with _saneso_). If from _kurajo_ (_courage_) were derived _kuraja_ -(_courageous_), one could derive from the latter _kurajeso_, -synonymous with _kurajo_. And, on the other hand, _kurajo_ being -the substantive of _kuraja_, this word would signify both _courage_ -and _a courageous person_. From want of a single suffix the whole -series of derivations would become confused and illogical, just -as in a chain of reasoning a single error, or in an algebraical -calculation a single false equation, would lead to the most absurd -conclusions. - -To sum up, one must take care not to derive a word directly from -another, except when they both express the same idea (apart from -the difference of their grammatical _rôle_ in the sentence). -Consequently, whenever the sense changes, a word element must be -added or disappear, in order to translate the modification of the -idea. It is by virtue of this condition that the language will -become the exact and faithful expression of our thoughts, and -will conform to that indwelling and instinctive logic which, in -spite of all sorts of irregularities and exceptions, animates our -languages. In its system of derivation as well as in the rest of -its structure, the international language is nothing but a purified -and idealised extract, a quintessence of the European languages. -The logic which holds sway there is not the Aristotelian logic of -genus and species, but rather that logic newly constituted under -the name of the _logic of relationships_, which is, however, as -old as the world, since it lies, though obscurely, at the basis -of the formative processes in our natural languages. That is the -reason why the international language offers to philosophers a -particularly instructive field of study. It is worthy of their -interest in other respects. Not only does it offer to them, as it -does to all men, a _medium of communication_ between all countries, -but it furnishes them also with an _instrument of precision_ for -the analysis and exact expression of the forms of thought, which is -very superior, from the point of view of logic, to our traditional -languages, encumbered as these are with confused and ambiguous -expressions. It is their duty to contribute to the development and -perfecting of a language which, without losing anything of its -practical qualities, can and must realise by degrees the ideal of -human language; if it is true that there _does_ exist an ideal -in our languages, though hidden and irremediably disfigured by -all sorts of anomalies. To quote a saying of Schuchardt, _Was die -Sprache gewollt haben die Sprachen zerstört_.[5] - - L. COUTURAT. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE TO SCIENCE - - -Whilst the preceding chapters have sufficiently demonstrated that -the construction of an artificial international language is not -only possible, but already in all probability fixed as regards its -fundamental principles, it will be desirable here to give some -account of the inner relations between science and the auxiliary -language. - -Without doubt one of the most important conditions to be satisfied -by an artificial international language is, that it should be -capable of being employed in science. Considering the leading part -which science plays to-day in the life of nations, the system -which this intellectual Great Power will adopt cannot be a matter -of indifference; indeed, its capability of serving the needs -of science might well be regarded as the test of an artificial -language. It is, for example, conceivable that a particular system, -although unsuitable for the purposes of science, might work quite -well so far as commercial relations are concerned. - -Before we examine the relationship between science and auxiliary -language the question may be asked whether an international -language is at all necessary in science, and whether it is likely -to be introduced therein. We may consider that this question -has been settled by the discussions contained in the previous -chapters. The general question of the introduction of an artificial -auxiliary language having been answered in the affirmative, the -further question may be raised as to why, in spite of the existence -of different artificial auxiliary languages, such as Volapük, -Esperanto, Neutral Idiom, Novilatin, Universal, etc., science has -not long ago adopted and introduced one of them. Quite apart from -the actual circumstances which have prevented this, a perfectly -precise answer may be given to the above question. There have not -been wanting experiments in this direction. Already in the Volapük -period endeavours were made to translate scientific works into -Volapük in order to prove that this language could also be of -service to science. In particular the translations of Dr. Miess's -_Craniology_, Dr. Winkler's _Petrification of Fishes_, and the -_Eastern Travels_ of the Crown Prince Rudolph were boasted of by -the Volapükists. Esperanto has gone further, and is, as a matter of -fact, more capable of development in this direction. There appears -a periodical, _Scienca Revuo_, which in popular form conveys the -most important results of different sciences to Esperanto readers. -Fechner's little book on life after death and some others have -also been translated. All these attempts possess an extraordinary -interest for the great experiment in language on which mankind -has been engaged during the last twenty years, and the greatest -thanks are due to their authors. It is only, indeed, after many -attempts that an experiment can be successfully carried through. -But, without wishing to deny that very remarkable things have been -accomplished, all these experiments prove one fact beyond question, -namely, that the languages mentioned do not even approximately, and -cannot indeed possibly, satisfy the requirements which science must -demand of the artificial auxiliary language. Science could not, -therefore, have chosen any of these languages as the artificial -auxiliary language even had she wished, nor could she do so in the -future without experiencing failure. An examination of the reasons -for this state of affairs will enable us to arrive at the relation -between science and the international auxiliary language. It can -be shown what the nature of this relationship must be, and it -follows therefrom whether any particular system will or will not be -serviceable to science. There are two necessary criteria, namely, -internationality of vocabulary and logical precision of expression. - -One might be inclined to emphasise the importance of the second -criterion without paying any attention whatever to the first, -and to regard a system constructed on a purely logical basis as -alone worthy of science. But this would be a retrograde step, -for indeed the question of artificial language originated with -the idea of a so-called philosophical language in the mind of -Leibnitz and afterwards. If one takes the point of view that -the scientific auxiliary language should be constructed on an -ideographic basis (that is to say, a system of correlation between -symbols and ideas, which, however, as it is a language, must be -capable of being spoken), one arrives at an _à priori_ system, as -it is called in the theory of universal language. Thanks to the -laborious and self-sacrificing work of the thousands who during -the last twenty years have devoted and still devote themselves to -the great experiments in language, we are able nowadays to refer -this question to the test of experience. The latter has shown with -absolute certainty that _à priori systems cannot be spoken_. The -learning of any natural language, with all its irregularities, -peculiarities, and anomalies, is child's play compared to the -learning of an _à priori_ system. All experiments in this direction -have failed and need no longer be seriously considered. But even -when an artificial language has not been constructed _à priori_ -another error, producing much the same effect, may very greatly -injure its facility in practice. An otherwise so successful system -as Volapük came finally to grief through an error of this sort. -Although Volapük was constructed by a man of whom it is said that -he was master of, or at least acquainted with, fifty-five living -languages, and although, according to its whole nature, it appeared -to be modelled very closely on natural languages, nevertheless the -abbreviations which Schleyer introduced so often into the words -he took over (for example, _vol_ for _world_, _pük_ for _speak_, -_Melop_ for _America_) produced the same psychological effect as -if his word-formations had been _à priori_. Man is, in fact, a -psychological as well as a logical being. If there is to be any -practical outcome, we must, therefore, under all circumstances base -our work on the psychological principle of internationality. It -is only this which confers on the auxiliary language the quality -of being easily learnt and spoken, which is unconditionally -necessary for its practical use in science, as in other departments -of life. Such systems are called _à posteriori_, and experience -shows that the more _à posteriori_ elements are contained in -an international language the more it conforms to Jespersen's -fundamental principle of _the greatest ease for the greatest number -of people_. But, one may argue, does it not follow from this -that the best solution would be the introduction of a _national_ -language into science? Certainly not, for this would not offer the -greatest facility to the greatest number of people, because the -formation of the so-called idioms, which, apart from grammatical -difficulties, hinder the learning and use of a language, would -in the case of many national languages interfere with the -internationality of the vocabulary. These idioms have a very -similar effect to the _à priori_ word formations, and diminish the -intelligibility, lucidity, and facility of logical expression. The -only international auxiliary language which will be of practical -use in science will be constructed according to the _à posteriori_ -principle of maximum internationality, and will be almost or -entirely free from idioms. If we add to this that it must possess -that logical clearness of expression which we have described above -as the second criterion, we have the general conditions which must -be satisfied by an international language suitable for science. - -Apart from the practical value of the principle of -internationality, there exists in science another very special -reason for regarding it as a necessary condition to be satisfied by -an international auxiliary language. - -We may inquire, in fact, from a purely scientific standpoint, how -far the systems which have been devised up to the present have -adjusted themselves to the international language which already -exists in science. For all the thousands of words in scientific and -technical nomenclature which, apart from their nationality, the -scientific men of all countries have been inventing for centuries -according to very uniform principles, as well as the likewise -largely international expressions of "unofficial" nomenclature, -form a possession of modern scientific civilisation of such -magnitude, importance, and value, that it cannot on any account -be sacrificed. On the contrary, all these words, as well as many -similar ones derived from daily life, form the true, natural, and -practical basis of international language. - -_This_ international auxiliary language, which forms one of the -foundation stones of our general, scientific, and technical -culture, is so closely bound up with the life and existence of -science and has become so much the second nature of all scientific -men, especially investigators, that they have long become -accustomed to write and think in this language apart from their -nationality. It is an easily ascertained fact, and one that is well -known to the scientific men of all countries, that the latter can -read foreign scientific literature much more easily than newspapers -or novels written in the same languages. The explanation of this is -that the foreign scientific works, on account of their technical -vocabulary, are written in a language which possesses a much more -international character than that of the novels or newspapers. It -cannot, therefore, be denied that there actually exist already, -particularly in science, the beginnings of an international (and -largely artificially created) auxiliary language which is written, -spoken, and read. We find here ready made the first provisional -lexicon of the scientific international language. It cannot, -therefore, be urged that science should "select" any one of the -proposed artificial languages, because the selection of words is -by no means an arbitrary process. The only procedure possible to -science must be the construction of an international language -on the basis of the already existing foundations. Science can -never accept as an international language, one which destroys the -actually existing internationality of scientific nomenclature. - -As we see, these considerations, like the former, lead us to -the conclusion that the auxiliary language must be based on -the principle of maximum internationality; that is to say, its -vocabulary must be taken _à posteriori_ from the international -treasury, and must not be invented according to any _à priori_ -system or special idiom. It follows from this that the auxiliary -language of the future must inevitably be chiefly Romance in its -character, for Latin is the international auxiliary language which -still lives and flourishes for, and by means of, science. - -The objection might be made here that the simplest solution would -be the reintroduction of Latin into science as the auxiliary -language. But this contradicts one of our fundamental premises, for -Latin fails just as much as all other national languages to satisfy -our second criterion, namely, that of complete logical precision. -Besides, it is too difficult. - -Esperanto does not even approximately satisfy the necessary -conditions; it infringes, in fact, all three. On the one hand, -its vocabulary is very far from being constructed according to -the principle of maximum internationality; on the other hand, the -Esperantists are supposed to make up for this defect by the famous -principle of _vortfarado_ (_i.e._, word manufacture!), with the -result that their language falls into the error of creating idioms. -For example, in Esperanto the beginning of the sentence "A rotary -transformer might be called a motor-generator, but the latter -name is usually applied to machines with independent armatures," -is translated in the following way: _Turnighan alispecigilon oni -povas nomi motorproduktanto_, which literally translated reads, -"A self-turning otherwise-making instrument can be called a -motor-producer." - -Apart from these fundamental errors of Esperanto, it lacks a -systematic method of word formation, the importance of which -has been demonstrated in a masterly and convincing fashion by -Couturat in the previous chapter. Hundreds of times the puzzled -reader of an Esperanto text is in doubt about the sense of an -adjective, even such common expressions as _stony_ and _made of -stone_ being rendered in Esperanto by the _same word_ (_shtona_). -A phrase such as "It is perhaps possible" cannot be accurately -translated into Esperanto, since, on account of its "simplicity," -the words _perhaps_ and _possible_ are both rendered by the same -_à priori_ word, _eble_. With regard to choice of vocabulary, -other systems, in particular "Neutral Idiom," are exceedingly -superior to Esperanto. In this last product of the Volapük movement -the principle of internationality has been finally recognised. A -language academy was founded which constructed a lexicon according -to this principle. Unfortunately, as Jespersen has very fully shown -in Chapter III., this principle was not interpreted in the right -manner, so that the language lacks logical clearness in spite of -the international character of its vocabulary. - -We need not, therefore, be surprised that science has hitherto been -unable to adopt any of the artificial systems as the international -auxiliary language. That would have been a false step, and would -only have produced confusion. - -It is only at the present time that one has arrived at a clear -recognition of the principles on which such a language must -be based. The only artificial system which can claim that its -"inventors" have endeavoured in its "construction" to _combine_ -and consistently carry out the principles of internationality and -logical precision (namely, systematic choice of stems and a regular -system of derivation) is, as will be sufficiently evident from the -preceding chapters of this book, the language of the Delegation. -Without doubt the _internaciona linguo di la Delegitaro_ will -have to undergo changes and improvements, for one cannot expect -that such a gigantic task as the introduction of an international -auxiliary language can be accomplished all at once. We hold, -however, that "Ido" represents the first artificial language -concerning whose introduction into science serious discussion is -possible. We may state with full confidence to-day that, so far as -human calculation is possible, the attempt to carry this out will -be crowned with success. - -On the other hand, this introduction will not be without a useful -reaction on science, not only in respect to the development and -extension of its external life as an international Great Power, but -also with regard to the more perfect unification and extension of -its language and nomenclature on the lines of strict and complete -internationality. An expression of opinion on this point will be -given in the following chapter. - - RICHARD LORENZ. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -THE QUESTION OF NOMENCLATURE - - -If we take up a book or a paper dealing with mathematics -(especially analysis) printed in a language, such as Japanese, -which is quite unintelligible to us, we shall, nevertheless, soon -succeed in finding out what it is about and often in understanding -its main contents. The reason of this is, of course, that the -mathematical formulæ consist of symbols which are intelligible -to us because they are used in the same manner by all civilised -nations. The same thing holds good in physics, and especially -in chemistry; chemical formulæ contain at the present day such -detailed information concerning the relationships of the substances -symbolised, that one might conceive the possibility of writing a -chemical paper with formulæ alone. - -In the case of the descriptive natural sciences, the Latin names of -the genera and species, the Latin nomenclature of anatomy and other -similar groups, form a common international possession. Physiology, -biology, sociology, as well as history and ancient philology, -possess as yet, however, no system of internationally intelligible -terms. In modern philology (phonetics) practical endeavours have -already been made to construct an international system of sound -symbols. All these sciences possess naturally the designation of -numbers by means of numerals which have a perfectly international -character. Since in mathematics not only the quantities, but also -the operations, are denoted by universally understood symbols, -it is already possible, with comparatively few additions, to -express long trains of mathematical thought in a manner which is -internationally intelligible, that is, intelligible to those who -are acquainted with the science and its symbols. For a considerable -time Professor Peano, in Turin, has been publishing works written -in this manner. We perceive here the realisation of the ideal of a -purely ideographic language, which can be read by the specialist -without his requiring to translate it into the words of any -particular form of speech. - -To quote a similar example from chemistry, J. H. van't Hoff, in -one of the publications of his youth, avoided assigning names to -the chemical substances with which he dealt, considering that -his meaning would be much better conveyed by the corresponding -structural formulæ. Such a text would be quite intelligible to a -trained chemist without the formulæ calling up in his mind any -particular words, indeed without any such words existing at all. - -These well-known facts show _that the problem of an international -language has already been partly solved in science_. In so far as -definite and fairly stable concepts have been formed in science, -they may be designated by arbitrary symbols, which may if necessary -be universally accepted and understood. Hitherto such symbols have -been mainly employed for reading, that is to say intended for the -eye, and not for the voice and ear. For example, in different -languages quite different sounds are assigned to the numerals, so -that, whilst the written symbols are universally intelligible, the -spoken ones are not. - -However, there are a considerable number of exceptions to this -statement. The word _integral_ is quite as international as the -symbol ∫ and the chemical symbol Tl is pronounced everywhere -_thallium_, or something very like it. On looking through the table -of the chemical elements one finds that more than two-thirds of the -names possess similar sounds in the chief languages. Differences -occur only in the case of the well-known elements, where the words -employed in daily life have found their way into science, whilst -the newly discovered elements all possess international names. -It follows from this that the further problem of assigning an -international system of sounds to scientific concepts has been in -certain departments of science already approximately solved. It is -true that the sound is still somewhat dependent on the speech basis -of the particular nation, so that, for example, not inconsiderable -deviations may occur in English. But, as the written and printed -word is always simultaneously known, the recognition of a name as -pronounced by a foreigner does not cause any very great difficulty. - -There exists here a field of work for those who are interested in -the idea of an artificial language which is as fertile as it is -interesting. As is well known, we scientific men suffer a good deal -from the fact that the same words are frequently employed for the -vague ideas of daily life as well as for the perfectly definite -concepts of science. This is indeed one of the most important -reasons why new designations for scientific concepts should, as far -as possible, be taken from the dead languages, such designations -being thereby already international. It ought therefore to be a -comparatively easy task to devise by means of this international -material and the linguistic rules of the language of the Delegation -a system of international names for the clearly defined concepts of -the different sciences. - -Such a system possesses a double purpose. In the first place, it -could, I think, be used in our present natural languages. Certain -English expressions occurring in electrotechnics, such as _shunt_, -_extra current_, are employed in German and French just as if they -were national words. The international names in their international -form might be employed in every case where a precise scientific -terminology was required, without doing much violence to our -natural languages. The inflow of foreign words through the channels -of technology and science as well as those of commerce and music -has already shown itself to be irresistible, so that a strict -carrying out of the principle of "purity" in our national languages -has been a practical impossibility. In literature properly so -called one will endeavour nevertheless to adhere to this principle, -but where the chief question is one of precision of concepts, -as in science, language must be regarded as a handmaiden, whose -first duty is to obey. For language stands only in a secondary -relationship to the independently developed and determined concepts -of science, which have been already fixed by the symbols assigned -to them, just in the same way that language has fixed the concepts -of daily life. - -Independent of the above application, which one may or may not -consider practical, is the internationalisation of scientific -publications by means of a universally understood auxiliary -language, which is becoming every day more urgently necessary. - -This problem, too, cannot be attacked until the concepts of all -the sciences in question have received their proper designations. -The existing dictionaries of international auxiliary languages -contain mostly the expressions of daily life, so that at present -these languages are mainly applicable only for such communications. -Some success can indeed be obtained in the expression of the higher -trains of thought of philosophical reasoning, but here already -considerable uncertainty exists. It is clear, for instance, that -a paper in organic chemistry can only be successfully written in -the international language after the translations of the different -names for substances occurring in different languages have been -mutually agreed upon. - -Consequently the working out of the concepts of the different -sciences and the determination of their international designations -is the very first task which must be performed before the -further objects, international literature and international -oral intercourse in science, can be considered. It is the duty -therefore of the representatives of science who have joined the -_Uniono di l'Amiki di la Linguo Internaciona_ to apply themselves -in the first place to this problem, since the further success of -the whole question depends entirely on its at least provisional -solution. - -The first principle which must guide this work is undoubtedly the -general principle of maximum internationality, which has been used -in the construction of the auxiliary language. Its application is -rendered easy by the fact that, owing to the use of Greek and Latin -roots for the designation of scientific concepts, there is already -present a far-reaching internationality, which must naturally be -retained. - -In the second place, it will not always be possible to employ in -science the same expressions that are used in ordinary speech, -because the effect of the latter is to produce a blunting of the -precise connotation of concepts; whilst science, on the other hand, -requires clearly defined concepts, to which must correspond equally -distinct expressions. - -In the third place, those words which occur frequently in -combinations must be chosen _as short as possible_. Here I would -not shrink from a very considerable mutilation of the most -international forms. Such long names as _wasserstoff_ or "hydrogen" -cannot be permitted, and must be reduced to monosyllabic forms. -Every chemical author must have been times without number annoyed -by the terms of three and four syllables for the commonest -elements, and this defect is common to all languages. The objection -against such an artificial abbreviation, which is valid for the -language of daily life, namely, that it increases the difficulty -of the language for those of little education, does not hold in -the case of science, since it is a matter of indifference to the -beginner whether he learns the new name _oxygen_ or _oxo_ (or any -other similar abbreviation), because in any case he must learn it -by heart. Such a procedure satisfies also the second condition, -as it facilitates most easily the giving of a special form to -scientific terms, which is different from that of ordinary life. - -In the fourth place, it will be advisable in cases where -universally known symbols exist, which consist of letters or have -been derived from these (such as certain mathematical symbols), -to choose the name so _that it begins with the same letter_. For -example, the constant of gravitation is now universally denoted -by _g_, and the corresponding international word should therefore -begin with _G_. It appears to me doubtful, however, whether this -principle can be generally carried out. I have examined the names -of the chemical elements with this intent, and have arrived at -the conclusion that it would not work without doing considerable -violence to general usage. For example, it would be scarcely -possible to find an international name for _chlor_ (chlorine) -which, corresponding to the chemical symbol _Cl_, would begin with -_C_, for the latter letter is pronounced _ts_, whilst the word -_chlor_ (with corresponding terminations) is international, and, -according to its sound, must be written like _kloro_ or in some -similar way. - -These are the formal suggestions which I should like to make -with reference to the problem in hand; they are only intended -to indicate how one might proceed, and are not to be regarded -as either exhaustive or infallible. There arises now the second -question as to how such work is to be organised. - -As the same concepts occur in several related sciences, and must -receive the same designations, it would not be practicable to -entrust the construction of the vocabularies to special commissions -for each particular science. It would be more advisable to appoint -a certain number of persons to collect the material and to make -out lists of the concepts for which terms are required, and then -to appoint commissions representing a whole group of sciences to -discuss the necessary principles, after which the details could be -worked out and finally subjected to the examination and approval of -the whole body. To make matters at once more definite, I think the -exact sciences ought to be first taken into consideration, for in -their case the fixation of concepts is most highly developed. There -is no need for a replacement of the well-known Latin nomenclature -employed in the descriptive sciences, nor would any attempt in -this direction have any likelihood of success. We must look rather -to the distant future, when all other sciences will have already -adapted themselves to the international idiom for the translation -of the Latin names into the forms of the international language -(retaining the stems, however) in order to produce for æsthetic -reasons a uniform system throughout the whole of science. - -On the other hand, I consider it absolutely necessary to subject -the concepts of _logic_ and the _theory of cognition_ to the same -process of scientific delimitation and fixation. In the first -place, these sciences belong, at least theoretically, to the exact -sciences; and, in the second place, work in these departments of -knowledge is rendered extraordinarily difficult by the fact that -their concepts are expressed in the terms used in daily life, whose -elastic nature constantly frustrates exact work. - -Conversely, this great process of purification cannot fail to bring -to light much that is of value for the theory and systematisation -of scientific concepts. For one must be quite clear on a subject -oneself before one can make it clear to others. Indeed, even a -simple classified list of possibilities, in which one has earnestly -sought to omit nothing of importance, constitutes in itself a -scientific advance, which is rendered all the more desirable by -the fact that in general people have troubled very little about -questions of this sort. It may be already foreseen, and indeed with -pleasure, that such problems are not to be solved offhand, and -will probably require for their final settlement an international -congress, at which the final decisions will be made. For this -congress will probably be the first scientific gathering at which, -instead of three, four, or five languages, only one, and that the -international auxiliary language, will be spoken. - - WILHELM OSTWALD. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -CONCLUSION: READING, WRITING, AND SPEAKING - - -Anyone who wishes to swim without the help of others is faced by -a "vicious circle." In order to swim he must jump into the water, -but before he entrusts himself to the water he ought to be able -to swim. In spite of this, many people learn to swim without a -teacher. How do they do that? They go at first only into shallow -water, and splash about there until they have become more or less -familiar with this element. Then, when they perceive that they can -propel themselves in it, they go gradually into deeper water. - -If we wish to get scientific men to use the international language, -we must probably recommend the same method and advise them to -move about in the shallower regions of every-day language before -they venture into the deeper waters of science. The instruction -concerning the movements of swimming given by the swimming-master -on dry land corresponds to a lesson of a couple of hours on the -simple grammar of the international language. Further progress, -leading up finally to the introduction of the latter into science, -can be divided into three stages, which we may describe by the -words reading, writing, and speaking. - -I. _Reading._--The extraordinary ease with which every educated -person, and especially anyone who has learnt Latin or one of the -Romance languages, can read and understand the language of the -Delegation almost without any previous study, indicates that the -first stage will not be difficult of attainment. But one would -require scientific reading material in order to gain practice in -scientific reading, and there we are again faced by a vicious -circle. For, in order to create such reading material, we require -authors who can write it, and yet the latter can only learn to -express themselves in the international language by means of -already existing reading material. We must therefore at first make -use of the language of daily life and carry over into science -whatever is found to be suitable for scientific purposes, after -which more sharply defined meanings may be assigned to the words. -It has been indicated in the previous article how the remaining -special scientific nomenclature can be determined. When this -preliminary work is sufficiently advanced the following way will -lead quickest to the goal. - -There will be founded an _international journal_, divided into as -many divisions as correspond to the groups of sciences to be dealt -with. We have here in view more particularly the theoretical and -practical sciences of nature, because they have much more urgent -need of an international auxiliary language than the "humanities," -whose representatives are more likely to possess a sufficient -knowledge of languages. For example, mathematics, mathematical -astronomy, mathematical geography, mathematical physics, geodesy, -etc., might form one group; general and experimental physics, -chemistry and physical chemistry, electrotechnics and applied -chemistry, mechanics and mechanical engineering, etc., a second -group; mineralogy, petrography, crystallography, geology, etc., -a third group; biology, systematic and physiological zoology and -botany, morphology, etc., etc., a fourth group. Extensions of these -groups and other modes of arrangement might of course be introduced. - -The foundation at first of several separate periodicals would not -be advisable. - -The following remarks may be made concerning the contents of -this journal. In conformity with our plan, it should not at first -contain any original articles, for the international language is -not intended to replace the natural ones, but only to act as an -_intermediary_ between them. Besides, the journal must not contain -any insignificant or uninteresting articles if it is to attract and -interest readers. But eminent authors, even if they could command -the international language, would not publish important original -articles in a journal which naturally at first would not have any -very great circulation. - -The journal must therefore contain chiefly translations of -interesting articles from all branches of science and from all -languages, and also extracts from the more important literary -productions. The editorial committee of this journal should be -independent of the Language Academy, but nevertheless in close -contact with it, in order, on the one hand, to guarantee the -correctness of the language by means of the Academy, and, on the -other hand, to help the latter by acting as its scientific adviser. -The gradual dissemination of this periodical would have the effect -that a considerable number of scientific men, especially those of -the younger generation, would be induced to read and understand the -international language without any expenditure of trouble injurious -to their professional work. - -II. _Writing._--From reading a comparatively easy step leads to -writing. The number of scientific men would soon increase who -could either write directly in the international language, or, at -all events, translate a paper written in a natural language into -the international language. Owing to the gradually increasing -dissemination of the international Review, a first-hand publication -of such papers in the Review would soon be very much in the -interest of the authors, as the acceptance of their papers would -itself be a mark of honour, whilst the rapid distribution amongst -all nations would be likewise advantageous. - -III. _Speaking._--The speaking of the international language -at first in small and then gradually amongst wider circles and -finally at international congresses can only be attempted later. -This attempt must not, however, be made before its success is -fully assured, and the language has received a certain amount of -consolidation through its application to writing. - -We have already remarked in another place that the introduction of -the international language is not nearly so difficult as it appears -at first sight, almost the only difficulty being the establishment -of the _confidence_ that this goal _can_ be attained. - -When one tries to swim for the first time it seems as if one would -never succeed. But when, after a few lessons, one has seen one's -comrades moving safely and merrily in the water, courage comes, and -with it success. We shall therefore show in an appendix by means of -an example that the language of the Delegation is already capable -of expressing difficult passages with all possible fidelity. - -At a time when the language had only just been fixed and when -he had very little practice in its use, L. Couturat translated -into it a particularly difficult passage from the work of Gomperz -(the Viennese Academician) on _Grecian Thinkers_. The present -author, without having seen the original, retranslated it at -Graz from the international language into German, and sent this -to Gomperz at Vienna with the request, that he would give his -opinion on the accuracy of the retranslated passage. Gomperz -wrote characterising the reproduction as "astonishingly exact," -"the test as extraordinarily successful, and the result in a high -degree favourable to the possibility of employing the international -language." This test must certainly be regarded as a very -severe one, because the German language is foreign to the first -translator, whilst, owing to its philosophical nature, the subject -was not familiar to the second translator as a physicist. For the -sake of English readers, a similar experiment has just been made, -the results of which are given in Appendix III. A passage from -Professor W. James's _Talks to Teachers on Psychology_, dealing -with the laws of habit, was translated into Ido by Professor -Couturat, and the Ido text retranslated into English by Mr. P. -D. Hugon in London, who was unacquainted with the original. A -comparison of the two English texts demonstrates the marvellous -lucidity of Ido as a medium for the transmission of thought without -distortion. - -Two things are indispensable for the realisation of a great idea. -In the first place, the idea must, as regards its nature and -value, have a rational foundation, and its possibility must be -demonstrated. In the second place, there must be present courage, -energy, and persevering devotion in order to realise practically -that which has been recognised to be right and good. No amount of -energy, however great, can produce a lasting result from a mistaken -idea; but at the same time nothing great has ever been accomplished -by doubters and pessimists. The readers of our brochure will -concede to us that the idea of an international auxiliary language -and its realisation by means of the language of the Delegation have -in the foregoing chapters been fully examined in the cold light of -reason and shown to be good and practicable, whilst the appendices -will enable this opinion to be experimentally tested and confirmed. -Now that the head has done its work, the heart, the source of -courage and devotion, must do its part. We have full confidence, -therefore, in calling upon the representatives of science, who have -followed us so far, to assist us in the work, in the first place by -_joining the Uniono di l'Amiki di la Linguo Internaciona_ and by -making its labours known. This step can be taken also by those who -do not see in the language as at present constituted the final and -best solution of the problem, for before one can reach the topmost -heights one must traverse the intervening stages. We ourselves do -not consider that our language is the best possible, but we regard -it as one which is susceptible of continuous improvement without -its immediate and future use being injured thereby. - - LEOPOLD PFAUNDLER. - - - - -APPENDIX I. - -"LINGUO INTERNACIONA DI LA DELEGITARO." - -(IDO). - - -The Délégation pour l'Adoption d'une Langue Auxiliaire -Internationale, founded in Paris in 1901, has received the support -of 310 societies of many countries and the approval of 1,250 -professors and academicians. It elected in 1907 an international -committee, composed of eminent linguists and men of science, which, -after having studied all the projects for international language, -adopted Esperanto with certain modifications. These modifications, -whilst preserving the principles and essential qualities of Dr. -Zamenhof's language, aim at a more logical and strict application -of these principles and the elimination of certain unnecessary -complications. The following are the principal modifications:-- - -(1) Suppression of the accented letters, _thus permitting the -language to be printed everywhere_, and at the same time preserving -the phonetic and frequently re-establishing the international -spelling; - -(2) Suppression of certain useless grammatical rules which are -very troublesome to many nations, and _especially to persons -possessing only an elementary education_ (accusative, concord of -the adjective); - -(3) Regularisation of the method of derivation, this being the -only means of preventing the intrusion of idioms and of furnishing -a solid foundation for the working out of the _scientific and -technical vocabulary_ so indispensable for the propagation of the -language in the scientific world; - -(4) Enrichment of the vocabulary by the adoption of new stems -carefully chosen according to the _principle of maximum -internationality_. - -All the words have, in fact, been formed from international stems, -that is to say those which are common to the majority of European -languages, with the result that they are immediately recognised -by everyone of medium education. It is not necessary therefore -to learn a new language; _the international language is the -quintessence of the European ones_. It is, however, incomparably -more easy than any of them on account of its simplicity and -absolute regularity; there are _no useless rules_, and _no -exceptions_. It can be learnt by reading it; as soon as one can -read it one can write it; as soon as one can write it one can speak -it. And experience has proved that the differences of pronunciation -amongst people of the most diverse countries are insignificant and -cause no trouble at all. To sum up, the _linguo internaciona_ is -a simplified and improved Esperanto, very analogous to primitive -Esperanto, but possessing the advantage over the latter of being -immediately intelligible, so that it is destined to become _the_ -international language. Besides, it has already received the warm -approval and support of many of the earliest and best Esperantists. -It alone, thanks to the support of the scientific and literary men -of the Delegation and Committee, has a chance of being adopted some -day by Governments and of being introduced into the schools of all -countries. - -The following pages provide a key which enables one to read a text -in this language. - - -GRAMMAR. - -@Pronunciation.@--All letters are pronounced, and have always the -same sound: _a_ (as in _father_), _c_ (like _ts_), _e_ (like _e_ in -_set_, or _a_ in _fate_), _g_ (always hard, as in _go_), _i_ (like -_ee_ in _sweet_), _j_ (either as in English, or like the French _j_ -in _journal_), _o_ (like _o_ in _not_ or like _o_ in _go_), _q_ -(_qu_ as in English, or like _kv_), _s_ (unvoiced), _u_ (like _oo_ -in _too_), _x_ (like _ks_ or _gz_), _y_ (as in English), _z_ (as in -English), _ch_ (as in _church_), _sh_ (as in English), _au_ (like -_ow_ in _how_), _eu_ (= _e-u_). It will be seen that a _certain -amount_ of latitude is permitted, in order to suit the convenience -of different nations. _Stress_ (tonic accent) on the penultimate -syllable, except in the infinitive, when it falls on the last -syllable (@-ar@, @-ir@, @-or@). Since _y_ is a consonant, it does -not count as a separate syllable (@fluvyo@). - -@Definite Article.@--@La@, for all genders and numbers. - -@Substantive.@--Ends in _-o_ in the singular, in _-i_ in the plural. - -@Adjective.@--Is invariable, and ends in _-a_. - -@Personal Pronouns.@--@Me@ = _I_, @tu@ = _thou_, @vu@ = _you_ -(singular), @il@ = _he_ or _it_ (masculine), @el@ = _she_ or -_it_ (feminine), @ol@ = _it_ (thing); @ni@ = _we_, @vi@ = _you_ -(plural), @li@ = _they_ (all genders). If distinction is necessary, -@ili@ = _they_ (masculine), @eli@ = _they_ (feminine), @oli@ = -_they_ (neuter). - -@Possessive Pronouns.@--@Mea@ = _my_, _mine_, @tua@ = _thy_, -_thine_, @vua@ = _your_, _yours_ (singular), @sa@ = _his_, _her_, -_hers_, or _its_; @nia@ = _our_, _ours_, @via@ = _your_, _yours_ -(plural), @lia@ = _their_, _theirs_. In the plural the ending _-i_ -is substituted for _-a_ when the above words are used as true -possessive _pronouns_. - -@Reflexive Forms.@--@Su@ is used as an objective (reflexive) -personal pronoun (for singular and plural) in the third person. -The corresponding possessive forms are @sua@ and @sui@ (plural -_pronoun_). It may be remarked that the possessive pronominal -adjectives @sa@ (singular) and @lia@ (plural) may be made to -indicate sex in the following way:-- - - _Singular._ _Plural._ - Masculine @ilsa@ @ilia@ - Feminine @elsa@ @elia@ - Neuter @olsa@ @olia@ - -@Demonstrative Pronouns.@--@Ica@ = _this_, _these_; @ita@ = _that_, -_those_. The plural forms @ici@ = _these_, and @iti@ = _those_, -are only used as true demonstrative _pronouns_. The indeterminate -(neuter) forms are @ico@ = _this_, @ito@ = _that_. In all the above -words the initial _i_ is usually _omitted_, except where euphony -requires it. - -If it is required to indicate sex, or something which is not alive, -this may be done as follows:-- - - _This._ _That._ - Masculine @ilca@ @ilta@ - Feminine @elca@ @elta@ - Neuter @olca@ @olta@ - Plural } @ilci@ @ilti@ - Pronoun } etc. etc. - -@Relative and Interrogative Pronouns@: @qua@ = _who_, _which_, -_what_; plural, @qui@. @Quo@ = _what_ (indeterminate, general). - -@Accusative@ (objective case).--When the direct object of the verb -precedes the subject, the former is indicated by the inflexion -_-n_: @la homo quan vu vidis@ = _the person whom you have seen_. - -@Verb.@--Invariable in person and number. Endings of the principal -tenses:-- - - _Active_ _Passive_ - _Infinitive._ _Indicative._ _participle._ _participle._ - Present @-ar@ @-as@ @-anta@ @-ata@ - Past @-ir@ @-is@ @-inta@ @-ita@ - Future @-or@ @-os@ @-onta@ @-ota@ - Conditional, @-us@. Imperative, @-ez@. - -The auxiliary verb @esar@, _to be_, is used for the passive, and -for the compound tenses of the active. - -_Passive._ - - _Present_ @esas amata@, or @amesas@ = _I am (being) loved_. - _Past_ @esis amata@, or @amesis@ = _I was (being) loved_. - _Future_ @esos amata@, or @amesos@ = _I will be loved_. - _Conditional_ @esus amata@, or @amesus@ = _I would be loved_. - _Imperative_ @esez amata@, or @amesez@ = _be loved_. - _Infinite_ @esar amata@, or @amesar@ = _to be loved_. - -_Compound Tenses of the Active._ - - _Perfect_ @(me) esas aminta@ = _(I) have loved_. - _Pluperfect_ @(me) esis aminta@ = _(I) had loved_. - _Future perfect_ @(me) esos aminta@ = _(I) shall have loved_. - _Past conditional_ @(me) esus aminta@ = _(I) should have loved_. - -The past tenses of the passive (indicating _completed_ states) are -formed by means of the passive participle in @-ita@:-- - - @(me) esis amita@ = _(I) had been loved_. - @(me) esos amita@ = _(I) shall have been loved_. - @(me) esus amita@ = _(I) would have been loved_. - -Derived adverbs are formed by substituting the ending _-e_ for the -_-a_ of the adjective or the _-o_ of the noun: @bone@ = _well_; -@nokte@ = _at night_. - - -FORMATION OF WORDS. - -All words are composed of three elements, possessing an invariable -form and meaning: _stems_, _affixes_ (prefixes and suffixes), and -_grammatical terminations_. - -@Prefixes@:-- - - @ge-@, the two sexes united: @ge-patri@ = _parents_. - @bo-@, relation by marriage: @bo-patro@ = _father-in-law_. - @ex-@, former, ex-: @ex-oficero@ = _ex-officer_. - @mal-@, opposite, contrary: @mal-bela@ = _ugly_. - @mis-@, error, mistake: @mis-komprenar@ = _misunderstand_. - @mi-@, half: @mi-horo@ = _half an hour_. - @re-@, repetition: @re-dicar@ = _repeat_, _say again_. - @retro-@, backwards: @retro-sendar@ = _return (send back)_. - @ne-@, negation: @ne-utila@ = _useless_ (but @mal-utila@ = _harmful_). - @sen-@, want of: @sen-arma@ = _unarmed_. - -@Suffixes@:-- - - @-in@, female sex: @frat-ino@ = _sister_. - @-id@, descendant: @Sem-ido@ = _Semite_. - @-estr@, chief, director: @urb-estro@ = _mayor_. - @-an@, member of: @senat-ano@ = _senator_. - @-ism@, system, doctrine: @socialismo@ = _socialism_. - @-ist@, profession, occupation: @dent-isto@ = _dentist_. - @-er@, amateur: @fotograf-ero@ = _amateur photographer_. - @-ul@, person who is characterised by ...: @kuras-ulo@ = _cuirassier_. - @-aj@, concrete thing, consisting of, or made of: @lan-ajo@ = _woollen - goods_. - @-ur@, product, result: @pikt-uro@ = _a picture_. - @-ar@, collection of a number of similar things: @hom-aro@ = _mankind_. - @-il@, instrument, tool: @bros-ilo@ = _brush_. - @-ey@, place for ...: @kaval-eyo@ = _stable_; @dorm-eyo@ = _dormitory_. - @-uy@, container, recipient: @ink-uyo@ = _inkpot_. - @-yer@, that which bears or carries: @pom-yero@ = _apple tree_. - @-al@, relating to: @nacion-ala@ = _national_. - @-oz@, full of, provided with: @por-oza@ = _porous_. - @-atr@, similar, like: @spong-atra@ = _sponge-like_, _spongy_. - @-iv@, that which can, active possibility: @instrukt-iva@ = - _instructive_. - @-em@, addicted to: @babil-ema@ = _talkative_, _garrulous_. - @-ebl@, passive possibility, that which can be ...: @vid-ebla@ = - _visible_. - @-end@, that which is to be, or must be ...: @solv-enda@ = _to be - solved_, _requiring solution_. - @-ind@, worthy of being: @respekt-inda@ = _worthy of respect_. - @-es@, state of being: @san-esar@ = _to be well_, whence the - substantives expressing state or quality, _e.g._, @san-eso@ = - _health_. - @-esk@, to commence to do or to be: @dorm-eskar@ = _to fall asleep_. - @-ig@, to make or cause to do or to be: @bel-igar@ = _beautify_; - @dorm-igar@ = _to send to sleep_. - @-ij@, to become: @rich-ijar@ = _to get rich_. - @-iz@, to furnish or provide with: @arm-izar@ = _to arm_. - @-if@, to produce, bring forth: @frukt-ifar@ = _to fructify_. - @-ad@, repetition, continuation: @dans-ado@ = _dancing_. - @-eg@, augmentative: @bel-ega@ = _very beautiful_. - @-et@, diminutive: @mont-eto@ = _hill_, _hillock_. - @-ach@, derogative: @popul-acho@ = _populace_, _the mob_. - @-um@, indeterminate relationship (see the dictionary), - @-esm@, ordinal number: @un-esma@ = _first_. - @-opl@, multiplicative number: @du-opla@ = _double_. - @-on@, fractional number: @tri-ono@ = _a third_. - @-op@, distributive number: @quar-ope@ = _in fours_. - - -LEXIKO DI LA GRAMMATIKALA VORTI. - - @a@, @ad@ _to_, _towards_ - @ad maxime@ _at most_ - @ad minime@ _at least_ - @altra@, @-i@ _other_ (_s_) - @altru@ _another_ - @altro@ _another thing_, _something else_ - @anke@ _also_ - @ankore@ _still_, _yet_ - @ante@ _before_ (time) - @aparte@ _apart_ - @apene@ _scarcely_, _with difficulty_ - @apud@ _near_, _close by_, _at_ - @avan@ _before_ (place) - @balde@ _soon_ - @cent@ _hundred_ - @ceter-i@, @-o@ _the others_, _the rest_ - @che@ _at the house of_ - @cirke@ _around_, _about_ - @cis@ _on this side of_ - @da@ _by_ - @de@ _from_, _since_, _of_ - @dek@ _ten_ - @di@ _of_ - @do@ _therefore_, _hence_ - @dop@ _after_ (position); _behind_ - @du@ _two_ - @dum@ _during_ - @e@, @ed@ _and_ - @ek@ _out, out of_ - @en@ _in_ - @exter@ _outside of_, _besides_ - @for@ _far from_ - @forsan@ _perhaps_ - @frue@ _early_ - @hiere@ _yesterday_ - @hike@ _here_ - @ibe@ _there_ - @inter@ _between_, _among_ - @ips-a@, @-e@ _self_, _even any_ (_whatsoever_) - @irg-a@, @-u@ _anyone_ (_whatever_) - @irgo@ _anything_ (_whatever_) - @itere@ _again_, _anew_ - @ja@ _already_ - @jus@ _just at the moment_ - @kad@ _whether_ (general interrogative) - @kam@ _as_, _than_ (in comparisons) - @kande@ _when_ - @ke@ _that_ (conjunction) - @kelk-a@, @-i@ _some_ - @kin@ _five_ - @kontre@ _against_, _opposite_ - @kun@ _with_ - @lor@ _then_, _at that time_ - @malgre@ _in spite of_ - @max@ (@-ime@) _most_ - @mem@ _even_, _indeed_ - @mil@ _thousand_ - @min@ _less_ - @minime@ _least_ - @morge@ _to-morrow_ - @mult-a@ (@-i@) _much_, _many_ - @nam@ _for_, _because_ - @ne@ _not_ - @nek@ _neither_, _nor_ - @no@ _no_ - @nov@ _nine_ - @nu@ _well!_ _now!_ - @nul-a@ (@-u@) _no_, _no one_ - @nulo@ _nothing_ - @nun@ _now_ - @nur@ _only_ - @o@, @od@ _or_ - @ok@ _eight_ - @olim@ _formerly_ - @omn-a@ (@-i@) _each_, _all_ - @omno@ _all_, _everything_ - @or@ _now_ (conjunction) - @per@ _through_, _by means of_ - @plu@ _more_ - @plur-a@ (@-i@) _several_ - @po@ _for_ (the price of) - @poke@ _a little_ - @por@ _for_, _to_ (_in order to_) - @pos@ _after_ (time) - @precipue@ _especially_ - @preske@ _almost_, _nearly_ - @preter@ _past_, _beyond_ - @pri@ _concerning_, _on_ - @pro@ _for_, _on account of_ - @proxim@ _next_ - @qual-a@ _what_ (_sort of_) - @quale@ _how_, _as_ - @quankam@ _although_ - @quant-a@ (@-e@) _how much_, _how many_ - @quar@ _four_ - @quaze@ _as if_, _so to speak_ - @quik@ _at once_, _immediately_ - @sama@ _the same_ - @same@ _similarly_ - @sat@ (@-e@) _enough_, _sufficiently_ - @se@ _if_ - @sed@ _but_ - @segun@ _according to_ - @sempre@ _always_ - @sen@ _without_ - @sep@ _seven_ - @singl-a@ (@-e@ _single_, _singly_ - @sis@ _six_ - @sive@ _either_, _or_ - @sub@ _under_, _below_ - @super@ _above_, _over_ - @sur@ _on_, _upon_ - @tal-a@ _such a_, _such_ - @tal-e@ _thus_, _so_, _in such a way_ - @tam@ _as_ (in comparisons) - @tamen@ _nevertheless_, _yet_ - @tant-a@ (@-e@) _so much_, _as much_, _so_ - @tarde@ _late_ - @til@ _until_ - @tra@ _through_, _across_ - @trans@ _beyond_, _on the other side of_ - @tre@ _very_ - @tri@ _three_ - @tro@ _too_ - @ube@ _where_, _whither_ - @ula-@ (@-u@) _some_, _any_, _someone_, _anyone_ - @ulo@ _something_, _anything_ - @ultre@ _beyond_, _besides_ - @un@ (@-u@, @-a@ _one_ - @ve@ _alas!_ - @vice@ _in place of_, _vice_ - @ya@ _certainly_, _undoubtedly_ - @ye@ preposition of indeterminate meaning - @yen@ _here is_, _there is_, _behold_ - @yes@ _yes_ - - - - -APPENDIX II. - -@Specimen page from the INTERNATIONAL-ENGLISH DICTIONARY.@[6] - - @deskript-ar@: to describe; - @-o@: description; - @-iva@: descriptive [EFIS]. - - @desper-ar@: to despair; - @-o@: despair; - @-igar@: to drive to despair [EFIS]. - - @despit-ar@: to be vexed, to fret; - @-o@: spite, despite; - @-igar@: to vex [EFIS]. - - @despot-o@: despot; - @-eso@, @-ismo@: despotism [DEFIRS]. - - @destin-ar@: to destine; - @-o@, @-eso@: destination, destiny [EFIS]. - - @destrukt-ar@: to destroy; - @-o@: destruction; - @-iva@, @-ema@: destructive [EFIRS]. - - @detal-o@: detail; - @-a@, @-oza@: detailed; - @-e@, @-oze@: in detail [DEFIRS]. - - @detashment-o@ (military): detachment [DEFIRS]. - - @detektiv-o@: detective [EFR]. - - @determin-ar@: to determine; - @-o@, @-eso@: determination (not _decision_); - @-anta@, @-iva@: determinative; - @-ismo@: determinism [DEFIRS]. - - @detriment-ar@: to cause injury or prejudice to (_a person_); - @-o@: detriment, damage, injury (_moral_) [EFIS]. - - @dev-ar@: to be obliged to, ought, have to; - @-o@: duty [FIS]. - - @devast-ar@: to devastate; - @-o@, @eso@: devastation [EFIS]. - - @deviac-ar@ (_trans. and intrans._): to deviate; - @-o@: deviation [EFIS]. - - @deviz-o@: motto, device [DEFIRS]. - - @devlop-ar@: to develop; - @-o@, @-eso@: development [EFI]. - - @devot-a@: devoted; - @-eso@: devotion; - @-esar@, @-igar@, @-su@: to devote oneself [EFI]. - - @dextr-a@: right (_hand_, _side_); - @-e@: on the right [IS]. - - @dezert-a@: desert, deserted; - @-o@: a desert, wilderness [EFIS]. - - @dezir-ar@: to wish, desire; - @-o@: wish, desire [EFIS]. - - @di@: of (_preposition_). - - @di-o@, day (twenty-four hours); - @-ala@: daily [EIS]. - - @diabet-o@: diabetes [DEFIRS]. - - @diablo@: devil; - @-ala@: diabolical [DEFIRS]. - - @diadem-o@: diadem [DEFIRS]. - - @diafan-a@: transparent; - @-eso@: transparency [FIS]. - - -@Specimen page from the ENGLISH-INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY.@ - - to @describe@: deskriptar. - @description@: deskripto. - @descriptive@: deskriptiva. - to @desecrate@: profanigar. - a @desert@: dezerto. - to @desert@: desertar. - @deserted@: dezerta. - @deserter@: desert-anto, -into. - @desertion@: deserto, - to @deserve@: meritar. - @deserving@: merit-anta, -oza. - to @desiccate@ (_v. trans._): sikigar. - @desiccated@: sikigita. - @design@ (= drawing): desegno. - to @desire@: dezirar. - @desire@: deziro. - @desk@ (_writing_): pupitro. - " (_pulpit_): katedro. - to @despair@: desperar. - @despair@: despero. - @despair@, to @drive to@: desperigar. - a @desperado@: riskemo. - @despicable@: mal-prizinda. - to @despise@: mal-prizar. - @despite@ (_s._), despito. - " (_prep._) (= _in spite of_), malgre. - @despot@: despoto. - @despotism@: despot-eso, -ismo. - @desquamation@: squamifo. - @dessert@: desero. - @destination@: destin-o, -eso. - to @destine@: destinar. - @destiny@: destin-o, -eso. - " (= _fate_): fato. - to @destroy@: destruktar. - @destruction@: destrukto. - " , @utter@: nuligo. - @destructive@: destrukt-iva, -ema. - @detachment@ (military): detashmento. - @detail@: detalo, mal-grandajo. - " , @in@: detal-e, -oze. - @detailed@: detal-a, -oza. - @detective@: detektivo. - to @deter@: timigar, impedar. - @determination@ (_not decision_): determin-o, -eso. - @determinative@: determin-anta, -iva. - to @determine@: determinar. - " " (= decide): decidigar. - @determinism@: determinismo. - to @dethrone@: mal-tronizar. - @detriment@: detrimento. - to @devastate@: devastar. - @devastation@: devast-o, -eso. - to @develop@: devlopar. - " " (_photo._): rivelar. - @developer@ (_photo._): rivelilo. - @developing@ (_photo._): rivelo. - @development@: devlop-o, -eso. - to @deviate@ (_v. trans. and intrans._): deviacar. - @deviation@: deviaco. - - - - -APPENDIX III. - -EXPERIMENT IN DOUBLE TRANSLATION. - -THE LAWS OF HABIT. - -By Professor W. JAMES.[7] - - -I believe that we are subject to the law of habit in consequence -of the fact that we have bodies. The plasticity of the living -matter of our nervous system, in short, is the reason why we -do a thing with difficulty the first time, but soon do it more -and more easily, and finally, with sufficient practice, do it -semi-mechanically, or with hardly any consciousness at all. Our -nervous systems have (in Dr. Carpenter's words) _grown_ to the way -in which they have been exercised, just as a sheet of paper or a -coat, once creased or folded, tends to fall for ever afterward into -the same identical folds. - -Habit is thus a second nature, or rather, as the Duke of Wellington -said, it is "ten times nature," at any rate as regards its -importance in adult life, for the acquired habits of our training -have by that time inhibited or strangled most of the natural -impulsive tendencies which were originally there. Ninety-nine -hundredths or possibly nine hundred and ninety-nine thousandths of -our activity is purely automatic and habitual, from our rising -in the morning to our lying down each night. Our dressing and -undressing, our eating and drinking, our greetings and partings, -our hat-raisings and giving way for ladies to precede, nay, even -most of the forms of our common speech, are things of a type so -fixed by repetition as almost to be classed as reflex actions. To -each sort of impression we have an automatic, ready-made response. -My very words to you now are an example of what I mean, for, -having already lectured upon habit and printed a chapter about it -in a book, and read the latter when in print, I find my tongue -inevitably falling into old phrases and repeating almost literally -what I said before. - -So far as we are thus mere bundles of habit, we are stereotyped -creatures, imitators and copiers of our past selves. And since -this, under any circumstances, is what we always tend to become, -it follows first of all that the teacher's prime concern should be -to ingrain into the pupil that assortment of habits that shall be -most useful to him throughout life. Education is for behaviour, and -habits are the stuff of which behaviour consists. - - -LA LEGI DI L'KUSTUMO, - -Traduko en Ido da L. COUTURAT. - -Me kredas, ke ni esas submisata a la lego di l'kustumo per konsequo -di l'fakto, ke ni havas korpi. La plastikeso di la vivanta materyo -di nia nerva sistemo, esas, abreje, la kauzo ke ni facas un kozo -malfacile la unesma foyo, sed balde plu e plu facile, e fine, -kun suficanta praktiko, ni facas ol mi-mekanike, o kun preske -nula koncio. Nia nerva sistemi _kreskis_ (segun la vorti di Dr. -Carpenter) en la voyo en qua li esis exercita, exakte quale folyo -di papero, o vesto unfoye faldita o shifonigita, tendencas falar -sempre pose en la sama identa falduri. - -La kustumo esas duesma naturo, o prefere, quale dicis Duko de -Wellington, ol esas "dekople naturo," omnakaze per sa importo en -adulta vivo; nam la aquirita kustumi di nia eduko en ta tempo -impedis o strangulis max multa de la natural impulsiva tendenci, -qui existas origine. Novdek nov centoni, o, posible, novcent novdek -nov miloni de nia agemeso esas pure automatal e kustuma, de nia -levo matene a nia kusho omnanokte. Nia vestizo e malvestizo, nia -manjo e drinko, nia saluti ed adyi, nia chapel-levi et voyo-cedi -por siorini preteriranta, ya mem max multa formi di nia komuna -parolado, esas kozi de tipo tante fixigita per repeto, ke li povas -esar klasizita quale agi reflexa. Ad omna speco de impreso ni -havas automatal, tute pronta respondo. Mea ipsa paroli a vi nun -esas exemplo de to, quon me pensas: nam, pro ja facir lecioni pri -la kustumo ed imprimigir chapitro pri ol en libro, e lektir olca -dum imprimo, me trovas mea lango falanta neeviteble en sa malnuva -frazi, e repetanta preske litere, quon me dicis ante. - -Segun quante ni esas tale pura faski de kustumi, ni esas -stereotipita kreuri, imitanti e kopianti di nia propra pasinto. -E pro ke co, en omna supozi, esas to, quo ni sempre tendencas -divenar, konsequas, unesme, ke la precipua skopo di l'instruktisto -devas esar inkrustar en la lernanto ta asortajo de kustumi, qua -esos max utila ad il tra sa tuta vivo. L'eduko esas por la konduto, -e la kustumi esas la materyo, en qua la konduto konsistas. - - -THE LAWS OF HABIT. - -I believe that we are subject to the law of habit in consequence -of the fact that we have bodies. The plasticity of the living -material of our nervous system is, to put it briefly, the reason -why we do a thing with difficulty the first time, but soon more -and more easily, and finally, with sufficient practice, we do it -half mechanically, or almost without any consciousness. Our nervous -systems _have grown_ (in Dr. Carpenter's words) in the way in which -they were trained, just as a sheet of paper or a garment, once -folded or crumpled, tends to fall ever after in the same identical -creases. - -Habit is a second nature, or rather, as the Duke of Wellington -said, it is "tenfold nature," at any rate by its importance in -adult life, for the acquired customs of our education by that time -have impeded or strangled most of the natural impulsive tendencies -which existed originally. Ninety-nine hundredths or maybe nine -hundred and ninety-nine thousandths of our activity is purely -automatic and habitual, from our rising in the morning to our -retiring every night. Our dressing and undressing, our eating -and drinking, our greetings and leave-takings, our hat-raisings and -way-givings to ladies passing by, even indeed most forms of our -common speech, are things of a type so well fixed by repetition, -that they can be classified as reflex actions. For every kind of -impression we have an automatic, ever-ready response. My very words -to you now are an example of what I think, for through having -already given lessons about habit, and having had a chapter printed -about it in a book, and having read the latter in the course of -printing, I find my tongue falling unavoidably into its old phrases -and repeating almost literally what I have said before. - -Inasmuch as we are thus pure bundles of habits, we are stereotyped -creatures, imitators and copyists of our own past. And because -this, in any case, is what we always tend to become, it follows, in -the first place, that the teacher's chief object must be to incrust -in the learner that set of habits which will be most useful to him -throughout his whole life. Education makes for conduct, and habits -are the material which conduct consists of. - -[Retranslated into English by P. D. HUGON, who was unacquainted -with the original before doing the retranslation, 20th January, -1910.] - - - - -APPENDIX IV. - -"UNIONO DI L'AMIKI DI LA LINGUO INTERNACIONA." - - -The following excerpt from the provisional statutes of the _Uniono_ -is only intended to give an indication of its nature. The full -statutes will be willingly sent to anyone interested by one of the -authors of this brochure or by the Secretary of the _Uniono_, Herr -A. Waltisbühl, 46, Bahnhof Strasse, Zürich. - - -EXCERPT FROM THE PROVISIONAL STATUTES. - -(1) The sole purpose of the _Uniono di l'Amiki di la Linguo -Internaciona_ is to unite, for the purposes of common action, all -persons who recognise and approve of the idea of an international -language in the form given to it by the _Délégation pour l'Adoption -d'une Langue Auxiliaire Internationale_. - -(2) The Uniono accepts as the international auxiliary language the -_Linguo internaciona di la Delegitaro_ resulting from the labours -and decisions of the commission and the working committee of the -Delegation, but expressly declares that this language is not to be -regarded as "perfect" and "infallible." On the contrary, it takes -the view that the language is capable of continuous improvement -according to the principles resulting from the work of the -Delegation. - -(3) The _Uniono_ consists of members of both sexes of all -nationalities (at least eighteen years old) who are willing to -learn the language, to employ it on all suitable occasions in -intercourse with foreigners, and to take part in its propagation. - -(4) The yearly subscription amounts to 1·25 francs, 1 shilling, -1 mark, or 1·20 krone (Austrian). Half of this sum goes to the -Academy, the other half to the credit of the "Komitato." Permanent -membership is obtained by a single payment of 50 francs. Persons -paying at least 100 francs in a single payment become _membri -protektanta_. - -(5), (6), (7) All members take part in the election of the two -directing bodies of the _Uniono_ (the Academy and the "Komitato") -according to a specially arranged method of representation (in -which account is taken of the number of adherents belonging to each -nationality). - -(8), (9), (10) The Academy is concerned only with questions -relating to the development and improvement of the international -language. It has to reply within six months to all questions and -suggestions emanating from at least three elected representatives. -The official organ of the Academy is the journal _Progreso_ -(pronounced _Progresso_). The _Komitato_ has the practical -direction and organisation of the _Uniono_ which it controls and -represents. It is intended to found in the different countries -language courses, offices for the practical employment of the -language in commerce and travel, and translation bureaus. The -Academy and Komitato may unite for the purpose of discussing -general questions concerning the international language. - -(11), (12), (13) deal with local groups, change of statutes, -dissolution of the Society, etc. - -(14) All questions or proposals to be settled by the Academy or the -Komitato must be published in the journal _Progreso_ three months -before the decision in order to allow of general discussion. - - -ENTRANCE FORM. - - The undersigned declares his (or her) adherence to the - "Association of Friends of the International Language," as - constituted by the provisional statutes, and subscribes - - for the year 19.... - or in one { life member, - payment { _protektanta_ - as { _membro_. - - Signature. - - Christian name - and surname. - (Please write clearly.) - - Address. - - Profession or occupation - (optional). - - Natural language. - - Age. - - Send this form filled up, together with your subscription - (international money order), to the Secretary of the Society, - Herr A. Waltisbühl, 46, Bahnhofstrasse, Zürich, Switzerland. - - -UNIONO DI L'AMIKI DI LA LINGUO INTERNACIONA. - -ADHERILO. - -_Me subskribanta deklaras adherar a_ l'Uniono di l'Amiki di la -Linguo Internaciona, _tala quala ol esas definita en la_ Provizora -Statuti, _e me suskriptas_{1} - - { _por la yaro_ 19 ............................ - { - { _unfoye_ { _permananda_ } - { _quale_ { _protektanta_ } _membro_ ............ - - _Subskribo_: - - _Nomo e prenomo_ .............................. - - _Adreso_ ..................................... - - ................................................ - - _Profesiono_ (ne obliga indiko) ............... - - _Naturala linguo_ ............................ - - _Eco_ ................................ - -@Sendez ta adherilo kun la suskripto@ (@per internaciona valoro@) -_a la sekretaryo-kasisto_, @So. A. WALTISBÜHL, 46, Bahnhofstrasse, -Zürich@ (@Suiso@). - - {1} Minima suskripto: fr. 1·25, shilling 1, mark 1, dollar 0·25. - _Permananta membri_ pagas 50 fr. unfoye; _protektanta membri_ pagas - 100 fr. unfoye. - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] We do not therefore approve of the poetical attempts of -Zamenhof, or the dramatic representation of Goethe's _Iphigenia_. - -[2] For other comparisons, such as musical notation, chemical -formulæ, etc., compare the excellent brochure of W. Ostwald, -_Die Weltsprache_. Compare also L. Couturat, _Pour la Langue -Internationale_. - -[3] Here and elsewhere the following abbreviations will be -used:-- G. = German, E. = English, F. = French, I. = Italian, R. = -Russian, and S. = Spanish. - -[4] Concerning the criticism of Esperanto, cf. also Zamenhof, -_Pri Reformoj en Esperanto_, 1894, _represita per zorgo de E. -Javal_, 1907 (containing many important suggestions which the -Esperantists have now unfortunately forgotten); A. Liptay, -_Eine Gemeinsprache der Naturvölker_, 1891; E. Beermann, _Die -Internationale Hilfssprache Novilatin_, 1907; K. Brugmann and A. -Leskien, _Zur Kritik der Künstlichen Weltsprachen_, 1907; Couturat -and Leau, _Conclusions du Rapport_, 1907; L. Couturat, _Étude -sur la Dérivation en Esperanto_, 1907; Ido, _Les Vrais Principes -de la Langue Auxiliaire_, 1908; many articles in the periodical -_Progreso_, 1908; F. Borgius, _Warum ich Esperanto verliess_, 1908. - -[5] "What language aimed at languages have destroyed." The remarks -contained in this chapter have been developed and applied to -the criticism of Esperanto in my _Étude sur la Dérivation_ (1st -edition, unpublished, 1907, 2nd edition in French and in Ido, 1909). - -[6] The letters D, E, F, I, R, S, are the initial letters of the -names of the six chief European languages, and those placed after -any word indicate to which of these languages the corresponding -stem is common (D = Deutsch (German)). - -[7] "Talks to Teachers on Psychology," pp. 65, 66 (New York, H. -Holt & Co., 1907). - - - - -CONSTABLE & CO. LTD - - -CHEMISTRY - -PRACTICAL METHODS OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. By E. MOLLWO PERKIN, -Ph.D. 2_s._ 6_d._ net. - - CONTENTS:--Chapter I.--Introduction. Chapter II.--General - Preparations and Methods. Chapter III.--Salts. Chapter - IV.--Halogens and Halogen Compounds. Chapter V.--Metallic Oxides. - Chapter VI.--Acids. Chapter VII.--Preparation of Metals and - Metalloids. Chapter VIII.--Special Preparations. Index. - - _The Journal of the Faraday Society._--"This book cannot be too - strongly recommended." - _Educational News._--"Most valuable." - _The Lancet._--"The true educational method is set forth in this - little work." - _Journal of Education._--"It is useful both to teacher and to pupil." - -EXERCISES IN PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. By W. A ROTH, Ph.D., etc., Late -Professor of Chemistry in the University of Greifswald. Translated -for the use of Students by A. T. CAMERON, M.A., B.Sc., of the -University of Toronto. Price _6s._ net. Fully Illustrated. - - CONTENTS:--Chapter I.--Introductory. Chapter II.--The - Determination of Density. Chapter III.--Determination of - Molecular Weights in Solutions. Chapter IV.--Thermo-Chemistry. - Chapter V.--The Determination of Optical Constants. Chapter - VI.--The Thermostat. Chapter VII.--Chemical Statics and - Dynamics. ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY: Chapter VIII.--Foundations. Chapter - IX.--Electrical Conductivity. Chapter X.--Faraday's Law. - Transport Numbers. Chapter XI.--Measurement of Differences of - Potential. Chapter XII.--Electro-statics. Appendix. Index. SMALL - TABLES IN THE TEXT: Molecular elevation of the boiling point and - depression of the freezing point. Heat of combustion per gram at - constant volume. Spectrum lines for optical measurements. Atomic - refraction. Conductivities of some standard solutions. Dielectric - constants. - -INTRODUCTION TO THE CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS OF BUILDING MATERIALS. By -ALAN E. MUNBY, M.A. (Cantab). The elementary principles of science -which underlie the study of Building Materials in practice. Demy -8vo. 6_s._ net. - -TECHNICAL THERMODYNAMICS. By Dr. GUSTAV ZEUNER. First English -Edition. From the fifth complete and revised edition of "Grundzüge -der Mechanischen Wärmetheorie." Vol. I.--Fundamental Laws of -Thermodynamics; Theory of Gases. Vol. II.--The Theory of Vapours. -Authorised Translation by J. F. 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The Magnetic Circuit. - Insulating Materials. - - _The Engineer._--"A rapid glance at the illustrations contained - in this book is sufficient to show that it differs very - materially from most others having the same title. Indeed, it - may be said that the volume possesses that desirable but unusual - feature--originality. A chapter on the magnetic field contains - information which the student will find well worth acquiring, and - the same applies to that section of the book which deals with - conductors moving in a magnetic field. The alternating current - section is also good, and in a number of places it possesses the - merit of originality. The book, as we have already intimated, - is written on practical lines, and it is a decided improvement - on most books we have seen having for their title the word - 'Electricity'." - -CONTINUOUS CURRENT ENGINEERING. By ALFRED HAY, D.Sc., M.I.E.E. -About 330 pages. Fully Illustrated. Demy 8vo. 5_s._ net. - - A standard text-book for the practical student, giving a simple - account of the component parts of a continuous current lighting - and power plant, dynamos, motors, secondary cells, measuring - instruments, etc. - -DIRECT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT TESTING. By FREDERICK BEDELL, -Ph.D., Professor of Applied Electricity in Cornell University, and -CLARENCE A. PIERCE, Ph.D. 8_s._ net. - - CONTENTS:--Direct Current Generators. Direct Current Motors. - Synchronous Alternators. Single-Phase Currents. Transformers. - Polyphase Currents. Phase Changers. Potential Regulators, etc. - -THE THEORY OF ELECTRIC CABLES AND NETWORKS. By ALEXANDER RUSSELL, -M.A., D.Sc. Demy 8vo. 8_s._ net. - - _Mechanical Engineer._--" ... the work needs only to be known in - order to be well appreciated by the electrical profession." - -LABORATORY AND FACTORY TESTS IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING. By GEORGE -F. SEVER and FITZHUGH TOWNSEND, Second Edition. Thoroughly revised. -Demy 8vo. 282 pages. 10_s._ 6_d._ net. - - This book represents the laboratory work required in the - Electrical Engineering Course at Columbia University. It is - intended to serve as a text-book for the use of students, but - furthermore it may be found useful by those who are engaged in - the electrical profession. - -RADIO-TELEGRAPHY. By C. C. F. MONCKTON, M.I.E.E. With 173 Diagrams -and Illustrations. Extra Crown 8vo. 6_s._ net. - - CONTENTS:--Preface. Electric Phenomena. Electric Vibrations. - Electro-Magnetic Waves. Modified Hertz Waves used in - Radio-Telegraphy. Apparatus used for Charging the Oscillator. - The Electric Oscillator: Methods of Arrangement, Practical - Details. The Receiver: Methods of Arrangement, The Detecting - Apparatus, and other details. Measurements in Radio-Telegraphy. - The Experimental Station at Elmers End: Lodge-Muirhead System. - Radio-Telegraph Station at Nauen: Telefunken System. Station at - Lyngby: Poulsen System. The Lodge-Muirhead System, the Marconi - System, Telefunken System, and Poulsen System. Portable Stations. - Radio-Telephony. Appendices: The Morse Alphabet. Electrical Units - used in this Book. International Control of Radio-Telegraphy. - Index. - - _Nature._--"A very interesting and valuable book." - - -MATHEMATICS - -THE CALCULUS AND ITS APPLICATIONS. A PRACTICAL TREATISE FOR -BEGINNERS, ESPECIALLY ENGINEERING STUDENTS. With over 400 Examples, -many of them fully worked out. By ROBERT GORDON BLAINE, M.E., -Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Lecturer at the City Guilds' Technical College, -Finsbury, London, E.C. Author of "Hydraulic Machinery," "Lessons in -Practical Mechanics," "The Slide Rule," etc. Crown 8vo. 4_s._ 6_d._ -net. - - The difficulties which beset the beginner are fully explained, - and the principles of the differential and integral calculus, and - differential equations, are clearly set forth in the simplest - language; each rule being illustrated by practical examples. - Applications of the calculus to problems in engineering and - physics form a feature of the work, which concludes with an - up-to-date chapter on Harmonic Analysis, of special interest to - electrical engineers and students of electro-technics. - - -ENGINEERING - -ENGINEERING WORKSHOPS, MACHINES AND PROCESSES. By F. ZUR NEDDEN. -Translated by JOHN A. DAVENPORT. With an Introduction by SIR A. B. -W. KENNEDY, LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.M.E. Plates. Demy -8vo. 6_s._ net. - - A handbook of workshop practice for the young engineer. It fills - a gap in our books for the practical training of engineers. - -MACHINE DESIGN. By CHARLES H. BENJAMIN, Professor of Mechanical -Engineering in the Case School of Applied Science. Numerous -Diagrams and Tables. Demy 8vo. 8_s._ net. - - Prepared primarily as a text-book, but containing mainly what the - writer has found necessary in his own practice as an engineer. As - far as possible the formulas for the strength and stiffness of - machine details have been fortified by the results of experiments - or by the practical experience of manufacturers. - -THE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE: Being a Text-Book on Gas, Oil, and -Petrol Engines, for the use of Students and Engineers. By H. E. -WIMPERIS, M.A., Assoc.M. Inst.C.E., Assoc.M.Inst.E.E. Illustrated. -Crown 8vo. 6_s._ net. - - CONTENTS:--Introductory. Section I.--THEORY: Thermodynamic - Cycles. Combustion and Explosion. Thermodynamics. Section - II.--GAS ENGINES AND GAS PRODUCERS: The Gas Engine. The Gas - Producer. Blast Furnace and Coke-Oven Gases. Section III.--OIL - AND PETROL ENGINES: The Oil and Petrol Engine. Petrol Engine - Efficiency and Rating. Index. - -THE MODERN STEAM ENGINE: THEORY, DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, USE. A -Text-Book for Students. By JOHN RICHARDSON, M.Inst.C.E. With 300 -Illustrations. Demy 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ net. - - CONTENTS: Unit of Power. Natural Forces. Early Types of Engine. - The Watt Engine. The Use of Steam in Multiple Cylinder or - Compound Engines. Valve Gears. Double or Compound Slide Valves. - Releasing Valve Gear. Exhaust Valves and Valve Driving Gear. The - Governor. Electrical Regulation. Condensers. The Steam Turbine. - Design of Details. Examples of Various Types. Feed and Steam - Heating. Hints to Users. Appendix. Tables and Formulæ. Index. - - _Engineer._--"Essentially a practical treatise." - -THE CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES. Being -a Practical Manual for Gas Engine Designers, Repairs and Users. By -R. E. MATHOT. Translated by W. A. TOOKEY. Medium 8vo. With over 350 -Illustrations. 24_s._ net. - -THE ELEMENTS OF MECHANICS OF MATERIALS. A Text-Book for Students -in Engineering Courses. By C. E. HOUGHTON, A.B., M.M.E., Associate -Professor of Mechanical Engineering, New York University. 7_s._ -6_d._ net. - - CONTENTS: Chapter I.--APPLIED MECHANICS. Chapter - II.--APPLICATIONS. Chapter III.--BEAMS. Chapter IV.--TORSION. - Chapter V.--THE ELASTIC CURVE. Chapter VI.--LONG COLUMNS. Chapter - VII.--COMBINED STRESSES. Chapter VIII.--COMPOUND BARS AND BEAMS. - TABLES. - -HYDRAULICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS. By A. H. GIBSON, M.Sc., -Assoc.Mem.Inst.C.E., Victoria University, Manchester. 774 pages. -308 Figures. Demy 8vo. 15_s._ net. - - _Engineering Times._--"This is the best book to date on the subject." - -NATURAL SOURCES OF POWER. By ROBERT S. BALL, B.Sc., A.M.Inst.C.E. -With 104 Diagrams and Illustrations. Extra Crown 8vo. 6_s._ net. - - CONTENTS:--Preface. Units with Metric Equivalents and - Abbreviations Length and Distance. Surface and Area. Volumes. - Weights and Measures. Pressures. Linear Velocities. Angular - Velocities. Acceleration. Energy. Power. Introductory Water - Power and Methods of Measuring. Application of Water Power to - the Propulsion of Machinery. The Hydraulic Turbine. Various - Types of Turbines. Construction of Water Power Plants. Water - Power Installations. The Regulation of Turbines. Wind Pressure, - Velocity, and Methods of Measuring. The Application of Wind Power - to Industry. The Modern Windmill. Constructional Details. Power - of Modern Windmills. Appendices A, B, C. Index. - - -METALLURGY - -MALLEABLE CAST IRON. By S. JONES PARSONS, M.E. Illustrated. Demy -8vo. 8_s._ net. - - The information in this volume is thoroughly practical and - reliable, and the entire process of manufacture is clearly - explained, each stage being treated separately and in detail, - while much valuable information will be found in chapters dealing - with design, patterns, inspection, machining, supplementary - processes, and the application of the material, the use of which - has increased so enormously within the last few years that - it is now preferred to steel for many purposes. It is freely - illustrated with photographs and line drawings, and will be - invaluable to the professional man and the student. - -THE PRECIOUS METALS: COMPRISING GOLD, SILVER, AND PLATINUM. By T. -KIRKE ROSE, A.R.S.M., D.Sc. Extra Crown 8vo. 6_s._ net. - - CONTENTS:--History of Gold--Properties of Gold--Compounds - of Gold--Alloys of Gold--Occurrence of Gold in Nature: Gold - Ores--Extraction of Gold from its Ores: Gold Washing--Treatment - of Gold Ores by Crushing and Amalgamation--Treatment of Gold - Ores by Wet Methods--Silver and its Alloys--Compounds and Ores - of Silver--The Extraction of Silver from its Ores--Refining Gold - and Silver--The Assay of Gold and Silver Ores--The Assay of Gold - and Silver Bullion--Minting--Manufacture of Gold and Silver - Wares--Platinum--Production and Consumption of the Precious - Metals. - - -AGRICULTURE - -SOILS AND MANURES. By J. ALAN MURRAY, B.Sc. Demy 8vo. 6_s._ net. - - CONTENTS:--Preface. Chapter I.--Introductory. Chapter II.--The - Origin of Soils. Chapter III.--Physical Properties of Soils. - Chapter IV.--Chemistry of Soils. Chapter V.--Biology of - Soils. Chapter VI.--Fertility. Chapter VII.--Principles - of Manuring. Chapter VIII.--Phosphatic Manures. Chapter - IX.--Phospho-Nitrogenous Manures. Chapter X.--Nitrogenous - Manures. Chapter XI.--Potash Manures. Chapter XII.--Compound and - Miscellaneous Manures. Chapter XIII.--General Manures. Chapter - XIV.--Farmyard Manure. Appendices.--I. Valuation of Manures; II. - Composition and Manurial Value of Various Farm Foods. Index. - - -BOTANY - -PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY. By FREDERIC EDWARD CLEMENTS, Ph.D., -Professor of Botany in the University of Minnesota. With 125 -Illustrations. Demy 8vo. 10_s._ 6_d._ net. - -TIMBER. By J. R. BATERDEN, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Profusely Illustrated -from Photographs and Diagrams. Extra Crown 8vo. 6_s._ net. - - This is essentially a practical work, and botany is only - incidentally touched upon. The timbers dealt with are those in - most general use, either in their native districts or in the - timber trade, together with some others which are likely before - long to come into the market. - - -CYTOLOGY - -THE ESSENTIALS OF CYTOLOGY: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF LIVING -MATTER. By CHARLES EDWARD WALKER, Assistant Director of the -Cancer Research, Liverpool, and Honorary Lecturer in Cytology to -the School of Tropical Medicine in the University of Liverpool; -formerly Demonstrator of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, -London. Illustrated. Demy 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ net. - - -POLITICAL ECONOMY - -THE ELEMENTS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE. By STEPHEN LEACOCK, formerly -Lecturer on Political Science at McGill University, Montreal. Crown -8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ net. - - CONTENTS:--Part I.--THE NATURE OF THE STATE: I. Political - Science, the Theory of the State. II. The Origin of the State; - Fallacious Theories. III. The True Origin of the State. IV. The - Sovereignty of the State. V. The Liberty of the Individual. VI. - Relation of States to One Another. VII. The Form of the State. - Part II.--THE STRUCTURE OF THE GOVERNMENT: I. The Separation - of Powers. II. The Legislature. III. The Executive. IV. The - Judiciary and the Electorate. V. Federal Government. VI. Colonial - Government. VII. Local Government. VIII. Party Government. - Part III.--THE PROVINCE OF GOVERNMENT: I. Individualism. II. - Socialism. III. The Modern State. - - -PSYCHOLOGY - -PSYCHOLOGY: AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY OF THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF -HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS. By JAMES ROWLAND ANGELL. Demy 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ -net. - - -10 ORANGE STREET LEICESTER SQUARE W.C. - - - - - TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE - - Appendices I and II have several pages of 2-column data. These are - shown in the etext in single-column format. - - Appendix III consists of 3 side-by-side columns over two pages, - each rotated vertically in the original text. These are shown in - the etext with column 1 (the segment in English) first. 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*/ - position: absolute; - color: #A9A9A9; - left: 92%; - font-size: small; - font-weight: normal; - font-style: normal; - text-align: right; - text-indent: .5em; -} - -.blockquot {margin: .5em 5% .5em 5%; } - -.blockquotx {margin: .4em 0 0 0; font-size: 75%;} -.blockquotx p {padding-left: 4em; text-indent: -2em;} - -.center {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em;} -.right {text-align: right; margin-right: 1em;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} -@media handheld { -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} -} - -.u {text-decoration: underline;} - -.wsp {word-spacing: 0.3em;} - -.pg-brk {page-break-before: always;} -.no-brk {page-break-before: avoid;} - -/* Images */ -img {border: none; max-width: 100%; height: auto;} - -.figcenter { - margin: auto; - padding-top: 1em; - padding-bottom: 1em; - text-align: center; -} - -/* Footnotes */ -.footnotes {border: dashed 1px; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 3em; - padding-bottom: 1em;} - -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 90%;} -.footnote p {text-indent: 0em;} -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: - none; -} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote { - background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:90%; - padding:0.5em; - margin-top:5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; -} - -.transnote p {text-indent: 0em;} - - </style> - </head> - - -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of International Language and Science, by -L. Couturat and O. Jespersen and W. Ostwald and L. Pfaundler and R. Lorenz - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: International Language and Science - Considerations on the Introduction of an International - Language into Science - -Author: L. Couturat - O. Jespersen - W. Ostwald - L. Pfaundler - R. Lorenz - -Translator: F. G. Donnan - -Release Date: May 9, 2017 [EBook #54694] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE *** - - - - -Produced by MWS, John Campbell and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - -</pre> - - - -<div class="transnote"> -<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE</strong></p> - -<p>Some unusual letters and symbols are accurately represented with -Unicode characters. (Some handheld devices may not support combining -diacriticals such as the circumflex.) These are:</p> - -<p class="pad2"> -consonants with a circumflex accent <em>ĉ</em> <em>ĝ</em> <em>ĥ</em> <em>ĵ</em> <em>ŝ</em>;<br /> -letter c with an acute accent <em>ć</em>;<br /> -the diphthong ou with macrons <em>ōū</em> (many platforms<br /> - do not support the combining double macron);<br /> -and the calculus integral symbol ∫.</p> - -<p>Some minor changes to the text are noted at <a href="#TN">the end of the book.</a></p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="figcenter pg-brk"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="600" alt="original cover" /> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p class="p6" /> - -<h1>INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE<br /> -AND SCIENCE</h1> - -<p class="p6" /> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> - -<p class="pfs240"> -INTERNATIONAL<br /> -LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE</p> - -<p class="p1 pfs135">Considerations on the Introduction of an<br /> -International Language into Science</p> - -<p class="p4 pfs60">BY</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc">L. COUTURAT</td><td class="tdc">O. JESPERSEN</td><td class="tdc">R. LORENZ</td></tr> -<tr class="fs70"><td class="tdc">Formerly Professor at the University of Caen.</td><td class="tdc">Professor at the University of Copenhagen.</td><td class="tdc">Professor at the Federal Polytechnicum of Zürich.</td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="p1" /> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc">W. OSTWALD</td><td class="tdc">L. PFAUNDLER</td></tr> -<tr class="fs70"><td class="tdc">Professor emeritus of the University<br />of Leipzig.</td><td class="tdc">Professor at the University<br />of Graz.</td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="p2 pfs60">TRANSLATED BY</p> - -<p class="pfs120 wsp">F. G. DONNAN</p> - -<p class="pfs70">Professor at the University<br /> -of Liverpool.</p> - -<p class="p6 pfs120">LONDON</p> -<p class="pfs135">CONSTABLE & COMPANY LIMITED</p> -<p class="pfs135"><span class="fs80">10</span> ORANGE STREET LEICESTER SQUARE W.C.</p> -<p class="pfs120">1910</p> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> - -<p class="p6" /> -<p class="pfs60"> -BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO. LD., PRINTERS,<br /> -LONDON AND TONBRIDGE</p> -<p class="p6" /> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="fs150"><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">PREFACE</a></h2> - -<p>The question of a so-called world-language, or better -expressed, an international auxiliary language, was during -the now past Volapük period, and is still in the present -Esperanto movement, so much in the hands of Utopians, -fanatics and enthusiasts, that it is difficult to form an -unbiassed opinion concerning it, although a good idea lies -at its basis. Both the Volapükists and Esperantists confused -the linguistic aspect of the question with so many side -issues that, not only was it difficult to see the former in its -true light, but also the leaders of the various movements -were unable to guide them in the right direction. For this -reason discussions concerning an international auxiliary -language appeared with good reason to many people to be -unpractical, impossible, or indeed even ridiculous. Matters -have, however, changed since the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Délégation pour l'adoption -d'une langue auxiliaire internationale</cite> has taken the matter -up. This International Commission, with its headquarters -in Paris, and consisting of literary and scientific men of -eminent reputation, was entrusted with the task of investigating -the general question of an international auxiliary -language. The Delegation has, in the course of an activity -extending over seven years, succeeded in showing that a -sound idea lies at the root of the various movements for a -universal language. Freed from all extraneous considerations, -this idea involves the purely linguistic question of the -introduction of an international auxiliary language. On the -other hand, the Delegation has found that neither Volapük -nor Esperanto have succeeded in solving the problem. As, -however, Esperanto was found to contain a number of good<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span> -principles, the Commission finally resolved to work out on -purely scientific principles an international auxiliary language -on the basis of Esperanto. The whole question of -the introduction of an international auxiliary language has -thus arrived at a stage in which it appears worthy of serious -discussion. Under these circumstances, the writers of this -brochure considered it their first duty to draw the attention -of scientific and literary men to the matter, and so initiate -discussion.</p> - -<p>The object of this book will have been attained, should -they have succeeded in explaining the present state of the -question, and in showing that it is already possible to -discuss the introduction of an international auxiliary language -into science, and indeed even seriously to make the -attempt to carry it out. It may be remarked that the five -authors of this book live in five different countries, and -belong to three different languages. The very considerable -correspondence required for the production of their book -was carried out with the greatest success in the <em>Linguo -Internaciona</em>, whenever any two of the correspondents -possessed different mother-tongues.</p> - -<p class="right padr2">Paris, Copenhagen, Zürich, Gross-Bothen, Graz.</p> - -<p class="right padr4"><span class="smcap">L. Couturat</span>, <span class="smcap">O. Jespersen</span>, <span class="smcap">R. Lorenz</span>,</p> -<p class="right"><span class="smcap">W. Ostwald</span>, <span class="smcap">L. Pfaundler</span>.</p> - -<p class="fs80"><em>March, 1909.</em></p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="fs150">TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE</h2> - -<p>The scientific attitude of mind is necessarily critical, -but never sceptical without proper investigation and knowledge. -The Translator hopes, therefore, that English-speaking -men of science will not judge the question of -international language before they have quietly and dispassionately -examined the arguments so ably set forth in -the following pages. It is not a question of "another -language"; it is a question of the final solution by the -methods of science of one of the greatest of scientific -problems.</p> - -<p>Internationalisation of thought is the motto of the -twentieth century, the device on the banner of progress. -Science, the Super-Nation of the world, must lead the way -in this as in all other things. Amidst the clangour and the -clamour of political and commercial strife, the quiet empire -of knowledge grows, noiseless and unseen. Let all those -who believe that this peaceful empire is destined to become -the controlling force of the world assist in the attunement -of its common language.</p> - -<p>The Translator wishes to thank his friend and colleague, -Professor J. P. Postgate, for having very kindly revised the -translation of <a href="#CHAPTER_III">Chapters III.</a> and <a href="#CHAPTER_IV">IV.</a></p> - -<p class="right"><span class="smcap">F. G. Donnan.</span></p> - -<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">University of Liverpool</span>,</p> -<p class="pad2"><em>March, 1910</em>.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 class="fs150"><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>TABLE OF CONTENTS</h2> - -<div class="center fs90"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdry fs60">PAGE</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#PREFACE">Preface</a></td><td class="tdr"> </td><td class="tdry">v</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<hr class="r30a" /> -<div class="center fs90"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl fs60" colspan="2">CHAPTER</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrx"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">I.</a></td><td class="tdl">The need for a common scientific language, by L. Pfaundler</td><td class="tdry">1</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrx"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">II.</a></td><td class="tdl">The <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Délégation pour l'adoption d'une langue auxiliaire internationale</cite>, by R. Lorenz</td><td class="tdry">11</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrx"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">III.</a></td><td class="tdl">Linguistic principles necessary for the construction of an international auxiliary language, - with an appendix on the criticism of Esperanto, by O. Jespersen</td><td class="tdry">27</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrx"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">IV.</a></td><td class="tdl">On the application of logic to the problem of an international language, by L. Couturat</td><td class="tdry">42</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrx"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">V.</a></td><td class="tdl">The relationship of the international language to science, by R. Lorenz</td><td class="tdry">53</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrx"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">VI.</a></td><td class="tdl">The question of nomenclature, by W. Ostwald</td><td class="tdry">61</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrx"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">VII.</a></td><td class="tdl">Conclusion; Reading, Writing, and Speaking, by L. Pfaundler</td><td class="tdry">69</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<hr class="r30a" /> -<div class="center fs90"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdrx"> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrx smcap"><a href="#APPENDIX_I">Appendix I.</a></td><td class="tdl"><em>Linguo Internaciona di la Delegitaro</em>; grammar, word-formation, list of grammatical words</td><td class="tdry">75</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrx">" <a href="#APPENDIX_II"> II.</a></td><td class="tdl">Specimen pages from the International-English Dictionary</td><td class="tdry">82</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrx">" <a href="#APPENDIX_III"> III.</a></td><td class="tdl">An experiment in double translation</td><td class="tdry">84</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrx">" <a href="#APPENDIX_IV"> IV.</a></td><td class="tdl"><em>Uniono di l'amiki di la linguo internaciona</em>; extracts from the provisional statutes, and membership form</td><td class="tdry">86</td></tr> -</table></div> -<p class="p4" /> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> - -<p class="p4" /> - -<p class="pfs180">INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE<br /> -AND SCIENCE</p> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER I</a></h2> - -<p class="center smcap padb">The Need for a Common Scientific Language</p> - -<p>All who are occupied with the reading or writing of -scientific literature have assuredly very often felt the want -of a common scientific language, and regretted the great -loss of time and trouble caused by the multiplicity of -languages employed in scientific literature.</p> - -<p>The remarkable and regrettable feature of this state of -affairs is that we once possessed, and have now lost, such a -common language, namely, Latin. Even in the first third of -the last century Gauss wrote a portion of his mathematical and -physical papers in Latin, and up to the middle of the last -century the dissertations of the scientific candidates at the -German universities were translated into Latin by their -philological colleagues, since the former were no longer -sufficiently conversant with that language. The fall of Latin -as the language of scholars and men of science could not, -however, be prevented, nor does there exist the faintest -chance of its ever recovering its lost position. The reasons -for this are known to all. The rise and development of -science, for the expression of whose ideas the language of -Cicero no longer sufficed, the fall of scholasticism, with its -Church Latin, the diffusion of knowledge amongst people -not possessing a university training, the foundation of -technical high schools, and, finally, the growing national<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> -sentiment and jealousy of nations who sought to further -the spread of their national languages by using them in -the works of their scientific men—all this has contributed -to displace Latin by the modern national languages. The -result is that, instead of one common language for scholars -and men of science, we now possess three.</p> - -<p>It is required or supposed that every scholar or man of -science should know at least German, French, and English. -For the majority of German scholars and men of science -this may hold good, but in the case of the French it is less -true, and in the case of the English least of all. The -knowledge of these three languages is, however, no longer -sufficient, and that for the following reasons.</p> - -<p>In the first place, several other languages must be taken -into account, for many Italians write only Italian, many -Dutchmen only Dutch, whilst numerous Russians, Poles, -Czechs, Hungarians, Scandinavians, and Spaniards employ -only their national languages. In this way much escapes -general knowledge and recognition, or is only accessible in a -belated or mutilated form.</p> - -<p>In the second place, the difficulty of a quick mutual understanding -is great, even for those who can command these -three chief languages. If one is possessed of a little natural -talent, one can by dint of industry and much loss of time -easily get so far as to read or understand a paper or a letter -in a foreign language, but when it comes to writing (replying) -the task is incomparably more difficult. One can, however, -not assume, when a German scholar or man of science replies -in German to a letter written in French or English, that he -will be always understood.</p> - -<p>The matter is much worse in the case of oral intercourse, -especially at scientific congresses. At these the three chief -languages mentioned above are usually now declared to be -official, that is to say, permissible for the delivery of papers. -As a matter of fact, however, the language of the country in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> -which the congress is held usually dominates. The German -speaks French in Paris, but the Englishman mostly only -English, and demands, as occurred at the recent Refrigeration -Congress in Paris, the translation into English of the papers -read at the sectional meetings. Only very few can take part -in the discussions, and many must be well content if they -are able to understand the usually rapidly delivered papers. -Many an important criticism is not made because one does -not possess the expertness necessary for discussing a question -in a foreign language, and does not wish to expose oneself to -the chance of a rebuff, caused not so much by ignorance of -the matter in hand as by want of facility in expression.</p> - -<p>Every member of a congress has noticed that whenever -the language employed in the papers changes, a considerable -number of the audience leave with more or less noise, -in order to avoid being compelled to listen to a paper which -they do not understand. Congresses would be certainly -much better attended were it not that these difficulties keep -many away.</p> - -<p>One cannot hope that an increasing diffusion of the -knowledge of the three chief languages will cause these -difficulties to diminish, still less to disappear. They will, -rather, increase still more, since the number of national -languages desiring to take part in the work of civilisation -is constantly growing. Already, at the present time, -Italian, Spanish, Dutch, and the Scandinavian and Slavonic -languages must be taken into account, besides the three -chief languages. National sentiment forces the scientific -men of these countries to use the national languages, even -when they perceive that this procedure does not conduce to -mutual understanding. Even if the scientific men themselves -were completely free from national <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">amour propre</i>, they -would be obliged by their fellow-countrymen to employ their -own languages, not so much for the purpose of advancing -scientific knowledge and learning as in order to contribute<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> -by means of their literary and scientific works to the diffusion -of their languages and the advancement of their nations. -Whoever has observed this phenomenon will be forced to -the conclusion that amongst scientific men, at least in -Europe, this state of affairs is getting worse rather than -better.</p> - -<p>The increase of the participating languages involves an -increase of the periodicals, just at a time when a concentration -of the periodical literature is most desirable. The cost -of subscriptions, translations, storing, and registration, and -the labour and time spent thereon, increase from year to -year. Above all, there is a want of translators; ordinary -interpreters are not sufficient, since a special knowledge of -each subject is required. Where are such persons to be -found in sufficient numbers? And how few and far between -are those who, when they possess the requisite training, are -willing to content themselves with the poorly paid remuneration -of a translator!</p> - -<p>Bad or erroneous translations and faulty abstracts are -very harmful; it would be better in such cases that no -translation should exist, as then the original would have to -be consulted. These difficulties, many more of which could -be mentioned, are well known to all scientific men, since -each has suffered more or less from them.</p> - -<p>The question then is, What remedy can we apply? One -proposal is to introduce into secondary schools the teaching -of modern instead of classical languages, in order to render -the students, after matriculation at the universities, capable -of taking part in international scientific intercourse. -This proposal has arisen from the view that the learning -of modern <em>added</em> to that of the classical languages would -overburden the secondary schools, whilst the learning of -modern languages at the universities would cause equal or -greater difficulties.</p> - -<p>Few young people possess, during their years at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> -university, sufficient keenness and moral courage to subject -themselves to the ordeal of linguistic studies, from which -they have joyfully escaped on their entrance into the -university. Few possess at that age a full conception of -the usefulness and necessity of a knowledge of languages. -And it is just those young people who wish to devote themselves -to the professions of literature or science who ought -to devote their whole time and full powers to their professional -work, and not be obliged to break up their time -with linguistic studies.</p> - -<p>The proposal to exclude the classical languages from the -secondary schools has encountered, however, from many -quarters very weighty objections, the force of which cannot be -denied, even by the opposite side. We shall, however, not -enter into this much-debated question, contenting ourselves -with the remark that at the present day insuperable -obstacles stand in the way of a complete or partial substitution -of modern for classical languages. Experience shows -also that the teaching of modern languages in schools seldom -leads to a practical result, although it must be conceded that -nowadays, with newer methods, much better results are -obtained than formerly, when the grammar, but not the -practical use, was taught. If, therefore, the teaching of -modern languages cannot well be carried out either at the -universities or in the schools, there remains only the time -before school studies. It is, in fact, possible (as is done in -many well-to-do families), by means of a French or German -governess, to teach a child, besides its mother tongue, one -of these languages, in so far as its mental development -permits. It is probably inadvisable to teach more than one -new language in this way, in order to avoid injury to the -child's own mother tongue. Such a knowledge, however, is -quite insufficient for the needs of the young scientific man, -and so the acquaintance with a language gained in this way -requires constant extension and development.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p> - -<p>But even assuming that the young man continues the -study of the language that he has learnt as a child, or even -indeed learns another during his school days, he will possess -at best that approximate knowledge of the three chief -languages which we have characterised above as being -neither qualitatively nor quantitatively sufficient, because it -does not suffice for oral intercourse, and because other -languages must be taken into account.</p> - -<p>The proposal has, therefore, been made to choose, by -international agreement, <em>one</em> of the national languages as a -universal <em>intermediary</em> language. If everybody learnt this -language, then the difficulty would be surmounted.</p> - -<p>This proposal is, however, still-born. Every attempt to -realise it is bound to be shipwrecked on the rock of national -jealousy, as has been often shown before, for it is evident -that the nation whose language was chosen would receive a -very great advantage. The widely spoken English language -possesses, it is true, a very simple grammar, but it would be -very unsuitable for this purpose on account of its extremely -difficult pronunciation.</p> - -<p>Just as science has succeeded in giving to the world a -uniform system of weights and measures by choosing -instead of a national unit of length one common to all -nations, namely, the length of an earth quadrant, so only -that language could find general acceptance which was based -on the common possession of those peoples for whom it was -intended. By that we mean the stock of words common to -the three great families of languages, the Germanic, Romance, -and Slavonic.</p> - -<p>Against this the objection will be raised: "An artificial -language; in other words, a Utopia! How could one think -of artificially creating a language, which, after all, is a living -and spontaneously developing organism? One might as -well think of artificially creating a live horse!"</p> - -<p>It is true that one cannot make a live horse, but one can<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> -make an automobile, which under certain circumstances may -replace the horse, and even excel its performance. But no -one would think on that account of totally doing away with -horses. In a similar manner the partisans of an artificial -language have no wish to displace the natural languages. -In poetry and imaginative literature, wherein the soul of a -nation finds its highest expression, the mother-tongue will -always be supreme.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> - -<p>"But it is unthinkable," one will say, "that an artificial -language would ever be generally accepted."</p> - -<p>Such statements must be received with caution, for they -have turned out more than once to be wrong. The introduction -of a common system of weights and measures was -also declared to be impossible at one time, nevertheless it -has since been carried out in science. The construction of -a system of telegraph wires connecting the whole civilised -world and a telegraph alphabet common to all nations was -declared seventy years ago to be an impossibility. Now it -is ancient history.</p> - -<p>The maritime nations have agreed upon a common code -of signals. When the English sailor arrives at the Japanese -coast, he translates the sentences he wishes to transmit into -numbers, which he signals by means of flags, and the Japanese -port official translates the signalled numbers by means of the -code into Japanese sentences. Why should it therefore be -impossible to introduce instead of this intermediary <em>numerical</em> -language an intermediary <em>word</em> language, which would give -expression to thought in a better and more direct manner?<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> - -<p>"Quite so, but such an intermediary language would be -much more difficult to create than a code of signals arranged -for a limited number of words and phrases."</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></p> - -<p>How would it be if this difficulty had been already overcome, -and the intermediary language already created and -proved to be serviceable?</p> - -<p>"But that would amount to adding a new language to be -learnt to the ones we already have to learn; there would be -no advantage in that!"</p> - -<p>If, however, this "new" language was really not "new," -consisting mostly of words known to every educated person; -if its grammar was so simple that its principles could be -learned within an hour; and if, therefore, any educated -person who knew a single Romance language could learn the -whole language in an incredibly short time, would it not be -an advantage to acquire it?</p> - -<p>To prove this is a simple problem of permutations and -combinations, and the proof possesses all the certainty of -mathematical reasoning. We shall demonstrate that by an -example.</p> - -<p>Suppose a large town contains ten districts, each possessing -a pneumatic post-office. In order to connect each district -with all the others, one could lay from each of the ten post-offices -nine tubes to the remaining nine post-offices. That -would require -<span class="blkb"> - <span class="blka u">(10 × 9)</span> - <span class="blka">2</span> -</span> -= 45 tubes. The problem could, -however, be solved much more easily and cheaply by connecting -each of the post-offices by means of a single tube -with a central post-office, which would receive and distribute -all the letters, as is actually the case in practice. We -should then require only ten tubes.</p> - -<p>Substitute now for the districts imagined above the -languages, German, French, English, Italian, Russian, -Spanish, etc., with the condition that every person speaking -one language should be able to correspond with everybody -speaking a different language. In the case of ten languages -we should require for every correspondent nine dictionaries, -or altogether ninety dictionaries.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p> - -<p>Every correspondent would have to know nine languages -besides his own. If, however, we employed an intermediary -language, each person would only require to know this -language besides his own. The matter is so simple and the -advantage so exceedingly obvious that one can only wonder -why it has not been recognised and carried out long ago.</p> - -<p>It is quite self-evident that, if one wishes to become -acquainted with the imaginative literature and the inner -thoughts and feelings of a foreign nation, one cannot content -oneself with translations, but must study a language in its -own country. But how many people learn French in order -to become acquainted with its literature? The existence of -an intermediary language would interfere with such linguistic -studies just as little as the invention of the automobile -prevents anybody from using a riding or carriage horse. -There is no necessity, therefore, for philologists or professional -linguists to be hostile to the project, since their -sphere of work and influence will not be in any way -diminished thereby. On the contrary, the creation of an -artificial language has led to so many interesting questions -relating to the structure, and to such a deeper insight into -the nature of language, and has attracted so many to its -study, that this beautiful department of knowledge will only -derive advantage therefrom.</p> - -<p>It is also remarkable that the original work of Dr. Zamenhof, -which in its principles was characterised by genius, but in -its execution was imperfect and therefore insufficient, has -only through the reforming labours of distinguished philologists -attained to that perfection of form and principle -required to make it the international auxiliary language of the -civilised world. The difficulty of the undertaking no longer -lies in the language itself, but, rather, in the task of inspiring -all concerned, and especially the leading thinkers, with -the conviction that it is practically realisable. If this conviction -can be sufficiently spread, the introduction of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> -auxiliary language will only be a matter of a few months. -In order, however, to form an opinion on the possibility of -this realisation, it is, in the first place, necessary to become -acquainted with the main principles, structure, and origin of -the language which we recommend.</p> - -<p class="right smcap">L. Pfaundler.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER II</a></h2> - -<p class="pfs80 padb"><i>THE <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">"DÉLÉGATION POUR L'ADOPTION D'UNE LANGUE AUXILIAIRE -INTERNATIONALE"</span></i></p> - -<p>One of the most important problems of present day -civilisation is the introduction of an international auxiliary -language.</p> - -<p>We boast of our international intercourse. The civilised -world has extended to new nations and has embraced whole -regions of the earth, and yet, in spite of the magnificent -means of material communication, nothing of a similar -nature has been done for the purpose of uniting minds -together in an equally practical manner. Recently, however, -an event has occurred at Paris which brings us a step -further in this direction. The <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Délégation pour l'Adoption -d'une Langue Auxiliaire Internationale</i>, which was formed in -1900 as a result of the Paris Exhibition, has, after an -activity of seven years, arrived at a definite decision.</p> - -<p>The very fact that modern international relations have -brought about such a delegation and entrusted it with work -should be sufficient to emphasise the importance of the -problem. It is not true that the need for an international -auxiliary language disappears with the knowledge of several -national languages, as has been asserted by many who, on -account of their personal knowledge, have not experienced -it. This is especially true of some philologists who overlook -the fact that languages form the object of their special -studies, and draw conclusions from themselves concerning -the needs of others. Expertness in the use of languages -does not come so readily to the scientific investigator and the -technologist, whose work lies in other directions, and so it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> -is in these quarters that the movement for the introduction -of an international auxiliary language receives the greatest -support. To this must be added the fact that, as Ostwald -has aptly remarked, the scientific investigator regards -language only as a means of making himself understood. -Language is <em>not</em> for him something "which thinks and -poetises," but rather an instrument for conveying his knowledge -and wishes to other people, much after the fashion -whereby the musician is enabled to convey his feelings by -means of musical notation and the instruments of the -orchestra. The question of the suitability of a language is -important in this connection; and so it does not appear so -very strange that it is just the scientific investigators, -technologists, and philosophers who have never been quite -satisfied with living or dead languages. How otherwise can -we explain the fact that it is just they who are constantly -solving philological problems and constantly occupied with -the invention not only of new signs and symbols (mathematical, -chemical, crystallographic), but also new words? -The fact is that science, philosophy, and technology are -constantly waging a fierce battle with existing languages. -What they want is a language as simple and clear as the -fundamental laws of nature, as logical as the precision of -experiment, and as many-sided as the complexity of the -facts which it has to describe. And so they are constantly -working at the creation of this language, all the words -invented by science finding their way unceasingly through -the channels of technology into the general vocabulary. -These words possess the special property of being international, -that is to say, understood by all civilised -nations, including the Japanese. We do not wish, however, -to stop at this stage of development; we wish to be able to -internationalise not only single ideas, but also the whole -train of thought. For this purpose it is impracticable to -make use of any of the national languages, since they are all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> -so unsuitable, illogical, capricious, and complicated that the -student must learn to steer clear of thousands of difficulties -before he is able to express himself fairly correctly. <em>It is -possible to construct an artificial language with such a regular -structure that it can be employed at once without making -mistakes.</em></p> - -<p>In accordance with these ideas, the programme of the -Delegation was as follows:—</p> - -<p>"(1) It is desirable that an international auxiliary language -should be introduced which, though not intended to replace -the natural languages in the internal life of nations, should -be adapted to written and oral intercourse between persons -of different mother-tongues.</p> - -<p>"(2) Such an international language must, in order to fulfil -its object, satisfy the following conditions:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>"(a) It must be capable of serving the needs of science -as well as those of daily life, commerce, and general -intercourse.</p> - -<p>"(b) It must be capable of being easily learnt by all -persons of average elementary education, especially -those belonging to the civilised nations of Europe.</p> - -<p>"(c) It must not be any one of the living national -languages.</p></div> - -<p>"(3) The decision as to the choice of a language is to be -referred in the first place to the International Association of -Academies, but if the latter should refuse to consider the -matter or come to no decision, to the committee of the -Delegation.</p> - -<p>"(4) Circulars are to be sent to learned, commercial, and -legal societies requesting them to signify their approval of -the above programme."</p> - -<p>The success of this appeal was extraordinary. It was -now evident for the first time how many thousands of -people of all nations were enthusiastically in favour of the -introduction of an international auxiliary language. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> -<cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">État de la Délégation</cite>, which the latter published yearly, -included on October 1st, 1907, in the list of corporate -bodies alone, the names of 310 clubs, societies, and congresses, -not a few of which possessed a membership exceeding -1,000. It is interesting to rapidly pass in review the -extremely varied character of the societies included therein. -We find, for example, commercial schools, chambers of -commerce, merchants' clubs, stenographers, the printing -trade, correspondence bureaus, photographic clubs, associations -of municipal and other officials, societies of shipping -employés, legal clubs, pedagogic and religious societies, -officers' clubs, institutes for the deaf and dumb and for the -blind, sociological, medical, and health societies, peace -clubs, political and graphological societies, touring, bicycle, -and automobile clubs, sport clubs, bibliographic societies -and library staffs, and finally all sorts of special scientific -societies and congresses. Arranged according to nationality, -we find representatives of France, England, Germany, -Switzerland, Denmark, Spain, Greece, Italy, Belgium, -Norway, Sweden, Holland, Russia (including Poland), -Roumania, Austria (including Bohemia and Hungary), -Mexico, Peru, the Argentine, Algeria, Tunis, the United -<ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'States, Chili,'">States, Chile,</ins> etc. There is also the "academic list," -which contains the names of no less than 1,250 professors, -belonging to 189 universities, technical high schools, and -academies of science, and coming from 110 parts of the -globe, extending as far as India and Japan. It may be -stated without exaggeration that the programme of the -Delegation found an enthusiastic response in all parts of -the world and from people of nearly every occupation and -profession, many persons and societies expressing themselves -in favour of the introduction of an international auxiliary -language on the condition that it should not be one of the -living languages.</p> - -<p>During the seven years of its existence the Delegation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> -has carried out the duties entrusted to it in an exemplary -manner, and has performed a gigantic amount of work. -In May, 1907, the Delegation considered the time had -come to lay the matter before the International Association -of Academies. At that time the report was very -wide-spread that the Association had altogether refused -to consider the matter. In reality the Vienna Academy, as -President of that year, decided to bring the question before -the Association, but the latter declined to take the matter -up (twelve votes to eight, one member not voting). At this -point the Delegation had the right and the duty to speak -out. It obtained an expression of opinion from the representatives -of all the associated societies and clubs. The -result of this was the formation of a working committee, -consisting of sixteen members, almost entirely scholars and -men of science of reputation and members of the different -scientific academies. With the representatives of natural -science and mathematics were associated philologists and -linguists. The committee began to sit on October 15th, -1907, and, after eighteen sittings held in the Collège de -France, arrived at a decision.</p> - -<p>Before we enter into this matter more fully it will be -desirable to give a brief sketch of the historical development -of artificial language.</p> - -<p>Anyone desiring to go more deeply into the history of this -question (already three hundred years old) and the practical -attempts at its realisation may be referred to the masterly -work of L. Couturat and L. Leau, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Histoire de <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'la Langue Universale'">la Langue -Universelle</ins></cite> (Paris, 1903). In what follows only a few of the -most important points will be mentioned.</p> - -<p>The oldest extant reference to the problem of an international -language appears to be contained in the letter -written by Descartes on November 20th, 1629, to his -friend Mersenne. The great philosopher here explains the -principles which convinced him that it would be possible to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> -construct an artificial language which could be used as an -international auxiliary language. As for Leibnitz, who was -attracted throughout his whole life by this problem, his -language projects have been recently investigated by L. -Couturat by means of documents, many of which have never -before been published (<cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Logique de Leibnitz</cite> and <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Opuscules -et Fragments Inédits de Leibnitz</cite>). There may further be -mentioned the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ars signorum Vulgo Charakter Universalis et -Lingua Philosophica</cite> (London, 1661) of George Dalgarno, and -the recently discovered memoir of an unknown author -entitled <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Carpophorophili Novum inveniendæ Scripturæ Œcumenicæ -Consilium</cite> (Leipzig, 1734). The last-mentioned -system in particular strikes one as highly modern in -principle.</p> - -<p>It was only, however, at the end of the last century that -the era of practical things began with the Volapük of -Schleyer. The success of this language was very considerable. -It possessed about thirty journals, published in the -most different countries, even in Japan, and its literature has -been estimated at from 300 to 400 works. The official lists -published in 1889 contained the names of 255 local groups -belonging to the "Universal Language Society," some of -which possessed a very considerable membership. The -teaching of the language was highly organised, there being -900 teachers, 200 head teachers, and 50 "professors." -This great linguistic experiment was very instructive, and -its significance cannot be underrated. Important conclusions -concerning the theory and practice of artificial -language can be drawn from it, and especially from a -consideration of the circumstances which finally led to the -downfall of Volapük. It turned out that this was due to -the errors which Volapük itself contained, showing us that -in these matters, as in others, practical experience is the best -teacher. The fate of Volapük was sealed when its supporters, -in the year 1889, made the experiment of organising<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> -a congress at which Volapük should be spoken. Although -a few Volapükists succeeded in speaking the language, it -was only too painfully evident that such a goal could not be -reached with this system. Almost simultaneously with -Volapük another artificial language had been invented. The -Russian medical man Dr. Zamenhof published his system -in 1887 under the pseudonym of "Doktoro Esperanto." -But as Esperanto arrived while Volapük was at its zenith, -it failed at first to attract general attention. It found, -however, in France, an enthusiastic supporter in the -Marquis de Beaufront, who had himself worked out an -international language called "Adjuvanto." He gave this up -as soon as he came to know about Esperanto, and founded -the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Société Française pour la Propagation de l'Esperanto</cite> -and the journal <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L'Esperantiste</cite> (now in its tenth year). -France soon became the centre of the new movement, and -indeed almost the whole existence and magnitude of the -Esperanto movement was due to the influence of this man. -Since then Esperanto has extended to all countries. The -Esperanto journals appear mostly in a bilingual form, the -number of them being, as in the Volapük movement, about -forty-five, whilst there exist a few journals and periodicals -published exclusively in Esperanto. A special significance -attaches to the international congresses organised by the -Esperantists, at which only Esperanto is spoken. In 1905, -at Boulogne-sur-Mer, there assembled 600 members, belonging -to about fifteen different nationalities. The differences -of pronunciation which, on account of certain peculiarities -of construction in Esperanto, must necessarily appear -amongst the Romance nationalities and the English, were -not, we are told, sufficiently marked to prevent mutual -comprehension. The second congress took place at Geneva -in 1906. At the third congress, in Cambridge, in 1907, there -were present about 1,400 members, whilst at the fourth -congress, in Dresden, in 1908, there assembled also 1,400<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> -members. Whatever opinion one may hold about these -congresses, at which much confusion and misunderstanding, -and indeed even much that was ridiculous, took place, they -represent, without doubt, a great and remarkable philological -experiment, and one which demonstrates the possibility of -synthetically constructing a language that can be spoken. -On the other hand, however, the Esperanto congresses -showed, according to the concordant testimony of all persons -of unbiassed opinion, that the Esperanto language in no -wise represents the final solution of the problem. All farsighted -leaders of the Esperanto movement have been for a -long time the more fully conscious of this state of affairs -the more profound their knowledge of the Esperanto -language. Chief amongst them may be mentioned M. de -Beaufront himself, who has come forward as one of the -leaders of reform, a reform which in many important -respects was recognised as necessary by Dr. Zamenhof -himself in a series of interesting memoirs. The recommendations -of Dr. Zamenhof were, however, rejected in -1894 by the so-called "Fundamentists" (157 votes to 107), -who were supported by a few great publishing firms -interested in the preservation of Esperanto. By reason -of the fact that the Esperanto alphabet contains no fewer -than six special letters to be found in no ordinary printing -fount, the firms referred to possess the monopoly of the -very considerable trade in this literature. The Fundamentists -hold the view that, in spite of a few errors in the -auxiliary language, its success can only be assured by -absolute conservatism. They have, therefore, declared the -grammar, together with the reading book and vocabulary, -published by Zamenhof under the title of <cite>Fundamento de -Esperanto</cite>, to be sacrosanct, and go so far in this matter -as to revere as "correct" and "classical" Esperanto the -infringements of his own rules, the grammatical errors, and -even the misprints to be found in the <cite>Fundamento</cite>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p> - -<p>The idea of a powerful organisation has undoubtedly at -first sight something very attractive about it. One must, -however, not forget, even in the case of an international -language, that no organisation in the world can arrest the -progress of a necessary development. Every human contrivance -and invention is subject to change, errors and -deficiencies being corrected. Especially is a rational -development inevitable in the case of things, such as an -international language, which are subject to the control of -our intelligence. Conversely it is not difficult to reply to -the question, How is it then possible, when a system has -once been chosen, to carry it out and preserve it? For -there are two fundamental qualities which, happily for us, -are apparent in the history of inventions, and each of which -confers stability quite apart from any conventions, namely, a -high degree of rational development based on the most profound -knowledge and an extraordinary empirical perfection. -As examples of the latter may be mentioned the notation of -music, which since Guido d'Arezzo (born in 990), or at -any rate since Johann Sebastian Bach, has not appreciably -changed; the division of time into twenty-four hours and of -the hour into sixty minutes, which is at least three hundred -years old; the face, mechanism, and hands of a watch, which -date, with unimportant changes, from the Renaissance; and, -finally, the violin, which retains up to the present day the -characteristic form which the ancient Italians gave it. Is -it not wonderful that this strangely carved piece of wood -must possess just that particular form in order to yield its -harmonious tones?</p> - -<p>As examples of the former may be quoted almost all -modern achievements. The metric and decimal systems -have come to stay. The bicycle, the motor car, and the -typewriting machine have undergone successive improvements -till finally they have attained to their more or less -definite form. We see from this that when inventions have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> -once reached a certain degree of suitability they are not -afterwards easily replaced by others. There is, therefore, -only one adequate criterion of the stability of an international -language, namely, that of suitability or adaptation -to its purpose, and we maintain that it is only by means of -continuous reforms and improvements that it will succeed in -satisfying this criterion and so finally attain to stability. -In the work of Couturat and Leau, referred to above, there -are described about ten artificial languages which have -sprung up during and after the period of Volapük and -Esperanto, and in which the experience of their predecessors -has been more or less made use of. A study of -these attempts leads to the surprising result that they often -differ amongst themselves less than, for example, the -Romance languages. If, then, one were to choose any one -of these languages and to direct its systematic development -according to the principles which experience and knowledge -have shown to be requisite for the construction of an international -language, one would in each case arrive finally at -approximately the same result.</p> - -<p>At the present day the rapid development in every -department of life has made us only too ready to regard -everything around us as transient. We forget, however, -that the rapidly accumulating inventions and discoveries -which startle and surprise us always refer to new things. -One must bear in mind that there also exist things which -in their essential features can <em>only be invented once</em>, and -that the international language in its final form is one of -these.</p> - -<p>An excellent means of convincing the incredulous is to -demonstrate the absence of arbitrariness in the character of -an invention or improvement, and the degree of general -consent which a given system has already obtained. Whenever -one has recognised the natural and logical basis of a -discovery one perceives relationships which restrict the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> -ideas of chance and haphazard originally associated with it -in one's mind. It is, therefore, quite unnecessary in the -case of an international language to be afraid of "the -arbitrary action of private persons who possess neither the -right nor the authority to introduce reforms into Esperanto," -as Dr. Zamenhof has recently stated. One ought -rather to feel sure that the best means of defending an -international language against arbitrary changes is the -degree of its concordance with sound theoretical principles.</p> - -<p>Wilhelm Ostwald has given us an account of the work of -the Delegation. The commission consisted of representatives -of the English, German, Italian, Scandinavian, and Slavonic -languages. Famous philologists such as Otto Jespersen, of -Copenhagen, and Baudouin de Courtenay, of St. Petersburg, -as well as the philosopher L. Couturat, of Paris, -rendered priceless services. The proceedings, which were -held in the Collège de France, began with the interviewing -of a number of the inventors of artificial languages or their -representatives, all such people having been invited to the -conference. Where this procedure was not possible the -corresponding writings and documents were examined and -discussed. Concerning this work Ostwald writes, "Although -these labours were very fatiguing, they proved all the more -effective for the progressive elucidation of the problem in -hand. From the very multiplicity of the attempts at a -solution and their discussion there arose in the minds of -the workers, in a manner never to be forgotten, a clear conception -of the main conditions required for a successful -solution of the problem, and a recognition of the errors -which a disregard of one or other of these conditions had -produced in the existing systems." Whilst an account of -the nature of these principles and of their application to the -construction of an international auxiliary language will be -given by competent authorities in the following chapters, we -may here mention that the Delegation decided that none of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> -the existing systems satisfied the conditions necessary for -an international auxiliary language, but that the widely -known Esperanto could serve as a basis for the working out -of such a language, although it would require to undergo -a certain number of changes.</p> - -<p>A standing committee was elected, including Ostwald, -Couturat, De Beaufront, and Jespersen, which was entrusted -with the task of determining the new forms of the international -auxiliary language on the basis of the principles laid -down in the sittings mentioned above.</p> - -<p>The changes carried out by the committee of the Delegation -are embodied in the form of new grammars and dictionaries. -The Delegation succeeded not only in recognising, but also -in correcting in a competent manner, the errors of Esperanto, -with the result that we are to-day in possession of a language -which in respect of facility, lucidity, variety, and elegance -of expression, represents the high-water mark of international -speech.</p> - -<p>The success which this reform achieved amongst the public -and also in Esperantist circles immediately after the publication -by the Delegation of the first specimen of the new -language was astonishing. That which the Esperantists had -scarcely succeeded in doing during six years of their existence -took place with astonishing rapidity before our eyes, and in -scarcely as many months there were formed in sixty towns -of Europe and America local groups of enthusiastic people -affiliated to the Delegation.</p> - -<p>Unfortunately the Fundamentists persist in their obstinacy -and continue to manifest their discontent. Although the -new language has sprung from Esperanto and is based upon -it, the Esperantists have forbidden that the name Esperanto -should be used. The conventional name <em>Ido</em> (<em>i.e.</em>, a -descendant) has therefore been given to it. There exist -already some periodicals in the <em>linguo internaciona</em>. The -chief organ of the new movement is the periodical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> -<cite>Progreso</cite> (pronounced <em>Progresso</em>), "<em>oficiala organo di la -Delegitaro por adopto di linguo helpanta internaciona</em>." It -is edited by Professor L. Couturat in Paris, and owes its -name, programme, and policy to the advice and initiative of -Ostwald.</p> - -<p>The superiority of Ido over Esperanto is so striking and -is so incontestably borne out by practical experience that -one can now really speak, after the Volapük and Esperanto -periods, of a third world-language movement which has -started off with a reaction-velocity hitherto unknown in this -department of knowledge. It is characteristic of the new -language that it has been taken up by the English and -Americans, whilst an introduction of primitive Esperanto -amongst the Anglo-Saxons encountered insuperable -obstacles, for, as was pointed out with good reason, the -English language, especially in regard to its grammar, was -superior to Esperanto on account of a number of clumsy -constructions and errors which the latter contained. But, -apart from the regularity of pronunciation, Ido excels the -English language both in regard to grammar and, what is -of great importance, brevity, a printed Ido text being even -briefer than the corresponding English one.</p> - -<p>For the benefit of those who are unacquainted with the -nature of international language and who still regard an -artificial language as an impossible monstrosity, we may -remark that the new vocabulary contains in round numbers -5,400 stems, and that, in spite of the Romance character -which the international language necessarily possesses, 40 -per cent. of these are common to the following six -languages: German, English, French, Italian, Russian, -Spanish (and to many others). Moreover, there are -naturally innumerable other stems which occur simultaneously -in five or four of the great languages. In the -face of this overwhelming evidence, no one can contest the -possibility of an international language, for the above<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> -numbers tell their tale with unmistakable clearness. They -<em>prove the existence of the international language apart from -every theory</em>. It is only necessary to select judiciously the -words common to the living languages, that is to say, by an -artificial process, in order to construct the international -language.</p> - -<p>Besides the purely linguistic standpoint, the Delegation -considered the whole question of an international auxiliary -language from another and an essential point of view. It is -natural, and sufficiently well known, that in both the Volapük -and Esperanto movements the linguistic issue was mixed up -with a large amount of disorder, error, misunderstanding, -and illusion. This was due to the fact that these movements -were largely directed by scientifically untrained -persons, and partly also fell into the hands of fanatics and -Utopians. Added to this was the desire to soar to the -summits of literature instead of confining themselves to -practical matters, and the truly childish confidence which -led them to spoil the classics of different nations by translating -them into a language intended for other purposes. -This latter trait was even more markedly pronounced in the -Esperanto than in the Volapük movement. The Delegation, -as a commission of serious men of science, has steadily -laboured to free the question from all extraneous considerations, -of which we have mentioned only the best known, and -the standpoint which is taken in the periodical <cite>Progreso</cite> -is in all respects a serious and scientific one. In this way -it has been possible to attain finally to a stage at which the -whole question can be discussed on its merits. The action -of the Delegation marks, therefore, without doubt the -beginning of a rational period in the history of the -movement for a universal language. Henceforth he who -comes to mock will have nothing to say, and the sceptic -will have to search for serious and competent reasons if he -wishes to maintain his case.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p> - -<p>The point of view which the Delegation has taken is that -the solution of the problem of an international auxiliary -language is a purely scientific and technical question. -Scientific in a double sense of the word: in the first place, -because the living germ of an international language is -already to be found in science and as an expression of the -civilisation of Europe and America, requiring only an -artificial development to bring it to maturity and to give us -the international auxiliary language in its final form; in the -second place, because the method of artificial development -of the international language forms itself the object of a -science, and that indeed a new one, namely, the philology -of auxiliary language. The question is also a technical -one because the result obtained by theory is destined -for a practical purpose, namely, the daily use of mankind. -Our modern civilisation is signalised by the application of -science to practice. We are no longer pure empiricists. -Science penetrates into every department of daily life, and -all enlightened people are aware that the age of pure -empiricism is over.</p> - -<p>The movement for a universal language possesses its -epochs, like other things, but we may rest assured that the -era of the attempts to solve the problem of auxiliary language -in a purely empirical, or even indeed romantic, manner has -passed away with the Volapük and Esperanto periods.</p> - -<p>The work of the Delegation has also been in a high degree -an organising one. The beginning of the year 1909 gave -birth to a <cite>Uniono di l'Amiki di la Linguo Internaciona</cite>, -extending over all parts of the world. From this union are -derived by election two directing bodies: firstly, the <cite>Komitato</cite>, -a commission which looks after matters of organisation and -business; and secondly, an <cite>Academy</cite>, entrusted with the -scientific investigation of the international auxiliary language, -which sees to its steady progress, corrects the errors and -deficiencies which are sure to make their appearance, decides<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> -in doubtful cases, and regulates the introduction of new -words and constructions.</p> - -<p>The carrying out of this scientific and technical programme -has now become the duty of all who feel the necessity for an -international means of communicating thought.</p> - -<p class="right smcap">Richard Lorenz.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER III</a></h2> - -<p class="negin2 smcap">The Linguistic Principles necessary for the Construction -of an International Auxiliary Language, -with Appendix: Criticism of Esperanto</p> - -<p>There exist more than sixty systems or attempts at an -artificial universal language, and considering the great -diversity of these languages, it might appear hopeless to -arrive at unanimity concerning any one of them. When, -however, one considers the question more closely, it appears -that matters are not so bad as one might imagine. Whereas -twenty years ago the systems which appeared were as different -as day from night, at the present day one perceives great -lines of convergence, pointing to the time when mankind -shall have added to the other triumphs of civilisation that -of an auxiliary language recognised and used by everybody, -to the great advantage of all whose horizon is not limited by -the boundaries of their mother country.</p> - -<p>Is it possible in a single formula to express everything -that is requisite for a practical international language? I -think so, and a brief consideration of the two reasons which -prevent us from choosing one of the natural languages as an -international language will enable me to arrive very quickly -at this formula. The first reason is, that such a procedure -would unfairly benefit one nation at the expense of all the -others and would infringe the fundamental principle of -neutrality, which is necessary in all international affairs. -The second reason is, that every language is too difficult for -foreigners. All existing languages swarm with difficulties of -pronunciation, spelling, grammar, vocabulary, and especially -idiom. It is very seldom that a foreigner succeeds, even<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> -after years of study, in learning a language sufficiently well -to avoid occasionally making one of those mistakes which -instantly betray his origin to the natives; it may be a false -stress, or a word employed with an almost imperceptibly -different shade of meaning, or placed in a position in a -sentence where the native would never place it, or, finally, a -phrase which, though logically correct, is nevertheless not -permitted by the usage of the language. On account of -their innumerable relationships and associations, which is -indeed what makes them so dear to the nations that employ -them, all natural languages are extraordinarily difficult, and -therefore unsuitable for the purpose of international intercourse. -We require, accordingly, a language which shall be -not only neutral, but also as easy as possible: easy to learn, -easy to use, and easy to understand.</p> - -<p>These considerations bring me to the sought-for formula, -which we may express in a form similar to the celebrated -ethical dictum of Hutcheson and Bentham ("That action is -best which accomplishes the greatest happiness for the -greatest number"):—</p> - -<p><em>That international language is best which offers the greatest -facility to the greatest number.</em></p> - -<p>It may be objected, however, that facility is a subjective -idea: what is easy for one is not always easy for another. -Quite so, and it is exactly that observation which will serve -us as a guide in the investigation of the important conclusions -which may be drawn from our fundamental principle.</p> - -<p>In the first place, as regards the alphabet and the pronunciation, -our fundamental principle leads to the choice of -the Latin alphabet, with the exclusion of all accented or -otherwise specially modified letters; neither <em>ä</em>, <em>ö</em>, <em>á</em>, <em>à</em>, <em>â</em>, <em>ç</em>, -nor the circumflexed <em>ĉ</em>, <em>ĝ</em>, <em>ĥ</em>, <em>ĵ</em>, <em>ŝ</em>, especially invented by -Dr. Zamenhof for Esperanto, can be tolerated, for they -hinder, and sometimes even render impossible, writing, -printing, and telegraphing. I have shown in the Introduction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> -to the international dictionaries of De Beaufront and -Couturat how our fundamental principle leads to the following -alphabet and the following sound values: <em>a</em> (as in <em>father</em>), -<em>b</em>, <em>c</em> (like <em>ts</em>), <em>d</em>, <em>e</em> (like <em>e</em> in <em>net</em> or like <em>a</em> in <em>fate</em>), <em>f</em>, <em>g</em> (always -hard, as in <em>go</em>), <em>h</em>, <em>i</em> (like <em>ee</em> in <em>sweet</em>), <em>j</em> (either like E.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> or like -F.,<a name="FNanchor_3a_3a" id="FNanchor_3a_3a"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> as in <em>journal</em>), <em>k</em>, <em>l</em>, <em>m</em>, <em>n</em>, <em>o</em> (as in <em>go</em> or as in <em>not</em>), <em>p</em>, <em>q</em> (<em>qu</em>, -as in G. or as in E.), <em>r</em>, <em>s</em> (always unvoiced), <em>t</em>, <em>u</em> (always like -<em>oo</em>, as in <em>too</em>), <em>v</em>, <em>x</em> (as in G. or as in E. F. in the words -<em>exist</em>, <em>exister</em>), <em>y</em> (as in E. F., and therefore like G. <em>j</em>), <em>z</em> (as -in E. F., and therefore like the voiced North German <em>s</em> in -<em>rose</em>), further the two double letters <em>ch</em> (as in E., for -example <em>church</em>) and <em>sh</em> (as in E., G. <em>sch</em>).</p> - -<p>The strict phonetic canon "One symbol, one sound," is -therefore followed in so far as the same sound is never -arbitrarily written one way in one word and another way in -another word, and the same letter is never pronounced -differently in some words compared with the majority. The -small exception that <em>sh</em> and <em>ch</em> are not equivalent to <span class="nowrap"><em>s</em> + <em>h</em></span> -and <span class="nowrap"><em>c</em> + <em>h</em></span> respectively cannot cause the least difficulty to -anyone, and the use of <em>qu</em> and <em>x</em> enables us to retain the -international spelling of many words, and, moreover, permits -two different pronunciations which cause no difficulty of -comprehension and simplify the pronunciation for several -nations. Otherwise we should be faced with the difficult -problem of choosing between <em>kwala</em> and <em>kvala</em>, <em>eksistar</em> and -<em>egzistar</em>. It must not be forgotten, too, that for our purposes -the purely theoretical canon "One symbol, one sound," must -be subordinated to the fundamental principle of greatest -facility, of which phonetic simplicity is itself only a consequence. -Practical considerations must, in fact, overrule -theoretical objections whenever a small deviation from the -fundamental principle "One symbol, one sound," produces -greater facility.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p> - -<p>There remains to be discussed a matter of very great -importance for the phonetics of international language. -Whilst all nations pronounce without difficulty a series of -sounds in which the vowels alternate with single consonants, -and almost all nations have no objections to certain groups -of consonants which are easily pronounced (such as <em>tr</em>, <em>sp</em>, -<em>bl</em>, etc.), the pronunciation of other heavier groups, especially -at the end of words, presents the greatest difficulty to -many nations. The French usually simplify too complicated -groups by inserting an unwritten vowel (as, for example, in -<em>Félix(e)</em> <em>Faure</em>), Italians who speak English do almost the -same thing in the case of such groups as <em>kstr</em> (<em>Greek Street</em>) -or <em>ksp</em> (<em>sixpence</em>), and the phonetic usages of other nations -do not permit even as many successive consonants as the -Italians. In order to make matters as easy as possible for -everybody, one must avoid the mistake of <em>Neutral Idiom</em>, -many of whose words contained very heavy groups of final -consonants, endeavouring rather to follow the example of -Esperanto, which succeeded very cleverly by means of its -predominance of vowel terminations in producing not only -grammatical clearness, but also as easy and flowing a pronunciation -as possible. In this way the language becomes -musical and pleasant to the ear.</p> - -<p>We shall now proceed to the question of a vocabulary. -In choosing the majority of his stems, Dr. Zamenhof had -already followed the principle of maximum internationality, -but the authors of <em>Neutral Idiom</em> were the first to carry -out this principle scientifically for the whole language. -Their procedure was, however, somewhat superficial, since -in each particular case they calculated the number of -languages to which a given word was common. One must -not count the languages (and Latin especially must not be -counted along with the living languages), but the people who -use them, for languages are not organisms which possess an -individual existence independent of those who speak them.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> -The proper rule, therefore, for determining the internationality -of a word or stem is to count the number of people -who understand it through their mother tongue. This -definition of the principle of maximum internationality is -simply a necessary consequence of the fundamental principle -of the greatest facility for the greatest number. It is natural -that each person would prefer the use of the greatest number -of words which are familiar to him, and so, to be impartial, -we must attach the same value to the individual preferences -of the 120,000,000 who speak English as to those of the -75,000,000 Germans, the 70,000,000 Russians, or the -50,000,000 French or Spanish, etc. Even the languages -spoken by the smaller nations must be taken into account -in proportion to their numbers.</p> - -<p>The choice of the words for our neutral language is, -therefore, a pure question of arithmetic. Statistics of the -number of people who speak the different languages will not, -however, furnish us with a complete solution of the problem. -In the first place, there are to be found in the dictionaries -technical words and special terms which are only known to a -minority of each nation. In the second place, there occur -cases where a word, though it does not belong to a language, -is, nevertheless, known through one or more derivatives. -For example, 100 is in English <em>hundred</em>, in German -<em>hundert</em>, in Danish <em>hundrede</em>, and yet the root <em>cent</em> (<em>zent</em>) -has been long familiar to the world through the terms -<em>per cent.</em> (G. <em>prozent</em>), <em>centesimal</em>, <em>centimetre</em>, <em>centennial</em>, -<em>century</em>, <em>centenary</em>, G. <em>zentner</em>, Danish <em>centner</em>. In the -third place, even when "the same word" belongs to -several languages, it very often possesses different forms, -due mostly to a different phonetic development, with the -result that the choice of a proper form is very often a -delicate matter. The sounds of the word "change," which -the English and French write in the same way, are very -different; but as we can employ neither the nasal vowel of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> -the French nor the diphthong (<em>ei</em>) of the most usual English -pronunciation, <em>chanj</em> would appear to be the most convenient -form for all. In very many cases it is possible to find a -common denominator for the different forms. Had not in -English and German the external form of many etymologically -closely related words diverged so much that it is -impossible to find a middle form (for example, water, -<em>wasser</em>; tooth, <em>zahn</em>; speak, <em>sprechen</em>; soap, <em>seife</em>; week, -<em>woche</em>), the Germanic element would have been the dominating -one on account of the great number of those speaking -these two related languages. Such being the case, the -Romance element in English usually decides the matter in -the majority of instances, since it coincides with the French, -Spanish, and Italian, or at least with one of these languages, -the result being that our language necessarily possesses a -Romance form in a much higher degree than one might have -thought. Another very important circumstance (which I -have hinted at previously) acts in the same direction, the -circumstance, namely, that numerous Latin derivatives have -passed over into the Germanic languages even when the -stem does not occur there. For example, German possesses -the words <em>absentieren</em>, <em>abstinenz</em>, <em>artist</em>, <em>dentist</em>, <em>dental</em>, <em>moral</em>, -<em>populär</em>, which greatly facilitate for a German the understanding -of the words <em>absenta</em>, <em>abstenar</em>, <em>arto</em>, <em>dento</em>, <em>moro</em>, -<em>populo</em>, although he does not possess them in his own -language (with the exception of <em>pöbel</em> = <em>populacho</em>).</p> - -<p>Sometimes there exists a very troublesome rivalry between -two words. In order to render the substantive "arm" (limb) -the proper word would seem to be the German, English, and -Scandinavian "arm," until one makes the discovery that the -same root "arm" in the sense of "weapon" is still more -international (E., F., I., S., supported by <em>armée</em> G., E., F., R., -<em>armata</em> I., <em>armada</em> S., <em>armieren</em> G., etc.), which compels us -for "arm" (limb) to have recourse to a Romance form. In -other cases a more or less arbitrary change of one of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> -series of words appears to be the only means of avoiding -confusing homonyms (namely, for door <em>pordo</em> instead of -<em>porto</em>, on account of <em>port</em> = carry), but this procedure must -be employed with great caution. Before everything else it -is necessary to avoid all disguising of words, which makes -them unrecognisable, aptly described by M. Blondel as a -masquerade. This was set up as a general principle in -Volapük, and Esperanto is by no means free from it.</p> - -<p>As an example of the conflicts which occur now and then -may be quoted the expressions for the idea of "soul." -"Soul" is the word which would be immediately understood -by the greatest number of people, but we cannot -employ the English diphthong <em>ōū</em>, as we must be very -sparing in the use of diphthongs, since they cause very great -difficulties in pronunciation. We cannot take over the word -in the form <em>sol</em>, because we require this for the word "alone" -(I. S. <em>solo</em>, internationally used in music, E. <em>sole</em>, F. <em>seul</em>). -G. <em>seele</em>, supported by the Scandinavian <em>själ</em>, is not familiar -to a sufficient number of people, and, besides, we require the -word <em>sel</em> for "saddle" (F. I. S.). The French word <em>âme</em> will -not do either, because it is not sufficiently well known -outside France, and, besides, there is a difficulty here too, for -<em>am-</em> is absolutely required for the idea of "love" on -account of F. I. S. and many derivatives in E., not to -mention the god Amor. The use of the Latin <em>anim-</em>, which -is the basis of the Romance forms, is impossible, since we -cannot do without the adjectival termination <em>-al</em>, and -<em>animal</em> would then mean partly "relating to the soul," -partly "animal," which cannot be permitted in an international -language. We must resort to the device of -changing <em>anim-</em> a little, whereby we get <em>anmo</em>. This -example will show how complicated the task frequently is of -finding an international word which will give rise to no confusion -or misunderstanding.</p> - -<p>The degree of internationality of the language of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> -Delegation will be evident from the statistics of Couturat; -he counted the roots of the first dictionaries (5,379 in all) -and found that of these the following numbers occur in the -national languages:—</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">French</td><td class="tdc">4,880,</td><td class="tdc"><em>i.e.</em></td><td class="tdc">91</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">per 100</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Italian</td><td class="tdc">4,454</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">83</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Spanish</td><td class="tdc">4,237</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">79</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">English</td><td class="tdc">4,219</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">79</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">German</td><td class="tdc">3,302</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">61</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Russian</td><td class="tdc">2,821</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">52</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>For all these languages the above numbers are relatively -higher than in the case of Esperanto.</p> - -<p>One of the most effective means of simplifying the -vocabulary of a language is a carefully worked-out system -of word formation, which enables everyone, by means of a -series of regular prefixes and suffixes, to form with the -greatest ease a large number of new words, which are -immediately intelligible to all who know the rules.</p> - -<p>When one has judiciously chosen the roots which occur -under different forms in the various natural languages and -also selected the derivative terminations with all possible care, -it is astonishing to observe how great a number of words -derived with perfect regularity agree with the forms occurring -in living languages.</p> - -<p>With regard to grammar, the fundamental condition to be -required of every system claiming to be an international -language is that of perfect regularity. Every exception to -the rules only serves to produce complications and to render -the employment of the language difficult and uncertain. If -one knows the conjugation of one verb, one must know the -conjugation of all verbs, and so on.</p> - -<p>In the choice of grammatical terminations the statistical -method, which served us for the purpose of the vocabulary, -cannot be strictly applied, because living languages diverge<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> -too much in this matter. Nevertheless it does not leave us -entirely in the lurch.</p> - -<p>Such cases as the dative and genitive and also the -ablative, etc., must be expressed by prepositions in conformity -with the tendency of Western European languages. -It is advisable to have an inflection for the accusative, -although this is only intended for occasional use, because in -the great majority of instances there is no necessity to -distinguish it from the nominative. As neither the Romance -languages nor English and Scandinavian possess any accusative -inflection, and as the Slavonic languages do not give us -any help here, we are obliged to fall back on German, which -in the feminine and neuter has no inflection. The masculine, -however, in many cases has an <em>-n</em> (<i lang="de" xml:lang="de">den guten knaben</i>). The -fact that this termination is also mostly used for the dative, -as well as for the infinitive, need not prevent us employing -it in our language for the accusative. It necessitates the -use, however, of forms ending in a vowel for the nominative -of substantives (and adjectives and pronouns). It may be -remarked that <em>-n</em> as an accusative inflection is also found in -Greek and Finnish.</p> - -<p>The only vowels that can be employed in this connection -are <em>o</em> and <em>a</em>, which, as a matter of fact, occur very frequently -as the terminations of substantives and adjectives in the -Slavonic languages, as well as in I. and S. Since grammatical -gender, as distinct from sex, cannot be permitted in -an artificial language, it is not possible to employ <em>o</em> and <em>a</em> as -in natural languages, where the former is often, though not -exclusively, used for the masculine (I. S., but in R. and -Polish for the neuter), and the latter similarly for the -feminine. One might be inclined to employ <em>o</em> for the male -and <em>a</em> for the female sex, with the result that one would -have no termination for inanimate things, abstract ideas, or -living beings whose sex is not a matter of importance at the -moment. The carrying out of this rule, however, leads to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> -considerable difficulties which would take too long to enter -into here. (This is one of the points which led to most -discussion in the Delegation Committee.) As a matter of -fact, a very great deal can be said in favour of the Esperanto -usage of <em>o</em> for the substantive and <em>a</em> for the adjective, and, -as Couturat has remarked, <em>la bona viro</em> is not any stranger -than the Italian <i lang="it" xml:lang="it">il buono poeta</i>.</p> - -<p>We need have no compunction in leaving the qualifying -adjective without inflection, as is done, for instance, in -English. The ending <em>-i</em> is very suitable for the plural of -substantives, being used for this purpose in Italian, in -Russian and the other Slavonic languages, as well as in -modern Greek; it is also tolerably familiar to the English -in foreign words, such as <em>banditti</em>. The only termination -which might dispute the honours with <em>-i</em> is <em>-s</em> (F., although -usually silent, S., E., G. partly, and Dutch), but <em>-s</em> cannot -be used if we employ the accusative termination <em>-n</em>, as -neither <em>virosn</em> nor <em>virons</em> could be permitted.</p> - -<p>As regards the inflections of verbs, we are bound, if we -want a termination for the infinitive, to choose, according to -our fundamental principle, the <em>-r</em> of all the Romance languages, -because neither the German <em>-n</em>, which we have used -for other purposes, nor the palatised Slavonic <em>-t</em> (or <em>-ć</em>), can be -employed, and English possesses no inflection. We require -a vowel before the <em>-r</em>, the choice of which will be evident -from what follows. For the active and passive participles -we need only consider <em>-nt</em> and <em>-t</em> respectively, the vowels -being also left undecided for the present. The greatest -difficulty, however, is caused by the finite tenses, in which -we must distinguish present, past, and future. In this -respect living languages differ so much amongst themselves -that the principle of maximum internationality does not -suffice, especially as the inflections of tense are inextricably -mixed up with those of person and number, which for our -purposes are quite unnecessary. The Delegation Committee<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> -have, therefore, for the moment been unable to find anything -better than the Esperanto usage of <em>-as</em> for the present, <em>-is</em> -for the past, and <em>-os</em> for the future. The same series of -vowels may also be employed for the infinitive and participles, -so that the normal forms are <em>-ar</em>, <em>-anta</em>, and <em>-ata</em> (the -final vowel <em>a</em> here being the adjectival termination), whilst -<em>-ir</em>, <em>-inta</em>, <em>-ita</em>, and <em>-or</em>, <em>-onta</em>, <em>-ota</em>, respectively may be retained -for the less frequent cases where one wishes to indicate -expressly another tense in the infinitive or participle. A -few <em>à priori</em> inflections will not cause much harm in a -grammar which is so easy that it may be mastered in half -an hour.</p> - -<p>I have now arrived at the end of my investigation, in -which I have endeavoured to show the method whereby the -language of the Delegation has been constructed. The -result is a language that everyone can easily master, and -which possesses the advantage over other languages that it -is based on rational scientific principles and, therefore, need -not fear that some fine day it will be replaced by another -and sensibly different language. Naturally improvements -will be effected in details where the fundamental principles -have not been sufficiently worked out, but the foundation is -sound, and the common auxiliary language of mankind -cannot differ very much from our "Internaciona linguo," -or, to give it a shorter name, "Interlinguo," or, still shorter, -"Ilo" (from the initial letters).</p> - -<p class="right smcap">Otto Jespersen.</p> - - -<h3><a name="APPENDIX" id="APPENDIX">APPENDIX</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Criticism of Esperanto</span></h3> - -<p>In connection with the foregoing some critical remarks -on Esperanto may be made, from which one will readily -perceive the reasons which made it impossible for the -<cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Délégation pour l'Adoption d'une Langue Internationale</cite> to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> -adopt Esperanto in its present form as the international -auxiliary language.</p> - -<p>Dr. Zamenhof has given us an interesting account of the -way in which his language gradually developed in his mind -while he was at the Warsaw Gymnasium. Before he arrived -at the conviction that the material for the vocabulary must -be obtained from the Romance and Germanic languages, -and that the already existing stock of international words -must be used, he had "simply invented" his words, that is -to say, chosen them quite arbitrarily, but with as much -regard to system and brevity as possible. Although he -himself noticed that such words are difficult to learn and -still more difficult to remember, he has unfortunately -retained in the finished language a whole series of such <em>à -priori</em> formations, which appear in words of such frequent -occurrence as <em>who</em>, <em>how</em>, <em>where</em>, <em>never</em>, <em>everywhere</em>, etc. -The <em>nul tempe</em> and <em>pro quo</em> chosen by the Delegation agree, -however, much better with the general character of language -than the <em>neniam</em> and <em>kial</em> of Dr. Zamenhof.</p> - -<p>Some peculiarities may be accounted for by the Slavonic -mother tongue of the author: for example, his preference -for sibilants and diphthongs, which is especially evident in -the invented words (<em>e.g.</em>, <em>chi</em>, here; <em>chiu</em>, each; <em>ech</em>, even; <em>ghi</em>, -that; <em>ghis</em>, until, <em>gh</em> and <em>ch</em> being pronounced as E. <em>j</em> and -<em>ch</em>). In an article in Zamenhof's <cite>Krestomatio</cite> I find, for -example (p. 288), <em>chiuj tiuj senantaujughaj kaj honestaj -homoj</em>, <em>kiuj</em>, <em>anstatau filizofadi pri ghi</em>, and (p. 293) <em>tion -chi ankorau antau la apero de la unua arta lingvo antauvidis -kaj antaudiris chiuj tiuj eminentaj kapoj</em>, <em>kiuj</em>, etc. The -method of writing <em>x</em> is also Russian: <em>ekzameni</em>, <em>ekzemplo</em>, -etc., and also <em>ekspedi</em>, <em>eksplodi</em>; also <em>kv</em> for <em>qu</em>. French -words with <em>oi</em> take <em>ua</em> in Esperanto when they are spelt in -this way in Russian, <em>e.g.</em>, <em>trotuaro</em>, <em>tualeto</em>, <em>vuala</em>; otherwise -they are spelt with <em>oi</em> or <em>oj</em>, <em>e.g.</em>, <em>foiro</em>, <em>fojo</em>, <em>foino</em>. <em>Nacio</em>, -<em>tradicio</em>, etc., instead of <em>-iono</em>, is also Russian. Russian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> -usage has doubtless also inspired such word formations as -<em>elparoli</em> and <em>senkulpigi</em> instead of the international <em>pronuncar</em> -and <em>exkuzar</em> (R. <em>vygovarivat'</em> and <em>izvin'at'</em>, corresponding to -G. <em>aussprechen</em> and <em>entschuldigen</em>). The peculiarity of using -the adverb instead of the adjective in such cases as <em>estas -necese vidi</em>, "it is necessary to see," is probably to be -ascribed to the correspondence of the Russian adverb with -the neuter predicate adjective. This rule cannot be permitted, -however, in an international language, because, with -a free word order, it would be impossible to say whether -<em>estas vere necese</em> means "it is really necessary" or "it is -necessarily true." The compound perfect (<em>mi estas aminta</em>, -"I have loved" = "I am having loved") reminds one of -the Polish <em>kochal-em</em>. Finally, the frequent use of the -adjective (in <em>-a</em>) instead of the genitive (<em>Zamenhofa lingvo</em>) -and of the two sorts of action expressed by <em>ek</em> and <em>ad</em> -(<em>ekvidi</em> and <em>vidadi</em> used in many cases where the simple <em>vidi</em> -would be sufficient) are to be accounted for by Russian -usages.</p> - -<p>Naturally I do not object to the importation of national -peculiarities into the international auxiliary language when -the latter is enriched thereby. For example, one must -make use of the facility for forming compound words common -to the Germanic and Slavonic languages in preference to -the poverty of Romance languages in this respect, and -combine it with the more Romance characteristic of forming -new words by means of derivative syllables. But peculiarities -of national language which render mutual comprehension -and international usage difficult must be most carefully -avoided.</p> - -<p>The unpractical nature of the circumflexed letters has -been indicated previously. It may be remarked here, however, -that in point of system Zamenhof's letters are very -inferior to the similar ones employed in the Czech language, -since the parallelism in sound between <em>s</em> and <em>ŝ</em>, <em>z</em> and <em>ĵ</em>, <em>dz</em><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> -and <em>ĝ</em>, is disguised by the choice of letters. This produces -a very amateurish effect.</p> - -<p>Besides the familiar parts of speech which are indicated -by special terminations, Zamenhof invented a new class -characterised by the termination <em>-au</em> (<em>kontrau</em>, <em>almenau</em>); but -the limits of this class, which includes some, but not all, -adverbs and prepositions, are not clearly defined.</p> - -<p>Many words taken from existing languages are disguised, -almost after the fashion of Volapük: <em>boji</em>, F. <em>aboyer</em>; <em>parkere</em>, -F. <em>par cœur</em>; <em>shvit</em>, G. <em>schwitzen</em>, E. <em>sweat</em>; <em>char</em>, F. <em>car</em>; -<em>faruno</em> instead of <em>farin</em>; <em>lerta</em>, F. <em>alerte</em> (with a changed -meaning), etc. In this category is to be classed the astonishing -<em>nepre</em> (entirely) which is derived from the Russian -<em>nepremenno</em>, just as if one were to take from the German -word <em>unbedingt</em> the two first syllables and propose <em>unbe</em> as -an international word instead of <em>absolute</em>. The economy in -the use of stems was carried much too far in Esperanto, -necessitating the employment of all sorts of compound words, -the discovery of whose meaning requires much racking of -one's brains. The employment of all the derivative syllables -also as independent words is very ingenious, but produces a -very strange impression on the uninitiated.</p> - -<p>The method of word formation is greatly wanting in -precision, the limits of the so-called direct derivation in -particular being not sufficiently clearly indicated. One -example will suffice. Starting out from <em>kroni</em> = to crown, -<em>krono</em> ought properly to mean crowning, instead of which it -signifies crown, so that one is forced to use <em>kronado</em> for -crowning, whereas, according to the rules of Esperanto, -<em>kronado</em> must mean continuous or repeated crowning, as if a -king were being constantly or repeatedly crowned.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p> -<p>I have brought together here the most important defects -in Esperanto, the removal of which formed one of the tasks -of the Delegation Committee. The knowledge of these -imperfections does not prevent me from recognising the -meritorious services of Zamenhof, who, at a time when the -question of the best construction of an international language -was not seriously discussed, succeeded in producing one -which was in many respects superior to the attempts of that -time, and which has proved in practice a serviceable, though -very imperfect, means of international communication.</p> - -<p class="right smcap">Otto Jespersen.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER IV</a></h2> - -<p class="pfs80 padb">ON THE APPLICATION OF LOGIC TO THE PROBLEM OF AN -INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE</p> - -<p>The problem of an international language has a theoretical -as well as a practical importance. I have no intention of -discussing the latter here and of explaining once more the -necessity of an auxiliary language for international relations -of every sort, and the practical possibility of making oneself -understood by means of an artificial language, a possibility -which has been proved by experience. But an international -language is also, according to the words of the celebrated -philologist H. Schuchardt, a desideratum of science, in -which connection it raises at once problems of philology -and logic. That these problems are worthy of the study of -scientific men is proved by the discussions of Professors Diels -and Gomperz, the reports made to the Academy of Sciences -of Leipzig by Professors Brugmann and Leskien, and, -finally, the labours and decisions of the Committee of the -<cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Délégation pour l'Adoption d'une Langue Internationale</cite>. The -latter, composed of highly competent scientists and linguists, -has determined the principles necessary for an auxiliary -language, and has practically realised them.</p> - -<p>My desire in what follows is to show briefly the connection -of the international language with logic, and its claims on -the attention and interest of philosophers. In the words of -Leibnitz, "Languages form the best mirror for the human -spirit, and an exact analysis of the meaning and relationship -of words would be the best means of disclosing the operations -of the mind" (<cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">N. Essais</cite>, III., VII., end). But the majority -of philosophers (with some distinguished exceptions, <em>e.g.</em>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> -Professor Wundt) and the majority of linguists (also with -some distinguished exceptions, <em>e.g.</em>, M. Bréal) have given -little attention to the study of language from the point of -view of psychology and logic. Now this study is particularly -easy and interesting in the case of an artificial language, -since the latter presents a structure analogous to that of our -existing languages, but much simpler and more regular.</p> - -<p>The words of the international language consist of -invariable elements (morphemes) of three sorts: stems, -derivative affixes (prefixes and suffixes), and grammatical -inflections which, as in the case of European languages, are -always final letters or final syllables. The stems themselves -can be divided into two categories: verb stems, which -express a state, action, or relation, <em>e.g.</em>, <em>dorm</em>, <em>parol</em>, <em>frap</em>; -and non-verbal or nominal stems, which denote an object -(living being or thing), or express an aspect of it, <em>e.g.</em>, <em>hom</em>, -<em>dom</em>, <em>bel</em>, <em>blind</em>. The latter can produce directly only names -(substantives or adjectives): man, house, beautiful, blind (in -Ido, <em>homo</em>, <em>domo</em>, <em>bela</em>, <em>blinda</em>); the former, on the contrary, -produce directly verbs: to sleep, to speak, to strike (in Ido, -<em>dormar</em>, <em>parolar</em>, <em>frapar</em>), but they can also give rise to nouns: -sleep, word, blow (in Ido, <em>dormo</em>, <em>parolo</em>, <em>frapo</em>). The -proper <em>rôle</em> of the grammatical terminations is to determine -the grammatical function of a stem word and to indicate the -category to which the word belongs, whether verb, substantive, -or adverb. Thus <em>parol-ar</em> = to speak; <em>parol-o</em> = (spoken) -word; <em>parol-a</em> = oral; <em>parol-e</em> = orally. The <em>same</em> idea, -namely, that expressed by the stem word, always runs through -the various categories. This follows from a principle which -dominates the whole structure of the international language: -"Every word element" (morpheme) "represents an elementary -idea, which is always the same, so that a combination -of elements has a meaning determined by the combination -of the corresponding ideas." This principle is only a -corollary to the general principle of uniqueness so clearly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> -enunciated by Ostwald: "There exists a unique and -reciprocal correspondence between the ideas and the -morphemes which express them." This principle represents -evidently the ideal of all language, for a language, being -essentially a system of symbols, is only theoretically perfect -(and useful and convenient in practice) when there exists a -unique correspondence between the symbol and the idea -symbolised.</p> - -<p>Now it follows from this principle that it is quite incorrect -to say, as is often done, "Being given a stem, it suffices to -add to it <em>-ar</em> to form a verb, <em>-o</em> to form a substantive, <em>-a</em> to -form an adjective"; we require to define the sense possessed -by this verb, substantive, and adjective. In other words, to -every derivative of form there must correspond a derivative -of sense which is in no wise arbitrary, but determined by -general rules. If <em>dorm-ar</em> = to sleep, <em>dorm-o</em> cannot mean -indifferently the sleeper, the dormitory, or the desire to -sleep; if <em>blind-a</em> = blind, <em>blind-o</em> cannot signify at pleasure -either blindness or the act of blinding. The rule which must -guide us here is the principle enunciated above, namely, -that a stem always preserves the same sense and expresses -the same idea; if one wishes to express another idea related -to the former in a definite way, it is necessary to add to the -stem a morpheme expressing this relationship. The -morphemes which denote the relations of our ideas are -the affixes of derivation, which permit us to express a whole -family of ideas by the aid and as the function of one -fundamental idea, and to form correspondingly a family of -words all derived from the same stem, as occurs, as a matter -of fact, in natural languages. Certain of these affixes are -wrongly classed amongst the grammatical inflections, such -as, for example, the participial suffixes which serve to derive -an adjective or a substantive from a verb, denoting him who -performs the action, or is affected by (subject to) the state or -relationship expressed by the stem: <em>dorm-ant-a</em> = <em>sleeping,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> -arol-ant-a</em> = <em>speaking</em>, whence, by simple change of the -final letter, <em>dorm-ant-o</em> = <em>sleeper</em>, <em>parol-ant-o</em> = <em>speaker</em>. -One will perceive thereby the difference between <em>direct</em> -derivation, which is effected by means of the grammatical -inflections, and <em>indirect</em> derivation, which is effected by means -of the addition of affixes. There is nothing arbitrary about -this distinction, for it rests on the logical principles -enunciated above, which determine the theoretical and -practical value of the international language.</p> - -<p>From these principles follow at once the rules of direct -derivation. If one starts from a verbal stem, what must be -the sense of the substantive directly derived from it? This -sense can be none other than the state or action expressed -by the verb: <em>dormar</em> = <em>to sleep</em>, <em>dormo</em> = <em>sleep</em>; <em>parolar</em> = -<em>to speak</em>, <em>parolo</em> = <em>a word</em>; <em>frapar</em> = <em>to strike</em>, <em>frapo</em> = <em>a -blow</em>. In these derived words we perceive the sense of the -verb stem, and the proof of that is that in our natural -languages we often employ the infinitive for this purpose: -<em>le manger</em>, <em>le boire</em>, <em>le dormir</em>, <em>le rire</em>; <em>das rennen</em> (in English -the verbal in <em>-ing</em> is employed with the sense of the -infinitive). Indeed, one might completely identify the verbal -substantive with the infinitive.</p> - -<p>If one starts from a substantival stem, what must be the -relation between the adjective and substantive derived from -it? They must necessarily have the same sense, whichever of -the two one considers the primary word; if <em>avara</em> = <em>avaricious</em>, -<em>avaro</em> = <em>an avaricious person</em>; if <em>blinda</em> = <em>blind</em>, <em>blindo</em> = <em>a -blind person</em>. This rule is all the more necessary in practice -as there are a crowd of substantival stems concerning which -one could not say whether they produce at first a substantive -or an adjective: <em>vidva</em> = <em>widowed</em>, <em>vidvo</em> = <em>widower</em>; <em>nobela</em> -= <em>noble</em>, <em>nobelo</em> = <em>nobleman</em>; <em>santa</em> = <em>holy</em>, <em>santo</em> = <em>a saint</em>. -This is particularly true of the names of followers of this -or that doctrine: <em>katoliko</em>, <em>katolika</em>; <em>skeptiko</em>, <em>skeptika</em>, etc. -No one would think of using any suffix to derive one of these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> -words from the other. There is only a very slight difference of -meaning between a <em>katolika skeptiko</em> and a <em>skeptika katoliko</em>, the -substantive indicating in each case the primary and fundamental -idea to which the other is superadded.</p> - -<p>This brings us to the enunciation of the <em>principle of -reversibility</em>, which may be formulated as follows: "Every -derivation must be <em>reversible</em>; that is to say, if one passes -from one word to another of the same family in virtue of a -certain rule, one must be able to pass inversely from the -second to the first in virtue of a rule which is exactly the -inverse of the preceding." That is an evident corollary of -the <em>principle of uniqueness</em>, for otherwise one would be led -to give two meanings to the same word. Let us suppose, for -example, that from the noun <em>krono</em>, = <em>a crown</em>, one imagines -it possible to derive directly (as is the case in certain -languages) the verb <em>kronar</em> = <em>to crown</em>. From this verb -one could deduce inversely in virtue of the general rule the -substantive <em>krono</em> = <em>coronation</em>, so that the same word <em>krono</em> -would then mean both <em>crown</em> and <em>coronation</em>. That would -be, however, a logical error inadmissible in the international -language, however numerous may be the examples of it which -occur in living languages. On the contrary, thanks to the -principle of reversibility, one can proceed from any word -whatsoever of a family and arrive at any other word of the -same family, or return to the initial word, in an absolutely -unique manner, whereas if one did not observe this principle -one would inevitably obtain two meanings for the same -word.</p> - -<p>The principle of reversibility fixes the rules of direct -derivation for the cases which are the converse of those -we have studied. Just as the substantive directly derived -from a verb denotes the state or action expressed by this -verb (or, more strictly, by its root), so a verb can be derived -directly from a substantive only if the latter expresses an -action or a state. For example, <em>paco</em> = <em>peace</em>; can one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> -form the verb <em>pacar</em>, and if so what will be its meaning? -This verb can only signify one thing, <em>to be in the state of -peace</em>, and not <em>to pacify</em> or <em>make peace</em>, for in that case <em>paco</em> -would mean <em>pacification</em> or <em>conclusion of peace</em>, and not the -<em>state of peace</em>. Similarly, if one can and must convert an -adjective into a noun by the simple substitution of <em>-o</em> for <em>-a</em>, -the adjective immediately derived from a substantive can -only mean "what is —." If <em>homo</em> = <em>a man</em> (a human being), -<em>homa</em> can only mean <em>human</em> in the sense of <em>which is a man</em> -(human being); <em>homa ento</em> = <em>a human being</em>. But if one -wishes to obtain an adjective signifying "which belongs -to —," "which relates to —," "which depends on —," it is -necessary to employ a suffix (<em>-al</em>): <em>homala manuo</em> = <em>a human -hand</em>. One might equally well say <em>manuo di homo</em> = <em>the -hand of a man</em> (human being). But just as the preposition -<em>di</em> is indispensable for indicating the relationship between -two ideas which are not simply juxtaposed, but depend on -each other, so, if we wish to express one of the ideas in -adjectival form, we require a suffix which also expresses -this relation or dependence. Besides, a suffix of this nature -exists under different forms in all our languages: G. <em>-isch</em>; -E. <em>-ic</em>, <em>-al</em>, <em>-ical</em>; F. <em>-ique</em>, <em>-al</em>, <em>-el</em>; I. <em>-ico</em>; S. <em>-ico</em>. The -choice of <em>-al</em> rather than <em>-ik</em> was determined by reasons of -euphony and also internationality, the derivative adjectives -employed in science (the most international of all) ending -often in <em>-al</em>: <em>mental</em>, <em>vocal</em>, <em>spatial</em>; <em>rationnel</em>, <em>universel</em>, -<em>fonctionnel</em>, etc.</p> - -<p>In this connection we shall make a general remark. The -international language borrows its <em>stems</em> from the European -languages according to the principle of maximum internationality, -<em>i.e.</em>, adopts for each idea the most international -stem, namely, that which is familiar to the greatest number -of men. But it cannot, and must not, borrow their derivatives -from living languages without losing all its theoretical -and practical advantages, because the natural derivatives<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> -are too irregular. Sometimes the same affix has several -different meanings; sometimes the same relationship is -expressed by different affixes. In virtue of the principle of -uniqueness, it is necessary to unify and regularise the meaning -and employment of the affixes, assigning to each one a -perfectly definite significance and function. Undoubtedly -one must endeavour to adopt for the affixes forms which are -international (as much as possible), or at least known in -some language (like the suffix <em>-in</em> of the feminine, borrowed -from the German, <em>e.g.</em>, <em>königin</em>, and the prefix <em>mal-</em>, denoting -"a contrary," borrowed from the French, <em>e.g.</em>, <em>malheureux</em>), -so as to reproduce as much as possible international derivatives. -But it is chimerical to endeavour to reproduce them -all, since they are irregular and consequently incompatible -with that logical regularity of the language on which is based -not only its fertility, but also its simplicity in practical use -and its facility for <em>all nationalities</em> (even for non-European -peoples who are not familiar with the anomalies and caprices -of European languages). The international language must -be autonomous in its formation of words; when the elements -which it borrows from our languages have been once chosen -(in the best possible manner), it must combine them freely -according to its own rules, preserving their form and sense -rigorously invariable. It is by virtue of this condition that -it becomes a true language, richer in certain respects than -our own, since it can form all the useful derivatives which -are often wanting in one or the other, and not merely a -simple imitation or copy of our languages, which would be -as difficult as they, and which would require a previous -knowledge of them.</p> - -<p>We shall not explain here all the forms of indirect -derivation, or enumerate the forty-seven affixes used for -this purpose. We shall quote only a few of them for the -sake of example, in order to show the application of the -principles enunciated above. If there is one suffix which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> -is particularly useful to philosophers, it is that which enables -one to derive from an adjective the name of the corresponding -abstract quality; that is the Greek suffix <em>-otet</em> and the -Latin suffix <em>-itat</em> (<em>-itud</em>), whence have come the French <em>-ité</em>, -the English <em>-ity</em>, the Italian <em>-ita</em>, the Spanish <em>-itad</em>; and the -German suffix <em>-heit</em> or <em>-keit</em>, etc. We perceive here a logical -relation well known and made use of in all our languages. -It must find a place in the international language, but by -what suffix ought it to be represented? Now, if one -analyses the idea involved in this suffix, one will find that -<em>beauty</em>, <em>health</em>, <em>blindness</em>, are simply the states or facts of -being beautiful, healthy, blind. The idea involved in this -suffix is then the idea of <em>being</em>, not the idea of existence, but -the idea <em>of being</em> such and such, the idea of attribution -which is expressed by the copula <em>est</em>. It is natural, therefore, -to represent it by the Indo-European stem of the verb -<em>to be</em>, namely, <em>es</em>; <em>bel-es-o</em> = <em>beauty</em>; <em>san-es-o</em> = <em>health</em>; -<em>blind-es-o</em> = <em>blindness</em>. The fact that this suffix recalls -a French suffix (<em>richesse</em>), an Italian suffix (<em>bellezza</em>), and -an English suffix <em>-ness</em> (<em>happiness</em>) employed in the same -sense can only serve as an accessory confirmation of the -above choice, which was dictated by logical motives. Moreover, -this agrees perfectly with our general rules; <em>to be well</em> -will be translated by <em>esar sana</em> or <em>san-esar</em>, and the fact of -being well will be <em>saneso</em> = <em>health</em>. Conversely, if we start -from <em>saneso</em> = <em>health</em>, we can form the verb <em>sanesar</em> = <em>to -be in (good) health</em>. Whatever may be the point of departure, -there is no fear of making a mistake or "going off the rails" -in forming these derivatives, if we observe the principle of -reversibility. It would, therefore, be not only arbitrary, -but absurd, to express <em>health</em> by <em>sano</em>, which latter can only -mean a healthy being. For one must not imagine, as is -often stated, that an adjective expresses a quality; it -expresses precisely <em>he who, or that which, possesses the -quality in question</em>. That is why all our languages employ<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> -a suffix for the purpose of deriving from an adjective the -name of the corresponding quality.</p> - -<p>But our languages often require to express the inverse -relation, namely, that of the individual possessing a quality -to that quality. For just as there are names of qualities -which are derived from adjectives, as <em>beauté</em>, <em>gaieté</em>, <em>bellezza</em>, -<em>tapferkeit</em>, <em>gleichheit</em>, so there are others which are primary -and from which, therefore, the corresponding adjectives are -derived: <em>courage</em>, <em>courageux</em>; <em>joie</em>, <em>joyeux</em>; <em>beauty</em>, <em>beautiful</em>; -<em>glück</em>, <em>glücklich</em>; <em>freude</em>, <em>freudig</em>. And, as one sees, our -languages employ in these cases a series of analogous -suffixes. The international language must evidently imitate -them, for it cannot decree that all the names of qualities -shall be derivative, nor that they shall all be primary; that -would amount to an arbitrary uniformity contrary to the -spirit of our languages and probably also to our logical -instincts. The international language must, therefore, have -a suffix which will serve to derive from the name of a quality -the name of the possessor of that quality. That <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'will be oz'">will be <em>-oz</em></ins>, -a Latin suffix (<em>formosus</em>, <em>generosus</em>, etc.), occurring very -frequently in the Romance and even Germanic languages -(<em>mysteriös</em>, <em>mysterious</em>, <em>mystérieux</em>, <em>misterioso</em>). This suffix -is the logical inverse of the preceding one (<em>-es</em>) and is quite -as indispensable as it. It is a curious fact that our languages -exhibit examples of the superposition of these two suffixes -considered in respect of their sense, if not their form: <em>glück</em>, -<em>glücklich</em>, <em>glücklichkeit</em>; <em>beauty</em>, <em>beautiful</em>, <em>beautifulness</em>. Latin -has derived <em>formosus</em> from <em>forma</em>; Spanish in its turn has -derived <em>hermosura</em> from <em>hermoso</em>, etc. Languages also provide -us with frequent examples of the reciprocity of these suffixes.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl pad2" colspan="3">On the one hand,</td><td class="tdl pad2" colspan="3">On the other hand,</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>gaie</em></td><td class="tdl">gives</td><td class="tdl"><em>gaieté</em>;</td><td class="tdl"><em>joie</em></td><td class="tdl">gives</td><td class="tdl"><em>joyeux</em>;</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>gay</em></td><td class="tdl pad2">"</td><td class="tdl"><em>gaiety</em>;</td><td class="tdl"><em>joy</em></td><td class="tdl pad2">"</td><td class="tdl"><em>joyful</em>;</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>allegro</em></td><td class="tdl pad2">"</td><td class="tdl"><em>allegrezza</em>;</td><td class="tdl"><em>gioja</em></td><td class="tdl pad2">"</td><td class="tdl"><em>giojoso</em>;</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>fröhlich</em></td><td class="tdl pad2">"</td><td class="tdl"><em>fröhlichkeit</em>;</td><td class="tdl"><em>freude</em></td><td class="tdl pad2">"</td><td class="tdl"><em>freudig</em>.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span></p> - -<p>The international language is, therefore, faithful not only -to logic, but to the spirit of our languages, in admitting at -the same time the two inverse derivations: <em>gaya</em>, <em>gayeso</em>; -<em>joyo</em>, <em>joyoza</em>. A language which contained the suffix -es, and -not the suffix <em>-oz</em>, would be lame or one-armed.</p> - -<p>Besides, this lacuna would manifest itself very quickly in -further derivations, for the latter would violate the principle -of reversibility and therefore that of uniqueness. If from -<em>joyo</em> were derived <em>joya</em>, from this adjective, analogous to <em>gaya</em>, -one could derive inversely <em>joyeso</em> = <em>joyo</em>, thus producing -two names for the same quality (just as above <em>sano</em> would -have been synonymous with <em>saneso</em>). If from <em>kurajo</em> (<em>courage</em>) -were derived <em>kuraja</em> (<em>courageous</em>), one could derive from the -latter <em>kurajeso</em>, synonymous with <em>kurajo</em>. And, on the other -hand, <em>kurajo</em> being the substantive of <em>kuraja</em>, this word would -signify both <em>courage</em> and <em>a courageous person</em>. From want -of a single suffix the whole series of derivations would -become confused and illogical, just as in a chain of reasoning -a single error, or in an algebraical calculation a single -false equation, would lead to the most absurd conclusions.</p> - -<p>To sum up, one must take care not to derive a word -directly from another, except when they both express the -same idea (apart from the difference of their grammatical -<em>rôle</em> in the sentence). Consequently, whenever the sense -changes, a word element must be added or disappear, in -order to translate the modification of the idea. It is by -virtue of this condition that the language will become the -exact and faithful expression of our thoughts, and will conform -to that indwelling and instinctive logic which, in spite -of all sorts of irregularities and exceptions, animates our -languages. In its system of derivation as well as in the -rest of its structure, the international language is nothing -but a purified and idealised extract, a quintessence of the -European languages. The logic which holds sway there is -not the Aristotelian logic of genus and species, but rather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> -that logic newly constituted under the name of the <em>logic of -relationships</em>, which is, however, as old as the world, since -it lies, though obscurely, at the basis of the formative processes -in our natural languages. That is the reason why -the international language offers to philosophers a particularly -instructive field of study. It is worthy of their -interest in other respects. Not only does it offer to them, -as it does to all men, a <em>medium of communication</em> between -all countries, but it furnishes them also with an <em>instrument -of precision</em> for the analysis and exact expression of the -forms of thought, which is very superior, from the point of -view of logic, to our traditional languages, encumbered as -these are with confused and ambiguous expressions. It is -their duty to contribute to the development and perfecting -of a language which, without losing anything of its practical -qualities, can and must realise by degrees the ideal of human -language; if it is true that there <em>does</em> exist an ideal in our -languages, though hidden and irremediably disfigured by all -sorts of anomalies. To quote a saying of Schuchardt, -<i lang="de" xml:lang="de">Was die Sprache gewollt haben die Sprachen zerstört</i>.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> - -<p class="right smcap">L. Couturat.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER V</a></h2> - -<p class="center smcap padb">The Relationship of the International Language to -Science</p> - -<p>Whilst the preceding chapters have sufficiently demonstrated -that the construction of an artificial international -language is not only possible, but already in all probability -fixed as regards its fundamental principles, it will be -desirable here to give some account of the inner relations -between science and the auxiliary language.</p> - -<p>Without doubt one of the most important conditions to -be satisfied by an artificial international language is, that it -should be capable of being employed in science. Considering -the leading part which science plays to-day in the life -of nations, the system which this intellectual Great Power -will adopt cannot be a matter of indifference; indeed, its -capability of serving the needs of science might well be -regarded as the test of an artificial language. It is, for -example, conceivable that a particular system, although -unsuitable for the purposes of science, might work quite -well so far as commercial relations are concerned.</p> - -<p>Before we examine the relationship between science and -auxiliary language the question may be asked whether an -international language is at all necessary in science, and -whether it is likely to be introduced therein. We may consider -that this question has been settled by the discussions -contained in the previous chapters. The general question -of the introduction of an artificial auxiliary language having -been answered in the affirmative, the further question may -be raised as to why, in spite of the existence of different<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> -artificial auxiliary languages, such as Volapük, Esperanto, -Neutral Idiom, Novilatin, Universal, etc., science has not -long ago adopted and introduced one of them. Quite apart -from the actual circumstances which have prevented this, a -perfectly precise answer may be given to the above question. -There have not been wanting experiments in this direction. -Already in the Volapük period endeavours were made to -translate scientific works into Volapük in order to prove -that this language could also be of service to science. In -particular the translations of Dr. Miess's <cite>Craniology</cite>, Dr. -Winkler's <cite>Petrification of Fishes</cite>, and the <cite>Eastern Travels</cite> -of the Crown Prince Rudolph were boasted of by the -Volapükists. Esperanto has gone further, and is, as a -matter of fact, more capable of development in this direction. -There appears a periodical, <cite>Scienca Revuo</cite>, which in -popular form conveys the most important results of different -sciences to Esperanto readers. Fechner's little book on life -after death and some others have also been translated. All -these attempts possess an extraordinary interest for the -great experiment in language on which mankind has been -engaged during the last twenty years, and the greatest -thanks are due to their authors. It is only, indeed, after -many attempts that an experiment can be successfully -carried through. But, without wishing to deny that very -remarkable things have been accomplished, all these experiments -prove one fact beyond question, namely, that the -languages mentioned do not even approximately, and cannot -indeed possibly, satisfy the requirements which science must -demand of the artificial auxiliary language. Science could -not, therefore, have chosen any of these languages as the -artificial auxiliary language even had she wished, nor could -she do so in the future without experiencing failure. An -examination of the reasons for this state of affairs will enable -us to arrive at the relation between science and the international -auxiliary language. It can be shown what the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> -nature of this relationship must be, and it follows therefrom -whether any particular system will or will not be -serviceable to science. There are two necessary criteria, -namely, internationality of vocabulary and logical precision -of expression.</p> - -<p>One might be inclined to emphasise the importance of the -second criterion without paying any attention whatever to -the first, and to regard a system constructed on a purely -logical basis as alone worthy of science. But this would -be a retrograde step, for indeed the question of artificial -language originated with the idea of a so-called philosophical -language in the mind of Leibnitz and afterwards. If one -takes the point of view that the scientific auxiliary language -should be constructed on an ideographic basis (that is to -say, a system of correlation between symbols and ideas, -which, however, as it is a language, must be capable of -being spoken), one arrives at an <em>à priori</em> system, as it -is called in the theory of universal language. Thanks to -the laborious and self-sacrificing work of the thousands -who during the last twenty years have devoted and still -devote themselves to the great experiments in language, we -are able nowadays to refer this question to the test of -experience. The latter has shown with absolute certainty -that <em>à priori systems cannot be spoken</em>. The learning of any -natural language, with all its irregularities, peculiarities, -and anomalies, is child's play compared to the learning -of an <em>à priori</em> system. All experiments in this direction -have failed and need no longer be seriously considered. -But even when an artificial language has not been constructed -<em>à priori</em> another error, producing much the same -effect, may very greatly injure its facility in practice. -An otherwise so successful system as Volapük came finally -to grief through an error of this sort. Although Volapük -was constructed by a man of whom it is said that he -was master of, or at least acquainted with, fifty-five living<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> -languages, and although, according to its whole nature, it -appeared to be modelled very closely on natural languages, -nevertheless the abbreviations which Schleyer introduced -so often into the words he took over (for example, <em>vol</em> for -<em>world</em>, <em>pük</em> for <em>speak</em>, <em>Melop</em> for <em>America</em>) produced the same -psychological effect as if his word-formations had been -<em>à priori</em>. Man is, in fact, a psychological as well as a -logical being. If there is to be any practical outcome, we -must, therefore, under all circumstances base our work on -the psychological principle of internationality. It is only -this which confers on the auxiliary language the quality of -being easily learnt and spoken, which is unconditionally -necessary for its practical use in science, as in other departments -of life. Such systems are called <em><ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'à posterori'">à posteriori</ins></em>, and -experience shows that the more <em>à posteriori</em> elements -are contained in an international language the more it conforms -to Jespersen's fundamental principle of <em>the greatest -ease for the greatest number of people</em>. But, one may argue, -does it not follow from this that the best solution would be -the introduction of a <em>national</em> language into science? -Certainly not, for this would not offer the greatest facility -to the greatest number of people, because the formation of -the so-called idioms, which, apart from grammatical difficulties, -hinder the learning and use of a language, would -in the case of many national languages interfere with the -internationality of the vocabulary. These idioms have a -very similar effect to the <em>à priori</em> word formations, and -diminish the intelligibility, lucidity, and facility of logical -expression. The only international auxiliary language -which will be of practical use in science will be constructed -according to the <em>à posteriori</em> principle of maximum -internationality, and will be almost or entirely free from -idioms. If we add to this that it must possess that logical -clearness of expression which we have described above as -the second criterion, we have the general conditions which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> -must be satisfied by an international language suitable for -science.</p> - -<p>Apart from the practical value of the principle of internationality, -there exists in science another very special reason -for regarding it as a necessary condition to be satisfied by -an international auxiliary language.</p> - -<p>We may inquire, in fact, from a purely scientific standpoint, -how far the systems which have been devised up to -the present have adjusted themselves to the international -language which already exists in science. For all the -thousands of words in scientific and technical nomenclature -which, apart from their nationality, the scientific men of all -countries have been inventing for centuries according to -very uniform principles, as well as the likewise largely international -expressions of "unofficial" nomenclature, form a -possession of modern scientific civilisation of such magnitude, -importance, and value, that it cannot on any account -be sacrificed. On the contrary, all these words, as well as -many similar ones derived from daily life, form the true, -natural, and practical basis of international language.</p> - -<p><em>This</em> international auxiliary language, which forms one of -the foundation stones of our general, scientific, and technical -culture, is so closely bound up with the life and existence of -science and has become so much the second nature of all -scientific men, especially investigators, that they have long -become accustomed to write and think in this language -apart from their nationality. It is an easily ascertained -fact, and one that is well known to the scientific men of all -countries, that the latter can read foreign scientific literature -much more easily than newspapers or novels written in the -same languages. The explanation of this is that the foreign -scientific works, on account of their technical vocabulary, -are written in a language which possesses a much more -international character than that of the novels or newspapers. -It cannot, therefore, be denied that there actually exist<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> -already, particularly in science, the beginnings of an international -(and largely artificially created) auxiliary language -which is written, spoken, and read. We find here ready -made the first provisional lexicon of the scientific international -language. It cannot, therefore, be urged that -science should "select" any one of the proposed artificial -languages, because the selection of words is by no means an -arbitrary process. The only procedure possible to science -must be the construction of an international language on the -basis of the already existing foundations. Science can never -accept as an international language, one which destroys the -actually existing internationality of scientific nomenclature.</p> - -<p>As we see, these considerations, like the former, lead us -to the conclusion that the auxiliary language must be based -on the principle of maximum internationality; that is to -say, its vocabulary must be taken <em>à posteriori</em> from the -international treasury, and must not be invented according -to any <em>à priori</em> system or special idiom. It follows from -this that the auxiliary language of the future must inevitably -be chiefly Romance in its character, for Latin is the -international auxiliary language which still lives and -flourishes for, and by means of, science.</p> - -<p>The objection might be made here that the simplest -solution would be the reintroduction of Latin into science -as the auxiliary language. But this contradicts one of our -fundamental premises, for Latin fails just as much as all -other national languages to satisfy our second criterion, -namely, that of complete logical precision. Besides, it is -too difficult.</p> - -<p>Esperanto does not even approximately satisfy the -necessary conditions; it infringes, in fact, all three. On -the one hand, its vocabulary is very far from being constructed -according to the principle of maximum internationality; -on the other hand, the Esperantists are supposed to -make up for this defect by the famous principle of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> -<em>vortfarado</em> (<em>i.e.</em>, word manufacture!), with the result that -their language falls into the error of creating idioms. For -example, in Esperanto the beginning of the sentence "A -rotary transformer might be called a motor-generator, but the -latter name is usually applied to machines with independent -armatures," is translated in the following way: <em>Turnighan -alispecigilon oni povas nomi motorproduktanto</em>, which literally -translated reads, "A self-turning otherwise-making -instrument can be called a motor-producer."</p> - -<p>Apart from these fundamental errors of Esperanto, it -lacks a systematic method of word formation, the importance -of which has been demonstrated in a masterly and convincing -fashion by Couturat in the previous chapter. Hundreds -of times the puzzled reader of an Esperanto text is in doubt -about the sense of an adjective, even such common expressions -as <em>stony</em> and <em>made of stone</em> being rendered in Esperanto -by the <em>same word</em> (<em>shtona</em>). A phrase such as "It is -perhaps possible" cannot be accurately translated into -Esperanto, since, on account of its "simplicity," the words -<em>perhaps</em> and <em>possible</em> are both rendered by the same <em>à -priori</em> word, <em>eble</em>. With regard to choice of vocabulary, -other systems, in particular "Neutral Idiom," are exceedingly -superior to Esperanto. In this last product of the -Volapük movement the principle of internationality has -been finally recognised. A language academy was founded -which constructed a lexicon according to this principle. -Unfortunately, as Jespersen has very fully shown in -<a href="#CHAPTER_III">Chapter III.</a>, this principle was not interpreted in the right -manner, so that the language lacks logical clearness in spite -of the international character of its vocabulary.</p> - -<p>We need not, therefore, be surprised that science has -hitherto been unable to adopt any of the artificial systems as -the international auxiliary language. That would have been -a false step, and would only have produced confusion.</p> - -<p>It is only at the present time that one has arrived at a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> -clear recognition of the principles on which such a language -must be based. The only artificial system which can claim -that its "inventors" have endeavoured in its "construction" -to <em>combine</em> and consistently carry out the principles of -internationality and logical precision (namely, systematic -choice of stems and a regular system of derivation) is, as -will be sufficiently evident from the preceding chapters of -this book, the language of the Delegation. Without doubt -the <em>internaciona linguo di la Delegitaro</em> will have to undergo -changes and improvements, for one cannot expect that such -a gigantic task as the introduction of an international -auxiliary language can be accomplished all at once. We -hold, however, that "Ido" represents the first artificial -language concerning whose introduction into science -serious discussion is possible. We may state with full confidence -to-day that, so far as human calculation is possible, -the attempt to carry this out will be crowned with success.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, this introduction will not be without -a useful reaction on science, not only in respect to the -development and extension of its external life as an international -Great Power, but also with regard to the more -perfect unification and extension of its language and nomenclature -on the lines of strict and complete internationality. -An expression of opinion on this point will be given in the -following chapter.</p> - -<p class="right smcap">Richard Lorenz.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER VI</a></h2> - -<p class="center smcap padb">The Question of Nomenclature</p> - -<p>If we take up a book or a paper dealing with mathematics -(especially analysis) printed in a language, such as -Japanese, which is quite unintelligible to us, we shall, -nevertheless, soon succeed in finding out what it is about -and often in understanding its main contents. The reason -of this is, of course, that the mathematical formulæ consist -of symbols which are intelligible to us because they are used -in the same manner by all civilised nations. The same thing -holds good in physics, and especially in chemistry; chemical -formulæ contain at the present day such detailed information -concerning the relationships of the substances symbolised, -that one might conceive the possibility of writing a chemical -paper with formulæ alone.</p> - -<p>In the case of the descriptive natural sciences, the Latin -names of the genera and species, the Latin nomenclature of -anatomy and other similar groups, form a common international -possession. Physiology, biology, sociology, as well -as history and ancient philology, possess as yet, however, no -system of internationally intelligible terms. In modern -philology (phonetics) practical endeavours have already been -made to construct an international system of sound symbols. -All these sciences possess naturally the designation of -numbers by means of numerals which have a perfectly -international character. Since in mathematics not only -the quantities, but also the operations, are denoted by -universally understood symbols, it is already possible, with -comparatively few additions, to express long trains of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> -mathematical thought in a manner which is internationally -intelligible, that is, intelligible to those who are acquainted -with the science and its symbols. For a considerable time -Professor Peano, in Turin, has been publishing works written -in this manner. We perceive here the realisation of the -ideal of a purely ideographic language, which can be read by -the specialist without his requiring to translate it into the -words of any particular form of speech.</p> - -<p>To quote a similar example from chemistry, J. H. van't -Hoff, in one of the publications of his youth, avoided assigning -names to the chemical substances with which he dealt, considering -that his meaning would be much better conveyed by -the corresponding structural formulæ. Such a text would be -quite intelligible to a trained chemist without the formulæ -calling up in his mind any particular words, indeed without -any such words existing at all.</p> - -<p>These well-known facts show <em>that the problem of an international -language has already been partly solved in science</em>. -In so far as definite and fairly stable concepts have been -formed in science, they may be designated by arbitrary -symbols, which may if necessary be universally accepted and -understood. Hitherto such symbols have been mainly -employed for reading, that is to say intended for the eye, and -not for the voice and ear. For example, in different -languages quite different sounds are assigned to the -numerals, so that, whilst the written symbols are universally -intelligible, the spoken ones are not.</p> - -<p>However, there are a considerable number of exceptions to -this statement. The word <em>integral</em> is quite as international -as the symbol ∫ and the chemical symbol Tl is pronounced -everywhere <em>thallium</em>, or something very like it. On looking -through the table of the chemical elements one finds that -more than two-thirds of the names possess similar sounds in -the chief languages. Differences occur only in the case of -the well-known elements, where the words employed in daily<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> -life have found their way into science, whilst the newly discovered -elements all possess international names. It follows -from this that the further problem of assigning an international -system of sounds to scientific concepts has been in -certain departments of science already approximately solved. -It is true that the sound is still somewhat dependent on the -speech basis of the particular nation, so that, for example, -not inconsiderable deviations may occur in English. But, -as the written and printed word is always simultaneously -known, the recognition of a name as pronounced by a -foreigner does not cause any very great difficulty.</p> - -<p>There exists here a field of work for those who are interested -in the idea of an artificial language which is as fertile as it -is interesting. As is well known, we scientific men suffer a -good deal from the fact that the same words are frequently -employed for the vague ideas of daily life as well as for the -perfectly definite concepts of science. This is indeed one of -the most important reasons why new designations for -scientific concepts should, as far as possible, be taken from -the dead languages, such designations being thereby already -international. It ought therefore to be a comparatively easy -task to devise by means of this international material and -the linguistic rules of the language of the Delegation a system -of international names for the clearly defined concepts of the -different sciences.</p> - -<p>Such a system possesses a double purpose. In the first -place, it could, I think, be used in our present natural -languages. Certain English expressions occurring in -electrotechnics, such as <em>shunt</em>, <em>extra current</em>, are employed in -German and French just as if they were national words. -The international names in their international form might -be employed in every case where a precise scientific -terminology was required, without doing much violence to -our natural languages. The inflow of foreign words through -the channels of technology and science as well as those of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> -commerce and music has already shown itself to be irresistible, -so that a strict carrying out of the principle of -"purity" in our national languages has been a practical -impossibility. In literature properly so called one will -endeavour nevertheless to adhere to this principle, but -where the chief question is one of precision of concepts, -as in science, language must be regarded as a handmaiden, -whose first duty is to obey. For language stands only in a -secondary relationship to the independently developed and -determined concepts of science, which have been already -fixed by the symbols assigned to them, just in the same way -that language has fixed the concepts of daily life.</p> - -<p>Independent of the above application, which one may or -may not consider practical, is the internationalisation of -scientific publications by means of a universally understood -auxiliary language, which is becoming every day more -urgently necessary.</p> - -<p>This problem, too, cannot be attacked until the concepts -of all the sciences in question have received their proper -designations. The existing dictionaries of international -auxiliary languages contain mostly the expressions of daily -life, so that at present these languages are mainly applicable -only for such communications. Some success can indeed -be obtained in the expression of the higher trains of -thought of philosophical reasoning, but here already considerable -uncertainty exists. It is clear, for instance, that -a paper in organic chemistry can only be successfully -written in the international language after the translations -of the different names for substances occurring in -different languages have been mutually agreed upon.</p> - -<p>Consequently the working out of the concepts of the -different sciences and the determination of their international -designations is the very first task which must be -performed before the further objects, international literature -and international oral intercourse in science, can be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> -considered. It is the duty therefore of the representatives of -science who have joined the <cite>Uniono di l'Amiki di la Linguo -Internaciona</cite> to apply themselves in the first place to this -problem, since the further success of the whole question -depends entirely on its at least provisional solution.</p> - -<p>The first principle which must guide this work is -undoubtedly the general principle of maximum internationality, -which has been used in the construction of the -auxiliary language. Its application is rendered easy by the -fact that, owing to the use of Greek and Latin roots for the -designation of scientific concepts, there is already present -a far-reaching internationality, which must naturally be -retained.</p> - -<p>In the second place, it will not always be possible to -employ in science the same expressions that are used in -ordinary speech, because the effect of the latter is to produce -a blunting of the precise connotation of concepts; whilst -science, on the other hand, requires clearly defined concepts, -to which must correspond equally distinct expressions.</p> - -<p>In the third place, those words which occur frequently in -combinations must be chosen <em>as short as possible</em>. Here I -would not shrink from a very considerable mutilation of the -most international forms. Such long names as <em>wasserstoff</em> -or "hydrogen" cannot be permitted, and must be -reduced to monosyllabic forms. Every chemical author -must have been times without number annoyed by the terms -of three and four syllables for the commonest elements, and -this defect is common to all languages. The objection -against such an artificial abbreviation, which is valid for the -language of daily life, namely, that it increases the difficulty -of the language for those of little education, does not hold -in the case of science, since it is a matter of indifference to -the beginner whether he learns the new name <em>oxygen</em> or <em>oxo</em> -(or any other similar abbreviation), because in any case he -must learn it by heart. Such a procedure satisfies also the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> -second condition, as it facilitates most easily the giving of a -special form to scientific terms, which is different from that -of ordinary life.</p> - -<p>In the fourth place, it will be advisable in cases where -universally known symbols exist, which consist of letters or -have been derived from these (such as certain mathematical -symbols), to choose the name so <em>that it begins with the same -letter</em>. For example, the constant of gravitation is now -universally denoted by <em>g</em>, and the corresponding international -word should therefore begin with <em>G</em>. It appears -to me doubtful, however, whether this principle can be -generally carried out. I have examined the names of the -chemical elements with this intent, and have arrived at the -conclusion that it would not work without doing considerable -violence to general usage. For example, it would be scarcely -possible to find an international name for <em>chlor</em> (chlorine) -which, corresponding to the chemical symbol <em>Cl</em>, would begin -with <em>C</em>, for the latter letter is pronounced <em>ts</em>, whilst the word -<em>chlor</em> (with corresponding terminations) is international, -and, according to its sound, must be written like <em>kloro</em> or in -some similar way.</p> - -<p>These are the formal suggestions which I should like to -make with reference to the problem in hand; they are only -intended to indicate how one might proceed, and are not -to be regarded as either exhaustive or infallible. There -arises now the second question as to how such work is to be -organised.</p> - -<p>As the same concepts occur in several related sciences, -and must receive the same designations, it would not be -practicable to entrust the construction of the vocabularies -to special commissions for each particular science. It -would be more advisable to appoint a certain number of -persons to collect the material and to make out lists of the -concepts for which terms are required, and then to appoint -commissions representing a whole group of sciences to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> -discuss the necessary principles, after which the details -could be worked out and finally subjected to the examination -and approval of the whole body. To make matters at -once more definite, I think the exact sciences ought to be -first taken into consideration, for in their case the fixation -of concepts is most highly developed. There is no need -for a replacement of the well-known Latin nomenclature -employed in the descriptive sciences, nor would any attempt -in this direction have any likelihood of success. We must -look rather to the distant future, when all other sciences -will have already adapted themselves to the international -idiom for the translation of the Latin names into the forms -of the international language (retaining the stems, however) -in order to produce for æsthetic reasons a uniform system -throughout the whole of science.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, I consider it absolutely necessary to -subject the concepts of <em>logic</em> and the <em>theory of cognition</em> to -the same process of scientific delimitation and fixation. In -the first place, these sciences belong, at least theoretically, -to the exact sciences; and, in the second place, work in these -departments of knowledge is rendered extraordinarily difficult -by the fact that their concepts are expressed in the terms -used in daily life, whose elastic nature constantly frustrates -exact work.</p> - -<p>Conversely, this great process of purification cannot fail -to bring to light much that is of value for the theory and -systematisation of scientific concepts. For one must be -quite clear on a subject oneself before one can make it clear -to others. Indeed, even a simple classified list of possibilities, -in which one has earnestly sought to omit nothing of -importance, constitutes in itself a scientific advance, which -is rendered all the more desirable by the fact that in general -people have troubled very little about questions of this sort. -It may be already foreseen, and indeed with pleasure, that -such problems are not to be solved offhand, and will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> -probably require for their final settlement an international -congress, at which the final decisions will be made. For -this congress will probably be the first scientific gathering -at which, instead of three, four, or five languages, only one, -and that the international auxiliary language, will be spoken.</p> - -<p class="right smcap">Wilhelm Ostwald.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER VII</a></h2> - -<p class="center smcap padb">Conclusion: Reading, Writing, and Speaking</p> - -<p>Anyone who wishes to swim without the help of others -is faced by a "vicious circle." In order to swim he must -jump into the water, but before he entrusts himself to the -water he ought to be able to swim. In spite of this, many -people learn to swim without a teacher. How do they do that? -They go at first only into shallow water, and splash about -there until they have become more or less familiar with -this element. Then, when they perceive that they can -propel themselves in it, they go gradually into deeper -water.</p> - -<p>If we wish to get scientific men to use the international -language, we must probably recommend the same method -and advise them to move about in the shallower regions of -every-day language before they venture into the deeper -waters of science. The instruction concerning the movements -of swimming given by the swimming-master on dry -land corresponds to a lesson of a couple of hours on the -simple grammar of the international language. Further -progress, leading up finally to the introduction of the latter -into science, can be divided into three stages, which -we may describe by the words reading, writing, and -speaking.</p> - -<p>I. <em>Reading.</em>—The extraordinary ease with which every -educated person, and especially anyone who has learnt Latin -or one of the Romance languages, can read and understand -the language of the Delegation almost without any previous -study, indicates that the first stage will not be difficult of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> -attainment. But one would require scientific reading -material in order to gain practice in scientific reading, and -there we are again faced by a vicious circle. For, in order -to create such reading material, we require authors who can -write it, and yet the latter can only learn to express themselves -in the international language by means of already -existing reading material. We must therefore at first make -use of the language of daily life and carry over into science -whatever is found to be suitable for scientific purposes, after -which more sharply defined meanings may be assigned to -the words. It has been indicated in the previous article -how the remaining special scientific nomenclature can be -determined. When this preliminary work is sufficiently -advanced the following way will lead quickest to the goal.</p> - -<p>There will be founded an <em>international journal</em>, divided -into as many divisions as correspond to the groups of -sciences to be dealt with. We have here in view more -particularly the theoretical and practical sciences of nature, -because they have much more urgent need of an international -auxiliary language than the "humanities," whose -representatives are more likely to possess a sufficient knowledge -of languages. For example, mathematics, mathematical -astronomy, mathematical geography, mathematical physics, -geodesy, etc., might form one group; general and experimental -physics, chemistry and physical chemistry, electrotechnics -and applied chemistry, mechanics and mechanical -engineering, etc., a second group; mineralogy, petrography, -crystallography, geology, etc., a third group; -biology, systematic and physiological zoology and botany, -morphology, etc., etc., a fourth group. Extensions of these -groups and other modes of arrangement might of course be -introduced.</p> - -<p>The foundation at first of several separate periodicals -would not be advisable.</p> - -<p>The following remarks may be made concerning the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> -contents of this journal. In conformity with our plan, it -should not at first contain any original articles, for the -international language is not intended to replace the natural -ones, but only to act as an <em>intermediary</em> between them. -Besides, the journal must not contain any insignificant or -uninteresting articles if it is to attract and interest readers. -But eminent authors, even if they could command the -international language, would not publish important original -articles in a journal which naturally at first would not have -any very great circulation.</p> - -<p>The journal must therefore contain chiefly translations of -interesting articles from all branches of science and from all -languages, and also extracts from the more important literary -productions. The editorial committee of this journal should -be independent of the Language Academy, but nevertheless -in close contact with it, in order, on the one hand, to -guarantee the correctness of the language by means of the -Academy, and, on the other hand, to help the latter by acting -as its scientific adviser. The gradual dissemination of this -periodical would have the effect that a considerable number -of scientific men, especially those of the younger generation, -would be induced to read and understand the international -language without any expenditure of trouble injurious to -their professional work.</p> - -<p>II. <em>Writing.</em>—From reading a comparatively easy step -leads to writing. The number of scientific men would soon -increase who could either write directly in the international -language, or, at all events, translate a paper written in a -natural language into the international language. Owing to -the gradually increasing dissemination of the international -Review, a first-hand publication of such papers in the Review -would soon be very much in the interest of the authors, -as the acceptance of their papers would itself be a mark of -honour, whilst the rapid distribution amongst all nations -would be likewise advantageous.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span></p> - -<p>III. <em>Speaking.</em>—The speaking of the international -language at first in small and then gradually amongst wider -circles and finally at international congresses can only be -attempted later. This attempt must not, however, be made -before its success is fully assured, and the language has -received a certain amount of consolidation through its -application to writing.</p> - -<p>We have already remarked in another place that the -introduction of the international language is not nearly so -difficult as it appears at first sight, almost the only difficulty -being the establishment of the <em>confidence</em> that this goal <em>can</em> -be attained.</p> - -<p>When one tries to swim for the first time it seems as if -one would never succeed. But when, after a few lessons, -one has seen one's comrades moving safely and merrily in -the water, courage comes, and with it success. We shall -therefore show in an appendix by means of an example -that the language of the Delegation is already capable -of expressing difficult passages with all possible fidelity.</p> - -<p>At a time when the language had only just been fixed and -when he had very little practice in its use, L. Couturat -translated into it a particularly difficult passage from the -work of Gomperz (the Viennese Academician) on <cite>Grecian -Thinkers</cite>. The present author, without having seen the -original, retranslated it at Graz from the international -language into German, and sent this to Gomperz at Vienna -with the request, that he would give his opinion on the -accuracy of the retranslated passage. Gomperz wrote -characterising the reproduction as "astonishingly exact," -"the test as extraordinarily successful, and the result in a -high degree favourable to the possibility of employing the -international language." This test must certainly be -regarded as a very severe one, because the German language -is foreign to the first translator, whilst, owing to its philosophical -nature, the subject was not familiar to the second<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> -translator as a physicist. For the sake of English readers, -a similar experiment has just been made, the results of -which are given in <a href="#APPENDIX_III">Appendix III.</a> A passage from Professor -W. James's <cite>Talks to Teachers on Psychology</cite>, dealing with -the laws of habit, was translated into Ido by Professor -Couturat, and the Ido text retranslated into English by -Mr. P. D. Hugon in London, who was unacquainted with -the original. A comparison of the two English texts demonstrates -the marvellous lucidity of Ido as a medium for the -transmission of thought without distortion.</p> - -<p>Two things are indispensable for the realisation of a great -idea. In the first place, the idea must, as regards its nature -and value, have a rational foundation, and its possibility -must be demonstrated. In the second place, there must be -present courage, energy, and persevering devotion in order -to realise practically that which has been recognised to be -right and good. No amount of energy, however great, can -produce a lasting result from a mistaken idea; but at the -same time nothing great has ever been accomplished by -doubters and pessimists. The readers of our brochure will -concede to us that the idea of an international auxiliary -language and its realisation by means of the language of -the Delegation have in the foregoing chapters been fully -examined in the cold light of reason and shown to be good -and practicable, whilst the appendices will enable this opinion -to be experimentally tested and confirmed. Now that the -head has done its work, the heart, the source of courage -and devotion, must do its part. We have full confidence, -therefore, in calling upon the representatives of science, who -have followed us so far, to assist us in the work, in the first -place by <em>joining the Uniono di l'Amiki di la Linguo Internaciona</em> -and by making its labours known. This step can -be taken also by those who do not see in the language as -at present constituted the final and best solution of the -problem, for before one can reach the topmost heights one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> -must traverse the intervening stages. We ourselves do not -consider that our language is the best possible, but we -regard it as one which is susceptible of continuous improvement -without its immediate and future use being injured -thereby.</p> - -<p class="right smcap">Leopold Pfaundler.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span></p> - -<h2 class="fs150"><a name="APPENDIX_I" id="APPENDIX_I"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">APPENDIX I.</a></h2> - -<hr class="r10a" /> - -<p class="pfs90">"LINGUO INTERNACIONA DI LA DELEGITARO."</p> - -<p class="pfs90">(<span class="smcap">Ido</span>).</p> - -<div class="fs80"> -<p>The Délégation pour l'Adoption d'une Langue Auxiliaire Internationale, -founded in Paris in 1901, has received the support of 310 societies of many -countries and the approval of 1,250 professors and academicians. It elected -in 1907 an international committee, composed of eminent linguists and men -of science, which, after having studied all the projects for international -language, adopted Esperanto with certain modifications. These modifications, -whilst preserving the principles and essential qualities of Dr. Zamenhof's -language, aim at a more logical and strict application of these principles -and the elimination of certain unnecessary complications. The following -are the principal modifications:—</p> - -<p>(1) Suppression of the accented letters, <em>thus permitting the language to be -printed everywhere</em>, and at the same time preserving the phonetic and -frequently re-establishing the international spelling;</p> - -<p>(2) Suppression of certain useless grammatical rules which are very -troublesome to many nations, and <em>especially to persons possessing only an -elementary education</em> (accusative, concord of the adjective);</p> - -<p>(3) Regularisation of the method of derivation, this being the only means -of preventing the intrusion of idioms and of furnishing a solid foundation -for the working out of the <em>scientific and technical vocabulary</em> so indispensable -for the propagation of the language in the scientific world;</p> - -<p>(4) Enrichment of the vocabulary by the adoption of new stems carefully -chosen according to the <em>principle of maximum internationality</em>.</p> - -<p>All the words have, in fact, been formed from international stems, that is -to say those which are common to the majority of European languages, with -the result that they are immediately recognised by everyone of medium -education. It is not necessary therefore to learn a new language; <em>the -international language is the quintessence of the European ones</em>. It is, -however, incomparably more easy than any of them on account of its -simplicity and absolute regularity; there are <em>no useless rules</em>, and <em>no exceptions</em>. -It can be learnt by reading it; as soon as one can read it one can -write it; as soon as one can write it one can speak it. And experience has -proved that the differences of pronunciation amongst people of the most -diverse countries are insignificant and cause no trouble at all. To sum up, -the <em>linguo internaciona</em> is a simplified and improved Esperanto, very analogous -to primitive Esperanto, but possessing the advantage over the latter of -being immediately intelligible, so that it is destined to become <em>the</em> international -language. Besides, it has already received the warm approval and -support of many of the earliest and best Esperantists. It alone, thanks to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> -the support of the scientific and literary men of the Delegation and -Committee, has a chance of being adopted some day by Governments and of -being introduced into the schools of all countries.</p> - -<p>The following pages provide a key which enables one to read a text in -this language.</p> - - -<p class="center bold">GRAMMAR.</p> - -<p><b>Pronunciation.</b>—All letters are pronounced, and have always the same -sound: <em>a</em> (as in <em>father</em>), <em>c</em> (like <em>ts</em>), <em>e</em> (like <em>e</em> in <em>set</em>, or <em>a</em> in <em>fate</em>), <em>g</em> (always -hard, as in <em>go</em>), <em>i</em> (like <em>ee</em> in <em>sweet</em>), <em>j</em> (either as in English, or like the French -<em>j</em> in <em>journal</em>), <em>o</em> (like <em>o</em> in <em>not</em> or like <em>o</em> in <em>go</em>), <em>q</em> (<em>qu</em> as in English, or like <em>kv</em>), -<em>s</em> (unvoiced), <em>u</em> (like <em>oo</em> in <em>too</em>), <em>x</em> (like <em>ks</em> or <em>gz</em>), <em>y</em> (as in English), <em>z</em> (as in -English), <em>ch</em> (as in <em>church</em>), <em>sh</em> (as in English), <em>au</em> (like <em>ow</em> in <em>how</em>), <em>eu</em> (= <em>e-u</em>). -It will be seen that a <em>certain amount</em> of latitude is permitted, in order to -suit the convenience of different nations. <em>Stress</em> (tonic accent) on the -penultimate syllable, except in the infinitive, when it falls on the last -syllable (<b>-ar</b>, <b>-ir</b>, <b>-or</b>). Since <em>y</em> is a consonant, it does not count as a separate -syllable (<b>fluvyo</b>).</p> - -<p><b>Definite Article.</b>—<b>La</b>, for all genders and numbers.</p> - -<p><b>Substantive.</b>—Ends in <em>-o</em> in the singular, in <em>-i</em> in the plural.</p> - -<p><b>Adjective.</b>—Is invariable, and ends in <em>-a</em>.</p> - -<p><b>Personal Pronouns.</b>—<b>Me</b> = <em>I</em>, <b>tu</b> = <em>thou</em>, <b>vu</b> = <em>you</em> (singular), <b>il</b> = <em>he</em> or -<em>it</em> (masculine), <b>el</b> = <em>she</em> or <em>it</em> (feminine), <b>ol</b> = <em>it</em> (thing); <b>ni</b> = <em>we</em>, <b>vi</b> = -<em>you</em> (plural), <b>li</b> = <em>they</em> (all genders). If distinction is necessary, <b>ili</b> = <em>they</em> -(masculine), <b>eli</b> = <em>they</em> (feminine), <b>oli</b> = <em>they</em> (neuter).</p> - -<p><b>Possessive Pronouns.</b>—<b>Mea</b> = <em>my</em>, <em>mine</em>, <b>tua</b> = <em>thy</em>, <em>thine</em>, <b>vua</b> = <em>your</em>, -<em>yours</em> (singular), <b>sa</b> = <em>his</em>, <em>her</em>, <em>hers</em>, or <em>its</em>; <b>nia</b> = <em>our</em>, <em>ours</em>, <b>via</b> = <em>your</em>, -<em>yours</em> (plural), <b>lia</b> = <em>their</em>, <em>theirs</em>. In the plural the ending <em>-i</em> is substituted -for <em>-a</em> when the above words are used as true possessive <em>pronouns</em>.</p> - -<p><b>Reflexive Forms.</b>—<b>Su</b> is used as an objective (reflexive) personal pronoun -(for singular and plural) in the third person. The corresponding possessive -forms are <b>sua</b> and <b>sui</b> (plural <em>pronoun</em>). It may be remarked that the -possessive pronominal adjectives <b>sa</b> (singular) and <b>lia</b> (plural) may be made -to indicate sex in the following way:—</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc"><em>Singular.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Plural.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Masculine</td><td class="tdc"><b>ilsa</b></td><td class="tdc"><b>ilia</b></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Feminine</td><td class="tdc"><b>elsa</b></td><td class="tdc"><b>elia</b></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Neuter</td><td class="tdc"><b>olsa</b></td><td class="tdc"><b>olia</b></td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><b>Demonstrative Pronouns.</b>—<b>Ica</b> = <em>this</em>, <em>these</em>; <b>ita</b> = <em>that</em>, <em>those</em>. The plural -forms <b>ici</b> = <em>these</em>, and <b>iti</b> = <em>those</em>, are only used as true demonstrative -<em>pronouns</em>. The indeterminate (neuter) forms are <b>ico</b> = <em>this</em>, <b>ito</b> = <em>that</em>. In -all the above words the initial <em>i</em> is usually <em>omitted</em>, except where euphony -requires it.</p> - -<p>If it is required to indicate sex, or something which is not alive, this may -be done as follows:—</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc"><em>This.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>That.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Masculine</td><td class="tdc"><b>ilca</b></td><td class="tdc"><b>ilta</b></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Feminine</td><td class="tdc"><b>elca</b></td><td class="tdc"><b>elta</b></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Neuter</td><td class="tdc"><b>olca</b></td><td class="tdc"><b>olta</b></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Plural }</td><td class="tdc"><b>ilci</b></td><td class="tdc"><b>ilti</b></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Pronoun }</td><td class="tdc">etc.</td><td class="tdc">etc.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p> - -<p><b>Relative and Interrogative Pronouns</b>: <b>qua</b> = <em>who</em>, <em>which</em>, <em>what</em>; plural, -<b>qui</b>. <b>Quo</b> = <em>what</em> (indeterminate, general).</p> - -<p><b>Accusative</b> (objective case).—When the direct object of the verb precedes -the subject, the former is indicated by the inflexion <em>-n</em>: <b>la homo quan vu -vidis</b> = <em>the person whom you have seen</em>.</p> - -<p><b>Verb.</b>—Invariable in person and number. Endings of the principal -tenses:—</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc"><em>Infinitive.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Indicative.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Active participle.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Passive participle.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Present</td><td class="tdc"><b>-ar</b></td><td class="tdc"><b>-as</b></td><td class="tdc"><b>-anta</b></td><td class="tdc"><b>-ata</b></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Past</td><td class="tdc"><b>-ir</b></td><td class="tdc"><b>-is</b></td><td class="tdc"><b>-inta</b></td><td class="tdc"><b>-ita</b></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Future</td><td class="tdc"><b>-or</b></td><td class="tdc"><b>-os</b></td><td class="tdc"><b>-onta</b></td><td class="tdc"><b>-ota</b></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Conditional, <b>-us</b>.</td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Imperative, <b>-ez</b>.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The auxiliary verb <b>esar</b>, <em>to be</em>, is used for the passive, and for the compound -tenses of the active.</p> - -<p class="center"><em>Passive.</em></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl wd10"><em>Present</em></td><td class="tdl"><b>esas amata</b>, or <b>amesas</b> = <em>I am (being) loved</em>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>Past</em></td><td class="tdl"><b>esis amata</b>, or <b>amesis</b> = <em>I was (being) loved</em>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>Future</em></td><td class="tdl"><b>esos amata</b>, or <b>amesos</b> = <em>I will be loved</em>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>Conditional </em></td><td class="tdl"><b>esus amata</b>, or <b>amesus</b> = <em>I would be loved</em>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>Imperative</em></td><td class="tdl"><b>esez amata</b>, or <b>amesez</b> = <em>be loved</em>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>Infinite</em></td><td class="tdl"><b>esar amata</b>, or <b>amesar</b> = <em>to be loved</em>.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p class="p1 center"><em>Compound Tenses of the Active.</em></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl wd10"><em>Perfect</em></td><td class="tdl"><b>(me) esas aminta</b> = <em>(I) have loved</em>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>Pluperfect</em></td><td class="tdl"><b>(me) esis aminta</b> = <em>(I) had loved</em>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>Future perfect</em></td><td class="tdl"><b>(me) esos aminta</b> = <em>(I) shall have loved</em>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>Past conditional </em></td><td class="tdl"><b>(me) esus aminta</b> = <em>(I) should have loved</em>.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The past tenses of the passive (indicating <em>completed</em> states) are formed by -means of the passive participle in <b>-ita</b>:—</p> - -<div class="center pad5"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"><b>(me) esis amita</b></td><td class="tdl">= <em>(I) had been loved</em>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><b>(me) esos amita</b></td><td class="tdl">= <em>(I) shall have been loved</em>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><b>(me) esus amita</b></td><td class="tdl">= <em>(I) would have been loved</em>.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>Derived adverbs are formed by substituting the ending <em>-e</em> for the <em>-a</em> of -the adjective or the <em>-o</em> of the noun: <b>bone</b> = <em>well</em>; <b>nokte</b> = <em>at night</em>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p4 center bold">FORMATION OF WORDS.</p> - -<p>All words are composed of three elements, possessing an invariable form -and meaning: <em>stems</em>, <em>affixes</em> (prefixes and suffixes), and <em>grammatical -terminations</em>.</p> - -<p class="pad1"><b>Prefixes</b>:—</p> - -<p class="noindent"> -<b>ge-</b>, the two sexes united: <b>ge-patri</b> = <em>parents</em>.<br /> -<b>bo-</b>, relation by marriage: <b>bo-patro</b> = <em>father-in-law</em>.<br /> -<b>ex-</b>, former, ex-: <b>ex-oficero</b> = <em>ex-officer</em>.<br /> -<b>mal-</b>, opposite, contrary: <b>mal-bela</b> = <em>ugly</em>.<br /> -<b>mis-</b>, error, mistake: <b>mis-komprenar</b> = <em>misunderstand</em>.<br /> -<b>mi-</b>, half: <b>mi-horo</b> = <em>half an hour</em>.<br /> -<b>re-</b>, repetition: <b>re-dicar</b> = <em>repeat</em>, <em>say again</em>.<br /> -<b>retro-</b>, backwards: <b>retro-sendar</b> = <em>return (send back)</em>.<br /> -<b>ne-</b>, negation: <b>ne-utila</b> = <em>useless</em> (but <b>mal-utila</b> = <em>harmful</em>).<br /> -<b>sen-</b>, want of: <b>sen-arma</b> = <em>unarmed</em>.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="pad1"><b>Suffixes</b>:—</p> - -<p class="noindent"> -<b>-in</b>, female sex: <b>frat-ino</b> = <em>sister</em>.<br /> -<b>-id</b>, descendant: <b>Sem-ido</b> = <em>Semite</em>.<br /> -<b>-estr</b>, chief, director: <b>urb-estro</b> = <em>mayor</em>.<br /> -<b>-an</b>, member of: <b>senat-ano</b> = <em>senator</em>.<br /> -<b>-ism</b>, system, doctrine: <b>socialismo</b> = <em>socialism</em>.<br /> -<b>-ist</b>, profession, occupation: <b>dent-isto</b> = <em>dentist</em>.<br /> -<b>-er</b>, amateur: <b>fotograf-ero</b> = <em>amateur photographer</em>.<br /> -<b>-ul</b>, person who is characterised by ...: <b>kuras-ulo</b> = <em>cuirassier</em>.<br /> -<b>-aj</b>, concrete thing, consisting of, or made of: <b>lan-ajo</b> = <em>woollen goods</em>.<br /> -<b>-ur</b>, product, result: <b>pikt-uro</b> = <em>a picture</em>.<br /> -<b>-ar</b>, collection of a number of similar things: <b>hom-aro</b> = <em>mankind</em>.<br /> -<b>-il</b>, instrument, tool: <b>bros-ilo</b> = <em>brush</em>.<br /> -<b>-ey</b>, place for ...: <b>kaval-eyo</b> = <em>stable</em>; <b>dorm-eyo</b> = <em>dormitory</em>.<br /> -<b>-uy</b>, container, recipient: <b>ink-uyo</b> = <em>inkpot</em>.<br /> -<b>-yer</b>, that which bears or carries: <b>pom-yero</b> = <em>apple tree</em>.<br /> -<b>-al</b>, relating to: <b>nacion-ala</b> = <em>national</em>.<br /> -<b>-oz</b>, full of, provided with: <b>por-oza</b> = <em>porous</em>.<br /> -<b>-atr</b>, similar, like: <b>spong-atra</b> = <em>sponge-like</em>, <em>spongy</em>.<br /> -<b>-iv</b>, that which can, active possibility: <b>instrukt-iva</b> = <em>instructive</em>.<br /> -<b>-em</b>, addicted to: <b>babil-ema</b> = <em>talkative</em>, <em>garrulous</em>.<br /> -<b>-ebl</b>, passive possibility, that which can be ...: <b>vid-ebla</b> = <em>visible</em>.<br /> -<b>-end</b>, that which is to be, or must be ...: <b>solv-enda</b> = <em>to be solved</em>, <em>requiring solution</em>.<br /> -<b>-ind</b>, worthy of being: <b>respekt-inda</b> = <em>worthy of respect</em>.<br /> -<b>-es</b>, state of being: <b>san-esar</b> = <em>to be well</em>, whence the substantives expressing state or quality, <em>e.g.</em>, <b>san-eso</b> = <em>health</em>.<br /> -<b>-esk</b>, to commence to do or to be: <b>dorm-eskar</b> = <em>to fall asleep</em>.<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span><b>-ig</b>, to make or cause to do or to be: <b>bel-igar</b> = <em>beautify</em>; <b>dorm-igar</b> = <em>to send to sleep</em>.<br /> -<b>-ij</b>, to become: <b>rich-ijar</b> = <em>to get rich</em>.<br /> -<b>-iz</b>, to furnish or provide with: <b>arm-izar</b> = <em>to arm</em>.<br /> -<b>-if</b>, to produce, bring forth: <b>frukt-ifar</b> = <em>to fructify</em>.<br /> -<b>-ad</b>, repetition, continuation: <b>dans-ado</b> = <em>dancing</em>.<br /> -<b>-eg</b>, augmentative: <b>bel-ega</b> = <em>very beautiful</em>.<br /> -<b>-et</b>, diminutive: <b>mont-eto</b> = <em>hill</em>, <em>hillock</em>.<br /> -<b>-ach</b>, derogative: <b>popul-acho</b> = <em>populace</em>, <em>the mob</em>.<br /> -<b>-um</b>, indeterminate relationship (see the dictionary),<br /> -<b>-esm</b>, ordinal number: <b>un-esma</b> = <em>first</em>.<br /> -<b>-opl</b>, multiplicative number: <b>du-opla</b> = <em>double</em>.<br /> -<b>-on</b>, fractional number: <b>tri-ono</b> = <em>a third</em>.<br /> -<b>-op</b>, distributive number: <b>quar-ope</b> = <em>in fours</em>.<br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span></p> - -<p class="p4 center bold pg-brk">LEXIKO DI LA GRAMMATIKALA VORTI.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdlx wd20"><b>a</b>, <b>ad</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>to</em>, <em>towards</em></td><td class="tdlx bll wd20"><b>ja</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>already</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>ad maxime</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>at most</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>jus</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>just at the moment</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>ad minime</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>at least</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>kad</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>whether</em> (general interrogative)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>altra</b>, <b>-i</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>other</em> (<em>s</em>)</td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>kam</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>as</em>, <em>than</em> (in comparisons)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>altru</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>another</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>kande</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>when</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>altro</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>another thing</em>, <em>something else</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>ke</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>that</em> (conjunction)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>anke</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>also</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>kelk-a</b>, <b>-i</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>some</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>ankore</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>still</em>, <em>yet</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>kin</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>five</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>ante</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>before</em> (time)</td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>kontre</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>against</em>, <em>opposite</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>aparte</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>apart</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>kun</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>with</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>apene</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>scarcely</em>, <em>with difficulty</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>lor</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>then</em>, <em>at that time</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>apud</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>near</em>, <em>close by</em>, <em>at</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>malgre</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>in spite of</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>avan</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>before</em> (place)</td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>max</b> (<b>-ime</b>)</td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>most</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>balde</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>soon</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>mem</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>even</em>, <em>indeed</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>cent</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>hundred</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>mil</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>thousand</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>ceter-i</b>, <b>-o</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>the others</em>, <em>the rest</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>min</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>less</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>che</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>at the house of</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>minime</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>least</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>cirke</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>around</em>, <em>about</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>morge</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>to-morrow</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>cis</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>on this side of</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>mult-a</b> (<b>-i</b>)</td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>much</em>, <em>many</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>da</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>by</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>nam</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>for</em>, <em>because</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>de</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>from</em>, <em>since</em>, <em>of</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>ne</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>not</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>dek</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>ten</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>nek</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>neither</em>, <em>nor</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>di</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>of</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>no</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>no</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>do</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>therefore</em>, <em>hence</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>nov</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>nine</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>dop</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>after</em> (position); <em>behind</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>nu</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>well!</em> <em>now!</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>du</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>two</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>nul-a</b> (<b>-u</b>)</td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>no</em>, <em>no one</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>dum</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>during</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>nulo</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>nothing</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>e</b>, <b>ed</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>and</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>nun</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>now</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>ek</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>out, out of</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>nur</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>only</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>en</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>in</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>o</b>, <b>od</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>or</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>exter</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>outside of</em>, <em>besides</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>ok</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>eight</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>for</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>far from</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>olim</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>formerly</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>forsan</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>perhaps</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>omn-a</b> (<b>-i</b>)</td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>each</em>, <em>all</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>frue</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>early</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>omno</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>all</em>, <em>everything</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>hiere</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>yesterday</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>or</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>now</em> (conjunction)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>hike</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>here</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>per</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>through</em>, <em>by means of</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>ibe</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>there</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>plu</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>more</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>inter</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>between</em>, <em>among</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>plur-a</b> (<b>-i</b>)</td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>several</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>ips-a</b>, <b>-e</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>self</em>, <em>even any</em> (<em>whatsoever</em>)</td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>po</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>for</em> (the price of)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>irg-a</b>, <b>-u</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>anyone</em> (<em>whatever</em>)</td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>poke</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>a little</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>irgo</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>anything</em> (<em>whatever</em>)</td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>por</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>for</em>, <em>to</em> (<em>in order to</em>)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>itere</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>again</em>, <em>anew</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>pos</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>after</em> (time)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx pg-brk"> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>preter</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>past</em>, <em>beyond</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>tal-e</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>thus</em>, <em>so</em>, <em>in such a way</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>pri</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>concerning</em>, <em>on</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>tam</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>as</em> (in comparisons)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>pro</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>for</em>, <em>on account of</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>tamen</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>nevertheless</em>, <em>yet</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>proxim</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>next</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>tant-a</b> (<b>-e</b>)</td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>so much</em>, <em>as much</em>, <em>so</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>qual-a</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>what</em> (<em>sort of</em>)</td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>tarde</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>late</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>quale</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>how</em>, <em>as</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>til</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>until</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>quankam</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>although</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>tra</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>through</em>, <em>across</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>quant-a</b> (<b>-e</b>)</td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>how much</em>, <em>how many</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>trans</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>beyond</em>, <em>on the other side of</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>quar</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>four</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>tre</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>very</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>quaze</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>as if</em>, <em>so to speak</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>tri</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>three</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>quik</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>at once</em>, <em>immediately</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>tro</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>too</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>sama</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>the same</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>ube</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>where</em>, <em>whither</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>same</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>similarly</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>ula-</b> (<b>-u</b>)</td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>some</em>, <em>any</em>, <em>someone</em>, <em>anyone</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>sat</b> (<b>-e</b>)</td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>enough</em>, <em>sufficiently</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>ulo</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>something</em>, <em>anything</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>se</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>if</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>ultre</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>beyond</em>, <em>besides</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>sed</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>but</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>un</b> (<b>-u</b>, <b>-a</b>)</td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>one</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>segun</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>according to</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>ve</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>alas!</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>sempre</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>always</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>vice</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>in place of</em>, <em>vice</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>sen</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>without</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>ya</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>certainly</em>, <em>undoubtedly</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>sep</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>seven</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>ye</b></td><td class="tdlx bl">preposition of indeterminate meaning</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>singl-a</b> (<b>-e</b>)</td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>single</em>, <em>singly</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>yen</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>here is</em>, <em>there is</em>, <em>behold</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>sis</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>six</em></td><td class="tdlx bll"><b>yes</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>yes</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>sive</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>either</em>, <em>or</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>sub</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>under</em>, <em>below</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>super</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>above</em>, <em>over</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>sur</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>on</em>, <em>upon</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx"><b>tal-a</b></td><td class="tdlx bl"><em>such a</em>, <em>such</em></td></tr> -</table></div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span></p> - - -<h2 class="fs150"><a name="APPENDIX_II" id="APPENDIX_II"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">APPENDIX II.</a></h2> - -<p class="pfs80"><b>Specimen page from the INTERNATIONAL-ENGLISH DICTIONARY.</b><a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> - -<div class="textcol"> -<p> -<b>deskript-ar</b>: to describe;<br /> -<b>-o</b>: description;<br /> -<b>-iva</b>: descriptive [EFIS].<br /> -<br /> -<b>desper-ar</b>: to despair;<br /> -<b>-o</b>: despair;<br /> -<b>-igar</b>: to drive to despair [EFIS].<br /> -<br /> -<b>despit-ar</b>: to be vexed, to fret;<br /> -<b>-o</b>: spite, despite;<br /> -<b>-igar</b>: to vex [EFIS].<br /> -<br /> -<b>despot-o</b>: despot;<br /> -<b>-eso</b>, <b>-ismo</b>: despotism [DEFIRS].<br /> -<br /> -<b>destin-ar</b>: to destine;<br /> -<b>-o</b>, <b>-eso</b>: destination, destiny [EFIS].<br /> -<br /> -<b>destrukt-ar</b>: to destroy;<br /> -<b>-o</b>: destruction;<br /> -<b>-iva</b>, <b>-ema</b>: destructive [EFIRS].<br /> -<br /> -<b>detal-o</b>: detail;<br /> -<b>-a</b>, <b>-oza</b>: detailed;<br /> -<b>-e</b>, <b>-oze</b>: <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'in detail, retail'">in detail</ins> [DEFIRS].<br /> -<br /> -<b>detashment-o</b> (military): detachment [DEFIRS].<br /> -<br /> -<b>detektiv-o</b>: detective [EFR].<br /> -<br /> -<b>determin-ar</b>: to determine;<br /> -<b>-o</b>, <b>-eso</b>: determination (not <em>decision</em>);<br /> -<b>-anta</b>, <b>-iva</b>: determinative;<br /> -<b>-ismo</b>: determinism [DEFIRS].<br /> -<br /> -<b>detriment-ar</b>: to cause injury or prejudice to (<em>a person</em>);<br /> -<b>-o</b>: detriment, damage, injury (<em>moral</em>) [EFIS].<br /> -</p></div> - -<div class="textcol"> -<p> -<b>dev-ar</b>: to be obliged to, ought, have to;<br /> -<b>-o</b>: duty [FIS].<br /> -<br /> -<b>devast-ar</b>: to devastate;<br /> -<b>-o</b>, <b>eso</b>: devastation [EFIS].<br /> -<br /> -<b>deviac-ar</b> (<em>trans. and intrans.</em>): to deviate;<br /> -<b>-o</b>: deviation [EFIS].<br /> -<br /> -<b>deviz-o</b>: motto, device [DEFIRS].<br /> -<br /> -<b>devlop-ar</b>: to develop;<br /> -<b>-o</b>, <b>-eso</b>: development [EFI].<br /> -<br /> -<b>devot-a</b>: devoted;<br /> -<b>-eso</b>: devotion;<br /> -<b>-esar</b>, <b>-igar</b>, <b>-su</b>: to devote oneself [EFI].<br /> -<br /> -<b>dextr-a</b>: right (<em>hand</em>, <em>side</em>);<br /> -<b>-e</b>: on the right [IS].<br /> -<br /> -<b>dezert-a</b>: desert, deserted;<br /> -<b>-o</b>: a desert, wilderness [EFIS].<br /> -<br /> -<b>dezir-ar</b>: to wish, desire;<br /> -<b>-o</b>: wish, desire [EFIS].<br /> -<br /> -<b>di</b>: of (<em>preposition</em>).<br /> -<br /> -<b>di-o</b>, day (twenty-four hours);<br /> -<b>-ala</b>: daily [EIS].<br /> -<br /> -<b>diabet-o</b>: diabetes [DEFIRS].<br /> -<br /> -<b>diablo</b>: devil;<br /> -<b>-ala</b>: diabolical [DEFIRS].<br /> -<br /> -<b>diadem-o</b>: diadem [DEFIRS].<br /> -<br /> -<b>diafan-a</b>: transparent;<br /> -<b>-eso</b>: transparency [FIS].<br /> -</p></div> - -<p class="pfs80 pg-brk"><b>Specimen page from the ENGLISH-INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY.</b></p> - -<div class="textcol"> -<p> -to <b>describe</b>: deskriptar.<br /> -<b>description</b>: deskripto.<br /> -<b>descriptive</b>: deskriptiva.<br /> -to <b>desecrate</b>: profanigar.<br /> -a <b>desert</b>: dezerto.<br /> -to <b>desert</b>: desertar.<br /> -<b>deserted</b>: dezerta.<br /> -<b>deserter</b>: desert-anto, -into.<br /> -<b>desertion</b>: deserto,<br /> -to <b>deserve</b>: meritar.<br /> -<b>deserving</b>: merit-anta, -oza.<br /> -</p></div> - -<div class="textcol"> -<p> -to <b>desiccate</b> (<em>v. trans.</em>): sikigar.<br /> -<b>desiccated</b>: sikigita.<br /> -<b>design</b> (= drawing): desegno.<br /> -to <b>desire</b>: dezirar.<br /> -<b>desire</b>: deziro.<br /> -<b>desk</b> (<em>writing</em>): pupitro.<br /> -<span class="pad1">" (<em>pulpit</em>): katedro.</span><br /> -to <b>despair</b>: desperar.<br /> -<b>despair</b>: despero.<br /> -<b>despair</b>, to <b>drive to</b>: desperigar.<br /> -a <b>desperado</b>: riskemo.<br /> -</p></div> - -<div class="textcol"> -<p> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> -<b>despicable</b>: mal-prizinda.<br /> -to <b>despise</b>: mal-prizar.<br /> -<b>despite</b> (<em>s.</em>), despito.<br /> -<span class="pad1">" (<em>prep.</em>) (= <em>in spite of</em>), malgre.</span><br /> -<b>despot</b>: despoto.<br /> -<b>despotism</b>: despot-eso, -ismo.<br /> -<b>desquamation</b>: squamifo.<br /> -<b>dessert</b>: desero.<br /> -<b>destination</b>: destin-o, -eso.<br /> -to <b>destine</b>: destinar.<br /> -<b>destiny</b>: destin-o, -eso.<br /> -<span class="pad1">" (= <em>fate</em>): fato.</span><br /> -to <b>destroy</b>: destruktar.<br /> -<b>destruction</b>: destrukto.<br /> -<span class="pad2">" , <b>utter</b>: nuligo.</span><br /> -<b>destructive</b>: destrukt-iva, -ema.<br /> -<b>detachment</b> (military): detashmento.<br /> -<b>detail</b>: detalo, mal-grandajo.<br /> -<span class="pad1">" , <b>in</b>: detal-e, -oze.</span><br /> -<b>detailed</b>: detal-a, -oza.<br /> -</p></div> - -<div class="textcol"> -<p> -<b>detective</b>: detektivo.<br /> -to <b>deter</b>: timigar, impedar.<br /> -<b>determination</b> (<em>not decision</em>): determin-o, -eso.<br /> -<b>determinative</b>: determin-anta, -iva.<br /> -to <b>determine</b>: determinar.<br /> - " <span class="pad1"> " (= decide): decidigar.</span><br /> -<b>determinism</b>: determinismo.<br /> -to <b>dethrone</b>: mal-tronizar.<br /> -<b>detriment</b>: detrimento.<br /> -to <b>devastate</b>: devastar.<br /> -<b>devastation</b>: devast-o, -eso.<br /> -to <b>develop</b>: devlopar.<br /> - " <span class="pad1"> " (<em>photo.</em>): rivelar.</span><br /> -<b>developer</b> (<em>photo.</em>): rivelilo.<br /> -<b>developing</b> (<em>photo.</em>): rivelo.<br /> -<b>development</b>: devlop-o, -eso.<br /> -to <b>deviate</b> (<em>v. trans. and intrans.</em>): deviacar.<br /> -<b>deviation</b>: deviaco.<br /> -</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span></p> - -<h2 class="fs150"><a name="APPENDIX_III" id="APPENDIX_III"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">APPENDIX III.</a></h2> - -<p class="pfs120">EXPERIMENT IN DOUBLE TRANSLATION.</p> - - -<div class="textcol3"> -<p class="center">THE LAWS OF HABIT.</p> - -<p class="center">By Professor <span class="smcap">W. James</span>.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p> - - -<p>I believe that we are subject to the law of -habit in consequence of the fact that we have -bodies. The plasticity of the living matter -of our nervous system, in short, is the reason -why we do a thing with difficulty the first -time, but soon do it more and more easily, -and finally, with sufficient practice, do it -semi-mechanically, or with hardly any consciousness -at all. Our nervous systems have -(in Dr. Carpenter's words) <em>grown</em> to the way -in which they have been exercised, just as a -sheet of paper or a coat, once creased or -folded, tends to fall for ever afterward into -the same identical folds.</p> - -<p>Habit is thus a second nature, or rather, -as the Duke of Wellington said, it is "ten -times nature," at any rate as regards its -importance in adult life, for the acquired -habits of our training have by that time -inhibited or strangled most of the natural -impulsive tendencies which were originally -there. Ninety-nine hundredths or possibly -nine hundred and ninety-nine thousandths -of our activity is purely automatic and -habitual, from our rising in the morning -to our lying down each night. Our dressing -and undressing, our eating and drinking, our -greetings and partings, our hat-raisings and -giving way for ladies to precede, nay, even -most of the forms of our common speech, are -things of a type so fixed by repetition as -almost to be classed as reflex actions. To -each sort of impression we have an automatic, -ready-made response. My very words to -you now are an example of what I mean, -for, having already lectured upon habit and -printed a chapter about it in a book, and -read the latter when in print, I find my -tongue inevitably falling into old phrases and -repeating almost literally what I said before.</p> - -<p>So far as we are thus mere bundles of -habit, we are stereotyped creatures, imitators -and copiers of our past selves. And since -this, under any circumstances, is what we -always tend to become, it follows first of all -that the teacher's prime concern should be -to ingrain into the pupil that assortment of -habits that shall be most useful to him -throughout life. Education is for behaviour, -and habits are the stuff of which behaviour -consists.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="textcol3"> -<p class="center">LA LEGI DI L'KUSTUMO,</p> - -<p class="center">Traduko en Ido da <span class="smcap">L. Couturat</span>.</p> - -<p>Me kredas, ke ni esas submisata a la lego -di l'kustumo per konsequo di l'fakto, ke ni -havas korpi. La plastikeso di la vivanta -materyo di nia nerva sistemo, esas, abreje, la -kauzo ke ni facas un kozo malfacile la unesma -foyo, sed balde plu e plu facile, e fine, kun -suficanta praktiko, ni facas ol mi-mekanike, -o kun preske nula koncio. Nia nerva sistemi -<em>kreskis</em> (segun la vorti di Dr. Carpenter) en la -voyo en qua li esis exercita, exakte quale -folyo di papero, o vesto unfoye faldita o -shifonigita, tendencas falar sempre pose en -la sama identa falduri.</p> - -<p>La kustumo esas duesma naturo, o prefere, -quale dicis Duko de Wellington, ol esas -"dekople naturo," omnakaze per sa importo -en adulta vivo; nam la aquirita kustumi di -nia eduko en ta tempo impedis o strangulis -max multa de la natural impulsiva tendenci, -qui existas origine. Novdek nov centoni, o, -posible, novcent novdek nov miloni de nia -agemeso esas pure automatal e kustuma, de -nia levo matene a nia kusho omnanokte. Nia -vestizo e malvestizo, nia manjo e drinko, nia -saluti ed adyi, nia chapel-levi et voyo-cedi -por siorini preteriranta, ya mem max multa -formi di nia komuna parolado, esas kozi de -tipo tante fixigita per repeto, ke li povas esar -klasizita quale agi reflexa. Ad omna speco -de impreso ni havas automatal, tute pronta -respondo. Mea ipsa paroli a vi nun esas -exemplo de to, quon me pensas: nam, pro -ja facir lecioni pri la kustumo ed imprimigir -chapitro pri ol en libro, e lektir olca dum -imprimo, me trovas mea lango falanta neeviteble -en sa malnuva frazi, e repetanta preske -litere, quon me dicis ante.</p> - -<p>Segun quante ni esas tale pura faski de -kustumi, ni esas stereotipita kreuri, imitanti -e kopianti di nia propra pasinto. E pro ke -co, en omna supozi, esas to, quo ni sempre -tendencas divenar, konsequas, unesme, ke la -precipua skopo di l'instruktisto devas esar -inkrustar en la lernanto ta asortajo de -kustumi, qua esos max utila ad il tra sa tuta -vivo. L'eduko esas por la konduto, e la -kustumi esas la materyo, en qua la konduto -konsistas.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="textcol3"> -<p class="center">THE LAWS OF HABIT.</p> - -<p>I believe that we are subject to the law of -habit in consequence of the fact that we have -bodies. The plasticity of the living material -of our nervous system is, to put it briefly, -the reason why we do a thing with difficulty -the first time, but soon more and more easily, -and finally, with sufficient practice, we do -it half mechanically, or almost without any -consciousness. Our nervous systems <em>have -grown</em> (in Dr. Carpenter's words) in the way -in which they were trained, just as a sheet of -paper or a garment, once folded or crumpled, -tends to fall ever after in the same identical -creases.</p> - -<p>Habit is a second nature, or rather, as the -Duke of Wellington said, it is "tenfold -nature," at any rate by its importance in adult -life, for the acquired customs of our education -by that time have impeded or strangled -most of the natural impulsive tendencies -which existed originally. Ninety-nine -hundredths or maybe nine hundred and -ninety-nine thousandths of our activity is -purely automatic and habitual, from our -rising in the morning to our retiring every -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> -night. Our dressing and undressing, our -eating and drinking, our greetings and leave-takings, -our hat-raisings and way-givings to -ladies passing by, even indeed most forms of -our common speech, are things of a type -so well fixed by repetition, that they can -be classified as reflex actions. For every -kind of impression we have an automatic, -ever-ready response. My very words to you -now are an example of what I think, for -through having already given lessons about -habit, and having had a chapter printed about -it in a book, and having read the latter in the -course of printing, I find my tongue falling -unavoidably into its old phrases and repeating -almost literally what I have said before.</p> - -<p>Inasmuch as we are thus pure bundles of -habits, we are stereotyped creatures, imitators -and copyists of our own past. And because -this, in any case, is what we always tend to -become, it follows, in the first place, that the -teacher's chief object must be to incrust in -the learner that set of habits which will be -most useful to him throughout his whole -life. Education makes for conduct, and -habits are the material which conduct -consists of.</p> - -<p>[Retranslated into English by <span class="smcap">P. D. -Hugon</span>, who was unacquainted with the -original before doing the retranslation, -20th January, 1910.]</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p> - -<h2 class="fs135"><a name="APPENDIX_IV" id="APPENDIX_IV"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">APPENDIX IV.</a></h2> - -<p class="pfs90">"UNIONO DI L'AMIKI DI LA LINGUO INTERNACIONA."</p> - -<div class="fs80"> -<p>The following excerpt from the provisional statutes of the <em>Uniono</em> is only -intended to give an indication of its nature. The full statutes will be -willingly sent to anyone interested by one of the authors of this brochure or -by the Secretary of the <em>Uniono</em>, Herr A. Waltisbühl, 46, Bahnhof Strasse, -Zürich.</p> - - -<p class="center smcap">Excerpt from the Provisional Statutes.</p> - -<p>(1) The sole purpose of the <cite>Uniono di l'Amiki di la Linguo Internaciona</cite> is -to unite, for the purposes of common action, all persons who recognise and -approve of the idea of an international language in the form given to it by -the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Délégation pour l'Adoption d'une Langue Auxiliaire Internationale</cite>.</p> - -<p>(2) The Uniono accepts as the international auxiliary language the -<em>Linguo internaciona di la Delegitaro</em> resulting from the labours and -decisions of the commission and the working committee of the Delegation, -but expressly declares that this language is not to be regarded as "perfect" -and "infallible." On the contrary, it takes the view that the language is -capable of continuous improvement according to the principles resulting -from the work of the Delegation.</p> - -<p>(3) The <em>Uniono</em> consists of members of both sexes of all nationalities (at -least eighteen years old) who are willing to learn the language, to employ it -on all suitable occasions in intercourse with foreigners, and to take part -in its propagation.</p> - -<p>(4) The yearly subscription amounts to 1·25 francs, 1 shilling, 1 mark, or -1·20 krone (Austrian). Half of this sum goes to the Academy, the other -half to the credit of the "Komitato." Permanent membership is obtained -by a single payment of 50 francs. Persons paying at least 100 francs in a -single payment become <em>membri protektanta</em>.</p> - -<p>(5), (6), (7) All members take part in the election of the two directing -bodies of the <em>Uniono</em> (the Academy and the "Komitato") according to a -specially arranged method of representation (in which account is taken of -the number of adherents belonging to each nationality).</p> - -<p>(8), (9), (10) The Academy is concerned only with questions relating to -the development and improvement of the international language. It has to -reply within six months to all questions and suggestions emanating from at -least three elected representatives. The official organ of the Academy is the -journal <cite>Progreso</cite> (pronounced <em>Progresso</em>). The <cite>Komitato</cite> has the practical -direction and organisation of the <em>Uniono</em> which it controls and represents. -It is intended to found in the different countries language courses, offices for -the practical employment of the language in commerce and travel, and translation -bureaus. The Academy and Komitato may unite for the purpose of -discussing general questions concerning the international language.</p> - -<p>(11), (12), (13) deal with local groups, change of statutes, dissolution of -the Society, etc.</p> - -<p>(14) All questions or proposals to be settled by the Academy or the -Komitato must be published in the journal <cite>Progreso</cite> three months before -the decision in order to allow of general discussion.</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span></p> - -<div class="textcol3a"> -<br /><br /><br /> - -<p class="center">ENTRANCE FORM.</p> - -<hr class="r20a" /> - -<p>The undersigned declares -his (or her) adherence to -the "Association of Friends -of the International Language," -as constituted by -the provisional statutes, -and subscribes<br /> - -<br /> -for the year 19....<br /> -or in one { life member,<br /> -payment { <em>protektanta</em><br /> - as { <em>membro</em>.</p> - -<br /> -<p>Signature.</p> - -<br /> -Christian name<br /> - and surname.<br /> -(Please write clearly.)<br /> - -<br /> -<p>Address.</p> - -<br /><br /> -<p class="center">Profession or occupation -(optional).</p> - -<br /> -<p>Natural language.</p> - -<br /> -<p>Age.</p> - -<br /> -<p>Send this form filled up, -together with your subscription -(international -money order), to the Secretary -of the Society, Herr -A. Waltisbühl, 46, Bahnhofstrasse, -Zürich, Switzerland.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="textcol6"> -<a name="ENT_FORM" id="ENT_FORM"></a> -<p class="center bold">UNIONO DI L'AMIKI DI LA LINGUO -INTERNACIONA.</p> - -<hr class="r10a" /> - -<p class="center">ADHERILO.</p> - -<p><em>Me subskribanta deklaras adherar a</em> l'Uniono di -l'Amiki di la Linguo Internaciona, <em>tala quala -ol esas definita en la</em> Provizora Statuti, <em>e me -suskriptas</em><b><sup> 1</sup></b></p> - -<br /><br /><br /><br /> -<p><br /> -{ <em>por la yaro</em> 19 ............................<br /> -{<br /> -{ <em>unfoye</em> { <em>permananda</em> }<br /> -{ <em>quale</em> { <em>protektanta</em> } <em>membro</em> ............<br /> -</p> - -<br /> -<p><em>Subskribo</em>:</p> - -<br /> -<p><em>Nomo e prenomo</em> ..............................</p> - -<br /><br /><br /> -<p><em>Adreso</em> .....................................</p> - -<p>................................................</p> - -<br /> -<p><em>Profesiono</em> (ne obliga indiko) ...............</p> - -<br /><br /> -<p><em>Naturala linguo</em> ............................</p> - -<br /> -<p><em>Eco</em> ................................</p> - -<br /> -<p class="bold"><b>Sendez ta adherilo kun la suskripto</b> (<b>per internaciona -valoro</b>) <em>a la sekretaryo-kasisto</em>, <b>So. -A. WALTISBÜHL, 46, Bahnhofstrasse, Zürich</b> -(<b>Suiso</b>).</p> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><b><sup>1</sup></b> -Minima suskripto: fr. 1·25, shilling 1, mark 1, -dollar 0·25. <em>Permananta membri</em> pagas 50 fr. -unfoye; <em>protektanta membri</em> pagas 100 fr. unfoye.</p> - -</div> -</div> - - -<div class="footnotes pg-brk"> - -<h2 class="fs150"><a name="FOOTNOTES" id="FOOTNOTES"></a>FOOTNOTES:</h2> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> We do not therefore approve of the poetical attempts of Zamenhof, or -the dramatic representation of Goethe's <cite>Iphigenia</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> For other comparisons, such as musical notation, chemical formulæ, etc., -compare the excellent brochure of W. Ostwald, <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Weltsprache</cite>. Compare -also L. Couturat, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Pour la Langue Internationale</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Here and elsewhere the following abbreviations will be used:— G. = German, -E. = English, F. = French, I. = Italian, R. = Russian, -and S. = Spanish.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Concerning the criticism of Esperanto, cf. also Zamenhof, <cite>Pri Reformoj -en Esperanto</cite>, 1894, <cite>represita per zorgo de E. Javal</cite>, 1907 (containing many -important suggestions which the Esperantists have now unfortunately -forgotten); A. Liptay, <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Eine Gemeinsprache der Naturvölker</cite>, 1891; E. -Beermann, <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Internationale Hilfssprache Novilatin</cite>, 1907; K. Brugmann -and A. Leskien, <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Zur Kritik der Künstlichen Weltsprachen</cite>, 1907; Couturat and -Leau, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Conclusions du Rapport</cite>, 1907; L. Couturat, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Étude sur la Dérivation -en Esperanto</cite>, 1907; Ido, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les Vrais Principes de la Langue Auxiliaire</cite>, 1908; -many articles in the periodical <cite>Progreso</cite>, 1908; F. Borgius, <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Warum ich -Esperanto verliess</cite>, 1908.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> "What language aimed at languages have destroyed." The remarks -contained in this chapter have been developed and applied to the criticism -of Esperanto in my <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Étude sur la Dérivation</cite> (1st edition, unpublished, 1907, -2nd edition in French and in Ido, 1909).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> The letters D, E, F, I, R, S, are the initial letters of the names of the -six chief European languages, and those placed after any word indicate to -which of these languages the corresponding stem is common (D = Deutsch -(German)).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> "Talks to Teachers on Psychology," -pp. 65, 66 (New York, H. Holt & Co., -1907).</p></div> -</div> - - -<hr class="fullx pg-brk" /> - -<p class="pfs180 bold">CONSTABLE & CO. LTD</p> - -<hr class="r30a" /> -<p class="pfs135 bold">CHEMISTRY</p> - -<p class="negin2">PRACTICAL METHODS OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. -By <span class="smcap">E. Mollwo Perkin</span>, Ph.D. 2<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em> net.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:—Chapter I.—Introduction. Chapter II.—General Preparations -and Methods. Chapter III.—Salts. Chapter IV.—Halogens and Halogen -Compounds. Chapter V.—Metallic Oxides. Chapter VI.—Acids. -Chapter VII.—Preparation of Metals and Metalloids. Chapter VIII.—Special -Preparations. Index.</p></div> - -<p class="noindent fs70 pad1"> -<cite>The Journal of the Faraday Society.</cite>—"This book cannot be too strongly recommended."<br /> -<cite>Educational News.</cite>—"Most valuable."<br /> -<cite>The Lancet.</cite>—"The true educational method is set forth in this little work."<br /> -<cite>Journal of Education.</cite>—"It is useful both to teacher and to pupil."<br /> -</p> - -<p class="negin2">EXERCISES IN PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. By <span class="smcap">W. A -Roth</span>, Ph.D., etc., Late Professor of Chemistry in the University -of Greifswald. Translated for the use of Students by <span class="smcap">A. T. -Cameron</span>, M.A., B.Sc., of the University of Toronto. Price <em>6s.</em> -net. Fully Illustrated.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:—Chapter I.—Introductory. Chapter II.—The Determination of -Density. Chapter III.—Determination of Molecular Weights in Solutions. -Chapter IV.—Thermo-Chemistry. Chapter V.—The Determination of -Optical Constants. Chapter VI.—The Thermostat. Chapter VII.—Chemical -Statics and Dynamics. <span class="smcap">Electro-Chemistry</span>: Chapter VIII.—Foundations. -Chapter IX.—Electrical Conductivity. Chapter X.—Faraday's -Law. Transport Numbers. Chapter XI.—Measurement of -Differences of Potential. Chapter XII.—Electro-statics. Appendix. Index. -<span class="smcap">Small Tables in the Text</span>: Molecular elevation of the boiling point -and depression of the freezing point. Heat of combustion per gram at -constant volume. Spectrum lines for optical measurements. Atomic -refraction. Conductivities of some standard solutions. Dielectric constants.</p></div> - -<p class="negin2">INTRODUCTION TO THE CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS -<span class="smcap">of Building Materials</span>. By <span class="smcap">Alan E. Munby</span>, M.A. (Cantab). -The elementary principles of science which underlie the study of -Building Materials in practice. Demy 8vo. 6<em>s.</em> net.</p> - -<p class="negin2">TECHNICAL THERMODYNAMICS. By Dr. <span class="smcap">Gustav -Zeuner</span>. First English Edition. From the fifth complete and -revised edition of "Grundzüge der Mechanischen Wärmetheorie." -Vol. I.—Fundamental Laws of Thermodynamics; Theory of Gases. -Vol. II.—The Theory of Vapours. Authorised Translation by -<span class="smcap">J. F. Klein</span>, D.E., Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Lehigh -University. Illustrated. Two Volumes. Demy 8vo. Price 36<em>s.</em> -net.</p> - -<p class="negin2">EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS -<span class="smcap">of Thermodynamics to Chemistry</span>. By <span class="smcap">Professor Walter -Nernst</span>, University of Berlin. Extra Crown 8vo. 5<em>s.</em> net.</p> - -<p class="negin2">ENTROPY: <span class="smcap">Or, Thermodynamics from an Engineer's -Standpoint, and the Reversibility of Thermodynamics</span>. By -<span class="smcap">James Swinburne</span>, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.E.E., etc. Illustrated with -Diagrams. 4<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em> net.</p> - - -<p class="pfs135 bold">ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING</p> - -<p class="negin2">ELECTRICITY. By <span class="smcap">H. M. Hobart</span>, B.Sc., M.Inst. C.E., etc. -A Text-Book designed in particular for Engineering Students. -208 pages + xix. 43 Tables and 115 Illustrations. Demy 8vo. -6<em>s.</em> net.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:—The "Generation" and Conduction of Electricity. Copper, -Aluminium, and other Conducting Materials. Energy. The Kelvin. -Electricity. Continuous Electricity and Ohm's Law. The Magnetic Field. -Conductors Moving in a Magnetic Field. Alternating Electricity. Inductance. -The Magnetic Circuit. Insulating Materials.</p></div> - -<p class="fs70"><cite>The Engineer.</cite>—"A rapid glance at the illustrations contained in this book is sufficient -to show that it differs very materially from most others having the same title. Indeed, it -may be said that the volume possesses that desirable but unusual feature—originality. A -chapter on the magnetic field contains information which the student will find well worth -acquiring, and the same applies to that section of the book which deals with conductors -moving in a magnetic field. The alternating current section is also good, and in a number -of places it possesses the merit of originality. The book, as we have already intimated, is -written on practical lines, and it is a decided improvement on most books we have seen -having for their title the word 'Electricity'."</p> - -<p class="negin2">CONTINUOUS CURRENT ENGINEERING. By <span class="smcap">Alfred -Hay</span>, D.Sc., M.I.E.E. About 330 pages. Fully Illustrated. -Demy 8vo. 5<em>s.</em> net.</p> - -<p class="fs70">A standard text-book for the practical student, giving a simple account of the -component parts of a continuous current lighting and power plant, dynamos, -motors, secondary cells, measuring instruments, etc.</p> - -<p class="negin2">DIRECT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT TESTING. -By <span class="smcap">Frederick Bedell</span>, Ph.D., Professor of Applied Electricity -in Cornell University, and <span class="smcap">Clarence A. Pierce</span>, Ph.D. 8<em>s.</em> net.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:—Direct Current Generators. Direct Current Motors. Synchronous -Alternators. Single-Phase Currents. Transformers. Polyphase Currents. -Phase Changers. Potential Regulators, etc.</p></div> - -<p class="negin2">THE THEORY OF ELECTRIC CABLES AND NETWORKS. -By <span class="smcap">Alexander Russell</span>, M.A., D.Sc. Demy 8vo. -8<em>s.</em> net.</p> - -<p class="fs70"><cite>Mechanical Engineer.</cite>—" ... the work needs only to be known in order to be well -appreciated by the electrical profession."</p> - -<p class="negin2">LABORATORY AND FACTORY TESTS IN ELECTRICAL -<span class="smcap">Engineering</span>. By <span class="smcap">George F. Sever</span> and <span class="smcap">Fitzhugh Townsend</span>, -Second Edition. Thoroughly revised. Demy 8vo. 282 pages. -10<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em> net.</p> - -<p class="fs70">This book represents the laboratory work required in the Electrical Engineering -Course at Columbia University. It is intended to serve as a text-book for -the use of students, but furthermore it may be found useful by those who are -engaged in the electrical profession.</p> - -<p class="negin2">RADIO-TELEGRAPHY. By <span class="smcap">C. C. F. Monckton</span>, M.I.E.E. -With 173 Diagrams and Illustrations. Extra Crown 8vo. 6<em>s.</em> net.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:—Preface. Electric Phenomena. Electric Vibrations. Electro-Magnetic -Waves. Modified Hertz Waves used in Radio-Telegraphy. -Apparatus used for Charging the Oscillator. The Electric Oscillator: -Methods of Arrangement, Practical Details. The Receiver: Methods of -Arrangement, The Detecting Apparatus, and other details. Measurements -in Radio-Telegraphy. The Experimental Station at Elmers End: Lodge-Muirhead -System. Radio-Telegraph Station at Nauen: Telefunken -System. Station at Lyngby: Poulsen System. The Lodge-Muirhead -System, the Marconi System, Telefunken System, and Poulsen System. -Portable Stations. Radio-Telephony. Appendices: The Morse Alphabet. -Electrical Units used in this Book. International Control of Radio-Telegraphy. -Index.</p></div> - -<p class="fs70"><cite>Nature.</cite>—"A very interesting and valuable book."</p> - - -<p class="pfs135 bold">MATHEMATICS</p> - -<p class="negin2">THE CALCULUS AND ITS APPLICATIONS. <span class="smcap">A Practical -Treatise for Beginners, especially Engineering -Students.</span> With over 400 Examples, many of them fully worked -out. By <span class="smcap">Robert Gordon Blaine</span>, M.E., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. -Lecturer at the City Guilds' Technical College, Finsbury, London, -E.C. Author of "Hydraulic Machinery," "Lessons in Practical -Mechanics," "The Slide Rule," etc. Crown 8vo. 4<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em> net.</p> - -<p class="fs70">The difficulties which beset the beginner are fully explained, and the principles -of the differential and integral calculus, and differential equations, are clearly -set forth in the simplest language; each rule being illustrated by practical -examples. Applications of the calculus to problems in engineering and physics -form a feature of the work, which concludes with an up-to-date chapter on -Harmonic Analysis, of special interest to electrical engineers and students of -electro-technics.</p> - - -<p class="pfs135 bold">ENGINEERING</p> - -<p class="negin2">ENGINEERING WORKSHOPS, MACHINES AND PROCESSES. -By <span class="smcap">F. Zur Nedden</span>. Translated by <span class="smcap">John A. Davenport</span>. -With an Introduction by <span class="smcap">Sir A. B. W. Kennedy</span>, LL.D., -F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.M.E. Plates. Demy 8vo. 6<em>s.</em> net.</p> - -<p class="fs70">A handbook of workshop practice for the young engineer. It fills a gap in our -books for the practical training of engineers.</p> - -<p class="negin2">MACHINE DESIGN. By <span class="smcap">Charles H. Benjamin</span>, Professor -of Mechanical Engineering in the Case School of Applied Science. -Numerous Diagrams and Tables. Demy 8vo. 8<em>s.</em> net.</p> - -<p class="fs70">Prepared primarily as a text-book, but containing mainly what the writer -has found necessary in his own practice as an engineer. As far as possible the -formulas for the strength and stiffness of machine details have been fortified by -the results of experiments or by the practical experience of manufacturers.</p> - -<p class="negin2">THE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE: Being a -Text-Book on Gas, Oil, and Petrol Engines, for the use of -Students and Engineers. By <span class="smcap">H. E. Wimperis</span>, M.A., Assoc.M. -Inst.C.E., Assoc.M.Inst.E.E. Illustrated. Crown 8vo. 6<em>s.</em> net.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:—Introductory. Section I.—<span class="smcap">Theory</span>: Thermodynamic Cycles. -Combustion and Explosion. Thermodynamics. Section II.—<span class="smcap">Gas Engines -and Gas Producers</span>: The Gas Engine. The Gas Producer. Blast -Furnace and Coke-Oven Gases. Section III.—<span class="smcap">Oil and Petrol Engines</span>: -The Oil and Petrol Engine. Petrol Engine Efficiency and Rating. Index.</p></div> - -<p class="negin2">THE MODERN STEAM ENGINE: <span class="smcap">Theory, Design, -Construction, Use</span>. A Text-Book for Students. By <span class="smcap">John -Richardson</span>, M.Inst.C.E. With 300 Illustrations. Demy 8vo. -7<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em> net.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Contents</span>: Unit of Power. Natural Forces. Early Types of Engine. The -Watt Engine. The Use of Steam in Multiple Cylinder or Compound -Engines. Valve Gears. Double or Compound Slide Valves. Releasing -Valve Gear. Exhaust Valves and Valve Driving Gear. The Governor. -Electrical Regulation. Condensers. The Steam Turbine. Design of -Details. Examples of Various Types. Feed and Steam Heating. Hints -to Users. Appendix. Tables and Formulæ. Index.</p></div> - -<p class="fs70"><cite>Engineer.</cite>—"Essentially a practical treatise."</p> - -<p class="negin2">THE CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF INTERNAL -<span class="smcap">Combustion Engines</span>. Being a Practical Manual for Gas -Engine Designers, Repairs and Users. By <span class="smcap">R. E. Mathot</span>. -Translated by <span class="smcap">W. A. Tookey</span>. Medium 8vo. With over 350 -Illustrations. 24<em>s.</em> net.</p> - -<p class="negin2">THE ELEMENTS OF MECHANICS OF MATERIALS. -A Text-Book for Students in Engineering Courses. By <span class="smcap">C. E. -Houghton</span>, A.B., M.M.E., Associate Professor of Mechanical -Engineering, New York University. 7<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em> net.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Contents</span>: Chapter I.—<span class="smcap">Applied Mechanics.</span> Chapter II.—<span class="smcap">Applications.</span> -Chapter III.—<span class="smcap">Beams.</span> Chapter IV.—<span class="smcap">Torsion.</span> Chapter V.—<span class="smcap">The Elastic -Curve.</span> Chapter VI.—<span class="smcap">Long Columns.</span> Chapter VII.—<span class="smcap">Combined Stresses.</span> -Chapter VIII.—<span class="smcap">Compound Bars and Beams.</span> <span class="smcap">Tables.</span></p></div> - -<p class="negin2">HYDRAULICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS. By <span class="smcap">A. H. -Gibson</span>, M.Sc., Assoc.Mem.Inst.C.E., Victoria University, Manchester. -774 pages. 308 Figures. Demy 8vo. 15<em>s.</em> net.</p> - -<p class="fs70"><cite>Engineering Times.</cite>—"This is the best book to date on the subject."</p> - -<p class="negin2">NATURAL SOURCES OF POWER. By <span class="smcap">Robert S. Ball</span>, -B.Sc., A.M.Inst.C.E. With 104 Diagrams and Illustrations. -Extra Crown 8vo. 6<em>s.</em> net.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:—Preface. Units with Metric Equivalents and Abbreviations -Length and Distance. Surface and Area. Volumes. Weights and Measures. -Pressures. Linear Velocities. Angular Velocities. Acceleration. Energy. -Power. Introductory Water Power and Methods of Measuring. Application -of Water Power to the Propulsion of Machinery. The Hydraulic -Turbine. Various Types of Turbines. Construction of Water Power -Plants. Water Power Installations. The Regulation of Turbines. Wind -Pressure, Velocity, and Methods of Measuring. The Application of Wind -Power to Industry. The Modern Windmill. Constructional Details. -Power of Modern Windmills. Appendices A, B, C. Index.</p></div> - - -<p class="pfs135 bold">METALLURGY</p> - -<p class="negin2">MALLEABLE CAST IRON. By <span class="smcap">S. Jones Parsons</span>, M.E. -Illustrated. Demy 8vo. 8<em>s.</em> net.</p> - -<p class="fs70">The information in this volume is thoroughly practical and reliable, and the -entire process of manufacture is clearly explained, each stage being treated -separately and in detail, while much valuable information will be found in chapters -dealing with design, patterns, inspection, machining, supplementary processes, -and the application of the material, the use of which has increased so enormously -within the last few years that it is now preferred to steel for many purposes. It -is freely illustrated with photographs and line drawings, and will be invaluable to -the professional man and the student.</p> - -<p class="negin2">THE PRECIOUS METALS: <span class="smcap">Comprising Gold, Silver, -and Platinum</span>. By <span class="smcap">T. Kirke Rose</span>, A.R.S.M., D.Sc. Extra -Crown 8vo. 6<em>s.</em> net.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:—History of Gold—Properties of Gold—Compounds of Gold—Alloys -of Gold—Occurrence of Gold in Nature: Gold Ores—Extraction of -Gold from its Ores: Gold Washing—Treatment of Gold Ores by Crushing -and Amalgamation—Treatment of Gold Ores by Wet Methods—Silver and -its Alloys—Compounds and Ores of Silver—The Extraction of Silver from -its Ores—Refining Gold and Silver—The Assay of Gold and Silver Ores—The -Assay of Gold and Silver Bullion—Minting—Manufacture of -Gold and Silver Wares—Platinum—Production and Consumption of the -Precious Metals.</p></div> - - -<p class="pfs135 bold">AGRICULTURE</p> - -<p class="negin2">SOILS AND MANURES. By <span class="smcap">J. Alan Murray</span>, B.Sc. -Demy 8vo. 6<em>s.</em> net.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:—Preface. Chapter I.—Introductory. Chapter II.—The Origin -of Soils. Chapter III.—Physical Properties of Soils. Chapter IV.—Chemistry -of Soils. Chapter V.—Biology of Soils. Chapter VI.—Fertility. -Chapter VII.—Principles of Manuring. Chapter VIII.—Phosphatic -Manures. Chapter IX.—Phospho-Nitrogenous Manures. Chapter X.—Nitrogenous -Manures. Chapter XI.—Potash Manures. Chapter XII.—Compound -and Miscellaneous Manures. Chapter XIII.—General Manures. -Chapter XIV.—Farmyard Manure. Appendices.—I. Valuation of Manures; -II. Composition and Manurial Value of Various Farm Foods. Index.</p></div> - - -<p class="pfs135 bold">BOTANY</p> - -<p class="negin2">PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY. By <span class="smcap">Frederic -Edward Clements</span>, Ph.D., Professor of Botany in the University -of Minnesota. With 125 Illustrations. Demy 8vo. 10<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em> net.</p> - -<p class="negin2">TIMBER. By <span class="smcap">J. R. Baterden</span>, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Profusely -Illustrated from Photographs and Diagrams. Extra Crown 8vo. -6<em>s.</em> net.</p> - -<p class="fs70">This is essentially a practical work, and botany is only incidentally touched -upon. The timbers dealt with are those in most general use, either in their -native districts or in the timber trade, together with some others which are likely -before long to come into the market.</p> - - -<p class="pfs135 bold">CYTOLOGY</p> - -<p class="negin2">THE ESSENTIALS OF CYTOLOGY: <span class="smcap">An Introduction -to the Study of Living Matter</span>. By <span class="smcap">Charles Edward -Walker</span>, Assistant Director of the Cancer Research, Liverpool, -and Honorary Lecturer in Cytology to the School of Tropical -Medicine in the University of Liverpool; formerly Demonstrator -of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, London. Illustrated. -Demy 8vo. 7<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em> net.</p> - - -<p class="pfs135 bold">POLITICAL ECONOMY</p> - -<p class="negin2">THE ELEMENTS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE. By <span class="smcap">Stephen -Leacock</span>, formerly Lecturer on Political Science at McGill -University, Montreal. Crown 8vo. 7<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em> net.</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:—Part I.—<span class="smcap">The Nature of the State</span>: I. Political Science, the -Theory of the State. II. The Origin of the State; Fallacious Theories. -III. The True Origin of the State. IV. The Sovereignty of the State. -V. The Liberty of the Individual. VI. Relation of States to One Another. -VII. The Form of the State. Part II.—<span class="smcap">The Structure of the Government</span>: -I. The Separation of Powers. II. The Legislature. III. The -Executive. IV. The Judiciary and the Electorate. V. Federal Government. -VI. Colonial Government. VII. Local Government. VIII. Party -Government. Part III.—<span class="smcap">The Province of Government</span>: I. Individualism. -II. Socialism. III. The Modern State.</p></div> - - -<p class="pfs135 bold">PSYCHOLOGY</p> - -<p class="negin2">PSYCHOLOGY: <span class="smcap">An Introductory Study of the Structure -and Function of Human Consciousness</span>. By <span class="smcap">James -Rowland Angell</span>. Demy 8vo. 7<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em> net.</p> - - -<hr class="fulla" /> - -<p class="pfs90"><span class="smcap">10 Orange Street Leicester Square W.C.</span></p> - - -<p class="p6 pg-brk" /> - -<div class="transnote"> -<a name="TN" id="TN"></a> -<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE</strong></p> - -<p><a href="#APPENDIX_III">Appendix III</a> consists of 3 side-by-side columns over two pages, -each rotated vertically in the original text. -These are shown in the etext with column 1 (the segment -in English) first. Then comes column 2 (the segment translated into Ido), -followed by column 3 (the segment retranslated back to English).</p> - -<p>The Footnote near the top of the Appendix IV <a href="#ENT_FORM">'Entrance Form'</a> (Ido -version) has its anchor marked as {1}, with its text placed at the -bottom of the Form as in the original text.</p> - -<p>The other Footnotes [1] to [7] are placed at <a href="#FOOTNOTES">the end of the etext</a>. -Footnote [3] has two anchors on <a href="#Page_29">page 29</a>.</p> - -<p>Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been -corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within -the text and consultation of external sources.</p> - -<p>Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, -and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. For example, -mother tongue, mother-tongue; ready made, ready-made; unbiassed; -superadded; incrust; scholasticism; employés.</p> - -<p> -<a href="#Page_14">Pg 14</a>, 'States, Chili,' replaced by 'States, Chile,'.<br /> -<a href="#Page_15">Pg 15</a>, 'la Langue Universale' replaced by 'la Langue Universelle'.<br /> -<a href="#Page_50">Pg 50</a>, 'will be <em>oz</em>' replaced by 'will be <em>-oz</em>'.<br /> -<a href="#Page_56">Pg 56</a>, 'à posterori' replaced by 'à posteriori'.<br /> -<a href="#Page_82">Pg 82</a>, 'in detail, retail' replaced by 'in detail'.<br /> -</p> - -</div> - - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of International Language and Science, by -L. Couturat and O. Jespersen and W. Ostwald and L. Pfaundler and R. 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