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diff --git a/old/54623-0.txt b/old/54623-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 8ff57cc..0000000 --- a/old/54623-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5396 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's The Common Objects of the Country, by J. G. Wood - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Common Objects of the Country - -Author: J. G. Wood - -Illustrator: W. S. Coleman - -Release Date: April 28, 2017 [EBook #54623] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COMMON OBJECTS OF THE COUNTRY *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - -COMMON OBJECTS OF THE COUNTRY. - - - - -[Illustration: A] - - - - - THE - COMMON OBJECTS - OF - THE COUNTRY - - BY THE - REV. J. G. WOOD, M.A., F.L.S. - - AUTHOR OF THE “ILLUSTRATED NATURAL HISTORY,” “COMMON OBJECTS - OF THE SEA-SHORE,” “MY FEATHERED FRIENDS,” ETC., ETC. - - _WITH ILLUSTRATIONS BY W. S. COLEMAN_ - - SIXTEENTH EDITION - - LONDON - GEORGE ROUTLEDGE AND SONS, LIMITED - BROADWAY, LUDGATE HILL - MANCHESTER AND NEW YORK - 1897 - - - - -ROUTLEDGE’S BOOKS FOR THE COUNTRY. - - -_With Plates Printed in Colours, Crown 8vo, Cloth, 3s. 6d. each._ - - Wood’s (Rev. J. G.) Common Objects of the Seashore. - Illustrations by G. B. SOWERBY. 12th Edition. - - Wood’s (Rev. J. G.) Common Objects of the Country. 150 - Illustrations by COLEMAN. 14th Edition. - - Our Woodlands, Heaths, and Hedges. By W. S. COLEMAN. 4th - Edition. - - Moore’s British Ferns and Allied Plants. 10th Edition. - - Coleman’s British Butterflies. 200 Figures. 16th Edition. - - Atkinson’s British Birds’ Eggs and Nests. 18th Edition. - - Wild Flowers: Where to Find and How to Know Them. SPENCER - THOMSON. 22nd Edition. - - Haunts of the Wild Flowers. By ANNE PRATT. 3rd Edition. - - Wood’s (Rev. J. G.) Fresh and Salt-Water Aquarium. 2nd Edition. - - Wood’s (Rev. J. G.) Common British Moths. 100 Illustrations by - E. SMITH, T. W. WOOD, and W. S. COLEMAN. 8th Edition. - - Wood’s (Rev. J. G.) Common British Beetles. 100 Illustrations - by E. SMITH and T. W. WOOD. 2nd Edition. - - Roses and their Culture. By W. D. PRIOR. 2nd Edition. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -In the following pages will be found short and simple descriptions of -some of the numerous objects that are to be found in our fields, woods, -and waters. - -As this little work is not intended for scientific readers, but simply -as a guide to those who are desirous of learning something of natural -objects, scientific language has been studiously avoided, and scientific -names have been only given in cases where no popular name can be found. -In so small a compass but little can be done; and therefore I have been -content to take certain typical objects, which will serve as guides, and -to omit mention of those which can be placed under the same head. - -Every object described by the pen is illustrated by the pencil, in order -to aid the reader in his researches; and the subjects have been so chosen -that no one with observant eyes can walk in the fields for half-an-hour -without finding very many of the objects described in the book. - - - - -COMMON OBJECTS OF THE COUNTRY. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - - EYES AND NO EYES--DIFFICULTIES OF OBSERVERS--THE - BATS--LONG-EARED BAT--ITS UTILITY--SPORT AND MURDER--SONG - OF THE BAT--A BRAVE PRISONER--HOW BATS FEED--HAIR OF BAT - AND MOUSE--WING OF THE BAT--THE FIELD-MOUSE--ITS STEALTHY - MOVEMENTS--HARVEST MOUSE--WATER RAT--AN INNOCENT VICTIM. - - -Every one has read, or at least heard of, the tale entitled “Eyes and -no Eyes”; which tale is to be found in the _Evenings at Home_. Now this -story, or rather the moral of it, is, in my opinion, as often used -unfairly as rightly. - -Although there are those who pass through life with closed eyes and -stopped ears, yet there are many more who would be glad to use their -eyes and ears, but know not how to do so for want of proper teaching. -To one who has not learned to read, the Bible itself is but a series -of senseless black marks; and similarly, the unwritten Word that lies -around, below, and above us, is unmeaning to those who cannot read it. - -Many would like to read, but cannot do so; and it is in order to help -such, to bring before them the first alphabetical teaching, that the -following pages are written. - -It is no matter of marvel that many an observant person becomes -bewildered among natural objects; that he is lost amid the variety of -animal, vegetable, and mineral life in which he lives; and that, after -vainly attempting to comprehend some simple object, he finds himself -baffled, and so in despair ceases to inquire into particulars, and -contents himself with admiration of and love for nature in general. - -Objects change so rapidly and so constantly, that there is hardly time to -note a few remarks before the season has passed away; the object under -examination has changed with it, and a year must elapse before that -investigation can be continued. - -From experience I know how valuable are even a few hints by which the -mind can be directed in a straight course without wasting its strength -and losing its time by devious wanderings. Only hints can be given, -for the limits of the volume forbid any lengthened discussion of -single objects; and, besides, the mind is more pleased to work out a -subject according to its own individuality than to have it laid down as -completed, and to be forbidden to go any further. - -Almost every object that is described by the pen will be figured by the -pencil, in order to assist the reader in identifying the creature in an -easier manner than if it were merely described in words. - -Of the birds I shall not be able to treat, as they alone would occupy -the entire space of this volume; and, for the same reason, only a short -account can be given of each object. - -As in the scale of creation the mammals fill the highest place, we will -speak of them first, taking, as far as possible, each creature in its own -order. - -Perhaps there are few people who would not feel some surprise when they -learn that the very highest of our British animals is the Bat. Usually -the bat is looked upon with rather a feeling of dread, and is regarded as -a creature of such ill-omen that its very presence causes a shudder, and -its approach would put to flight many a human being. - -There is certainly some ground for this feeling; for the night-loving -propensities of the creature, its weird-like aspect, its strange devious -flight, and more especially its organs of flight, are so interwoven with -the popular ideas of evil and its ministers, that bats and imps appear to -be synonymous terms. - -Painters always represent their imps as upborne by bats’ wings, furnished -with several supplementary hooks; and sculptors follow the same principle. - -In consequence, all bats and objects connected with bats are viewed -with great horror, with two exceptions: a cricket-bat and a bat’s-wing -gas-burner. - -Now, I cannot but think that this is very hard on the bats. It is said -that the African negroes depict and describe _their_ evil spirits as -white; and that, in consequence, the negro children fly in consternation -if perchance a white man comes into their territory. - -Yet, a white man is not so very horrid an object after all, if one only -dare look at him; and the same remark holds good with the bats. - -[Illustration: COMMON LONG-EARED BAT.] - -A very pretty creature is a bat, more especially the long-eared species, -_Plecotus communis_, as it is scientifically called, and its habits are -most curious. It is well worth the time to watch these little creatures -on a warm summer’s night, as they flit about in the air, and to note the -enjoyment of their aërial hunt. They are fearless animals; and provided -that the observer remains tolerably still and does not speak, bats will -often flit so close to his face that he could almost catch them in his -hand. - -Their flight is very singular, and reminds one of the butterfly in its -apparently vague flitting. Indeed, there are many large moths that fly by -night who can hardly be distinguished from the bats, if the evening be -rather dark, so similar are they in their mode of journeying through the -air. - -From this peculiarity of flight, they are accounted difficult marks for a -gun; and it is unfortunately a custom with some ruthless powder-burners -to practise by day at swallows and by night at bats. Now, even putting -the matter in its lowest form, it is wrong to shoot swallows; for they -are most useful birds, and serve to thin the host of flies and other -insects that people the summer air. - -As regards the swallow, this is well known, and does serve to protect it -from some persons who have more compassion than the generality. Moreover, -the swallows, swifts, and martins are extremely pretty birds, and their -beauty is in some degree their shield. - -But the bat is as useful a creature as the swallow, and in the very same -way; for, when the evening comes on, and the swallow retires to its nest, -the bat issues from its home and takes up the work just where the swallow -leaves it--the two creatures dividing the day and night between them. -Therefore, let those who refrain from swallow shooting include the bat in -their free list. - -Some there are whom nothing can restrain from killing, for the instinct -of slaughter is strong in them. With them nothing is valuable unless it -is to be killed. If it can be eaten afterwards, so much the better; but -the great enjoyment consists in the mere act of killing. - -They contrive to disguise the ugliness of the thing by giving it any name -but the right one; but, in spite of the name, the thing exists. And I -wonder, if they were to look very closely into themselves, whether they -would not find there a decided desire to kill men, provided that they had -no reason to dread the consequences. Those who have practised the sport -unanimously say that nothing is so exciting as man-hunting and killing -and that all other sport is tame in comparison. - -The chief name under which this profanity is disguised is that of -“Sport,” a word which always reminds me of the “Frog and Boys” fable. -There are actually men who are audacious enough to declare that there is -no cruelty in “sport”; that foxes are charmed at being hunted, and that -pheasants derive a singular gratification from getting shot. Now, I never -was either a fox or a pheasant; but I entirely repudiate the assertion -that any animal likes to be chased or to be wounded; and, moreover, I -disbelieve the sincerity of the man who can say such a thing. If he -says openly that he finds excitement in the chase, and means to gratify -himself without any reference to the feelings of the creatures which he -chases, I can understand while I disapprove. But when a man justifies -himself by asserting that any animal likes to be hunted, I can hardly -find epithets too contemptuous for him; and I could see him run the -gauntlet among the Sioux Indians with but small pangs of conscience. - -Some again call themselves Naturalists, and under the shelter of that -high-sounding name occupy themselves in destroying nature. The true -naturalist never destroys life without good cause, and when he does so, -it is with reluctance, and in the most merciful way; for the life is -really the nature, and that gone, the chief interest of the creature -is gone too. We should form but a poor notion of the human being were -we only to see it presented to our eyes in the mummy; and equally -insufficient is the idea that can be formed of an animal from the -inspection of its outward frame. Nature and life belong to each other; -and, if torn asunder, the one is objectless and the other gone. - -Lastly, let me remind those who find such gratification in destroying, -that the word “Destroyer” is in the Greek language “Apollyon”. - -As we do not intend to treat of the dead and dried bodies of animals, but -of their active life, we return to our bat flitting in the evening dusk, -and, instead of shooting him, watch his proceedings. - -Every creature is made for happiness, and receives happiness according -to its capacity; and it is very wrong to suppose that, because _we_ -should be miserable if we led the life of a vulture, or a sloth, or a -bat, therefore those creatures are miserable. In truth, the vulture is -attracted to, and feels its greatest gratification in, those substances -which would drive us away with averted eyes and stopped nostrils. The -sloth is, on the authority of Waterton, quite a jovial beast, and -anything but slothful when in his proper place; and as for the bat, it -sings for very joy. True, the song is not very melodious, neither is that -of the swift, or the peacock, nor, perhaps, that of the Cochin-China -fowl, but it is nevertheless a song from the abundance of the heart. - -There are many human ears that are absolutely incapable of perceiving the -cry of the bat, so keen and sharp is the note; a very razor’s-edge of -sound. - -More than once I have been standing in a field over which bats were -flying in multitudes, filling the air almost oppressively with their -sharp needle-like cries. Yet my companion, who was a musician, -theoretically and practically, was unable to hear a sound, and could not -for some time believe me when I spoke of the noisy little creatures above. - -The sound bears some resemblance to that produced by a slate-pencil when -held perpendicularly in writing on the slate, only the bat’s cry is -several octaves more acute. I never but once heard the sound correctly -imitated, and that was done by a graceless urchin, during a long sermon -one Sunday morning. He had contrived to arrange two keys in such a -manner that, when grated over each other, they produced a squeaking sound -that exactly resembled the cry uttered by the bat. So, by judicious -management of his keys, he kept the congregation on the look-out for the -bat, and beguiled the time much to his satisfaction. - -Of so piercing and peculiar a nature is the cry, that it gives no clue -to the position or distance of the creature that utters it, and it seems -to proceed indiscriminately from any portion of the air towards which -the attention happens to be directed. The note of the grasshopper lark -possesses somewhat of the same quality. - -Even in confinement the bat is an interesting creature, and discovers -certain traits of character and peculiarities of habit which in its -wild state cannot be seen. I might here refer to several stories of -domesticated and tamed bats; but as they have already been given to the -world, and my space is limited, I prefer to give my own experiences. - -Not long ago, I received a message from a neighbouring grocer, requesting -me to capture a bat which had flown into the shop, and which no one dared -touch. - -When I arrived, the creature had taken refuge on an upper shelf, and -had crawled among a pile of sugar-loaves that were lying on their sides -after the usual custom. We pulled out several loaves near the spot where -the bat was last seen, and by casting a strong light from a bull’s-eye -lantern, discovered a little black object snugly ensconced at the very -back of the shelf. - -I pushed my hand towards the spot, but for some time could not seize the -creature, as it was so tightly packed, and squeezed into a corner. At -last the bat gave a flap with one of the wings, which I caught, and so -gently drew my prisoner forwards. - -He was a brave little fellow, as well as discreet, and bit savagely at my -fingers. However, his little tiny teeth could not do much damage, and I -put him into a cage which I brought with me. - -The cage was originally made for the reception of mice, and was of a rude -character--the back and ends being of wood and the front of wire. In a -very few minutes after his entrance into the cage, the bat climbed up the -wooden back, by hitching his claws into the slight inequalities of the -wood, and there hung suspended, head downwards. - -When so placed, his aspect was curious enough. The claws of the hind legs -being fixed into a crevice, so as to bear the weight of the body, the -wings were then extended to their utmost, and suddenly wrapped round the -body. At the same time the large ears were folded back under the wings -and protected by them, the orifice of the ear itself being guarded in a -very singular manner. - -If the reader will refer to the figure of the bat on page 4, he will -see that inside the great ear is a sharply-pointed membrane, somewhat -resembling a second ear. This membrane is called the “_tragus_,” and when -the large ears are tucked away out of sight, the tragus remains exposed, -and gives the creature a very strange appearance. - -When the bat is living, the ears are of singular beauty. Their substance -is delicate, and semi-transparent if viewed against the light; so much -so, indeed, that by the aid of a microscope the circulation of the blood -can be detected. As the creature moves about, the ears are continually in -motion, being thrown into graceful and ever-changing curves. If people -only knew what a pretty pet the long-eared bat can become, they would -soon banish dormice and similar creatures in favour of bats. - -It was rather a remarkable circumstance, that the bat of which I have -just been speaking would not touch a fly, although one which I had in -my possession some ten years since would eat flies and other insects -readily. Whenever it took the insect, it daintily ate up the abdomen and -thorax, rejecting the head, wings, and legs. But my second bat entirely -refused insects of any kind, and would eat nothing but raw beef cut up -into very small morsels. I never had a pet so difficult to feed. - -If the meat were not perfectly fresh, or if it were not cut small enough, -the bat would hardly look at it. Now if a bit of raw meat about the size -of a large pin’s head be placed in the air, a few minutes will dry and -harden its exterior; and when this was the case, my bat did not even -notice it. So I had to make twenty or more attempts daily before the -creature would condescend to take any food. - -When, however, it _did_ eat, its mode of so doing was remarkable enough. -It seized the meat with a sharp snap, retreated to the middle of the -cage, sat upright--as in the engraving already alluded to--thrust its -wings forward to form a kind of tent, and then, lowering its head under -its wings, disposed of the meat unseen. - -[Illustration] - -From the movement of the neck and upper portion of the head, it would be -seen that the creature ate the meat much after the manner of a cat; that -is, by a series of snaps or pecks; for the teeth are all sharply pointed, -and have no power of grinding the food. These teeth can be seen in the -accompanying sketch of a bat’s skull. - -In many parts of England the bats are called “Flitter-mice,” and are -thought to be simply mice plus wings. This opinion has been formed -from the resemblance between the general shape, and especially that of -the fur, of the two animals. But if we look at the teeth, we find at -once that those of the bat are sharp and pointed, extending tolerably -equally all round the jaw-bone; while the teeth of the mice are of that -chisel-shaped character found in the rabbit and other rodent animals. - -Now if we turn to the fur, and examine it with a microscope, we shall -there find characteristics as decided as those of the teeth. - -On this page is the magnified image of a single hair, taken from the -long-eared bat. It will be seen that the outline of the hair is deeply -cut, and the markings run in a double line. These markings and outlines -are caused by the structure of the hair, which is covered with a regular -series of scales adhering but loosely to its exterior. These scales can -be removed by rough handling, and therefore the aspect of the hair can be -much altered. - -[Illustration] - -Let us now take a hair from the common mouse, and place it under the -microscope. This being done, we find the result to be as shown in the -accompanying cut. - -[Illustration] - -The two objects here shown are two portions of the same hair; the upper -one showing the middle of the hair, and the lower being taken from a -portion nearer the root. Both these specimens were taken by myself from -the animals, and drawn by myself by means of the Camera Lucida, so that -they are to be depended on. - -To return to my caged bat. - -Although it did not do much in the eating way, it frequently came to the -water vessel and drank therefrom; but it was so timid when drinking, -that I could not see whether it lapped or drank. When disturbed, it used -to scuttle away over the floor, in a most absurd manner, but with some -speed. Sometimes it tried to drink by crawling to a spot just over the -vessel, and lowering itself until its nose was within reach of the water; -but the distance was too great for the attempt to be successful. In its -wild state, the bat hunts insects, as they hover over the surface of -water, and drinks as it flies, by dipping its head in the water while on -the wing. - -I rather think that my bat must have received some injury from the brooms -and caps that were aimed at it when it entered the shop, for it only -lived a fortnight or so, and one morning I found it hanging by its hind -claws from the roof of the cage, quite dead. - -I believe that bats generally die while thus suspended, for it is a very -common thing to find plenty of suspended bats, dry and mummified, when -entrance is made into an unfrequented cave, or a hollow tree cut down, -or, indeed, when any bat-haunted spot is examined. - -In speaking of the bat, I have used popular terms, and therefore have -employed the word “wing”. But the apparatus of the bat is not a wing at -all, but only a developed hand. Let the reader spread his hand as wide as -he can, and he will see that between each finger, and especially between -the forefinger and the thumb, the skin forms a kind of webbing, something -of the same kind as that on the feet of ducks and other aquatic birds. - -Now if the bones of the fingers were drawn out like wire until they -became some seven or eight feet long, and the skin between them were -extended to the nails of the elongated fingers, we should have a -structure analogous to that of the bat’s wing. The thumb joint is left -comparatively free; and by means of this joint, and the hooked claw -at its extremity, the creature walks on a level surface, or can crawl -suspended from a beam or a trunk. It is very curious to see the bat -stretching out its wings and feeling about for a convenient spot whereon -to fix the hooks. - -So tenacious are these hooks, that the baby bat is often found enjoying -an airing by clinging to the body of its mother, and holding firm, while -she flies in search of prey. - -It is true that the little creature is suspended with its head downwards; -but it appears quite comfortable, nevertheless. Bat-children do not -suffer from determination of the blood to the brain. Neither do certain -human children, it seems, if we are to take as a criterion those whom we -see hanging half out of perambulators, fast asleep, and rolling from side -to side with every movement of the vehicle. - -Both my bats were very particular, not to say finicking, about their -personal appearance. They bestowed much time and pains on the combing of -their fur, and specially seemed to value a straight parting down the back. - -It was most interesting to watch the little thing parting its hair. The -claw was drawn in a line straight from the top of the head to the very -tail, and the fur parted at each side with a dexterity worthy of an -accomplished lady’s-maid. The same habit has been observed in other bats -that have been tamed. - -There are more than twenty British bats, but the habits of all are very -similar; and so I prefer to take the prettiest, and, having described it, -to leave the remaining species for a future occasion. - -Pass we now from the Flitter-mouse to the Mouse. - -In the fields, in the farm-yards, in the barns, and in the ricks are to -be found myriads of certain little animals called Field-mice. Acting on -the principle that I have just laid down, I shall take the most common -and I think the prettiest species--the Common Short-tailed Field-mouse, -represented on next page. - -The fur of this creature is strongly tinged with red, and by its colour -alone it is easily to be distinguished from the common grey or brown -mouse. Its tail is short and stumpy, looking as if it had suffered -amputation at an early period of life, and its nose is more rounded than -that of the common mouse. Indeed, it has a very bluff and farmer-like -aspect, and looks as if it ought to wear top-boots. - -[Illustration: SHORT-TAILED FIELD-MOUSE.] - -Common as these little creatures are, they are seldom seen, because they -keep themselves so close to the ground, and assimilate so nearly with it -in colour, that they cannot easily be descried among the grass stalks, -under shelter of which they pursue their noiseless way. - -Their speed is not nearly so great as that of the house-mice, but they -are much more difficult to catch; for they wind among the grass so -lithely, and press upon the earth so closely, that the fingers cannot -readily close on them, even when they are discovered. - -From this facility of avoiding observation and capture, they seem to -derive much audacity, and run about a field in fear of nothing but the -kestrel. - -When first I made a personal acquaintance with these creatures, it was -under rather peculiar circumstances. There is a certain field, which was -given up to football, cricket, hockey, and similar games, as soon as -the grass was converted into hay and removed. One day I was very tired -with running, and lay down to rest on a pile of coats that had been laid -aside; my eyes were fixed on one spot of earth, just visible between the -grass stalks, but without any particular object. Presently I thought I -saw a something red glide across the spot, but was not certain. However, -I leaned over the place and a little farther on saw the same thing again. -So I made a sharp pounce at the object, and found that I had caught a -short-tailed field-mouse. - -Now here was this impertinent little animal taking a walk close to the -wicket, in spite of the bats, ball, and runners. In order to watch its -proceedings, I released it, and followed it in its progress. After -watching for a few minutes, I happened to look up for a moment; and when -I again looked for the creature, it was gone, and I could not find it -again. - -Subsequently I became sufficiently expert to find them whenever I -wished; and if I wanted a field-mouse, seldom had to examine more than a -square yard of ground without finding one. - -They are very injurious little creatures, for they are not content with -eating corn, but nibble the young shoots of various plants, and sometimes -strip young trees of their bark. - -Fortunately we have allies in air and on earth, in the persons of owls -and kestrels, stoats and weasels, or the damage done by these red-skinned -marauders would be more than serious. - -Some idea of the damage that may be done by the aggregate numbers of -these small quadrupeds may be formed from the fact that in Dean Forest -and the New Forest great numbers of holly plants were entirely destroyed -by them, they having eaten off the bark for a distance of several inches -from the ground. And other trees were favoured with the notice of the -field-mouse, but in a different mode. Great numbers of oak and chestnuts -were found dead, and pulled up; and when pulled up, it was seen that -their roots had been gnawed through, about two inches below the level of -the ground. - -Various modes of destroying the marauders were put in practice, such -as traps, poison, &c., but the most effectual was, as effectual things -generally are, the most simple. - -A great number of holes were dug in the ground, about two feet long, -eighteen inches wide, and eighteen inches deep. This is the measurement -at the bottom of the hole; but at the top the hole was only eighteen -inches long and nine wide, so that when mice fell into it, they were -unable to escape. - -In these holes upwards of forty thousand mice were taken in less than -three months, irrespective of those that were removed from the holes by -the stoats, weasels, crows, magpies, owls, and other creatures. - -Like most of the mouse family, the field-mouse is easily tamed; and I -have seen one that would come to the side of its cage, and take a grain -of com from its owner’s fingers. - -[Illustration: HARVEST-MOUSE.] - -There is another kind of mouse which may be found in the autumn, together -with its most curious nest. This is the Harvest-mouse, the tiniest of -British quadrupeds, two harvest-mice being hardly equal in weight to a -halfpenny. - -The chief point of interest in this little creature is its nest, which is -not unfrequently found by mowers and haymakers when they choose to exert -their eyes. - -One of these nests, that was brought to me by a mower, was about the size -of a cricket ball, and almost as spherical. It was composed of dried -grass-stems, interwoven with each other in a manner equally ingenious and -perplexing. It was hollow, without even a vestige of an entrance; and -the substance was so thin that every object would be visible through the -walls. How it was made to retain its spherical form, and how the mice -were to find ingress and egress, I could not even imagine. The nest was -fastened to two strong and coarse stems of grass that had grown near a -ditch, and had overgrown themselves in consequence of a superabundance of -nourishment. - -[Illustration: WATER-RAT.] - -If we walk along the bank of a stream or a pond, we shall probably hear -a splash, and looking in its direction, may see a creature diving or -swimming, which creature we call a Water-rat; to the title of Rat, -however, it has but little right, and ought properly to be called the -“Water-vole”. - -On examining the banks we shall find the entrance to its domicile, -being a hole in the earth, just above the water, and generally, where -possible, made just under a root or a large stone. Sometimes the hole -is made at some height above the water, and then it often happens that -the kingfisher takes possession, and there makes its home. Whether it -ejects the rat or not I cannot say, but I should think that it is quite -capable of doing so. Many a time I have seen the entrance to a rat-hole -decorated with a few stray fish-bones, which the rustics told me were -the relics of fish brought there and eaten by the water-rat. But I soon -found out that fish-bones were a sign of kingfishers, and not of rats; -and so guided, found plenty of the beautiful eggs of this beautiful -bird. Excepting the eggs of swallows and martins, I hardly know any so -delicately beautiful as those of the kingfisher, with their slight rose -tint and semi-transparent shell. But, alas! when the interior of the egg -is removed, the pearly pinkiness vanishes, and the shell becomes of a -pure white, very pretty, but not containing a tithe of its former beauty. - -The piscatorial propensities of the kingfisher are not the only cause -of the slanderous reports concerning the water-vole, and its crime of -killing and eating fish. The common house-rat often frequents the -water-side; and, it being a great flesh-eater, certainly does catch and -eat the fish. - -But the water-rat is a vegetable feeder, and I believe almost, if not -entirely, a vegetarian in diet. That it is so in individual cases, at all -events, I can personally testify, having seen the creature engaged in -eating. - -In former days, when I thought the water-rats ate fish, I waged war -against them, for which warfare there are great facilities at Oxford. -However, a circumstance occurred which showed me that I had been wrong. - -I saw a water-rat sitting on a kind of raft that had formed from a bundle -of reeds which had been cut and were floating down the river. Seeing -it busily at work feeding, I took it for granted that it was eating a -captured fish, and shot it accordingly, stretching it dead on its reed -raft. - -On rowing up to the spot, I was rather surprised to find that there was -no fish there; and on examining the reeds, I rather wondered at the -regular grooves cut by my shot. But a closer inspection revealed a very -different state of things; namely, that the poor dead rat was quite -innocent of fish eating, and had been gnawing the green bark from the -reeds, the grooves being the marks left by its teeth. After this I gave -up rat shooting on principle. - -Once, though, a rather curious circumstance occurred. - -In my possession was a pet pistol, which would throw a ball with great -accuracy, and I considered myself sure of an apple at sixteen paces. -One day, just as I was standing by a branch of the river Cherwell, I -saw a water-rat sitting on the root of a tree at the opposite side of -the river, and watching me closely. The river was not above twelve or -fourteen yards wide; and the rat presented so good a mark that I fired at -him, and, of course, expected to see him on his back. - -But there sat the rat, quite still on the stump, and about two inches -below him the round hole where the bullet had struck. - -As the creature seemed determined to stay there, I reloaded, and took -a good aim, determined to make sure of him. As the smoke cleared away, -I had the satisfaction of seeing the rat in exactly the same position, -and another bullet-hole close by the former. Four shots I made at that -provoking animal, and four bullets did I deposit just under him. As I was -reloading for a fifth shot, the rat walked calmly down the stump, slid -into the water, and departed. - -Now, whether he acted from sheer impertinence, or whether he was stunned -by the violent blow beneath him, I cannot say. The latter may perhaps -be the case, for squirrels are killed in North America by the shock of -the bullet against the bough on which they sit, so that no hole is made -in their skins, and the fur receives no damage. Perhaps the rat was -actuated by a supreme contempt for me and my shooting powers; and, as the -result showed, was quite justified in his opinion. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - - SHREW-MOUSE--DERIVATION OF ITS NAME--SHREW-ASH--THE SPIRIT AND - THE LIFE--WATER-SHREW--ITS HABITS--THE MOLE--MOLE-HILL--A PET - MOLE--THE WEASEL. - - -I have already mentioned that the water-rat has little claim to the title -of rat; and there is another creature which has even less claim to the -title of mouse. This is the Shrew, or Shrew-mouse as it is generally -called. This creature bears a very close relationship to the hedgehog, -and is a distant connection of the mole; but with the mouse it has -nothing to do. - -[Illustration: SHREW-MOUSE.] - -Numbers of the shrews may be found towards the end of the autumn lying -dead on the ground, from some cause at present not perfectly ascertained. -If one of these dead shrews be taken, and its little mouth opened, an -array of sharply-pointed teeth will be seen, something like those of the -mole, very like those of the hedgehog; but not at all resembling those of -the mouse. - -The shrew is an insect and worm-devouring creature, for which purpose -its jaws, teeth, and whole structure are framed. A rather powerful scent -is diffused from the shrew; and probably on that account cats will not -eat a shrew, though they will kill it eagerly. - -On examining Webster’s Dictionary for the meaning of the word “shrew,” we -find three things. - -Firstly, that it signifies “a peevish, brawling, turbulent, vexatious -woman”. - -Secondly, that it signifies “a shrew-mouse”. - -Thirdly, that it is derived from a Saxon word, “_screawa_,” a combination -of letters which defies any attempt at pronunciation, except perhaps by a -Russian or a Welshman. - -Now, it may be a matter of wonder that the same word should be used to -represent the very unpleasant female above-mentioned, and also such a -pretty, harmless little creature as the shrew. The reason is shortly as -follows. - -In days not long gone by, the shrew was considered a most poisonous -creature, as may be seen in the works of many authors. In the time of -Katherine--the shrew most celebrated of all shrews--any cow or horse that -was attacked with cramp, or indeed with any sudden disease, was supposed -to have suffered in consequence of a shrew running over the injured -part. In those days homœopathic remedies were generally resorted to; and -nothing but a shrew-infected plant could cure a shrew-infected animal. -And the shrew-ash, as the remedial plant was called, was prepared in the -following manner. - -In the stem of an ash-tree a hole was bored; into the hole a poor shrew -was thrust alive, and the orifice immediately closed with a wooden plug. -The animal strength of the shrew passed by absorption into the substance -of the tree, which ever after cured shrew-struck animals by the touch of -a leafy branch. - -The poor creature that was imprisoned, Ariel-like, in the tree, was, -fortunately for itself, not gifted with Ariel’s powers of life; and -the orifice of the hole being closed by the plug, we may hope that its -sufferings were not long, and that it perished immediately for want of -air. Still, our fathers were terribly and deliberately cruel; and if the -shrew’s death was a merciful one, no credit is due to the authors of it. - -For on looking through a curious work on natural history, of the date -of 1658, where each animal is treated of medicinally, I find recipes of -such terrible cruelty that I refrain from giving them, simply out of -tenderness for the feelings of my reader. Torture seems to be a necessary -medium of healing; and if a man suffers from “the black and melancholy -cholic,” or “any pain and grief in the winde-pipe or throat,” he can -only be eased therefrom by medicines prepared from some wretched animal -in modes too horrid to narrate, or even to think of. - -We are not quite so bad at the present day; but still no one with -moderate feelings of compassion can pass through our streets without -being greatly shocked at the wanton cruelties practised by human -beings on those creatures that were intended for their use, but not -as mere machines. Charitably, we may hope that such persons act from -thoughtlessness, and not from deliberate cruelty; for it does really seem -a new idea to many people that the inferior animals have any feelings at -all. - -When a horse does not go fast enough to please the driver, he flogs it on -the same principle that he would turn on steam to a locomotive engine, -thinking about as much of the feelings of one as of the other. - -Much of the present heedlessness respecting animals is caused by the -popular idea that they have no souls, and that when they die they -entirely perish. Whence came that most preposterous idea? Surely not from -the only source where we might expect to learn about souls--not from the -Bible; for there we distinctly read of “the spirit of the sons of man”; -and immediately afterwards of “the spirit of the beast,” one aspiring, -and the other not so. And the necessary consequence of the spirit is -a life after the death of the body. Let any one wait in a frequented -thoroughfare for only one short hour, and watch the sufferings of the -poor brutes that pass by. Then, unless he denies the Divine Providence, -he will see clearly that unless these poor creatures were compensated in -another life, there is no such quality as justice. - -It is owing to sayings such as these, that men come to deny an all-ruling -Providence, and so become infidels. They don’t examine the Scriptures for -themselves, but take for granted the assertions of those who assume to -have done so, and seeing the falsity of the assertion, naturally deduce -therefrom the falsity of its source. If a man brings me a cup of putrid -water, I naturally conclude that the source is putrid too. And when a man -hears horrible and cruel doctrines, which are asserted by theologians to -be the religion of the Scriptures, it is no wonder that he turns with -disgust from such a religion, and tries to find rest in infidelity. In -such a case, where is the fault? - -All created things in which there is life, _must_ live for ever. There is -only one life, and all living things only live as being recipients; so -that as that life is immortality, all its recipients are immortal. - -If people only knew how much better an animal will work when kindly -treated, they would act kindly towards it, even from so low a motive. And -it is so easy to lead these animals by kindness, which will often induce -an obstinate creature to obey where the whip would only confirm it in -its obstinacy. All cruelty is simply diabolical, and can in no way be -justified. - -Supposing that the two cases could be reversed for just one hour, what -a wonderful change there would be in the opinion of men; for it may be -assumed that the person most given to inflicting pain and suffering is -the least tolerant of it himself. - -There is, perhaps, hardly one of my readers who does not know some one -person who finds an exquisite delight in hurting the feelings of others -by various means, such as ridicule, practical jokes, ill-natured sayings, -and so on. If so, he will be tolerably certain to find that the same -person is especially thin-skinned himself, and resents the least approach -to a joke of which he is the subject. - -So, if the shrew were to be the afflicted individual, and the human the -victim, there would be found no one so averse to the medicinal process as -he who had formerly resorted to it under different circumstances. - -This principle is finely carried out, in the terrible scene of Dennis, -the executioner’s, last hours in _Barnaby Rudge_. - -These are not pleasant subjects; and we will pass on to another -shrew that is generally found in the water, and called from thence -the Water-shrew. It is a creature that may be found in many running -streams, if the eyes are sharp enough to observe it, and is well worth -examination. As it dives and runs along the bottom of the stream, it -appears to be studded with tiny silver beads, or glittering pearls, on -account of the air-bubbles that adhere to its fur. I have seen a whole -colony of them disporting themselves in a little brooklet not two feet -wide, and so had a good opportunity of inspecting them. - -[Illustration: WATER-SHREW.] - -I may mention here, as has been done in one or two other works, that -nothing is easier than to watch animals or birds in their state of -liberty. All that is required is perfect quiet. If an observer just sits -down at the foot of a tree, and does not move, the most timid creatures -will come within a few yards as freely as if no human being were within a -mile. If he can shroud himself in branches or grass or fern, so much the -better; but quiet is the chief essential. - -It is impossible to form an idea of the real beauty of animal life, -without seeing it displayed in a free and unconstrained state; and more -real knowledge of natural history will be gained in a single summer -spent in personal examination, than by years of book study. - -The characters of creatures come out so strongly; they have such -quaint, comical, little ways with them; such assumptions of dignity and -sudden lowering of the same; such clever little cheateries; such funny -flirtations and coquetries, that I have many a time forgotten myself, -and burst into a laugh that scattered my little friends for the next -half-hour. It is far better than a play, and one gets the fresh air -besides. - -These little water-shrews are most active in their sports and their work, -for which latter purpose they make regular paths along the banks. And as -to their sport, they chase one another in and out of the water, making as -great a splash as possible, whisk round roots, dodge behind stones, and -act altogether just like a set of boys let loose from the school-room. -And then--what a revulsion of feeling to see a stuffed water-shrew in a -glass-case! - -Now for a few words respecting the distant relation of the shrews, -namely, the mole. Of its near relation, the hedgehog, there will not be -time to speak. - -Every one is familiar with the little heaps of earth thrown up by the -mole, and called mole-hills. But as the animal itself lives almost -entirely underground, comparatively little is known of it; at all events, -to the generality of those who see the hills. The mole is not often -seen alive; and few who see it suspended among the branches by the -professional killer would form any conception of the real character of -this subterranean animal. - -Meek and quiet as the mole looks, it is one of the fiercest, if not the -very fiercest of animals; it labours, eats, fights, and loves as if -animated by one of the furies, or rather by all of them together. - -[Illustration: MOLE.] - -Intervals of profound rest alternate with savage action; and according to -the accounts of country folks near Oxford, it works and rests at regular -intervals of three hours each. - -Useful as these creatures are as subsoil drain-makers, they sometimes -increase to an inconvenient extent, and then the professed mole-catcher -comes into practice, and destroys the moles with an apparatus apparently -inadequate to such a purpose. But the mole is easily killed, and pressure -he cannot survive; so the traps are formed for the purpose of squeezing -the mole, not of smashing or strangling him. - -The mole-catchers are in the habit of suspending their victims on -branches, mostly of the willow or similar trees; but their object I could -never make out, nor could they give me any reason, except that it was the -custom. - -When a mole is taken out of the ground, very little earth clings to it. -There is always some on its great digging claws; but very little indeed -on its fur, which is beautifully formed to prevent such accumulation. The -fur of most animals “sets” in some definite direction, according to its -position on the body; but that of the mole has no particular set, and is -fixed almost perpendicularly on the creature’s skin, much like the pile -of velvet. Indeed the mole’s fur has much the feel of silk-velvet; and so -the title of the “Little gentleman in the velvet coat” is justly applied. - -Those small heaps of earth that are so common in the fields, and called -mole-hills, are merely the result of the mole’s travelling in search of -the earth-worms, on which it principally feeds; and in their structure -there is nothing remarkable. - -But the great mole-hill, or mole-palace, in which the animal makes its -residence, is a very different affair, and complicated in its structure. -In it is found a central chamber in which the mole resides; and round -this chamber there run galleries or corridors in a regular series, so as -to form a kind of labyrinth, by means of which the creature may make its -escape, if threatened with danger. - -The accompanying cut shows a section of the mole-palace. - -[Illustration: MOLE-HILL.] - -This palace is formed, if possible, under the protection of large stones, -roots of trees, thick bushes, or some such situation; and is located as -far as possible from paths or roads. - -The food of the mole mostly consists of earth-worms, in search of which -it drives these tunnels with such assiduity. The depth of the tunnel -is necessarily regulated by the position of the worms; so that in warm -pleasant days or evenings the run, as it is called, is within a few -inches of the surface; but in winter the worms retire deeply into the -unfrozen soil, and thither the mole must follow them. For this purpose it -sinks perpendicular shafts, and from thence drives horizontal tunnels. It -may be seen how useful this provision is when one thinks of the work that -is done by the mole when providing for its own sustenance. - -In the cold months, it drives deeply into the ground, thereby draining -it, and preventing the roots of plants from becoming sodden by the -retention of water above; and the earth is brought from below, where it -was useless, and, with all its properties inexhausted by crops, is laid -on the surface, there to be frozen, the particles to be forced asunder -by the icy particles with which it is filled, and, after the thaw, to -be vivified by the oxygen of the atmosphere, and made ready for the -reception of seeds. - -The worms have a mission of a similar nature; but their tunnels are -smaller, and so are their hills. Every floriculturist knows how useful -for certain plants are the little heaps of earth left by the worms at the -entrance of their holes. And by the united exertions of moles and worms a -new surface is made to the earth, even without the intervention of human -labour. - -Among other pets, I have had a mole--rather a strange pet, one may say; -but I rather incline to pets, and have numbered among them creatures that -are not generally petted--snakes, to wit--but which are very interesting -creatures, notwithstanding. - -Being very desirous of watching the mole in its living state, I directed -a professional catcher to procure one alive, if possible; and after a -while the animal was produced. At first there was some difficulty in -finding a proper place in which to keep a creature so fond of digging; -but the difficulty was surmounted by procuring a tub, and filling it half -full of earth. - -In this tub the mole was placed, and instantly sank below the surface of -the earth. It was fed by placing large quantities of earth-worms or grubs -in the cask; and the number of worms that this single mole devoured was -quite surprising. - -As far as regards actual inspection, this arrangement was useless; for -the mole never would show itself, and when it was wanted for observation, -it had to be dug up. But many opportunities for investigating its manners -were afforded by taking it from its tub, and letting it run on a hard -surface, such as a gravel-walk. - -There it used to run with some speed, continually grubbing with its long -and powerful snout, trying to discover a spot sufficiently soft for a -tunnel. More than once it did succeed in partially burying itself, and -had to be dragged out again, at the risk of personal damage. At last it -contrived to slip over the side of the gravel-walk, and, finding a patch -of soft mould, sank with a rapidity that seemed the effect of magic. -Spades were put in requisition; but a mole is more than a match for a -spade, and the pet mole was never seen more. - -I was by no means pleased at the escape of my prisoner; but there was -one person more displeased than myself--namely, the gardener: for he, -seeing in the far perspective of the future a mole running wild in the -garden, disfiguring his lawn and destroying his seed-beds, was extremely -exasperated, and could by no blandishments be pacified. - -However, his fears and anxieties were all in vain, as is often the case -with such matters, and a mole-heap was never seen in the garden. We -therefore concluded that the creature must have burrowed under the garden -wall, and so have got away. - -Sometimes the fur of the mole takes other tints besides that greyish -black that is worn by most moles. There are varieties where the fur is of -an orange colour; and I have in my own possession a skin of a light cream -colour. - -A perpetual thirst seems to be on the mole, for it never chooses a -locality at any great distance from water; and should the season turn out -too dry, and the necessary supply of water be thus diminished or cut off, -the mole counteracts the drought by digging wells, until it comes to a -depth at which water is found. - -I should like to say something of the Hedgehog, the Stoat, and other wild -animals; but I must only take one more example of the British Mammalia, -the common Weasel. - -[Illustration: WEASEL.] - -Gifted with a lithe and almost snake-like body, a long and yet powerful -neck, and with a set of sharp teeth, this little quadruped attacks and -destroys animals which are as superior to itself in size as an elephant -to a dog. - -Small men are generally the most pugnacious, and the same circumstance is -noted of small animals. The weasel, although sufficiently discreet when -discretion will serve its purpose, is ever ready to lay down that part of -valour, and take up the other. - -Many instances are known of attacks on man by weasels, and in every case -they proved to be dangerous enemies. They can spring to a great distance, -they can climb almost anything, and are as active as--weasels; for there -is hardly any other animal so active: their audacity is irrepressible, -and their bite is fierce and deep. So, when five or six weasels unite in -one attack, it may be imagined that their opponent has no trifling combat -before him ere he can claim the victory. In such attacks, they invariably -direct their efforts to the throat, whether their antagonist be man or -beast. - -They feed upon various animals, chiefly those of the smaller sort, and -especially affect mice; so that they do much service to the farmer. There -is no benefit without its drawbacks; and in this case, the benefits which -the weasel confers on farmers by mouse-eating is counterbalanced, in some -degree, by a practice on the part of the weasel of varying its mouse -diet by an occasional chicken, duckling, or young pheasant. Perhaps to -the destruction of the latter creature the farmer would have no great -objection. - -The weasel is a notable hunter, using eyes and nose in the pursuit of -its game, which it tracks through every winding, and which it seldom -fails to secure. Should it lose the scent, it quarters the ground like a -well-trained dog, and occasionally aids itself by sitting upright. - -Very impertinent looks has the weasel when it thus sits up, and it has -a way of crossing its fore-paws over its nose that is almost insulting. -At least I thought so on one occasion, when I was out with a gun, ready -to shoot anything--more shame to me! There was a stir at the bottom of a -hedge, some thirty yards distant, and catching a glimpse of some reddish -animal glancing among the leaves, I straightway fired at it. - -Out ran a weasel, and, instead of trying to hide, went into the very -middle of a footpath on which I was walking, sat upright, crossed -its paws over its nose, and contemplated me steadily. It was a most -humiliating affair. - -The weasel has been tamed, and, strange to say, was found to be a -delightful little animal in every way but one. The single exception was -the evil odour which exudes from the weasel tribe in general, and which -advances from merely being unpleasant, as in our English weasels, to the -quintessence of stenches as exhibited by the Skunk and the Teledu. A -single individual of the latter species has been known to infect a whole -village, and even to cause fainting in some persons; and the scent of -the former is so powerful, that it almost instantaneously tainted the -provisions that were in the vicinity, and they were all thrown away. - -The Polecat, Ferret, Marten, and Stoat belong to the true weasels; the -Otters and Gluttons claiming a near relationship. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - - THE COMMON LIZARD--SUDDEN CURTAILMENT--BLIND-WORM--A - CURIOUS DANCE--THE VIPER--CURE FOR ITS BITE--THE COMMON - SNAKE--SNAKE-HUNTING--CURIOUS PETS--SNAKE AND FROG--CASTING - THE SKIN--EGGS OF THE SNAKE--HYBERNATION--THE FROG--THE - TADPOLE--THE EDIBLE FROG--THE TOAD--TOADS IN FRANCE--TOAD’S - TEETH--VALUE OF TOADS--MODE OF CATCHING PREY--POISON OF THE - TOAD--CHANGE OF ITS SKIN. - - -I have already said that the birds must be entirely passed over in this -little work; and therefore we make a jump down two steps at once, and -come upon the Reptiles, of whom are many British examples. - -The first reptile of which we shall treat is the common little Lizard -that is found in profusion on heaths, or, indeed, on most uncultivated -grounds. - -[Illustration: THE COMMON LIZARD.] - -It is an agile and very pretty little creature, darting about among -the grass and heather, and twisting about with such quickness that its -capture is not always easy. Sunny banks and sunny days are its delight; -and any one who wishes to see this elegant little reptile need only visit -such a locality, and then he will run little risk of disappointment. - -There is one peculiarity about it that is rather startling. If suddenly -seized, it snaps off its tail, breaking it as if it were a stick of -sealing wax, or a glass rod. Several lizards possess this curious -faculty, and of one of them we shall presently treat. - -The food of this lizard is composed of insects, which it catches with -great agility as they settle on the leaves or the ground. If captured -without injury--a feat that cannot always be accomplished, on account of -the fragility of its tail--it can be kept in a fern case, and has a very -pretty effect there. - -One of the chief beauties of this animal is its brilliant eye; and this -feature will be found equally beautiful in many of the reptiles, and -especially in that generally-hated one, the toad. - -In the winter-time the lizard is not seen; for it is lying fast asleep in -a snug burrow under the roots of any favourable shrub, and does not show -itself until the warm beams of the sun call it from its retreat. - -The next British lizard that I shall mention is one that is generally -considered as a snake, and a poisonous one; both ideas being equally -false. It is popularly known by the name of the Blind-worm, or -Slow-worm; and is not a snake at all, but a lizard of the Skink tribe, -without any legs. - -[Illustration: BLIND-WORM.] - -The scientific name for it is _Anguis fragilis_; and it is called fragile -on account of its custom of snapping itself in two, when struck. - -Only very lately, I saw an example of this strange propensity, and was -the cause of it. Near Dover, there is a small wood, where vipers are -reported to dwell; and as I was walking in the wood, I caught a glimpse -of a snake-like body close by my foot. I struck, or rather stabbed, it -with a little stick--for it had a very viperine look about it--and with -success rather remarkable, for the very slight blow that the creature -could have received from so insignificant a weapon, used in such a -manner. The viper was clearly cut into two parts, but how or where -could not be seen, owing to the thick leaves and grass that rose nearly -knee-high. - -On pushing among the leaves, I found with regret that the creature was -only a blind-worm. - -A curious performance was being exhibited by the severed tail, a portion -of the animal about five inches long; this was springing and jumping -about with great liveliness and agility, entirely on its own account, for -by this time the blind-worm itself had made its escape, and all search -was unavailing. - -Some ten minutes or so were consumed in looking for the reptile itself; -and by that time the activity of the tail was at an end, and it was -lying flat on the ground, coiled into a curve of nearly three-fourths of -a circle. I gave it a push with the stick, when I was startled by the -severed member jumping fairly into the air, and recommencing its dance -with as much vigour as before. This performance lasted for some minutes, -and was again exhibited when the tail was roused by another touch from -the stick. Nearly half-an-hour elapsed before the touch of the stick -failed to make the tail jump, and even then it produced sharp convulsive -movements. - -The object of this strange compound of insensibility and irritability may -perhaps be, that when an assailant’s attention is occupied by looking at -the tail, the creature itself may quietly make its escape. - -The food of the blind-worm is generally of an insect nature, and it seems -to be fond of small slugs. The country people declare that it is guilty -of various crimes, such as biting cattle and similar offences, of which -bite an old author says that, “unless remedy be had, there followeth -mortality or death, for the poyson thereof is very strong”. - -Fortunately for us, we have but one poisonous reptile, the viper; and -the slow-worm is as innocent of poison as an earthworm. It is true that, -if provoked, it will sometimes bite; but its mouth is so small, and its -teeth so minute, that it cannot even draw blood. - -The names that are given to it are hardly in accordance with its -formation, for it is not very sluggish in its movements, although it can -be easier taken than the lizard; while it is anything but blind, and its -eyes, though small, are brilliant. Perhaps the epithets ought to have -been applied to the givers, and not to the receiver. - -As for the real snakes, there are but two species in England, one being -called the Viper, or Adder, and the other the Ringed, or Grass-snake. The -Viper is rather to be avoided, as it is possessed of poison-fangs, and if -irritated, is not slow in using them. - -Of this latter I have little to say, and would not have mentioned it -excepting for two reasons: the one to enable any person to distinguish -it from the common snake, and to avoid, as far as possible, the chance -of being bitten; and the other to tell how to heal the bite, should so -untoward an event happen. - -Poisonous snakes may be readily known by the shape of their head and -neck; the head being very wide at the back, and the neck comparatively -small. Some persons compare the head of a poisonous snake to the ace of -spades, which comparison, although rather exaggerated, gives a good idea -of the poison-bearing head. It has a cruel and wicked look about it also, -and one recoils almost instinctively. - -[Illustration: VIPER.] - -Should a person be bitten by the viper, the effects of the poison may be -much diminished by the liberal use of olive oil; and the effect of the -oil is said to be much increased by heat. Strong ammonia, or hartshorn, -as it is popularly called, is also useful, as is the case with the stings -of bees and wasps, and for the same reason. The evil consequences of the -viper’s bite vary much in different persons, and at different times, -according to the temperament of the individual or his state of health. - -I may as well put in one word of favour for the viper before it is -dismissed. It is not a malignant creature, nor does it seek after -victims; but it is as timid as any creature in existence, slipping away -at the sound of a footstep, and only using its fangs if trodden on -accidentally, or intentionally assaulted. - -The second English snake is the common harmless Ringed Snake; which -does not bite, because it has no teeth to speak of; and does not poison -people, because it has no venom at all. - -[Illustration: COMMON SNAKE.] - -Its only mode of defence is by pouring forth a most unpleasant, pungent -odour, which adheres to the hands or clothes so pertinaciously, that many -washings are required before it is expelled. Yet it is sparing enough -even of this solitary weapon, and may, after a while, be handled without -any inconvenience. - -To this assertion I can bear personal and somewhat extensive witness; for -I have caught and kept numbers of snakes. The worthy villagers must have -formed curious ideas of me, and I rather fancy must have accredited me -with something of the wizard character; for I contrived to oppose their -prejudices--all, by the way, of a cruel character--in so many instances, -that they were rather afraid, as well as annoyed. To see them run away, -as if from a lighted shell, when I came among them with a snake in each -hand, was decidedly amusing, and not less curious was the pertinacity -with which they clung to their prejudices. - -In vain were arguments used to prove that the snake was not a venomous -animal, and ought not to be killed and tortured; in vain did I put my -finger into the snake’s mouth, and let its forked tongue glide over my -very hand or face; they were not to be so taken in, and they remained -wise in their own conceit. - -They certainly could not deny that the snake did not bite me, and that -its tongue did not pierce me, but the conclusion deduced therefrom was -simply that my constitution, or perchance my magical art, was such that I -was unbitable and unpoisonable. - -No! to them the snake was still poisonous, and its tongue still -envenomed. - -At one time we had so many snakes that they were kept in the crevices -of an old wall, and left to stay or go as they pleased. My boys--I had -a school at that time--took wonderfully to snake hunting, and every -half-holiday produced a fresh supply of snakes. The boys used to devise -the strangest amusements in connection with their snakes, of which they -were very proud, each boy exhibiting his particular favourite, and -expatiating on its excellences. - -One of their fashions, and one which lasted for some time, was to make -tunnels in the side of the Wiltshire Downs, and to turn in their snakes -at one end, merely for the purpose of seeing them come out at the other. - -Then there was a stone-quarry some three miles distant, which was in -some parts of the year nearly filled with water. Thither the boys were -accustomed to repair for the purpose of indulging their snakes with a -bath. They certainly seemed to enjoy the swim, and were the better for it. - -Sometimes there was great excitement; for a snake would now and then act -in too independent a manner, and instead of swimming straight across, -so as to be caught by a boy on the opposite side, would sink to the -bottom, and there lie flat and immovable. Long sticks could not be found -there; and their only mode of making the snake stir was to startle it by -throwing stones. Even then there was a difficulty; for if the stones -fell too far from the snake they had no effect, and if they fell on him -they might hurt him. - -To wait until the truant chose to move would have been hopeless, for -snakes are able to take so much pure air into their lungs, and they -require so little of it for respiration, that the patience of the boys -would be exhausted long before the snake felt a necessity for moving. - -Sometimes a snake would try to get away, and insinuate his head and -part of his body into a crevice; in that case there was sad anxiety, -and judicious management was required to eliminate the reptile without -damage. It is a very difficult matter to drag a snake backwards, because -the creature sets up the edges of the scales, and each one serves as a -point of resistance. So, when the snake is within a crevice, where the -scales of the back can act as well as those of the belly, the difficulty -is increased. - -When such an event took place, the best mode of extracting the snake -was to let it glide on, and so lower its scales, and then to pluck it -out with a sudden jerk, before it had time to erect them afresh. But as -often as otherwise, the snake got the better in the struggle, and by slow -degrees was lost to view. - -Perhaps the pleasantest portion of snake-keeping was the feeding. It was -found that the snakes lost their appetite, and would not eat, though -frogs and newts were liberally supplied. So the boys settled the matter -by opening the mouth of the snake, and pushing a newt fairly down its -throat. - -One of the largest snakes that I have seen was engaged in feeding -himself, not trusting to boys for any help. I was walking in a field, -and heard a strange cry from a neighbouring ditch. On going towards the -spot, I saw there a large snake struggling with a frog. The frog was -comparatively as large as the snake, and as it had a plain objection to -being swallowed, there was some turmoil. - -The snake was stretched along the bottom of the ditch, which at this time -was dry, and he held in his mouth both hind feet of the frog, who was -also stretched forward at full length, resisting with its fore-legs the -attempts of the snake to draw it back, and croaking dismally. The strife -continued for some time, when I made a sudden movement, and the snake, -loosing its hold of the frog, glided up the opposite bank. The frog -slowly gathered itself together, sat still for some little time, and then -hopped away. - -The entire empty skin of the snake may often be found among bushes, -where the creature has gone in order to assist itself in casting off its -old skin. Snakes, as well as other animals, wear out their coats, and -are obliged to change them for others. When the change is about to take -place, and a new coat has formed under the old, like a new skin under a -blister, the creature betakes itself to some spot where is thick grass, -reeds, or similar substances. A rent then opens in the neck, and the -snake, by wriggling about among the stems, literally crawls out of its -skin, which it leaves behind, turned inside out. Even the covering of the -eyes is cast away, and in consequence the snake is partially blind for a -day or two previously to the moult, if we may call it so. - -Eggs laid by the snake are also of frequent occurrence. I have found them -in manure heaps, the warmth of which places is attractive to them. The -eggs are white, and covered with a strong membrane, but have no shell. -They are laid in long strings, from sixteen to twenty eggs being in each -chain. - -In the winter the ringed snake retires to a convenient cell, such as a -hollow tree, or a heap of wood, and there it remains in a torpid state -until the warm weather. Many individuals have been found collected -together in these winter quarters, probably for the sake of affording -each other mutual warmth. - -The reptiles of which we have just treated live exclusively on land, -though they may occasionally be found in water; but those which we shall -now inspect belong rather to the water than to the land. The most common -of these amphibious reptiles, as they are called, is the Frog. - -A very curious animal is a frog, and well worth examining, as well in its -perfect state as in its intermediate state. To begin at the beginning -of a frog’s existence, we find it exhibited in masses of eggs, fixed -to each other by a kind of gelatinous substance, and floating in large -quantities in ditches or ponds. Each egg is about the size and shape of -a pea, and in the centre is the little black speck from which the young -frog proceeds. - -[Illustration: FROG.] - -In process of time the egg is hatched, and out comes a queer little -creature, with a big head and a flat slender tail, called generally a -tadpole, and in some places a pollywog. In this state of life the young -creature is simply a fish, with fish-like bones, and breathing through -gills, after the manner of fish. - -Being very voracious, it grows rapidly: little legs begin to show -themselves; and, at the proper season, the gills are laid aside, the tail -vanishes, and the little frog is then in its usual form. The circulation -of the blood can be well exhibited by means of a microscope, if a tadpole -be laid on the stage so as to bring its tail within the focus, care being -taken to keep that member well wetted. - -At the time when the tail is laid aside, the young frog is very small, -and in this state is generally found to swarm immediately after rain. -The frog-showers, of which we so often hear, are probably occasioned, -not by the actual descent of frogs from the clouds, but from the genial -influence of the moisture on the young frogs who have already been -hatched and developed, and who have been biding their time before they -dared to venture abroad. - -Still I would not venture to say that frogs have not descended _in_ the -rain, for there are several accredited accounts of fish-showers, both -being probably caused in the same way. - -For a drawing of the Tadpole, see page 85. - -It is not often that frogs are found far from water, for they are the -thirstiest of beings, and drink with every pore of their body. If, for -example, a wrinkled and emaciated frog is placed in confinement, and -plentifully supplied with water, it absorbs the grateful moisture like a -sponge, and plumps up in a wonderfully short time. - -From the same cause, it parts with its moisture with equal rapidity; -and if a dead frog be laid in the open air on a dry day it speedily -shrinks up, and becomes hard as horn. The skin and lungs co-operate in -respiration, but only when the former is moist. So, in order to secure -that object, the frog is furnished with an internal tank, so to speak, -which receives the superabundance of the absorbed water, and keeps it -pure until it is required for use. So great is the power of absorption -that a frog has been known to absorb a quantity of water equal to itself -in weight, merely through the pores of the abdominal surface, and this in -a very short time. - -In England we don’t eat frogs, for what reason I know not. One species -of frog is very excellent food, and it is but natural to suppose that -another may be so, _i.e._, if properly cooked. However, the old belief -still keeps its ground, that the French are the natural foes of the -English, and we ought to hate them, because they “eat frogs and are -saddled with wooden shoes”. Still I cannot but think that to eat frogs is -better than to starve or to steal, and that to wear wooden shoes is not -more humiliating than to wear no shoes at all. - -After its fashion, the frog sings, though it is but after a fashion. We -call the frog’s song a croak: I wonder what name the frog would give to -our singing. When the frog sings, it generally sinks itself under water, -with the exception of its head, opens its mouth, lays its lower jaw flat -on the water, and sets to work as if it meant to make the best of its -time. Even in England we have fine specimens of frog concerts, though not -to such an extent as in many other countries. In France the frogs make -such a croaking, that we hardly wonder at the rather tyrannous conduct -of the noblesse just before the great Revolution. When the nobility or -courtiers spent any time in the country, the miserable peasants were -forced to flog the water all night, on purpose to keep the frogs quiet, -for their croaking was so noisy that the fastidious senses of the -fashionables could not be lulled to sleep. - -Now-a-days, the people don’t seem to be satisfied with the country -croakings, but they import the horrid sounds into the city by means of a -toy called a “grenouille,” which, when set in motion, makes a croaking -sound just like that of a frog. - -As a general fact, frogs are just endurable, and people will inspect -them--from a distance--without much ado. But the case is widely altered -when they see the frog’s first-cousin, the Toad. - -A large volume might easily be filled with tales respecting this -much-calumniated creature; in which tales the toad appears to be a very -incarnation of malignity, and to be wholly formed of poison. If it -burrowed near the root of a tree, every one who ate a leaf of that tree -would die; and, if he only handled it, would be struck with sudden cramp. -And the cause of this poisonous nature was its liver, which was “very -vitious, and causeth the whole body to be of an ill temperament”. - -Fortunately, toads had two livers; and although both of them were -corrupted, yet one was full of poison, and the other resisted poison. As -for remedies, the only effectual one was of rather a complicated nature, -and consisted of plantain, black hellebore, powdered crabs, the blood -of the sea-tortoise mixed with wine, the stalks of dogs’ tongues, the -powder of the right horn of a hart, cummin, the vermet of a hare, the -quintessence of treacle, and the oil of a scorpion, mixed and taken _ad -libitum_. - -[Illustration: THE COMMON TOAD.] - -Even in the days when this prodigious prescription was invented, some -good was acknowledged to exist in a toad, the one being the precious -jewel in its head, and the other its power as a styptic. Supposing any -one to fall down and knock his nose against a stone, he could instantly -stop the bleeding if he only had in his pocket a toad that had been -pierced through with a piece of wood and dried in the shade or smoke. -All that was requisite was to hold the dried toad in the hand, and the -bleeding would immediately cease. The reason for this effect is, that -“horror and fear constrained the blood to run into his proper place, for -fear of a beast so contrary to humane nature”. - -And, as a concluding instance of the wonderful things that happened -whenever toads were the subject, we are told that at Darien, where the -household slaves water the door-steps in the evening, all the drops that -fall on the right hand turn into toads. - -These poor creatures fare little better even now, as far as public -opinion goes; and in France worse than in England. - -I was once walking in the forest at Meudon with a party of friends, and -was brought to a check by a sudden attack made on a large toad that -was walking along the pathway. I succeeded in stopping a blow that was -aimed at it; and was stooping down, intending to remove it to a place of -safety, when I was hastily pulled away, and horror was depicted on the -countenances of all the spectators. - -“It will bite you,” cried one. - -“Pouah!” exclaimed another, “it will spit poison at you.” - -“In France, every one kills toads,” said a third. - -I objected that it could not bite, because it had no teeth. - -“No teeth!” they all exclaimed. “In France, toads _always_ have teeth.” - -“Well, then,” I said, “I will open its mouth, and show you that it has -none.” - -But before I could touch it I was again dragged away. - -“Teeth come when the toads are fifty years old,” was the explanation that -was given; but still the death-sentence had passed in every mind, and I -knew that when I moved the poor toad would be killed. - -Just then, some one remarked that tobacco killed toads, if put on their -backs. So I took advantage of the assertion, and made a compromise that, -on my part, I would not handle the toad; and that, on theirs, the only -mode by which they might kill it was by putting tobacco on it. - -The terms being thus arranged, plenty of tobacco was produced--and very -bad tobacco, too, as is generally the case in France; and, as no one but -myself dared come so near, I put about half-an-ounce of the weed on the -back of the toad, as it sat in a rut. For a minute or more, the creature -sat quite still, and all the party began to exclaim:-- - -“See! the toad is quite dead!” - -“Ah! the nasty animal!” - -“Monsieur Ool!--(no one ever made a better shot at my name than -Ool)--Monsieur Ool! the toad is dead!” - -However, the toad rose, shook off all the tobacco, and recommenced his -march along the road. The only good that was done was the saving of that -individual toad’s life, for all the party retained their faith in toads’ -teeth, and probably thought that the creature would not touch me because -I was a trifle madder than the rest of my nation, who are always very mad -on the French stage. - -Afterwards, I found that the belief in toads’ teeth was quite general; -and one person offered to show me some, half-an-inch in length, which he -kept in a box at home. But I was never fortunate enough to see them. - -In England, toads are sometimes valued for the good which they do; and -the market-gardeners, whose trim grounds surround London, actually import -toads from the country, paying for them a certain sum per dozen. For -toads are voracious creatures, feeding upon slugs, worms, grubs, and -insects of various kinds, and so devour great numbers of these little -pests to the gardener. - -The mode in which a toad catches its prey is curious enough. Its tongue -is fastened into its mouth in a very peculiar way, the base of the tongue -being fixed at the entrance of the mouth, the tip pointing down its -throat when it is at rest. When, however, the toad sees an insect or slug -within reach, the tongue is suddenly shot out of the mouth, and again -drawn back, carrying the creature with it. - -So rapidly is this operation performed, that the insect seems to -disappear by magic. The frog feeds in the same manner. - -For the poisonous properties attributed to the toad, there is some -foundation, though a small one. But a very small foundation is generally -found strong enough to bear a very large superstructure of calumny; -though the reverse is the case when the report is a favourable one. The -skin of the toad is covered with small tubercles, which secrete an acid -humour sufficiently sharp and unpleasant to prevent dogs from carrying -a toad in their mouths, though not so powerful as to deter them from -attacking toads and killing them. - -A rather curious advantage has been taken of the insect-eating -propensities of the toad. A gentleman had killed a toad at a very early -hour one morning, and after skinning it, for the purpose of stuffing the -skin, he dissected its digestive system. The contents of the stomach he -turned out into a basin of water, and found there a mass of insects, some -of them very rare and in good preservation. - -Afterwards, he was accustomed to kill toads for the express purpose of -collecting the insects that were found within them, and which, being -caught during the night, were often of such species as are not often -found. - -The same experiment elicited another curious fact, namely, the great -tenacity of life possessed by some insects. Before pinning out the -insects that were found, and which were mostly beetles, they had been -allowed to remain in the water for several days, and were apparently -dead. Yet, when they were pinned on cork, they revived; and, when they -were visited, were found sprawling about in quite a lively style. - -Like all the reptiles, the toad changes its skin, but the cast envelope -is never found, although those of the serpents are common enough. The -reason why it is not found is this: the toad is an economical animal, and -does not choose that so much substance should be wasted. So, after the -skin has been entirely thrown off, the toad takes its old coat in its two -fore-paws, and dexterously rolls it, and pats it, and twists it, until -the coat has been formed into a ball. It is then taken between the paws, -pushed into the mouth, and swallowed at a gulp like a big pill. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - - NEWTS--A FISH WITH LEGS--NEWTS FEEDING--NEWT-CANNIBALS--CASTING - THE SKIN--STRANGE STORIES--ANOTHER NEWT STORY--HATCHING OF - YOUNG--TENACITY OF LIFE--THE STICKLEBACK--ITS PUGNACITY--ITS - COLOURS--ACCLIMATISATION--THE LAMPERN--A RUSTIC - PHILOSOPHER--THE CRAY-FISH--HOW WE CAUGHT IT--REPRODUCTION OF - LIMBS--FRESH-WATER SHRIMP--WOODLOUSE AND ARMADILLO. - - -The Newts, or Efts, or Evats, as they are called in different parts of -England, can be easily distinguished from the lizard by the flattened -tail, which, being intended for swimming, is formed accordingly. - -[Illustration: THE COMMON NEWT.] - -Two species of these creatures are found in this country, the common -Water-Newt and the Smooth Newt. These beautiful creatures may be found in -almost every piece of still water, from ponds and ditches up to lakes. -The full beauty of the newt is not seen until the breeding season begins -to come on, and even then only in the male. - -At this time the green back and orange belly attain a brighter tint, and -the back is decorated with a wavy crest, tipped with crimson. This crest -is continually waving from side to side as the creature moves, and forms -graceful curves. The newts are equally at home in water and on land, and -in the latter case have often been mistaken for lizards. - -One of these animals, when taking a walk, alarmed an acquaintance of -mine sadly. He was rather a tall man than otherwise, and did not appear -particularly timid; but one day he came to me looking somewhat pale, and -announced that he had just been terribly frightened. - -“A fish, with legs!” said he, “_four_ legs! got out of the water and ran -right across the path in front of me! I saw it run!” - -“A fish with legs!” I replied; “there are no such creatures.” - -“Indeed there are, though, for I saw them. It had FOUR LEGS, and it -waggled its tail! It was horrible, horrible!” - -“It was only a newt,” I replied, “an eft. There is nothing to be afraid -of.” - -“It was the _legs_,” said he, shuddering, “those dreadful legs. I don’t -mind getting bitten, or stung, but I can’t stand legs.” - -Newts are very interesting animals, though they have legs, and can easily -be kept in a tank if fed properly. Little red worms seem to be their -favourite food, and the newt eats them in a rather peculiar style. I have -had numbers of newts of all sizes and in all stages of their growth, and -always found them eat the worm in the same way. As the worm sank through -the water, the newt would swim to it, and by a sudden snap seize it in -the middle. For nearly a minute it would remain with the worm in its -mouth, one end protruding from each side of its jaws. Another snap would -then be given, and after an interval a third, which generally disposed of -the worm. - -When they have been swimming freely in a large pond, I have often seen -large newts attack the smaller, and try to eat them; but I never saw the -attempt successful, though I hear that they have been seen to devour the -younger individuals. They always came from behind, as if trying to avoid -observation, and then made a sudden dart forward, snapping at the tail -of their intended victim. In confinement I never saw even an attempt at -cannibalism. - -Whether it is invariably the case I cannot say, but every newt that I -took cast its skin within a few hours from the time that it was placed in -the glass jar. The general surface of the skin came off in flakes, but -that from the paws was drawn off like gloves, retaining on their surface -all the markings and creases which they exhibited when in their proper -place. - -How the drawing off of their tiny gloves was effected I could not see, -though I watched carefully. They looked beautiful as they floated in the -water, being delicate as gossamer, white, and almost transparent. They -might have been made for Queen Mab herself, and were so delicate that I -never could preserve any of them so as to give a proper idea of their -form. - -It may be that the change of water might cause the change of skin, for -the water in which they were kept was drawn from a pump, and that in -which they formerly lived was the ordinary soft water found in ponds. - -Pretty as is the newt, it is as harmless as pretty, and notwithstanding -has suffered under the reputation of being a venomous creature. The -absurd tales that I have heard of this creature could scarcely be -believed; and how people with any share of sense could receive such -absurdities is matter of wonder. And as usual, the moral of the stories -is, that newts are to be killed wherever found. The belief of the -poisonous character of the newt is of long standing, as may be seen in -the ancient works on natural history. In one of these it is said that -its poison is like that of vipers; and there is a description of the -formation of its tail which is rather beyond my comprehension:-- - -“The tail standeth out betwixt the hinder-legs in the middle, like the -figure of a wheel-whisk, or rather so contracted as if many of them were -conjoined together, and the void or empty places in the conjunctions were -filled”. - -The capture and domesticating of newts gave dire offence in the village -where I lived for some time; and the expressions used when I took a newt -in my hands were not unlike those of the Parisians respecting the toad. -Sundry ill-omened tales of effets were told me. For example: A girl of -the village was filling her pitcher at a stream which runs near the -village, when an effet jumped out of the water, sprang on her arm, bit -out a piece of flesh, spat fire into the wound, and, leaping into the -water, escaped. The girl’s arm instantly swelled to the shoulder, and the -doctor was obliged to cut it off. - -This was told me with an immensity of circumstantial details common to -such narrators, and was corroborated by the bystanders. The wounded lady -herself was not to be found, and cross-questions elicited that it “weir -afoor their time”. I asked them how the effet which lived in the water, -and had just leaped out of it, was able to keep a fire alight in its -interior; but they were not in the least shaken, except perhaps in their -heads, which were wagged with a Lord Burleigh kind of emphasis. - -Then there was the sexton-clerk-gardener-musician and general factotum, -who had a newt tale of his own to tell. He had been cutting grass in the -churchyard, and an effet ran at him, and bit him on the thumb. He chopped -off the effet’s head with his knife, but his thumb was very bad for a -week. - -Once they got the better of the argument, at all events in the eyes -of the owner of the farming stock, and my poor newts were ejected. It -happened thus:-- - -Two or three specimens I kept in my own room in a glass vase, in order to -watch them more closely; and some six or seven others lived as stock in -the large horse-trough, from whence they could be taken when required. - -One day the proprietor came to me and ordered the destruction of my -newts, for they had killed one of his calves. - -“But,” I remonstrated, “they cannot kill a calf or even a mouse, for they -have no fangs and very little mouths. Besides, the calf has not come near -this trough.” - -So saying, I took up several of the newts, opened their mouths--no easy -matter, by the way--and showed that they had no fangs. And I urged, that -even if they had been as poisonous as rattlesnakes, it would not have -made any difference to the calf, which had never left the cowhouse, and -was at the opposite end of the farm-yard, separated by a barn and several -gates. But all was useless. - -“There are the newts, and there is the dead calf!” was the answer; and so -the newts had to go. However, I would not suffer them to be killed, but -put them into a bag and took them back to the pond whence they had come. - -Afterwards the proprietor said that the calf died because its mother had -drunk at the trough in which the poisonous newts were. - -Now, the funniest part of the story is, that there was not a horse-pond -that did not swarm with efts, and consequently all the foals and calves -ought to have died. Only they didn’t. - -The care which the female newt takes in depositing her eggs is very -remarkable. - -[Illustration: THE FEMALE NEWT.] - -Each egg is taken separately, and by the aid of the fore-paws is -regularly tied or twisted up in the leaves of dead plants, for which -process different people have different reasons. Some think that it is -for the purpose of preventing too ready an access of water, and so to -retard their hatching; while some say that it is to guard the egg against -voracious water-animals. To the latter opinion I rather incline; perhaps -both may be right. - -When hatched, the young newt is very like a tadpole, breathing by gills -outside its neck. After a while the gills vanish and the legs appear; but -it keeps its tail. It is rather curious that the frog tadpole puts forth -its hinder-legs first; while in the tadpole of the newt, the fore-legs -are the first to show themselves. - -After the gills are lost, the newt breathes by means of lungs; and if -it is in the water, is forced to rise at intervals for the purpose of -breathing. - -The tenacity with which these creatures cling to life is quite -surprising. Experiments have been tried purposely to see to what degree -a body could be mutilated, and yet retain life. They have even been -frozen up into a solid block of ice, and, after the thawing of their -cold prison, revived, and seemed none the worse for it. I may as well -mention that none of these experiments were tried by myself, for I am not -scientific enough to care nothing for the infliction of pain; but on one -occasion I did try an experiment, and, as it turned out, a very cruel -one, although it was not intended for an experiment. - -I was studying the anatomy of the frogs and newts; and having eight or -ten fine specimens of the latter creature, determined to take advantage -of the opportunity. The first thing was, of course, to kill the creature -without injuring its structure, and I thought that the best mode of so -doing would be to put it into my poison-bottle. This was a large glass -jar filled with spirits of wine, in which was held corrosive sublimate -in solution. This mixture generally killed the larger insects almost -immediately, and seemed just the thing for the newts. - -So they were put into the jar--but then there was a scene which I will -not describe, which I trust never to see again, and of which I do not -even like to think. Suffice it to say, that nearly a quarter of an hour -elapsed before these miserable creatures died, though in sheer mercy I -kept them pressed below the surface. - -Changing our post of observation from the banks of the ponds to those -of the running streams, we shall find there many creatures worthy of -observation; so many, indeed, that it would be a hopeless task to -attempt to give even a slight account of one-fiftieth of them. I shall, -therefore, only mention two creatures, as examples of the fish; and these -two are chosen because they are exceedingly common, and very different -from each other in colour and habits. - -The first of these creatures is the common Stickleback, or Tittlebat, -as it is sometimes called. There are several species of British -sticklebacks; but the commonest, and I think the most beautiful, is the -three-spined stickleback. - -These little fish derive their name from the sharp spines with which they -are armed, and which they can raise or depress at pleasure--as I know to -my cost. For being, as boys often are, rather silly, I made a wager that -I would swallow a minnow alive; and having made the bet, proceeded to -win it. Unfortunately, instead of a minnow, a stickleback was handed to -me, which having its spines pressed close to the body, was very like a -minnow. Just as I swallowed it, the creature stuck up all its spines, and -fixed itself firmly. - -[Illustration: THE STICKLEBACK.] - -Neither way would it go, and the torture was horrid. At last, a great -piece of apple that I swallowed gave it an impetus that started it from -its position; but it was not for some time, that to me appeared hours, -that the fish was disposed of. And even then it left its traces; and if -it would be any satisfaction to the fish to know that ample vengeance was -taken for its death, it must have been thoroughly gratified. - -There are few fish more favoured in point of decoration than the -stickleback; although the decoration, like that of soldiers, is only -given to the gentlemen, and of them only to the victors in fight. - -They are most irritable and pugnacious creatures, that is, in the early -spring months, when the great business of the nursery is in progress. And -the word nursery is used advisedly; for the stickleback does not leave -her eggs to the mercy of the waters, but establishes a domicile, over -which her husband keeps guard. - -The vigilance of this little sentry is wonderful; and I have often seen -fierce fights taking place. Not a fish passes within a certain distance -of the forbidden spot, but out darts the stickleback like an arrow, all -his spines at their full stretch, and his body glowing with green and -scarlet. So furious is the fish at this time that I have sometimes amused -myself by making him fight a walking-stick. - -If the stick were placed in the water at the distance of a yard or so, -no notice was taken. But as the stick was drawn through the water, the -watchful sentinel issued from his place of concealment, and when the -intruding stick came within the charmed circle, the stickleback shot at -it with such violence that he quite jarred the stick. - -His nose must have suffered terribly. If the stick were moved, another -attack would take place, and this would be continued as long as I liked. - -Sometimes a rival male comes by, with all _his_ swords drawn ready for -battle, and his colours of red and green flying. Then there is a fight -that would require the pen of Homer to describe. These valiant warriors -dart at each other; they bite, they manœuvre, they strike with their -spines, and sometimes a well-aimed cut will rip up the body of the -adversary, and send him to the bottom, dead. - -When one of the combatants prefers ignominious flight to a glorious -death, he is pursued by the victor with relentless fury, and may think -himself fortunate if he escapes. - -Then comes a curious result. The conqueror assumes brighter colours and -a more insolent demeanour; his green is tinged with gold, his scarlet is -of a triple dye, and he charges more furiously than ever at intruders, or -those whom he is pleased to consider as such. But the vanquished warrior -is disgraced; he retires humbly to some obscure retreat; he loses his -red, and green, and gold uniform, and becomes a plain civilian in drab. - -Sometimes I have brought on a battle royal between the guardians of -several palaces, by dropping in the midst of them a temptation which they -could not resist. This was generally a fine fat grub taken from a caddis -case. The caddis is large and white, and so can be seen to a considerable -distance. - -As this sank in the water, there would be a general rush at it, and the -ensuing contention was amusing in the extreme. First, one would catch it -in his mouth and shoot off; half-a-dozen others would unite in chase, -overtake the too fortunate one, seize the grub from all sides, and tug -desperately, their tails flying, their fins at work, and the whole mass -revolving like a wheel, the centre of which was the caddis worm. - -It would be swallowed almost immediately, but the mouth of the -stickleback is much too small to admit an entire caddis, and the skin of -the grub is too tough to be easily pierced or torn. Half-an-hour often -elapses before the great question is settled, and the caddis eaten. - -The rapidity of the evolutions and the fierceness of the struggle must -be seen to be appreciated--and it is a spectacle easily to be witnessed; -wherever there are sticklebacks, caddis worms are nearly certainly found, -and it only needs to extract one of these from its case and deposit it -judiciously in the water. - -The stickleback is a hardy little fish, and can easily be kept in the -aquarium, if plenty of room be given to it. It has even been trained to -live in seawater, by adding bay-salt to the water in which it dwelt; -so that the plan of pickling salmon alive, by a judicious admixture of -vinegar and allspice with the water, has something to which to appeal as -collateral evidence. - -The other representative of the fishes is a very curious one, and can -be easily observed. It is called the “Lampern,” and is shown in the -accompanying figure. - -[Illustration: THE LAMPERN.] - -In some parts of England the lampern goes by the name of “Seven-eyes,” in -allusion to the row of eye-like holes that may be seen extending along -the side of the throat. These apertures are the openings by which the -water passes from the gills. - -The chief external peculiarity in this creature is the mouth, which, -instead of being formed with jaws like those of other fishes, resembles -none of them, not even those of the eel, which it most resembles -externally. Indeed, on looking at the mouth of a lampern, one is forcibly -reminded of the leech, for it is possessed of no jaws, and adheres firmly -to the skin by exhaustion of the air. - -Very delicate food are these lamperns, quite as good as the lampreys -themselves, whose excellence is reported to have cost England one of her -kings; yet I never knew but one person who would eat them, and very few -who would even touch them, they also being called poisonous. - -In Germany they know better, and not only eat the lamperns themselves, -but, packing them up in company with vinegar, bay leaves, and spices, -export them as an article of sale. - -The solitary sensible individual of whom I have made mention was truly -a wise man. He used to offer the young urchins of the neighbourhood a -reward for bringing lamperns, at the rate of a halfpenny per wisketful. - -A wisket, I may observe, is a kind of shallow basket, made of very broad -strips of willow; and a wisket filled with lamperns would be a tolerable -load for a boy. - -So, for the sum of one halfpenny, that philosopher was furnished with -provisions for a day or more. - -Really, the prejudice against the lampern is most singular. Even near -London, when lamperns lived in vast numbers in the Thames, they were only -used as bait, being sold for that purpose to the Dutch fishermen. In one -season, four hundred thousand of these creatures have been sold merely -for bait for cod-fish and turbot. - -The scientific name for the lampreys is “_Petromyzon_,” a word signifying -“stone-sucker”. The name is rightly applied; for when the lampern wishes -to remain still in one place, it applies its mouth to a stone, sticks -tightly to it by suction, and there remains firmly at anchor, and defying -the power of the stream. In favourable spots, thousands of these fish may -be seen together, quite blackening the bottom of the stream with their -numbers. They seem specially to affect shallow mountain streams; and, -in spite of the rapid current, wriggle their devious way up the stream -with great rapidity. When they are not quite pleased with the spot on -which they settle down for the time, they scoop it out to their minds in -a very short time. This task is accomplished by means of the sucker-like -mouth. If a stone is placed in a position that incommodes them, they -affix their mouths to it, and drag it away down the stream. In this way -they will remove stones which are apparently beyond the power of so small -a creature. By perseverance they thus scoop out small hollows, about -eighteen inches long and a foot wide, in which they lie in groups so -thick that I have more than once mistaken them for dark logs lying in the -stream, and was only undeceived by the waving of the multitudinous tails. -Year after year the lamperns followed the same course, and chose the same -positions, so that we could at any time tell where these creatures would -be found by the thousand, where they would be found singly, and where -none would be seen at all. - -The general thickness of this creature is that of a large pencil, but -it varies according to the individual. The length is from one foot to -fifteen inches or so. - -There is a much smaller species of lampern called the Pride, Sand-pride, -or Mud Lamprey, which is not more than half the length of the lampern, -and only about the thickness of an ordinary quill. This creature has -not the power of affixing itself like the lampern, on account of the -construction of its mouth. - -Having now taken a hasty glance at the vertebrated animals, we pass -to those who have no bones at all, and whose skeleton, so to speak, -is carried outside. Our representation of aquatic crustacea, as such -creatures are called, will be the Cray-fish and the Water-Shrimp. - -[Illustration: THE CRAY-FISH.] - -Every one knows the Cray-fish, because it is so like a lobster, turning -red when boiled in the same way. This red colour is brought out by heat -even if applied by placing the shell before a fire, and spirits of wine -has the same effect. The last fact I learned from experience, and was -very sorry that it _was_ a fact, for the red shell quite spoiled the -appearance of a dissected cray-fish that was wanted to look nice in a -museum. - -Being very delicate food, and, in my opinion, much better than the native -lobster, they are much sought after at the proper season, and are sold -generally at the rate of half-a-crown for one hundred and twenty. - -There are many modes of catching them, which may be practised -indifferently. There are the “wheels,” for example, being wicker baskets -made on the wire mouse-trap principle, which the cray-fish enters and -cannot get out again. Also, there is a mode of fishing for them with -circular nets baited with a piece of meat. A number of these nets are -laid at intervals along the river bank, and after a while are suddenly -pulled out of the water, bringing with them the cray-fish that were -devouring the meat. - -But the most interesting and exciting mode of cray-fish catching is by -getting into the water, and pulling them out of their holes. - -Cray-fish take to themselves certain nooks and crannies, formed by the -roots of willows or other trees that grow on the bank; and they not -unfrequently take possession of holes which have been scooped by the -water-rat. The hand is thrust into every crevice that can be detected, -and if there is a cray-fish, its presence is made known by the sharp -thorny points of the head,--for the cray-fish always lies in the hole -with its head towards the entrance. - -The business is, then, to draw the creature out of its stronghold without -being bitten--a matter of no small difficulty. If the hole is small, and -the cray-fish large, I always used to draw it forward by the antennæ or -horns, and then seize it across the back, so that its claws were useless. - -The power of the claws is extraordinary, considering the size of the -creature that bears them. They will often pinch so hard as to bring -blood; and when they have once secured a firm hold, they do not easily -become loosened. Still, the risk of a bite constitutes one of the chief -charms of the chase. - -The legitimate mode of disposing of the cray-fish, when taken, is to put -them into the hat, and the hat on the head; but they stick their claws -into the head so continually, and pull the hair so hard, that only people -of tough skin can endure them. - -Sometimes, when the bed of the river is stony, the cray-fish live among -and under the stones, and then they are difficult of capture; for with -one flap of their tail they can shoot through the water to a great -distance, and quite out of reach. - -It is not unfrequent to find a cray-fish with one large claw and the -other very small. The same circumstance may be noted in lobsters. The -reason of this peculiarity is, that the claw has been injured, generally -in single combat; for the cray-fish are terrible fighters, and the -mutilated limb has been cast off. Most wonderfully is this managed. - -The blood-vessels of the crustaceans are necessarily so formed, that if -wounded, they cannot easily heal; and if there were no provision against -accidents, the creature might soon bleed to death. - -But when a limb, say one of the claws, is wounded the limb is thrown -off--not at the injured spot, but at the joint immediately above. The -space exposed at the joints is very small in comparison with that of an -entire claw; and as the amputation takes place at a spot where there is a -soft membrane, it speedily closes. In process of time, a new limb begins -to sprout, and takes the place of the member that had been thrown off. - -The eyes of the cray-fish are set on footstalks, so as to be turned in -any direction, and they can also be partially drawn back, if threatened -by danger. If the eye is examined through a magnifying glass of tolerable -power, it will be seen that it is not a single eye, but a compound organ, -containing a great number of separate eyes, arranged in a wonderful -order. As, however, a description of an insect’s eye will be given at a -succeeding page, we at present pass over this organ. - -At the proper season of the year, the female cray-fish may be seen laden -with a large mass of eggs, which she carries about with her, and by the -movement of the false legs that are arranged in double rows on the under -surface of the tail, keeps them supplied with fresh streams of water. -In process of time, the eggs are hatched; but very few, in comparison, -reach maturity. Even the mother herself is apt to eat her own young, when -they have set themselves free from her control. I have known this to take -place when we were trying to breed cray-fish in a tank. Only one attained -to any size, and even that was not so large as a house-fly when we took -it from the water. - -[Illustration: FRESH-WATER SHRIMP.] - -[Illustration: TADPOLES AND YOUNG FROG.] - -The fresh-water Shrimp may generally be found in plenty in any running -stream. Its appearance and habits very much resemble the Sandhopper, a -little creature that every one must have seen who has walked on a sandy -sea-shore. Like the cray-fish, this little creature carries its eggs -about until they are hatched. It is a carnivorous animal, and is one of -the numerous scavengers of the water, without whose help every stream -would soon become putrid and loathsome. - -[Illustration: WOODLOUSE, ARMADILLO, AND PILL MILLEPEDE.] - -Certain species of crustacea inhabit the land; two of which are well -known under the titles of Woodlouse and Armadillo. They belong to the -class of crustaceans called “_Isopod_,” or equal-footed, because the -legs are all of the same nature; whereas, in the other crustacean, some -legs are used for walking, and others are turned into claws, &c. The -woodlouse is to be found in myriads under the scaly bark of trees, under -stones, and, in fact, in almost every crevice. It feeds mostly on decayed -vegetable matters, but also eats animal substances, and vegetables that -are not decayed. Some gardeners hold the woodlouse in great horror, and -say that nothing is so hard or so bitter that a woodlouse will not eat -it. If the bark is removed from an ancient willow tree, any number of -these creatures may be discovered, in every stage of existence, scuttling -about in great fear at the unwelcome light, and sticking close to the -wood in hopes that they may not be seen. Dried coats of the woodlouse -may be also seen, empty and bleached to an ivory whiteness. They are -night-feeders; and, although they can run fast enough if disturbed, walk -very deliberately when only employed in feeding. - -The Armadillo-woodlouse is very curious, and easily recognised from its -habit of rolling itself into a round ball when alarmed, just like the -quadruped armadillo. Its habits are much the same as those of the common -woodlouse. Formerly the armadillo was used in medicine, being swallowed -as a pill in its rolled-up state. I have seen a drawer half full of these -creatures, all dry and rolled up, ready to be swallowed. - -On the preceding cut are two armadillo-like animals, much resembling each -other, but belonging to different orders. Fig. _a_ is the Woodlouse; _b_, -the Pill Millepede, walking; _c_, the same rolled up; _d_ is the true -Armadillo, walking; and _e_, the same creature rolled up. - -One of the minute crustaceans, the common Cyclops, is shown on plate J, -fig. 14. Its length is about the fourteenth of an inch; and though it is -so small, the female Cyclops may easily be detected in the water by the -curious egg-sacs. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - - A SHORT ESSAY ON LEGS--TAKING A WALK--BRITISH FAKIRS--INSECT - LIFE--DEVELOPMENT--THE TIGER MOTH--GROWTH OF THE - CATERPILLAR--HOW TO DISSECT INSECTS--PLAN OF CATERPILLAR - ANATOMY--SILK ORGANS--ORGANS OF RESPIRATION--SPIRACLES AND - THEIR USE--WONDERS OF NATURE--THE CHRYSALIS--SCIENTIFIC - LANGUAGE. - - -As, in common with many other animals, mankind are furnished with legs, -and the power to move them, it is universally acknowledged that those -limbs ought to be put to their proper use. But while men agree respecting -the importance of the members alluded to, they differ greatly in the mode -of employing them. - -To the tailor, for example, legs are chiefly valuable as cushions, -whereon to lay his cloth. For the jockey, the same members form a -bifurcated or pronged apparatus, by the help of which he sticks on a -horse. The legs of the acrobat are mostly employed to show the extent of -ill-treatment to which the hip-joint can be subjected without suffering -permanent dislocation. The dancer values his leg solely on account of the -“light fantastic toe” which it carries at its extremity. The turner sees -that two legs are absolutely necessary to mankind--_i.e._, one to stand -upon, and the other to make a wheel run round. The surgeon views legs--on -other people--as objects affording facilities for amputation. The boxer -professionally regards his legs as “pins,” upon which the striking -apparatus is kept off the ground. The soldier’s opinion of his legs is -modified according to the temperament of the individual, and the position -of the enemy. Some people employ their legs in continually mounting the -same stairs, and never getting any higher; while others use those limbs -in continually pacing the same path and never going any farther. - -And of all these modes of employing the legs, the last, which is called -“taking a walk,” is the dreariest and least excusable. - -For, in the preceding cases, the owners of the legs gain their living, -or at all events their life, by such employment of those members; and -in the case of the interminable stairs, the individual is not acting by -his own free will. But it does seem wonderful that a being possessed of -intellectual powers should fancy himself to be the possessor of a right -leg and a left one, merely that the right should mechanically pass the -left so many thousand times daily and in its turn be passed by the left; -while the sentient being above was occupied in exactly the same manner as -if both legs were at rest, snugly tucked under a table. - -Sad to relate, such is the general method of taking recreation. - -A man who has been over-tasking his brain all the early part of the day, -rises corporeally from his work at a certain time, places his hat above -his brain, buttons his coat underneath it, and sallies forth to take a -walk. - -Whatever subject he may be working upon he takes with him, and on -that subject he concentrates his attention. Supposing him to be a -mathematician, and that the prevalent idea in his mind is to prove that △ -A B C = (∠ D E F + ∠ G H I). He takes one final look at his Euclid while -drawing on his gloves, and sets off with A B C before his eyes. - -As he walks along, he sees nothing but A B C, hears nothing but D E F, -feels nothing but G H I, and thinks of nothing but the connection of all -three. - -An hour has passed away and he re-enters his room without any very -definite recollection of the manner in which he got there. He has -mechanically paced to a certain point, mechanically stopped and turned -round, mechanically retraced his steps, and mechanically come back again. - -He has not the least recollection of anything that happened during his -walk; he don’t know whether the sky was blue or cloudy, whether there -was any wind, nor would he venture to say decidedly whether it was -night or day. He _does_ recollect seeing a tree on a hill and a spire -in a valley, because, together with himself, they formed an angle that -illustrated the proportions of the triangle A B C; but whether the tree -had leaves or not he could not tell. But he is happy in the consciousness -of having performed his duty;--he has taken a walk, he has been for a -“constitutional”. - -O deluded and misguided individual! The walking powers are meant to carry -yourself--not only your corporeal body--into other scenes, to give a -fresh current to your thoughts, and to give your brain an airing as well -as your nose. The mind requires variety in its food, as does the body; -and to obtain that change of nutriment is the proper object of taking a -walk. - -That a rational being can condemn himself to walk three miles along a -turnpike road, and three miles back again, at one uniform pace, his eyes -directed straight ahead, and his thoughts at home with his books, seems -incredible to ordinary personages. - -Yet, such British fakirs may be seen daily in all weathers, on the roads -leading from university towns, going at the rate of four miles per hour, -their hats tilted towards the back of their heads, their bodies inclining -forward at an angle of eighty degrees, their lips muttering polysyllabic -language, and their eyes as beaming as those of a boiled cod-fish. - -Now the real use of taking a walk is to get away from one’s self, and to -change the current of the thoughts for a while, by changing the locality -of the individual. - -In order so to do, he should cast his senses abroad instead of -concentrating them all within himself; and from sky, air, water, and -earth draw a new succession of images wherewith to relieve the monotony -within. There are various modes of attaining this object; and each man -will follow that mode which most accords with his own character. - -For example, if he is an astronomer, he will look to the heavenly -bodies; if a geologist, his eyes will be directed to the earth; if a -botanist, his mind seeks employment among the vegetable productions; if -a meteorologist, the wind’s temperature and atmospheric phenomena will -claim his attention; if an entomologist, he will find recreation in -watching the phases of insect life, and so on. - -It is evident enough that to treat of all these subjects would render -necessary a volume that numbered its pages by thousands, and its volumes -by at least tens; and therefore, in a work of this nature, it must be -sufficient to lay particular stress on one portion, to treat slightly of -others, and to leave many entirely untouched. And that portion on which -I shall lay the chief stress is that which is brought more constantly -before the eye and ear than any other, namely, the entomological -department. - -As, when approaching cities, the “busy hum of men” is the first -indication that meets the ear, so in the country the busy hum of insects -is, next to the song of the birds, the sound that gives strongest -evidence of a life untrammelled by the artificial rules of society. - -Not only do insects make their presence known to the ear, but they also -address themselves to the eye. Their forms may be seen flitting through -the air, running upon the ground, or making their abode on the various -examples of vegetable life. Comparatively small as insects are, they are -of vast importance collectively; and there is hardly a leaf of a tree, a -blade of grass, or a square inch of ground, where we may not trace the -work of some insect. Nearly all strange and curious objects that are -noticed by observant eyes in the woods or fields are caused by the action -of insects, and are often the insects themselves, in one or other of the -phases of their varied life. Certain examples of insect life, and its -effects, will now be given. No particular order will be observed, no long -scientific terms will be used, and every creature that is mentioned will -be so common that it may be found almost in every field. - -The first creature that we will notice is that caterpillar which is so -abundantly found at several seasons of the spring and summer, and, from -the long hairy skin in which it is enveloped, goes by the popular name -of the “Woolly Bear!” A figure of this creature may be seen in plate B, -fig. 5 _a_. This creature is the larva of the common Tiger-moth, which is -represented on the same plate, fig. 5. - -It will be necessary to pause here a little, before proceeding to the -description and histories of the various insects, because in the course -of description certain terms must be used, which must be explained in -order to make the description intelligible. - -In the first place, let it be laid down as a definite rule, that - - INSECTS NEVER GROW. - -Many people fancy that a little fly is only little because it is -young, and that it will grow up in process of time to be as big as a -blue-bottle. Now this idea is entirely wrong; for when an insect has once -attained to its winged state, it grows no more. All the growing, and most -part of the eating, is done in its previous states of life; and, indeed, -there are many insects, such as the silkworm-moth, which do not eat at -all from the time that they assume the chrysalis state to the time when -they die. - -It is a universal rule in nature, that nothing comes to its perfection -at once, but has to pass through a series of changes, which if carefully -examined can mostly be reduced to three in number. Sometimes these -changes glide imperceptibly into each other, but mostly each stage of -progress is marked clearly and distinctly. Such is the case with the -insect of which we are now considering; and when we have examined the -development of the Tiger-moth through its phases of existence, we have -the key to the remainder of the insects. - -After an insect has left the egg, and entered upon the world as an -individual being, it has to pass through three stages, which are called -larva, pupa, and imago. - -The word “larva,” in Latin, signifies “a mask,” and this word is used -because the insect is at that time “masked,” so to speak, under a -covering quite different from that which it will finally assume. In the -present instance, the Tiger-moth is so effectually masked under the -Woolly Bear, that no one who was ignorant of the fact would imagine two -creatures so dissimilar to have any connection with each other. - -Throughout this work the word “larva” will be always understood to -signify the first of the three states of insect life, whether it be a -“caterpillar,” a “grub,” or a “worm”. - -In its next stage the insect becomes a “pupa,” which word means a -“mummy,” or a body wrapped in swaddling clothes. This name is employed -because in very many insects the pupa is quite still, is shut up without -the power of escape, and looks altogether much like a mummy, wrapped -round in folds of cloth. In the moths and butterflies the insect in -this stage is called a “chrysalis,” or “aurelia,” both words having the -same import, the first Greek and the other Latin, both derived from a -word meaning “gold”. Several butterflies--that of the common cabbage -butterfly, for example--take a beautiful golden tinge on their pupal -garments, and from these individual instances the golden title has been -universally bestowed. - -The last, and perfected state, is called the “imago,” or image, because -now each individual is an image and representative of the entire species. - -The Woolly Bear, then, is the larva of the Tiger-moth; and if any -inquiring reader would like to keep the creature, and watch it through -its stages, he will find it an interesting occupation. There is less -difficulty than with most insects, for the creature is very hardy, and -the plant on which it mostly feeds is exceedingly common. - -Generally, the Woolly Bear is found feeding on the common blind nettle, -but it may often be detected at some distance from its food, getting over -the ground at a great rate, and reminding the spectator of the porcupine. -In this case it is usually seeking for a retired spot, whither it resorts -for the purpose of passing the helpless period of pupa-hood. - -If it is captured on such an occasion, there will be little trouble in -feeding, as it will generally refuse food altogether, and, betaking -itself to a quiet corner, prepare for its next stage of existence. - -If taken at an earlier period of its life, it feeds greedily on the -nettle above-mentioned, and the amount of nutriment which one caterpillar -will consume is perfectly astounding. I once had nearly four hundred -of them all alive at the same time, and they used to be furnished with -nettles by the armful. Of course so large a number is not necessary for -ordinary purposes; but this regiment was required for the purpose of -watching the development and anatomy of the creature through its entire -life. - -As the skins of caterpillars are not capable of growth, and the creature -itself grows with singular rapidity, it is evident that the skins -themselves must be changed, as is the case with many other animals of a -higher class, such as the snakes, newts, &c. - -For this purpose the skin of the caterpillar splits along the back of the -neck, and by degrees the creature emerges, soft, moist, and helpless. A -very short time suffices for the hardening of the new envelope; and as -the caterpillar has been obliged to fast for a day or two, previously to -changing the skin, it sets to work to make up for lost time, and does -make up effectually. - -In the case of the Woolly Bear, and several others, the cast skin retains -nearly the same shape and appearance as when it formed the living -envelope of the caterpillar; and, consequently, if any number of these -insects are kept, the interior of their habitation soon becomes peopled -with these imitation caterpillars. Each individual changes its skin some -ten or eleven times, each time leaving behind it a model of its former -self, so that caterpillars seem to multiply almost miraculously. - -Although even the exterior appearance of an insect is very wonderful, -yet its interior anatomy is, if possible, even more wonderful, and, if -possible, should be examined. The mode of doing so is simple and easy. -If the Woolly Bear, for example, is to be dissected, the easiest mode of -doing so is as follows:-- - -Get a shallow vessel, glass if possible, about an inch or so in depth; -load a flat piece of cork with lead, put it at the bottom of the vessel, -and fill it nearly to the top with water. Now take the caterpillar, which -may be killed by a momentary immersion in boiling water, or by being -placed in spirits of wine, and with a few minikin pins fasten it on its -back on the cork. The pins of course must only just run through the skin, -and two will be sufficient at first, one at each end. - -Now take a pair of fine scissors, and carefully slit up the skin the -entire length of the creature, draw the skin aside right and left, and -pin it down to the cork. - -The creature will now exhibit portions of organs of different shapes and -characters, the remainder being concealed under the mass of fat that is -collected in the interior. This fat must be carefully removed in order -to show the vital organs; and this object is best attained by using a -fine needle stuck into a handle. I generally use a common crochet-needle -handle, so that needles of various sizes can be used at pleasure. - -Now will appear a number of organs closely packed together, and mostly -stretching along the entire length of the creature. In order to assist -the inquirer, I here present a plan or chart of the interior of the -caterpillar when thus opened. It must be understood that the drawing is -not meant to represent the particular anatomy of any one species, but -to give a general view, by means of which the anatomical details of any -caterpillar may be recognised. And in order to give greater distinctness, -only one of each organ is seen, though with the exception of the -intestinal canal, there is a double set of each organ, one on each side. - -Running in a straight line from head to tail is seen the digestive -apparatus, consisting of throat, stomach, and intestines, with their -modifications; and this apparatus is marked A A in the cut. - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF CATERPILLAR.] - -On the surface of the digestive apparatus, and straight along its centre, -lies the nervous system, represented by tiny white threads dotted at -regular distances by rather larger spots of the same substance. If the -nerve is examined closely, it will be seen to be composed of _two_ very -slender threads, lying closely against each other, but easily separable: -in which state they are shown. And the little knobs are called -“ganglia,” each forming a nervous centre, from which smaller nerves -radiate to the different portions of the body. - -As for brains, the caterpillar dispenses with them almost entirely; and -instead of wearing one large brain in the head, is furnished with a row -of lesser brains, or ganglia, extending through its whole length. This is -the reason why caterpillars are so tenacious of life. If a man loses his -head, he dies immediately; but an insect is not nearly so fastidious, and -continues to live for a long time without any head at all. Indeed, there -are some insects, which, if beheaded, die, not so much on account of the -head, but of the stomach: for, having then no mouth, they cannot eat, and -so die of hunger. And some insects there are which positively live longer -if decapitated than if left in possession of their head. - -On the right hand may be seen a curiously twisted organ, marked C, -swelling to a considerable size in the middle, and diminishing to a mere -thread at each end. This is one of the vessels that contain the silk, or -rather the substance which becomes silk when it is spun. - -If this organ be cut open in the middle, it will be seen filled with a -gummy substance of curious texture, partly brittle and partly tough. -From this substance silk is spun, by passing up the tube, through -the thread-like portion, and so at last into a tiny tube, called the -spinneret, which opens from the mouth, and wherefrom it issues in a fine -thread. - -There are two of these silk-making organs, and both unite in the -spinneret. Consequently, if silk is examined in the microscope, the -double thread can clearly be made out, both threads adhering to each -other, but still distinguishable. If the threads lie parallel to each -other, the silk is good; if not so, it is of an inferior quality, and -liable to snap. - -Most caterpillars possess this silk-factory, but some have it much more -largely developed than others--the silk-worm, for instance. It is of -considerable size in the larva which we are examining, because the Woolly -Bear has to spin for itself a silken hammock in which to swing while it -is in the sleep of its pupal state. Just before it begins to spin, the -organ is of very large size, and distended with the liquid silk; but -after the hammock is completed, the organ diminishes to a mere thread, -and is soon altogether absorbed. - -At the left hand of the drawing may be seen a curious structure, marked -B B. This is the chief portion of the respiratory system, and may be at -once recognised by the ringed structure of the tube. Indeed it is quite -analogous to that of the windpipe in animals. - -The mode in which insects breathe differs much from that of the higher -animals. In them the breathing apparatus is gathered into one mass, -called lungs or gills, as the case may be; but with insects, the -respiratory system runs entirely over, round, and through the body, even -to the tips of the claws, and the end of the feelers or antennæ. - -Every internal organ is also surrounded and enveloped by the breathing -tubes; and this often to such an extent, that the dissector is sadly -perplexed how to remove the tracheal tubes, as they are called, without -injuring the organs to which they so tightly cling. Sometimes they are so -strongly bound together, that they may be removed like a net, but mostly -each must be taken away separately. The mode in which these tracheal -tubes supply the digestive apparatus may be seen at _b b_; and as there -is a double set of them, it may be seen how closely they envelop the -organ to which they direct their course. - -The ringed structure runs throughout the entire course of the air tubes, -and is caused by a thread running spirally between the two membranes of -which the tube is composed. The object of this curious thread is to keep -the tube always distended, and ready for the passage of air. Otherwise, -whenever the insect bends its flexible body, it would cut off the supply -of air in every tube which partook of the flexure of the body. - -The structure is precisely similar to that of a spiral wire bell-spring; -and so strong is the thread, that I have succeeded in unwinding nearly -two inches of it from the trachea of a humble bee. - -The air obtains entrance into these tubes, not through the mouth or -nostrils, but through a set of oval apertures arranged along the sides of -the insect, which apertures are called “spiracles”; and two of them are -indicated at _b* b*_. - -In order to prevent dust, water, or anything but air, from entering, -the spiracles are defended by an elaborate _chevaux de frise_ of hair, -or rather quill, so disposed as to keep out every particle that could -injure. So powerful are these defences, that, even under the air-pump, I -was unable to force a single particle of mercury through them, though a -stick will be entirely permeated by the metal, so that if cut it starts -from every pore. I kept the creature in a vacuum for three days, then -plunged it under mercury, and let in the air. Even then no effect was -produced, except that the whole of the stomach and intestinal canal were -charged with mercury. - -But, though the spiracles are such excellent defences against obnoxious -substances, they are not capable of throwing off any substance that -may choke them. Consequently, nothing is easier than to kill an insect -humanely, if one only knows how; and few things more difficult, if one -does not know. - -For example, if ladies catch a wasp they proceed to immolate it by -snipping it in two with their scissors; a dreadfully cruel process, for -the poor creature has still some four or five brains left intact, and -lives for many hours. But if a feather is dipped in oil and swept across -the body of the creature, it collapses, turns on its back, and dies -straightway. For the oil has stopped up the spiracles, and so the supply -of air is cut off from every portion of the body at once. The same rule -holds good with all insects. - -There is yet one more organ to which I must draw attention, and that is -the curious bag-shaped object marked E. - -Just as the silk is contained in the vessel C, so the saliva is contained -in E, and is developed according to the character and habits of the -insect. Some insects require a large supply of that liquid, which is -used for various purposes, and others require comparatively little. The -caterpillar in which these receptacles may be found best developed is the -larva of the Goat-moth, which may be easily found within the substance of -decaying trees. Of the Goat-moth we may speak in a future page. - -If the reader will again refer to the engraving on p. 100, he will see -that between the tracheal tube and the digestive apparatus is a curiously -waved line, forming two loops in its upper portion, and running into -a confused entanglement below. This entanglement, however, is only -apparent, for in nature there is no entangling; all is perfect in order. - -This wavy line represents one of the numerous thread-like vessels that -surround this portion of the digestive apparatus, and are called the -biliary vessels, being, in fact, the insect’s liver. There is a large -mass of these biliary vessels, and they are found so closely entwined -among each other, and so encircled with the air tubes, that to separate -them is no easy matter. Their microscopic structure is curious, and will -repay a careful examination. - -In examining the creature for the first time, the dissector will be -tolerably sure to damage the organs and unfit it for preservation, and -therefore it is best to take such a course for granted, and to make the -best of it. - -Removing all these vital organs, he should then examine the wonderful and -most complicated muscular structure, by which the caterpillar is enabled -to lengthen, shorten, twist, and bend its body in almost any direction, -and that with such power that many caterpillars are enabled to stretch -themselves horizontally into the air, and there to keep themselves -motionless for hours together. - -Few people have any idea of the wonders that they will find inside even -so lowly a creature as a caterpillar--wonders, too, that only increase in -number and beauty the more closely they are examined. When the outer form -has been carefully made out, there yet remains the microscopical view, -and after that the chemical, in either of which lie hidden innumerable -treasures. - -A very forcible and unsophisticated opinion was once expressed to me, -after I had dissected and explained the anatomy of a silk-worm to an -elderly friend. He remained silent for some time, and then uttered -disconnected exclamations of astonishment. - -I asked him what had so much astonished him. - -“Why,” said he, “it’s that caterpillar. It is a new world to me. I always -thought that caterpillars were nothing but skin and squash.” - -Having now seen something of the exterior and interior of the -caterpillar, we will watch it as it prepares for its next state of -existence. - -Hitherto it has been tolerably active, and if alarmed while feeding, it -curls itself round like a hedgehog and falls to the ground, hoping to lie -concealed among the foliage, and guarded from the effects of the fall -by its hairy armour, which stands out on all sides, and secures it from -harm. But a time approaches wherein it will have no defence and no means -of escape, so it must find a means of lying quiet and concealed. This -object it achieves in the following manner. - -It leaves its food, and sets off on its travels to find a retired spot -where it may sling its hammock and sleep in peace. Having found a -convenient spot, it sets busily to work, and in a very short time spins -for itself a kind of silken net, much like a sailor’s hammock in shape, -and used in the same manner. It is not a very solid piece of work, -for the creature can be seen through the meshes; but it is more than -sufficiently strong to bear the weight of the inclosed insect, and to -guard it from small foes. - -On plate B, and fig. 5 _b_, the silken hammock is represented, the form -of the pupa inside being visible. It casts off its skin for the last -time, and instead of being a hirsute and active caterpillar, becomes a -smooth and quiescent chrysalis. In this state it abides for a time that -varies according to the time of year and the degree of temperature, and -at last bursts its earthly holdings, coming to the light of the sun a -perfect insect. - -When first the creature becomes a chrysalis, its colour is white, and its -surface is bathed in an oily kind of liquid, which soon hardens in the -air, and darkens in the light. - -On one occasion, I watched a Woolly Bear changing its skin, and, seizing -it immediately that the task was accomplished, put it into spirits of -wine, intending to keep it for observation. - -Next day, the spirit was found to have dissolved away the oily coating, -and all the limbs and wings of the future moth were standing boldly out. - -Before closing this chapter, I must just remark that the absence of -scientific terms throughout the work will be intentional, from a wish to -make the subject intelligible, instead of imposing. It would have been -easy enough to speak of the Woolly Bear as the larva of Arctia Caja; -to describe it as a chilognathiform larva, with a subcylindrical body, -and no thoracic shield: passing through an obtected metamorphosis, and -becoming a pomeridian lepidopterous imago; and to have proceeded in the -same style throughout. But as nearly every one who has taken a country -walk has seen Woolly Bears, and hardly any one knows what is meant by -“chilognathiform,” the subject is treated of for the benefit of the many, -even at the risk of incurring the contempt of the few. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - - THE PUSS-MOTH--CURIOUS CATERPILLAR--A STRONG FORTRESS--THE - BURNET-MOTH--OAK EGGER--HOW TO KILL INSECTS--TWOFOLD - LIFE--VICTIMS OF LOVE--ACUTE SENSES--THE STORY OF INSECT - LIFE--DRINKER MOTH--CATERPILLAR BOX--EMPEROR MOTH--TYPE OF THE - MOUSE-TRAP. - - -Just at the right hand of the Tiger-moth, on plate B, may be seen a -caterpillar of a very strange and eccentric form, and marked by the -number 4 _a_. This is the larva or caterpillar of the Puss-moth, and is -no less beautiful in colouring than fantastic in form. Its attitude, too, -when it is at rest, is quite as curious as its general appearance. - -While eating, it sits on the leaves and twigs much as any other -caterpillar; but when it ceases to feed, and reposes itself, it grasps -the twig firmly with the claspers with which the hinder portion of its -body is furnished, and raises the fore-part of its body half upright. In -this attitude it much resembles that of the Egyptian Sphinx, and from -this circumstance the moth itself is called a Sphinx. An old gardener was -once quite put out of temper by seeing several of these caterpillars for -the first time, because they had so consequential an air. - -The colouring of this creature varies according to the time of year; but -it may be easily recognised by its form alone, which is very peculiar. - -One of the most remarkable points in the creature is the forked apparatus -at the end of the tail, and which frightens people who do not know the -habits of the caterpillar. These forks are black externally, and rather -stiff, but are only sheaths for two curious rose-coloured tentacles, -which are usually kept hidden, but which may be seen by touching the -caterpillar with the point of a needle. When the creature is thus -irritated, it will protrude these tentacles from their sheath, and will -then strike the part that had been touched. - -It is supposed that this apparatus is intended as a kind of whip, -wherewith to drive away the ichneumon flies, and other parasites, that -inflict such annoyance on many caterpillars. - -When this caterpillar proceeds to its pupal state, it makes itself a -wonderful fortress--not suspended like that of the Tiger-moth, nor hidden -in a dark spot; but it boldly fixes its residence on the exterior of -the tree on which it feeds, trusting to its similitude to the bark for -concealment, and to the strength of its habitation for safety, even if -discovered. - -It is furnished with a gummy substance, something after the manner of -the silk of the Tiger-moth; but instead of spinning that substance into -threads, it uses it in the following manner. - -Biting little chips of wood from the bark of the tree, the caterpillar -glues them together with this natural cement; and so builds an arched -house for itself, much about the size and shape of half a walnut-shell. -So strongly compacted is this residence, that rain and wind have no -effect on it, and a penknife does not find an easy entrance. - -One or two of these caterpillars which I brought home modified their -dwellings in a curious manner. One of them nibbled to pieces a portion of -a cardboard box, and so made a kind of papier-maché house; while others, -who were placed under a glass tumbler, and upon a stone surface, simply -made their house of the hardened gum. In this state, it appeared as if -it had been made of thin horn, and was so transparent that the chrysalis -could be seen through the walls. - -The caterpillar is common enough, and may be found on the willow or -poplar. And a sharp eye will soon learn to detect the winter house, which -to an unpractised eye looks as if it were merely a natural excrescence on -the bark. - -If one of these habitations is found, the best mode of removing it is -to avoid touching the dwelling itself, but to cut away the bark round -it; and then, by inserting the point of a stout knife, gently raise up -the house, together with the bark on which it is placed. This is one of -the modes by which an entomologist may find employment even during the -winter months, and others will be mentioned in the course of this work. - -The moth itself may be seen figured on plate B, fig. 4. It is called -the Puss-moth, on account of the soft furry down with which its body is -covered, and it is fancifully thought to resemble the fur of the cat. - -It is rather a difficult moth to preserve effectually, as it is apt -to become “greasy”--that is, to have its whole beauty destroyed by an -oiliness that exudes from the body, and gradually creeps even over the -wings. The best preservative is to remove the contents of the abdomen, -and stuff it with cotton-wool that has been scented with spirits of -turpentine. But even that plan is rather precarious, and the delicate, -downy plumage is apt to be sadly damaged during the process of stuffing. - -Still keeping to the same plate, and referring to the right-hand corner -at the top, a moth of strange aspect will be seen; and immediately below -it an object that somewhat resembles the hammock of the Tiger-moth, -affixed in a perpendicular instead of an horizontal direction. This moth -is called the Burnet-moth, and the hammock is the pupa case of the same -insect. - -The colouring of this moth is very rich and beautiful. The two upper -wings are green, and of a tint so deep that, like green velvet, they -almost appear to be black. On each of these wings are several red spots, -varying in number according to the species; some wearing six spots, and -others only five. The two under wings are of a carmine red, edged with a -border of black, in which is a tinge of steely blue. The body is velvety -black, with the same blue tint. - -The moth is rather local; but when one is found in a field, hundreds will -certainly be near. - -At the best of times it is not an active insect, and on a cold or a dull -day hundreds of them may be seen clinging to the upright grass stems, -from which they can be removed at pleasure. - -The caterpillar of this beautiful moth keeps close to the ground, and -feeds on grasses, the speedwell, dandelion, and other plants. When -it is about to become a pupa, it ascends some slender upright plant, -generally a grass stem, and then spins for itself the residence which is -represented on the plate. - -In this state it may be gathered, and placed under a glass shade; and -in the summer months the perfect insect will make its appearance. There -are some places which it specially favours, and where it may be found in -great profusion. At Hastings, for example, the fields about the cliffs -were so populated by these moths, that hardly a grass stem was without -its Burnet-moth’s habitation. - -Feeding on the same plant as the Tiger-moth caterpillar, may often be -found another caterpillar of a very different aspect. It is very much -larger, and instead of presenting an array of stiff bristles, is covered -with thick soft hair of a yellowish-brown colour, diversified with -stripes of a deep velvety black, arranged so as to resemble the slashed -vestments that were so fashionable some centuries ago. - -This caterpillar is the larva of the Oak Egger-moth, and is not so -remarkable as a caterpillar as for the house which it builds for its -pupal residence. - -After changing its skin the requisite number of times, the caterpillar -ceases to feed, and, proceeding to some convenient spot (generally a -faded thorn-branch), spins its temporary habitation. This cocoon, as -it is called, is about an inch in length; and into that narrow space -the creature contrives to push, not only itself, but also its last and -largest skin. - -The substance of the cocoon is hard and rather brittle when dry; and in -texture somewhat resembles thin brown cardboard. In its substance, and on -its surface, are woven many of the hairs with which the caterpillar is -furnished. If the cocoon is carefully opened, the chrysalis will be found -within, its head towards the spot where the moth is to emerge, and the -cast caterpillar-skin crumpled down by its tail. - -In course of time, the chrysalis passes through its development, and the -egger-moth itself pushes its way out of the cocoon, with wings and body -wet and wrinkled, but soon to assume their proper form and strength. The -cocoon is shown at plate I, fig. 5 _a_. - -Sometimes the cocoon remains unbroken beyond the proper season; and if -it is examined, one or two little holes will generally be found in it. -These are signs that the egger has met with an untimely fate, and that it -has fallen a victim to those scourges of the insect world, the ichneumon -flies. Of these creatures we shall speak in a future page, and therefore -omit to describe them here. The moth is shown at fig. 5. - -If the moth is intended to be killed, and then placed in a cabinet, -the use of sulphur must be avoided. It kills the moth, certainly; but -it kills the colours also, and quite ruins its appearance. Sulphur -is always a dangerous instrument in insect-killing, and should on no -account be used. There are many ways of destroying insects humanely, and -extinguishing their life as if by a lightning flash; but these modes vary -according to the size, sex, and nature of the insect. Some of them I will -here mention. - -If the insect is a beetle, it may be plunged into boiling water, or -into spirits of wine, in which a very little corrosive sublimate has -been dissolved. Both modes will destroy the life rapidly, but the -former is the better of the two. When walking in the fields or woods, a -wide-mouthed, strong bottle, about half full of spirits of wine, is a -useful auxiliary, as all kinds of beetles, and even flies and bees, can -be put into it; and if dried in a thorough draught, will look as well as -before. If this precaution be not taken, all the insects that have long -hair, as the humble-bee and others, will lose their good looks, and their -hair will be matted together in unseemly elf-locks. - -Butterflies, and most of the Diptera, or two-winged flies, can be -instantaneously killed by a sharp pinch on the under-surface of the -thorax among the legs, as the great mass of nerves is there collected. -Many people seem to fancy that the head is the vital part in an insect; -and having pinched or run a pin through its head, they think that they -have effectually slain the creature, and marvel much to see it lively -some twenty-four hours afterwards. - -Especially is this the case with the large-bodied moths, whose vitality -is quite astonishing. You may even stamp upon them, and yet not crush the -life out of that frail casket. If you drive the life out of one-half of -the creature, it only seems to take refuge in the other; and then retain -a more powerful hold, like a garrison driven into a small redoubt. - -It is not at all uncommon to find one of these moths dead and dry as to -its wings and limbs, which snap like withered sticks if touched, and yet -with so much life in it as to writhe its abdomen if irritated, and to -deposit its eggs just as if it were in full activity. - -Indeed, so strong is this power that the creature seems to be gifted with -a double life, one for itself and the other for its progeny. The former -is comparatively weak, and but loosely clings to its home; but the latter -intrenches itself in every organ, penetrates every fibre, and, until its -great work is completed, refuses to be expelled. So, unless the entire -mechanism of the insect be killed, the poor creature may live for days in -pain. - -Fortunately, there is a mode of so doing; and this is the way of doing -it:-- - -Make a strong solution of oxalic acid, or get a little bottle of prussic -acid--it is the better of the two, if you have discretion as beseems a -naturalist. Also make a bone or iron instrument, something like a pen, -but without a nib. Dip this instrument into the poison as you would a -pen, and then you have a weapon as deadly as the cobra’s tooth, and -infinitely more rapid in its work. Now hold your moth delicately as -entomologists hold moths, near the root of the wings. Keep the creature -from fluttering; plunge the instrument smartly into the thorax, between -the insertion of the first and second pair of legs; withdraw it as -smartly, and the effect will be instantaneous. The moth will stretch out -all its legs to their full extent; there will be a slight quiver of the -extremities; they will be gently folded over each other; and you lay your -dead moth on the table. - -The reason of this rapid decease is of a twofold nature. - -In the first place, the chief nerve mass is cut asunder, and even thus a -large portion of the life is destroyed. But the chief breathing tubes are -also severed, and a drop of poison deposited at their severed portions. -Consequently, at the next inspiration, either the poison itself or its -subtle atmosphere rushes to every part, and to every joint of the insect, -thus carrying death through its whole substance. - -The male insect is very different in appearance to the female, and in -general is hardly more than two-thirds of her size. The colours, too, are -very different; for in the male insect the wings are partially of a dark -chestnut brown, with a light band running round them, as may be seen in -the engraving; while in the female the wings are almost entirely of a -uniform yellowish brown. - -The antennæ, too, of the male are deeply cleft, like the teeth of a comb; -while those of the female are narrow, and comparatively slightly toothed. - -As is the case with several other moths, the male oak eggers are sad -victims to the tender passion, and fall in love not only at first sight, -but long before they see the object of their affection at all. - -If a female egger is caught immediately after her entrance into the -regions of air, and placed in a perforated box near an open window, her -unseen charms will be so powerfully felt by gentlemen of her own race -that they will flock to the casket that contains their desired treasure, -and fearlessly run about it, fluttering their wings, and striving to -gain admission. So entirely do they abandon themselves to the captivity -of love, that they do not fear the risk of a bodily captivity, and will -suffer themselves to be taken by hand, without even an endeavour to -escape. - -Carry the imprisoned moth into the fields, and even there the eager -suitors will arrive from all quarters, and boldly alight on the box while -in the hand of the entomologist. - -More wonderful must be the influence that can emanate from so small a -creature, and extend to so great a distance--an influence which, although -entirely inappreciable by any human sense, exercises so potent a sway on -all sides, and to so great a distance. - -The conditions, too, of this mysterious influence are singularly -delicate; for after the moth has once found her mate, she may be placed -amid a crowd of gentlemen, and not one will take the least notice of her. - -Like the young beauty of the ball-room, who whilom attracted to herself -crowds of beaux, that fluttered around her, and contended with each other -for a look or a smile of their temporary divinity, but who finds herself -deserted by the fickle crowd when her election is made; so our Lady -Lasiocampa Quercus, after setting all hearts ablaze for a time, makes -happy one favoured individual, is deserted by the many rejected, and -left in quiet to the duties of a wife and a mother. - -Her married life is but short, for her husband rarely survives his -happiness more than a few hours, and she, after making due preparation -for the welfare of her numerous family, whom she is never to see, feels -that she has fulfilled her destiny, and gives up a life which has now no -further object. - -There is really something very human in the life even of an insect. Many -a life story have I watched in the insect world, which, if transferred -to the human world, would be full of interest. There is also one great -advantage in the insect life, namely, that as it only consists of a year -or two, the events of several successive generations come under the -observation of a single historian. - -First, a number of tiny, purposeless beings come into the world, -spreading about much at random, and seeming to have no other object -except to eat. It is but just to them to say that they don’t cry, and are -always contented with the food that is given them. - -They rapidly increase in size, pass through a regular series of childish -complaints, which we mass together under this single term, “moulting,” -but which are probably to their senses as distinct as measles, and -chicken-pox, and hooping-cough. - -They outgrow a great many suits of clothes in a wonderfully short period; -they retire for a time to finish their education; and then come before -the world in all the glory of their new attire. - -Up to this time they are nearly exactly alike in habits and manners; but, -when freed from the trammels that held them, they diverge, each in his -appointed way, each exulting for a short space in the buoyancy of youth, -and fluttering indeterminately in the new world, but soon settling down -to the business for which they were made. - -So even in insects a human soul can find a companionship, and a solitary -man need never feel entirely alone as long as he can watch the life of a -humble moth, and see in that despised creature some manifestations of the -same feelings which actuate himself. - -And it even seems that, through this companionship, the higher nature -communicates itself in some degree to the lower, as is shown by the many -instances of men who have tamed spiders and other creatures quite as far -removed from the human nature. In such a case it seems very clear that -either the higher nature gives to the lower an intelligence not its own, -or that it develops powers which would have lain dormant had they not -been called forth by the contact of a superior being. - -This subject is a very wide one, and well worth following up. But as it -runs through the whole creation, and this book is only to consist of a -few pages, it must suffice merely to put forth the idea. - -To pass to another insect. - -On plate E, and fig. 1 and 1 _a_, may be seen an insect which somewhat -resembles the oak egger-moth, and is often mistaken for it by -inexperienced eyes. This is the “Drinker” moth, remarkable for the thick -furry coat which it wears, as a caterpillar and as a moth, and which -it employs in the construction of its cocoon. This moth is one of my -particular friends; and I have had hundreds of them from the egg to their -perfect state. I had quite a large establishment for the education and -development of lepidoptera, and especially favoured the tiger-moth, the -oak egger, and the drinker. - -The caterpillar of this moth is entirely covered with dense hair, even -down to the very feet; and by means of this protection it is enabled to -brave the winter frost, needing not to pass the cold months in a torpid -state. It is a pretty caterpillar, and very easily recognised by the -figure. Its chief peculiarities are the two tufts of hair that it bears -at its opposite extremities, and the double line of black spots along its -sides. - -Generally, it feeds on various grasses, but it is not dainty, as are many -caterpillars; and I have always found it to eat freely of the same food -as the oak egger larva. This caterpillar is seen at fig. 1 _b_. - -When alarmed, it loosens its hold of the plant on which it is feeding, -rolls itself into a ring, and drops to the ground, hoping to evade notice -among the foliage. This habit used to be rather perplexing to me, not -because the creature could escape by so well-known a trick, but because -it would not go into the box prepared for its reception. - -It is necessary to have a box of a peculiar form for the collection of -caterpillars. If the lid is raised every time that a fresh capture is -made, difficulties increase in proportion to the number of caterpillars. -For, when some thirty larvæ are in the box, they all begin to crawl out -when the lid is opened; and Hercules had hardly a more bewildering task -among the hydra’s heads than the entomologist among his captives. - -No sooner is the light admitted, than a dozen heads are over the side; -and as fast as one is replaced, six or seven more make their appearance. -The only remedy is to sweep them all back with a rapid movement of the -hand, to shake them all to the bottom, and then to replace the lid as -fast as possible. Even with all precaution, caterpillars are crushed; -and, besides, they are delicate in their constitutions, and require -gentle handling. - -So the best plan is to have a tin box made with a short tube, through -which the caterpillars can be introduced, and which can be stopped by a -cork when the creatures are fairly inside. - -Now, although this is a capital contrivance for caterpillars that hold -themselves straight, it fails entirely when they curl themselves into a -ring and refuse to be straightened. It is as impossible to straighten a -rolled-up hedgehog as a caterpillar in a similar attitude; and if force -is used in either case, the creature will be mortally injured. However, -gentle means succeed when violence fails, with insects as with men. A -Bheel robber will steal the bedding from under a sleeping man without -waking him; and, by an analogous process, the refractory caterpillar is -lodged in his prison before he is fairly awake to his condition. - -The entomologist feels a justifiable pride in executing similar -achievements; for there is quite as much force of intellect needed to -outwit a caterpillar as a quadruped. - -When the drinker caterpillar passes into its pupal state, it makes for -itself a very curious cocoon, not unlike a weaver’s shuttle in shape, -being large in the middle, and tapering to a point at each end. The -texture is soft and flexible, as if the cocoon were made of very thin -felt, and the larval hairs are quite distinguishable on its surface. The -moth leaves the cocoon about August. For the cocoon see fig. 1 _c_. - -[Illustration: COCOON OF THE EMPEROR MOTH.] - -I found that few caterpillars are so liable to the attack of ichneumon -flies as those of the drinker moth. A cocoon now before me is pierced -with thirteen holes from which ichneumon flies have issued, having eaten -up the caterpillar. The eggs are shown in fig. 1 _e_. - -If the reader will now refer to plate C, the central figure will be -found to represent a strikingly handsome moth, called, from its gorgeous -plumage, the “Emperor Moth”. - -Its body is covered with a thick downy raiment, and the wings are clothed -with plumage of a peculiarly soft character, which is well represented in -the figure. The antennæ, too, are elaborately feathered. - -Although the beauty of this insect would entitle it to notice in its -perfect state, and the peculiar shape of its larva--(see plate C, fig. 4 -_a_)--would draw attention, yet its chief title to admiration lies in the -cocoon which it constructs for its pupal existence. - -Externally, there is nothing remarkable in the cocoon; and, as may -be seen in the same plate, fig. 4 _b_, it is a very ordinary, rough, -flask-shaped piece of workmanship. But if the outer covering be carefully -removed, or if the cocoon be divided lengthways, a very wonderful -structure is exhibited. - -The inventor of lobster-pots is not known, and history has failed to -record the name of the man who first made wire mouse-traps with conical -entrances, into which the mice can squeeze themselves, but exit from -which is impossible. - -But, though the principle had not been applied to lobsters or mice, it -was in existence ages upon ages ago. Before human emperors had been -invented, and very probably long before mankind had been placed on our -earth, the caterpillar of the emperor moth wove its wondrous cell, and -thereby became a silent teacher to the cunning race of mankind how to -make mouse-traps and lobster-pots. - -For inside the rough outer case, which is composed of silken threads, -woven almost at random, and very delicate, is a lesser case, -corresponding in shape with its covering, but made of stiff threads laid -nearly parallel to each other, their points converging at the small end -of the case. See the cut on p. 125. - -It will now be seen that the moth when it leaves its chrysalid case can -easily walk out of the cocoon, but that no other creature could enter. -So within its trapped case the chrysalis lies secure, until time and -warmth bring it to its perfection. It breaks from its pupal shell, walks -forward, the threads separate to permit its egress, and then converge -again so closely that to all appearance the cocoon is precisely the same -as when the moth was within. - -Now, any observant member of the human race, who had been meditating upon -traps, and happened in a contemplative mood to open one of these cocoons, -would feel a new light break in upon him, and, Archimedes-like, he would -exclaim “Eureka,” or its equivalent, “I have found my trap!” Reverse the -process, make the converging threads to lead into instead of out of the -trap, and the thing is done. “I will make it of wire, put it on my shelf, -and I catch mice and rats. I will make it of osier, sink it to the bottom -of the sea, and I catch lobsters and crabs. I will lay it in a rapid, and -I catch roach and dace; I will place it under the river banks, and then I -have cray-fish.” - -So might he soliloquise on the future achievements of his -newly-discovered principle. But unless he had the prophetic afflatus -strong within him, never would he imagine that in future times his -discovery would catch a monarch and an Elector to boot. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - - ELEPHANT HAWK-MOTH--PRIVET HAWK-MOTH--DIGGING FOR - LARVÆ--BUFF-TIPP MOTH--GOLD-TAILED MOTH--CASE FOR ITS - EGGS--CURIOUS PROPERTY OF ITS CATERPILLAR-VAPOURER - MOTH--LEAF-ROLLERS--GREEN-OAK MOTH--ITS CONSTANT - ENEMY--LEAF-MINERS--LACKEY MOTH--EGG BRACELETS. - - -It will be noticed that the insects mentioned in the preceding chapter -are mostly remarkable for the cocoons which they construct, and that -the peculiarities of the larva and the perfect insect are but casually -mentioned. Those, however, which will be noticed in this chapter are -chosen because there is “something rare and strange” in the habits and -manners of the creatures themselves. - -As it will be more convenient to keep to the same plate as much as -possible, we still refer to plate G. On casting the eye over the objects -there depicted, the strangest and most fantastic shape is evidently that -creature which is marked 5 _a_. - -The aspect of the creature is almost appalling, and it seems to glare -at us with two malignant eyes, threatening the poisoned blow which the -horrid tail seems well able to deliver. - -Yet this is as harmless a creature as lives, and it can injure nothing -except the leaves of the plant on which it feeds. The eye-like spots are -not eyes at all, but simply markings on the surface of the skin, and the -formidable horn at the tail cannot scratch the most delicate skin. - -The creature is in fact simply the caterpillar of a very beautiful moth, -represented in fig. 5, and called the Elephant Hawk-moth--elephant, on -account of its long proboscis, and hawk on account of its sharp hawk-like -wings and flight. The caterpillar may be found in many places, and -especially on the banks of streams, feeding on various plants, such as -the willow-herbs. - -Another kind of hawk-moth is much more common than the elephant, and is -represented on plate A; the moth itself at fig. 5, and its caterpillar at -fig. 5 _a_. - -This is called the Privet Hawk-moth, because the caterpillar feeds on the -leaves of that shrub. The colours of both moth and caterpillar are very -beautiful, and not unlike in character. - -The bright leafy green tint of the caterpillar, and the seven -rose-coloured stripes on each side, make it a very conspicuous insect, -and raise wishes that tints so beautiful could be preserved. But as yet -it cannot be done, for even in the most successful specimens the colours -fade sadly in a day or two, and after a while there is a determination -towards a blackish brown tint that cannot be checked. - -Any one, however, who wishes to try the experiment may easily do so, for -there are few privet hedges without their inhabitants, who may keep out -of sight, but can be brought tumbling to the ground by some sharp taps -administered to the stems of the bushes. - -In the winter the chrysalis may be obtained by digging under privet -bushes. There the caterpillar resorts, and works a kind of cell in the -ground for its reception. It is better not to choose a frosty day for the -disinterment, or the sudden cold may kill the insect, and the seeker’s -labour be lost. - -Should it be desirable to capture the larva and to keep it alive the -object can be easily attained; for the creature is hardy enough, and -privet bushes grow everywhere. In default of privet leaves, it will eat -those of the syringa and the ash. When it reaches its full growth, it -should be provided with a vessel containing earth some inches in depth. -Into this earth it will burrow, and remain there until the moth issues -forth. - -Care should be taken to keep the earth rather moist, as otherwise the -chrysalis skin becomes so hard that the moth cannot break out of its -prison, and perishes miserably. - -On the same plate, fig. 4, may be seen a moth of a curious shape, very -feathery about the thorax, the head being all but concealed by the dense -down, and as difficult to find as the head of a Skye-terrier, were not -its position marked by the antennæ. This is the Buff-tip Moth, so called -on account of the upper wing-tips being marked with buff-coloured scales. - -The caterpillar, which is represented immediately above, and marked 4 -_a_, is a very singular creature, its habits being indicated by the marks -on its skin. As soon as the young caterpillars are hatched, they arrange -themselves in regular order, much after the fashion of the dark stripes, -and so march over leaf and branch, devastating their course with the same -ease and regularity as an invading army in an enemy’s land. - -When they increase to a tolerably large size, they disband their forces, -and each individual proceeds on its own course of destruction. Were -it not for the colours which they assume, these creatures would do -great damage; but the ground being yellow and the stripes black, the -caterpillars are so conspicuous that sharp-sighted birds soon find -them out, and having discovered a colony, hold revelry thereon, and -exterminate the band. - -Comparatively few escape their foes and attain maturity. When they have -reached their full age, they let themselves drop from the branches, and -when they come to soft ground, bury themselves therein to await their -last change. Individuals may often be seen crossing gravel paths, which -they are unable to penetrate, and getting over the ground with such speed -and in so evident a hurry that they seem to be aware that birds are on -the watch and ichneumons awaiting their opportunity. - -There is a very pretty moth covered with a downy white plumage even to -the very toes, and carrying at the extremity of its tail a tuft of golden -silky hair. From this coloured tuft, the creature bears the name of -Gold-tailed Moth. It may often be found sticking tightly to the bark of -tree stems, its glossy white wings folded roof-like over its back, and -the golden tuft just showing itself from the white wings. - -This golden tuft is only found fully developed in the female moth, and -comes into use when she deposits her eggs. The moth is shown on plate E, -fig. 4. - -As the eggs are laid in the summer time, they need no guard from -cold; but they do require to be sheltered from too high a degree of -temperature, and for this purpose the silken tuft is used. - -At the very end of the tail the moth carries a pair of pincers, which she -can twist about in all directions; and this tool is used for the proper -settlement of the eggs. The moth, after fixing on a proper spot, pinches -off a tiny tuft of down, spreads it smoothly, lays an egg upon it, covers -it over, and finally combs the hair so as to lie evenly. And when she -has laid the full complement, she gives the whole mass some finishing -touches, like a mother tucking-in her little baby in the bed-clothes, and -smoothing them neatly over it. - -The egg masses are common enough, and are readily discovered by means of -their bright yellow covering. - -The caterpillar of this moth is a very brilliant scarlet and black -creature, commonly known by the name of the “palmer-worm,” and to be -found plentifully of all sizes. - -People possessed of delicate skins must beware of touching the -palmer-worm, or they may suffer for their temerity. I was a victim to the -creature for some time before I discovered the reason of my sufferings. -And the case was as follows. - -Being much struck with the vivid colours of the caterpillar, I was -anxious to preserve some specimens, if possible, in a manner that would -retain the scarlet and black tints. One mode that seemed feasible was to -make a very small snuff-box, as ladies call a rectangular rent, in the -creature’s skin, to remove the entire vital organs, to fill the space -with dry sand, and then, when the skin was quite dry, to pour out all the -sand, leaving the empty skin. - -After treating six or seven caterpillars in this fashion, I perceived a -violent irritation about my face, lips, and eyes, which only became worse -when rubbed. In an hour or so my face was swollen into a very horrid and -withal a very absurd mass of hard knobs, as if a number of young kidney -potatoes had been inserted under the skin. - -Of course, I was invisible for some days, and after returning to my work, -was attacked in precisely the same manner again. This second mischance -set me thinking; and on consultation with the medical department, the -fault was attributed to the hot sand which I had been using. - -So, when I went again to the work, I discarded sand, and stuffed the -caterpillars with cotton wool cut very short, like chopped straw. My -horror may be conjectured, but not imagined, when I found, for the third -time, that my face was beginning to assume its tubercular aspect. - -Then I did what I ought to have done before, went to my entomological -books, and found that various caterpillars possessed this “urticating” -property, as they learnedly called it, or as I should say, that they -stung worse than nettles. Since that time, I have never touched a -palmer-worm with my fingers. - -It was perhaps a proper punishment for neglecting the knowledge that -others had recorded. But I always had rather an aversion to book -entomology, and used to work out an insect as far as possible, and _then_ -see what books said about it. Certainly, although not a very rapid mode -of work, yet it was a very sure one, and fixed the knowledge in the mind. - -On the same plate, fig. 4 _a_, is shown the caterpillar of this moth, a -creature conspicuous from the tufts of beautifully-coloured hair which -are set on its body like camel-hair brushes. - -The caterpillar spins for itself a silken nest wherein to pass its pupa -state, and in general there is nothing remarkable about the nest. But I -have one in my collection of insect habitations that is very curious. - -I had caught, killed, and pinned out a large dragon-fly, and placed it in -a cardboard box for a time. Some days afterwards, a palmer-worm had been -captured, and was imprisoned in the same box. I was not aware that such -a circumstance had happened, and so did not open the box for a week or -two, when I expected to find the dragon-fly quite dry and ready for the -cabinet. - -When, however, the box was opened, a curious state of matters was -disclosed. The caterpillar had not only spun its cocoon, but had shredded -up the dragon-fly’s wings, and woven them into the substance of its -cell. The glittering particles of the wing have a curious effect as they -sparkle among the silver fibres. - -On plate D, fig. 3 _a_, is represented a creature whose sole claim to -admiration is its domestic virtue, for elegance or beauty it has none. It -hardly seems possible, but it is the fact, that this clumsy creature is -the female Vapourer Moth, the male being represented immediately below -fig. 3. - -Why the two sexes should be so entirely different in aspect, it is not -easy to understand. The female has only the smallest imaginable apologies -for wings, and during her whole lifetime never leaves her home, seeming -to despise earth as she cannot attain air. - -This moth is not obliged to form laboriously a warm habitation for her -eggs, for she places them in a silken web which she occupied in her pupal -state, and from which she never travels. - -Curiously enough, her eggs are not placed within the hollow of the cocoon -as might be supposed, but are scattered irregularly and apparently at -random over its surface. Even there, though, they are warm enough, for -the cocoon itself is generally placed in a sheltered spot, so that the -eggs are guarded from the undue influence of the elements, and at the -same time protected from too rapid changes of temperature. - -In the hot summer months, the leaves of trees are crowded with insects -of various kinds, which fly out in alarm when the branches are sharply -struck. Oak trees are especially insect-haunted, and mostly by one -species of moth, a figure which is given on plate B, fig. 1. - -This little moth is a pretty object to the eyes, but a terrible -destructive creature when in its caterpillar state, compensating for its -diminutive size by its collective numbers. The caterpillar is one of -those called “Leaf-Rollers,” because they roll up the leaves on which -they feed, and take up their habitation within. - -There are many kinds of leaf-rollers, each employing a different mode of -rolling the leaf, but in all cases the leaf is held in position by the -silken threads spun by the caterpillar. - -Some use three or four leaves to make one habitation, by binding them -together by their edges. Some take a single leaf, and, fastening silken -cords to its edges, gradually contract them, until the edges are brought -together and there held. Some, not so ambitious in their tastes, content -themselves with a portion of a leaf, snipping out the parts that they -require and rolling it round. - -The insect before us, however, requires an entire leaf for its -habitation, and there lies in tolerable security from enemies. There are -plenty of birds about the trees, and they know well enough that within -the circled leaves little caterpillars reside. But they do not find that -they can always make a meal on the caterpillars, and for the following -reason. - -The curled leaf is like a tube open on both ends, the caterpillar lying -snugly in the interior. So, when the bird puts its beak into one end of -the tube, the caterpillar tumbles out at the other, and lets itself drop -to the distance of some feet, supporting itself by a silken thread that -it spins. - -The bird finds that its prey has escaped, and not having sufficient -inductive reason to trace the silken thread and so find the caterpillar, -goes off to try its fortune elsewhere. The danger being over, the -caterpillar ascends its silken ladder, and quietly regains possession of -its home. - -Myriads of these rolled leaves may be found on the oak trees, and the -caterpillars may be driven out in numbers by a sharp jar given to a -branch. It is quite amusing to see the simultaneous descent of some -hundred caterpillars, each swaying in the breeze at the end of the line, -and occasionally dropping another foot or so, as if dissatisfied with its -position. - -Each caterpillar consumes about three or four leaves in the whole of its -existence, and literally eats itself out of house and home. But when -it has eaten one house, it only has to walk a few steps to find the -materials of another, and in a very short time it is newly lodged and -boarded. - -The perfect insect is called the “Green Oak Moth”. The colour of its two -upper wings is a bright apple green; and as the creature generally sits -with its wings closed over its back, it harmonises so perfectly with -the green oak leaves, that even an accustomed eye fails to perceive it. -So numerous are these little moths, that their progeny would shortly -devastate a forest, were they not subject to the attacks of another -insect. This insect is a little fly of a shape something resembling that -of a large gnat; and which has, as far as I know, no English name. Its -scientific title is Empis. There are several species of this useful fly, -one attaining some size; but the one that claims our notice just at -present is the little empis, scientifically Empis Tessellata. - -I well remember how much I was struck with the discovery that the empis -preyed on the little oak moths, and the manner in which they did so. - -One summer’s day, I was entomologising in a wood, when a curious kind of -insect caught my attention. I could make nothing of it, for it was partly -green, like a butterfly or moth, and partly glittering like a fly, and -had passed out of reach before it could be approached. On walking to the -spot whence it had come, I found many of the same creatures flying about, -and apparently enjoying themselves very much. - -A sweep of the net captured four or five; and then was disclosed the -secret. The compound creature was, in fact, a living empis, clasping in -its arms the body of an oak moth which it had killed, and into whose body -its long beak was driven. I might have caught hundreds if it had been -desirable. The grasp of the fly was wonderful, and if the creature had -been magnified to the human size, it would have afforded the very type of -a remorseless, deadly, unyielding gripe. Never did miser tighter grasp a -golden coin, than the empis fastens its hold on its green prey. Never did -usurer suck his client more thoroughly than the empis drains the life -juices from the victim moth. - -He is a terrible fellow, this empis, quiet and insignificant in aspect, -with a sober brown coat, slim and genteel legs, and just a modest little -tuft on the top of his head. But, woe is me for the gay and very green -insect that flies within reach of this estimable individual. - -The great hornet that comes rushing by is not half so dangerous, for all -his sharp teeth and his terrible sting. The stag-beetle may frighten our -green young friend out of his senses by his truculent aspect and gigantic -stature. But better a thousand stag-beetles than one little empis. -For when once the slim and genteel legs have come on the track of the -little moth, it is all over with him. Claw after claw is hooked on him, -gradually and surely the clasp tightens, and when once he is hopelessly -captured, out comes a horrid long bill, and drains him dry. Poor green -little moth! - -Still continuing our research among the oak leaves, we shall find many of -them marked in a very peculiar manner. A white wavy line meanders about -the leaf like the course of a river, and, even as the river, increases -in width as it proceeds on its course. This effect is produced by the -caterpillar of one of the leaf-mining insects, tiny creatures, which live -between the layers of the leaf, and eat their way about it. - -Of course, the larger the creature becomes, the more food it eats, the -more space it occupies, and the wider is its road; so that, although at -its commencement the path is no wider than a needle-scratch, it becomes -nearly the fifth of an inch wide at its termination. It is easy to trace -the insect, and to find it at the widest extremity of its path, either as -caterpillar or chrysalis. Often, though, the creature has escaped, and -the empty case is the only relic of its being. - -There are many insects which are leaf-miners in their larval state. -Very many of them belong to the minutest known examples of the moth -tribes, the very humming bird of the moths, and, like the humming birds, -resplendent in colours beyond description. These Micro-Lepidoptera, as -they are called, are so numerous, that the study of them and their habits -has become quite a distinct branch of insect lore. - -Some, again, are the larvæ of certain flies, while others are the larvæ -of small beetles. Their tastes, too, are very comprehensive, for there -are few indigenous plants whose leaves show no sign of the miner’s track, -and even in the leaves of many imported plants the meandering path may be -seen. - -There are some plants, such as the eglantine, the dewberry, and others, -that are especially the haunts of these insects, and on whose branches -nearly every other leaf is marked with the winding path. I have now -before me a little branch containing seven leaves, and six of them have -been tunnelled, while one leaf has been occupied by two insects, each -keeping to his own side. - -The course which these creatures pursue is very curious. Sometimes, as in -the figure on plate A, fig. 1, the caterpillar makes a decided and bold -track, keeping mostly to the central portion of the leaf. - -Sometimes it makes a confused tortuous jumble of paths, so that it is not -easy to discover any definite course. - -Sometimes it prefers the edges of the leaves, and skirts them with -strange exactness, adapting its course to every notch, and following the -outline as if it were tracing a plan. - -This propensity seems to exhibit itself most strongly in the deeply cut -leaves. And the shape or direction of the path seems to be as property -belonging to this species of the insect which makes it; for there may be -tracks of totally distinct forms, and yet the insects producing them are -found to belong to the same species. - -If the twigs of an ordinary thorn bush be examined during the winter -months, many of them will be seen surrounded with curious little objects, -called “fairy bracelets” by the vulgar, and by the learned “ova of -Clisiocampa Neustria”. These are the eggs of the Lackey Moth, and are -fastened round the twigs by the mother insect, a brown-coloured moth, -that may be found in any number at the right time. - -It is wonderful how the shape of the egg is adapted to the peculiar -form into which they have to be moulded, and how perfectly they all fit -together. Each egg is much wider at the top than at the bottom; and this -increase of width is so accurately proportioned, that when the eggs are -fitted together round a branch, the circle described by their upper -surfaces corresponds precisely with that of the branch. - -These eggs are left exposed to every change of the elements, and are -frequently actually enveloped in a coat of ice when a frost suddenly -succeeds a thaw. But they are guarded from actual contact with ice and -snow by a coating of varnish which is laid over them, and which performs -the double office of acting as a waterproof garment and of gluing the -eggs firmly together. So tightly do they adhere to each other, that if -the twig be cut off close to the bracelet the little egg circlet can be -slipped off entire. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - - LAPPET MOTH--BRIMSTONE MOTH--ITS CATERPILLAR--CURRANT - MOTH--CLEAR-WINGS--WHITE-PLUME MOTH--TWENTY-PLUME - MOTH--ADELA--AN INSECT CINDERELLA--NAMING INSECTS--THE - ATALANTA--AN INSECT CRIPPLE--PEACOCK BUTTERFLY--BLUE AND OTHER - BUTTERFLIES. - - -[Illustration: LAPPET MOTH.] - -The accompanying cut is a good representation of a very singular creature -called the “Lappet Moth”. As may be seen by the engraving, when it -is settled quietly upon a leaf with folded wings, it bears a closer -resemblance to a bundle of withered leaves than to any living creature. -In this strange form lies its chief safety, for there are few eyes -sufficiently sharp to detect an insect while hiding its character under -so strange a mask. - -There are several other examples of this curious resemblance between the -animal and vegetable kingdoms, one or two of which will be mentioned in -succeeding pages. - -The name of “Lappet Moth” is hardly applicable, as it ought rather to be -called the moth of the lappet caterpillar. This title is given to the -creature because it is furnished with a series of fleshy protuberances -along the sides, to which objects the name of lappets has been fancifully -given. - -It is generally supposed to be a rare moth; but I have not found much -difficulty in procuring specimens either in the larval state or as -moths. Both moth and caterpillar are of a large size, the caterpillar -being about the length and thickness of a man’s finger. Its colour is a -tolerably dark grey, but subject to some variation in tint. There is no -difficulty in ascertaining this species of the creature, as it is clearly -distinguished from caterpillars of a similar shape or line by two blue -marks on the back of its neck, as if a fine brush filled with blue paint -had been twice drawn smartly across it. The curious “lappets” too are so -conspicuous that they alone would be sufficient for identification. - -One of the examples of animal life simulating vegetation now comes before -us in the person of the Brimstone Moth, or rather its caterpillar. - -This is a very common insect, and may be recognised at once by its -portrait on plate C, fig. 3. - -The caterpillar is represented immediately above, fig. 3 _a_. This is one -of the caterpillars called “Loopers,” on account of their peculiar mode -of walking. - -They have no legs on the middle portion of their bodies, but only the -usual six little legs at the three rings nearest the head, and a few -false legs by the tail; so when they want to walk, they attain their -object by holding fast with their false or pro-legs as they are called, -and stretching themselves forward to their fullest extent. The real legs -then take their hold, and the pro-legs are drawn up to them, thus making -the creature put up its back like an angry cat. - -The grasp of the pro-legs is wonderfully powerful, and in them lies -the chief peculiarity of the creature. The surface of the body is of a -brownish tint, just resembling that of the little twigs on which it sits; -there are rings and lines on its surface that simulate the cracks and -irregularities of the bark, and in one or two places it is furnished with -sham thorns. - -Trusting in its mask, the caterpillar grasps the twig firmly, stretches -out its body to its full length, and so remains, rigid and immovable as -the twigs themselves. People have been known to frighten themselves very -much by taking hold of a caterpillar, thinking it to be a dead branch. - -The only precaution taken by the creature is to have a thread ready spun -from its mouth to the branch, so that if it should be discovered, it -might drop down suddenly, and when the danger was over, climb up its rope -and regain its home. - -The commonest of the loopers is the well-known caterpillar of the Currant -or Magpie Moth, plate E, fig. 3. This creature is remarkable from the -circumstance that its colours are of the same character throughout its -entire existence; the caterpillar, chrysalis, and perfect moth showing a -similar rich colour and variety of tint, as seen on figs. 3 _a_ and 3 _b_. - -It is a curious fact that almost every stratagem of animals is used by -man; whether intuitively, or whether on account of taking a hint, I -cannot say. - -For example, Parkyns, the Abyssinian traveller, tells an amusing tale of -a party of Barea robbers, who when pursued got up a _tableau vivant_ at a -moment’s notice. One man personated a charred tree-stump, and the others -converted themselves into blackened logs and stones lying about its base. - -It seemed so impossible for human beings to remain so still, that a -rifle-ball was sent towards the stump, and caused it to take to its -heels, followed by the logs and stones. - -I have heard of a similar stratagem that was put in force by a robber -who was interrupted on his way into the tent by the appearance of its -inmate, an officer. He was so completely deceived, that he actually hung -his helmet on one of the branches, which branch was in fact the robber’s -leg. The joke was almost too good, but the stump stood fast, until the -officer leaned his back against it. Officer and stump came to the ground -together, and the stump escaped, carrying off the helmet as a trophy. I -think that he deserved it. - -I conclude this chapter with a short notice of five beautiful and curious -little moths. - -The first of these, the “Currant Clear-wing,” is frequently mistaken for -a gnat or a fly, and it is sometimes a difficult task to persuade those -who are unaccustomed to insects that it can be a moth. As a general rule, -the wings of moths are covered with feathers, and many are even as downy -in their texture as the plumage of the owl. But there is a family of -moth, called the clear-wings, whose wings are as transparent as those of -bees or flies. Some of these are as large as hornets, and resemble these -insects closely in general aspect. - -Some fourteen or fifteen species of these curious creatures are found in -England; and each of them bears so close a likeness to some other insect, -that it is named accordingly. For example, the species which we are now -examining is called the “gnat-like Egeria,” another is the “bee-like,” -another the “hornet-like,” another the “ant-like,” and so on. Plate A, -fig. 3. - -The currant clear-wing may be found on the leaves of currant bushes, -where it loves to rest. In 1856 I took a great number of them in one -small garden, often finding two or more specimens on one currant bush. - -Next come two beautiful examples of the Plume Moth, the White Plume and -the Twenty Plume. - -The first of these insects is very common on hedges or the skirts of -copses, and comes out just about dusk, when it may be easily captured, -its white wings making it very conspicuous. See Plate H, fig. 9. - -The chief distinguishing point in the plume moth is that the wings are -deeply cut from the point almost to the very base, and thus more resemble -the wings of birds than those of insects. - -In the white plume there are five of these rays or plumes, three -belonging to the upper pair of wings and two to the lower. - -From the peculiarly long and delicate down with which the body and wings -are covered, it is no easy matter to secure the moth without damaging its -aspect. The scissors-net is, perhaps, the best that can be used for their -capture; for, as they always sit on leaves and grass with their wings -extended, they are inclosed at once in a proper position, and cannot -struggle. A sharp pinch in the thorax from the forceps, which a collector -ought always to have with him, kills the creature instantly; for it -holds life on very slender tenure. The slender entomological pin can then -be passed through the thorax, while the net is still closed, and thus the -head of the pin can be drawn through the meshes of the net when it is -opened. - -In this way the moth may be preserved without the least injury to its -appearance, or without ruffling the vanes of one of its beautiful plumes. - -Of all the plume moths this is the largest, as a fine specimen will -sometimes measure more than an inch across the wings. There is a brown -species, nearly as large, and quite as common; but which is often -overlooked on account of its sober colouring; and as often mistaken for a -common “daddy-long-legs,” to which fly it bears a close resemblance. - -The Twenty-plume Moth (plate C, fig. 9) is hardly named as it deserves; -for as the wings on each side are divided into twelve plumes, it ought to -be named the twenty-four plume. A better title is that of the “Many-plume -Moth”. - -It is very much smaller than either of the preceding “plumes”; and -its radiating feathers are so small and so numerous, that at a hasty -glance it scarcely seems to present any remarkable structure. It must be -examined with the aid of a magnifying glass before its real beauty can be -distinguished. - -The moth is common enough, and may be easily caught, as it has a strange -liking for civilised society, and constantly enters houses. As insects -generally do, it flies to the window, and scuds unceasingly up and down -the panes of glass, just as if it wished to make itself as conspicuous as -possible. - -The last of our moths is the beautiful Long-horn, for a figure of which -see plate H, fig. 4. Another Long-horn Moth, the Green Adela, is shown on -plate C, fig. 10. It is nearly as common as the last-mentioned insect. - -It is a horrid name, for its agricultural associations are so potent, -that the idea conveyed to the mind by the term “Long-horn” is that of a -huge bovine quadruped, with sleek solid sides telling of oil-cake, with -horns that are long enough to spike four men at once, two on each horn, -and with a ponderous tread that rivals that of the hippopotamus. - -Whereas, our little moth is the epitome of every fragile, fairy-like -beauty, and seems fitter for fairy tale, “once upon a time,” than for -this nineteenth century. Its “horns,” as the antennæ are called, are -wondrously long and slender. I have just taken measurement of one -of these moths, and find that the body and head together are barely -a quarter of an inch in length, while the antennæ are an inch and a -quarter long. It is hardly possible to conceive any living structure more -delicately slender than their antennæ. The moth delights in sunny glades, -as so sunny a creature ought to do; it sits on a leaf, basking in the -glaring sunbeams, while its antennæ, waving about in graceful curves, -are only to be traced by the light that sparkles along them. They are as -slender as the gossamer threads floating in the air, and like them only -seen as lines of light. They are too delicate even for Mab’s chariot -traces. The grey-coated gnat might use one of them as his whip: but it -would only be for show, as beseemeth the whip of a stage-coach; for it -could not hurt the tiniest atomy ever harnessed. - -And yet the little Adela, for such is her scientific title, flies -undauntedly among the trees, threading her way with perfect ease through -the thickest foliage, her wondrous antennæ escaping all injury, and -gleaming now and then as a stray sunbeam touches them. - -There is nothing very striking in the Adela’s external appearance; she is -just a pretty, unobtrusive, bronze-coloured little thing, from whom many -an eye would turn with indifference, if not with contempt. Truly, in vain -are there pearls, while the swinish nature prefers dry husks. - -Place this quiet, bronze-coloured little creature under a microscope, and -Cinderella herself never exhibited such a transformation. The mind of -man has never conceived a robe so gorgeous as that which enwraps a small -brown moth. Refulgent golden feathers cover its body and wings, sparkling -gemlike points scatter light in all directions, while on the edges of -each feather rainbow tints dance and quiver. It seems as if the creature -wore two robes--a loose golden-feather vesture above, and the rainbow -itself beneath. Each fibre of the fringe that edges the wings is a prism, -and even the slender antennæ are covered with golden feathers. Words -cannot describe the wondrous beauty of this creature. - -Methinks a view of these earthly creatures can the better enable one -to appreciate the ineffable glories of the heavenly beings. Even the -earth-insect is beautiful beyond the power of words to describe--how much -more so the heavenly angel! - -When the study of entomology first rose to the dignity of a science, -it was found necessary that each insect should be distinguished by a -definite title. Formerly, it was necessary to describe the insect when -speaking of it; and in consequence both cabinets and memories were -overloaded with words. - -For example, the Meadow-brown Butterfly was named “Papilio media alis -superioribus superne media parte rufis”. In English: “The middle-sized -butterfly, the centre of whose upper wings are reddish on the upper -surface”. Cromwell’s Puritan soldier might have taken a lesson in -nomenclature from an entomologist cabinet; and it is not easy to say -which would occupy the greater time in reading, the list of butterflies -or the regimental roll-call. These difficulties being patent, the -nomenclators leaped at once, as is the habit of human nature, into the -opposite extreme; and so, instead of making an insect name an elaborate -description of its appearance, gave it a title which did not describe it -at all, and would have been just as applicable to any other insect. Old -Homer’s pages afforded a valuable treasury of names; and accordingly, -Greek and Trojan may reasonably be astonished to find their names again -revived on earth. - -Even our British butterflies have appropriated Homeric titles. For -example, the two first on the list are named Machaon and Podalirius, -known to students of Homer as the two medical officers that accompanied -the Greek army. - -Numerous, however, as are the Homeric heroes and heroines, the insects -far outnumbered them. So, after exhausting Homer, the dramatists were -called into requisition, and plundered of their “personæ”. Fiction -failing, history, or that which is dignified by the name of history, was -next sought; and kings, queens, generals, and statesmen lent their names -to swell the insect catalogue. - -The Latin authors now are required to make up the deficiency, Terence -being especially useful. We have in our English list Davus, Pamphilus, -and Chrysis, all out of one play, the “Andria”. - -At last, when Greek and Latin, prose and verse, history and mythology, -had been quite exhausted, some enterprising and imaginative men boldly -invented new names for new insects. The import of the name was of no -consequence to them, and any harmonious combination of syllables was all -that they required. Many a valuable hour have they wasted, or rather -caused others to waste, in seeking through lexicons and dictionaries -for the purpose of discovering the derivation of those unmeaning and -underived names. - -At last men of science began to see that the name ought to be descriptive -of the creature, or its habits, and yet as short as possible; and when -this idea was matured, true nomenclature began. In the reformed system, -insects are gathered together in societies, through which some general -characteristic runs, and each individual bears the name of its genus, -as the society is called; and also a second name that distinguishes its -species. - -The first butterfly which will be mentioned in these pages is seen -figured on plate D, fig. 4; and very appropriately bears the name of -Atalanta. Those skilled in mythology, or Mangnall’s skimmings thereof, -will remember that Atalanta was a young lady, so swift of foot that -she could run over the sea without splashing her ankles, or on the -corn-fields without bending an ear of corn under her weight. The flight -of this butterfly is so easy and graceful, that poetical entomologists -invested it with the name of the swift-footed Atalanta. - -Also it is called the Scarlet-Admiral, in which two names is to be seen -the confusion respecting sexes which is found in nautical matters -generally. Perhaps the discrepancy might have been avoided by calling the -butterfly Cleopatra, that lady being her own admiral. - -Few insects are so conspicuous, or have so magnificent an effect on the -wing, as the Atalanta; its velvety-black wings, with their scarlet bands, -white spots, and azure edges, presenting a bold contrast of colour that -is seldom seen, and in its way cannot be surpassed. It is certainly a -grand insect; and it seems to be quite aware of its own beauty as it -comes sailing through the sunny glades, gracefully inclining from side to -side, as if to show its colours to the best advantage. Perhaps its best -aspect is when it sits upon a teazle-head, quietly fanning its wings in -the sun; for the quiet purple and brown tints of the teazle set off the -magnificent pure colours of the insect. - -These brilliant colours are only found on the upper surface of the wings, -the under surface being covered with elaborate tracery of blacks, browns, -ambers, sober blues, and dusky reds, so that when the wings are closed -over the creature’s back, it is hardly to be distinguished from a dried -leaf, unless examined closely. - -This distinction of tint often proves to be the insect’s best refuge; -for, if it can only slip round a tree or a bush, it suddenly settles on -some dark spot, shuts up its wings, and there remains motionless until -the danger is past. The rough, brown elm bark is a favourite refuge -under these circumstances; and it takes a sharp eye to discover the -butterfly when settled. - -Sometimes the creature is not quite so magnificent, and even appears -shorn of its fair proportions. I have now such a specimen before me, -which I found on a sandy bank, unable to fly. - -My attention was drawn to it by observing a curious fluttering movement -of the grasses that covered the bank; and on going up to the spot to -see what was the cause, I discovered an Atalanta butterfly that had -apparently lost both wings of the left side, and was endeavouring to -fly with the remaining pair. Of course it could only make short leaps -into the air, turn over, and again fall to the ground. Wishing to put -it out of pain, I killed it, and on examination found that it had never -been endowed with wings on its left side, and that those organs had -still remained in the undeveloped state in which they had lain under -the chrysalis case. Even the right pair had not attained their full -development; but in every other respect the insect was perfect. - -I suppose that the caterpillar must have selected too dry a spot for -its habitation when it became a pupa; and that in consequence the -pupa shell was so dry and hard that the butterfly could not make its -escape in proper time, I have often seen similar examples in my own -caterpillar-breeding experiences. There are also in one of my insect -cases two specimens of the little white butterfly, which have met with -even a worse fate; for they have not been able to escape at all out of -the chrysalis, and so present the curious appearance of a chrysalis -furnished with head, antennæ, wings, and legs. The cause of the disaster -was probably the same in both cases. - -The caterpillar of the Atalanta is shown on plate D, fig. 4 _a_, and is a -creature worthy of notice. - -It is a well-known saying, that “what is one man’s meat, is another’s -poison”; and the proverb holds good in the case of the Atalanta -caterpillar. For its meat is the common stinging-nettle, which is, -undoubtedly, poisonous enough to qualify any such proverb. - -The colour of the caterpillar is green-black, and along each side runs a -spotty yellowish band. Its general shape and appearance can be seen by -referring to the figure. - -After passing through the usual coat-changing common to all caterpillars, -it begins, just before its last change, to prepare a spot where it may -pass its pupal state. Its mode of so doing is very curious, and is -briefly as follows:-- - -The chrysalis is intended to remain in an attitude which we should think -singularly uncomfortable, but which seems to suit the constitution of -certain creatures, such as bats and chrysalides; namely, with its head -downward. Why some insects should be thus suspended, while others lie -horizontally, is not known as yet. But there can be no doubt but that -some purpose is served by the various positions and localities assumed by -insects in their pupal state. - -Any one of a reflective mind, on hearing that a chrysalis was to be -suspended by its tail, would feel some perplexity as to the means by -which such a position could be attained. For the old caterpillar’s skin -has to be shed, and thus the legless, limbless chrysalis is left without -any apparent power to suspend itself. The attitude which it assumes may -be seen on plate D, fig. 4 _b_. On examining the chrysalis itself, and -the leaf or twig to which it is suspended, it will be seen that a little -silken mound is fastened to the leaf, and the chrysalis is furnished with -some hooked processes on its tail, which are hitched upon the silken -threads, and thus hold the creature in the proper position. - -The Peacock Butterfly, plate H, fig. 8, is an insect of very similar -habits and manners. The under side of the wings is very dark, and when -they are closed over the back, the butterfly looks more like a flat piece -of brown paper than an insect. The spots on the upper surface of the wing -are especially beautiful; and the mode in which those spots are coloured -by their feathers is shown in plate L, fig. 4, where a portion of the -wing-spot is slightly magnified. This figure shows also the manner in -which the feather-dust of the butterfly’s wing is arranged. The larva of -this beautiful insect is shown on fig. 8 _b_. Like that of the Atalanta, -it feeds on the stinging-nettle. - -On plate D, fig. 1, is drawn a very lovely insect, one of the numerous -blue butterflies that may be seen flitting about the flowers in a garden, -themselves of so flower-like an azure, that they may often be mistaken -for a blue blossom. The caterpillar, fig. 1 _b_, is, as may be seen, -rather curious in shape, and the pupa, fig. 1 _c_, is hardly less so. - -Among the scales of this insect occur certain specimens called from their -shape “battledore” scales, some of which may be seen on plate K, fig. 8, -contrasted with the ordinary scales. - -On the same plate as the blue butterfly, fig. 2, is seen a very pretty -and common insect, called the “Orange-tip,” on account of the colour -of the wings. Only the male butterfly possesses these decorations, -the female having wings merely white above, although she retains the -beautiful green speckling of the under-wings. - -Two more butterflies, and those the commonest of all, will complete this -chapter. One will be at once recognised from the drawing, plate I, fig. -4, as the White Cabbage Butterfly. The specimen here represented is the -female; the male is smaller and has darker spots. - -This is the parent of those green and black caterpillars which devastate -our cabbage-beds, make sieves of the leaves, and are so disagreeably -tenacious of their rights of possession. Pest as it is to the gardeners, -to cooks, and sometimes, alas! to consumers, it would be a hundredfold -worse but for the exertions of a fly so small as hardly to be noticed, -but by its effects. This insect belongs to the same order as the bees, -and is shown upon plate J, fig. 6. Small though it be, one such insect -can compass the destruction of many a caterpillar, though not one -thousandth part of the size of a single victim. While the caterpillar -is feeding, the ichneumon fly, as it is called, settles upon its back, -pierces its skin with a little drill, wherewith it is furnished, and in -the wound deposits an egg. This process is repeated until the ichneumon’s -work is done. - -As each wound is made, the caterpillar seems to wince, but shows no -farther sense of uneasiness, and proceeds with its eating as usual. -But its food serves very little for its own nourishment, because the -ichneumon’s eggs are speedily hatched into ichneumon grubs, and consume -the fatty portions of the caterpillar as fast as it is formed. - -In process of time the caterpillar ought to take the chrysalis shape, -and for that purpose leaves its food and seeks a convenient spot for its -change. - -That change never comes, for the ichneumons have been growing as fast as -the caterpillar, with whose development they keep pace. And no sooner -has their victim ceased to feed, than they simultaneously eat their way -out of the doomed creature, and immediately spin for themselves a number -of bright yellow cocoons, among which the dying caterpillar is often -hopelessly fixed. Sometimes it has sufficient strength to escape, but it -never survives. - -In the later summer months, these cocoon masses may be seen abundantly on -walls, palings, and similar spots. - -Plate I, fig. 3, shows the Brimstone Butterfly, one of the first to -appear as the herald of spring. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - - STAG-BEETLE--MUSK-BEETLE--TIGER-BEETLE--COCK-TAIL--VARIOUS - BURYING-BEETLES--ROSE-BEETLE--GLOW-WORM--GROUND - AND SUN-BEETLES, ETC.--HUMBLE-BEES, HORNETS AND - THEIR ALLIES--DRAGON-FLIES--CADDIS-FLY--WATER - BOATMAN--CUCKOO-SPIT--HOPPERS, EARWIG, AND LACE-FLY. - - -Of the remaining objects, only a very brief description can be given. -Enough, however, will be said to assist the observer in identifying the -object, and to serve as a guide to its locality and manners. We will -first take the beetles; and as the largest is the most conspicuous, the -great Stag-beetle shall have the precedence. - -This insect (plate E, fig. 5) is quite unmistakable; and, from its -very ferocious aspect, would deter many from touching it. But it is -very lamb-like in disposition, and sometimes as playful as a lamb. Its -numerous jaws can certainly pinch with much violence; but are not used -for the purpose of killing other creatures, as might be supposed. - -The food of the stag-beetle is simply the juices of plants, which it -sweeps up with that little brush-like organ that may be seen in the very -centre of the jaws. In winter it buries itself in the ground, and then, -making a smooth vault, abides the winter’s cold unharmed. - -Only the male beetle possesses these tremendous jaws; those of the female -being hardly one-tenth of their size, but so sharp at their points that -their bite is just as severe. - -The insect that next comes under notice is the Musk-beetle (plate I, fig. -7), a beautiful and conspicuous insect, of a rich green colour above, -and a purplish blue below. Its name of musk-beetle is derived from the -fragrant scent which it emits; a scent, however, not the least like musk, -but more resembling that of roses. It is so powerful that the presence -of the insect may often be detected by the nostrils, though it is hidden -from the eyes. It may be found chiefly on willow trees. - -There is another beetle that gives out a sweet scent, much resembling -that of the verbena leaf. This is the Tiger-beetle (plate D, fig. 8). -With the exception of the white spots on the wing covers, the colours of -this insect are much the same as those of the musk-beetle. - -Its name seems hardly commensurate with its aspect; but never was a -title better deserved. And, space allowing, I could here draw a terrible -character; but as brevity is enforced, I can but say that this sparkling -and beautiful insect seems to have the spirit of twenty tigers compressed -into its little body. - -All things have their opposites; and opposed to these perfume-bearing -beetles are some who are just insect skunks. Chief among these is the -common black Cock-tail, a creature of truly diabolical aspect. It is a -carrion eater, and intensifies the carrion odour. Still, repulsive as -it is, it has its beauties. Its wings are very beautiful, and the mode -in which these organs are packed away under their small cases is most -wonderful. It is to aid in this process that the cock-tail possesses the -faculty of turning its tail over its back. Plate H, fig. 12. - -Another beetle of an abominable odour is the Burying-beetle, one of which -is shown on plate C, fig. 8. There are many burying-beetles, but this -species is the most common. - -Their name is derived from their habit of burying any piece of meat -or dead animal that may be lying on the surface of the earth, not so -much for the sake of themselves as for their progeny. In the buried -animal their eggs are laid, and its putrefying substance affords them -nourishment. The rapidity with which these and similar insects will -consume even a large animal is marvellous. I have seen a large sheep -stripped to the very bones in three days, nothing but bones and wool -being left to mark the spot where it had lain. - -Another kind of burying-beetle is seen on plate B, fig. 7; but instead -of dead meat it buries the droppings of living animals, those of the cow -being preferred. For this purpose it drives a perpendicular shaft into -the ground, makes up a round ball of the droppings, puts an egg into the -middle of the ball, rolls it into the hole, and after pushing some earth -after it, sets to work at another shaft. - -It is evident how beneficial the labours of these insects must be; -for by their means the earth is pierced with passages for air--part -is thrown out on the surface, where it becomes regenerated by the -atmosphere--noxious substances are removed from the surface, where they -would do harm, and placed deep in the ground, where they do good. - -The popular name for this beetle is the Watchman, because in the dusk of -the evening it “wheels its drowsy flight,” much as watchmen made their -sleepy rounds. It belongs to the same family of insects as the sacred -Scarabæus of the Egyptians. - -On plate C, fig. 11, is depicted the common Rose-beetle so called because -it is an insect of refined habits, and chiefly dwells in the bosom of -white roses. Yet it loves earth too, and in pursuance of its mission -falls from its rose to earth, and there digs a receptacle for its future -progeny. But though in earth, it is not of earth; and, burrow as it may, -it returns to its rose without a stain upon its burnished wings. - -The curious Glow-worm, as it is called falsely, it being a beetle, and -not a worm, is shown on plate J, fig. 1. Both the male and female insect -give out this light, as I have often seen, though that of the female is -the more powerful. The two sexes are very different in appearance, as may -be seen by reference to the plate, fig. 1 being the male, and 1 _a_ the -female. The object of the light is by no means certain, nor the mode in -which it is produced. - -On the same plate, fig. 11, is seen the Oil-beetle, an eccentric kind of -insect, which, when frightened, pours a drop of oil out of every joint, -just as if it were a walking oil-barrel with self-acting taps. - -One of the commonest beetles, the Ground-beetle, is seen on the same -plate, fig. 10. There are very many ground-beetles, but this is one of -the handsomest and most conspicuous. The embossment of its upper surface -is worth a close examination, and its colouring is peculiarly rich and -deep. - -Hot sunny days always seem to bring out a host of insects, among which -the Sun-beetles are notable examples. One of these insects is shown on -plate D, fig. 6. They are beautifully brilliant as they run among the -gravel-stones or over paths, their smooth surface glittering in the sun -resplendently. - -As an aquatic balance to the terrene Sun-beetles, the Whirligigs (plate -F, fig. 4) make their appearance on the surface of the water on any light -sunny day. What rule they observe in their mazy dance is more difficult -to comprehend than the “Lancers” or a cotillon: but that there must be a -rule is clear from the wonderful way in which they avoid striking against -each other in their passage. - -Every one knows the Lady Bird, with its pretty red wings and black spots. -Its larva (plate B, fig. 8) is a very singular creature, and destructive -withal, spearing and eating Aphides as ruthlessly as Polyphemus impaled -and devoured the captured sailors. It has a curious history, but there is -no room for it here. - -On plate H, fig. 7, is represented one of the many Skipjack-beetles, who -afford such amusement to juveniles by their sudden leaps into the air -when laid on their backs. This feat is performed by means of a sudden -blow of the head and thorax. Farmers, however, are not all amused by it, -for it is the parent of the terrible “wire-worm,” so deadly a foe to corn -and potatoes. - -Some insects prefer com when placed in granaries, and these are the -Weevils, whose grubs populate sea-biscuit, and run races across plates -for wagers. Nuts also fall victims to the weevil represented on plate I, -fig. 9, or rather to its grub, “Time out of mind the fairies’ coachmaker”. - -There is a very common little green weevil shown on plate C, fig. 7, -which, although ordinary enough to the unassisted eye, yet under the -microscope glows with jewels and gold. It is, in truth, the British -Diamond-beetle. An idea of its appearance may be obtained from plate L, -fig. 6, but to give the real glory of the colouring is impossible. - -One of the little insects called Death-watches is shown on plate J, -fig. 8. There are many insects that go by this name, because they make a -slight tapping sound with their heads, probably to call their mates; and -which sound has been thought to prognosticate death rather than marriage. - -The curious Tortoise-beetle is depicted on plate C, fig. 6. Its chief -peculiarity is in its larval state, when it carries a kind of parasol, -formed from the remains of the leaves on which it has been feeding. - -Last and least of the beetles comes one as destructive as it is small, -the Turnip-hopper. This little animal, no larger than a small pin’s head, -does great damage to the turnip crops, and is therefore hated by farmers. -It is shown, much magnified, on plate J, fig. 13. - -From the beetles we proceed to the Bee tribe; and first take the -common Humble-bee, several of which are shown on plate H, fig. 10, -representing the “Red-hipped Humble-bee,” which mostly makes its nest -among stone-heaps. Fig. 11 is the common Humble-bee, that burrows in the -ground, and there builds its thimble-like cells. These cells are very -irregular in shape, and are affixed to each other without any definite -order. Of these two insects, the latter is harmless enough; but the -former becomes very fierce if its nest is approached too closely. - -A magnified view of some hairs of the Humble-bee is given on plate K, -fig. 11. - -There are some bees which make their nests in old walls, where they -either dig for themselves a hole, or oftener take advantage of a -nail-hole, and so save themselves much trouble. One of these bees is -shown on plate H, fig. 2, and is chiefly remarkable for the beautifully -tufted extremities of its middle pair of legs. - -On plate D, fig. 7, is seen the common Hornet, one of the really terrible -of our insects. It mostly makes its nest in hollow trees, and it behoves -one to keep very clear of the neighbourhood. The nest is made of -wood-fibre, nibbled, and made into a primitive papier-maché. - -Two of the Saw-flies may be seen on plate J. Fig. 2 is the common green -Saw-fly, and fig. 3 the dreaded Turnip-fly. These are called Saw-flies -because they are furnished with saw-like implements, by means of which -they cut grooves in certain plants, and in those grooves lay their eggs. - -Mention has already been made of the little Ichneumon fly. One of these -insects is shown magnified on plate J, fig. 12 _a_, and one of the large -species is depicted on plate H, fig. 3. The threefold appendage to the -tail is the ovipositor, or instrument by means of which they pierce their -victims and deposit their eggs. - -There are some allied insects that pierce vegetables instead of -insects; and one of their works may be seen figured on plate A, where a -bramble-branch has been perforated by them. The well-known oak-apples, -plate B, fig. 6, are caused by a Cynips, as the little creature is -called; and so is the common Bedeguar of the rose, seen on plate C, fig. -2. - -The last of these insects that will be named is the beautiful Fire-tail, -plate D, fig. 5, one of the most brilliant insects that our island can -boast. There are many British species of this insect, but they all much -resemble each other, and are insect cuckoos, laying their eggs in the -nests of other insects. - -From the bees, we pass to the Flies; and first take a most singular -insect, shown on plate H, fig. 5. This insect is found on the blackberry -blossoms, and the upper part of its body is so transparent that the leaf -on which it sits can be seen through it. It is swift of wing and wary, -requiring a quick eye and hand for its capture. - -On the same plate, fig. 6, is shown one of the traveller’s pests, a fly -that bites, or rather bores, the skin, and that with such virulence that -it can even strike its poisoned dart through a cloth coat, and make its -victim to lament for many an hour after. - -One of the various hoverer-flies is shown on plate J, fig. 9. The larva -of this insect is very remarkable, on account of its curious breathing -apparatus. The larva is properly called the Rat-tailed Maggot, and is -shown on the same plate, fig. 8 _a_. The body of the creature is found -buried in the mud at the bottom of stagnant pools or cisterns, and the -respiration is carried on through the telescopic tail, which is long -enough to protrude through the mud, and to convey the necessary oxygen to -the system through two flexible air-tubes that pass through the “tail”. - -It will be remembered that in mentioning the Green Oak Moth, the -Destroying Empis was also noticed. One of these flies is shown on plate -J, fig. 5, with the poor Tortrix in its grasp. Plate K, fig. 1, shows its -foot, and fig. 3 its head, together with its long beak. - -The beak of this fly somewhat reminds one of the corresponding portion of -the Gnat, which insect is not itself depicted, though on plate F, fig. -10, is shown the wonderful little egg-boat which it makes. This insect -glues together its eggs in such a manner that they are formed into a -true lifeboat, which cannot be upset, or sunk, or filled with water, but -floats securely on the surface until the young are hatched. That object -accomplished, the gnat-larvæ tumble into the water, and there undergo -their transformation. - -The last of the two-winged flies that will be mentioned is the common -Daddy Long Legs, or Crane-fly, which seems to set such little value on -its limbs. It is a very injurious insect in its larval state, feeding -on roots, and doing great damage. Plate H, fig. 1, shows a very pretty -species, covered with yellow rings. - -Every one must have noticed the beautiful and active insects that are -with great truth called Dragon-flies. Their habits and peculiarities -would demand a volume; and here they can but be mentioned. Plate F, -fig. 6, shows the common Flat Dragon-fly, that may be seen chasing and -following flies of all sizes, and even butterflies. Fig. 8 is the elegant -Demoiselle, the male of which is shown here, with its dark purple spots -on the wings and dark blue body. The female is of a uniform green. Its -larva is shown at fig. 8 _a_, where the singular leafy gills may be seen -at the end of its tail. Fig. 7 shows another very common Dragon-fly, very -thin and ringed with blue circlets. - -On the same plate, fig. 12, may be seen several varieties of the objects -known to fishermen as “Caddis” cases. These are residences built by the -larva of the common Caddis, or Stone-fly, which is represented on the -same plate, fig. 9. - -Still keeping to plate F, and referring to fig. 1, is seen the -horrid-looking Water-scorpion, a creature which, though it does not -sting, has much of the scorpion nature, and so bites. Fig. 1 _a_ shows -the same insect as it appears when flying. - -At fig. 3 is seen the Water Boatman, so called because it lies on its -back, which is ridged like the keel of a boat, and then rows itself about -by means of its middle pair of legs, which closely resemble oars. - -Fig. 5 shows a very curious object which is common enough on the margin -of pools, and runs on the surface of the water as if it were dry land. -When alarmed, it shuts up all its legs, and looks just like a piece of -dry grass or thin stick. - -Another insect much resembling it, is the common Gerris, seen on plate -I, fig. 6. It may be seen on every pond or still water, running over -its surface, and is furnished with wings wherewith it can fly to great -distances. I have found specimens on the tops of hills, far from any -water, and hiding under stones out of the sun’s heat. Fig. 1 shows the -common May-fly. - -All gardeners have been annoyed with the curious production called the -Cuckoo-spit. This proceeds from the larva of one of the hoppers, and on -removing the frothy substance, the little soft, greenish insect may be -found within. The perfect insect is shown on plate C, fig. 1 _a_, and the -exudation itself at fig. 1. - -There is another hopper seen on plate B, fig. 2, called from its colour -the Scarlet Hopper. It is common enough on ferns, and may be found -chiefly in the open spots of forests where ferns abound. - -On plate J, fig. 7 _a_, is the common Green Grasshopper, as it appears -when standing; and on fig. 7, the same insect as it appears when using -its wings. - -The common Earwig, plate I, fig. 8, is introduced for the purpose of -showing the very beautiful wing which this insect possesses, and which is -seen expanded at fig. 8 _a_. - -The very lovely, though ill-odoured, Lace-wing Fly is shown on plate J, -fig. 4, and its very remarkable eggs at 4 _a_. Each egg is placed at -the end of a footstalk, whereby it is kept out of the reach of certain -predacious insects. - -Various shells are drawn on one or two of the plates, but there is -not space for any description. Their names may be found on the Index -to Plates. Plate G contains certain fungi and mosses. Fig. 1 is that -peculiar plant which reindeer scrape from under the snow in the winter -time. Fig. 2 was once dreaded by rustics as “Witch’s butter”. Fig. 6 -shows the curious Earth-star, chiefly remarkable for its resemblance to -the marine Star-fish. - - - - -INDEX. - - - A. - - Adela, 153. - - Admiral Butterfly, 156. - - Armadillo, 87. - - - B. - - Bat, 4. - - Bedeguar, 172. - - Bird-nest moss, 176. - - Blind-worm, 45. - - Blue Butterfly, 160. - - Brimstone Butterfly, 163. - - Brimstone Moth, 147. - - Buff-tip Moth, 132. - - Burnet Moth, 113. - - Burying Beetle, 116. - - - C. - - Cabbage Butterfly, 161. - - Caddis, 174. - - Clear-wing Moth, 149. - - Cock-tail Beetle, 166. - - Crane-fly, 173. - - Cray-fish, 81. - - Cuckoo-spit, 175. - - Cup Moss, 176. - - Cynips, 172. - - - D. - - Death-watch, 169. - - Drinker Moth, 123. - - Dragon-flies, 174. - - - E. - - Earwig, 175. - - Eft, 65. - - Elephant Hawk Moth, 130. - - Emperor Moth, 126. - - Empis, 140. - - - F. - - Field Mouse, 17. - - Fire-tail, 172. - - Frog, 55. - - - G. - - Galls, 171. - - Gerris, 175. - - Glow-worm, 167. - - Gnat Eggs, 173. - - Gold-tailed Moth, 133. - - Grasshopper, 175. - - Ground Beetle, 168. - - - H. - - Harvest Mouse, 20. - - Hopper, scarlet, 175. - - ---- Cuckoo, 175. - - Hornet, 171. - - Hoverer Fly, 172. - - Humble-bee, 170. - - Hydrometra, 174. - - - I. - - Ichneumon, Microgaster, 162. - - - L. - - Lace-wing Fly, 176. - - Lackey Moth, 143. - - Lady-bird, 169. - - Lampern, 78. - - Lappet Moth, 145. - - Leaf Miners, 141. - - Lizard, 43. - - Long-horn Moths, 152. - - - M. - - Magpie Moth, 148. - - Mason Bee, 124. - - May-fly, 175. - - Mole, 34. - - Mouse, Field, 17. - - ---- Harvest, 20. - - ---- Shrew, 26. - - Musk Beetle, 165. - - - N. - - Newt, 65. - - - O. - - Oak-apples, 172. - - Oak Egger-moth, 115. - - Oak Moth, 137. - - Oil Beetle, 168. - - Orange-tip, 161. - - - P. - - Peacock Butterfly, 160. - - Pill Millepede, 86. - - Plume Moths, 150. - - Privet Hawk-moth, 130. - - Puss Moth, 110. - - - R. - - Rat, Water, 21. - - Rat-tailed Maggot, 172. - - Reindeer Moss, 176. - - Rose Beetle, 167. - - - S. - - Shrew, 26. - - ---- Water, 32. - - Shrimp, Fresh-water, 85. - - Skipjack Beetle, 169. - - Snake, 49. - - Stag Beetle, 164. - - Stickleback, 74. - - Sting-fly, 172. - - Stone-fly, 174. - - Sun Beetle, 168. - - - T. - - Tiger Beetle, 165. - - ---- Moth, 94. - - Toad, 59. - - Tortoise Beetle, 170. - - Turnip Fly, 171. - - ---- Hopper, 170. - - - V. - - Vapourer Moth, 136. - - Viper, 48. - - Volucella, 171. - - - W. - - Watchman Beetle, 167. - - Water Scorpion, 174. - - ---- Boatman, 174. - - Weasel, 39. - - Weevils, 169. - - Whirligig Beetle, 168. - - Witch Butter, 176. - - Woodlouse, 86. - - - - -INDEX TO PLATES. - - - A. (_Front_) - - 1. Tubercled Gall on Bramble-stem. - - 2. Track of Leaf-Miner on Bramble-leaf. - - 3. Gnat-Clearwing Moth. - - 4. Buff-tip Moth. - - --_a._ Caterpillar of do. - - 5. Privet Moth. - - --_a._ Caterpillar of do. - - 6. Snail (_Helix nemoralis_). - - 7. Do. (_Helix nemoralis_) var. - - 8. Do. (_Helix cantiana_). - - 9. Do. (_Helix ericetorum_). - - 10. Do. (_Helix lapicida_). - - 11. Shell (_Cyclostoma_). - - 12. Do. (_Zonites_). - - 13. Do. (_Helix caperata_). - - 14. Do. (_Pupa_). - - 15. Do. (_Clausilia_). - - - B. - - 1. Green Oak Moth (_Tortrix_). - - 2. Scarlet Hopper (_Cercopis_). - - 3. Burnet Moth. - - --_a._ Cocoon of do. - - 4. Puss Moth. - - --_a._ Caterpillar of do. - - 5. Tiger-Moth (Arctia). - - --_a._ Caterpillar of do. - - --_b._ Cocoon of do. - - 6. Oak-galls. - - 7. Watchman Beetle (_Geotrupes_). - - 8. Lady-bird (_Coccinella_). - - --_a._ Larva of do. - - - C. - - 1. Cuckoo-spit. - - --_a._ Cuckoo Hopper (_Tettigonia_). - - 2. Bedeguar of Rose. - - 3. Brimstone Moth. - - --_a._ Caterpillar of do. - - 4. Emperor Moth. - - --_a._ Caterpillar of do. - - --_b._ Cocoon of do. - - 5. Elephant Hawk-Moth. - - --_a._ Caterpillar of do. - - 6. Tortoise Beetle (_Cassida_). - - 7. Green Weevil. - - 8. Burying-Beetle (_Necrophorus_). - - 9. Twenty-Plume Moth. - - 10. Green Adela. - - 11. Rose-Beetle. - - - D. - - 1. Blue Butterfly (_Alexis_). - - --_a._ Do. Wings closed. - - --_b._ Caterpillar of do. - - --_c._ Pupa of do. - - 2. Orange-tip Butterfly. - - 3. Vapourer Moth, Male. - - --_a._ Do Female. - - 4. Red Admiral. - - --_a._ Caterpillar of do. - - --_b._ Pupa of do. - - 5. Fire-tail (_Chrysis_). - - 6. Sun Beetle. - - 7. Hornet. - - 8. Tiger Beetle. - - --_a._ Do Flying. - - - E. - - 1. Drinker Moth, Male. - - --_a._ Do. Female. - - --_b._ Do. Caterpillar. - - --_c._ Do. Cocoon. - - --_d._ Do. Chrysalis. - - --_e._ Do. Eggs. - - 2. Humble-bee Fly (_Bombyllus_). - - 3. Magpie Moth. - - --_a._ Do. Chrysalis. - - --_b._ Do. Caterpillar. - - 4 Gold-tailed Moth (_Porthesia_). - - --_a._ Do. Caterpillar. - - 5. Stag-Beetle. - - - F. - - 1. Water Scorpion. - - --_a._ Do. Flying. - - 2. Amber Shell (_Succinea_). - - 3. Water Boatman. - - 4. Whirligig Beetle. - - 5. Hydrometra. - - 6. Dragon-Fly (_Libellula_). - - 7. Do. (_Agrion_). - - 8. Do. Demoiselle (_Calepteryus_). - - --_a._ Do. Larva. - - 9. Stone-Fly (_Phryganea_). - - 10. Eggs of Gnat. - - 11. Caddis-cases, composed-- - - _a._ Of flat stones. - - _b._ Of bark. - - _c._ Of sand. - - _d._ Of grass. - - _e._ Of grass-stems. - - _f._ Of shells. - - 12. Water shells. - - _g._ Planorbis. - - _h._ Ancylus. - - _i._ Lymnæus. - - _k._ Paludina. - - - G. - - 1. Reindeer Moss (_Cladonia_). - - 2. Witch-butter (_Tremella_). - - 3. Polytrichum. - - 4. Bird-nest Moss (_Nidularia_). - - 5. Xylaria. - - 6. Earth-star (_Geastrum_). - - --_a._ Do. closed. - - 7. Arscyria. - - 8. Cup-moss (_Cenomyce_). - - 9. Scarlet Cup-moss (_Peziza_). - - 10. Marchantia. - - - H. - - 1. Crane-fly. - - 2. Mason Bee (_Megachile_). - - 3. Ichneumon (_Pimpla_). - - 4. Adela Long-horn. - - 5. Volucella. - - 6. Sting-fly (_Chrysops_). - - 7. Skipjack Beetle (_Elater_). - - 8. Peacock Butterfly. - - --_a._ Do. wings closed. - - --_b._ Do. Caterpillar. - - 9. White-Plume Moth. - - 10. Red-tailed Humble-Bee. - - 11. Common do. - - 12. Cock-tail Beetle (_Goërius_). - - - I. - - 1. May-fly (_Ephemera_). - - 2. Scorpion-fly. - - 3. Brimstone Butterfly. - - 4. Cabbage White Butterfly. - - --_a._ Do. Caterpillar. - - 5. Oak Egger-Moth, female. - - --_a._ Do. Cocoon. - - 6. Gerris. - - 7. Musk Beetle. - - 8. Earwig. - - --_a._ Do. flying. - - 9. Nut Weevil. - - - J. - - 1_a_. Glow-worm, male. - - --_b._ Do. female. - - 2. Green Saw-fly (_Tenthredo_). - - 3. Turnip-fly. - - 4. Lace-wing Fly. - - --_a._ Eggs of do. on lilac branch. - - 5. Empis. - - --_a._ Do. killing Oak-moth. - - 6. Ichneumon (_Microgaster_) and cocoons. - - 7. Grasshopper, flying. - - --_a._ Do. walking. - - 8. Death-watch (_Anobium_). - - 9. Hoverer-fly. - - --_a._ Rat-tailed Maggot. - - 10. Ground Beetle (_Carabus_). - - 11. Oil Beetle. - - 12. Cocoon of Microgaster, magnified. - - --_a._ Microgaster, magnified. - - 13. Turnip-hopper (_Haltica_), magnified. - - --_a._ Do. natural size. - - 14. Cyclops, magnified, showing egg-sacs. - - 15. Scarlet Spider (_Trombidium_), magnified. - - --_a._ Do. natural size. - - - K. - - MICROSCOPICAL. - - 1. Foot of Empis. - - 2. Pollen--_a._ Sunflower. - - _b._ Passion Flower. - - _c._ Lily. - - 3. Head of Empis. - - 4. Foot of Male Water-Beetle (_Dyticus_). - - 5. Trunk of Blue-bottle Fly. - - 6. Foot of Frog, showing circulation. - - 7. Petal of Geranium, showing stomata. - - 8. Battledore Scales of Blue Butterfly. - - 9. Scale of Fritillary Butterfly. - - 10. Eye of Butterfly. - - 11. Hairs of Humble-Bee. - - - L. - - MICROSCOPICAL. - - 1 and 3. Scales of various Butterflies. - - 2. Eye of Hemerobius. - - 4. Wing of Peacock Butterfly. - - 5. Poppy seeds. - - 6. Wing-case of Green Weevil. - - 7. Egg of Red Underwing Moth. - - 8. ---- of Small White Butterfly. - - 9. ---- of Tortoiseshell Butterfly. - - 10. ---- of Lathonia Butterfly. - -[Illustration: B] - -[Illustration: C] - -[Illustration: D] - -[Illustration: E] - -[Illustration: F] - -[Illustration: G] - -[Illustration: H] - -[Illustration: I] - -[Illustration: J] - -[Illustration: K] - -[Illustration: L] - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Common Objects of the Country, by J. G. 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