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diff --git a/old/54628-0.txt b/old/54628-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 6d9baa0..0000000 --- a/old/54628-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3833 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The History Teacher's Magazine, Vol. I, No. -2, October, 1909, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The History Teacher's Magazine, Vol. I, No. 2, October, 1909 - -Author: Various - -Release Date: April 29, 2017 [EBook #54628] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY TEACHER'S MAGAZINE, OCT 1909 *** - - - - -Produced by Larry B. Harrison, Craig Kirkwood, and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This book was produced from images made available by the -HathiTrust Digital Library.) - - - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes: - -Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_), and text -enclosed by equal signs is in bold (=bold=). - -Additional Transcriber’s Notes are at the end. - - * * * * * - -The History Teacher’s Magazine - - Volume I. - Number 2. - - PHILADELPHIA, OCTOBER, 1909. - - $1.00 a year - 15 cents a copy - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - - GAIN, LOSS AND PROBLEM IN RECENT HISTORY TEACHING, by Prof. - William MacDonald 23 - - TRAINING THE HISTORY TEACHER IN THE ORGANIZATION OF HIS FIELD - OF STUDY, by Prof. N. M. Trenholme 24 - - INSTRUCTION IN AMERICAN GOVERNMENT IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS, by - Prof. William A. Schaper 26 - - LESSONS DRAWN FROM THE PAPERS OF HISTORY EXAMINATION - CANDIDATES, by Elizabeth Briggs 27 - - THE STUDY OF WESTERN HISTORY IN OUR SCHOOLS, by Prof. Clarence - W. Alvord 28 - - THE NEWEST STATE ASSOCIATION AND AN OLDER ONE, by H. W. - Edwards and Prof. Eleanor L. Lord 30 - - AN ANCIENT HISTORY CHARACTER SOCIAL, by Mary North 31 - - EDITORIAL 32 - - EUROPEAN HISTORY IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL, by Daniel C. - Knowlton 33 - - ENGLISH HISTORY IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL, by C. B. Newton 34 - - ROBINSON AND BEARD’S “DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN EUROPE,” reviewed - by Prof. S. B. Fay 35 - - AMERICAN HISTORY IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL, by Arthur M. Wolfson 36 - - JAMES AND SANFORD’S NEW TEXTBOOK ON AMERICAN HISTORY, reviewed - by John Sharpless Fox 37 - - ANCIENT HISTORY IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL, by William Fairley 38 - - FOWLER’S “SOCIAL LIFE AT ROME,” reviewed by Prof. Arthur C. - Howland 39 - - HISTORY IN THE GRADES--THE COLUMBUS LESSON, by Armand J. - Gerson 40 - - REPORTS FROM THE HISTORICAL FIELD, edited by Walter H. Cushing: - - The Colorado Movement; Raising the Standard in Louisiana; - the North Central Association; Syllabus in Civil Government; - Report of the Committee of Eight; the New England Association; - Bibliographies; Exchange of Professors in Summer Schools 41 - - CORRESPONDENCE 44 - -Published monthly, except July and August, by McKinley Publishing Co., -Philadelphia, Pa. - -Copyright, 1909, McKinley Publishing Co. - - * * * * * - -Good Words from Correspondents Concerning the Magazine - -“The first number of the ‘Magazine’ is exceedingly interesting, and the -program for the October number promises just as good a one.” J. C. E. - -“I am delighted with it. There is a great field for just such a -magazine.... If future numbers are as good as the first, I shall have -spent few dollars to as good advantage.” R. O. H. - -“It is an opportune publication, and merits all encouragement.” J. W. B. - -“I am very much interested in your new magazine. Think it will be very -helpful in my work.” M. S. - -“Am delighted with the copy I have seen, and trust it will fill a -longfelt need.” M. E. E. - -“The copy of ‘The History Teacher’s Magazine’ reached me this morning, -and I am very much interested in and pleased with it. I wish you all -success in the undertaking.” M. M. - -“After looking carefully over sample copy of ‘The History Teacher’s -Magazine,’ I find that I can use it to a great advantage in many -instances. It is the only magazine I have ever seen that dealt with the -subject of History from the teacher’s standpoint.” F. F. M. - -“I have received ‘The History Teacher’s Magazine,’ and like it very -much.” L. R. H. - -“‘The History Teacher’s Magazine’ is to the point. It will meet a very -real need. - -“I am glad that the problems of college history teaching will find -space in the magazine. No teachers need more to exchange ideas at this -time than do college history teachers.” R. W. K. - -“‘The History Teacher’s Magazine’ is excellent, and I have every reason -to believe that the following numbers will be just as good. This sort -of magazine is just what is needed by every teacher of history.” H. C. -S. - -“I am delighted with your first copy of ‘The History Teacher’s -Magazine.’ It has long been needed. Every teacher of history will -welcome it.” R. R. - -“The magazine is exactly what I want. I am an ambitious history -teacher, and I find in it the needed help.” N. E. S. - -“Allow me to congratulate you upon the idea of the magazine and upon -the excellent first issue. It ought to find a welcome everywhere.” C. -L. W. - -“The first number of ‘The History Teacher’s Magazine’ reached me in due -course. Allow me to congratulate you on its practical value. I read -every word in it, and only wished there was more to be read. It will do -an untold good to teachers of history, young and old alike. For several -years I have been seeking just such a magazine, and am much gratified -now to find one that will meet so universal a need.” G. B. B. - - * * * * * - -Of Interest to Teachers of History and Geography in Schools, Academies -and Colleges are - -THE McKINLEY OUTLINE MAPS - -The series now comprises - -OUTLINE WALL MAPS - -of the Continents, the United States and its subdivisions, of Europe -and its several countries, of Palestine and of other parts suitable -for the study of geography and secular or church history. The maps are -printed upon strong paper, about 32 by 44 inches in size, and cost -singly only twenty cents each (carriage 10 cents each); in quantities -the price is as low as fifteen cents each (carriage 2 cents each). -Especially adapted for use in geography classes in elementary schools, -and in history classes in high schools, preparatory schools, and -colleges. - -OUTLINE DESK MAPS - -Three sizes of skeleton and outline maps for use by students in -geography or history classes. Sold in any desired quantity; small size -(5 by 7 inches), 35 cents a hundred; large size (8 by 10 inches), 50 -cents a hundred; double size (10 by 15 inches), 85 cents a hundred. The -list includes the Continents, the United States, sections of the United -States and of Europe, and many maps for the study of ancient, medieval, -and church history. - -OUTLINE ATLASES AND NOTEBOOKS - -Composed of outline maps bound together to be filled in in colors by -students; arranged for nine periods of history. - -Samples cheerfully furnished upon application by mail to - -McKINLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY, PHILADELPHIA, PA. - - - - -The History Teacher’s Magazine - - - Volume I. - Number 2. - - PHILADELPHIA, OCTOBER, 1909. - - $1.00 a year - 15 cents a copy - - - - -Gain, Loss, and Problem in Recent History Teaching - - BY PROFESSOR WILLIAM MACDONALD, OF BROWN UNIVERSITY. - - -The newer methods of history teaching which were authoritatively set -forth for the first time in this country in the report of the Committee -of Seven of the American Historical Association, and which during the -past ten years have increasingly made their way in the better secondary -schools, have had for their aim the emancipation of history from the -bondage of mere mechanical routine, the clearer discrimination of -essentials and non-essentials, the use of comparison and judgment -as well as of memory in the mastery of historical knowledge, the -systematic exploration of books other than the textbook, and the -intelligent correlation of the subject with literature, art, economics, -geography, and other kindred fields. - -That there should have been criticism, not seldom unfriendly, of the -new methods and their results is only natural. The new procedure had to -be learned by teachers as well as by pupils, and its application to the -conditions of particular schools determined by careful study of local -possibilities and needs. What was possible in a large and generously -supported school was not equally attainable in a small and poor one; -and it was inevitable that mistakes should be made even by those most -interested in making the new work a success. No more in history than -in language or mathematics, both of which have undergone pedagogical -reformation in our day, was perfection to be won at the outset. - -All things considered, however, it seems to me indisputable that, -wherever there has been an honest and earnest attempt to make the new -methods successful, a gratifying and very considerable measure of -success has been attained. Broadly speaking, the formal recitation, -based mainly upon the study of a textbook, has been given up. The -history of England is no longer generally studied by the reigns of -sovereigns, nor the history of the United States by presidential -administrations. There is wide use of source books and documents, -and much intelligent reading in narrative histories, biographies, -journals, letters, travels, and other literature. Map-drawing is -extensively required, and illustrated lectures or talks and historical -excursions have been made to contribute their wealth of information -and interest. From every point of view, the position of history in the -school curriculum is more dignified and rational than it used to be, -its pedagogical method more intelligent, its fruition in knowledge and -power more valuable. - -No method of teaching, however, is ever so bad that its abandonment is -not attended with some loss to the pupil. In spite of all the success -which has undeniably come about in these ten years of thoughtful and -friendly effort, there still remain a number of steps imperatively -to be taken before the teaching of history in secondary schools can, -without serious qualification, be pronounced satisfactory. There is -still a woeful need of trained history teachers. While the larger city -high schools and many private schools are praiseworthy exceptions, -it nevertheless remains true that the majority of schools do not yet -think it necessary to choose for the historical department a teacher -specially trained for that work. The subject is still too often -assigned to this teacher or that who happens to have the necessary -free time, but whose serious equipment lies in some other field. -Nothing short of sound and extended college training in history should -be deemed a sufficient preparation for the teaching of history in a -secondary school, just as nothing short of such training, and the frank -recognition of its importance by school authorities, will overcome the -unfortunate reluctance of the best college graduates to enter secondary -school work. No graduate of Brown University can receive from the -department of history a certificate of fitness to teach history in -a high school or academy who has not completed with credit at least -four courses, each of three hours a week for a year, and one of them a -course of research; and I should be glad did conditions in the schools -make it possible to raise, as they do make it increasingly easy to -enforce this minimum requirement. - -A second crying need is for better equipment of the historical -department. The development of school libraries has not yet made -much progress, and the use of public libraries by large classes has -obvious practical limitations. Schools which willingly spend money -for scientific apparatus decline to spend money for books, pictures, -and other illustrative material. The equipment of wall-maps is often -exceedingly poor, historical maps being often lacking altogether -except in the field of ancient history. Until this lack is supplied, -we must expect that the teacher will from necessity rely mainly upon -the textbook, at the cost of failing to meet the most fundamental -condition of the newer methods of history teaching. - -Perhaps the most serious charge that is lodged against the new -method is that it fails to give the pupil exact knowledge, and even -discriminates against exactness and precision. My observation as an -examiner of applicants for admission to college leads me to believe -that there is force in this charge. Undoubtedly the amount of ground -which is expected to be covered by those who take any one of the four -fields recommended by the Committee of Seven is very great, in the -field of medieval and modern European history quite too great. Where -the time allotted to the course in the curriculum is insufficient, -as it often is, or where the teacher is incompetent, or where the -facilities of the department are inadequate, it is inevitable that -the work should be slighted and the results upon examination appear -unsatisfactory. Undoubtedly, also, in our zeal for the broad view and -the vivifying treatment, we have tended unconsciously to depreciate -the value of exact knowledge, and have allowed ourselves to think that -because the function of memorizing may easily be overworked, the memory -has no place in the study of history at all. - -The examiners in history for the College Entrance Examination Board -have learned that, unless they ask for dates, no dates will be -given; that the treatment of specific questions of limited scope is -prevailingly slovenly, indicative of loose thinking and tolerated -looseness of expression; and that the simplest questions will often be -carelessly misread. I am sure that we have not yet solved the problem -of examining in history either in school or in college, but I am also -compelled to think that the greatest weakness of history teaching at -present, in those schools in which the new program is being applied, -is that it so often fails to give the pupil a definite knowledge of -anything. I do not despair, however. There are signs of improvement, -growing in number and significance every year; and with the increased -employment of skilled teachers, the provision of better facilities for -teaching, and the more generous recognition of the importance of the -subject, we may, I think, confidently look for results commensurate -with those admittedly attained in other branches of the school -curriculum. - - - - -Training the History Teacher - -The Organization of His Field of Study - - BY NORMAN MACLAREN TRENHOLME, PROFESSOR OF THE TEACHING OF HISTORY, - SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI. - - -Provided that the text-books have been selected and the courses to be -given arranged for by some higher power, the first problem that faces -the history teacher in the fall is that of properly organizing the -field or fields of study. Now we all know that many teachers do not -realize this problem or that if they do they shirk it and adopt a sort -of go-as-you-please plan of so many pages each day, irrespective of -topical or any other sort of unity, that usually results in careless -recitation work and an incomplete course. In some cases the teacher -seeks aid and guidance from a printed syllabus or outline of the course -to be covered, and if these are available and properly constructed in -connection with the text-books used, they can be of great service, -but they cannot wholly relieve the teacher of responsibility as to -the length and character of topics to be considered.[1] Even the best -teachers are inclined to adopt a day-to-day plan of organization and so -work blindly, not knowing how much of the text-book will, in the end -be left unstudied. Such unsatisfactory conditions as are here referred -to are totally unnecessary if history teachers will only learn to -organize their courses in advance of giving them and thus be able to -round out their work in a thoroughly satisfactory manner. The reason -that this is not done is that most of our high school teachers of -history have had little or no training in the teaching of their subject -and have not learned how to handle and interpret the subject matter -to the best advantage. What some lack in training they make up for in -enthusiasm and interest in their work, but there are, unfortunately -for the profession, many teachers of history who have neither training -nor enthusiasm. On the other hand, the number of trained, earnest -and enthusiastic teachers of history is constantly increasing, and -there are opportunities offered for every teacher to improve his or -her methods and enter more understandingly and more successfully into -the work of teaching the subject. The greatest danger in history -work in schools is the prevalence of matter over spirit, of facts -over thoughts and ideas, of mechanical memory work over constructive -thinking and reasoning. If teachers of history will learn to enter -into their work with more spirit and understanding the subject will -soon be regarded with respect on account of the vital interest that the -development of the present out of the past must always have. One way of -emphasizing historical unity or continuity is by a well-planned series -of recitation or discussion topics based on the text-book used in the -course, and it is the question of such organization of the field of -study that I wish to discuss in this article. - - -General Suggestions as to the Organization. - -The history teacher who wishes to make a success of the courses given -must plan the work in advance according to certain common sense rules -and conditions. In the first place, the extent of the subject matter -to be covered must be carefully considered in connection with the time -allotted for its completion, and the relative emphasis to be placed -on the different portions of the period to be covered. Instead of a -haphazard assignment of so many pages each day irrespective of time -and subject matter, the length and character of the lesson assignments -should be plotted out in advance. If the number of pages of text-book -subject matter be accurately ascertained (many text-books have pages -of outlines, review questions, references, and so forth), and compared -with the number of recitation hours available, from which it is well -to deduct one-third or one-fourth for reviews, a mechanical basis of -assignments can be had. But a mechanical basis is not alone sufficient, -a topical one is necessary also. This is the most difficult and at the -same time the most vital part of organization and the part in which -most teachers fail on account of poor perspective as to important -and unimportant topics and a failure to realize the inner meaning -and significance of the external events with which they are dealing. -Fortunately most history text-books have been constructed on a skeleton -of topics, and even a poorly-trained teacher can, with a little care, -discover the proper lesson divisions. Some of the newer text-books go -so far, indeed, as to give a series of lesson topics which the teacher -can follow.[2] - -A competent history teacher, however, should not need to depend -entirely on the text-book, outline, or syllabus, but should be able -to select his or her own topics with judgment and success. A teacher -properly trained to interpret the subject matter of the different -fields of study who will take into account the length of time -available and the extent of the text to be covered, can successfully -plan out any desired course of study from beginning to end. This plan -does not need to be absolutely rigid, but it will be a valuable guide -for the work of the year or half year and will lead to a successful -completion of the course of study. Instructors in normal schools and -in college departments of education can easily train the students in -courses on the teaching of history to make such topical outlines based -on standard text-books. It will be time well spent, as the student -will afterwards find in active teaching, as one such experience in -enlightened planning out of a field of study will lead to competent -handling of other fields. - - -Organization of the Ancient History Field. - -If we say that this field of study should deal with the political, -governmental, social, and cultural development of the western portion -of the Ancient World under the three main divisions of (a) the Oriental -nations, excluding, of course, India, China and Japan; (b) the Greek -world, and (c) the Roman world--then we have a fairly comprehensive -definition of what is to be covered. If we add to this that the -chief teaching problem of the course is so to organize and interpret -the subject matter as to bring out in a clear and connected way the -really significant and essential movements and developments during -ancient times in connection with the leading historical peoples, we -are giving greater definiteness to the teaching work of the course. -But what are the really significant and essential movements in the -history of the ancient world from the pedagogical viewpoint? Can it -not be said that they are those that have most continuity with and -exerted most influence on later Mediterranean and European history? -To this end emphasis should be especially laid on the Greek world, -centering in Athens, and on Rome, centering in her great imperial -system. As a general rule, teachers of ancient history are inclined -to give too great a proportion of the time at their disposal to the -Oriental empires and their civilizations, to early Greek history and -archæology, to Roman legendary history, and the petty politics and -mythical conflicts of the early Roman republic, and the governmental -organization of the decaying republic, while Athenian life and thought, -Macedonian imperialism and its results, the rise and organization -of the great Roman empire, the causes of its strength, and of its -weakness and decline are not given sufficient time and attention. - -In the general organization of the Ancient History field the topics -should be so planned that the teacher and class will work from a broad -study of the Oriental peoples of the eastern Mediterranean world and -of the early history of the Greek peoples and States to a more careful -and intensive examination into the Athenian world as typical of the -best of classic Greece, of Alexander and Macedonian imperialism, as -promoters of Hellenic culture. The early Roman period should be rapidly -covered and far less time spent on the republic and its government. The -object in organizing the Roman portion of the Ancient History field -should be to emphasize the growth of the Roman empire and the creation -of an imperial system. To this end as much attention as possible -should be directed to the provinces and to the general problems of -the imperial government. The influence of the Roman historians, Livy, -Suetonius, and even to some extent of Tacitus (I refer to the annals -and histories), and of teachers of the classics is responsible for much -wrong perspective in the teaching of Ancient History. Nor have we one -really well-proportioned textbook for this field, though several of -the existing ones are fairly satisfactory. The success and interest of -the ancient history course depends largely on the teacher’s power of -selection, organization, and interpretation. - - -Organization of the Field of Medieval and Modern History. - -In organizing this field of study, while following the general rules -of organization, the teacher should remember that the object of this -course is above all else to make the student familiar with his present -historical environment and its immediate background. To this end it -is desirable that a large proportion of the time should be devoted -to bringing out and emphasizing movements and institutions that have -distinctly modern significance, and that recent European history should -be carefully studied. This does not mean, however, that the medieval -portion of the field should be neglected as an important contributory -factor in modern civilization. Emphasis should be laid on the -continuity of Roman influence, as seen in the imperial Church and the -imperial State and in Roman law, on the Christian religion as a factor -in advancing civilization, and on the contribution of political, social -and economic importance made by the Germans. The medieval world is -more foreign to the schoolboy mind than even that of Greece and Rome, -and the struggles of popes and emperors, the intricacies of feudalism, -and the ascetic and adventurous aspects of the Crusades are hard for -him to understand. But the feelings of nationality against imperial -control by Church or State, the growth of the towns and commerce, the -gradual development of representative government, the struggles against -despotism--these are things he can understand and appreciate and in -connection with which he can see the present emerging from the past. -Nor should the great personalities of medieval and modern history be -neglected, for they have historical interest and importance and serve -to give greater interest and definiteness to movements of which they -are a part. A little thought and care on the part of the teacher in -planning the lesson assignments and conducting the recitation will keep -the course from becoming dull and meaningless. The attention of the -class should always be drawn to the bearing of what they are studying -on present conditions and particular emphasis should be directed to -great international movements as well as to the growth and development -of the leading European countries. In no field of high school study -does careful previous organization lead to more satisfactory results -than in the medieval and modern field. - - -Organization of the English History Field. - -The organization and treatment of this field should be based on the -idea of bringing out clearly the origin, growth and larger developments -of English political, social and economic institutions. The field -offers especial advantages for developmental study, as the history is -well connected throughout, and can be easily organized into topics -and problems. All that the teacher needs is a little insight into the -fundamental factors and influences in English history, and this should -be obtained from any well conducted general course in English history. -The history of England should always be organized and treated as being -the study of the growth of a great imperial nation out of various -elements and through different policies. The idea of the growth of -free, representative government (the power of the people, or democracy, -in government) is the predominant note, but the broader viewpoint of -the growth of national civilization as shown in policies, industry, -art, language and letters is also desirable and important. Among the -dangers to be avoided in teaching English history, and in teaching how -to organize it, is the temptation to emphasize the minor political -details relating to royalties, wars and so forth. The history of -England is after all closely related to the history of Europe, and the -two great questions of interest in her story are those of her internal -development along national lines and of her external policy and growth -along imperial lines. More attention than is now given could well -be bestowed on the British empire, and it is a pleasure to find one -text-book at least that attempts to do justice to this important phase -of English history and government.[3] - - -Organization of the Field of American History and Government. - -Probably all teachers of American history will admit that broadly -stated the course in American history and government should be -organized with special emphasis on the national period, and should -represent an attempt to show how out of the diversity of the colonial -period there finally emerged the spirit of federal union, and how -American history largely centers around the erection of a sovereign -federal state, in face of English opposition, and the maintenance -of the union, in the face of internal dissensions, and finally, the -growth and expansion of the United States as a world power. The -European background, the native or American background, exploration, -colonization and colonial development must all be touched on lightly. -Then a careful study should be made of the steps leading up to union -and to independence, though the military side of the revolutionary -struggle is frequently over-emphasized, and the beginnings of national -government as we know it to-day can be studied in connection with the -formation of the constitution. Territorial expansion, foreign and civil -wars, colonial expansion and problems of internal development can all -be treated in relation with the central problem of successful federal -government and in relation with the present. Interwoven frequently -with American national history is the history of one’s own state, and -teachers can frequently use local interests to make the story of some -particular phase of national development more real and significant. - -There is quite a marked tendency to separate American government from -American history in the fourth year of the high school, and to give -a half year’s work in each subject. If American government is taught -as a separate subject a text-book should be selected which allows the -teacher to organize the course so as to work from the familiar to -the unfamiliar aspects of government, from the local to the national -aspects of the field of study. Several good text-books of this -character have been recently published.[4] - -The attempt has been made in this article to show how the history -teacher can be trained, or can train himself, to organize thoroughly -the field of study to be covered so as to complete the course in the -time allotted and also bring out the meaning and importance of the -study undertaken. Proper organization of the field of study will -undoubtedly aid the teacher greatly, but such organization must be -followed by successful recitation and class-room work. The next paper -in this department will therefore, be devoted to a discussion of the -training of history teachers in the organization of the recitation. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] Some useful outlines for high school work are: Newton and Treat, -“Outlines for Ancient, English and American History,” 3 vols. (25c. -each), American Book Co.; New England History Teacher’s Association, -“Outlines for Ancient, Medieval and Modern, English and American -History,” 4 parts (15c. each). Heath & Co.; Leadbetter, “Outlines of -Myers’ Ancient and Medieval and Modern Histories,” 2 vols. (35c. each), -Ginn & Co.; Trenholme, “Syllabus for the History of Western Europe -(Medieval and Modern),” based on Robinson’s text (60c.), Ginn & Co. - -[2] As examples of the highly organized text-book with clear cut -lesson topics, the following might be cited: Morey, “Ancient History,” -American Book Co.; West, “The Ancient World,” Allyn and Bacon; and -Ashley, “American History,” Macmillan Co. - -[3] The reference is to Cheyney’s “Short History of England,” Ginn and -Co., in which considerable attention is given to the present British -Empire. - -[4] Among these might be especially mentioned: Ashley, “American -Government,” Macmillan Co.; James and Sanford, “Government in State and -Nation,” Scribners. - - - - -Instruction in American Government in Secondary Schools - -A COMMENT ON THE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF FIVE. - - BY WILLIAM A. SCHAPES, Chairman of the Committee of Five, Professor of - Political Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. - - -The American Political Science Association has taken an interest, not -only in the investigation and discussion of the scientific questions -arising within the field of Political Science, but has also paid -attention to the problem of improving the instruction in Government in -our schools and colleges. To further this work a section on instruction -in Political Science was organized at its first annual meeting. In 1906 -the committee of five, originally of three members, was appointed to -complete certain investigations which had been started in the section -on instruction, the partial results of which had been published in a -paper by the writer in the proceedings for 1905. The committee was -required to ascertain the amount and kind of instruction in American -Government being offered in the secondary schools of this country and -make recommendations for the consideration of the association. In -accordance with these instructions the committee undertook to collect -its information directly by correspondence with the teachers in about -600 high schools distributed throughout the United States. The work -extended over more than two years, the final report being read at the -Richmond meeting in December, 1908, and published in the proceedings -for that year. - -The point on which the report lays greatest stress, namely, the -necessity of teaching Government as a distinct subject in the secondary -schools, was expressly approved by the association without a dissenting -vote. It does not follow, of course, that the report expresses the -views of every member of that association, in every particular. In -fact it does not. The report does represent the views of the entire -committee after making an exhaustive study of the question. - -The report covers 38 pages of the proceedings, and is therefore too -elaborate to be properly presented in a brief article. Only a few of -the essential features will be referred to. - -At the very outset the committee was confronted with the pedagogical -question as to whether Government should be taught as a distinct -subject or whether it should be taught in connection with history. -The teachers are still somewhat divided on the subject, and practice -varies. The information collected indicates that the teaching of -American Government, Civil Government or Civics as it is still -barbarously designated, is suffering from a lack of proper recognition -in the school curriculum, for want of especially trained teachers, from -lack of a working school library on Government and from inadequate -text-books. It seems a curious thing that our public schools, which -were instituted and are operated by governmental agency to maintain -an enlightened citizenship, have taught every other subject excepting -Government. There can be little doubt that the rather confused and -contradictory recommendations of the Committee of Seven ten years ago -helped materially to spread the impression among high school teachers -that the subject of Government could not be successfully studied -apart from History, and that it is a sort of poor relation to it on -which little time need be spent. The suggestion of the Committee of -Seven that the subject might be taught in connection with American -History was adopted by a large number of schools. The results obtained -are generally considered to be unsatisfactory. In the West out of -240 schools heard from, 153 were offering separate instruction in -Government, 47 taught the subject in connection with History, and 40 -failed to specify the plan in use. The teachers or principals in these -schools personally preferred the separate course by 158 to 30, 54 -failing to commit themselves. - -In the South 85 schools reported a separate course in Government, 53 a -combination course with History. The teachers or principals reporting -preferred the separate course by 111 to 33. - -In the East and Mid-West 98 schools reported a separate course on -Government and 74 a combination course. The teachers or principals -expressed a personal preference for the separate course by 110 to 42. - -It should be noted that the committee divided the States into three -more or less arbitrary sections; the West, embracing all the States -west of the Mississippi, excepting Missouri and the States to the -south; the South including all the States south of the Ohio River and -Mason and Dixon’s line and east of the Mississippi, but including -Missouri and the States to the south; the East and Mid-West including -the States east of the Mississippi and north of the Ohio River line. - -The reports from all the sections show that experience is demonstrating -that the plan of teaching American Government and American History -as one subject is bad pedagogy and false economy. The fact that the -teachers personally prefer the separate course in Government by a large -majority in all three sections is significant. It means that experience -is a little ahead of practice, and that when practice has caught up -with the best experience, the combination course will be relegated to -the scrap-heap of discarded methods. - -In its recommendations the committee urges the need of more and better -instruction in Government, throughout the entire school system from -the fifth grade up. There can be no question that improvements in the -administration of the government have not kept pace with the advances, -for example, in industry, in commerce, in transportation, or even in -pure science. It is a well-known fact that foreigners find much to -learn from this country in the organization of industry and in the -methods of conducting business, but they do not find so much to commend -in the administration of our governments. Yet it is in this very field -of politics and government that this country was long supposed to have -completely outstripped all the older countries. In the framing of -constitutions and in the inauguration of new systems of popularizing -political institutions America has led and contributed much, but in -the careful, efficient management of public affairs we have not been -so successful. In the management of our cities it is conceded that our -mistakes and failures are rather more conspicuous than our successes. -The question naturally arises whether the public schools have not -contributed to these mistakes and failures by neglecting to provide -adequate instruction in matters of Government. It may be difficult to -demonstrate that school training in the science of Government does -result in purer political methods and more efficient administration of -public business, but surely a citizenship whose political information -has been gleaned from election posters, stump speeches, newspaper head -lines, and highly colored magazine articles will not furnish a model of -civic enlightenment and success. - -The duty of fitting the youth for the services and responsibilities -of citizenship in the Republic under the complex conditions which now -prevail, belongs primarily to the public school. It has not discharged -its highest function until it provides for every child adequate -instruction in the government of this country. So far the public school -has failed to do this. There are large cities in this country in which -no systematic instruction in Government is given in the otherwise -splendidly equipped high schools, nor is the subject taught in the -grades. Some of these cities are in the boss-ridden class. The question -naturally presents itself to our minds, is one circumstance the cause -of the other? Certainly a high school, situated in a large city, that -does not lead its boys to study the complex organization and functions -of the community in which they live fails in performing its first and -highest duty. - -The Committee of Five therefore recommends that the instruction -in Government begin with the fifth grade. In the fifth, sixth and -seventh grades the subject should be presented in general school -exercises, in the subjects selected for language lessons, in connection -with geography and other exercises. In these grades the method of -instruction must be largely oral without a text. Such topics as the -fire department, the police, the water works, the parks, garbage -collection, the health officer, the light housekeeper, the life -saving station suggest subjects for discussion. The aim being to lead -the child to think of the community and realize that it has rights, -obligations, property, that it does certain kinds of work and that -every individual citizen has a part to play in the life and activities -of this community. - -In the eighth grade more formal instruction on local, State and -national government may be given. A simple text should be selected, and -this should be supplemented. The main emphasis must be placed on the -study of local government to make the subject concrete and bring it -home. - -The committee recommends that in the high school Government be -presented as a distinct subject of instruction following one semester -of American History. At least one-half year should be devoted to the -subject with five recitations per week or an entire year where the -three-recitation plan is in use. - -Some high schools are indeed devoting an entire year to American -Government with excellent results. In fact, if the instruction in -all the high schools could be brought up to the level of a few -conspicuously advanced schools the main desires of the committee would -be fulfilled. - -In selecting a text the teacher should avoid the old style manual, -consisting of the clauses of the constitution with comments. Such -books are entirely out of date. They represent the first attempts at -textbook making in this field. They never were good texts. It is rather -surprising that more than a score of high schools reporting still use -these useless books. The teacher should equally avoid the new hybrid -text which attempts to combine in one, a treatment of History and -Government. In the very nature of things such books must be confusing -and distracting to the beginner. - -It is equally important that superintendents and principals stop the -practice of assigning the subject to any teacher on the force whose -time is not fully taken up with other duties. No one can hope to teach -Government with the best success who has not a genuine interest and an -appropriate training for the work. - - - - -Lessons Drawn from the Papers of Candidates of the College Entrance -Examination Board - - BY ELIZABETH BRIGGS, TEACHER OF HISTORY AND CIVIL GOVERNMENT IN SACHS’ - SCHOOL FOR GIRLS, NEW YORK. - - -In studying the reports of the secretary of the College Entrance -Examination Board, the history teacher learns the disheartening fact -that less than 60 per cent. of the candidates in history get 60 per -cent. or over in the examinations. The proportion of the whole number -of candidates in history who have received over 60 per cent. for the -past eight years is as follows: - - 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 - % % % % % % % % - 59.2 53.2 53.7 54 47.3 43.2 50.3 42.8[5] - -It should be noted in passing that the lessening number of successful -candidates characterizes not only history, but the whole group of -entrance examination subjects. But further disquieting statistics -prove that history has generally fewer successful candidates than -most of the other subjects; in 1907 it was surpassed in this respect -only by physics; in 1908, by German, mathematics and zoölogy. Also in -the class of high ratings, 90-100, history comes near the foot of the -class; in 1907, all the other subjects ranked higher except physics and -chemistry; in 1908, all except Spanish, chemistry, botany, geography -and music. That is to say, history makes a poorer showing than all the -other large subjects, those offering a thousand candidates or more. - -Granting that the demands of the examiners are reasonable, history -teachers must conclude that the necessary equipment is not being -furnished to their pupils. Although the questions are designed to -test something more than a superficial knowledge of events, such a -superficial knowledge, provided it be complete as to the whole field, -would enable a candidate to obtain a rating of 60. The papers of the -candidates are evidence that instruction has been generally omitted on -one point, and has been slighted on three others. - -In all conferences of history teachers, much time is spent in -considering how best to inculcate historical mindedness, accurate -thought, cultivation of the imagination, and clear reasoning; primarily -it is acknowledged that there must be acquired a stock of definite -information, but the discussions seem to assume that the acquisition -of the information is an easy matter, and that the exercise of -observation, analysis and judgment, may occupy the greater part of the -time of pupil and teacher. In the classroom, however, both teacher and -pupil while trying to respond to the multiplicity of demands have been -unable to divide the time into enough fractions to go round, and the -teachers seem to have reached a consensus that the topic to be crowded -out shall be geography. In spite of the fact that the requirements in -history state that geographical knowledge will be tested by requiring -the location of places and movements on an outline map, in spite of the -fact that almost every set of questions for nine years has demanded -map work, the papers of candidates have shown that instruction in -geography, including the use of maps, has been signally neglected. -Year after year answers in this subject have been marked uniformly -low, seldom attaining a passing mark, being rated 1, 2 and 3, on a -scale of 10. In answers to questions which asked that Philadelphia, -Constantinople, Alexandria, Delos and Delphi, be marked on the map -and their historical importance be explained in the answer book, -Philadelphia was placed in North Dakota, Constantinople in India, -Alexandria on the Adriatic, Delphi in Italy, and Delos near Genoa; and -yet the answer books told correctly the historical importance of each. -How completely geography may be divorced from map work was illustrated -in a few answers to a question that asked for the marking on the map -of the English frontier on the European continent in the time of -William I, Henry II, and Henry V; several candidates wrote out their -answers in addition to indicating them on the map, with the curious -result of a correct list and an incorrect map, that is to say, the -memorizing of French provinces had been carefully done, but there had -been no practice in map work. A more vicious example of unintelligent -memorizing it would be hard to find. Countries as well as cities have -been misplaced; Ireland in Norway, Wales in Germany, China in Egypt. -That the ignorance here is due to the teachers and not to the pupils -is made apparent by the failure on this point in otherwise excellent -papers. There could have been no instruction, or the intelligent pupil -would have met the requirement. Another proof besides the mass of -incorrect answers that map work is neglected in the schools is the -fact that when the options permitted a choice between map work and -an explanation of geographic control, the choice fell on geographic -control. This choice was made not because the candidate was qualified -to write about the effect of geographical conditions on the history of -the early settlements in America, or on the Revolutionary struggle, but -because guessing seemed easy. - -As for the other “eye of history,” chronology, there is a respectable -showing. The examination questions have not asked for lists of dates, -though a knowledge of dates has been frequently demanded by the nature -of the questions, and such demands have not found the pupils wanting. -An occasional anachronism has occurred, and has served to enliven the -reading, as the statements that the barons of the time of William the -Conqueror spent most of their time smoking and drinking, and that -Milton was effective by means of his efforts in the daily papers. -Occasionally a candidate would show what he could do by prefacing or -concluding his answer book with a chronological table for the whole -subject. - -Answers to what may be called sweeping questions such as “Trace the -rise and fall of the naval power of Athens,” show a lack of practice in -reviewing by topics; though meagre, they suggest more acquaintance with -the subject than is written down, giving evidence of considerable drill -on isolated points, if not on the continuous story. All the history -papers since 1901 have had questions of this sort, and it would seem -likely that teachers would take the hint and exercise their pupils in -following a train of events from reign to reign, from administration -to administration, from century to century. The general failure with -this type of question and the general success in timing isolated events -leads to the fear that the history is studied wholly by reigns or -administrations without regard to the “ceaseless course” of Time. - -The history examiners have also made a point of introducing questions -characterized by their timeliness, about Alfred the Great in the year -when the thousandth anniversary of his death was being celebrated, in -1904 on the Louisiana Purchase, in 1909 on Grover Cleveland, questions -which it was expected would receive unusually full treatment. The -expectation was disappointed, possibly because their “timeliness” did -not exist for the candidate; because current events have had no share -of his attention, though they might be taking the form of celebration -of the past. As for current events pure and simple, those that belong -to the present _per se_, any option on them is avoided. The only -subject of current interest on which information has seemed to be -widespread was the melodramatic experience of Miss Ellen Stone. Allied -to this ignorance of current events, is the ignorance of the nineteenth -century in Modern history and in English history. A candidate could -write a passable account of Charlemagne and fail on Bismarck, could -be accurate about Wolsey and yet state that Gladstone wrote standard -law books. For this knowledge of the remote past and ignorance of the -recent present, Dr. James Sullivan says that the text-books should be -held responsible, as few teachers are any better than their text-books. - -In biography, whenever the options made it possible to write on several -persons rather than on one, the greater majority of the candidates -found it easier to present a few meagre facts about several individuals -than an extended account of one individual. Evidently biography in -school is confined to the foot notes or the descriptive introductory -paragraph on the page that mentions a new leader for the first time. -In fact one student apologized for his limited knowledge of Pitt and -Nelson on the ground that Montgomery gives no extended biographies. -Like Dr. Sullivan, he blamed the text-book. It should not be implied -that the reader finds no evidence of collateral reading. Indications of -it do appear, but they are rarer than oases in Sahara. Far from hinting -at collateral reading, many answers showed inadequate attention to the -slender material offered in the text-book. It seems not unreasonable to -expect that every student going up for examination in English history -should be able to place Milton and Nelson correctly, yet their names -have brought out such statements as, there is nothing recorded in -history showing any personal service that Milton did for the Roundheads -and that personally he was a Tory, that Milton wrote books of travel -and wild improbable adventures of sea and land; that Nelson explored -for England and went furthest north, that he sunk the Spanish Armada, -that he defeated the combined French and Spanish navies at Waterloo, -and that he signaled, “Don’t give up the ship.” The only satisfactory -item to be credited to these statements is the fixed association of -these names respectively with literature and the sea. Any hint as -to the personality of the subject is seldom found, yet William the -Conqueror, Henry VIII, and Cromwell, seem to have had some hold on the -imagination. - -To summarize experiences as a reader is not a happy task for the -secondary school teacher. As regards what may be termed the New -Learning in history--geographic control, economics, and the exercise -of observation, analysis, and judgment, the teacher need not blush at -his failure to render his pupil able to observe, analyze, and judge -in clear and correct English in fifteen-minute sections of a two-hour -examination, or to deal successfully even in an elementary way with -subjects that have either only recently become part of a college course -or are not generally studied by freshmen. But what history teachers do -need to concern themselves with is the failure to supply their pupils -with a reliable store of facts. If the statistics of the Board seem -to imply that history teaching is inferior to teaching in most other -subjects, it would be consoling to accept the suggestion that the poor -returns are not the result of poor teaching, but of no teaching, since -many candidates have tried the examination without instruction, an -experiment they would make in no other subject. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[5] These figures are not final, as the Secretary’s report is not out -for 1909. - - - - -The Study of Western History in Our Schools - - BY PROFESSOR CLARENCE W. ALVORD, OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS. - - -The West has always been self-assertive. This may sound somewhat banal, -but no adjective describes so exactly that principal characteristic -of her vigorous youth. Commercially, politically, socially she has -displayed her egoism and has continually demanded from her elder -sister, the East, praise for her achievements. Youth is, however, -passing away; over a century of political life has been left -behind; age has brought with it a new pride in the consciousness -of accomplishment. To-day the West realizes that she has had a -history that is no mean part of the national story. The cry from the -prairies is no longer: “See what we are doing;” but, “See what we -have done.” Self-assertion again! Yes, perhaps bumptiousness, but -such is the fact. On every side there are signs of this new phase -of western self-consciousness. In no part of the Union is there -such an interest in local history. State-supported departments of -history, State historical societies, county and city historical -societies, even women’s clubs and public schools, and larger unions -such as the confederation of the societies of the Ohio Valley and the -Mississippi Valley Historical Association, are all active in collecting -material for and exploiting western history. Some of the efforts -are misdirected, many of the papers presented before these learned -societies are absurd; but even the aimless gropings of the historical -amœbæ indicate the innermost yearnings for a knowledge of the past and -the consciousness of deeds worth recording. - -In developing this consciousness of her past, the West, naturally -enough, has found a grievance against the historians of America -who have somewhat neglected this important phase of the national -development. Before the eyes of the historian educated under the shadow -of the gilded dome of the Puritan Capitol, the landing of the Pilgrim -Fathers looms larger on the historical horizon than the occupation of -the Old Northwest during the Revolutionary War, so that he gives a more -careful and extensive description to the former than to the latter -event. The westerner gazes upon another horizon, where the relative -importance of events are differently grouped. To him many events -confined to New England, the description of which fills pages of our -national histories, appear of local interest; and events belonging to -other parts of the country assume national importance. - -This grievance is not altogether fictitious, as a glance at any of our -large histories and particularly at the text-books used in our schools -will disclose. The signs of the times, however, point to a healthful -change; for in the last many-volumed American history, chapter after -chapter is devoted to the history of the West. The correction of -the error in proportion, moreover, lies in the hands of the western -historians, who can bring to prominence the events of their section -only by producing serious and scientific studies on the development -of the West; and consciously or unconsciously the recent movement in -the study of western history is directed toward that end. Besides the -popular interest in the subject, already noted, the universities are -turning the attention of their graduate students to the field; the -scientifically-trained instructors of these institutions are conducting -researches into the history of the valley; in other words, western -history is already recognized as a legitimate field for research work. -Time alone is needed for the results of this activity to become a part -of the national consciousness, when the relative importance of western -events will be correctly given in our larger histories and be finally -disseminated through text-books and popular works to the public. - - -The Teacher’s Duty. - -The development of a popular knowledge of the history of the West will -largely be the work of the teachers in our public schools. This is -fortunate, for the subject is suited in a remarkable degree for the -purposes of instruction. In the great central valley the romantic, -religious, political, and economic growths have been luxuriant, and -every student, whatever his character, will find events to arouse his -historical imagination. The glamour around the wild life of the forest -and prairie appears most brilliant to children. The lurking Indian, the -silent Jesuit, the song-loving _voyageur_, the hardy trapper--these are -figures that give a picturesque touch to our early history which never -fails to retain the attention of the class. - -Fortunately the earliest phase of western history inspired the -brilliant pen of Francis Parkman, and his accounts of the discovery and -occupation of the Mississippi Valley have become parts of the common -knowledge of our people, so that the figures of Marquette, Lasalle, -and Frontenac stand out relatively clear in the memories of the -school days. Since, in Parkman’s works, literature, romance, and good -historical narrative are so well combined, the teacher should make the -most of these, for where he ends, there is no work or set of works, -comparable to his, to continue the narrative. - -Many have been the attempts to tell the story of the advance of -the English pioneers across the mountains, but we still await the -well-equipped and inspired historian. There are, of course, books to -which the pupils can turn with profit and interest. Particularly has -the frontiersman with gun and axe been glorified, and his picturesque -figure is fully as attractive as Jesuit priest or French _voyageur_. -But the fundamental motives of the westward movement should not be lost -in the romantic story of a Boone or Sevier. The first impulse westward -came from the Englishman’s desire to participate in the fur trade which -the French threatened to monopolize. During the reign of Charles II -the movement, extending from Hudson Bay to the Carolinas, was started. -Almost as early as Lasalle, Virginians were on the waters of the Upper -Ohio, and were trading among the Indians of the Southwest. The fight -for the fur trade had begun. - -Land speculation was a second impulse for the westward movement. Boom -towns were not an invention of yesterday. The far-famed American -pioneer played his part in these enterprises, but he was often only a -pawn in the hands of the gentleman speculator of the East, who is to be -found in every period of western development. The speculative energy of -such men as George Washington, the Lees, and George Morgan advertised -the advantages of the valley lands far and wide. Then followed the wild -rush of homeseekers which rapidly built the Western States. - -The story of the West in the Revolutionary War is not well told in -the usual text-books of the schools, for the description of the -events which decided whether this vast territory should be British or -Spanish or belong to the United States are generally relegated to a -few lines of a paragraph. The settlement of Kentucky and Tennessee, -the occupation of the Old Northwest by the Virginians, the successful -campaigns of Governor Galvez which gave the Floridas to Spain, the -defeat of the various British campaigns to recover their hold on the -central Mississippi; these are all events of stupendous importance for -the future development of the American people. - - -Western Tendencies. - -The first and most marked characteristic in the history of the West -is its unity. This sets it off from the East, where particularistic -development was the rule. On the seaboard, well marked peculiarities -separate the inhabitants of the different sections. In the Mississippi -Valley, State boundaries have little meaning, and divide in no way the -people living on either side. Even when broader areas than those of the -States are considered, diverse development is not so well marked as -it is east of the mountains. Throughout the early pioneer period the -emigration westward was the same in character north and south of Mason -and Dixon’s line. The Ohio River was the great channel by which the -tide of immigration flowed over the prairies of the Old Northwest and -the blue grass region of Kentucky; and accident frequently led one man -to the slave-holding States and his neighbor to the North. - -If the Ohio was the gateway to the West, the Mississippi was the great -central avenue upon which the western people from all sections met -in friendly trade, so that the original feeling of solidarity was -strengthened by continuous intercourse and the realization of mutual -interests. The different environment at the headwaters and mouth of -the river never succeeded in separating completely the western people. -Here the idea of the unity of the country took deeper root than in the -East, where statehood meant more and nation less. It was in the Middle -West that, as the struggle between North and South drew near, national -leaders were developed and where the strongest efforts were made to -hold the country in unity. - - -Western Democracy. - -The West has moulded our national character even more than New England -with her far-famed and narrow Puritanism; for the West has been -the cauldron into which the nations of the world have poured their -streams of immigrants and from which has come the national type. This -amalgamation of character began in the oldest West, when Irishmen, -Englishmen, Scotch-Irish, and Germans settled in the region between the -falls of the seaboard rivers and the mountains, stretching from Vermont -to Georgia. Here was moulded the new type of man, who was to populate -the greater West across the mountain ridges. In an environment of -primeval conditions, in the struggle with the Indians and the forests -there was developed a self-reliance of character, differing in many -ways from any single European type. This new man of the West admired -the doer of deeds, condemned all reliance on traditional or family -position, scorned State authority, and loved independence. In the -soil of the new West, created by these men, the doctrines of Rousseau -flourished luxuriantly. All unconscious, the frontiersmen were putting -into practice the most radical philosophy of the French Revolution. It -was on the frontier that those conservative traditions of Europe, which -lingered years afterwards in the more settled East, were swept away, -and American democracy was really bred. It was on the border of the -older frontier that the spokesman of this democracy, Thomas Jefferson, -lived; and it was out of the new West that the hero of democracy, -Andrew Jackson, came. - - - - -The Newest State Association and an Older One - - -THE CALIFORNIA ASSOCIATION OF HISTORY TEACHERS. - - BY H. W. EDWARDS, OF BERKELEY. - -The first meeting of the California Association of History Teachers was -held in Berkeley, July 14, in connection with the summer session of the -University of California. The following papers were read: - -“History in the Grammar School”--J. B. Newell, University of California. - -“Emphasis in Ancient History”--R. F. Scholz, University of California. - -“Emphasis in Teaching of History”--Roger B. Merriman, Harvard -University. - -Prof. Newell urged that in the grades, history be taught with more -attention to the great fundamental facts and elimination of details. He -considered that great contests, such as the American Revolution, should -be used by the teacher to train the pupil in a broad tolerance, by -calling attention to the merits of both sides of the question. He would -have the teachers do more reading for themselves, and called attention -to the need of more money for providing the schools with books. - -The burden of Prof. Scholz’s essay was the neglect of the Orient as a -constant factor in Ancient History. Many teachers and most text-books -assume that the East ceased to exert a great influence after the -time of Alexander. This tendency to divide Ancient History into -“compartments” ignores the solidarity of the ancient world, and is -essentially unscientific. Oriental influence was a powerful element -throughout the whole of the ancient period. In conclusion Prof. Scholz -called attention to certain parallels between the race questions of -antiquity and those of the present day. - -Prof. Merriman made four principal points: - -1. Make history interesting--“better be flippant than dull.” - -2. Compare and correlate. Example--the date 1492 becomes increasingly -significant when one considers Lorenzo de Medici, Charles VIII of -France, the conquest of Granada, Pope Alexander VI. - -3. Relate the past to modern events and conditions. - -4. Make the development of mental power a constant purpose. - -In addition to these papers, two short talks were given. Prof. J. N. -Bowman narrated the origin of the Pacific Coast Branch of the American -Historical Association, and urged the claims of both parent Association -and Branch. - -Dr. S. H. Willey, a member of the California Constitutional Convention -of 1849, and the first President of the University of California, was -present, and was called upon by the chairman. To the history teachers, -it was most interesting to listen to one who had done much to make -history, and to hear of the birth of the State from one of her -“fathers.” Dr. Willey gave an interesting account of the conditions -leading up to the convention, and of the making and adoption of the -Constitution, together with references to the great struggle in -Congress. He urged that the children of the State be made familiar with -the facts of her history, and expressed a hope that the teachers would -devote more attention to the subject. - -The officers of the Association are: - -President--Superintendent E. M. COX, of San Rafael. - -Secretary--Prof. J. N. Bowman, Berkeley. - - -THE HISTORY TEACHERS’ ASSOCIATION OF MARYLAND. - - BY DR. ELEANOR L. LORD, Professor of History in Woman’s College, - Baltimore. - -The organization of the Maryland Association can hardly be described as -the result of spontaneous enthusiasm or of voluntary action on the part -of the teachers themselves; rather, it was somewhat in the nature of an -experiment in historiculture undertaken by request. There are reasons, -partly geographical, partly economic and partly political, it may be, -why many of the history teachers, especially in the rural districts of -Maryland, working a little apart from the main currents of educational -progress, need an awakening or a lift or both. - - -The Origin. - -At the annual meeting of the Association of History Teachers of -the Middle States and Maryland, in 1905, the difficulty everywhere -experienced in reaching teachers who are prevented by duties or by -geographical remoteness from attending the conventions was pointed -out, and it was voted to authorize and encourage the foundation of -local conferences of history teachers, with a view to minimizing -the obstacles to closer contact with the more remote teachers and -stimulating interest in local history and in local problems. The -primary purpose of these local organizations was declared to be the -same as that of the main association, viz., “to advance the study -and teaching of history and government through discussion,”--a wider -discussion than is possible at the annual meeting. Mr. Robert H. -Wright, of Baltimore, who was present at the meeting, was requested to -attempt the formation of a local association for Baltimore. A few weeks -later, as the result of a conference of five individuals interested in -the matter, an invitation was extended to a number of local teachers -and students of history to attend a meeting in the Donovan Room, -Johns Hopkins University, the very room, as it happened, in which the -Association of History Teachers of the Middle States and Maryland -was organized. This meeting, held May 19, 1906, was well attended. -The objects of the proposed association were stated and a temporary -organization effected. It was voted to extend the geographical scope -of the association so as to include the State of Maryland as well -as Baltimore City. The constitution subsequently adopted stated the -purpose of the association to be, in addition to the objects already -mentioned, the promotion of personal acquaintance among teachers and -students of history, and, as far as practicable, the furtherance of the -interests of the main association. - - -Progress of the Association. - -The Maryland Association has made fair progress in the three years of -its existence. The membership, numbering at present about thirty-five, -includes university, college, normal, high and elementary school -teachers of history, as well as school superintendents and supervisors. - -The activities of the Association may be summarized briefly. Since the -date of organization seven regular meetings have been held and the -following subjects have been discussed: - -“Historical Aspects of the United States Navy,” by Hon. Charles J. -Bonaparte, Secretary of the Navy. - -“Fundamental Principles in Teaching History,” by Prof. Charles M. -Andrews, Johns Hopkins University. - -“The Best Methods of Controlling and Testing the Students’ Work in -History,” by Principal R. H. Wright, Eastern High School for Girls, and -Prof. Eleanor L. Lord, Woman’s College of Baltimore. - -“The Correlation of History and Geography,” by Miss Elizabeth Montell, -Teachers’ Training School. - -“The Correlation of History and English,” by Miss Annette Hopkins, -Teachers’ Training School. - -“Essentials in Teaching History,” by Supervising Principal H. M. -Johnson, Washington, D. C. - -“Sources of American History in the British Archives,” by Prof. C. M. -Andrews, Johns Hopkins University. - -“Public Libraries as an Aid to Students and Teachers of History,” by -Dr. Bernard Steiner, Librarian of Enoch Pratt Free Library. - -“Management of Collateral Reading in Connection with the Text-Book,” by -Miss Annie Graves, Arundell School, and Miss Florence Hoyt, Bryn Mawr -School. - -During the winter of 1907-08 a study section for the study of civics -was successfully carried on by Mr. Robert H. Wright. The most ambitious -work undertaken has been the compilation of an Annotated Bibliography -for the Use of History Teachers. The task was intrusted to Prof. C. -M. Andrews, Mr. J. Montgomery Gambrill and Miss Lida Lee Tall. The -Bibliography was published in instalments in the “Atlantic Educational -Journal,” through the courtesy of the editors, and it will shortly -appear in permanent form. - -When the Association of History Teachers of the Middle States and -Maryland met in Baltimore, in March, 1908, the local association acted, -in a sense, as hosts. On this occasion a Guide to Points of Historical -Interest in Baltimore was compiled for the local association by Dr. -Annie H. Abel and Dr. Eleanor L. Lord, and copies were distributed to -the members of the visiting association. - - -Ideals of the Founders. - -In planning the work of the Association, the Executive Board has -always had in view the fact that not only the general meetings of the -main association, but even those of the local conference, are beyond -the reach of many who may feel the need of information about matters -that closely concern persons engaged in the teaching of history; -the stimulus of contact with others teaching the same subject; the -enrichment of their own minds through a fresh study of the subject in -the light of recent scholarship. Repeated efforts have been made by -means of circular letters to elicit suggestions of means of making the -Association useful to its more remote members; and all members have -been urged to join, individually, the Association of the Middle States -and Maryland, in order that they may receive its publications and those -of the New England and North Central Associations. Thirteen new members -were added to the main association during the year 1908-09. An effort -is now being made to improve the library facilities of teachers in the -rural districts; and the co-operation of the State Library Commission -of Maryland has been promised in an effort to circulate through the -county high schools traveling book-boxes, selected according to the -classification of the Bibliography mentioned above. - -The officers for 1908-09 were as follows: - -President--Eleanor L. Lord. - -Vice-President--Charles M. Andrews. - -Secretary-Treasurer--Robert H. Wright. - -Additional Members of the Board of Governors--Lida Lee Tall, J. -Montgomery Gambrill. - - - - -An Ancient History Character Social - - BY MARY NORTH, MONTCLAIR, N. J. - - -One hundred and fifty boys and girls in the first-year class of a -suburban high school planned and carried through a most successful -review in Ancient History last May. The course provides for five -periods a week (one of which is unprepared), and it covers Oriental -History as well as Greek and Roman. The pupils had exhibited much -interest during the year, but were beginning to show signs of -listlessness and fatigue, and something had to be done to arouse their -enthusiasm. A character social was suggested by the teacher, and more -was accomplished by it than could have been gained by weeks of urging -and toil. - -Each division appointed a committee to assist in the preparations, -and by the time that the affair was over more than half of the pupils -had taken an active part in the arrangements. Besides committees on -program, printing, refreshments and decorating, there were special -groups at work. Several boys busied themselves making siege machinery -such as the Romans used, while some of the girls dressed small dolls to -represent Roman soldiers. All of these models were exact and required -much study and skill on the part of the makers. The much-talked-of -theory of co-ordination was put into practice, for the Latin department -provided accounts and pictures of sieges, while the manual-training -teachers allowed the boys the use of the shop. Another set of pupils -planned an exhibition of statuary, preparing garments and studying -poses of famous classic statues. - -The first number on the program was the exhibition of the siege -machinery. On the platform were a city wall and tower built of wooden -blocks, and before them, arranged for the attack, were many pieces of -machinery. The boys who made the machines had charge of the siege, -and each exhibited his instrument, giving its name and explaining -its mechanism. There were catapults, ballistæ, battering-rams, vineæ, -plutei, tre-buckets, wall-hooks and besieging towers. The chairman of -the committee explained the grouping of the machines on the field and -the relative importance of the various instruments, and then the siege -began. Each machine actually worked, and the city wall collapsed. On a -table near by the legates, slingers and centurions witnessed the siege, -but took no active part. They were very properly clad, but their flaxen -locks and gentle eyes belied their warlike apparel. - -Another part of the platform had been arranged for the exhibition -of statuary and was fronted by a large picture-frame illuminated by -electricity. When the curtain was first drawn there stood in the frame -the famous “Mourning Athena,” recently found in the ruins of the -Parthenon. The Gracchi next appeared and were followed by a vestal -virgin, who gave place to two lictors. The last statue was Minerva -Giustiniani, perhaps the most successful of all. It had taken the -combined efforts of many pupils to produce helmet, serpent and spear, -so that all were vitally interested in this statue. Her pose and -expression were perfect, and the silence which greeted her was intense -until broken by deafening applause. - -The early numbers on the program were most interesting, but did not -compare with the character social itself. Each person on arriving had -been tagged with a number and had communicated to a trusty official -the name of the character that he had chosen. These characters could -be taken from the Oriental monarchies as well as from Greece and Rome. -They must, however, have been mentioned in the text-books (Myers and -Morey). Each player was provided with a pencil and printed program -containing a list of numbers corresponding to those of the characters -present. At a given signal the game began, and each assumed his -character. No one told his name, but each talked or acted as if he -were Cæsar, or Alexander, or Rameses. As soon as a boy discovered that -he was talking to Cæsar, he would scribble down “Cæsar” opposite the -proper number and rush off to talk to same one else. One boy wore a -double-faced mask and carried little gates; another had a tiny pair -of boots pinned to his coat and carried in his hand a beautiful toy -horse. A girl carried a lantern and anxiously searched the faces of all -her comrades; her quest seemed fruitless, and she would sadly shake -her head and move on. Every mind was hard at work, and at the end of -the hour it was with difficulty that the room was brought to order to -compare characters with the original list. - -The correct list of characters was read, and all who had guessed -over seventy were invited to the platform. No one responded to the -descending numbers called until sixty was reached, when one girl came -up. Then others followed in increasing numbers until the faculty began -to respond in the thirties. The quiet and suspense during this calling -off of numbers was most intense. Of course, no one had conversed with -each character present, but many players guessed correctly all the -characters they had met. - -For days after the social this character-study continued, because the -boys and girls kept going over in their minds the characters they -had met and not guessed, and kept comparing notes until the list of -characters they knew was greatly increased. When the real review came -in class, the pupils discovered that scarcely a period could be found -that had not been touched upon, while the teacher had again secured an -enthusiastic group of students instead of numberless indifferent boys -and girls. - - * * * * * - -The History Teacher’s Magazine - -Published monthly, except July and August, at 5805 Germantown Avenue, -Philadelphia, Pa., by - -McKINLEY PUBLISHING CO. A. E. McKINLEY, Proprietor. - -=SUBSCRIPTION PRICE.= One dollar a year; single copies, 15 cents each. - -=POSTAGE PREPAID= in United States and Mexico; for Canada, 20 cents -additional should be added to the subscription price, and to other -foreign countries in the Postal Union, 30 cents additional. - -=CHANGE OF ADDRESS.= Both the old and the new address must be given -when a change of address is ordered. - -=ADVERTISING RATES= furnished upon application. - -EDITORS - -=Managing Editor=, ALBERT E. MCKINLEY, PH.D. - -=History in the College and the School=, ARTHUR C. HOWLAND, Ph.D., -Assistant Professor of European History, University of Pennsylvania. - -=The Training of the History Teacher=, Norman M. Trenholme, Professor of -the Teaching of History, School of Education, University of Missouri. - -=Some Methods of Teaching History=, FRED MORROW FLING, Professor of -European History, University of Nebraska. - -=Reports from the History Field=, WALTER H. CUSHING, Secretary, New -England History Teachers’ Association. - -=American History in Secondary Schools=, ARTHUR M. WOLFSON, Ph.D., -DeWitt Clinton High School, New York. - -=The Teaching of Civics in the Secondary School=, ALBERT H. SANFORD, -State Normal School, La Crosse, Wis. - -=European History in Secondary Schools=, DANIEL C. KNOWLTON, Ph.D., -Barringer High School, Newark, N. J. - -=English History in Secondary Schools=, C. B. NEWTON, Lawrenceville -School, Lawrenceville, N. J. - -=Ancient History in Secondary Schools=, WILLIAM FAIRLEY, Ph.D., -Commercial High School, Brooklyn, N. Y. - -=History in the Grades=, ARMAND J. GERSON, Supervising Principal, Robert -Morris Public School, Philadelphia, Pa. - -CORRESPONDENTS. - -MABEL HILL, Lowell, Mass. - -GEORGE H. GASTON, Chicago, Ill. - -JAMES F. WILLARD, Boulder, Col. - -H. W. EDWARDS, Berkeley, Cal. - -WALTER F. FLEMING, Baton Rouge, La. - - * * * * * - - -METHOD THE NEED. - -Printed on another page of this number is a paper by Miss Briggs upon -her experiences as an examiner and reader in history for the College -Entrance Examination Board, in which figures are given to show that -history papers are rated lower than any other of the major subjects, -and that the average grade in history, instead of rising, is actually -getting lower year by year. Miss Briggs expresses the hope that the -low grades are due to the number of applicants who prepare by rapid -tutoring or wholly by themselves for the history examinations; a -practice, of course, almost impossible in the other major subjects. But -while such cramming is partly responsible for the failure of history -applicants, it cannot relieve the history teacher of blame. All who -have had experience in the marking of history papers in entrance -examinations know that much of the teaching of history is careless, -indefinite, and without evident purpose or understanding. If our -subject is not to lose caste altogether we must find a method which -will give the student that which can be measured objectively, as well -as furnish subjective satisfaction or culture. - -Such a method will not add to the intricacy of history for the student, -but it will require more efficient teachers of the subject, and it will -prevent that serious evil of the high school teaching of history,--the -assignment of history to any unattached instructor, whether he or she -knows anything about history or no. History teaching in the college or -the graduate school has, to a certain extent, found itself, and won -the respect of its fellows; history teaching in the high school and -preparatory school has not yet reached that point of self-development. - -There has been much talk, and rightfully, about the content of -secondary school history courses. The market has been filled with -excellent text-books and admirable source books--indeed they are -almost too good in that they have made text-book recitations easier -and somewhat more interesting. There have been pages and volumes of -reading references and map references and source references. Yet with -all these aids to the better teaching of history there has not gone a -proportionate ability to use them. Let us ask for a while, not what -period of history shall we teach? but, how shall we teach any period of -history? - -In the Latin or Greek class there are objective standards which must -be reached; in the mathematics or the English class there is a certain -amount and quality of productive work to be accomplished; in the -physics or chemistry or botany class there is laboratory experience to -be gained and recorded in note-books. Has history a method which can be -compared with any of these? Can we measure objectively the student’s -acquisition? Can we get him to use in some way his experiences in the -field of history, or have him record them in a valuable form? - -It may be objected that the establishment of a more intricate -historical method will add to the duties and labor of the history -teacher. This may be true; and indeed ought to be true. The day ought -to have passed when a college graduate who took in college but one -course in history, and that in Oriental history, should be thought -qualified to teach history in a secondary school. Such cases are not -rare to-day; they would be rarer if the historical method were more -definite and required better training. - -Professor Fling’s article in the September MAGAZINE and Professor -Trenholme’s articles in this and subsequent numbers will furnish some -details of historical method which should be valuable to every history -teacher. In carrying out these suggestions the teacher may temporarily -add to his or her own labors; but this will not be for long. Added -efficiency will mean greater respect for the teacher and the subject; -and increased respect will bring more assistants in history, more time -devoted to the subject, and incidentally a stronger demand for good -history teachers. Economically as well as intellectually the history -teacher will profit by raising the standards of his profession. - - -“AS HIRELING AND NOT AS CONSECRATE.” - -A noted journalist, who is also a writer on educational topics, and -a trustee of a large eastern university, in writing to the editor -respecting the establishment of THE HISTORY TEACHER’S MAGAZINE, said: -“Your idea is an admirable one. It ought to do good.... With this -teaching, as with all others, I fear the difficulty is the spirit in -which it is done, as hireling and not as consecrate.” - -Is this charge true of the history teachers of the country? We know -that history teachers were among the last to organize for common -purposes; that to-day their associations are not as strong as those -of teachers of the classics and of other subjects, that their class -work is not as well organized as the work of that far more indefinite -subject, secondary school English. Are these facts the result of a -hireling spirit? We think not. Rather they are due to the unfortunate -place which until very recent years, history has occupied in the -elementary and secondary school roster. And yet, while we believe there -existed and still exist valid impediments to the greatest success of -the history teacher, it may be well for each of us to ask himself -or herself the question. Am I doing the work as hireling and not as -consecrate? At times we need such searching questions. And until the -time when we have a great body of history teachers who are teaching the -subject because they love it and love to teach it to others our history -teaching will be heartless and sterile. - - - - -European History in the Secondary School - - D. C. KNOWLTON, PH.D., Editor. - -THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE CHURCH AND THE MEDIEVAL EMPIRE. - - -The Importance of the Church. - -The problem of simplifying and of unifying the material for study so -as to give the student a clear conception of the course of European -development is one that confronts the teacher at every turn and calls -constantly for solution. In this connection Professor Emerton, in his -address on the “Teaching of Medieval History in the Schools,” points -out the importance of the study of the Church as the great unifying -element in European progress, especially throughout the Middle Ages. -“All the peoples of Europe, divided as they are by nationalities and -by social classes, are all united in this one common possession of -religion and a culture derived from Rome and holding them still after -generations of separation in an ideal attachment to something they -feel to be higher and better than anything in their present world.” -The aims of the papacy in particular, says Professor Emerton, make -this task of the teacher easier of solution, because the successors -of St. Peter, even harking back to the times of Gregory I, strove -one and all for the same end--“to enforce anew this ideal of a vast -Christian State, governed in the last resort by an appeal to its own -divinely-constituted tribunal.” The greatest efforts put forth to this -end fall within the period under consideration, namely from the times -of Hildebrand to the death of Frederick II, or, more exactly, from -about 1050, when Hildebrand was fast becoming the power behind the -papal throne, to 1268, when Conradin’s untimely death in the market -place of Naples terminated the rule of the Hohenstaufen. - -The presentation of the relations between the popes and the emperors of -this period involves a fourfold task, namely an appreciation (1) of the -time covered and the areas concerned, (2) the personalities involved, -(3) the issues at stake, and (4) the effects of the struggle on Europe. - - -The Elements of Time and Place. - -It may be an elementary consideration, but it is withal fundamental, -that the pupil grasp the length of time involved, the order in which -the events occurred, and the theater on which they transpired. It is -not a continuous struggle, for it is opened, then closed, then reopened -again; now by pope, now by emperor. On the other hand these successive -meetings of popes and emperors in conflict are but phases of one and -the same great struggle for supremacy, whose issue Professor Emerton -has so clearly stated. These phases must be clearly defined as to their -time limits if the student is to follow the contest intelligently. As -to the countries or localities involved he must understand what was -meant by the Holy Roman Empire of the German people and what its limits -were, both actual and theoretical; to which he must add a more detailed -knowledge of Italy, particularly of Lombardy and the new Norman kingdom -in the South, which proved to be such an important factor in the -situation. - - -The Personalities in the Struggle. - -In no period of the Middle Ages can we find personalities more -striking than those zealous upholders of the papal prerogative, -Gregory VII and Innocent III--a statement which applies equally well -to the great champions of the empire, Frederick I and Frederick II. -Frederick Barbarossa attained his exalted position when scarcely -thirty; his illustrious namesake at an even earlier age. Both therefore -entered the contest with all the vigor and enthusiasm of their young -manhood. Although Gregory VII and Innocent III were somewhat farther -advanced in life, they too had lost none of their youthful ardor -and enthusiasm as they had risen rapidly to high position, the one -becoming papal counsellor before he was thirty, the other elected pope -at thirty-eight. These men represent some of the best products of -their times, in character, physique, scholarly attainments and native -ability. Frederick II even foreshadows in character rulers like Henry -VIII and Louis XI, who lived more than two centuries later. - -Alike in some respects, what contrasts they present in others. So -faithfully have the chroniclers performed their tasks that it is -comparatively easy to call them up and make them pass in review -before us. Hildebrand, unimposing in appearance, but passionate and -indomitable; Henry IV, intelligent, but violent; the tall, fair-haired, -princely Barbarossa; the thin, but well-proportioned, Frederick II, -of studious mien; and finally the majestic Innocent III, now giving -way to bursts of anger, and now plunged into fits of deep melancholy. -The principles which these men represented could not have had better -advocates. - - -The Issues. - -An examination of the three main struggles shows that each of these -champions of Church and State hoped to realize a definite aim which -he usually sought to attain in his own way. It is most interesting to -follow the ebb and flow of the tide of battle. The pope was the first -to throw down the gage of battle by attempting to remove the Church -from politics through the suppression of simony and the marriage of -the clergy. The very boldness of Gregory in daring to alter conditions -which had not been disturbed for generations, and that, too, in the -face of the strongest opposition, calls forth not only surprise, -but admiration, which increases as we examine the forces upon which -he relied to accomplish his results, namely, the canon law, the -church organization and the ban of excommunication. According to -some authorities, the very year which witnessed the settlement of -the first great struggle (1122), marked the birth of Frederick I, -the second great champion of the rights of the empire, rightly named -the imperialist Hildebrand. Selecting Charlemagne as his model, he -strove not only to unify his German possessions, but to re-establish -the power and authority of the empire in Europe by reasserting its -right to rule Rome and the Lombard cities, and by endeavoring to unite -with it the Norman possessions in the south of Italy. These attempts -naturally brought him into conflict with the papacy, which feared so -dangerous a neighbor on its very borders. His main reliance was in -the recently-revived study of the Roman law, and in a his labors he -governed himself by the maxim that “all that pleases a prince has the -force of law.” Innocent III, with perhaps the highest conception of his -position of any individual who had thus far occupied the chair of St. -Peter, dared to assert that the Lord gave that apostle the rule not -only of the Universal Church, but also the rule of the whole world. -That these were not mere phrases on his lips was shown by his efforts -to extend his authority to the furthest bounds of Christendom. Favored -somewhat by circumstances, he became for a time the arbiter of the -destinies of the empire, but at no time did he have a foeman worthy of -his steel within its confines. These were rather to be found in the -limits of Christendom in the rising kingdoms of France and England, -whose sovereigns nevertheless trembled before his threats and repented -of their misdeeds. Like Gregory VII, he asked for no stronger weapons -than the terrors inspired by the wrath of Mother Church. Finally there -appeared in the arena the brilliant ward of this the greatest of -popes, Frederick II, aptly characterized as the first of modern kings, -striving for absolute mastery in Sicily and in Germany, placing his -trust, as did his illustrious ancestor in the Roman law, but utilizing -at the same time his knowledge of men and the rising power of the -bourgeoisie. His plans, like those of Barbarossa, met with vigorous -opposition at the hands of the popes and for much the same reasons. - - -Effects of the Struggle. - -When we pass to our final consideration, namely, the effects of these -struggles on their participants and upon Europe, we find ourselves -face to face with incidents of a most dramatic character. The scene at -Canossa is the most familiar of these, but there was also the no less -humiliating spectacle later at the portals of St. Mark’s in Venice, -when Frederick Barbarossa sought a reconciliation with Alexander III, -followed almost a hundred years later by the tragic end of the last of -the Hohenstaufen. These events, dramatic as they appear, serve rather -to mark the progress of the long struggle than as epitomes of its -results. These must be sought in the relative position and influence of -the Church and empire in Europe at the end of the period. Although both -reached the apogee of their power and influence during this period, the -middle of the thirteenth century marks the period of their decline. -This decay was more marked at first in the case of the empire, which -practically ceased to exist in name. The time, however, was not far -distant when the papacy, too, was to enter the valley of humiliation -and drink to the dregs the bitter cup which it had put to the lips of -its great adversary. “One generation more and the same nation which had -sent an army to defend its cause in Italy was to strike it in the face -with the iron glove of one of its own subjects, and was then to capture -it and hold it, an ignominious tool for political ends during a century -more.”[6] These facts, with a more detailed statement of the various -symptoms of decay, should be impressed upon the student as the teacher -brings the period to a close. - - -Literature. - -The account of the three phases of the struggle as given by Grant in -his “Outlines of European History,” is especially to be recommended for -its brevity, clearness, simplicity and comprehensiveness; also Chapter -X in Adams’s “Civilization During the Middle Ages,” which summarizes -the struggle from a slightly different standpoint. Portraits of the -main actors are to be found in Bemont and Monod’s “Medieval Europe -from 395 to 1270”; Tout, “Empire and Papacy,” and Emerton, “Medieval -Europe” (814-1300). These books are also valuable for their details of -the struggle. There is abundant source material in Robinson, Ogg, and -Thatcher and McNeal to make clear the attitude of the popes, notably -of Gregory VII and the various treaties and compromises which mark the -different stages of the struggle. In some cases contemporary accounts -are given of the struggle itself, e. g., of the scene at Canossa. -In this connection mention might be made of the description of this -scene by Dr. Jaeger as an illustration of the narrative method of -presentation as employed by the German schoolmaster.[7] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[6] Emerton, Medieval Europe, p. 355. - -[7] Jaeger, The Teaching of History, Appendix, pp. 200-208. - - - - -English History in the Secondary School - - C. B. NEWTON, Editor. - -II. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH NATION; TO EDWARD I. - - -Feudalism: One Way to Get at It. - -It seems to me better not to grapple with feudalism until the rage -of the Conquest is fairly passed, and we come to the actual reign of -William I, partly because we have our hands full before this in trying -to instil a reasonably clear idea of the Saxon forms of government, -and partly because it is not very clear just how early feudal forms -and customs began to be disseminated throughout England. So we may as -well merely mention their existence before the Norman régime, and not -explain them fully till we are called on to show what modification in -the continental system was made by the Conqueror. - -The feudal system is so difficult to define briefly that most -text-books evade the attempt to do so. I believe, however, in -introducing even so large a subject as this with a terse definition, -such, for example, as: “Feudalism was a method of land ownership and -government common throughout Europe during the middle ages.” It does a -boy or girl no harm to learn a short statement like this, even though -it means little to him or her at first. It serves as a rallying point -for explanation; its terms are pegs on which to hang further details in -orderly fashion. To explain more concretely just what I mean, suppose -we take the above definition (any other would do), and see how we -may proceed with it in the class room so as to light it up with real -meaning. - -A, let us say, has recited the definition glibly, having taken it down -in his note-book the day before, with instructions to learn it by -heart. “Now, A,” says the astute teacher, “do you understand what that -means?” “Not exactly,” hesitates A, if he is ingenuous (if he isn’t, he -may easily be confounded). “Good!” you reply, in one stroke commending -his honesty and showing that you do not expect bricks without straw. -“Let’s see if we can’t get at its meaning. Does your father own any -land?” (A surprised look and pricking up of ears in the class). “No? -Well, he rents your home, then? Yes? But somebody owns it, of course, -and how did he get it? Bought it? Probably. Do you know of any way of -getting land except by buying or renting it?” Voice from an excited -hand across the room, “How about wills?” “Yes, land may be inherited, -but it had to be bought once, didn’t it?” “Well,” you continue, to A -and the class, “this buying or renting for money is our ‘method of land -ownership,’ do you see? Now, did you ever hear of a man’s being in -Congress, or the legislature, or being a judge simply because he owned -or rented a certain amount of land? Certainly not. Men are elected or -appointed to places in our government. Land ownership and government -are separate matters. Just think how different it was in old England -(and throughout Europe, for that matter) in feudal times. Men held -high position in the nation largely because of their great estates -together with their prowess in war. Now, instead of buying or renting -land, how would your landlord or your father have got it, say in the -reign of William I, A?” “From the king or from some big noble.” “Right -you are--but how, for nothing?” “No, in return for fighting for him.” -“Yes, and on a few other conditions; they are given in your book. What -were they, X? What! asleep? Forgotten? C, tell us.” So you proceed -to draw out the details of homage, fealty, and service, the theory -of royal ownership, the terms suzerain, vassal, fief, etc., drilling -in the unfamiliar words by frequent use, comparing them as far as -possible with present terms and usages, and bringing out, by contrast -and comparison, the essentials of the whole system. Finally you show -that the system was universal throughout Christendom, explain what the -middle ages were (if A, C or X can’t), and point out the adaptability -of feudalism to the time. When you have finished this, your period will -have flown (lucky if the bell does not ring too soon!), and your mere -definition will mean something to all but your dullest pupils. On pp. -131-136 of Cheyney’s “Readings,” are some excellent practical details -of feudal procedure which will be found useful for examples. - - -A Logical Approach to the Origins of the Jury. - -Did you ever stop to think how little your intelligent pupil -understands about some present-day institutions the origins of -which interest us because we appreciate their modern practice and -significance? Take, for example, the jury. A little questioning will -bring out whether or not your class knows the difference between a -trial jury and a grand jury, either in make-up or in functions. Unless -you are more fortunate than I have been, you will find they know very -little. Now, does it not seem an illogical absurdity to wade right into -the beginnings of the jury system in the days of Henry II when our -class has little or no notion of what the system is now, or what it -stands for? When we come to this point, therefore, in the epoch-making -reign of King Henry II, it is pertinent and profitable to digress into -a clear discussion of the jury of to-day, bringing out what knowledge -we can find in the class, and adding to it by some such Socratic -method of question and answer as we may have used in connection with -feudalism, rather than by giving a “talk” on the subject. After paving -the way in this fashion, we may start in with the Assize of Clarendon. -(Cheyney’s “Readings” pp. 141-142) and the distinction between -recognitors and presentment, so we shall emphasize the essential facts, -and also bring out both the similarity and the difference between -the germ and the present fruit of this ancient method of arriving at -justice. - - -Some Great Personalities. - -I think it is helpful to the memory, and useful, because of the great -influence of the crown throughout English History, to bring out the -_personality_ of _every_ sovereign, so that the names of each dynasty -will not be a list of names and nothing more. But in every century -we shall find certain great personalities, either on the throne or -off it, which should be made as vivid as may be. To this rule the -eleventh and twelfth are no exception. There are five men in these -centuries which seem to me particularly worth dwelling on: William I -and Henry II,--surely two of the really great kings of England; Becket -and Langton, types of great churchmen and exemplars of the enormous -power of the Church; and Simon de Montfort, highest type among the -early nobility. Vivid word pictures of the Conqueror may be found -in Freeman’s “Norman Conquest,” Vol. II, pp. 106-113, and (shorter) -in Green’s “Short History,” pp. 74-76. Henry II is portrayed by a -contemporary, Cheyney’s “Readings,” pp. 137-139, and in Green, pp. -104-105. Becket is described by Green, p. 106, and a good story of his -relation to Henry II is told in Cheyney, p. 144. For Langton see Green, -pp. 126-127; for Simon de Montfort see Green, 152-153, or Cheyney, pp. -221-224. - - -Further Notes and References. - -There is a good brief account of general conditions--Church and State, -development of learning, town and country life, architecture, etc., pp. -165-171 of Gardiner’s “Student’s History.” If one can get the time, a -reading, or re-reading, as the case may be, of Green’s “Short History” -on the towns, pp. 92-94; literature, pp. 117-121, and the universities, -pp. 132-141, is exceedingly refreshing. Cheyney’s “Readings” also -contain interesting quotations on the universities, pp. 188-195. - -In bringing out the causes of the controversy over the Constitutions -of Clarendon, it is appropriate to quote William the Conqueror’s Edict -(Cheyney, pp. 109-110) in support of Becket’s contention, as well as -to read from the Constitutions themselves (Cheyney, pp. 146-150). -If one has time for a little touch of humor and human nature in the -class-room, not strictly important in itself, the account of the -bishop’s speeches before the pope, in connection with the quarrel with -Becket, is most amusing (Cheyney, pp. 151-154). - -For a very full and interesting account of feudalism, see Beard’s -“Introduction to English Historians,” pp. 73-96. Shorter quotations -giving some interesting detail have already been referred to (Cheyney, -pp. 131-136.) - -A clear account of the Government of England as established under the -Normans is contained in Chapter XVII of “The Normans in Europe,” in -the Epochs of History series, pp. 234-248. “The Early Plantagenets” in -the same series, is concise and useful for “side-lights” on John’s and -Henry III’s reigns. - -On the Magna Charta, and on the Origin of Parliament, Beard’s -“Introduction,” pp. 110-123 and 124-138, respectively, contains a mine -of valuable comment. In connection with the famous parliament of 1265 -the fact that parliament was not really a legislative body at this time -should be strongly emphasized. - -For realism, I know nothing better than the graphic account in the -“Anglo-Saxon Chronicle” of the evils of Stephen’s reign (Cheyney, pp. -128-130, or, more briefly, Green, p. 103). The only good novel which I -know of in this period (I should be glad to hear of others) is Maurice -Hewlett’s “Richard Yea and Nay,” a wonderfully vivid book, but hardly -suitable to put in the hands of young folk in general. - - - - -Robinson and Beard’s Development of “Modern Europe” - - REVIEWED BY PROFESSOR SIDNEY B. FAY, OF DARTMOUTH COLLEGE. - - -If a teacher finds that the remoteness of Pericles and Clovis makes -it difficult to arouse in the history class the most active interest -of the student, who nevertheless would be keen to know something of -Bismarck and Li Hung Chang; or if a teacher finds it unsatisfactory, in -the second year course in medieval and modern European history to try -to teach the spread of constitutional government and democratic ideas -from the French to the Turkish Revolution before the student knows -anything of the English parliamentary system and of the Industrial -Revolution; or if the teacher is assailed by the school-board or by -the tax-paying parents of the pupils, on the ground that ancient -and medieval history is relatively useless and ought to be replaced -by something more practical,--such a teacher will find in these two -volumes a very present help in time of trouble. - -The authors have thrown to the winds the recommendations of the -Committee of Seven, and do not try to make their book fit into any -four years’ course as now outlined for high schools. The first volume -begins with the reign of Louis XIV; and from that moment the reader’s -eye is constantly directed forward to the present moment, so that -he can read intelligently the dispatches from Europe in his morning -newspaper. Much of the traditional matter is omitted in order to -give fuller treatment to those subjects which are most important for -an understanding of the present. This leads to an arrangement and a -placing of emphasis which often seems arbitrary and unhistorical,--as, -for instance, the scant half dozen pages given to the whole reign of -Napoleon III, or the insertion in each volume of a score of pages on -natural science. It is, of course, desirable to have the pupil have -some knowledge of the development and influence of such fundamental -subjects as evolution, bacteriology and the atomic theory; but it is -unwise to put these things in a text-book of history. Few teachers at -present could teach these pages properly; and efficiency of instruction -is likely to be weakened in any institution where instructors trespass -on each others’ fields. This criticism, however, does not apply to the -remarkable chapter on the Industrial Revolution and to the excellent -pages on socialism, colonial expansion, Russo-Japanese relations and -other timely topics of present-day interest; all of these may properly -be taught by the teacher of history. - -The authors have made a text-book which is accurate, lucid, packed with -information, and, at the same time, extremely readable. It has already -been used in some college courses, and evokes real enthusiasm from the -students. They feel they are learning things which are of practical -value and are up to date. - -Probably this text-book, at present at any rate, is better adapted for -college than for high school use. But schools of business or commerce -could very profitably use it. Ordinary high schools should have it in -the school library for collateral reading, but could not adopt it as a -text-book until they are ready to readjust their history curriculum so -as to give much more time than at present to Modern European History. -Perhaps that time is not far distant. - -[“The Development of Modern Europe.” By James Harvey Robinson and -Charles A. Beard. Two volumes; pp. xi, 362; vii, 448. Boston, 1908: -Ginn & Co.] - - - - -American History in the Secondary School - - ARTHUR M. WOLFSON, PH.D., Editor. - -THE INFLUENCE OF OLIVER CROMWELL AND WILLIAM III ON AMERICAN HISTORY. - - -In teaching the history of Europe from the Treaty of Westphalia to the -beginning of the French Revolution, no mistake is commoner than the one -of regarding the almost continuous series of wars between the European -States as a purposeless struggle for territorial aggrandizement. -Equally in American history, the teacher is prone to allow his interest -in the growth of social and political institutions to obscure the fact -that the North American continent was, for nearly a century, merely -a distant battleground on which Holland, England and France were -struggling for commercial supremacy. “Unity is given to the history -of England in the eighteenth century,” says Seeley (“Expansion of -England,” p. 77), “if you remark the single fact that Greater Britain -during that period was establishing itself in opposition to Greater -France.... You will, I think, find it very helpful in studying the -history of those two countries always to bear in mind that throughout -most of that period the five States of Western Europe all alike are -not properly European States but world States, and that they debate -continually among themselves a mighty question, which is not European -at all and which the student with his eye fixed on Europe is too apt to -disregard, namely, the question of the possession of the New World.” -In the same way, the student of American history must be continually -reminded that he is studying not the history of half a dozen or more -isolated communities, but a phase of a great European struggle for -world power. - - -Struggle with the Dutch. - -From 1689 to 1763, this struggle is marked by an almost continuous war -between France and England. An earlier generation, however, witnessed -a similar struggle between Holland and England. This earlier struggle -is also vitally important in the history of North America. Few students -of American history are aware of the unprecedented growth of the Dutch -maritime power during the first half of the seventeenth century. To -most of them the founding of New Netherlands is an isolated fact, -comparatively unimportant because the Dutch colony ultimately fell into -the hands of the English. The fact nevertheless remains that throughout -the greater part of the seventeenth century the carrying trade of the -world was in the hands of the Dutch and Amsterdam was the exchange of -the world. What Venice had been in the fifteenth century, Amsterdam -became in the seventeenth. - -“To break this monopoly was England’s object; and to raise his country -to a position of leadership in the commercial world was one of the -greatest ambitions of Cromwell.” (Andrew’s “Colonial Self Government,” -p. 11; see also p. 15). In 1651, at the instance of Cromwell, -Parliament passed the first Navigation Act, “for the increase of the -shipping and the encouragement of the navigation of this [the English] -nation.” In the light of later events, we in America are too apt to -regard this act and its successors as designed to limit the trade of -the colonies. As a matter of fact, a sufficient study of these acts, -especially those of 1651 and 1660, will show that they were aimed -directly at the Dutch who were at the time the maritime carriers both -for England and for the other nations of Europe. - - -The Navigation Acts. - -As a result of the first Navigation Act, England entered almost at once -on the series of three wars, 1652-1654, 1665-1667, 1672-1674, which -lasted just long enough to break the commercial supremacy of Holland. -Every school boy knows that as a result of these wars England acquired -the colony of New Netherlands, but few, even of his elders, realize -that, “The Navigation Act, which remained substantially in force for -nearly two hundred years is the great legislative monument of the -Commonwealth, it was the first manifestation of the newly awakened -consciousness of the community, the act which laid the foundation of -the English commercial empire.” (Seeley’s “Growth of British Policy,” -II, p. 25.) - -Throughout this period of rivalry between Holland and England, -especially after 1660, often against the will of the people, the -English government maintained a close alliance with the king of -France, the bitterest enemy of the Dutch people. In the last years of -the reign of James II, however, the tide of English feeling turned -irresistibly against the French alliance. Though James still looked -to his cousin, Louis XIV, for aid and comfort, the people of England -would have no more of him, and for this reason, as well as for purely -domestic reasons, James was in the end forced to flee from the country. -Thenceforward, there was a complete change in the English foreign -policy. - - -The Dutch and English Against France. - -When William of Orange, Stadtholder of Holland, the most uncompromising -enemy of Louis XIV, accepted the crown of England there came not only a -complete revolution in the English constitutional system, but also, and -far more important for the history of the American colonies, a complete -revolution in England’s foreign policy. War between England and France, -in spite of the traditional rivalry handed down from Plantagenet times, -had been extremely rare; Englishmen and Frenchmen had lived peacefully -side by side for half a century or more in the northeastern part of -North America, while Englishmen and Dutchmen were struggling for the -possession of the territory between Long Island Sound and Delaware Bay. -Henceforth, the English and the Dutch were to fight side by side in the -effort to break the power of Louis the Magnificent both in Europe and -in America. Just as between 1651 and 1689 it was the first interest -of the English that the maritime power of the Dutch should be broken, -so now, “it was a first interest of England that the encroachments of -France should be arrested, and that the Dutch should be saved from -destruction. The rivalry between the English and Dutch must cease; the -two sea powers must combine in opposition to France” (Seeley, “Growth -of British Policy,” II, p. 207). - -How efficiently William III set this policy in motion is attested by -the history of Europe and America in the eighteenth century. Though -he personally never realized the magnitude of the issue, though from -first to last he was primarily interested in the preservation of -Holland, though had he realized that his work was to result in the -aggrandizement of England at the expense both of Holland and France, he -would probably never have accepted the English throne, the far-reaching -effects of this policy are to be seen not only in America but in Asia -and in Africa as well. The accession of William III is thus the turning -point in American colonial history. Almost at once, he set in motion -that series of wars which ended in America only when the last vestige -of French colonial empire had disappeared from the continent. What he -began, Marlborough and Pitt, in later generations, completed. - - -Influence Upon America. - -If we keep these facts in mind: first, that the Navigation Act of 1651 -inaugurated a trade policy that was to build up the English carrying -trade at the expense of the Dutch; and second, that the accession of -William of Orange as William III of England marked the end of the -rivalry between the English and the Dutch and inaugurated the struggle -between the English and the French, Oliver Cromwell and William of -Orange become two of the most important figures in American history and -therefore deserve far more attention than is usually accorded them in -teaching American history. - -For the further study of this phase of American history, the student -is recommended to the works of Fiske and Parkman, and to the shorter -treatises contained in the volumes of Hart’s “American Nation.” -Especially important, however, are the two works of Professor J. R. -Seeley which have several times been quoted in this paper: “The Growth -of British Policy” and the “Expansion of England.” - - - - -A New Text-Book on American History By James and Sanford - - REVIEWED BY JOHN SHARPLESS FOX, PH.D., OF THE UNIVERSITY HIGH SCHOOL, - CHICAGO. - - -The new text-book by James and Sanford is an advanced and compendious -manual for use in high schools. In it the authors have escaped in -large measure the fault common to some of our older texts of writing -an _essay_ on American history; on the other hand they have avoided -the more grievous error of dumping a mass of undigested facts into -their book. They have borne in mind the important principle that -generalizations, to be useful, must be accompanied by the _facts_. The -_how_ and the _why_ are explained in this text, and the authors do not -assume an undue intimacy with providence. - -It has been their aim, they tell us, “to give the main features in -the development of our nation, to explain the America of to-day, its -civilization and its traditions.” They have sought to emphasize “the -achievements of men and women” in the more important fields of human -activity,--the “political, industrial, educational and religious.” -“Military phases of our history ... have been subordinated to the -accounts of the victories of peace.” They have given unusual attention -to “the advance of the frontier” and to “the growth and influence of -the West”; and “particular care has been taken to state the essential -facts in European history necessary to the explanation of events in -America.” Unlike some of our older books,--and the parson who announces -his text and bids it adieu--the authors have given no separate chapter -or section to physical geography, but have called attention to the -influence of geographical conditions in connection with events and -conditions as they arise. In the opinion of the reviewer, this method -has received a large measure of justification in the event, (e. g., pp. -92-95.) - -In the matter of proportion, the authors have assigned much more space -than is usual to the period following the Civil War, and considerably -less to the period from 1789 to 1860; yet the latter does not suffer -thereby. The book is divided into chapters (XXXI), with appropriate -titles, and marginal notes indicate the contents of paragraphs. -Information of a more advanced and supplementary character has been -placed in smaller type, which may be omitted by teachers lacking time, -or at discretion. It is not clear, however, why the Ordinance of 1787 -should be relegated to this minor position (p. 189). - - -Colonial History. - -The account of the thirteen colonies is of sufficient fulness to show -clearly the origins of the people and their institutions. It is, -however, a matter of regret that the authors have not made it clearer -that the thirteen mainland colonies who won their independence were not -the only English colonial establishments in America. The discovery of -America is made reasonable (pp. 1-10); the varying motives of English -and European colonization, and the principal difficulties in the way -of permanent settlement by Europeans in America are clearly set forth -(pp. 30-40, 91); the fact that the Puritans were political as well as -religious refugees, of a practical character, and not merely religious -idealists, is made clear (pp. 53-55). The land systems prevailing in -the different colonies are explained (pp. 43, 47, 52, _et passim_), -and the more general statement is made (p. 91): “The great underlying -economic fact of this [eighteenth century] colonization was the -existence in America of boundless areas of cultivable land that might -be had on easy terms.” The Indians are treated in their contact with -the whites, and their degeneracy is made the occasion of general -remarks on the inevitable consequences attending the contact between -a superior and an inferior race (pp. 98-100). Here, too, “the land -question” is shown to be fundamental. The influence of the fur-trade -in this and later times is dwelt upon (pp. 97-98, 108, 111). A notable -statement of seventeenth century colonial conditions and of eighteenth -century problems occurs on pages 101-102. - -Social and economic life receives unusual attention throughout the -book, and wherever possible is shown in its relation to physical -conditions and environment. The West receives the best treatment we -have noted in any text-book. Excellent accounts of why the settlers -went to the West, how they travelled, how they obtained their land, and -of how Western democracy arose and reacted on the East, are here given. -(See “Westward Migration and Internal Improvements,” pp. 273-281). - -The authors make no attempt to “write down” to their readers, and we -suspect that some of their economic discussions of international trade, -financial crises, and monetary problems will overshoot the mark. Be it -said, however, that things are everywhere reduced to their simplest -terms. Something must be left to the teacher,--and to providence! Some -of the other more important topics treated are: Progress in invention -and labor-saving devices, and their attendant effects on production; -the growth of commerce due to increased facilities for transportation; -the growth of capitalistic combinations, corporations, and trusts, with -their attendant problems of legislative regulation; the rise of labor -unions and their _raison d’etre_ (Chapters XXVII, XXIX). Educational, -literary, philanthropic, and religious history are given due attention. - - -Topics and Biographical Notes. - -An excellent feature of the political and constitutional history is the -presence of brief biographical sketches of important statesmen. For -teachers who prefer to teach American government in connection with the -history, special provision is made by means of marginal references and -supplementary questions, and an elaborate outline of topics arising -in the text is added (Appendix I, pp. 527-534), with appropriate -references to the Constitution and to the authors’ “Government in State -and Nation.” This is further supplemented by a list of topics, relating -to other features of our government not naturally arising in a history -course. - -The book is provided with abundant and well-selected illustrations, -from authentic sources; the maps are numerous and helpful, but not -distinctive. At the end of each chapter are suggestive and stimulating -topics and questions, with references within the compass of high school -pupils. These references are almost unique in that they are _specific_ -and _brief_. - -A few inaccuracies and misleading statements have been noticed: The -statement, “There was no gold in this region” (p. 23), referring to -Spanish territory in the United States, should be modified. None was -_found_. For “Eyler” read Tyler (p. 67); for “Cheney” (p. 91), read -Cheyney. The remark respecting the slave trade, that “during colonial -times no protest seems to have arisen against the wickedness and -inhumanity of this traffic” (p. 131) loses sight of the Mennonite -protest of 1688, as well as the work and writings of John Woolman, -Anthony Benezet, and others. Finally, Connecticut is correctly stated -Democratic in the text, but erroneously Republican in the Election Map -of 1876 (p. 447). - -Taken as a whole, the book is well adapted to its purpose. The style is -usually simple and direct; facts are well selected and are clearly and -impartially stated; the scholarship is of a high order. The index might -be made fuller with profit. - -[“American History.” By James Alton James, Professor of History in -Northwestern University, and Albert Hart Sanford, Professor of History -in the Stevens Point, Wisconsin State Normal School. New York: Charles -Scribner’s Sons. 1909. Pp. xvii, 563.] - - - - -Ancient History in the Secondary School - - WILLIAM FAIRLEY, Ph.D., Editor. - -EARLY GREECE - - -Scope of the Month’s Work. - -In our larger city schools the work is so systematized that the teacher -knows just how far along he should be at any season of the year. For -teachers who are working by themselves in small schools and are not -specialists in history a very useful guide may be found in the “History -Syllabus for Secondary Schools,” issued by the New England History -Teachers’ Association, and published by D. C. Heath & Co., of Boston. -The “Outline of Ancient History,” in pamphlet form may be had by -itself. One value of these outlines is that they divide the work into -one hundred exercises, and then indicate the proportion of time this -group of teachers have found it wise to devote to each section of the -work. During October the teacher ought to carry his class down nearly -to the Persian invasions, and at least as far as the development of -Sparta. - - -Importance of the Greeks. - -It is hard for the cultured teacher to feel the difference between his -own attitude toward Greece and that of the child of fourteen or fifteen -who is approaching the subject for the first time. To such a child -Greece is simply a name as yet. And it would seem to be a good practice -for the teacher in a simple talk to try to enlist the interest of his -class by some statement of the reasons why we are going to devote -nearly a half year to the study of a very little, and to-day very -obscure, country. The teacher should show certain characteristics which -make Greece of vast importance. Among these will be found the fact of -the wonderful intellectual force of the Greeks, which led them into -the same lines of thought and investigation which interest the modern -world; their love of independence, in such marked contrast with the -servility of the Oriental races at whose history we have been looking -in the past month, and especially their artistic supremacy, which made -them the great masters in the creation of beauty for all time; and -their masterpieces in architecture and sculpture should be contrasted -with the work of Egyptians and Mesopotamians, for the most part so -grotesque and unlovely. - -This article will not attempt to follow the month’s lessons at all in -detail, but will emphasize the main things which the young student -should carry forward with him as the early story of this people who -made themselves in so many ways the forerunners of our modern life. - - -Map Work. - -An early task is to become familiar with the physical characteristics -of the land. Nothing will help better than map-drawing. Relief maps -are of great service as showing the mountainous nature and the effect -of this on private and public life. Ancient Greece was about two -hundred and fifty miles in length from north to south and one hundred -and sixty-five miles at the most from east to west. It lies between -the thirty-sixth and fortieth parallels of latitude, corresponding -very closely in distance and latitude to our coast as it extends from -the partition line of the Carolinas up as far as New York City. A -comparison of the area of Greece with that of the pupil’s own State -is desirable. For instance, while the area of New York State is about -48,000 square miles, Greece contained but 21,000. And very early in the -course the fact should be brought out that this tiny territory, in the -greatest days of its people, was never united politically, but divided -into rival States, really nations, each only about as large as one -of our counties. A wholesome corrective to our American boastfulness -over size may be found in the slightness of area and population of -this marvellous land, which has contributed so many more than its -proportionate share of mighty men. - - -Races and Migrations. - -Pelasgian, Mycenean, Achæan, Dorian,--such was the order of the -peoples who made Greece. The Greeks, or Hellenes, in whom our interest -is centered, belong to the two last of these groups. The Pelasgians -concern us in the high schools only as much as the men of the stone age -in British history. The Myceneans we know only from the ruins of their -towns. That in some respects they were ahead of the earlier Achæans -might be pointed out. The relationship of the historic Greeks to the -other races of Europe and their kindred with ourselves are important. -We feel strange toward Egyptian and Babylonian, but are cousins to -the Greeks. The teacher who happens to know Greek might show the -similarities of Greek and English speech in the common homely words of -everyday life. - - -Epic, Myth and Legend. - -Most of our pupils have heard in the lower schools something of Homer -and his “Iliad” and “Odyssey”; and the stories of some of the gods and -heroes are more or less familiar. When the teacher comes to the Homeric -poems he will not be able to interest his young charges very much in -their higher criticism; but he would do well, if time allow, to use the -special topic and report method here. The story of the “Iliad,” the -theme of the “Odyssey,” and certain characteristic episodes from each -might be read to the class by pupils assigned to such duty. A similar -course may be taken with regard to the legends of the heroes and gods. -One interesting story read will be worth a week of mere recital of the -twelve labors of Heracles, or the dry account of the fact that Perseus -had something to do with Medusa, and Bellerophon with the Chimæra. - -In these times of slighting of the ancient world it is well to -reflect how many of the commonest allusions of literature, and even -of political editorials, depend for their meaning upon some knowledge -of the Greek stories. We speak of “hundred-handed” (Briareus) or -“hundred-headed” (Hydra) evils of municipal mismanagement; we talk of -“cleansing the Augean stables”; Cyclops, Siren, Gorgon, Chimæra, are -household words. We owe it to the children not to let them escape into -life without some ability to grasp the content of such daily allusions. - - -Early Politics. - -Mention has already been made of the petty size of the typical Greek -State. The marvel is that the Greeks did so much while so divided. We -shall speak of “city states.” Some child will run away with a notion of -something like New York or Boston with its suburbs. Make them feel that -all Greece never had as many people as New York City. - -It was the intense Greek individualism which kept the States apart. -The difference between Greek individualism and that of the Englishman -or American should be indicated. The latter is personal. The Greek was -swallowed up in his State, that was his unit and his love. - -The progress through monarchy, oligarchy and tyranny to democracy is -rightly made much of in the books. (Compare the “tyrant” with our -“boss.”) When we come to the development and the glories of the Greek -democracy a large degree of caution is needed. In the writer’s opinion -there is a good deal of glamour about this so-called democracy. The -best Greek never dreamed of manhood suffrage, or the rights of man as -man. In his view never were “all men created free and equal.” Athens -in her best days had but 30,000 voters, and refused citizenship to all -outsiders, even fellow-Greeks from across the nearest border line. -Slavery was one of the corner-stones of society. So far as it went, -the democracy of Athens was of the pure type. That should be made -plain when reached. While our modern democracy, save for minor phases, -is representative and not pure, the fact remains that the nineteenth -century has brought to birth the only real democracy. And that is one -point of our superiority over the Greeks and of more importance than -our mechanical and scientific advantages. - -West, in his “Ancient World,” gives an excellent summary of the bonds -which made the Greek world one against all “barbarians” in spite of -rivalries among their petty States. He cites (pp. 95-97) the common -language and literature; the belief in racial kinship; the Olympian -religion, with its games, oracles and amphictyonies, as such forceful -bonds of union. - -The little land we know as Greece was but a small part of the Hellenic -world. Doubtless the eastern shore of the Ægean Sea was as truly -Hellenic as Attica or Sparta. And the colonies from that coast to -Massilia in the west, and notably in Sicily and Magna Græcia, were of -vast importance in spreading Greek speech and ideals through the later -Roman world and down into modern times. The political independence -of the Greek colony is of interest. A good exercise for some student -would be to point out how Marseilles, or Syracuse or Chalcis or Cumæ -differed in their relations to the parent States from the relationship -of the Philippines to the United States, or of Canada or India to Great -Britain. And this topic is another illustration of the truth that save -for a few cases like the successful resistance to the Persians, the -service of the Greeks to the world has been mainly in the intellectual -rather than in the physical and political sphere. - - - - -Social Life at Rome in the Age of Cicero - - FOWLER’S RECENT WORK REVIEWED BY PROFESSOR A. C. HOWLAND. - - -This book on Roman social life in the last generation of the Republic, -by the well-known author of “The City State of the Greeks and Romans” -and other studies in ancient history, will be welcomed by teachers both -of Roman history and of Latin. No other study in English deals with -just this aspect of the period, and the easy style and interesting -method of presentation make the work especially valuable as collateral -reading for classes. Its material has been drawn largely from Cicero’s -correspondence and the results of widely-scattered investigations have -here been brought together and digested. - -The first chapter is devoted to the topography of Rome. After a -statement of the principal geographical causes for the growth of Roman -dominion (pp. 4-8), there follows (pp. 12-23) a description of the main -points of interest within the walls in Cicero’s day, the account being -noteworthy alike for its clearness and for its omission of details. A -good map at the end of the book enables the reader to fix each feature -of the city accurately. The second chapter, on the lower population, -is perhaps the most interesting in the book, as it deals with a topic -seldom discussed and on which our information is very meager. The -subject is discussed under three heads--how this population was housed, -how it was fed and clothed and how it was employed. Notwithstanding -the contempt felt by the writers of the period for the lower classes, -Mr. Fowler makes it evident that an understanding of their environment -will explain many an obscure point in the history of the period. Why, -for instance, had the old Roman religion fallen into such decay at -the close of the Republic? We naturally look for scepticism among -the cultured, where the old traditions had been undermined by the -sudden influx of wealth and Greek culture, but not among the poor and -ignorant, who could have been little touched by such influences. But -when we consider the tenement houses in which the poor lived, with -whole families occupying but one or two rooms (pp. 28-32), it can be -seen that there was no place here for the Penates or the family hearth, -that the old domestic rites, which constituted the Roman religion so -far as it affected the individual, were of necessity driven out and -that the poorer classes were forced to satisfy their religious cravings -by substituting the gregarious, non-family oriental cults, with their -common temples and services. Here the worshippers could enter into -personal relations with a deity as they could not in the indigenous -Roman temple, which had to do solely with the State’s worship. The only -other point around which the personal religious feeling of the old -Roman clung--the family tomb--likewise no longer existed for the poor -Roman of the city, who could not afford this luxury, but must see the -members of his family cast into a common burying place with many others -(p. 320). - -As to the employment of the lower classes, it is pointed out that -in spite of the contempt for retail trade and the crafts--a feeling -similar to that of the higher classes in England and due to the same -causes--there were many callings at which free Romans must have -worked at this time, including milling and baking, market gardening, -shoemaking, the making and washing of woolen clothing, etc. (pp. -42-55). But the inadequacy of legal protection for the poor and the -uncertainty of employment made a regular income precarious. - -In chapter III there is given an excellent description of the -activities and business organizations of the Equites in their -capacities both as public contractors (pp. 65-80) and as private -business men (pp. 80-94), which throws much light on the sources of -wealth and the financial methods of this class. The following chapter, -on the governing aristocracy, attempts to classify the various types -of the nobility and to illustrate each by a brief sketch of some one -of its members. The attitude of the old and new nobility towards each -other, the effects for good and for evil of the Greek culture on -the various classes, and the frivolity and absence of the sense of -responsibility among the younger public men are well brought out. The -lively description of Cœlius, the talented, but scatter-brained, young -friend and pupil of Cicero (pp. 127-33), is one of the most interesting -passages of the book. - -After thus taking up the different classes of the Roman population, -the author proceeds to discuss the more general aspects of the life -of the day under such headings as “Marriage and the Roman Lady,” -“Education of the Upper Classes,” “The Slave Population,” “The House -of the Rich Man in Town and Country,” “Daily Life of the Well-to-do,” -“Holidays and Public Amusements and Religion.” The treatment throughout -is fresh and vivid, except in the chapter on public amusements, which -is rather uninteresting. Under the subject of marriage, after a -discussion of the decay of that institution and the increase of divorce -and immorality, we are especially grateful for the story of the long -and beautiful wedded life, as found in the so-called “Laudatio Turiæ,” -and now told in full in English for the first time (pp. 158-67). There -must have been many similar cases of domestic devotion and happiness, -but they naturally pass unmentioned in the writings of the time, as -they largely do in the literature of our own day. The discussion of -Roman education is valuable because it explains the weak points of -the system and the way in which these produced many of the moral -shortcomings in the men of the day. The question of slavery is viewed -from an unprejudiced standpoint. Its influence on the depopulation of -the provinces is clearly brought out (pp. 206-10), but it is also shown -that its economic effects in Italy were not altogether evil, and that -slave labor by no means drove free labor from the market (pp. 213-22). -The author holds with Wallon[8] and Seeck[9] that the unrestricted -manumission of slaves had on the whole an injurious effect on Roman -life and character. The Roman idea of religion, so puzzling to the -average student, is nowhere more clearly explained than in the last -chapter, and here as elsewhere the treatment is so simple and plain as -well as scholarly, that no better book can be placed in the hands of a -class. - -[“Social Life at Rome in the Age of Cicero.” W. Ward Fowler. The -Macmillan Co. 1909. Pp. xiii, 362.] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[8] Histoire de l’Esclavage. - -[9] Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt. - - - - -History in the Grades - - ARMAND J. GERSON, Editor. - -COLUMBUS,--SPANISH EXPLORER. A TYPE-LESSON. - - -If the lesson on Columbus is to be indeed a type-lesson, it behooves -the teacher in preparing it to make a careful selection of such -elements of the story as may properly form the basis for the subsequent -teaching of other Spanish explorers. As was pointed out in this -department in last month’s issue,[10] the truest economy in history -teaching consists in the careful construction of a definite foundation -of correct historical concepts upon which the detailed superstructure -of later lessons may be rapidly and yet substantially reared. - -Certain elements in the life, environment, and explorations of -Christopher Columbus may well be used as the foundation for the -teaching of all the Spanish explorations of the New World. These -essential elements should be presented with great thoroughness, and -the children’s interest in them made active and enthusiastic. Their -knowledge of them must be concrete, many-sided, living; only then will -it constitute what the psychologist likes to call the “apperceptive -basis” for subsequent analysis, comparison, and generalization. - -On the other hand, the teaching of Columbus will necessarily involve -many facts which belong distinctively to his life and actions, and to -which later Spanish explorations have little, or at the most a very -remote relation. It is obvious that the teaching of such portions of -our topic can hardly be said to constitute a “type-lesson.” These -points serve a definite purpose of their own, and should be presented -in their own way. Let us, therefore, in our practical consideration of -the presentation of our lesson on Columbus, consider separately the -“type-elements” and what for convenience we may call the “specific -elements.” - - -Previous Preparation. - -In the first place, in the preparation of our lesson on Columbus, -as, in fact, in the preparation of any lesson, the teacher must have -definitely in mind just what preliminary instruction has been given. -Let us assume, then, that the soil has been prepared,--that the class -is already familiar with the ideas of the size and shape of the earth -which were current in the 15th century; with the parts of the world -that were known; with the general geographical situation of the chief -nations of Europe; with the nature of the trade with the Far East; and, -still more important, with the causes of the activity of the time in -the direction of finding new trade routes to the Orient. These basic -ideas should have become firmly fixed and their interrelations clearly -brought out before we introduce our Columbus “type-lesson.” - -What are the essential features of the Columbus lesson, the emphasis -of which will entitle it to be considered a “type-lesson”? Or, to -re-phrase our query, what are the “type-elements” of the story of -Columbus? - - -Spanish Characteristics. - -First of all, if our lesson is to typify the Spanish explorers as a -group, it should supply a basic concept of Spanish life and character -in the 15th and 16th centuries. It is not a matter of much difficulty -to arouse in our pupils a real interest in the Spaniards of that time. -There is so much of the romantic and the picturesque about this phase -of American history that for the conscientious teacher it will always -constitute one of the most attractive portions of his work. Varied -selections from literature suitable to the age of the children should -be read to them. Better still, they should be encouraged to continue -this sort of reading on their own accounts; appropriate material for -this purpose should be on hand in the school library. The religious -element in Spanish life should receive particular emphasis, some -reference being made to the Inquisition and the popular attitude toward -heresy. As an important element in the European background of American -history, this phase of our subject dare not be overlooked, but it goes -without saying that in our public schools it is a topic which must be -handled with extreme tact. The severe etiquette of the Spanish court, -the Spanish dress, Spanish arms and armor, should all receive their -proper amount of attention. Pictures, as well as stories, should be -brought into constant requisition to make this portion of the work -concrete. - -Some notion of the political standing and relations of Spain, properly -adapted to children of elementary school age, must also be considered -as essentially a “type-element” in our lesson. For pupils in the grades -it will probably suffice to point out very briefly the long struggle -with the Moors, brought to a successful termination by Ferdinand and -Isabella in 1492; the combination in the 16th century of various and -widely separate realms under the Hapsburgs; and the natural jealousy of -France and England toward this rising world-power. - -The next “type-element” necessary to consider will be the topic of -Spanish modes of navigation. At this point our lesson becomes typical -of the period of exploration in general rather than of Spanish -explorations in particular, inasmuch as Spanish vessels, sailors, -etc., were not, for our purposes in the grades at least, essentially -different from those of other contemporary nations. It is important, -however, that our pupils should have definite ideas on this point if -their knowledge of the early explorations is to be in any true sense -real. Pictures of Spanish vessels of the period are easy to procure, -and should be referred to in this connection. Attention should be -called to the significant features of these boats,--their small size, -their peculiar construction, their usual rate of speed, etc. In all -purely descriptive work of this sort it is well for the teacher to keep -in mind that a happy comparison is frequently of more value than pages -of prosy details and measurements. Take, for example, Mark Twain’s -delightful comparison in his description of one of the pyramids: each -stone as big as a freight-car! - -Finally, the prevailing superstitious fears of unknown seas, wild -notions regarding the monsters of the deep and inhabitants of distant -lands, the consequent scarcity of sailors for voyages of exploration, -the bravery and steadfastness of purpose required to lead such -an expedition,--these points may surely be said to constitute a -“type-element.” To be sure, as time went on and ignorance of distant -regions gradually disappeared, the force of these factors in history -diminished. Throughout the exploration period, however, they remain -an element to be reckoned with and constantly to be referred to. -Selections from Mandeville might very appropriately be read in this -connection to lend color and life to the presentation. - - -Life of Columbus. - -We are now ready to consider what we have designated the “specific -elements” of the Columbus lesson; that is, those features of the story -that refer to Columbus as an individual explorer, but can hardly be -considered typical of the Spanish explorations in general. If the -“type-elements” have been duly impressed, this portion of the lesson -will present little difficulty and can be covered in a comparatively -short time, largely, in fact, in the form of readings. - -The nationality and early life of Columbus should first occupy the -attention of teacher and class. The fact that he was an Italian is -significant. Passing reference might well be made to the political -disorganization of Italy and the declining importance of its commercial -centers. The boyhood of our hero is picturesque and may easily be made -to arouse the interest of boys and girls of our own day. Let them feel -that he was a child like themselves and give them some appreciation of -his childhood’s environment,--the Italian sky and sea-coast. - -The geographical ideas of Columbus and the development of his pet -project have a definite relation to the preliminary lessons on the -geographical notions of his time. His errors should be clearly pointed -out. In this portion of the presentation, as in most others, a good -wall map must be on hand for constant reference. - -The futile attempts of Columbus to get the support necessary -for his venture need not occupy us long. His experience at the -court of Spain, however, and his first voyage will require more -elaborate treatment. Here constant reference must be made to the -“type-elements,”--particularly in connection with Spanish court life, -Spanish motives, the furnishing and manning of the three boats which -constituted his fleet. - -The subsequent voyages of Columbus may be passed over very rapidly, -preferably with very little detail. Similarly his later life and his -sad death will call for but passing notice. - -This entire narrative portion of our topic is largely handled for us -by any of the standard elementary text-books, which, by the way, it is -important that our pupils should learn to use. The real teaching, that -is to say, the history tracing and idea-building, has been accomplished -in connection with the “type-elements.” The rest of the problem in -large measure solves itself. - -The “type-lesson” on Columbus just outlined will occupy a number of -history periods. It is important that it should not be hurried. The -old pedagogic maxim that we should make haste slowly applies with -peculiar force to the “type-lesson” method. We begin slowly that we -may gain time later. More than that, we are furnishing our pupils -with a definite stock of fundamental historical notions which will -constitute for them a genuine intellectual capital. As they go on with -the study of history, they will find that their “type ideas” help to -interpret the detailed facts they meet, which facts in turn will tend -to re-enforce the “type-ideas.” - -FOOTNOTE: - -[10] “The Type-Lesson in History,” HISTORY TEACHER’S MAGAZINE, -September, 1909. - - - - -Reports from the Historical Field - - WALTER H. CUSHING, Editor. - - -A New Organization. - -The history teachers of Colorado are about to organize an association -and have appointed a committee, of which Professor James G. Willard is -chairman. With so many questions in history teaching still unsettled, -we welcome a new organization which by discussion and interchange -of views will hasten the solution of these problems. The history -teachers in about one-half the States of the Union are now included in -organizations, with the American Historical Association as a sort of -clearing house. - - -Raising the Standard in Louisiana. - -Heretofore the State course of study has not provided for a -satisfactory history program in the high schools, but with this year -a new course of study goes into operation which gives about three -years to history. At the request of the State Department of Education -Professor Walter L. Fleming, of the State University, has prepared a -syllabus covering the work, with suggestions for map work, reading, -note-books, etc. In the future two or even three years’ work in history -may be required of the candidates for the freshman class. - -Considerable interest has been developed in certain fields of history -by the Rally Day competition at the University. The high schools of -the State send representatives to the High School Rally Day at the -University in April. These pupils are chosen after local contests and -sent to Baton Rouge. The pupils’ subjects for the debate and essay -contests are published by the Program Committee. - -To prepare teachers adequately for their work two courses are offered -at the State University, one in “Methods of Teaching History,” and -another in “Aids in the Studying and Teaching of History.” Instruction -covers use of texts, sources, reference works, map work, pictures, -advertising, material useful in history teaching, etc. Great -improvement is already noticeable and especially good work is done in -Shreveport and New Orleans. - - -Proceedings of the North Central History Teachers’ Association. - -The annual report of this association, containing the papers and -discussions of the April meeting, was issued during the summer. -As usual, it contains much which will repay careful reading and -reflection even by those who were fortunate enough to be present at -the meeting. Professor Samuel B. Harding, of Indiana University, in -treating of “Some Concrete Problems in the Teaching of Medieval and -Modern History,” opposed the plan of teaching this field of history -on the “single nation” plan. With regard to the proportion of time -to be allotted the parts of this course, he advocated giving roughly -one-third to the period 800 A.D.-1500 A.D.; another one-third to -the period ending with 1789, and the final one-third to the French -Revolution and the 19th century. He suggested several devices for -emphasizing the “time” problem, or chronology, urged the use of maps, -and especially called attention to the greatest problem, how to make -history concrete, how to make it definite. The speaker advocated the -regular use of note-books and urged a greater use of pictures. - -In considering “What Changes Should be Made in the Report of the -Committee of Seven?” Professor A. C. McLaughlin referred to the -complaint, especially in the East, against the great length of the -course in ancient history. He gave reasons why it had seemed desirable -to the Committee of Seven to continue the study of Roman history to 800 -A.D., and predicted that the Committee of Five will cling to that year, -“but recommend, more decidedly and with more assurance than did the -earlier report, the somewhat hasty perusal of the period from 300 to -800. It may be desirable to state very distinctly and definitely what -topics should be taken up.... - -“The most perplexing question is how the general history of Western -Europe should be treated from 800 or thereabouts to the present -time.” The speaker would not change the general arrangement of the -four blocks recommended in the old report, but advised a very hurried -treatment of the first six or eight hundred years. (Compare Professor -Harding, above.) There are serious objections to giving up a continuous -and unbroken treatment of English history as is sometimes recommended. - -In its recommendation on Civil Government the Committee of Seven -seems to have been misunderstood. The old report did not advise that -separate courses in civil government should not be given. It urged a -strong combined course in American history and government in preference -to two separate weak courses. In any case they should be taught as -interrelated and interdependent subjects. - -At the business meeting of the association, Carl E. Pray, of the Normal -School, Milwaukee, was elected president, and George H. Gaston, of the -Wendell Phillips High School, Chicago, was re-elected secretary. - - -A Syllabus in Civil Government for Secondary Schools. - -Considerable interest has been aroused in the forthcoming syllabus in -Civil Government prepared by a special committee of the New England -History Teachers’ Association, for whom it will be published late in -the fall by the Macmillan Company. - -There will be two parts to the book: An introduction of about twenty -pages given to a discussion of the general subject and representing -in a limited field the relation that the report of the Committee of -Seven bore to the History Syllabus; and the syllabus proper consisting -of approximately one hundred and twenty pages, with topics, diagrams, -general and specific references and bibliographies. Specimen pages of -the syllabus have been tried in the class-rooms of schools in widely -different parts of the country, and the subject was discussed at the -April meeting of the association. - -Many problems confronted the committee at the outset, and at least a -working agreement had to be reached upon the following questions: - -1. What should be the position of the study and what time allotment -should it reasonably expect? - -2. What should be the aims of instruction in government in secondary -schools? - -3. What should be the scope and what should be the places of emphasis? - -4. What should be its relation to other subjects of the curriculum? - -5. What should be the point of attack and order of topics? - -6. What should be the method? - -7. What should be the form of the syllabus? - -The conclusions reached by the committee may be briefly summarized. -Two or two and one-half forty-five-minute periods a week should be -allotted, and the subject should be correlated with United States -history. Instruction in civics should aim to train the mind, to develop -political intelligence, to awaken civic consciousness, to interest -the pupil in civic duty, and to prepare him, through instruction and -practice, for its exercise. The scope of the subject should include -actual government as found in the local unit, the State, and the -nation, with so much of the history of government as is needed to -explain present institutions and conditions. Enough of the theory of -government should be given to establish an orderly arrangement of the -subject matter in the pupil’s mind. The ethical principles underlying -government should be examined in a concrete way; and attention should -be given to the application of these principles in the social duties of -school life. - -Civics should not be confounded with constitutional history. It is -important enough to have its own field, and, while correlated with -history, economics and ethics, should not be trammeled by either of -these. - -The most serious problem which the committee had to solve was that of -the order of topics. Should local or national government come first? -The majority of the committee favored local, State, national as the -order. They also decided that not more than one-fourth of the time -should be given to a study of the federal government. - -Much stress is laid on the importance of studying local government, -so far as possible, at first hand. This necessitates frequent, -systematically-planned visits to local bodies and careful study of -local documents, such as reports, specimen papers, etc. - -No hard and fast form for the syllabus has been used. Sometimes topics, -sometimes questions, and again statements are used wherever best -adapted to the purpose. - -The committee consists of Dr. Hay Greene Huling, English High School, -Cambridge, chairman; Wilson R. Butler, High School, New Bedford; -Professor L. B. Evans, Tufts College; Dr. John Haynes, Dorchester High -School; Dr. W. B. Munro, Harvard University. Mr. Butler is editor for -the committee. - - -Report of the Committee of Eight. - -This report on history in the elementary grades has been prepared by a -committee of the American Historical Association, Professor James A. -James, of Northwestern University, chairman, and will be published this -fall by “Scribner’s.” The work for each of the eight grades is treated -in detailed topics accompanied by reading lists for teachers and for -pupils. The object of the course for the first two grades is “to give -the child an impression of primitive life and an appreciation of public -holidays.” Grade three deals with Heroes of Other Times, Columbus, -and the Indians. In the fourth and fifth grades emphasis is placed on -Historical Scenes and Persons in American History. The object sought -in grade six is to impress on the child’s mind that “the beginnings -of American ways of living are to be sought far back in the story of -the world.” The topics, therefore, seek to bring out the contributions -made by Greeks, Romans, and the people of medieval Europe, especially -England, closing with the defeat of the Spanish Armada. The seventh -grade topics deal with the exploration and settlement of North America -and the growth of the colonies to 1763. The eighth grade topics bring -United States history down to the present time, and suggest subjects -for supplementary talks on European history. - -The report also contains a chapter on Methods, an “Outline for Teaching -the Development of a Constitutional Government in the Eighth Grade in -Three Lessons of Forty Minutes Each,” contributed by Miss Blanche A. -Cheney, of the Lowell, Mass., State Normal School; an “Outline for -Teaching the Birth of the German Nation in the Eighth Grade,” by Miss -Blanche E. Hazard, of the Brockton, Mass., High School; an article on -elementary civics, and appendices on history teaching in German, French -and English elementary schools. - -The subject of history in the elementary grades has also been treated -in a stimulating manner in a course prepared by Superintendent W. F. -Gordy for the schools of Springfield, Mass. The work is here outlined -for nine grades, the last being devoted to English history as related -to the history of our own country. - - -NEW ENGLAND ASSOCIATION. - -The next meeting of the New England History Teachers’ Association -will be held on Saturday, October 16, in Boston. The Council -seriously considered for a time the expediency of waiving the -constitutional requirement and holding the meeting in the western part -of Massachusetts, probably in Greenfield. The preference of a large -minority of the members for Boston, however, led the Council to follow -the regular practice of holding the annual meeting in Boston. The -association has held meetings in Springfield, Hartford and Portland, -and the wisdom of meeting once a year outside of Boston seems proved -by the large attendance at those places. - -Had the meeting been held in Greenfield, the subject would have been -“Local Aids in the Study of History,” a most appropriate topic for -a meeting in that richly historical region. For the Boston meeting -the Council has selected the subject of “Economics,” which has been -clamoring for recognition ever since the association was founded. - -Topics in economics enter to a considerable extent into American -history, but it is a question how far economic theory should be -developed in a secondary school course. The field is a tempting one -to a teacher filled with his subject: the fundamental principles of -money, foreign trade, rent, capital and labor, corporate organization, -socialism, these and many others the young man will inevitably come -in contact with daily. What guidance shall he have and where shall he -obtain it? - - -Bibliographies. - -Of considerable value to all progressive teachers of history is the -“Annual List of Books on History and Civics,” selected and critically -reviewed with reference to their value for high school teachers and -pupils prepared by a special committee of the North Central Association -under the editorship of Professor W. J. Chase, of the University of -Wisconsin. The list comprises new books on teaching history, ancient, -medieval and modern, English history and government, United States -history and government. Each title is accompanied by name of publisher -and price. There is a critical estimate averaging half a page. -Text-books and special treatises on a small field are not included. -Copies may be obtained of Mr. G. H. Gaston, Wendell Phillips High -School, Chicago, for twenty-five cents. - -“The Atlantic Educational Journal,” published by the Maryland -Educational Publishing Company, Baltimore, Md., has a “Bibliography of -History for Schools,” prepared by a committee of the Association of -History Teachers of Maryland under the chairmanship of Professor C. M. -Andrews. - -The Macmillan Company published in June the valuable bibliography -prepared by Miss Grace Gardner Griffin, entitled “Writings on American -History, 1907.” This is the second year of the publication of the work -in this form; the volume contains a bibliography of books and articles -upon Continental United States and Canada, and some references to -other portions of America. Dr. J. Franklin Jameson, of the Carnegie -Institution of Washington, has again supervised the making of the -year-book. - - * * * * * - -A new commercial geography is announced by Henry Holt & Co. as in -course of preparation by Dr. John P. Goode, assistant professor of -geography in the University of Chicago. - - -EXCHANGE OF PROFESSORS IN THE SUMMER SCHOOLS. - -An excellent result of the establishment of summer schools has been the -interchange of the teaching forces of colleges and universities; and on -a minor scale the employment of strong secondary school men in summer -college courses. Much has been made of the international exchange of -professors recently brought about; but unconsciously within our own -country there has been established a custom which must prove very -valuable not alone to institutions inviting outside instructors, but -also to those instructors themselves, and to their own institutions. -Thus, taking the history men alone last summer Harvard was represented -at the University of California, Yale at Wisconsin, Leland Stanford at -Kansas; Columbia at Chicago, Wisconsin at Illinois, University of the -South at Michigan, Indiana University at Cornell; Michigan at Chicago; -Brown at Harvard, and Pennsylvania at Columbia. - -Such an exchange of instructors cannot but bring about a mutual -education; and when it is remembered that the same policy of exchange -is going on in many other subjects than history, it will be seen that -we have here a great power for good. - - * * * * * - -Messrs. Ginn & Co. are continuing the excellent undertaking of -furnishing source-material for history teachers and scholars, which -they began so auspiciously with Prof. Robinson’s “Readings in European -History,” and followed with Robinson and Beard’s “Readings in Modern -European History.” Professor Cheyney’s “Readings in English History” -was reviewed in the September number. The same publishers now announce -two new books: “Selections from the Economic History of the United -States, 1760-1860,” by Professor Guy S. Collender, of Yale University; -and “Readings on American Federal Government,” by Professor Paul S. -Reinsch, of the University of Wisconsin. - -An “American Historical Series” made up of text-books that will be -comprehensive, systematic and authoritative, is announced by Messrs. -Henry Holt & Co., the publishers of the well-known “American Science -Series.” In the new series Professor Colby, of McGill University, -will prepare a book on Mediæval and Modern Europe, and one on the -Renaissance and Reformation. Professor S. B. Fay, of Dartmouth College, -is at work upon a volume entitled, “Europe in the XVII and XVIII -Centuries;” Professor R. C. H. Catterall, of Cornell, will treat of the -“French Revolution and Napoleon;” and Professor C. D. Hazen, of Smith -College, will write the volume upon “Europe in the Nineteenth Century.” -There will be also a history of the United States by Professor -Frederick J. Turner; a history of Greece, by Professor Paul Shorey; and -a history of Rome, by Director Jesse B. Carter. - - * * * * * - -A LIBRARY OF History and Exploration Invaluable for Every School. - -The Trail Makers - - Prof. JOHN BACH McMASTER, Consulting Editor. Each Volume Small 12mo. - Cloth. Illustrated. With Introductions, Illustrations and Maps. 17 - volumes. Each $1.00 net. - -=The Journey of Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca=, and his companions from -Florida to the Pacific, 1528-1536. - - Translated by Fanny Bandelier. Edited with an Introduction by Ad. F. - Bandelier. - -=Narratives of the Career of Hernando De Soto= in the Conquest of -Florida, 1539-1542, as told by a gentleman of Elvas, by Luys Hernandez -De Biedma and by Rodrigo Ranjel. - - Edited with an Introduction by Professor Edward Gaylord Bourne, of - Yale University. In two volumes. - -=The Journey of Coronado, 1540-42.= From the City of Mexico to the -Buffalo Plains of Kansas and Nebraska. - - Translated and Edited with an Introduction by George Parker Winship. - -=Voyages and Explorations of Samuel de Champlain, narrated by himself.= - - Translated by Annie Nettleton Bourne. Edited with an Introduction by - Edward Gaylord Bourne, Professor of History in Yale University. In - two vols. - -=The Journeys of La Salle and His Companions, 1678-1687. As related by -himself and his followers.= - - Edited with an Introduction by Prof. I. J. Cox, of the University of - Cincinnati. In two volumes. - -=Voyages from Montreal Through the Continent of North America to the -Frozen and Pacific Oceans in 1789 and 1793.= By Alexander Mackenzie. - - In two volumes. - -=History of the Expedition Under the Command of Captains Lewis and -Clark.= With an account of the Louisiana Purchase, by Prof. John Bach -McMaster, and an Introduction Identifying the Route. - - In three volumes. - -=History of Five Indian Nations of Canada which are Dependent upon the -Province of New York.= - - By Cadwallader Colden, Surveyor-General of the Colony of New York. In - two volumes. - -=A Journal of Voyage and Travels in the Interior of North America.= - - By Daniel Williams Harmon, a partner in the Northwest Company - (beginning in 1800). - -=The Wild Northland.= - - By Gen. Sir Wm. Francis Butler, K. C. B. - -Descriptive Circular on Application to the Publishers - -A. S. 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D. - -Editor HISTORY TEACHER’S MAGAZINE. - -“I notice in your magazine an account of the translations and reprints -from the series of European history covering the period from the Roman -times to the nineteenth century. Do you know of any work similar to -this covering the period of Ancient History?” M. C. S. - -ANS.--There are two good source books on Ancient History published by -D. C. Heath & Co., entitled Munro’s “Source Book of Roman History” and -Fling’s “Source Book of Greek History.” - -Editor HISTORY TEACHER’S MAGAZINE. - -“Will you kindly give the publisher of Cheyney’s ‘European Background -of American History’ and Farrand’s ‘Basis of American History?’” L. B. -M. - -ANS.--Cheyney’s work is Vol. I in Hart’s “American Nation”; Farrand’s -is Vol. II in the same series. The work is published by Harpers, and -the volumes can be bought separately. - -Editor HISTORY TEACHER’S MAGAZINE. - -“Can you refer me to a short work giving an account of the migrations -of the barbarians?” - -ANS.--The writer knows of no primer or handbook upon the barbarian -invasions. One of the best of the accounts is that in Emerton’s -“Introduction to the Middle Ages.” Shorter, but very good, is the -chapter in Robinson’s “Introduction to the History of Western Europe.” -More detailed accounts, with other matter interspersed, will be -found in Hodgkin’s “Dynasty of Theodosius,” and in Oman’s “The Dark -Ages.” Extended accounts will, of course, be found in Sargeant’s “The -Franks,” Hodgkin’s “Theodoric,” Valari’s “Barbarian Invaders of Italy,” -Hodgkin’s “Italy and Her Invaders,” and in Bury’s “Later Roman Empire” -and his edition of Gibbon. There is a short work by Rev. William H. -Hutton entitled “The Church and the Barbarians.” An excellent word -picture of the invasions is to be found in Freytag’s “Bilder aus dem -Mittelalter.” - -Editor HISTORY TEACHER’S MAGAZINE. - -“I was interested in your HISTORY TEACHER’S MAGAZINE and will hand -it to our history teacher. I write asking you to recommend some -periodicals for English teachers of a similar nature.” - -ANS.--We know of no periodical for English teachers exactly similar to -our own. The following magazines are largely devoted to research rather -than to practical methods of teaching English: “Modern Language Notes,” -Baltimore, Md., eight months a year, $1.50 a year; “Modern Philology,” -University of Chicago Press, quarterly; $3.00 a year; “Modern Language -Review,” Cambridge, England, 12 shillings, 6 pence; “Publications of -the Modern Language Association of America,” Cambridge, Mass. - - * * * * * - -QUALITY PRINTING - -¶ The keen competition which obtains in almost every business is -largely responsible for the fact that the purchaser of - -PRINTING - -too often considers only the lowest price offered when placing his -order. Unfortunate, because there is a vast difference in the - -QUALITY - -of the materials used as well as in the quality of labor employed. 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