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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #54620 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/54620)
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-The Project Gutenberg eBook, Rude Stone Monuments in All Countries, by
-James Fergusson
-
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
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-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
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-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
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-
-
-
-Title: Rude Stone Monuments in All Countries
-       Their Age and Uses
-
-
-Author: James Fergusson
-
-
-
-Release Date: April 28, 2017  [eBook #54620]
-
-Language: English
-
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-
-
-***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RUDE STONE MONUMENTS IN ALL
-COUNTRIES***
-
-
-E-text prepared by Sonya Schermann, Brian Wilsden, and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images
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-      https://archive.org/details/rudestonemonumen00ferg
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-Transcriber's note:
-
-      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
-
-      The caret symbol (^) indicates that the following character
-      is superscripted. (e.g., vig^t).
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-
-[Illustration: THE STANDING STONES OF STENNIS. From an original drawing
-in the possession of the Author. FRONTISPIECE]
-
-
-RUDE STONE MONUMENTS IN ALL COUNTRIES;
-
-Their Age and Uses.
-
-by
-
-JAMES FERGUSSON, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
-V.P.R.A.S., F.R.I.B.A., &c.
-
-[Illustration: Demi-Dolmen, Kerland.]
-
-With Two Hundred and Thirty-Four Illustrations.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-London:
-John Murray, Albemarle Street.
-1872.
-
-The right of Translation is reserved.
-
-London:
-Printed by William Clowes and Sons, Stamford Street,
-and Charing Cross.
-
-
-
-
-PREFACE
-
-
-When, in the year 1854, I was arranging the scheme for the 'Handbook
-of Architecture,' one chapter of about fifty pages was allotted to
-the Rude Stone Monuments then known. When, however, I came seriously
-to consult the authorities I had marked out, and to arrange my ideas
-preparatory to writing it, I found the whole subject in such a state
-of confusion and uncertainty as to be wholly unsuited for introduction
-into a work, the main object of which was to give a clear but succinct
-account of what was known and admitted with regard to the architectural
-styles of the world. Again, ten years afterwards, while engaged in
-re-writing this 'Handbook' as a 'History of Architecture,' the same
-difficulties presented themselves. It is true that in the interval
-the Druids, with their Dracontia, had lost much of the hold they
-possessed on the mind of the public; but, to a great extent, they had
-been replaced by prehistoric myths, which, though free from their
-absurdity, were hardly less perplexing. The consequence was that then,
-as in the first instance, it would have been necessary to argue every
-point and defend every position. Nothing could be taken for granted,
-and no narrative was possible. The matter was, therefore, a second
-time allowed quietly to drop without being noticed. I never, however,
-lost sight of the subject, and I hoped some time or other to be able
-to treat of it with the fulness its interest deserves; and in order
-to forward this project, in July, 1860, I wrote an article in the
-'Quarterly Review,' entitled 'Stonehenge,' in which I stated the views
-I had then formed on the subject; and again, ten years afterwards, in
-April of last year, another article, entitled 'Non-Historic Times' in
-the same journal, in which I added such new facts and arguments as I
-had gathered in the interval. The principal object it was sought to
-attain in writing these articles, was to raise a discussion on the moot
-points which I hoped would have tended towards settling them. If any
-competent archæologist had come forward, and could have pointed out the
-weak point in the argument, he would have rendered a service to the
-cause; or if any leading authority had endorsed the views advocated in
-these articles, the public might have felt some confidence in their
-correctness. This expectation has not been fulfilled, but they have
-probably not been without their use in preparing the minds of others
-for the views advanced in them, while, as no refutation has appeared,
-and no valid objection has been urged against them, either in public
-or in private, I may fairly consider myself justified in feeling
-considerable confidence in their general correctness.
-
-Till antiquaries are agreed whether the circles are temples or tombs
-or observatories, whether the dolmens are monuments of the dead or
-altars for sacrificing living men, and whether the mounds are tombs
-or law courts, it seems impossible, without arguing every point, to
-write anything that will be generally accepted. Still more, till it
-is decided whether they are really prehistoric or were erected at
-the periods where tradition and history place them, it seems in vain
-to attempt to explain in a simple narrative form either their age or
-uses. As a necessary consequence of all this confusion, it is scarcely
-practicable at present to compile a work which shall be merely a
-Historical and Statistical account of the Rude Stone Monuments in all
-parts of the world; but till something is settled and agreed upon, we
-must be content with one which to a certain extent, at least, takes the
-form of an argument. Many of its pages which would have been better
-employed in describing and classifying, are occupied with arguments
-against some untenable theory or date, or in trying to substitute
-for those usually accepted, some more reasonable proposition.
-Notwithstanding this, however, it is hoped that this work will be
-found to contain a greater number of new facts regarding Rude Stone
-Monuments, and of carefully selected illustrations extending over a
-larger area, than have yet been put together in a volume of the same
-extent.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-It may fairly be asked, and no doubt will, how I dare to set up my
-opinions with regard to these monuments in opposition to those of
-the best informed antiquaries, not only in this country but on the
-Continent? The answer I would venture to suggest is, that no other
-antiquary, so far as I am aware, has gone so carefully and fully into
-the whole subject, or has faced all the difficulties with which the
-questions are everywhere perplexed. The books that have hitherto been
-written are either the work of speculative dreamers, like Stukeley,
-Higgins, or Vallancey, who having evolved a baseless theory out of
-their own inner consciousness, seek everywhere for materials to prop
-it up, and are by no means particular as to the inferences they draw
-from very obscure or slender hints: or they are, on the other hand,
-the works of local antiquaries, whose opinions are influenced mainly
-by what they find in their own researches. The works of such men are
-invaluable as contributions to the general stock of knowledge, but
-their theories must be received with caution, as based on too narrow
-a foundation either of facts or inferences; for it need hardly be
-insisted upon that no amount of local experience can qualify any one
-to write on such a subject as this. It does not even seem sufficient
-that an author should be familiar with all the varieties of megalithic
-remains. Unless he has also mastered the other forms of architectural
-art, and knows in what manner and from what motives the styles of one
-people are adopted from or influenced by that of another race, he will
-hardly be able to unravel the various tangled problems that meet him at
-every step in such an investigation. When looked at, however, from the
-same point of view, and judged by the same laws as other styles, that
-of the dolmen builders does not appear either mythical or mysterious.
-They seem to be the works of a race of men actuated by the same motives
-and feelings as ourselves, and the phenomena of their arts do not seem
-difficult of explanation.
-
-It is because I have spent the greater part of my life in studying
-the architecture of all nations, and through all ages, that I believe
-myself entitled to express an opinion on the perplexed questions
-connected with megalithic remains, though it differs widely from that
-generally received, and that I dare to face the objection which is sure
-to be raised that my work is based on too narrow an induction, and that
-I have overlooked the evidences of primæval man which exist everywhere.
-It is not, however, that I have neglected either the evidence from
-the drift, or from the caves, but that I have rejected them as
-irrelevant, and because I can hardly trace any connexion between
-them and the megalithic remains, to the investigation of which this
-work is specially devoted. I have also purposely put on one side all
-reference to hut circles, Picts' houses, brochs, and other buildings
-composed of smaller stones, which are generally mixed up with the big
-stone monuments. I have done this, not because I doubt that many of
-these may be coeval, but because their age being doubtful also, it
-would only confuse and complicate the argument to introduce them, and
-because, whenever the age of the great stones is determined these minor
-monuments will easily fit into their proper places. At present, neither
-their age or use throws any light either for or against that of the
-great stones.
-
-It need hardly be remarked, to anyone who knows anything about the
-subject, that the difficulties in the way of writing such a book as
-this are enormous, and I do not believe any one could, in a first
-edition at all events, avoid all the pitfalls that surround his path.
-The necessary information has to be picked up in fragments from some
-hundreds of volumes of travels, or the Transactions and Journals of
-learned Societies, none of which are specially devoted to the subject,
-and very few of which are indexed, or have any general résumé of their
-contents. Add to this that the older works are all untrustworthy,
-either from the theories they are twisted to support, or from bad
-drawing or imperfect knowledge; and too many of the modern examples are
-carelessly sketched and still more carelessly engraved. Another source
-of difficulty is, that it is rare with readers of papers and writers in
-journals to quote references, and sometimes when these are given they
-are wrong. I have thus been forced to limit the field from which my
-information is taken very considerably. I have tried hard to introduce
-no illustration I could not thoroughly depend upon, and I have not
-intentionally quoted a single reference I had not verified from the
-original authorities.
-
-In one respect I cannot but feel that I may have laid myself open to
-hostile criticism. On many minor points I have offered suggestions
-which I do not feel sure that I could prove if challenged, and which,
-consequently, a more prudent man would have left alone. I have done
-this because it often happens that such suggestions turn the attention
-of others to points which would otherwise be overlooked, and may lead
-to discoveries of great importance; while if disproved, they are only
-so much rubbish swept out of the path of truth, and their detection can
-do no harm to any one but their author. Whatever my shortcomings, I am
-too much in earnest to look forward with any feelings of dismay to such
-a contingency.
-
-Besides the usual motives which prompt the publication of such a work
-as this, there are two which seem to render its appearance at this time
-particularly desirable. The first is to promote enquiry by exciting
-interest in the subject; the second is to give precision to future
-researches. So long as everything is vague and mythical, explorers do
-not know what to observe or record: this work, however, presents a
-distinct and positive view of the age or use of the megalithic remains,
-and every new fact must tend either to upset or confirm the theory it
-seeks to establish. With this view, I need hardly add that I shall
-be extremely grateful for any new facts or additional sources of
-information which may be communicated to me, either through the public
-press or privately. Numerous persons having local experience must know
-many things which may have escaped me. It is very probable that these
-may induce me to modify some of the details of this work; but so much
-is now known, and the field from which my inductions are gathered is so
-wide, that I have no fear that they will touch the main arguments on
-which the theory of this work is founded.[1]
-
-However this may be, I trust that this work may lay claim to being, in
-one respect at least, a contribution to the cause of truth regarding
-the much-disputed age and use of these Rude Stone Monuments. It states
-distinctly and without reserve one view of the mooted question, and so
-openly that any one who knows better can at once pull away the prop
-from my house of cards and level it with the ground. If one thing comes
-out more clearly than another in the course of this investigation, it
-is that the style of architecture to which these monuments belong is a
-style, like Gothic, Grecian, Egyptian, Buddhist, or any other. It has
-a beginning, a middle, and an end; and though we cannot yet make out
-the sequence in all its details, this at least seems clear--that there
-is no great hiatus; nor is it that one part is prehistoric, while the
-other belongs to historic times. All belong to the one epoch or to the
-other. Either it is that Stonehenge and Avebury and all such are the
-temples of a race so ancient as to be beyond the ken of mortal man,
-or they are the sepulchral monuments of a people who lived so nearly
-within the limits of the true historic times that their story can
-easily be recovered. If this latter view is adopted, the whole, it
-appears to me, hangs so perfectly together, and presents so complete
-and so rational an account of all the local or historical facts which
-are at present known concerning these remains, that I feel great
-confidence that it must eventually be adopted as the true explanation
-of the phenomena. If it is it will have this further advantage, that
-when any serious attempt is made to investigate either the history or
-the manners and customs of these ancient peoples, it is probable that
-these megalithic remains will be found to be the best and surest guide.
-
-From the circumstances above detailed, this work would have been a
-much more meagre production than it is hoped it will be found, had
-it not been for the kindness of many friends who have assisted me in
-my undertaking. My chapter on Ireland, for instance, would have been
-much less full had not Sir W. Wilde, Mr. Eugene Conwell, and Mr. Moore
-assisted me with illustrations and information; and for my knowledge of
-Scotch antiquities I owe much to my friend John Stuart, of Edinburgh,
-while Sir Henry Dryden's invaluable collections have been of the utmost
-service to me both as regards Scotland and Brittany. Professor Säve
-and Mr. Hildebrand have materially aided me in Sweden, and M. Riaño
-in Spain; but the post apparently suppresses any correspondence on
-archæological subjects with France and Denmark. Without the kindness
-of Sir Bartle Frere and his elder brother in lending me drawings, or
-Colonel Collinson in procuring information, my account of the Maltese
-antiquities would have been very much less satisfactory than it is; and
-I also owe my best thanks to Mr. Walhouse, of the Madras Civil Service,
-and Mr. Burgess, of Bombay, for their assistance in respect to Indian
-antiquities. I have tried in the text to acknowledge my obligations to
-these and all other parties who have assisted me. If I have omitted
-any, I trust they will believe it has not been intentionally, but
-through inadvertence.
-
-For myself, I hope I may be allowed to plead that I have spared no
-pains in investigating the materials placed at my disposal, and no
-haste in forming my conclusions; and I may also add, they are by no
-means those of predilection or that I wished to arrive at. When I
-first took up the subject, I hoped that the rude stone monuments would
-prove to be old,--so old, indeed, as to form the "incunabula" of other
-styles, and that we might thus, by a simple process, arrive at the
-genesis of styles. Bit by bit that theory has crumbled to pieces as my
-knowledge increased, and most reluctantly have I been forced to adopt
-the more prosaic conclusions of the present volume. If, however, this
-represents the truth, that must be allowed to be an ample compensation
-for the loss of any poetry which has hitherto hung round the mystery of
-the Rude Stone Monuments.
-
-_Langham Place, Dec. 1, 1871._
-
-    [Footnote 1: What is really wanted now is, a "Megalithic Monument
-    Publication Society." After the meeting of the Prehistoric Congress
-    at Norwich, a committee for this purpose was formed in conjunction
-    with the Ethnological Society. After several meetings everything
-    was arranged and settled, but, alas! there were no funds to meet
-    the necessary expenses, or, at least, risk of publication, and
-    the whole thing fell through. To do what is wanted on a really
-    efficient scale a payment or a guarantee of 1000_l._ would be
-    necessary, and that is far beyond what is attainable in this poor
-    country. If it could be obtained, the materials are abundant.
-    Sir Henry Dryden alone could fill a volume with the materials he
-    already possesses; and Lieut. Oliver, Mr. Conwell, and others, have
-    drawings sufficient to keep the society at work for a long time.]
-
-
-
-
-CONTENTS.
-
-                                                           PAGE
-  INTRODUCTORY                                                  1
-
-
-  CHAPTER II.
-
-  PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. Tumuli--Dolmens--Circles--Avenues
-  --Menhirs                                                    29
-
-
-  CHAPTER III.
-
-  ENGLAND. Avebury and Stonehenge                              61
-
-
-  CHAPTER IV.
-
-  MINOR ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. Aylesford--Ashdown--
-  Rollright--Penrith--Derbyshire--Stanton Drew--Smaller
-  Circles--Dolmens                                            116
-
-
-  CHAPTER V.
-
-  IRELAND. Moytura--Cemeteries--Boyne--Lough
-  Crew--Clover Hill--Dolmens                                  175
-
-
-  CHAPTER VI.
-
-  SCOTLAND. Orkney Stone Circles--Orkney Barrows--
-  Maes-Howe Dragon and Serpent-Knot--Holed Stone of
-  Stennis--Callernish--Aberdeenshire Circles--Fiddes
-  Hill--Clava Mounds--Stone at Aberlemmo--Sculptured
-  Stones--Crosses in Isle of Man                              239
-
-
-  CHAPTER VII.
-
-  SCANDINAVIA AND NORTH GERMANY. Introductory--
-  Battle-fields--Harald Hildetand's Tomb--Long Barrows--
-  Tumuli--Dolmens--Drenthe: Hunebeds                          275
-
-
-  CHAPTER VIII.
-
-  FRANCE. Introductory--Distribution of Dolmens--Age of
-  Dolmens--Grottes des Fées--Demi-Dolmens--Rocking Stones--
-  Carnac--Locmariaker--Alignments at Crozon--Age of
-  the Monuments--What are these Monuments?--They must
-  be Trophies--Time of the Fight--M. Bertrand's List of
-  Dolmens in Thirty-one Departments of France                 325
-
-
-  CHAPTER IX.
-
-  SPAIN, PORTUGAL, AND ITALY. Introductory--Dolmens--
-  Portugal--Italy                                             377
-
-
-  CHAPTER X.
-
-  ALGERIA AND TRIPOLI. Introductory--Bazinas and Chouchas--
-  Free-Standing Dolmens--Age of Dolmens--Circle near Bona--
-  The Nasamones--Origin of African Dolmen-builders--Tripoli:
-  Trilithons--Buddhist Monument at Bangkok                    395
-
-
-  CHAPTER XI.
-
-  MEDITERRANEAN ISLANDS. Malta--Sardinia--Balearic Islands    415
-
-
-  CHAPTER XII.
-
-  WESTERN ASIA. Palestine--Sinai--Arabia--Asia Minor--
-  Circassia--The Steppes--Cabul                               438
-
-
-  CHAPTER XIII.
-
-  INDIA. Introductory--Eastern India--Khassia--Western
-  India--Geographical Distribution--Age of the Stone
-  Monuments--Comparison of Dolmens--Buddhism in the West      455
-
-
-  CHAPTER XIV.
-
-  AMERICA. North America--Central America--Peru               510
-
-
-  APPENDIX A.--Glens Columbkille and Malin                    520
-
-         "     B.--Oden's Howe, &c., Upsala                   526
-
-         "     C.--Antiquities of Caithness                   527
-
-  INDEX                                                       533
-
-
-
-
-LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
-
-
-FRONTISPIECE.--Standing Stones of Stennis. VIGNETTE.--Demi-Dolmen at
-Kerland.
-
-
-  NO.                                                        PAGE
-
-  1. Section of Tomb of Alyattes                               31
-
-  2. Elevation of Tumulus at Tantalais                         32
-
-  3. Plan and Section of Chamber in Tumulus at Tantalais       32
-
-  4. Section and Plan of Tomb of Atreus at Mycenæ              33
-
-  5. View of Cocumella, Vulci                                  33
-
-  6. View of principal Chamber in Regulini Galeassi Tomb       34
-
-  7. Dolmen in Castle Wellan, Ireland                          46
-
-  8. Dolmen de Bousquet                                        46
-
-  9. Tee cut in the Rock on a Dagoba at Ajunta                 47
-
-  10. Nine Ladies, Stanton Moor                                49
-
-  11. Chambered Tumulus, Jersey                                51
-
-  12. Avenues, Circles, and Cromlech, near Merivale Bridge,
-      Dartmoor                                                 55
-
-  13. Lochcrist Menhir                                         60
-
-  14. View of Avebury restored                                 62
-
-  15. Plan of Avebury Circle and Kennet Avenue                 63
-
-  16. Circle on Hakpen Hill                                    76
-
-  17. Section of Silbury Hill                                  78
-
-  18. Iron Bit of Bridle, Silbury Hill                         81
-
-  19. Plan of Avebury                                          81
-
-  20. Elevation of the Bartlow Hills                           83
-
-  21. Marden Circle                                            85
-
-  22. General Plan of Stonehenge                               90
-
-  23. Stonehenge as at present existing                        92
-
-  24. Plan of Stonehenge restored                              93
-
-  25. Tomb of Isidorus, at Khatoura                           100
-
-  26. Country around Stonehenge                               102
-
-  27. Countless Stones, Aylesford                             116
-
-  28. The Sarsen Stones at Ashdown                            122
-
-  29. Sketch Plan of King Arthur's Round Table, with the
-      side, obliterated by the road, restored                 128
-
-  30. Arbor Low                                               140
-
-  31. Vases and Bronze Pin found in Arbor Low                 141
-
-  32. Section of Gib Hill                                     141
-
-  33. Summit of Minning Low, as it appeared in 1786           142
-
-  34. Plan of Chambers in Minning Low                         142
-
-  35. Fragment of Drinking Cup from Benty Grange              145
-
-  36. Fragment of Helmet from Benty Grange                    145
-
-  37. Circles at Stanton Drew                                 149
-
-  38. View of the Circles at Stanton Drew                     150
-
-  39. Rose Hill Tumulus                                       154
-
-  40. Snaffle-Bit found at Aspatria                           156
-
-  41. Side Stone, Aspatria Cist                               157
-
-  42. Mule Hill, Isle of Man, View of Cists                   157
-
-  43. Circle of Cists at Mule Hill                            157
-
-  44. Circles on Burn Moor, in Cumberland                     160
-
-  45. Boscawen Circles                                        161
-
-  46. Park Cwn Tumulus                                        163
-
-  47. Tumulus, Plas Newydd                                    166
-
-  48. Entrance to Dolmen, in Tumulus, Plas Newydd             166
-
-  49. Dolmen at Pentre Ifan                                   168
-
-  50. Dolmen at Plas Newydd                                   169
-
-  51. Arthur's Quoit, Gower                                   170
-
-  52. Plan of Arthur's Quoit                                  171
-
-  53. Hob Hurst's House, on Baslow Moor, Derbyshire           172
-
-  54. Circle on Battle-field of Southern Moytura              177
-
-  55. Cairn on Battle-field of Southern Moytura               177
-
-  56. The Cairn of the "One Man," Moytura                     179
-
-  57. Urn in the Cairn of the "One Man," Moytura              179
-
-  58. Battle-field of Northern Moytura                        181
-
-  59. Sketch Plan of Circle 27, Northern Moytura              182
-
-  60. View of Circle 27, Northern Moytura                     183
-
-  61. Dolmen, with Circle, No. 7, Northern Moytura            183
-
-  62. Rath na Riog, or, Cathair of Cormac, at Tara            194
-
-  63. View of Mound at New Grange                             201
-
-  64. New Grange, near Drogheda                               203
-
-  65, 66. Ornaments at New Grange                             205
-
-  67. Branch at New Grange                                    207
-
-  68. Sculptured mark at New Grange, of undecided
-      character                                               207
-
-  69. Chambers in Mound at Dowth                              208
-
-  70, 71. Ornaments in Dowth                                  210
-
-  72. Cairn T, at Lough Crew                                  214
-
-  73. The Hag's Chair, Lough Crew                             215
-
-  74. Two Stones in Cairn T, Lough Crew                       216
-
-  75. Cell in Cairn L, at Lough Crew                          217
-
-  76. Stone in Cairn T, Lough Crew                            222
-
-  77. Stones in Sculptured Graves, Clover Hill                223
-
-  78. Dolmen at Knockeen                                      229
-
-  79. Plan of Dolmen at Knockeen                              230
-
-  80. Calliagh Birra's House, north end of Parish of
-      Monasterboice                                           230
-
-  81. Plan and Section of Chamber in  Greenmount Tumulus      232
-
-  82. Dolmen of the Four Maols, Ballina                       233
-
-  83. Sketch-Plan of Monument in the Deer Park, Sligo         234
-
-  84. Circle at Stennis                                       242
-
-  85. Dragon in Maes-Howe                                     245
-
-  86. Wurm-Knot, Maes-Howe                                    245
-
-  87. Plan and Section of Maes-Howe                           246
-
-  88. View of Chamber in Maes-Howe                            247
-
-  89. Monument at Callernish                                  259
-
-  90. Circle at Fiddes Hill                                   264
-
-  91. Plan of Clava Mounds                                    266
-
-  92. View of Clava Mounds                                    266
-
-  93. Stone at Coilsfield                                     267
-
-  94. Front of Stone at Aberlemmo, with Cross                 269
-
-  95. Back of Stone at Aberlemmo                              269
-
-  96. Cat Stone, Kirkliston                                   271
-
-  97, 98. Crosses in Isle of Man, bearing Runic
-      Inscriptions                                            273
-
-  99. View of Battle-field at Kongsbacka                      279
-
-  100. Part of the Battle-field of Braavalla Heath            281
-
-  101. Harald Hildetand's Tomb at Lethra                      282
-
-  102. Long Barrow, Kennet, restored by Dr. Thurnam           284
-
-  103. Long Barrow at Wiskehärad, in Halland                  288
-
-  104. Battle-field at Freyrsö                                292
-
-  105. Dragon on King Gorm's Stone, Jellinge                  296
-
-  106. Dolmen at Herrestrup                                   303
-
-  107. Dolmen at Halskov                                      304
-
-  108. Dolmen at Oroust                                       306
-
-  109. Diagram from Sjöborg                                   307
-
-  110. Dolmen near Lüneburg                                   308
-
-  111. Double Dolmen at Valdbygaards                          309
-
-  112. Plan of Double Dolmen at Valdbygaards                  309
-
-  113. Triple Dolmen, Höbisch                                 309
-
-  114. View of Interior of Chamber at Uby                     311
-
-  115. Plan of Chamber at Uby                                 311
-
-  116. Dolmen at Axevalla                                     313
-
-  117. Head-stone of Kivik Grave                              314
-
-  118. Graves at Hjortehammer                                 316
-
-  119. Circles at Aschenrade                                  317
-
-  120. Plan of Hunebed near Emmen                             320
-
-  121. Dolmen at Ballo                                        321
-
-  122. Dolmen at Sauclières                                   334
-
-  123. Dolmen at Confolens                                    337
-
-  124. Plan of Dolmen at Confolens                            337
-
-  125. Dolmen near Mettray                                    342
-
-  126. Dolmen at Krukenho                                     342
-
-  127. Holed Dolmen, at Trie                                  344
-
-  128. Dolmen of Grandmont                                    344
-
-  129. Demi-dolmen, Morbihan                                  344
-
-  130. Demi-dolmen, near Poitiers                             347
-
-  131. Demi-dolmen at Kerland                                 347
-
-  132. Pierre Martine                                         347
-
-  133. Pierre Martine, end view                               348
-
-  134. Pierre Branlante, near Huelgoat, in Brittany           348
-
-  135. Map of Celtic Antiquities, near Carnac                 352
-
-  136. Carnac Antiquities, on enlarged Scale                  353
-
-  137. Head of Column at St.-Barbe                            355
-
-  138. Long Barrow at Kerlescant                              356
-
-  139. Hole between Two Stones at Kerlescant                  357
-
-  140. Entrance to Cell, Rodmarton                            357
-
-  141. Vases found at Kerlescant                              357
-
-  142. Plan of Moustoir-Carnac                                358
-
-  143. Section of Moustoir-Carnac                             358
-
-  144. Section of Chamber of Moustoir-Carnac                  359
-
-  145. 146. Sculptures at Mané Lud                            361
-
-  147. View of Dol ar Marchant                                361
-
-  148. End Stone, Dol ar Marchant                             362
-
-  149. Hatchet in Roof of Dol ar Marchant                     362
-
-  150. Stone found inside Chamber at Mané er H'roëk           364
-
-  151. Plan of Gavr Innis                                     364
-
-  152. Sculptures at Gavr Innis                               364
-
-  153. Holed Stone, Gavr Innis                                364
-
-  154. Alignments at Crozon                                   367
-
-  155. View of the Interior of Dolmen at Antequera            383
-
-  156. Plan of Dolmen called Cueva de Menga, near
-       Antequera                                              384
-
-  157. Dolmen del Tio Cogolleros                              385
-
-  158. Sepultura Grande                                       386
-
-  159. Plan of Dolmen at Eguilar                              387
-
-  160. Plan of Dolmen at Cangas de Onis                       387
-
-  161. Dolmen of San Miguel, at Arrichinaga                   387
-
-  162. Dolmen at Arroyolos                                    389
-
-  163. Dolmen at Saturnia                                     392
-
-  164. Bazina                                                 397
-
-  165. Choucha                                                398
-
-  166. Dolmen on Steps                                        398
-
-  167. Tumuli, with Intermediate Lines of Stones              399
-
-  168. Group of Sepulchral Monuments, Algeria                 399
-
-  169. Plan and Elevation of African Tumulus                  400
-
-  170. Dolmen with Two Circles of Stones                      401
-
-  171. Dolmens on the Road from Bona to Constantine           402
-
-  172. Four Cairns enclosed in Squares                        402
-
-  173. Tombs near Djidjeli                                    404
-
-  174. Circle near Bona                                       405
-
-  175. Trilithon at Ksaea                                     411
-
-  176. Trilithon at Elkeb                                     412
-
-  177. Buddhist Monument at Bangkok                           413
-
-  178. Giants' Tower at Gozo                                  417
-
-  179. Plan of Monument of Mnaidra                            419
-
-  180. Section through Lower Pair of Chambers, Mnaidra        419
-
-  181. Entrance to Chamber B, Mnaidra, showing Table inside   420
-
-  182. North End of Left-hand Outer Chamber at Mnaidra        421
-
-  183. Plan of Hagiar Khem, partially restored                423
-
-  184. View of Madracen                                       424
-
-  185. Nurhag                                                 428
-
-  186. Nurhag of Santa Barbara                                428
-
-  187. Section and Ground-plan of Nurhag of Santa Barbara     429
-
-  188. Map of La Giara                                        430
-
-  189. Talyot at Trepucò, Minorca                             435
-
-  190. Talyot at Alajor, Minorca                              435
-
-  191. Dolmens at Kafr er Wâl                                 441
-
-  192. Holed Dolmen                                           447
-
-  193. Holed Dolmen, Circassia                                447
-
-  194. Baba                                                   448
-
-  195. Four-cornered Grave                                    448
-
-  196. Tumulus at Alexandropol                                450
-
-  197. Uncovered Base of a Tumulus at Nikolajew               451
-
-  198. Circle near Peshawur                                   452
-
-  199. Circle at Deh Ayeh, near Darabgerd                     453
-
-  200. View in Khassia Hills                                  462
-
-  201. Khassia Funereal Seats                                 463
-
-  202. Menhirs and Tables                                     464
-
-  203. Turban Stone, with Stone Table                         464
-
-  204. Trilithon                                              464
-
-  205. Dolmen at Rajunkoloor                                  468
-
-  206. Plan of Open Dolmen at Rajunkoloor                     468
-
-  207. Closed Dolmen at Rajunkoloor                           468
-
-  208. View of Closed Dolmen at Rajunkoloor                   468
-
-  209. Arrangement of Dolmens at Rajunkoloor                  470
-
-  210. Cairns at Jewurgi                                      472
-
-  211, 212. Sections of Cairn at Jewurgi                      472
-
-  213. Double Dolmen, Coorg                                   473
-
-  214. Tomb, Nilgiri Hills                                    473
-
-  215. Sepulchral Circles at Amravati                         474
-
-  216. Iron Pillar at the Kutub, Delhi                        481
-
-  217. Sculpture on under side of cap-stone of Nilgiri
-       Dolmen                                                 483
-
-  218. Dolmen at Iwullee                                      484
-
-  219. Plan of Stone Monuments at Shahpoor                    485
-
-  220. Cross at Katapur                                       486
-
-  221. Dolmen at Katapur                                      487
-
-  222. Dolmen with Cross in Nirmul Jungle                     487
-
-  223. Lanka Ramayana Dagoba                                  490
-
-  224. Dolmen at Pullicondah                                  491
-
-  225. Rail at Sanchi, near Bhilsa                            492
-
-  226. View of the Senbya Pagoda, Burmah                      497
-
-  227. Enclosure in Newark Works, North America               511
-
-  228. Plan of Uprights, Cromlech D I., Columbkille           521
-
-  229. Position of Stones of D III.                           522
-
-  230. Plan of D VI.                                          522
-
-  231. Plan of Cromlechs of Group E.                          523
-
-  232. Horned Cairn, Caithness                                528
-
-  233. Dolmen near Bona, Algeria                              532
-
-
-DIRECTION TO BINDER.
-
-The MAP illustrating the distribution of Dolmens to be placed
-at the end of the Volume.
-
-
-
-
-RUDE STONE MONUMENTS.
-
-INTRODUCTORY.
-
-
-SO great and so successful has been the industry recently applied
-to subjects of archæological research that few of the many problems
-in that science which fifty years ago seemed hopelessly mysterious
-now remain unsolved. Little more than forty years have elapsed since
-Champollion's discoveries enabled us to classify and understand
-the wonderful monuments of the Nile Valley. The deciphering of the
-cuneiform characters has in like manner enabled us to arrange and affix
-dates to the temples and palaces of Babylon and Nineveh. Everything
-that was built by the Greeks and the Romans has been surveyed and
-illustrated; and all the mediæval styles that arose out of them have
-been reduced to intelligible sequences. The rock-cut temples of India,
-and her still more mysterious dagobas, have been brought within the
-domain of history, and, like those of Burmah, Cambodia, or China, shown
-to be of comparatively modern date. The monuments of Mexico and Peru
-may be said still to defy those who are endeavouring to wrest their
-secrets from them; but even for these a fairly approximate date has
-been obtained. But amidst all these triumphs of well-directed research
-there still remains a great group of monuments at our own doors,
-regarding whose uses or dates opinions are nearly as much divided as
-they were in the days of rampant empiricism in the last century. It is
-true that men of science do not now pretend to see Druids sacrificing
-their bleeding victims on the altar at Stonehenge, nor to be able to
-trace the folds of the divine serpent through miles of upright stones
-at Carnac or at Avebury; but all they have yet achieved is simple
-unbelief in the popular fallacies, nor have they hitherto ventured
-to supply anything better to take their places. They still call the
-circles temples, but without being able to suggest to what god they
-were dedicated, or for what rites they were appropriate, and, when
-asked as to the age in which they were erected, can only reply in the
-words of the song, that it was "long long ago."
-
-This state of affairs is eminently unsatisfactory, but at the same time
-to a great extent excusable. Indeed it is not at first sight easy to
-see how it is to be remedied. The builders of the megalithic remains
-were utterly illiterate, and have left no written records of their
-erection; nor are there any legible inscriptions on the more important
-monuments which would afford any hints to the enquirer. What is even
-more disheartening is that in almost every instance they are composed
-of rough unhewn stones, not only without any chisel marks, but even
-without any architectural mouldings capable of being compared with
-those of other monuments, or, by their state of preservation, of giving
-a hint as to their relative age.
-
-  "They stand, but stand in silent and uncommunicative majesty."
-
-So silent, indeed, that it is hardly to be wondered at that fanciful
-antiquaries have supplied them with voices most discordantly and
-absurdly various, or, on the other hand, that the better class of
-enquirers have shrunk from the long patient investigations and
-thoughtful ponderings which are necessary to elicit even a modicum of
-truth from their stolid reticence.
-
-If the investigation into the age and uses of the megalithic remains
-were a new subject which had for the first time been taken up some
-thirty or forty years ago, it is probable that a solution might have
-been obtained before now, or at all events would not be far off. When,
-however, an investigation gets into a thoroughly vicious groove, as
-this one has done, it is very difficult to rescue it from its false
-position. The careless are willing to accept any empirical solutions
-that are offered, however absurd they may be, and the thoughtful are
-deterred from meddling with an enquiry which has hitherto led only to
-such irrational conclusions.
-
-The first of those who, in this country at least, led off the wild
-dance was the celebrated Inigo Jones, the architect of Whitehall. It
-seems that when King James I. was on a visit to the Earl of Pembroke
-at Wilton, he was taken to see Stonehenge, and was so struck with its
-majesty and mystery that he ordered his architect to find out by whom
-it was built, and for what purpose. Whether the treatise containing the
-result of his enquiries was ever submitted to the King is not clear. It
-certainly was not published till after its author's death, and though
-it shows a very creditable amount of learning and research, the results
-he arrived at were very startling. After a detailed statement of the
-premises, his conclusions--as condensed in the Life prefixed to his
-treatise--were "That it was a Roman temple, inscribed to Cœlus, the
-senior of the heathen gods, and built after the Tuscan order."
-
-This theory was attacked by Dr. Charleton, one of the physicians of
-Charles II. He had corresponded for some time with Olaus Wormius, the
-celebrated Danish antiquary, and struck with the similarity in form and
-of construction that existed between the monuments in Denmark and those
-of this country, he came to the conclusion that Stonehenge and other
-similar monuments were erected by the Danes, and consequently after
-the departure of the Romans. This attack on the theory of Inigo Jones
-raised the wrath of a Mr. Webb, by marriage a relative, who replied in
-a very angry treatise, in which he reiterates all Jones's arguments,
-and then, adding a considerable number of his own, he concludes by
-triumphantly--as he supposes--restoring Stonehenge to the Romans.[2]
-
-So far no great harm was done; but Dr. Stukeley, who next appeared
-in the controversy, was one of the most imaginative of men and one
-of the wildest of theorists. His studies had made him familiar with
-the Druids, whom classical authorities describe as the all-powerful
-priests of the Celtic race, but who had no temples; on the other hand,
-his travels made him acquainted with Stonehenge and Avebury, to the
-latter of which attention had just been called by the researches of his
-friend Aubrey. Here, then, were temples without priests. What could
-be so natural as to join these two, though in most unholy matrimony.
-Our stone circles must be temples of the Druids! But there was still
-one difficulty. What divinities did they worship therein? Cæsar tells
-us that the Celts or Celtic Druids principally worshipped Mercury
-and some other Roman gods whom he named;[3] but no images of these
-gods are found in these temples, nor anything that would indicate a
-dedication to their worship. Unfortunately, however, Pliny[4] tells
-a very silly tale, how in Gaul the snakes meet together on a certain
-day and manufacture from their spittle an egg (_Anguinum_), which,
-when complete, they throw aloft, and if any one wants it, he must
-catch it in a blanket before it falls to the ground, and ride off with
-it on a fleet horse, for if the snakes catch him before he crosses a
-running stream, a worse fate than Tam o' Shanter's may befall him! He
-then goes on to add that this egg was considered as a charm by the
-Druids. From this last hint Dr. Stukeley concluded that the Druids
-were serpent-worshippers, and consequently that Stonehenge, Avebury,
-&c., were serpent temples--Dracontia, as he calls them, daringly
-assuming that a word, which in the singular was only the name of a
-plant, was actually applied by the ancients to serpent temples, of the
-form of which, however, they were as ignorant as the Doctor himself.
-Having advanced so far, it only remained to adapt the English circles
-to this newly discovered form of worship, and Avebury was chosen as
-the principal illustration. There was a small circle on Hakpen Hill,
-which had a stone avenue formed by six or eight stones running east
-and west; between West Kennet and Avebury there was another avenue
-leading to the circles, but trending north and south. By introducing
-a curved piece between these fragments, Hakpen became the head of the
-snake, the avenue its body; Avebury a convoluted part of it, and then
-a tail was added, a mile long, on the authority of two stones in the
-village, and a dolmen, called Long Stone Cove, about halfway between
-Avebury and the end of the tail! Stanton Drew and other circles were
-treated in the same way; curved avenues, for which there is not a
-shadow of authority, except in the Doctor's imagination, were added
-wherever required, and serpents manufactured wherever wanted. It never
-seems even to have occurred to the Doctor or his contemporaries to ask
-whether, in any time or place, any temple was ever built in the form of
-the gods to be worshipped therein or thereat, or how any human being
-could discover the form of the serpent in rows of stones stretching
-over hills and valleys, crossing streams, and hid occasionally by
-mounds and earthworks. On a map, with the missing parts supplied, this
-is easy enough; but there were no maps in those days, and in the open
-country it would puzzle even the most experienced surveyors to detect
-the serpent's form.
-
-Had so silly a fabrication been put forward in the present day,
-it probably would have met with the contempt it deserves; but the
-strangest part of the whole is that it was then accepted as a
-revelation. Even so steady and so well informed an antiquary as Sir
-Richard Colt Hoare adopts Dr. Stukeley's views without enquiry. His
-magnificent works on 'Ancient and Modern Wiltshire,' which are not only
-the most splendid, but the most valuable works of their class which
-this country owes to the liberality and industry of any individual,
-are throughout disfigured by this one great blemish. He sees Druids
-and their Dragons everywhere, and never thinks of enquiring on what
-authority their existence rests.
-
-It is not of course for one moment meant to contend that there were
-not Druids in Europe in ancient days. Cæsar's testimony on this point
-is too distinct, and his knowledge was too accurate to admit of any
-doubt on this point. It is true, however, that the description of them
-given by Diodorus,[5] and Strabo,[6] who mix them up with the bards
-and soothsayers, detracts somewhat from the pre-eminence he assigns to
-them: but this is of minor importance. The Druids were certainly the
-priests of the Celts, and had their principal seat in the country of
-the Carnutes, near Chartres, where, however, megalithic remains are
-few and far between. Neither Cæsar, however, nor any one else, ever
-pretended to have seen a Druid in England. Suetonius met 'Druidæ'
-in the Island of Anglesea (Mona),[7] but none were ever heard of in
-Wiltshire, or Derbyshire, or Cumberland, where the principal monuments
-are situated; nor in the Western Islands, or in Scandinavia. Still
-less are they known in Algeria or India, where these megalithic remains
-abound. According to the Welsh bards and Irish annalists, there were
-Druids in Wales and Ireland before the introduction of Christianity.
-But, even admitting this, it does not help us much; as even there they
-are nowhere connected with the class of monuments of which we are now
-treating. Indeed, it has been contended lately, and with a considerable
-show of reason, that the Celts themselves, even in France, had nothing
-to do with these monuments, and that they belong to an entirely
-different race of people.[8] It is not, in short, at all necessary
-to deny either the existence of the Druids or their power. The real
-difficulty is to connect them in any way, directly or indirectly, with
-the stone monuments: and it seems still more difficult to prove that
-the Celts ever worshipped the serpent in any shape or form.[9]
-
-Notwithstanding all this, in the present century, an educated gentleman
-and a clergyman of the Church of England, the Rev. Bathurst Deane,
-adopts unhesitatingly all that Stukeley and his school had put forward.
-He took the trouble of going to Brittany, accompanied by a competent
-surveyor, and made a careful plan of the alignments of Carnac.[10] Like
-the avenues at Avebury, they certainly bore no resemblance to serpent
-forms, to eyes profane, but looked rather like two straight lines
-running nearly parallel to one another at a distance of about two miles
-apart. But may not an intermediate curvilinear piece some three miles
-long have existed in the gap and so joined the head to the tail? It is
-in vain to urge that no trace of it now exists, or to ask how any human
-being could trace the forms of serpents seven or eight miles long in an
-undulating country, and how or in what manner, or to what part of this
-strange deity or monster, he was to address his prayers.
-
-It would be incorrect, however, to represent all antiquaries as
-adopting the Ophite heresy. Another group have argued stoutly that
-Stonehenge was an observatory of the British Druids. This theory was
-apparently suggested by views published by Daniell and others of the
-observatories erected by Jey Sing of Jeypore at Delhi, Ougein, Benares,
-and elsewhere in India. All these, it is true, possess great circles,
-but each of all these circles contains a gnomon, which is as essential
-a part of such an astronomical instrument as it is of a sun-dial, and
-no trace of such a feature, it need hardly be said, occurs in any
-British circle. One antiquary, who ought to be better informed,[11]
-concluded that Stonehenge was an observatory, because, sitting on a
-stone called the Altar on a Midsummer morning, he saw the sun rise
-behind a stone called the Friar's Heel. This is the only recorded
-observation ever made there, so far as I know; and if this is all, it
-is evident that any two stones would have answered the purpose equally
-well, and as the Altar stone is sixteen feet long, it allows a latitude
-of observation that augurs ill for the Druidical knowledge of the exact
-sciences. Neither Mr. Ellis, however, nor Dr. Smith, nor the Rev. Mr.
-Duke,[12] nor indeed any of those who have taken up the astronomical
-theory, have yet pointed out one single observation that could be made
-by these circles that could not be made as well or better without
-them. Or, if they were orreries, as is sometimes pretended, no one has
-explained what they record or represent in any manner that would be
-intelligible to any one else. Till some practical astronomer will come
-forward and tell us in intelligible language what observations could be
-performed with the aid of the circles of Stonehenge, we may be at least
-allowed to pause. Even, however, in that case, unless his theory will
-apply to Avebury, Stanton Drew, and other circles so irregular as to be
-almost unmeasurable, it will add little to our knowledge.
-
-It might be an amusing, though it certainly must be a profitless,
-task to enlarge on these and all the other guesses which have from
-time to time been made with regard to these mysterious remains. It
-is not, however, probable that theories so utterly groundless will
-be put forward again, or, if promulgated, that they will be listened
-to in future. The one excuse for them hitherto has been that their
-authors have been deprived of all their usual sources of information
-in this matter. It is not too much to assert that there is not one
-single passage in any classical author which can be construed as
-alluding directly or indirectly to the megalithic remains on these
-isles or on the continent. With all their learning and industry, the
-antiquaries of the last century could only find one passage which, with
-all their misapplied ingenuity, they could pervert to their purposes.
-It was this--in his second book, Diodorus, quoting from Hecatæus,
-mentions that in an island, not less in size than Sicily, and opposite
-to Celtica, there existed among the Hyperboreans a circular temple
-magnificently adorned.[13] Stukeley and his followers immediately
-jumped to the conclusion that the island not less than Sicily and
-opposite Gaul must be England, and the circular temple Stonehenge,
-which was consequently dedicated to Apollo and the serpent Python, and
-our forefathers were the Hyperboreans, and our intercourse with Greece
-clear and frequent. It is marvellous what a superstructure was raised
-on such a basis. But against it may be urged that the whole of the
-second book of Diodorus is dedicated solely to a description of Asia.
-In the preceding chapter he describes the Amazons, who, if they ever
-existed, certainly lived in that quarter of the globe. In the following
-chapters he describes Arabia, and even in this one (xlvii.) he speaks
-of the Hyperboreans as inhabiting the northern parts of Asia. By the
-utmost latitude of interpretation we might assume this island to have
-been in the Baltic--Œsel probably, Gothland possibly, but certainly
-not further west. It is impossible Diodorus could be mistaken in the
-matter, for in his fifth book he describes the British Isles in their
-proper place, and with a very considerable degree of accuracy.[14] But,
-after all, what does it amount to? In this island there was a circular
-temple. We are not told whether it was of wood or of stone, whether
-hypæthral, or roofed, or vaulted, and certainly there is not a shadow
-of a hint that it was composed of a circle of rude stones like those in
-this country with which the antiquaries of the last century tried to
-assimilate it.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-It is little to be wondered at if all this rashness of speculation
-and carelessness in quotation should have produced a belief that the
-solution of the problem was impossible from any literary or historical
-data, or if consequently our modern antiquaries should have grasped
-with avidity at a scheme, first proposed by the Danes, which seemed
-at all events to place the question on a scientific basis. No country
-could well be more favourably situated for an enquiry of this sort than
-Denmark. It is rich in megalithic remains of all sorts. Its tumuli and
-tombs seem generally to have been undisturbed; and it was exceptionally
-fortunate in having a government with sufficient common sense to enact
-a law of treasure-trove, so just and, at the same time, so liberal as
-to prevent all metal articles from finding their way to the melting
-pot, and governors so intelligent as fully to appreciate the scientific
-value of these early remains. In consequence of all this, the museums
-at Copenhagen were soon filled with one of the richest collections of
-antiquities of this sort that was ever collected, and when brought
-together it was not difficult to perceive the leading features that
-connected them in one continuous sequence.
-
-First it appeared that there was an age extending into far prehistoric
-times, when men used only implements of stone and bone, and were
-ignorant of the use of any of the metals; then that an age had
-succeeded to this when the use of bronze was known, and also probably
-that of gold; and, lastly, that there was a third age, when iron had
-been introduced and had superseded the use of all other metals for
-weapons of war and utilitarian purposes.
-
-The Danish antiquaries were somewhat divided in opinion as to the exact
-period when bronze was first introduced, some carrying it back as far
-as 2000 B.C., others doubting whether it was known in Denmark
-more than 1000 or 1200 years B.C.; but all agreed that iron
-was introduced about the Christian era. Having satisfied themselves on
-these points, the Danish antiquaries proceeded at once to apply this
-system to the monuments of their country. Any tomb or tumulus which was
-devoid of any trace of metal was dated at once at least 1000, probably
-2000, years before Christ, and might be 10,000, or 20,000 years old, or
-even still older. Any tomb containing bronze was at once set down as
-dating between the war of Troy and the Christian era; and if a trace
-of iron was detected, it was treated as subsequent to the last-named
-epoch, but still as anterior to the introduction of Christianity, which
-in Denmark dates about the year 1000 A.D.
-
-This system seemed so reasonable and philosophical, compared with the
-wild theories of the British antiquaries of the last century, that it
-was instantly adopted both in the country of its birth and in England
-and France; and the succession of the three ages--stone, bronze, and
-iron--was generally looked upon as firmly established as any fact in
-chronology. Gradually, however, it has been perceived that the hard and
-fast line at first drawn between them cannot be maintained. At the last
-meeting of the International Archæological Congress, held at Copenhagen
-in the autumn of 1869, it was admitted on all hands that there was
-a considerable overlap between each of the three ages. Men did not
-immediately cease to use stone implements when bronze was introduced;
-and bronze continued to be employed for many purposes after the use of
-iron was well known.[15] Antiquaries have not yet made up their minds
-to what extent the overlap took place; but on its determination depends
-the whole value of the scheme as a chronometric scale.
-
-If the Danes, instead of breaking up their "finds" and distributing
-them in cases according to a pre-conceived system, had kept and
-published a careful record of the places where the contents of their
-museums were found, and in what juxtaposition, we should not probably
-be in our present difficulty. Under the circumstances, it is perhaps
-fortunate that we had no central museum, but that our antiquaries have
-published careful narratives of their proceedings. Sir Richard Colt
-Hoare's great works are models of their class, but are scarcely to be
-depended upon in the present instance, as the importance of flint
-and flint implements was not appreciated in his time to the extent
-it now is.[16] The explorations of the Messrs. Bateman in Derbyshire
-are more completely up to the mark of the science of the present day.
-A few extracts from one of their works will show how various and how
-mixed the contents of even a single group of tombs are, and will prove
-consequently how little dependence can be placed on any one class of
-objects to fix the age of these monuments.
-
-In his 'Vestiges of the Antiquities of Derbyshire,' published in 1848
-by Thomas Bateman, we find the following among other interesting facts,
-taking them as they are found arranged in his volume, without any
-attempt at classification:--
-
-On Winster Moor (p. 20), a gold Greek cross--undoubtedly Christian,
-with a fibula of the same metal richly ornamented, and a quantity of
-glass and metal ornaments.
-
-Pegges Barrow (p. 24). Several Anglo-Saxon ornaments, most probably of
-the seventh or eighth century.
-
-In a barrow at Long Roods (p. 28) were found two urns, with calcined
-bones and a brass coin of Constantine, of the type "Gloria exercitus."
-
-In Haddon Field Barrow (p. 30) were found 82 brass coins: among them
-Constantine 9, Constans 17, Constantius II. 9, family of Constantine 3,
-Urbs Roma 1, Constantinopolis 2, Valentinian 5, Valens 12, Gratian 3.
-The remainder illegible.
-
-At Gib Hill, near Arbor Low (p. 31), of which more hereafter, there
-were found a flint arrow-head 2½ inches long, and a fragment of a
-basaltic celt; also a small iron fibula, and another piece of iron of
-indeterminable form.
-
-On Cross Flatts (p. 35) the weapons found with the skeleton were an
-iron knife, the blade 5 inches long; a piece of roughly chipped flint,
-probably a spear-head; and a natural piece of stone of remarkable form.
-A similar iron knife and a stone celt were afterwards found within a
-few yards of the barrow, probably thrown out and overlooked when first
-opened.
-
-In Galley Lowe (p. 37), a very beautiful gold necklace set with
-garnets, and a coin of Honorius; but towards the outer edge of the
-Lowe, and consequently, as far as position goes, probably later,
-another interment, accompanied with rude pottery, a small arrow-head of
-grey flint, and a piece of ironstone.
-
-In the great barrow at Minning Lowe (p. 39) were found coins of
-Claudius Gothicus, Constantine the Great, Constantine Junior, and
-Valentinian.
-
-In a smaller barrow close by were found fragments of a coarse,
-dark-coloured urn, a flint arrow-head, a small piece of iron, part of a
-bridle-bit, and several horses' teeth; lower down, a cist with an iron
-knife, with an iron sheath; and on the outer edge another interment,
-accompanied by a highly ornamented drinking-cup, a small brass or
-copper pin, and a rude spear or arrow-head of dark grey flint.
-
-In Borther Lowe (p. 48) were found a flint arrow-head much burnt and a
-diminutive bronze celt.
-
-In Rolley Lowe (p. 55) were found a brass coin of Constantine, and
-a brass pin 2-3/4 inches long; and lower down a rude but highly
-ornamented urn, and with it two very neat arrow-heads of flint of
-uncommon forms; and in another part of the barrow a spear-head of
-coarse flint, with the fragments of an ornamented drinking-cup.
-
-In a barrow on Ashford Moor (p. 57) were found, scattered in different
-parts, a small iron arrow-head and five instruments of flint.
-
-In Carder Lowe (p. 63) were found several instruments of flint, amongst
-the latter a neatly formed barbed arrow-head; and lower down, with the
-primary interment, a splendid brass or bronze dagger; a few inches
-lower down a beautiful axe hammer-head of basalt. In another part of
-the barrow another interment was discovered, accompanied by an iron
-knife and three hones of sandstone.
-
-A barrow was opened at New Inns (p. 66), where, along with the
-principal interment, was found a beautiful brass dagger, with smaller
-rivets than usual; and in another part a skeleton, with two instruments
-of flint, and some animal teeth.
-
-In Net Lowe (p. 68), close to the right arm of the principal interment,
-a large dagger of brass, with the decorations of its handle, consisting
-of thirty brass rivets; two studs of Kimmeridge coal. With the
-above-mentioned articles were numerous fragments of calcined flint, and
-amongst the soil of the barrow two rude instruments of flint.
-
-At Castern (p. 73), in one part of the mound, an instrument was
-found, with a fine spear-head of flint, and a small arrow-head of the
-same. In other parts, but in apparently undisturbed earth, a circular
-instrument, and various chippings of flint, and the handle of a knife
-of stag's horn, riveted in the usual way on to the steel. A similar one
-is figured in Douglas's 'Nenia Britannica,' plate 19, fig. 4, as found
-with an interment in one of the barrows on Chartham Downs, Kent.
-
-In Stand Lowe (p. 74), on digging towards the centre, numerous flint
-chippings and six rude instruments were found, and above the same place
-a broken whetstone. The centre being gained, an iron knife was found
-of the kind generally attributed to the Saxons. This was immediately
-followed by a bronze box and a number of buckles, fibulæ, and articles
-of iron, silver, and glass, all showing the principal interment to have
-been of very late date. Mr. Bateman adds--"the finding of instruments
-of flint with an interment of this comparatively modern description is
-rather remarkable, but by no means unprecedented."
-
-In a barrow midway between Wetton and Ilam (p. 79) with the interment
-were found three implements of flint of no great interest, some
-fragments of an ornamented urn, and an iron pin, similar to the awl
-used by saddlers at the present day. Mr. Bateman adds--"one precisely
-similar was found in a barrow on Middleton Moor in 1824."
-
-In a second barrow near the same place were found the remains of a
-coarse and rudely ornamented urn with its deposit of burnt bones. A
-third brass coin of Constantine the Great was also found on the summit,
-just under the surface.
-
-In Come Lowe (p. 95), with an interment of a very late period, were
-found gold and iron ornaments and glass beads, as well as the usual
-chippings of flint and rats' bones.
-
-In Dowe Lowe (p. 96) the most remote interment consisted of two much
-decayed skeletons lying on the floor of the barrow about two yards from
-its centre; one was accompanied by a fluted brass dagger placed near
-the upper bone of the arm, and an amulet of iron ore with a large flint
-implement, which had seen good service, lying near the pelvis.
-
-The other tumuli examined by this indefatigable explorer either
-contained objects generally of the same class or nothing that was of
-interest as marking their age. If his other works, or those of others,
-were abstracted in the same way, numerous examples of the same sort
-might be adduced. The above, however, are probably sufficient to show
-how little reliance can be placed on the hard and fast distinction
-between the flint, bronze, and iron ages which have hitherto been
-supposed to govern every determination of age in this science. If in a
-hundred short pages of one man's work so many instances of overlapping,
-and, indeed, of reversal of the usual order of things, can be found, it
-is easy to understand how many might be added if other works were also
-examined. All, however, that is wanted here is to show that the Danish
-system is neither perfect nor final, and that we must look for some
-other means of ascertaining the age of these monuments if we are to
-come to a satisfactory conclusion regarding them.
-
-The fact is that, though a tomb containing only stone and bone
-implements may be 10,000 or 20,000 years old, unless it can also be
-shown that stone and bone were no longer used after the Christian era,
-it may also be as modern, or more so, than that epoch. Unless, also,
-it can be proved that stone implements were never used after iron was
-introduced, or that bronze was never employed down to a late period,
-this system is of no avail; and after the examples just quoted from the
-Bateman diggings, it seems the merest empiricism to assume that the
-use of each class of implements ceased on the introduction of another;
-and till it can be shown at what date their use did really cease,
-any argument based on their presence is of very little value. This,
-however, is a task to which no antiquary has yet applied himself; all
-have been content to fix the age of the monuments from the assumed age
-of their contents, empirically determined. It is a far more difficult
-task, however, to ascertain the age of the contents from that of the
-monument in which they are found; it is a task that requires an
-investigation into the history and circumstances of each particular
-example. With the scant materials that exist, this is by no means easy;
-but as it seems the only mode by which truth can be arrived at, it is
-the task to which we propose to devote the following pages; should it
-prove impossible, we may indeed despair.
-
-It is curious to observe how different would have been the fate of this
-science, had the Scandinavians followed up the line of investigation
-commenced by their writers in the sixteenth century. Olaus Magnus,
-for instance, Archbishop of Upsala, writing in 1555, describes the
-megalithic remains of Sweden with the sobriety and precision with which
-a man in the present day might give an account of the cemeteries of
-Kensal-green or of Scutari. Some, he tells us, marked battle-fields,
-some family sepulchres, others the graves of greatly distinguished
-men.[17] In like manner, Olaus Wormius, in 1643, describes the tombs
-of the kings of Denmark as a writer in the present day might the
-Plantagenet sepulchres in Westminster Abbey.[18] Neither have any
-doubt or hesitation about the matter, and though Dr. Charleton was
-hasty in following this author too implicitly in applying his data to
-this country, still, so far as I can form an opinion, if that line of
-research had been steadily followed out, there would now have been as
-little doubt about the age of Stonehenge, as there is about that of
-Salisbury Cathedral. Stukeley, however, cut the vessel adrift from the
-moorings of common sense, and she has since been a derelict tossed
-about by the winds and waves of every passing fancy, till recently,
-when an attempt has been made to tow the wreck into the misty haven of
-prehistoric antiquity. If ever she reaches that nebulous region, she
-may as well be broken up in despair, as she can be of no further use
-for human purposes.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-Whether this will or will not be her fate must depend on the result
-of the new impulse which has within the last ten or twelve years been
-given to the enquiry. Hitherto it seems certainly to be in a direction
-which, it is to be feared, is not likely to lead to any greater degree
-of precision in the enquiry. While the Danish "savans" were arranging
-their collections in the museums at Copenhagen, M. Boucher de Perthes
-was quietly forming a collection of flint implements from the drift
-gravels of the valley of the Somme, which far exceeded all hitherto
-found in antiquity. For many years his discoveries were ridiculed and
-laughed at, till in 1858 the late Hugh Falconer visited his museum at
-Abbeville, and being then fresh from his investigations at Kent's Hole
-and the Gower Caves,[19] he at once saw their value and proclaimed
-it to the world. Since then it has not been disputed that the flint
-implements found in the valley of the Somme are the works of man, and
-that from the position in which they are found their fabricators must
-have lived at a period on the edge of the glacial epoch, and when
-the configuration of the continent differed from what it now is, and
-when probably the British isles were still joined to France. Similar
-implements have before and since been found in Suffolk,[20] and other
-parts of England in analogous circumstances, and all allied with a
-fauna which was extinct in these parts before historic times.[21] If
-you ask a geologist how long ago the circumstances of the globe were
-such as these conditions represent, he will answer at once not less
-than a million of years! But they deal in large figures, and it is not
-necessary to investigate them now. It was a very long time ago.
-
-Even more interesting than these for our present purposes was the
-discovery a few years later of human remains in the valleys of the
-Dordogne and other rivers of the south of France. Here geology does not
-help us, but climatology does. At that time the climate of the south
-of France was so cold that the inhabitants of these caves had all the
-habits of people now dwelling in the Arctic regions. Their principal
-domestic animal was the reindeer, but they were familiar with the
-woolly-haired mammoth, the cave bear, and the aurochs. The climate was
-so cold that they could throw on one side the débris of their feasts,
-and floor their dwelling with marrow bones and offal without dreading
-pestilence or even suffering inconvenience. They were, in fact, in
-every respect, so far as we have the means of judging, identical with
-the Esquimaux of the present day, and must have inhabited a climate
-nearly similar to that of Arctic North America. How long ago was this?
-We know from the pictures in the tombs near the pyramids that the
-climate of Egypt was the same 5000 or 6000 years ago as it is now, and
-we have no reason to suppose that, while that of the southern shores of
-the Mediterranean remained unchanged, the northern would vary in any
-very different ratio. Clearing of forests may have done something, but
-never could have accounted for such a change as this. If we take 50,000
-or 60,000 years instead of 5000 or 6000, it will not suffice for such a
-revolution, though geologists will be wroth if we assume only 100,000;
-as a convenient number this will answer our present purposes.
-
-Having at least this space of time at their disposal, the tendency of
-modern antiquaries has been to sweep everything into this great gulf.
-Why, they ask, may not Stonehenge and Avebury be 10,000, 20,000, or
-50,000 years old? Man then existed, and why may he not have erected
-such monuments as these? Of course he might, but there is no proof
-that he did, and as no single tangible reason has yet been adduced
-for supposing them so old, the mere presumption that they might be so
-cannot count for much.
-
-To my mind the force of argument seems to tend the other way. If a race
-of men lived on the face of the globe for 100,000 years so utterly
-unprogressive as these cave men, incapable of discovering the use of
-metals for themselves during that long period, or even of adopting them
-from Egypt and the East, where bronze certainly, and most probably
-iron, were known at least 6000 or 7000 years ago; if this people
-used flint and bone during all this period, is it likely that they
-would adopt new-fangled implements and new customs the first time they
-were presented to them? The Esquimaux have been familiar with the
-Danish settlers in Greenland for some centuries, and could easily have
-procured improved implements and many of the advantages of civilization
-had they been so inclined. They have not been changed a hair's-breadth
-by the influence of the stranger. The red man of North America has been
-in contact with the white man for centuries now. Has he changed, or
-can he change? In Alaska, and to the northward of Vancouver's Island,
-there is a race of savages, called Hydahs, with all the artistic tastes
-and faculties of the men of the Dordogne caves, and with about the
-same degree of civilization.[22] All these are dying out, and may soon
-disappear, but they present at this day exactly the same phenomenon as
-we see in the south of France, say 10,000 years ago. They have been
-exterminated in all the civilized parts of Europe by the progressive
-Aryan races who have usurped their places; and it seems only too
-certain that, like them, their American kindred must perish before the
-growing influence of the white man, but they cannot change. In so far
-as we can judge from such facts as are before us, if any family of this
-old people still lurked among our hills or on any rocky island, their
-habits, or customs, and their implements, would be as like those of
-the cave men as those of the Esquimaux or Alaska savages are at the
-present day. It appears most unphilosophical to apply to those people
-the principles of progress that are found among the higher races of
-mankind, and to represent them as eagerly seizing on any improvement
-offered them, and abandoning their old faith and their old habits at
-the bidding of any wandering navigator that visited their shores.
-
-This is not the place to enter on such an enquiry, but so far as can at
-present be seen, it seems that mankind has progressed not so much by
-advance within the limits of certain races as by the superposition of
-more highly organized races over those of an inferior class. Thus we
-have those stone men of the caves who possessed the world for 100,000
-or a million of years, and made no more progress in that period than
-the animals they were associated with. Even the progress from a chipped
-to a polished stone implement seems to have been taught them by a
-foreign bronze-using people. We have then such races as the Egyptian,
-the Chinese, or the Mexican, who can progress to a certain point, but
-stop and cannot go beyond; and, lastly, we have the Aryans, the last
-to appear in the field, but the most energetic, and the only truly
-progressive race. Our great error in reasoning with regard to the older
-races seems to be that we insist on applying to them the reasoning and
-principles which guide us, but which are wholly inapplicable to the
-less progressive races of mankind.
-
-All this will be plainer in the sequel; but in the meanwhile it may
-safely be asserted that, up to this time, no royal road has been
-discovered that leads to an explanation of our megalithic antiquities.
-No one has yet been able so to classify the contents of cognate
-monuments as to construct a chronometric scale which is applicable for
-the elucidation of their dates; and no _à priori_ reasoning has been
-hit upon that is of the smallest use in explaining either their age or
-their peculiarities. The one path that seems open to us is a careful
-examination of each individual monument, accompanied by a judicial
-sifting of all or any traditions that may attach to it, and aided by a
-comparison with similar monuments in other countries. By this means we
-have a chance of arriving at a fair proximate degree of certainty; for,
-though no one monument will tell its own tale directly, a multitude of
-whispers from a great number may swell into a voice that is clear and
-distinct and be audible to every one; while no system yet invented,
-and no _à priori_ reasoning, can lead to anything but deepening the
-ignorance that now prevails on the subject. This is especially true
-with regard to the great megalithic circles in this country. With the
-rarest possible exceptions, no flint and no bronze or iron implements
-have been found within their precincts. They cannot be older than the
-invention of flint implements, and iron has been in continuous use
-since the art of smelting its ores was first discovered. If, therefore,
-they have no written or traditional history which can be relied upon,
-their age must for ever remain a mystery. The conviction, however,
-under which this book is written is that such a history does exist;
-that, when all the traditions attached to the monuments are sifted
-and weighed, they amount to such a mass of circumstantial evidence as
-suffices to prove the case and to establish the main facts of their
-history and use, wholly independently of any system or of any external
-testimony.
-
-Direct literary evidence, in the sense in which the term is usually
-understood, cannot be said to exist. As before mentioned, no classical
-author alludes, either directly or indirectly, to these megalithic
-structures; yet they could not have been ignorant of them if they
-existed. When Cæsar and his army witnessed the fight between his
-galleys and the fleet of the Veneti in the Morbihan, he must have
-stood--if he occupied the best place--on Mont St. Michel, if it then
-existed, and among the stone avenues of Carnac. Is it likely that such
-an artist would have omitted the chance of heightening his picture by
-an allusion to the "standing stones" of Dariorigum? The Romans occupied
-Old Sarum probably during the whole time they remained in this island,
-and the Via Badonica passed so immediately under Silbury Hill that they
-could not have been ignorant of either Stonehenge or Avebury. Nor in
-France could they possibly have missed seeing the numerous dolmens with
-which the country is covered. Notwithstanding all this, the silence is
-absolute. The circular temple of the Hyperboreans is the only thing any
-one has ever pretended to quote against this; and that, for reasons
-given above being inadmissible, any argument based on it falls to the
-ground.
-
-Neither Cæsar nor Tacitus, though describing the religious observances
-of our forefathers, make any mention of temples; nor, indeed, does
-any other classical author. Tacitus[23] tells us that the Germans
-worshipped only in groves; and though this is hardly to the point, his
-relations with Agricola were so intimate that had the Gauls and Britons
-had temples of stone, he could hardly have avoided alluding to them.
-The inference from Cæsar and all the other authors is the same, but
-there is no direct evidence either way.
-
-There is no passage in any classical authors which connects the Druids,
-either directly or indirectly, with any stone temples or stones of any
-sort. Dracontia are wholly the creation of Dr. Stukeley's very fertile
-imagination.
-
-So far, therefore, as negative evidence goes, it is complete in showing
-that our megalithic circles did not exist in the time of the Romans,
-and that they were not temples. Unfortunately, however, no amount of
-negative evidence is sufficient to prove an affirmative, though it may
-suffice to establish a strong presumption in favour of a particular
-view, and, at all events, clears the way for the production of any
-direct evidence which we may have. The direct written evidence that has
-been adduced is, however, of the most shadowy character. It amounts
-to little more than this:--that every allusion to these monuments in
-mediæval authors, every local tradition, every scrap of intelligence
-we have regarding them, points to a post-Roman origin. No writer, of
-any age or country, suggested their being prehistoric or even pre-Roman
-before the age of Stukeley,--say 1700.
-
-There is, so far as I know, only one paragraph in any classical
-author which mentions a French or British temple; but it belonged to
-so exceptional a community that it would hardly be safe to base an
-argument upon it. A "hieron," Strabo tells us, existed at the mouth
-of the Loire, inhabited by a colony of women who lived apart from
-their husbands, but the roof or thatch of the roof of whose temple
-was renewed annually:[24] a fact that shows, in the first place, that
-it had a roof, and in the second, that it was not a very dignified or
-permanent structure.
-
-It would add very much to the clearness of our conception on this
-subject if the early Christian writers had left us some descriptions
-of the temples of the Britons when the missionaries first came among
-them. Though not quite so silent on the subject as the classical
-authors, their direct evidence is far from being so complete as
-might be wished. One of the passages most distinctly bearing on this
-question is found in a letter which Pope Gregory the Great addressed
-to the Abbot Millitus, then on a mission to England. In this letter he
-instructs him by no means to destroy the temples of the idols belonging
-to the English, but only the idols which are found in them; and adds,
-"Let holy water be made, and sprinkled over them. Let altars be
-constructed, and relics placed on them; insomuch as if these temples
-are well constructed, it is necessary that they should be converted
-from the worship of dæmons to the service of the true God. So that the
-people, seeing their temples are not destroyed, may put away errors
-from their hearts, and, acknowledging the true God and adoring Him, may
-the more willingly assemble in the places where they were accustomed
-to meet."[25] A little further on he adds, in order that no apparent
-change may be made, "that on great festivals the people may erect huts
-of boughs around those churches which have been converted (commutatæ)
-from temples."
-
-The fair inference from this paragraph seems to be that there was so
-little difference between the temples of the Pagans and the churches
-of the Christians that a little holy water and a few relics--as much
-esteemed in the West as in the East in those days--were all that was
-required to convert the one into the other.
-
-We gather the same impression from another transaction which took
-place at Canterbury about the same time. After taking possession of
-the Cathedral, built of old by the Romans,[26] St. Augustine obtained
-from the recently converted King Ethelbert the cession of the temple in
-which he had been accustomed to worship his idols, and without more ado
-dedicated it to St. Pancras, and appropriated it as a burying place for
-himself and his successors from the circumstance of its being outside
-the walls.[27] We further learn from Gervaise[28] that it was so used
-till Cuthbert, the second archbishop, got permission to allow burials
-within the walls, and then erected the baptistry of St. John for this
-purpose, where apparently Becket's crown now stands. Afterwards the
-monastery of SS. Peter and Paul, now St. Augustine's, was erected "in
-fundo Templi"--whatever that may mean--but at that time St. Augustine
-seems to have accepted the Pagan temples as perfectly appropriate to
-Christian rites.
-
-In like manner when King Redwald, after his conversion to Christianity
-was persuaded by his wife not rashly to forsake the faith of his
-forefathers, he set up two altars side by side in his temple (in fano),
-and dedicated the one to Christ, the other to the "victims of the
-dæmons."[29] The temple, apparently, was equally appropriate to either.
-
-A still more instructive example is the description of the destruction
-of the church at Godmundingham by Coifi--the heathen priest--on his
-conversion to Christianity. He first desecrated it by throwing a spear
-into it--whether by the door or window we are not told--and then
-ordered his people to burn it to the ground with all its enclosures.
-These, therefore, must all have been in wood or some equally
-combustible material.[30]
-
-All this is not much nor very distinct, but by these passages, and
-every hint we have on the subject, it would appear that the temples
-of the Pagans, between the departure of the Romans and the time of
-Alfred, were at least very similar to those of the Christians. Both
-were derived from the same model, which was the temple or basilica of
-the Romans, and both were apparently very rude, and generally, we may
-infer, constructed of wood. The word circular does not occur in any
-description of any Pagan temple yet brought to light, nor the word
-stone; nothing, in fact, that would in the remotest degree lead us to
-suppose that Bede, or any one else, was speaking or thinking of the
-megalithic monuments with which we are now concerned.
-
-Although the classical authorities are silent regarding these rude
-stone monuments, and contemporary records help us very little in
-trying to understand the form of the temples in which our forefathers
-worshipped, till they were converted to Christianity, still the Decrees
-of the Councils render it quite certain that Rude Stone Monuments were
-objects of veneration--certainly in France, and, by implication, in
-England--down to the times of Charlemagne and Alfred, at least.
-
-One often-quoted decree of a Council, held at Nantes, exhorts "Bishops
-and their servants to dig up, and remove, and hide in places where they
-cannot be found, those stones which in remote and woody places are
-still worshipped, and where vows are still made."[31] Unfortunately
-the date of this Council is not certain; but Richard places it in
-658, which is probably at least nearly correct.[32] This, however,
-is of comparatively little consequence, as in 452 a Council at Arles
-decreed that "if, in any diocese, any infidel either lighted torches
-or worshipped Trees, Fountains, or Stones, or neglected to destroy
-them, he should be found guilty of sacrilege;"[33] and about a century
-later (567), a Council at Tours exhorts the clergy to excommunicate
-those who, at certain Stones or Trees or Fountains, perpetrate things
-contrary to the ordinances of the Church.[34]
-
-Still another century further on (681), a Council held at Toledo
-admonishes those who worship Idols or venerate Stones, those who light
-torches or worship Fountains or Trees, that they are sacrificing
-to the devil, and subject themselves to various penalties, &c.[35]
-Another Council held in the same city, in the year 692, enumerates
-almost in the same words the various heresies which were condemned by
-the preceding Council.[36] A Council at Rouen, about the same time,
-denounces all who offer vows to Trees or Fountains or Stones as they
-would at altars, or offer candles or gifts, as if any divinity resided
-there capable of conferring good or evil.[37]
-
-Lastly, a decree of Charlemagne, dated Aix-la-Chapelle in 789, utterly
-condemns and execrates before God Trees, Stones, and Fountains, which
-foolish people worship.[38]
-
-Even as late as in the time of Canute the Great, there is a statute
-forbidding the barbarous adoration of the Sun and Moon, Fire,
-Fountains, Stones, and all kinds of Trees and Wood.[39]
-
-The above which are taken from Keysler[40] are not all he quotes,
-nor certainly all that could be added, if it were worth while, from
-other sources; but they are sufficient to show that, from Toledo to
-Aix-la-Chapelle--and from the departure of the Romans till the tenth,
-or probably the eleventh century--the Christian priesthood waged a
-continuous but apparently ineffectual warfare against the worship of
-Stones, Trees, and Fountains. The priests do not condescend to tell
-us what the forms of the Stones were which these benighted people
-worshipped, whether simple menhirs or dolmens, or "grottes des fées,"
-nor why they worshipped them; whether they considered them emblems
-of some unnamed and unknown God, or memorials of deceased ancestors,
-in whose honour they lighted candles, and whom they propitiated with
-offerings. Nor do they tell us what the form of that worship was;
-they did not care, and perhaps did not know. Nor do we; for, except
-an extreme veneration for their dead, and a consequent ancestral
-worship,[41] mixed with a strange adoration of Stones, Trees, and
-Fountains, we do not know now what the religion was of these rude
-people. The testimony of these edicts is, therefore, not quite so
-distinct as we might wish, and does not enable us to assert that the
-Rude Stone Monuments, whose age and uses we are trying to ascertain,
-were those alluded to in the preceding paragraphs. But what it
-does seem to prove is, that down to the 11th century the Christian
-Priesthood waged a continuous warfare against the veneration of some
-class of Rude Stone Monuments, to which the pagan population clung with
-remarkable tenacity, and many, if not most of which may consequently
-have been erected during that period. This is, at all events,
-infinitely more clear and positive than anything that has been brought
-forward in favour of their prehistoric antiquity. If, like the other
-branches of the written argument, this is not sufficient to prove, by
-itself, that the monuments were generally or even frequently erected
-after the Christian era, it certainly entitles that assertion to a fair
-_locus standi_ in the argument we are attempting to develop.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-If, however, the pen has been reticent and hesitating in its testimony,
-the spade has been not only prolific but distinct. It is probably
-not an exaggeration to say that three-fourths of the megalithic
-monuments--including the dolmens, of course--have yielded sepulchral
-deposits to the explorer, and, including the tumuli, probably
-nine-tenths have been proved to be burial places. Still, at the present
-stage of the enquiry, it would be at least premature to assume that
-the remaining tenth of the whole, or the remaining fourth of the stone
-section, must necessarily be sepulchral. Some may have been cenotaphic,
-or simply monuments, such as we erect to our great men--not necessarily
-where the bodies are laid. Some stones and some tumuli may have been
-erected to commemorate events, and some mounds certainly were erected
-as "Motes" or "Things"--places of judgment or assembly. In like manner
-some circles may have been originally, or may afterwards have been
-used as places of assembly, or may have been what may more properly be
-called temples of the dead, than tombs. These, however, certainly are
-the exceptions. The ruling idea throughout is still of a sepulchre,
-with what exceptions, and at what age erected, is the thesis which we
-now propose to investigate.
-
-At present these are mere assertions, and it is not pretended that
-they are more, and they are only brought forward in this place in order
-to enunciate the propositions it is hoped we may be able to prove as we
-advance in this enquiry. These are,--
-
-First, that the Rude Stone Monuments with which we are concerned are
-generally sepulchral, or connected directly, or indirectly, with the
-rites of the dead.
-
-Secondly, that they are not temples in any usual or appropriate
-sense of the term, and, Lastly,--that they were generally erected by
-partially civilized races after they had come in contact with the
-Romans, and most of them may be considered as belonging to the first
-ten centuries of the Christian Era.
-
-In stating these three propositions so broadly, it must be borne in
-mind, that the evidence on which their proof or disproof rests is
-eminently cumulative in its character; not perhaps with regard to the
-use to which the monuments were applied, that probably will be admitted
-as settled, as so large a proportion of the tumuli can be shown to have
-a fair title to a sepulchral character, and most of the stone monuments
-can equally lay claim to being erected for the same purpose to which
-one-half of them have been certainly proved to have been dedicated.
-This is the more clear, as, on the other hand, in spite of every
-surmise or conjecture, no one monument of the class we are treating of
-can be proved to have been erected as a temple, or as intended for any
-civic or civil purpose.
-
-With regard to their age, the case is not quite so easily settled.
-Except such monuments as those of Gorm and Thyra, and one or two
-others, to be mentioned hereafter, few can produce such proof of their
-age as would stand investigation in a court of law. But when all the
-traditions, all the analogies, and all the probabilities of the case
-are examined, they seem to make up such an accumulation of evidence
-as is irresistible; and the whole appears to present an unbroken and
-intelligible sequence which explains everything. The proof of all this,
-however, does not rest on the evidence of two or three, or even of a
-dozen, of instances, but is based upon the multiplication of a great
-number of coincidences derived from a large number of instances, which
-taken together in the cumulative form, make up a stronger body of
-proof than could be obtained from the direct testimony of one or two
-cases. To appreciate this, however, the whole must be taken together.
-To try to invalidate it by selecting one or two prominent cases, where
-the proof is manifestly insufficient when taken by itself, is to
-misunderstand and misrepresent the whole force of the argument.
-
-One point, I fancy, there will be very little difficulty in proving,
-which is, that the whole form one continuous group, extending in an
-unbroken series, from the earliest to the latest. There is no hiatus
-or break anywhere; and if some can be proved to belong to the 10th
-century, it is only a question how far you can, by extenuating the
-thread, extend it backwards. It can hardly be much beyond the Christian
-era. It seems that such a date satisfies all the known conditions of
-the problem, in so far as the Stone Monuments at least are concerned.
-There is, so far as I know at present, absolutely no evidence on the
-other side, except what is derived from the Danish system of the three
-ages: if that is established as a rule of law, _cadit questio_, there
-is no more to be said on the subject. But this is exactly what does not
-appear to have yet been established on any sufficient or satisfactory
-basis. There need be no difficulty in granting that men used stone and
-bone for implements, before they were acquainted with the use of the
-metals. It may also be admitted, that they used bronze before they
-learned the art of extracting iron from its ores. But what is denied
-is, that they abandoned the use of these primitive implements on the
-introduction of the metals; and it is contended that they employed
-stone and bone simultaneously with bronze and iron, down to a very late
-period. The real fact of the case seems to be, that the people on the
-shores of the Baltic and the North Sea, were as remote from the centres
-of civilization on the Mediterranean and to the eastward of it in the
-earlier centuries of our era, and were as little influenced by them,
-as the inhabitants of the islands in the Pacific and Arctic America
-were by Europe in the last century. In the remote corners of the world,
-a stone and bone age exists at the present day, only modified by the
-use of such metal implements as they can obtain by barter or exchange:
-and this appears to have been the state of northern Europe, till, with
-their conversion to Christianity, the new civilization was domesticated
-among its inhabitants.
-
-
-    [Footnote 2: Those three treatises were afterwards republished in
-    one volume, small folio, with all the plates, &c., in London, 1725.
-    It is from this volume that the above is abstracted.]
-
-    [Footnote 3: Cæsar, 'De Bell. Gal.' vi 13-20.]
-
-    [Footnote 4: 'Hist. Nat.' xxix. 3.]
-
-    [Footnote 5: 'Historia,' v. 31.]
-
-    [Footnote 6: 'Geographica,' iv. 273.]
-
-    [Footnote 7: Tacitus, 'Ann.' xiv. 29.]
-
-    [Footnote 8: See controversy between M. Bertrand and M. Henri
-    Martin, in volume of 'Congrès préhistorique' (Paris, 1867), 193,
-    207, &c. See also 'Revue archéologique,' août, 1864, 144.]
-
-    [Footnote 9: For further information on the subject, the reader is
-    referred to 'Tree and Serpent Worship,' by the author, p. 26 _et
-    seq._, where the subject is treated of at length.]
-
-    [Footnote 10: 'Archæologia,' xxv. 188 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 11: Mr. Ellis, 'Gent. Mag.' 4th series, ii. 317.]
-
-    [Footnote 12: 'Proceedings of the Archæological Institute,
-    Salisbury,' volume 113.]
-
-    [Footnote 13: Diodorus, ii. 47.]
-
-    [Footnote 14: Ibid. v. 21 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 15: The volume containing the account of the proceedings
-    of the congress has not yet been published; so those who were not
-    present cannot feel sure to what extent these modifications were
-    carried or admitted. A short account of the Congress was published
-    by Gen. Lefroy, in the 'Journal of the Archæological Institute,'
-    Nov. 1869, p. 58 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 16: "According to an analysis made by Sir John Lubbock,
-    of the contents of 250 tumuli described by Sir Richard Colt Hoare,
-    in the first volume of his 'Ancient Wiltshire,' 18 only had any
-    implements of stone, only 31 of bone, 67 of bronze, and 11 of iron,
-    while one-half of them contained nothing to indicate their age; but
-    whether those that contained nothing are earlier or more modern is
-    by no means clear."--_Prehistoric Times_, 2nd edit. p. 131.]
-
-    [Footnote 17: "Veterum Gothorum et Suevorum antiquissimus mos
-    est ut ubi acriores in campis seu montibus instituissent et
-    perfecissent pugnas, illic erectos lapides quasi Egyptiacas
-    pyramides collocare soliti sunt ... Habent itaque hæc saxa in
-    pluribus locis erecta longitudine x. vel xv. XX. aut xxx. et
-    amplius et latitudine iv. vel vi, pedum, mirabili situ sed
-    mirabiliori ordine et mirabilissimo charactere, ob plurimas
-    rationes collocata literato, rectoque et longo ordine videlicet
-    pugilarum certamina, quadrato, turmas bellantium, et spherico
-    familiarum designantia sepulturas ac cuneato equestrium et
-    pedestrium acies ibidem vel prope fortunatum triumphasse," &c.
-    &c.--_De Gentibus Septentrionalibus_, &c. p. 48.
-
-    Or again:--"Quos humi recondere placuit honorabiles statuas lapidum
-    excelsorum prout hodie cernuntur mira compagine in modum altissimæ
-    et latissimæ januæ, sursum transversumque viribus gigantum
-    erecta."--_Ibid._ 49.]
-
-    [Footnote 18: 'Danicorum Monumentorum,' libri sex, 22 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 19: 'Memoirs of Hugh Falconer,' by Dr. Murchison, ii. p.
-    596.]
-
-    [Footnote 20: In 1797, Mr. John Frere found flint implements
-    identical with those at Abbeville, and published an account of
-    them, with engravings, in vol. xiii. of the 'Archæologia,' in 1800.]
-
-    [Footnote 21: In the first years of the last century a flint
-    implement, together with some bones of the _Elephas primigenus_,
-    were found in an excavation in Gray's Inn Lane. An engraving of
-    it was published in 1715, and the implement itself is now in the
-    British Museum.]
-
-    [Footnote 22: For the last, and one of the best, accounts of the
-    Hydahs, see 'Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society,' vol.
-    xiii. No. V. p. 386 _et seq._, by Mr. Brown.]
-
-    [Footnote 23: 'Germania,' 9.]
-
-    [Footnote 24: Strabo, iv. p. 198.]
-
-    [Footnote 25: Bede, 'Hist. Eccles.' i. 30.]
-
-    [Footnote 26: "Inibi antiquo Romanorum fidelium opere factam,"
-    Bede, 'Hist. Eccles.' i. 32.]
-
-    [Footnote 27: Thorn, 'Dec. Script. Col.' 1760:--"Erat autem non
-    longe ab ipsa civitate ad orientem quasi medio itinere inter
-    ecclesiam Sti. Martini et muros civitatis Phanum sive ydolum situm
-    ubi rex Ethelbertus secundus ritum gentis suæ solebat orare et
-    cum nobilibus suis dæmoniis et non deo sacrificare. Quod Phanum
-    Augustinus ab iniquinamentis et sordibus gentilium purgavit et
-    simulacro quod in eo erat infracto, synagogam mutavit in ecclesiam,
-    et eam in nomine Sti. Pancratii martyris dedicavit."
-
-    Of this "Fane" we further learn from Godselinus ('Leland Collect.'
-    vol. iv. p. 8), that "extat adhuc condita ex longissimis et
-    latissimis lateribus more Britannico ut facile est videre in muris
-    Verolamiensibus," and may now be seen in this very church at
-    Canterbury. "Basilica Sti. Pancratii nunc est ubi olim Ethelbertus
-    idolum suum coluit. Opus exiguum structum tamen de more veterum
-    Britannorum."]
-
-    [Footnote 28: Gervaise, 'Acc. Pont. Cant.' p. 1640.]
-
-    [Footnote 29: Bede, 'Hist. Eccles.' ii. 15.]
-
-    [Footnote 30: "Succendere fanum cum omnibus septis suis," Bede,
-    'Hist. Eccles.' ii. 13.]
-
-    [Footnote 31: Summo decertare debent studio episcopi et eorum
-    ministri ut--_Lapides_ quoque, quos in ruinosis locis et
-    silvestribus, demonum ludificationibus decepti venerantur ubi et
-    vota vovent et deferunt, funditus effodiantur, atque in tali loco
-    projiciantur ubi nunquam a cultoribus suis inveniri possint et
-    omnibus annunciatur quantum scelus est idolatria.--Labbeum, t. ix.
-    474.]
-
-    [Footnote 32: Richard, 'Analyse des Conciles,' i. 646.]
-
-    [Footnote 33: Si in alicujus episcopi territorio infideles, aut
-    faculas accendunt, aut arbores, fontes vel _Saxa_ venerentur si hoc
-    eruere neglexerit, sacrilegii reum se esset cognoscat.--Labb., iv.
-    1013.]
-
-    [Footnote 34: Contestamur illam solicitudinem tam pastores quam
-    presbyteros, gerere ut quemcunque in hac fatuitate persistere
-    viderint, vel ad nescio quas _petras_ aut arbores vel fontes,
-    designata loca gentilium perpetrare, quæ ad ecclesiæ rationem non
-    pertinent eos ab ecclesia sancta auctoritate repellant.--Baluz, i.
-    518.]
-
-    [Footnote 35: Cultores idolorum, veneratores _Lapidum_, accensores
-    facularum excolentes sacra fontium vel arborum admonemus,
-    &c.--Baluz, vi. 1234.]
-
-    [Footnote 36: Illi diversis suadelis decepti cultores idolorum
-    efficiuntur, veneratores _Lapidum_, accensores facularum,
-    excolentes sacra fontium vel arborum, &c.--Baluz, vi. 1337.]
-
-    [Footnote 37: Si aliquis vota ad arbores, vel fontes, vel ad
-    _Lapides_ quosdam, quasi ad altaria, faciat aut ibi candelam, seu
-    quolibet munus deferet velut ibi quoddam Numen sit quod bonum aut
-    malum possit inferre.--Baluz, 1. 2, p. 210.]
-
-    [Footnote 38: Item de arboribus vel _Petris_ vel fontibus ubi
-    aliqui stulti luminaria vel aliquas observationes faciunt omnino
-    mandamus, ut iste pessimus usus et deo execrabilis ubicunque
-    invenitur tolletur et distruatur.--Baluz, t. i. p. 235.]
-
-    [Footnote 39: Barbara est autem adoratio, sive quas idola (puta
-    gentium divos), Solem, Lunam, Ignem, Profluentem, Fontes, _Saxa_,
-    cujusque generis arbores lignam coluerunt.--Keysler, 'Antiquitates
-    Septemtrion.' (Hanoveræ, 1720), p. 18. He quotes also a canon of
-    Edgar (967) to the same effect.]
-
-    [Footnote 40: 'Ant. Sept.' chap. ii.]
-
-    [Footnote 41: Laing in his wrath seems to have, by accident, very
-    nearly guessed the truth, when, refuting the authenticity of
-    Ossian, he accuses Macpherson of "having rendered the Highlanders a
-    race of unheard-of infidels, who believed in no Gods but the ghosts
-    of their fathers."]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER II.
-
-PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS.
-
-
-Before attempting to examine or describe particular instances--in
-which, however, the main interest of the work must eventually be
-centred--it would add very much to the clearness of what follows if
-a classification could be hit upon, which would correctly represent
-the sequence of forms. In the present state of our knowledge such an
-arrangement is hardly possible, still the following 5 groups, with
-their sub-divisions, are sufficiently distinct to enable them to be
-treated separately, and are so arranged as roughly to represent what we
-know of their sequence, with immense overlappings, however, on every
-joint.
-
-  I.--TUMULI     _a._ Or barrows of earth only.
-                 _b._ With small stone chambers or cists.
-                 _c._ With megalithic chambers or dolmens.
-                 _d._ With external access to chambers.
-
-  II.--DOLMENS   _a._ Free standing dolmens without tumuli.
-                 _b._ Dolmens upon the outside of tumuli.
-
-  III.--CIRCLES  _a._ Circles surrounding tumuli.
-                 _b._ Circles surrounding dolmens.
-                 _c._ Circles without tumuli or dolmens.
-
-  IV.--AVENUES   _a._ Avenues attached to circles.
-                 _b._ Avenues with or without circles or dolmens.
-
-  V.--MENHIRS    _a._ Single or in groups.
-                 _b._ With oghams, sculptures, or runes.
-
-
-TUMULI.
-
-The first three of the sub-divisions of the first class are so
-mixed together that it is almost impossible in the present state of
-our knowledge to separate them with precision either as to date or
-locality, while, as they hardly belong to the main subject of this
-book, it will not be worth while to attempt it here.
-
-Without being too speculative, perhaps, it may be assumed that the
-earliest mode in which mankind disposed of the bodies of their deceased
-relatives or neighbours was by simple inhumation. They dug a hole in
-the earth, and, having laid the body therein, simply replaced the
-earth upon it, and to mark the spot, if the person so buried was of
-sufficient importance to merit such care, they raised a mound over the
-grave. It is difficult, however, to believe that mankind were long
-content with so simple a mode of sepulture. To heap earth or stones on
-the body of the beloved departed so as to crush and deface it, must
-have seemed rude and harsh, and some sort of coffin was probably early
-devised for the protection of the corpse,--in well-wooded countries,
-this would be of wood, which, if the mound is old, has perished long
-ago--in stony countries, as probably of stone, forming the rude cists
-so commonly found in early graves. That these should expand into
-chambers seems also natural as civilization advanced, and as man's
-ideas of a future state and the wants and necessities of such a future
-became more developed.
-
-The last stage would seem to be when access was retained to the
-sepulchral chamber, in order that the descendants of the deceased might
-bring offerings, or supply the wants of their relative during the
-intermediate state which some nations assumed must elapse before the
-translation of the body to another world.
-
-It is probable that some such stages as these were passed through by
-all the burying races of mankind, though at very various intervals
-and with very different details, while fortunately for our present
-subject it seems that the earliest races were those most addicted to
-this mode of honouring their dead. All mankind, it is true, bury their
-dead either in the flesh or their ashes after cremation. It is one of
-those peculiarities which, like speech, distinguish mankind from the
-lower animals, and which are so strangely overlooked by the advocates
-of the fashionable theory of our ape descent. All mankind, however,
-do not reverence their dead to the same extent. The peculiarity is
-most characteristic of the earlier underlying races, whom we have
-generally been in the habit of designating as the Turanian races of
-mankind. But if that term is objected to, the tomb-building races may
-be specified--beginning from the East--as the Chinese; the Monguls in
-Tartary, or Mogols, as they were called, in India; the Tartars in
-their own country, or in Persia; the ancient Pelasgi in Greece; the
-Etrurians in Italy; and the races, whoever they were, who preceded the
-Celts in Europe. But the tomb-building people, _par excellence_, in the
-old world were the Egyptians. Not only were the funereal rites the most
-important element in the religious life of the people, but they began
-at an age earlier than the history or tradition of any other nation
-carries us back to. The great Pyramid of Gizeh was erected certainly as
-early as 3000 years before Christ; yet it must be the lineal descendant
-of a rude-chambered tumulus or cairn, with external access to the
-chambers, and it seems difficult to calculate how many thousands of
-years it must have required before such rude sepulchres as those our
-ancestors erected--many probably after the Christian era--could have
-been elaborated into the most perfect and most gigantic specimens of
-masonry which the world has yet seen. The phenomenon of anything so
-perfect as the Pyramids starting up at once, absolutely without any
-previous examples being known, is so unique[42] in the world's history,
-that it is impossible to form any conjecture how long before this
-period the Egyptians tried to protect their bodies from decay during
-the probationary 3000 years.[43]
-
-[Illustration: 1. Section of Tomb of Alyattes. From Spiegelthal. No
-scale.]
-
-Outside Egypt the oldest tumulus we know of, with an absolutely
-authentic date, is that which Alyattes, the father of Crœsus,
-king of Lydia, erected for his own resting-place before the year 561
-B.C. It was described by Herodotus,[44] and has of late years
-been thoroughly explored by Dr. Olfers.[45] Its dimensions are very
-considerable, and very nearly those given by the father of history. It
-is 1180 feet in diameter, or about twice as much as Silbury Hill, and
-200 feet in height, as against 130 of that boasted monument. The upper
-part, like many of our own mounds, is composed of alternate layers of
-clay, loam, and a kind of rubble concrete. These support a mass of
-brickwork, surmounted by a platform of masonry; on this still lies one
-of Steles, described by Herodotus, and another of the smaller ones was
-found close by.
-
-[Illustration: 2. Elevation of Tumulus at Tantalais. From Texier's
-'Asie Mineure.' 100 ft. to 1 in.]
-
-[Illustration: 3. Plan and Section of Chamber in Tumulus at Tantalais.]
-
-There is another group of tombs, called those of Tantalais, found near
-Smyrna, which are considerably older than those of Sardis, though their
-date cannot be fixed with such certainty as that last described. Still
-there seems no good reason for doubting that the one here represented
-may be as old as the eleventh or twelfth century B.C., nor
-does it seem reasonable to doubt but these tumuli which still stand on
-the plain of Troy do cover the remains of the heroes who perished in
-that remarkable siege.[46]
-
-A still more interesting group, however, is that at Mycenæ, known
-as the tombs or treasuries of the Atridæ, and described as such by
-Pausanias.[47] The principal, or at least the best preserved of these,
-is a circular chamber, 48 feet 6 inches in diameter, covered by a
-horizontal vault, and having a sepulchral chamber on one side. Dodwell
-discovered three others of the five mentioned by Pausanias,[48] and
-he also explored the sepulchre of Minyas at Orchomenos, which had a
-diameter of 65 feet.
-
-[Illustration: 4. Section and Plan of Tomb of Atreus at Mycenæ. Scale
-of plan 100 ft. to 1 in.]
-
-[Illustration: 5. View of Cocumella, Vulci.]
-
-Another group of tombs, contemporary or nearly so with these, are
-found in the older cemeteries of the Etrurians at Cœre, Vulci, and
-elsewhere. One of the largest of these is one called Cocumella, at
-Vulci, which is 240 feet in diameter, and must originally have been
-115 to 120 feet in height. Near the centre rise two steles, but so
-unsymmetrically that it is impossible to understand why they were
-so placed and how they could have been grouped into anything like a
-complete design. The sepulchre, too, is placed on one side.
-
-A still richer and more remarkable tomb is that known as the Regulini
-Galeassi Tomb at Cœre, the chamber of which is represented in the
-annexed woodcut.
-
-[Illustration: 6. View of principal Chamber in Regulini Galeassi Tomb.]
-
-It is filled, as may be seen, with vessels and furniture, principally
-of bronze and of the most elaborate workmanship. The patterns on these
-vessels are so archaic, and resemble so much some of the older ones
-found at Nineveh, whose dates are at least approximately known, that we
-may safely refer the tomb to an age not later than the tenth century
-B.C.[49]
-
-We have thus around the eastern shores of the Mediterranean a group of
-circular sepulchral tumuli of well defined age. Some, certainly, are as
-old as the thirteenth century B.C., others extend downwards
-to, say 500 B.C. All have a podium of stone. Some are wholly
-of that material, but in most of them the cone is composed of earth,
-and all have sepulchral chambers built with stones in horizontal
-layers, not so megalithic as those found in our tumuli, but of a more
-polished and artistic form of construction.
-
-The age, too, in which these monuments were erected was essentially
-the age of bronze; not only are the ornaments and furniture found in
-the Etruscan tombs generally of that metal, but the tombs at Mycenæ
-and Orchomenos were wholly lined with it. The holes into which the
-bronze nails were inserted still exist everywhere, and some of the
-nails themselves are in the British Museum. It was also the age in
-which Solomon furnished his temple with all those implements and
-ornaments in brass--properly bronze--described in the Bible,[50] and
-the brazen house of Priam and fifty such expressions show how common
-the metal was in that day. All this, however, does not prove that iron
-also was not known then. In the Egyptian paintings iron is generally
-represented as a blue metal, bronze as red, and throughout they are
-carefully distinguished by these colours. Now, in the tombs around the
-pyramids, and of an age contemporary with them, there are numerous
-representations of blue swords as there are of red spear-heads, and
-there seems no reason for doubting that iron was known to the Greeks
-before the war of Troy, to the Israelites before they left Egypt (1320
-B.C.), or to the Etruscans when they first settled in Italy.
-Hesiod's assertion that brass was known before iron may or may not be
-true.[51] In so far as his evidence is concerned we learn from it that
-iron was certainly in use long before his time (800 B.C.); so
-long indeed that he does not pretend to know when or by whom it was
-invented, and the modes of manufacturing steel--ἀδάμασ--seem also
-to have been perfectly known in his day.
-
-In India, too, as we shall see when we come to speak of that country,
-the extraction of iron from its ores was known from the earliest ages,
-and in the third or fourth century of our era reached a degree of
-perfection which has hardly since been surpassed. The celebrated iron
-pillar at the Kutub, near Delhi, which is of that age, may probably
-still boast of being the largest mass of forged iron that the world yet
-possesses, and attests a wonderful amount of skill on the part of those
-who made it.
-
-When from these comparatively civilized modes of sepulture we turn to
-the forms employed in our own country, as described by Thurnam[52]
-or Bateman,[53] we are startled to find how like they are, but, at
-the same time, how infinitely more rude. They are either long barrows
-covering the remains of a race of dolicocephalic savages laid in
-rudely-framed cists, with implements of flint and bone and the coarsest
-possible pottery, but without one vestige of metal of any sort, or
-circular tumuli of a brachycephalic race shown to have been slightly
-more advanced by their remains being occasionally incinerated, and
-ornaments of bronze and spear-heads of that metal being also sometimes
-found buried in their tombs.
-
-According to the usual mode of reasoning on these subjects, the
-long-headed people are older than the broad-pated race, the one
-superseding the other, and both must have been anterior to the people
-on the shores of the Mediterranean, for these were familiar with the
-use of both metals, and fabricated pottery which we cannot now equal
-for perfection of texture and beauty of design.
-
-The first defect that strikes one in this argument is that if it proves
-anything it proves too much. We certainly have sepulchral barrows in
-this country of the Roman period, the Bartlow hills, for instance--of
-which more hereafter--and Saxon grave mounds everywhere; but according
-to this theory not one sepulchre of any sort between the year 1200
-B.C. and the Christian era. All our sepulchres are ruder, and
-betoken a less advanced stage of civilization than the earliest of
-those in Greece or Etruria, and therefore, according to the usually
-accepted dogma, must be earlier.
-
-It may be argued, however, that several are older than the Argive
-examples. That the Jersey tomb (woodcut No. 11), notwithstanding the
-coin of Claudius, is older, because more rude, than the Treasury at
-Mycenæ (woodcut No. 4); but that the Bartlow hills and the Derbyshire
-dolmens and tumuli above alluded to (page 11 et seq.), containing
-coins of Valentinian and the Roman Emperors, are more modern. Such an
-hypothesis as this involves the supposition that there is a great gap
-in the series, and that after discontinuing the practice for a 1000
-or 1500 years, our forefathers returned to their old habits, but with
-ruder forms than they had used before, and after continuing them for
-five or six centuries, finally abandoned them. This is possible, of
-course, but there is absolutely no proof of it that I know. On the
-contrary, so far as our knowledge of them at present extends, the
-whole of the megalithic rude stone monuments group together as one
-style as essentially as the Classical or Gothic or any other style
-of architecture. No solution of continuity can be detected anywhere.
-All are--it may be--prehistoric; or all, as I believe to be the case,
-belong to historic times. The choice seems to be between these two
-categories; any hypothesis based on the separation into a historic and
-a prehistoric group, distinct in characteristics as in age, appears to
-be utterly untenable.
-
-The argument derived from the absence of iron in all our sepulchres
-also proves more than is desirable. The Danish antiquaries all admit
-that iron was not known in that country before the Christian era. Our
-antiquaries, from the testimony of Cæsar as to its use in war by the
-Britons, are forced to admit an earlier date, but it is hardly, if
-ever, found in graves. It is, on the other hand, perhaps correct to
-assume that its use was known in Egypt 3000 years before Christ; even
-if this is disputed, it certainly was known in the 18th dynasty, 15
-centuries B.C., and generally in the Mediterranean shortly
-afterwards. If, then, the knowledge of the most useful of metals took
-3000 or even 1500 years to travel across the continent of Europe, it
-seems impossible to base any argument on the influence these people
-exercised on one another, or on the knowledge they may have had of each
-others' ways.
-
-Or to take the argument in a form nearer home. When Cæsar warred
-against the Veneti in the Morbihan, he found them in possession of
-vessels larger and stronger than the Roman galleys, capable of being
-manœuvred by their sails alone, without the use of oars. Not only
-were these vessels fastened by iron nails, but they were moored by
-chain cables of iron. To manufacture such chains, the Veneti must
-have had access to large mines of the ore, and had long familiarity
-with its manufacture, and they used it not only for purposes on shore
-like the Britons, but in vessels capable of trading between Brest and
-Penzance--no gentle sea--and quite equal to voyages to the Baltic or
-other northern ports, which they no doubt made; it is asserted that, in
-50 B.C., the Scandinavians were ignorant of the use of iron,
-though their country possessed the richest mines and the best ores of
-Europe.
-
-The truth of the matter appears to be that, a century or so before
-Christ, England and Denmark were as little known to Greece and Italy,
-and as little influenced by their arts or civilization, as Borneo or
-New Zealand were by those of modern Europe at the beginning of the last
-century. Even now, with all our colonization and civilizing power, we
-have had marvellously little real influence on the native races, and
-were our power removed, all traces would rapidly disappear, and the
-people revert at once to what they were, and act as they were wont to
-do, before they knew us.
-
-In like manner the North American Indians have been very little
-influenced by the residence of some millions of proselytizing Europeans
-among them for 200 years, and while this is so, it seems most
-groundless to argue because a few Phœnician traders may have visited
-this island to purchase tin, that, therefore, they introduced their
-manners and customs among its inhabitants; or because a traveller like
-Pytheas may have visited the Cimbrian Chersonese, or even penetrated
-nearly to the Arctic Circle, that his visit had, or could have, any
-influence on the civilization of these countries.[54] Civilization, as
-far as we can see, was only advanced in northern and western Europe
-by the extermination of the ruder races. Had this rude but effective
-method not been resorted to, we should probably have a stone-using
-people among us at the present day.
-
-We may not know much of what happened in northern Europe before the
-time of the Romans, but we feel tolerably safe in asserting that
-none of the civilized nations around the Mediterranean basin ever
-colonized and settled sufficiently long in northern Europe to influence
-perceptibly the manners or usages of the natives. What progress was
-made was effected by migrations among themselves, the more civilized
-tribes taking the place of those less advanced, and bringing their
-higher civilization with them.
-
-If these views are at all correct, it seems hopeless by any empirical
-theories founded on what we believe ought to have happened or on
-any analogies drawn from what occurred in other countries to arrive
-at satisfactory conclusions on the subject. It is at best reasoning
-from the unknown towards what we fancy may be found out. A much more
-satisfactory process would be to reason from the known backwards so far
-as we have a sure footing, and we may feel certain that by degrees as
-our knowledge advances we shall get further and further forward in the
-true track, and may eventually be able to attach at least approximative
-dates to all our monuments.
-
-From this point of view, what concerns us most, in the first instance
-at least, is to know how late, rather than how early, our ancestors
-buried in tumuli. We have, for instance, certainly, the Bartlow
-Hills, just alluded to, which are sepulchres of the Roman period,
-probably of Hadrian's time; and we have in Denmark the tumuli in which
-King Gorm and his English wife, Queen Thyra Danebode, were buried
-in A.D. 950. We probably also may be able to fill in a few
-others between these two dates, and add some after even the last.
-Thus, therefore, we have a firm basis from which to start, and working
-backwards from it may clear up some difficulties that now appear
-insuperable.
-
-
-DOLMENS.
-
-The monuments alluded to in the last section were either the rude
-barrows of our savage ancestors, with the ruder cists, or the chambered
-tumuli of a people who, when we first became acquainted with them,
-had attained nearly as high a degree of civilization as any Turanian
-people are capable of attaining. The people who erected such buildings
-as the Tombs of Mycenæ or Orchomenos must have reached a respectable
-degree of organization. They possessed a perfect knowledge of the use
-of metals, and great wealth in bronze at least, and had attained to
-considerable skill in construction. Yet it is not difficult to trace
-back--in imagination, at least--the various steps by which a small rude
-chamber in a circular mound, just capable of protecting a single body,
-may by degrees have grown into a richly-ornamented brazen chamber, 50
-or 60 feet in diameter and of equal height. Nor is it more difficult
-to foresee what this buried chamber would have become, had not the
-Aryan occupation of Greece--figured under the myth of the return of
-the Heracleidæ--put a stop to the tomb-building propensities of the
-people. Before long it must have burst from its chrysalis state,
-and assumed a form of external beauty. It must have emerged from its
-earthen envelope, and taken a form which it did take in Africa[55] a
-thousand years afterwards,--a richly-ornamented podium, surmounted by a
-stepped cone and crowned by a stele. In Greece it went no further, and
-its history and its use were alike strange to the people who afterwards
-occupied the country.
-
-In Italy its history was somewhat different. The more mixed people of
-Rome eagerly adopted the funereal magnificence of the Etruscans, and
-their tumuli under the Empire became magnified into such monuments as
-the Tomb of Augustus in the Campus Martius, or the still more gorgeous
-mausoleum of Hadrian, at the foot of the Vatican hill.
-
-In like manner, it would not be difficult by the same process to trace
-the steps by which the rude tepés of the Tartar steppes bloomed at last
-into the wondrous domes of the Patan and Mogol Emperors of Delhi or
-the other Mahomedan principalities in the East. To do all this would
-form a most interesting chapter in the history of architecture, more
-interesting, perhaps, than the one we are about to attempt; but it is
-not the same, though both spring from the same origin. The people or
-peoples who eventually elaborated these wonderful mausoleums or domed
-structures affected, at the very earliest periods at which we become
-acquainted with them, what may be called Microlithic architecture. In
-other words, they used as small stones as they could use, consistently
-with their constructive necessities. These stones were always squared
-or hewn, and they always sought to attain their ends by construction,
-not by the exhibition of mere force. On the other hand, the people
-whose works now occupy us always affected the employment of the largest
-masses of stone they could find or move. With the rarest possible
-exceptions, they preferred their being untouched by a chisel, and as
-rarely were they ever used in any properly constructive sense. In
-almost every instance it was sought to attain the wished-for end by
-mass and the expression of power. No two styles of architecture can
-well be more different, either in their forms or motives, than these
-two. All that they have in common is that they both spring from the
-same origin in the chambered tumulus, and both were devoted throughout
-to sepulchral purposes, but in form and essence they diverged at a very
-early period. Long before we become acquainted with either; and, having
-once separated, they only came together again when both were on the
-point of expiring.
-
-The Buddhist Dagobas are another offshoot from the same source, which
-it would be quite as interesting to follow as the tombs of the kings or
-emperors; for our present purposes, perhaps, more so, as they retained
-throughout a religious character, and being consequently freed from the
-ever-varying influence of individual caprice, they bear the impress of
-their origin distinctly marked upon them to the present day.
-
-In India, where Buddhism, as we now know it, first arose, the prevalent
-custom--at least among the civilized races--was cremation. We do
-not know when they buried their dead; but in the earliest times of
-Buddhism they adopted at once what was certainly a sepulchral tumulus,
-and converted it into a relic shrine: just as in the early ages of
-Christianity the stone sarcophagus became the altar in the basilica,
-and was made to contain the relics of the saint or saints to whom
-the church was dedicated. The earliest monuments of this class which
-we now know are those erected by the King Asoka, about the year 250
-B.C.; but there does not seem much reason for doubting that
-when the body of Buddha was burnt, and his relics distributed among
-eight different places,[56] Dagobas or Stupas may not then have
-been erected for their reception. None of these have, however, been
-identified; and of the 84,000 traditionally said to have been erected
-by Asoka, that at Sanchi[57] is the only one we can feel quite sure
-belongs to his age; but, from that date to the present day, in India as
-well as in Ceylon, Burmah, Siam, and elsewhere, examples exist without
-number.
-
-All these are microlithic, evidently the work of a civilized and
-refined people, though probably copies of the rude forms of more
-primitive races. Many of them have stone enclosures; but, like that at
-Sanchi, erected between 250 B.C. and 1 A.D., so evidently derived from
-carpentry that we feel it was copied directly, like all the Buddhist
-architecture of that age, from wooden originals. Whether it was from
-the fashion of erecting stone circles round tumuli, or from what other
-cause, it is impossible now to say; but as time went on the form of the
-rail became more and more essentially lithic, and throughout the middle
-ages the Buddhist tope, with its circle or circles of stones, bore much
-more analogy to the megalithic monuments of our own country than did
-the tombs just alluded to; and we are often startled by similarities
-which, however, seem to have no other cause than their having a common
-parent, being, in fact, derived from one primæval original. There
-is nothing in all this, at all events, that would lead us to the
-conclusion that the polished stone monuments of India were either older
-or more modern than the rude stone structures of the West. Each, in
-fact, must be judged by its own standard, and by that alone.
-
-For the proper understanding of what is to follow the distinctions just
-pointed out should always be borne in mind, as none are more important.
-Half indeed of the confusion that exists on the subject arises from
-their having been hitherto neglected. There is no doubt that occasional
-similarities can be detected between these various styles, but they
-amount to nothing more than should be expected from family likenesses
-consequent upon their having a common origin and analogous purposes.
-But, except to this extent, these styles seem absolutely distinct
-throughout their whole course, though running parallel to one another
-during the whole period in which they are practised. If this is so,
-any hypothesis based on the idea that the microlithic architecture
-either preceded or succeeded to the megalithic at once falls to the
-ground. Nor, if these distinctions are maintained, will it any longer
-be possible to determine any dates in succession in megalithic art from
-analogies drawn from what may have happened at any period or place
-among the builders of microlithic structures. The fact which we have
-got to deal with seems to be that the megalithic rude stone art of our
-forefathers is a thing by itself--a peculiar form of art arising either
-from its being adopted by a peculiar race or peculiar group of races
-among mankind, or from its having been practised by people at a certain
-stage of civilization, or under peculiar circumstances, and this it is
-our business to try to find out and define. But to do this, the first
-thing that seems requisite is to put aside all previously conceived
-notions on the subject, and to treat it as one entirely new, and as
-depending for its elucidation wholly on what can be gathered from its
-own form and its own utterances, however indistinct they may at first
-appear to be.
-
-Bearing this in mind, we have no difficulty in beginning our history
-of megalithic remains with the rude stone cists, generally called
-kistvaens, which are found in sepulchral tumuli. Sometimes these
-consist of only four, but generally of six or more stones set edgeways,
-and covered by a cap-stone, so as to protect the body from being
-crushed. By degrees this kistvaen became magnified into a chamber, the
-side stones increasing from 1 or 2 feet in height to 4 or 5 feet, and
-the cap-stone becoming a really megalithic feature 6 or 10 feet long,
-by 4 or 5 feet wide, and also of considerable thickness. Many of these
-contained more than one funeral deposit, and they consequently could
-not have been covered up by the tumuli till the last deposit was placed
-in them. This seems to have been felt as an inconvenience, as it led to
-the third step, namely, of a passage communicating with the outer air,
-and formed like the chambers of upright stones, and roofed by flat ones
-extending across from side to side. The most perfect example of this
-class is perhaps that in the tumulus of Gavr Innis in the Morbihan.
-Here is a gallery 42 feet long and from 4 to 5 feet wide, leading to a
-chamber 8 feet square, the whole being covered with sculptures of the
-most elaborate character.
-
-A fourth stage is well illustrated by the chambers of New Grange, in
-Ireland, where a similar passage leads to a compound or cruciform
-chamber rudely roofed by converging stones. Another beautiful example
-of the same class is that of Maeshow in the Orkneys, which, owing to
-the peculiarity of the stone with which it is built, comes more nearly
-to the character of microlithic art than any other example. It is
-probably among the last if not the very latest of the class erected in
-these isles, and by a curious concatenation of circumstances brings the
-megalithic form of art very nearly up to the stage where we left its
-microlithic sister at Mycenæ some two thousand years before its time.
-
-All this will be made clearer in the sequel, but meanwhile there are
-one or two points which must be cleared up before we can go further.
-Many antiquaries insist that all the dolmens[58] or cromlechs,[59]
-which we now see standing free, were once covered up and buried in
-tumuli.[60] That all the earlier ones were so, is more than probable,
-and it may since have been originally intended also to cover up many of
-those which now stand free; but it seems impossible to believe that the
-bulk of those we now see were ever hidden by any earthen covering.
-
-Probably at least one hundred uncovered dolmens in these islands could
-be enumerated, which have not now a trace of any such envelope. Some
-are situated on uncultivated heaths, some on headlands, and most of
-them in waste places. Yet it is contended that improving farmers at
-some remote age not only levelled the mounds, but actually carted
-the whole away and spread it so evenly over the surface that it is
-impossible now to detect its previous existence. If this had taken
-place in this century when land has become so valuable and labour
-so skilled we might not wonder, but no trace of any such operation
-occurs in any living memory. Take for instance Kits Cotty House, it is
-exactly now where it was when Stukeley drew it in 1715,[61] and there
-was no tradition then of any mound ever having covered it. Yet it is
-contended that at some earlier age when the site was probably only a
-sheep-walk, some one carried away the mound for some unknown purpose,
-and spread it out so evenly that we cannot now find a trace of it.
-Or take another instance, that at Clatford Bottom,[62] also drawn by
-Stukeley. It stands as a chalky flat to which cultivation is only now
-extending, and which certainly was a sheep-walk in Stukeley's time,
-and why, therefore, any one should have taken the trouble or been at
-the expense of denuding it is very difficult to understand, and so
-it is with nine-tenths of the rest of them. In the earlier days when
-a feeling for the seclusion of the tomb was strong, burying them in
-the recesses of a tumulus may have been the universal practice, but
-when men learned to move such masses as they afterwards did, and to
-poise them so delicately in the air, they may well have preferred the
-exhibition of their art to concealing it in a heap which had no beauty
-of form and exhibited no skill. Can any one for instance conceive that
-such a dolmen as that at Castle Wellan in Ireland ever formed a chamber
-in barrow, or that any Irish farmer would ever have made such a level
-sweep of its envelope if it ever had one? So in fact it is with almost
-all we know. When a dolmen was intended to be buried in a tumulus the
-stones supporting the roof were placed as closely to one another as
-possible, so as to form walls and prevent the earth penetrating between
-them and filling the chambers, which was easily accomplished by filling
-in the interstices with small stones as was very generally done. These
-tripod dolmens, however, like that at Castle Wellan, just quoted, never
-had, or could have had walls. The cap-stone is there poised on three
-points, and is a studied exhibition of a _tour de force_. No traces of
-walls exist, and if earth had been heaped upon it the intervals would
-have been the first part filled, and the roof an absurdity, as no
-chamber could have existed. These tripod dolmens are very numerous, and
-well worth distinguishing, as it is probable that they will turn out to
-be more modern than the walled variety of the same class. But with our
-present limited knowledge it is hardly safe to insist on this, however
-probable it seems at first sight.
-
-[Illustration: 7. Dolmen in Castle Wellan, Ireland. From a drawing by
-Sir Henry James.]
-
-[Illustration: 8. Dolmen de Bousquet. From a drawing by E. Cartailhac.]
-
-The question, however, fortunately, hardly requires to be argued,
-inasmuch as in Ireland, in Denmark,[63] and more especially in France,
-we have numerous examples of dolmens on the top of tumuli, where it is
-impossible they should ever have been covered with earth. One example
-for the present will explain what is meant. In the Dolmen de Bousquet
-in the Aveyron[64] the chamber is placed on the top of a tumulus,
-which from the three circles of stone that surround it, and other
-indications, never could have been higher or larger than it now is.
-
-So far as I know, none of these dolmen-crowned tumuli have been dug
-into, which is to be regretted, as it would be curious to know whether
-the external dolmen is the real or only a simulated tomb. My own
-impression would be in favour of the latter hypothesis, inasmuch as a
-true and a false tomb are characteristic of all similar monuments. In
-the pyramids of Egypt they coexisted. In every Buddhist tope, without
-exception, there is a Tee, which is in every case we know only a
-simulated relic-casket. Originally it may have been the place where
-the relic was deposited, and as we know of instances where relics
-were exposed to the crowd on certain festivals, it is difficult to
-understand where they were kept, except in some external case like
-this. In every instance, however, in which a relic has been found it
-has been in the centre of the Tope and never in the Tee. A still more
-apposite illustration, however, is found in the tombs around Agra and
-Delhi. In all those of any pretension the body is buried in the earth
-in a vault below the floor of the tomb and a gravestone laid over it,
-but on the floor of the chamber, under the dome, there is always a
-simulated sarcophagus, which is the only one seen by visitors. This
-is carried even further in the tomb of the Great Akbar (1556, 1605).
-Over the vault is raised a pyramid surrounded, not like this tumulus by
-three rows of stones, but by three rows of pavilions, and on the top,
-exposed to the air, is a simulated tomb placed exactly as this dolmen
-is. No two buildings could well seem more different at first sight, but
-their common parentage and purpose can hardly be mistaken, and it must
-be curious to know whether the likeness extends to the double tomb also.
-
-[Illustration: 9. Tee cut in the Rock on Dagoba at Ajunta.]
-
-This, like many other questions, must be left to the spade to
-determine, but, unless attention is turned to the analogy above alluded
-to, the purpose of the double tomb may be misunderstood, even when
-found, and frequently, I suspect, has already been mistaken for a
-secondary interment.
-
-
-CIRCLES.
-
-Circles form another group of the monuments we are about to treat of,
-in this country more important than the dolmens to which the last
-section was devoted. In France, however, they are hardly known, though
-in Algeria they are very frequent. In Denmark and Sweden they are both
-numerous and important, but it is in the British Islands that circles
-attained their greatest development, and assumed the importance they
-maintain in all the works of our antiquaries which treat of megalithic
-art.
-
-The cognate examples in the microlithic styles afford us very little
-assistance in determining either the origin or use of this class of
-monument. It might, nay has been suggested, that the podium which
-surmounts such a tumulus, for instance, that of the Cocumella (woodcut
-No. 5) would, if the mound were removed, suggest, or be suggested,
-by the stone circles of our forefathers. This podium, however, seems
-always to have been a purely constructive expedient, without any mystic
-or religious significance, for unless the base of an earthen mound is
-confined by a revêtement of this sort it is apt to spread, and then the
-whole monument loses that definition which is requisite to dignity.
-
-The Rails of the Indian Buddhists at first sight seem to offer a more
-plausible suggestion of origin, but it is one on which it would be
-dangerous in the present state of our knowledge to rely too much; if
-for no other reason, for the one just given, that up to the time of
-Asoka, B.C. 250, they, like all the architecture of India,
-were in wood and wood only. Stone as a building material, either rude
-or hewn, was unknown in that country till apparently it was suggested
-to them by the Bactrian Greeks. Unless, therefore, we are prepared to
-admit that all our stone circles are subsequent, by a considerable
-interval of time, to the epoch of Asoka, they were not derived from
-India. My own impression is that all may ultimately prove to have been
-erected subsequently to the Christian Era, but till that is established
-we must look elsewhere than to India for our original form, and even
-then we have only got a possible analogy; and nothing approaching to a
-proof that any connexion existed between them.
-
-The process in this country, so far as I can make out, was different,
-though tending to a similar result. The stone circles in Europe appear
-to have been introduced in supercession to the circular earthen mounds
-which surround the early tumuli of our Downs. These earthen enclosures
-still continued to be used, surrounding stone monuments of the latest
-ages, but, if I mistake not, they first gave rise to the form itself.
-Such a circle, for instance, as that called the Nine Ladies on Stanton
-Moor, I take to be a transitional example. The circular mound, which is
-38 feet in diameter, enclosed a sepulchral tumulus, as was, no doubt,
-the case from time immemorial, but, in this instance, was further
-adorned and dignified by the circle of stones erected upon it. A
-century or so afterwards, when stone had become more recognized as a
-building material, the circular mound may have been disused, and then
-the stone circle would alone remain.
-
-[Illustration: 10. Nine Ladies, Stanton Moor. From a drawing by L.
-Jewitt.]
-
-These stone circles are found enclosing tumuli, as in the Dolmen de
-Bousquet (woodcut No. 8), in three rows, and sometimes five or seven
-rows are found. They frequently also enclose dolmens, either standing
-on the level plain or on tumuli, but often, especially in this country,
-they are found enclosing nothing that can be seen above ground. This
-has led to the assumption that they are "Things," comitia--or places
-of assembly--or, still more commonly, that they are temples, though,
-now that the Druidical theory is nearly abandoned, no one has been able
-to suggest to what religion they are, or were, dedicated. The spade,
-however, is gradually dispelling all these theories. Out of say 200
-stone circles which are found in these islands, at least one-half, on
-being dug out, have yielded sepulchral deposits. One-quarter are still
-untouched by the excavator, and the remainder which have not yielded up
-their secret are mostly the larger circles. Their evidence, however, is
-at best only negative, for, till we know exactly where to dig, it would
-require that the whole area should be trenched over before we can feel
-sure we had not missed the sepulchral deposit. When, as at Avebury,
-the circle encloses an area of 28 acres,[65] and the greater part of
-it is occupied by a village, no blind digging is likely to lead to any
-result, or can be accepted as evidence.
-
-Still the argument would be neither illegitimate nor illogical if, in
-the present state of the evidence, it were contended that all stone
-circles, up say to 100 feet diameter, were sepulchral, as nine-tenths
-of them have been proved to be, but that the larger circles were
-cenotaphic, or, if another expression is preferred, temples dedicated
-to the honour or worship of the dead, but in which no bodies were
-buried. But to admit--and it cannot now be denied--that all circles up
-to 100 feet are sepulchral, yet to assert that above that dimension
-they became temples dedicated to the sun, or serpents, or demons,
-or Druids, without any other change of plan or design but increased
-dimensions, appears a wholly untenable proposition.
-
-All this will, it is hoped, be made more clear in the sequel when we
-come to examine particular examples, regarding which it is more easy to
-reason than merely from general principles; but in the meanwhile there
-is one other peculiarity which should be pointed out before proceeding
-further. It is that where great groups of circles are found, they--so
-far as is at present known--never mark cemeteries where successive
-generations of kings or chiefs were buried, but battle-fields. The
-circles, or dolmens, or cairns grouped in these localities seem always
-to have been erected by their comrades, to the memory of those who
-on these spots "fiercely fighting, fell," and are monuments as well
-of the prowess of the survivors as of those who were less fortunate.
-The proof of this also must depend on individual examples to be
-brought forward in the following pages. It does not, however, seem to
-present much difficulty, the principal point in the argument being
-that they are generally found in solitary places far removed from the
-centres of population, or are sometimes single and that they show no
-progression. Had they been cemeteries or sepulchres of kings, several
-would undoubtedly have been found grouped together; progression and
-individuality would have been observed; and lastly, they are just such
-monuments as an army could erect in a week or a month, but which the
-inhabitants of the spot could not erect in years, and could not use for
-any conceivable purpose when erected.
-
-
-AVENUES.
-
-It is somewhat unfortunate that no recognized name has yet been hit
-upon for this class of monument. Alignment has been suggested, but the
-term is hardly applicable to two rows of stones, for instance, leading
-to a circle. Parallellitha is, at best, a barbarous compound, and as
-such better avoided. Though therefore, the word avenues can hardly be
-called appropriate to rows of stones leading from nowhere to no place,
-and between which there is no evidence that anybody ever was intended
-to walk, still it seems the least objectionable expression that has yet
-been hit upon, and as such it will be used throughout.
-
-[Illustration: 11. Chambered Tumulus, Jersey.]
-
-These avenues are of two classes. First, those leading to circles.
-About the origin of this class there can be very little hesitation.
-They represent externally the passages in tumuli which lead to
-the central chamber; take, for instance, this example from a now
-destroyed[66] tumulus near St. Helier, in Jersey.[67] The circular
-chamber was 24 feet in diameter, and contained originally seven little
-cells, each roofed by a single slab of stone. This circular area was
-approached by an avenue, 17 feet long at the time of its destruction,
-which was roofed throughout the whole length with slabs of stone. The
-central chamber never, however, appears to have been vaulted, so that
-access to the tombs through this passage could never have been possible
-after the mound was finished. The chamber was found filled with earth,
-and the whole monument covered up by a tumulus of considerable extent.
-It need hardly be observed that it is more unlikely that any people
-should cover up such a monument at any subsequent age, than that
-they should dig out such monuments and leave them standing without
-their envelopes, as is so generally assumed. The tumulus was removed,
-because the officer in command of the neighbouring fort wanted a level
-parade-ground. As it stood uncovered it was a miniature Avebury, and
-the position of its cells may give us a hint where the bodies may be
-found there--near the outer circle of stones, where they have not
-been looked for. But of this hereafter. It is meanwhile evident that
-while these monuments were in course of erection they stood as shown
-in the last woodcut, and it is also tolerably clear that when people
-became familiar with their aspect in this state, they may have learned
-to regret hiding under a heap of earth what we certainly would have
-thought more interesting as it was. In like manner, as John Stuart well
-remarks, "If the cairns at New Grange were removed, the pillars would
-form another Callernish."[68] It is true, however, that if the Jersey
-monument is the type of Avebury, the latter must be comparatively
-modern, as a coin of Claudius, found in one of the cells at St.
-Helier,[69] probably fixes its date. Again, as we expect to be able to
-prove that New Grange is subsequent to the Christian era, Callernish
-must be more modern also. Be this as it may, I think there can be very
-little doubt that these exposed circles, with their avenues, took their
-rise, as in the case of dolmens, from people becoming familiar with
-their forms before they were covered up, and eventually reconciling
-themselves to dispense with the envelope. In the case of the circles,
-the new plan was capable of infinitely greater extension than in that
-of the dolmens; but the process seems to have been the same in both
-instances.
-
-Before leaving the Jersey circle, if any one will compare it with the
-chamber at Mycenæ (woodcut No. 4), they can hardly fail to perceive
-the close similarity and probable identity of destination that exists
-between them; but as the island example is very much ruder, according
-to the usual reasoning it must be the more ancient of the two. This,
-however, is the capital fallacy which has pervaded all reasoning on
-the subject hitherto. It is true that nothing can be more interesting
-or more instructive than to trace the progress of the Classical, the
-Mediæval, and the Indian styles through their ever-changing phases,
-or to watch the influence which one style had on the other. That
-progress was, however, always confined within the limits of a nation,
-or community of nations, and the influence limited to such nations
-as from similarity of race or constant intercourse were in position
-to influence reciprocally not only the architecture, but their arts
-and feelings. In order to establish this in the present instance,
-we must prove that there was such community of race and frequency
-of intercourse between the Channel Islands and Greece 1000 years
-B.C., that the latter would copy the other, or rather that
-2000 years B.C. the Channel Islanders gave the Greeks those
-hints which they were enabled to elaborate, and of which the chambers
-at Mycenæ about the time of the Trojan war were the result. Had this
-been the case the influence could hardly have ceased as civilization
-and intercourse with other countries increased, and we ought to find
-Tholoi in great perfection in these islands, and probably temples and
-arts in all the perfection to which they were afterwards expanded in
-Greece. In fact, we get into such a labyrinth of conjecture, that no
-escape seems possible. It would be almost as reasonable to argue that
-the images on Easter Island, which we know continued to be carved in
-our day, were prehistoric, because they are so much ruder than the
-works of Phidias. The truth is, that where we cannot trace community
-of race or religion, accompanied by constant and familiar intercourse,
-we must take each people as doing what their state of civilization
-enabled them to accomplish, wholly irrespective of what was doing or
-had been done by any other people in any other part of the world. All
-that it is necessary to assume in this case is, that a dead-revering
-ancestral-worshipping people wished to do honour to the departed, as
-they knew or heard was done by other races of their family of mankind
-elsewhere, and that they did it in the best manner the state of the
-arts among them admitted of--rudely, if they were in a low state of
-civilization, and more perfectly if they had advanced beyond that stage
-in which rude forms could be tolerated.
-
-It is much more difficult to trace the origin of the avenues which are
-not attached to circles, and do not lead to any important monuments.
-Nothing that is buried at all resembles them in form, and no erections
-in the corresponding microlithic style, either in the Mediterranean
-countries or in India, afford any hints which would enable us to
-suggest their purpose. We are thus left to guess at their uses solely
-from the evidence which can be gathered from their own form and
-position, and from such traditions as may exist; and these, it seems,
-have not hitherto been deemed sufficient to establish even a plausible
-hypothesis capable of explaining their intention.
-
-Take, for instance, such an example as the parallel lines of stones
-near Merivale Bridge on Dartmoor. They certainly do not form a temple
-in any sense in which that word is understood by any other people or in
-any age with which we are acquainted. They are not procession paths,
-inasmuch as both ends are blocked up; and, though it is true the sides
-are all doors, we cannot conceive any procession moving along their
-narrow gangway, hardly three feet in width. The stones that compose
-the sides are only two and three feet high; so that, even if placed
-side by side, they would not form a barrier, and, being three to six
-feet apart, they are useless except to form an "alignment." There is no
-place for an image, no sanctuary or cell; nothing, in fact, that can be
-connected with any religious ceremonial.
-
-If the inhabitants of the place had really wanted a temple, in any
-sense in which we understand the term, there is a magnificent tor,
-a few hundred yards off to the northward, where Nature has disposed
-some magnificent granite blocks so as to form niches such as human
-hands could with difficulty imitate. All that was wanted was to move
-the smaller blocks, lying loose in front of it, a few yards to the
-right or left, and dispose them in a semicircle or rectangular form,
-and they would have one of the most splendid temples in England in
-which to worship the images which Cæsar tells us they possessed.[70]
-They, however, did nothing of the kind. They went to a bare piece of
-moorland, where there were no stones, and brought those we find there,
-and arranged them as shown on the plan; and for what purpose?
-
-[Illustration: 12. AVENUES, CIRCLES AND CROMLECH, NEAR MERIVALE BRIDGE,
-DARTMOOR. From a drawing by Sir Gardner Wilkinson.]
-
-The only answer to the question that occurs to me is that these
-stones are intended to represent an army, or two armies, drawn up in
-battle array; most probably the former, as we can hardly understand
-the victorious army representing the defeated as so nearly equal to
-themselves. But if we consider them as the first and second line,
-drawn up to defend the village in their rear--which is an extensive
-settlement--the whole seems clear and intelligible. The circle in front
-would then represent the grave of a chief; the long stone, 40 yards in
-front, the grave of another of the "menu" people; and the circles and
-cromlech in front of the first line the burying-places of those who
-fell there.
-
-There is another series of avenues at Cas Tor, on the western edge of
-Dartmoor,[71] some 600 yards in length, which is quite as like a battle
-array as this, but more complex and varied in plan. It bends round the
-brow of the hill, so that neither of the ends can be seen from the
-other, or, indeed, from the centre; and it is as unlike a temple or
-anything premeditated architecturally as this one at Merivale Bridge.
-There are several others on Dartmoor, all of the same character, and
-not one from which it seems possible to extract a religious idea.
-
-When speaking of the great groups of stones in England and France, we
-shall frequently have to return to this idea, though then basing it on
-traditional and other grounds; but, meanwhile, what is there to be said
-against it? It is perhaps not too much to say that in all ages and in
-all countries soldiers have been more numerous than priests, and men
-have been prouder of their prowess in war than of their proficiency in
-faith. They have spent more money for warlike purposes than ever they
-devoted to the service of religion, and their pæans in honour of their
-heroes have been louder than their hymns in praise of their gods. Yet
-how was a rude, illiterate people, who could neither read nor write,
-to hand down to posterity a record of its victories? A mound, such as
-was erected at Marathon or at Waterloo, is at best a dumb witness. It
-may be a sepulchre, as Silbury Hill was supposed to be; it may be the
-foundation of a caer, or fort, as many of those in England certainly
-were; it may be anything, in short. But a savage might very well
-argue: "When any one sees how and where our men were drawn up when we
-slaughtered our enemies, can he be so stupid as not to perceive that
-here we stood and fought and conquered, and there our enemies were
-slain or ran?" We, unfortunately, have lost the clue that would tell
-us who "we" and "they" were in the instance of the Dartmoor stones at
-least; but uncultivated men do not take so mean a view of their own
-importance as to fancy this possible.
-
-This theory has at least the merit of accounting for all the facts
-at present known, and of being at variance with none, which is more
-than can be said for any other that has hitherto been proposed. Till,
-therefore, something better is brought forward, it must be allowed
-to stand at least as a basis to reason upon, in order to explain the
-monuments we have to describe in the following pages.
-
-
-MENHIRS.
-
-The Menhirs, or tall stones,[72] form the last of the classes into
-which we have thought it necessary for the present, at least, to
-divide the remains of which we are now treating. They occur in all the
-megalithic districts, but from their very singleness and simplicity,
-it is almost more difficult to ascertain their purpose than it is
-that of any more complicated monuments; nor do the analogies from
-the cognate microlithic styles help us much. The stones mentioned in
-the early books of the Old Testament, though often pressed into the
-service, were all too small to bear any resemblance to those we are
-now concerned with. Neither Greece nor Etruria help us in the matter,
-and though it is true that the Buddhists in India, from Asoka's time
-downward, were in the habit of setting up Lâts or Stambas, it seems
-with them to have been always, or nearly so, for the purpose of bearing
-inscriptions, which is certainly not a distinguishing characteristic
-of our Menhirs. It is true that we have in Scotland two stones. The
-Cat stone near Edinburgh, bearing the name of Vetta, the grandson of
-Hengist (who probably was slain in battle there),[73] and the Newton
-stone in Garioch, which is still unread. We have also one in France
-near Brest,[74] equally illegible, and no doubt others exist. Perhaps
-these may be considered as early lispings of an infant, which certainly
-are the preludes of perfect speech, and only to be found where that
-power of words must afterwards exist. Here the analogy is, to say the
-least of it, remote.
-
-There also are, especially in Ireland, but also in Wales and in
-Scotland, a great number of stones with Ogham inscriptions. So far as
-these have been made out they seem to be mere head-stones of graves,
-intimating that A, the son of B, lies buried there. A custom, it
-need hardly be observed, that continues to the present day in every
-cemetery in the land. The fact seems to be that so soon as the use of
-stone was suggested and men were sufficiently advanced to be able to
-engrave Oghams, it was at once perceived that a stone pillar with an
-inscription upon it was not only a more durable but a more intelligent
-and intelligible record of a man's life or death than a simple mound
-of "undistinguishable earth." It in consequence rapidly superseded the
-barrow, and has continued in use to the present time, and been adopted
-by both Christians and Mahomedans, by all, in fact, who bury, as
-contradistinguished from those who burn their dead.
-
-In Scotland the story of the stones is slightly different. A great
-many of these are no doubt cat stones or battle memorials, but as they
-have not even Ogham inscriptions, they tell no tale. It is doubtful,
-indeed, if an Ogham inscription could describe a battle, or anything
-more complex than a genealogy, and still more so if it did whether we
-could read it. But without it how can we say what they are? If, for
-instance, the battle of Largs had not been fought in historic times,
-how could we tell that the tall stone that now marks the spot was
-erected in the thirteenth century? Or how, indeed, can we feel sure of
-the history of any one? By degrees, however, in Scotland they faded
-into those wonderful sculptured stones which form so marked and so
-peculiar a feature of Pictland. Whether we shall ever get a key to the
-hieroglyphics with which these stones are covered is by no means clear,
-but even if we do they probably will not tell us much. They certainly
-contain neither names nor dates, but even now their succession can be
-made out with tolerable distinctness. The probability seems to be that
-the figures on them are tribal marks or symbols of rank, and, as such,
-would convey very little information if capable of being read.
-
-It is easy to trace the perfectly plain obelisk being developed
-into such as the Newton stones, which have only one or two Pagan
-symbols, but are certainly subsequent to the Christian era. From
-these we advance to those on the back of which the Christian cross
-timidly appears, and which certainly date after St. Columba's time
-(A.D. 563), and from that again to the erection of Sweno's
-stone, near Forres, in the first years of the eleventh century, where
-the cross occupies the whole of the rear, and an elaborate bas-relief
-supersedes the rude symbols in the front.
-
-In Ireland the rude stones do not appear to have gone through the
-"symbol stage," but early to have ripened into the sculptured cross,
-for it was not from a timidly engraved cross as in Scotland that
-they took their origin. The Irish crosses at once boldly adopted the
-cross-arms, surrounded by a glory, with the other characteristics of
-that beautiful and original class of Christian monuments.
-
-In France the menhir was early adopted by the Christians; so early
-that it has generally been assumed that those examples which we see
-surmounted by a cross were pagan monuments, on which at some subsequent
-time Christians have added a cross. This, however, certainly does not
-appear to have been always the case. In such a cross, for instance, as
-that at Lochcrist, the menhir and the cross are one, and made for one
-another, and similar examples occur at Cape St. Matthieu, at Daoulas,
-and in other places in Brittany.[75] In France the menhir, after being
-adopted by the Christians, does not seem to have passed through the
-sculptured stage[76] common to crosses in Scotland and Ireland, but
-to have bloomed at once into the Calvary so frequent in Brittany.
-Here the cross stands out as a tall tree, and the figures are grouped
-round its base, but how early this form was adopted we have no means of
-knowing.
-
-In Denmark the modern history of the Bauta stones, as the grave or
-battle stones are there called, is somewhat different. They early
-received a Runic as the Irish received an Ogham inscription, but
-Denmark was converted at so late an age to Christianity (the eleventh
-century) that her menhirs never passed through the early Christian
-stage, but from Pagan monuments sank at once into modern gravestones,
-with prosaic records of the birth and death of the dead man whose
-memory they were erected to preserve.
-
-[Illustration: 13. Lochcrist Menhir.]
-
-In all these instances we can trace back the history of the menhirs
-from historic Christian times to non-historic regions when these rude
-stone pillars, with or without still ruder inscriptions, were gradually
-superseding the earthen tumuli as a record of the dead. It is as yet
-uncertain whether we can follow back their history with anything like
-certainty beyond the Christian era. This, however, is just the task to
-which antiquaries should address themselves. Instead of reasoning as
-hitherto from the unknown to the known, it would be infinitely more
-philosophical to reason from the known backwards. By proceeding in this
-manner every step we make is a positive gain, and eventually may lead
-us to write with certainty about things that now seem enveloped in mist
-and obscurity.
-
-
-    [Footnote 42: It is so curious as almost to justify Piazzi Smyth's
-    wonderful theories on the subject. But there is no reason whatever
-    to suppose that the progress of art in Egypt differed essentially
-    from that elsewhere. The previous examples are lost, and that seems
-    all.]
-
-    [Footnote 43: Herodotus, ii. 123; and Sir Gardner Wilkinson's
-    'Ancient Egyptians,' second series, i. 211; ii. 440 _et passim_.]
-
-    [Footnote 44: Herod, i. 93.]
-
-    [Footnote 45: 'Lydische Königsgräber,' Berlin, 1859.]
-
-    [Footnote 46: I am, of course, aware that the now fashionable craze
-    is to consider Troy a myth. So far, however, as I am capable of
-    understanding it, it appears to me that the ancient solar myth of
-    Messrs. Max Müller and Cox is very like mere modern moonshine.]
-
-    [Footnote 47: Paus. ii. ch. 16; 'Dodwell's Pelasgic Remains in
-    Greece and Italy,' pl. 11.]
-
-    [Footnote 48: Dodwell, 1. c. p. 13.]
-
-    [Footnote 49: More particulars and illustrations of these tombs
-    will be found in the first volume of my 'History of Architecture,'
-    and they need not, therefore, be repeated here.]
-
-    [Footnote 50: 1 Kings, vii. 13 _et seq._; 2 Chron. iv. 1 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 51: Hesiod. 'Works and Days,' 1. 150.]
-
-    [Footnote 52: 'Crania Britannica,' _passim_. 'Archæologia,'
-    xxxviii.]
-
-    [Footnote 53: 'Vestiges of the Antiquities of Derbyshire,' 1848.
-    'Ten Years' Diggings,' 1861.]
-
-    [Footnote 54: See controversy between Sir George Cornewall Lewis
-    in his 'Astronomy of the Ancients,' p. 467 _et seq._ and Sir John
-    Lubbock, in 'Prehistoric Times,' p. 59 _et seq._ with regard to
-    Pytheas and his discoveries.]
-
-    [Footnote 55: In the Kubber Roumeia, in the Sahil, or the Madracen,
-    near Blidah.]
-
-    [Footnote 56: See Turnour in 'J. A. S. B.' vii. p. 1013.]
-
-    [Footnote 57: Cunningham, 'Bilsah Topes,' _passim_; and 'Tree and
-    Serpent Worship,' by the author, p. 87-148.]
-
-    [Footnote 58: Dolmen is derived from the Celtic word _Daul_, a
-    table--not _Dol_, a hole--and _Men_ or _Maen_, a stone.]
-
-    [Footnote 59: _Crom_, in Celtic, is crooked or curved, and
-    therefore wholly inapplicable to the monuments in question; and
-    _lech_, stone.]
-
-    [Footnote 60: The most zealous advocate of this view is the Rev.
-    W. C. Lukis, who, with his father, has done such good service in
-    the Channel Islands. His views are embodied in a few very distinct
-    words in the Norwich volume of the 'Prehistoric Congress,' p.
-    218, but had previously been put forward in a paper read to the
-    Wiltshire Archæological Society in 1861, and afterwards in the
-    'Kilkenny Journal,' v. N. S. p. 492 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 61: 'Iter Curiosum,' pl. xxxii. and xxxiii.]
-
-    [Footnote 62: 'Stonehenge and Avebury,' pl. xxxii. xxxiii. and
-    xxxiv.]
-
-    [Footnote 63: Madsen, 'Antiquités Préhistoriques,' pl. 6, 7, 8, 9,
-    and 10.]
-
-    [Footnote 64: Norwich volume of 'Prehistoric Congress,' p. 355, pl.
-    vi.]
-
-    [Footnote 65: Sir H. Colt Hoare, 'Ancient Wiltshire,' ii, 71.]
-
-    [Footnote 66: The stones of which it was composed were transported
-    by General Conway to Park Place, near Henley-on-Thames, and
-    re-erected there.]
-
-    [Footnote 67: 'Archæologia,' viii. p. 384.]
-
-    [Footnote 68: 'Sculptured Stones of Scotland,' ii. Introd. p. 25.]
-
-    [Footnote 69: 'Archæologia,' viii. p. 385.]
-
-    [Footnote 70: Deum maxime Mercurium colunt. Hujus sunt plurima
-    simulacra. 'Bell. Gal.' vi. 16.]
-
-    [Footnote 71: Sir Gardner Wilkinson in 'Journal, Archæological
-    Association,' xvi. p. 112, pl. 6 for Cas Tor, and pl. 7 for
-    Merivale Bridge.]
-
-    [Footnote 72: From _Maen_, as before, stone, and _hir_--high. Minar
-    is supposed to be the same word. It cannot, at least, be traced to
-    any root in any Eastern language.]
-
-    [Footnote 73: 'Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of
-    Scotland,' iv. 119 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 74: 'Freminville, Finistère,' pl. iv. p. 248.]
-
-    [Footnote 75: All these, and many others, are to be found
-    illustrated in Taylor and Nodier's 'Voyage Pittoresque dans
-    l'ancienne Bretagne;' but as the plates in that work are not
-    numbered they cannot be referred to.]
-
-    [Footnote 76: I know only one instance of sculptured stone in
-    France; it occurs near the Chapelle St. Marguerite in Brittany.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER III.
-
-AVEBURY AND STONEHENGE.
-
-
-If there existed any acknowledged facts or accepted data with regard to
-the megalithic remains we are now treating of, the logical method of
-following out the subject would be to describe first their geographical
-distribution, and then their uses and dates. While, however, everything
-concerning them is considered as uncertain--in fact, as unknown, such
-a mode of treatment, though satisfactory to believers, would fail
-to carry conviction to the minds of those who doubt. It appears,
-therefore, that under the circumstances a preferable mode will be to
-take three or four of the principal and best known British groups,
-and to subject them to a tolerably exhaustive examination. If it is
-possible to dispel the errors that have grown up around them, and to
-fix their uses and dates on anything like a reasonable basis, the
-rest will be easy; but so long as men believe in Druids or Dragons,
-or even think it necessary to relegate these monuments to prehistoric
-antiquity, it is useless to reason regarding them. By the process it
-is proposed to follow, it is hoped at least to be able to dispel these
-mists. Others must judge whether the landscape their dispersion will
-reveal is either real, or pleasing to contemplate.
-
-The first monument we propose selecting for examination is Avebury,
-as the largest, and in some respects the most important of the class
-in this country. Stonehenge might at first sight seem to have equal
-claims to precedence, but it is exceptional. It is the only hewn stone
-monument we possess, the only one where trilithons are found with
-horizontal architraves, and where the outer circle also possesses
-these imposts. It is, in fact, the megalithic monument which exhibits
-the most civilized forms, and to prove its age and use would not
-necessarily prove those of any rude stone monument found elsewhere.
-Avebury, on the contrary, though larger than the others, is constructed
-on precisely the same principle. It has the enclosing vallum, with its
-ditch inside, like Arborlow, Marden, Arthur's round table, at Penrith,
-and others we shall meet with further on, while its circle and avenues
-are identical, as far as we can judge, with numerous examples found
-elsewhere.
-
-Before, however, proceeding to reason about Avebury, the first point
-is to ascertain what the group really consists of, which is a much
-more difficult task than would at first sight appear. Stukeley has
-introduced so many of his own fancies into his description of the
-place, and they have been so implicitly followed by all who have since
-written on the subject, that it is now no easy task to get back to the
-original form.
-
-[Illustration: 14. View of Avebury restored. _a._ Silbury Hill. _b._
-Waden Hill.]
-
-The principal monument at Avebury consists of a vallum of earth nearly,
-but not quite, circular in form, with an average diameter of about
-1200 feet. Close on the edge of its internal ditch stood a circle
-apparently originally consisting of about 100 stones, with a distance
-consequently of about 33 feet from centre to centre. Inside this were
-two other double circles, placed not in the axis of the great one,
-but on its north-eastern side. The more northern one was apparently
-350 feet in diameter, the other 325 feet.[77] In the centre of the
-northern one stood what is here called a cove, apparently consisting
-of three upright stones supporting a cap-stone--a dolmen, in fact,
-such as we shall frequently meet with in the following pages. In the
-southern circle there was only one stone obelisk or menhir. These facts
-we gather from Stukeley and Colt Hoare, for all is now so completely
-ruined and destroyed, that without their description no one could now
-make even an approximate plan of the place. The stones that comprise
-these inner as well as the outer circle are all the native Sarsens,
-which occur everywhere on these downs. In some places, such as Clatford
-Bottom, about a mile from Avebury, they lie still in numbers sufficient
-to erect a dozen Aveburys, and many are still to be seen in the Bottoms
-to the southward, and indeed in every place where they have not been
-utilized by modern civilization. No mark of a chisel is to be seen
-on any of the stones now standing here. For their effect they depend
-wholly on their mass, and that is so great as to produce an impression
-of power and grandeur which few of the more elaborate works of men's
-hands can rival.
-
-[Illustration: 15. Plan of Avebury Circle and Kennet Avenue, from Sir
-R. Colt Hoare.]
-
-From the outer vallum a stone avenue extended in a perfectly straight
-line for about 1430 yards, in a south-easterly direction. The centre
-was apparently drawn from the centre of the great 1200 feet circle,
-not from those of the smaller ones. This is called the Kennet
-Avenue, from its pointing towards the village of that name. I am
-extremely sceptical with regard to the existence of another, called
-the Beckhampton Avenue, on which Dr. Stukeley lays so much stress.
-Aubrey did not see it, though he saw the Long Stone Cove, the "Devil's
-Quoits," as he called them; and Stukeley is obliged to admit that in
-his day not one stone was standing.[78] It seems that here, as, indeed,
-everywhere over this country, a number of Sarsen stones were lying
-about, and his fertile imagination manufactured them into the body of a
-snake. None, however, are shown in Sir R. Colt Hoare's survey, and none
-exist now; and beyond the Cove even Stukeley admits that he drew the
-serpent's tail only because a serpent must have a termination of that
-sort. There were no stones to mark its form any more then than now. The
-first objection that appears against admitting the existence of the
-very hypothetical avenue is, that no curved avenue of any sort is known
-to exist anywhere, or attached to any monuments. All the curves of the
-Kennet avenue are the Doctor's own, introduced by him to connect the
-straight-lined avenues which were drawn from the circle at Avebury, and
-that on Hakpen Hill. There are none at Stanton Drew, or other places
-where he audaciously drew them. Near the church there are, or were,
-two stones placed in the opening like that called the Friar's Heel,
-and the prostrate stone at Stonehenge, but these are all that probably
-ever existed of the Beckhampton Avenue. The question is not, however,
-important. As there were two circles inside the Avebury vallum, there
-may have been two avenues. All that is here contended for is, that
-there is no proof of the existence of the second. A dolmen, called the
-Long Stone Cove, existed near where Stukeley draws its sinuous line,
-but there is nothing to show that it ever formed any part of such an
-alignment; and around it there were some standing stones, or rather,
-even in Stukeley's time, stones which apparently had stood, but there
-is nothing to show whether forming part of a circle, or as detached
-menhirs, or as parts of an avenue.
-
-The second member of the Avebury group is the double circle, or rather
-double oval, on Hakpen hill--Haca's Pen;[79] this was, according to
-Stukeley, 138 feet by 155 feet, and had an avenue 45 feet wide, as
-compared with 51 feet which Sir R. C. Hoare gives for those of the
-Kennet avenue of Avebury. The avenue is supposed to have extended in
-a perfectly straight line for above a quarter of a mile, pointing
-directly towards Silbury Hill, which is about one mile and a quarter
-distant.
-
-The third member of the group is the famous Silbury Hill, about a mile
-distant due south from Avebury. That these two last named are of the
-same age, and part of one design, seems scarcely open to doubt; but it
-is quite an open question whether Haca's Pen belongs either to the same
-age or the same design. Its stones were very much smaller, its form
-different, and its avenue pointing towards Silbury looks as if that
-monument existed, and may have long existed before it was built; but of
-this hereafter.
-
-Besides these three there are numerous barrows, both long and round, in
-the neighbourhood, and British forts and villages; but these we propose
-to pass over at present, confining our attention in the first instance
-to the three monuments above enumerated.
-
-The first question that arises on looking at such a structure as
-Avebury, is whether it is a temple at all. It has already been
-attempted in the preceding pages to show what the temples of Britain
-were in the ages immediately succeeding the Roman occupation; but even
-if it is conceded that they were small basilicas, it will be contended
-that this is no answer to the question. If Avebury, it will be said,
-is a temple, it belonged to a mysterious, mythical, prehistoric people
-capable of executing such wonderful works before they came in contact
-with the Romans, but who, strange to say, were incapable of doing
-anything after the civilizing touch of that great people had left them
-feebler, and more ignorant than they were before!
-
-If this question, What is Avebury? is addressed to one--brought up in
-the Druidical faith as most Englishmen have been--he at once answers,
-It is a temple of the Druids. If pressed and reminded of the groves
-and the oaks these sectaries delighted in, he will perhaps admit
-that no soil is so little likely to grow oaks as the chalk downs of
-Wiltshire, and that there is no proof that any oaks ever grew in the
-neighbourhood. But this is not a complete answer, for it may be
-contended that for some reason we cannot comprehend, the Druids may
-have dispensed with trees on this occasion. The real difficulty is, as
-before mentioned, that no stones or stone structures are ever mentioned
-in connection with Druids.
-
-If an educated man whose mind is free from prejudice or pre-conceived
-ideas is asked the question, he runs over in his own mind what he knows
-of the temples of other peoples--Egypt, Assyria, Greece, Rome, in the
-ancient or the middle ages. They produced nothing of the sort. Persia,
-India, China, or the countries in the Eastern seas are all equally
-unsuggestive; nor will Mexico or Peru help him. The first conclusion,
-therefore, that he inevitably arrives at is, if these were the temples
-of the Britons, they must indeed have been a "Peculiar people," unlike
-any other race that lived at any time in any part of the world.
-
-If they were temples, to what god or gods were they dedicated? It
-could hardly have been Mercury, or Apollo, or Mars, Jove, or Minerva,
-mentioned by Cæsar,[80] as the gods worshipped by the Druids--and
-though perhaps these were only the nearest synonyms of Roman gods
-applied to Celtic divinities, still there must have been such
-resemblances as to have justified these appellations. We know of what
-form the temples of these gods were, and certainly they were not built
-after the fashion of the circles at Avebury. Some antiquaries have
-timidly suggested a dedication to the Sun. But there is certainly no
-passage in any author, classical or mediæval, which would lead us to
-suppose that our forefathers were addicted to the worship of a deity so
-unlikely to be a favourite in such a climate as ours. But again, what
-is a sun temple? Does one exist anywhere? Had the Wiltshire shepherds
-attempted it, they probably would have found the same difficulty that
-beset the fire-worshipping Persians of old. It is not easy to get the
-sun into a temple fashioned by human hands, and his rays are far more
-available on high places or on the sea-shore than inside walls or
-enclosures of any sort.
-
-Even putting aside the question to what god it was dedicated, what
-kind of worship could be performed in such a place? It could not be
-for speaking in. Our largest cathedrals are 600 feet long, and no man
-would attempt from the altar of the lady chapel to address a crowd
-beyond the west door; still less would he in the open air attempt to
-address a crowd in a circle 1200 feet in diameter, and where from the
-nature of the arrangements one half of the audience must be behind him.
-Still less is it fitted for seeing. The floor of the area is perfectly
-flat, and though people talk loosely of the crowd that could stand on
-the vallum, or on the berm, or narrow ledge between the internal ditch
-and the foot of the rampart, they forget that only one row of persons
-could stand on a sharp-pointed mound, and that the berm is on the same
-level as the rest of the floor, and is the last place any one would
-choose, as 100 great stones were put up in front of it as if especially
-designed to obstruct the view. This was, in fact, the case with all the
-stones. Assuming the ceremony or action to take place in the centre
-of either of the two inner circles, the double row of stones which
-surround them is so placed as to obstruct the view in every direction
-to the utmost possible extent. It may be suggested that the priest
-might climb on to the cap-stone of the cove, in the northern circle,
-and there perform his sacrifice in sight of the assembled multitude. It
-would be difficult to conceive any place so ill suited for the purpose;
-and even then, how would he manage on the point of the obelisk in the
-centre of the southern circle? No place, in fact, can be so ill adapted
-for either seeing or hearing as Avebury; and those who erected it would
-have been below the capacity of ordinary idiots if they designed it for
-either purpose. Besides this, it has none of the ordinary adjuncts of a
-temple. There is no sanctuary, no altar, no ark, no procession path, no
-priests' house, nothing that is found more or less prominently forming
-a part of every temple in every part of the world.
-
-Why so hypæthral? Are we to understand that the climate of the
-Wiltshire downs is so perfect and equable that men can afford to
-dispense with roofs or the ordinary protection against weather? or are
-we to assume that the men who could move these masses of stone and
-raise these mounds were such utter savages that they could not erect an
-enclosed building of any sort?
-
-Egypt possesses the finest and most equable climate in the world;
-yet all her temples are roofed in a more careful manner and more
-stately than our mediæval cathedrals, and so are all those of India
-and the Eastern climes where shelter is far less wanted than here.
-In all these countries and climes the temples of the gods are the
-dwellings or halls of men, enlarged and improved. What they did well
-for themselves, they did better for their deities. Are men therefore to
-assume that the Wiltshire shepherd slept on the snow in winter, with
-no other protection than a circle of widely spaced stones, and had no
-idea of a roof? Yet, if he were not hardened by some such process, it
-is difficult to see why he should build a temple so exposed to the
-inclemency of the weather that no ceremony could be properly performed
-in it for one half of the days of the year.
-
-Another objection to the temple theory that would strike most people,
-if they would think about it, is the enormous size of Avebury. Its area
-is at least five times that of St. Peter's at Rome; 250,000 people
-could easily be seated within its vallum, and half a million could
-stand. Men generally try to adapt the size of their buildings to the
-amount of accommodation required. But where should such a multitude
-as this come from? How could they be fed? How could they be lodged?
-There is no reason to suppose that in any ancient time before the
-introduction of agriculture, the pastoral population on these downs
-could ever have been greater than, or so great as, that which now
-exists there. When Doomsday Book was compiled, there were only two
-hides of arable land in the manor, and they seem to have belonged to
-the church. A fair inference from which seems to be that, but for the
-superior knowledge and influence of the priesthood, the inhabitants of
-these downs might, in the eleventh century, have remained in the same
-state of pastoral barbarity in which there is every reason to believe
-they were sunk in pagan times. How a few shepherds, sparsely scattered
-over these plains, could have erected or have required such a temple as
-this, is the mystery that requires to be explained. A very small parish
-church now suffices for their spiritual wants; and if 10,000 pilgrims,
-even at the present day, when agriculture has been extended to every
-available patch of ground, visited the place for a week, many of them
-would be starving before it was over.
-
-It would be easy to adduce fifty other arguments of this sort. Many
-more must indeed occur to any one who will give himself the trouble
-to think of the matter; but to those who are accustomed to such
-investigations the two most convincing probably are, first, that there
-is no evidence whatever of progress in the design of Avebury. It was
-built and finished as first designed. The second is, that in it there
-is a total absence of ornament. In India, we have temples as big as
-Avebury; but their history is written on their faces. The first step in
-the process is generally that a small shrine, with a narrow enclosure
-and small gateway, becomes from some cause or other, sacred or rich,
-and a second enclosure is added to contain halls for the reception of
-pilgrims or the ceremonial display on festal occasions. But no god in
-that pantheon can live alone. New shrines are added for other deities,
-with new halls, new residences for priests, and more accommodation for
-all the thousand and one requisites of a great idol establishment. This
-requires a third or fourth new enclosure, up even to a seventh, as at
-Seringham. But in all this there is progress: 200 or 300 years are
-required, and each century--sometimes each decade--leaves its easily
-recognised mark as the work progresses. In like manner, the great
-temple at Karnac, though covering only one-third the area of Avebury,
-took the Egyptians three centuries to build, and every step of its
-progress can be easily traced. The works of the earlier Thotmes differ
-essentially from those of Manepthah and Rameses, and theirs again from
-those of Seshonk; and these again differ essentially from the little
-shrine of Osortasen, which was the germ of the whole.
-
-So it was with all our cathedrals. The small Saxon church was
-superseded by the Norman nave with a small apsidal choir. This was
-enlarged into the Early English presbytery, and beyond this grew
-the lady chapel, and as the ill-built Norman work decayed, it was
-replaced by Tudor constructions. But there is nothing of the sort at
-Avebury. Had the temple been built or begun by the sparse inhabitants
-of these downs, we should have seen something to show where the work
-began. They must have brought one stone one year and another the
-next, and inevitably they would have employed their leisure hours,
-like the inhabitants of Easter Island, in carving these stones either
-with ornaments or symbols, or fashioning them into idols. There is
-absolutely no instance in the whole world where some evidence of care
-and of a desire after ornament of some sort is not to be traced in
-the temples of the people. Nothing, however, of the sort occurs here.
-Indeed, if there is one thing more evident than another about Avebury,
-it is that, as it was begun, so it was ended. There is no hesitation,
-no sign of change: the same men, to all appearance, who traced its plan
-saw its completion; and as they designed it, so they left it. There is
-no sign of any human hand having touched it from that hour henceforward
-till the sordid greed of modern farmers set to work to destroy it,
-to build with its materials the alehouse and the village which now
-occupies a small portion of the enclosure.
-
-So too with regard to ornament. This structure, we may fairly assume,
-if a temple, must have been in use for some centuries; but during that
-time, or any shorter time that may be assumed, no man had the skill
-or the inclination to adorn the greatest temple of his native land
-either with carving or emblems or ornament of any kind. The men who
-could conceive the great design--so great and noble--could do nothing
-more. Their hands drooped in listless idleness by their sides, and they
-were incapable of further exertion! Such a state of affairs, if not
-impossible, is certainly unparalleled. No such example exists anywhere
-else with reference to any temple, so far as we know, in any part of
-the world. Tombs do show these peculiarities at times, temples never.
-
-If these reasons are sufficient to prove that Avebury was not a temple,
-there are more than can be required, to show that it was not a place
-of meeting of ancient Britons. Whatever may be thought of the extent
-of prehistoric assemblies, it will hardly be contended that it was
-necessary to provide accommodation for the 250,000 men who could be
-seated in the great circle. Even supposing it were intended only to
-accommodate 12,000 or 13,000 lords and as many commons in the two
-subordinate rings, they would hardly have arranged an inner circle
-of great stones in the middle of each assembly, or placed a spiked
-obelisk for a woolsack in the one or a tall dolmen under or behind
-the Speaker's chair in the other. Nothing in fact could be conceived
-so utterly unsuited for the purpose as these rings, and unless these
-primeval men were very differently constituted from ourselves, any
-assembly of elder-men who were likely to meet at Avebury would have
-preferred a room however rude, and of one-hundredth part of the extent,
-for their deliberations to the unsheltered and unsuitable magnificence
-of the Big Stones. Of course, among all rude people, and often also
-among those more civilized, open-air assemblies of the people will
-take place; but then these will always be near the great centres
-of population. Men will go into the desert for religious purposes,
-but they prefer talking politics nearer home. In some communities a
-Campus Martius or a Thing field may be set apart for the purpose;
-but the first requisite of such a place of assembly is that it shall
-be open and free from encumbrance of any sort. A Mote hill too, like
-the terraced Tynwald Mount in the Isle of Man, is an intelligible
-arrangement, not for a deliberative assembly, but as a rostrum from
-which to proclaim law. We can also understand why Shire courts should
-be held on barrows, as seems often to have been the case. For here
-the judge occupied a dignified position on the summit. His assessors
-stood behind him, and the pleaders and people in front. Instances
-are also known in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries where local
-courts were summoned to meet at the "standing stones," or in circles,
-in Scotland at least;[81] but in all these instances it was apparently
-to settle territorial disputes on the spot, and the stones or mounds
-were merely indicated as well-known marks and, consequently, convenient
-trysting-places. Even if this were not so, it would not be at all to
-be wondered at that in the middle ages sepulchral circles or mounds
-were habitually used as meeting-places. They were then old enough
-to be venerable; and their antiquity must have conferred on them a
-dignity suitable to the purpose, whatever their original destination
-may have been. But all this is very different from erecting as a place
-of assembly so huge and inconvenient a place as Avebury is, and always
-must have been.
-
-It seems needless to follow this line of argument further, for unless
-it can be shown that the people who erected Avebury were so differently
-constituted from ourselves that no reasoning derived from our
-experience can be applied to them, the answer seems inevitable.
-
-That no such Temple, nor has any such meeting-place, been built or
-attempted by any set of men in any part of the world. But is there
-any reason for supposing that the inhabitants of these downs differed
-so essentially from ourselves? Dr. Thurnam has examined with care
-some hundreds of skulls gathered from the grave-mounds in this
-neighbourhood, and has published decades on decades of them.[82]
-Yet the most learned craniologists cannot detect--except perhaps in
-degree--any difference that would lead us to suppose that these ancient
-men were not actuated by the same motives and governed by the same
-moral influences as ourselves. If this is so, Avebury certainly was not
-erected either as a temple or a place of assembly, in any sense of the
-word which we can understand, and those who insist that it was either
-are bound to explain what the motives or objects could have been which
-induced the inhabitants of the Wiltshire downs to act in a manner so
-entirely opposed to all we know of the actions or feelings of all other
-nations in all other parts of the world.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-If, therefore, Avebury was neither a temple nor a place of assembly,
-what was it? The answer does not seem far to seek. It must have been
-a burying-place, but still not a cemetery in the ordinary sense of
-the term. The inhabitants of these downs could never have required a
-bigger and more magnificent burying-place than any other community in
-Great Britain, and must always have been quite unequal to raise such
-a monument. But what is more important than this, a cemetery implies
-succession in time and gradations in rank, and this is exactly what
-is most conspicuously wanting at Avebury. It may be the monument of
-one king or two kings, but it is not a collection of the monuments of
-individuals of various classes in life, or of a series of individuals
-of the same rank, erected at different intervals of time. As before
-remarked, it is in one design--"totus teres atque rotundus," erected
-with no hesitation and no shadow of change.
-
-If, however, we assume that Avebury was the burying-place of those who
-fell in a great battle fought on the spot, every difficulty seems
-at once to vanish. It is now admitted that men did bury in stone
-circles or under dolmens, and beside head-stones and within earthen
-enclosures, and what we find here differs only in degree from what we
-find elsewhere. It seems just such a monument as a victorious army of
-say 10,000 men could, with their prisoners, erect in a week. The earth
-is light, and could easily be thrown up into the form of the vallum,
-and the Sarsen stones lay all over the downs, and all on a higher
-level than Avebury, which perhaps for that very reason is placed on
-the lowest spot of ground in the neighbourhood. With a few rollers and
-ropes, 10,000 men would very soon collect all the stones that ever
-stood there, and stick them up on their ends. They probably would have
-no skilled labour in their ranks, and no leisure, if they had, to
-employ it in ornamentation of any sort. Without this, it is just such a
-monument as might and would be raised by an illiterate army wishing to
-bury with honour those who had fallen in the fight, and having at the
-same time no other means of leaving on the spot a record of their own
-victory.
-
-On theoretical grounds, there seems to be no argument that can be urged
-against this view; and during the ten years that it has been constantly
-before the public none have been brought forward that deserve notice.
-It is urged, however, that the evidence is not complete, and that
-nothing written serves to confirm this view. Those who make the
-objection forget that one of the first conditions of the problem is
-that those who erected such a monument should be illiterate. If they
-could have written to any primeval 'Times,' they would not have taken
-such pains to lithograph their victory on the spot. Had they been able
-either to read or write, an inscription would have done more than the
-200 or 300 stones of Avebury; but because they could not write, they
-raised them, and, for that reason also, left us the problem of finding
-out why they did so.
-
-We are not, however, wholly without evidence on this subject. Many
-years ago Mr. Kemble printed a charter of King Athelstan, dated in 939,
-which, describing the boundaries of the manor of Overton, in which
-Avebury is situated, makes use of the following expression:--"Then by
-Collas barrow, as far as the broad road to Hackpen, thence northward up
-along the Stone row, thence to the burying-places."[83] It does not
-seem to be a matter of doubt that the stone row here mentioned is the
-Kennet Avenue, nor that the burying-places (byrgelsas) are the Avebury
-rings; but it may be urged that the Saxon surveyor did not know what
-he was talking about; and as, unfortunately, he does not say who were
-buried there, and gives no corroborative evidence, all we learn from
-this is that they were so considered in the tenth century.
-
-Something more tangible was nearly obtained shortly before Stukeley's
-time, when Lord Stawell levelled the vallum next the church, where
-the great barn now stands. The original surface of the ground was
-"easily distinguishable by a black stratum of mould on the chalk. Here
-they found large quantities of buck-horns, bones, oyster-shells, and
-wood-coals. An old man who was employed on the work says there was a
-quantity of a cartload of horns, that they were very rotten, and that
-there were very many burned bones among them."[84] On the same page,
-Dr. Stukeley adds: "Besides some Roman coins accidentally found in and
-about Abury, I was informed that a square bit of iron was taken up
-under one of the great stones upon pulling it down." Other Roman coins
-have, I understand, been found there since, but there is no authentic
-record of the fact which can be quoted. This is to be regretted; for
-the presence, if ascertained, of these coins would go far to prove that
-the erection of the monument was after their date, whatever that may be.
-
-Unfortunately no scientific man saw these bones, so no one was able
-to say whether they were human or not; but the presumption is that
-they were, for why should burned bones of animals be placed in such
-a situation? The answer to this is that the Wiltshire Archæological
-Society have made some excavations at Avebury, and found nothing. In
-1865, they tapped the vallum in various places, and dug one trench to
-its centre, and, as they found nothing, concluded that nothing was
-to be found. But in a mound 4442 feet long, according to Sir R. Colt
-Hoare, there must be many vacant spots, especially if the bodies were
-burnt; and such negative evidence cannot be considered as conclusive,
-nor as sufficient to disprove the evidence acquired in Lord Stawell's
-diggings. Stukeley's honesty in recording facts of this sort is hardly
-to be suspected, though the inferences he draws from his facts are
-generally to be received with the extremest caution. The Society also
-dug in the centre of the northern circle, where the dolmen stood,
-and penetrated to the original chalk, but found nothing except the
-ruins of the stones which had been destroyed by fire, and express
-great disappointment at finding "no human bones whatever."[85] If the
-bodies were burnt--as we should be led to infer from what Lord Stawell
-found under the vallum--what they probably would have found, had the
-"Cove" been complete, would have been a vase or urn with ashes. The
-barbarians who destroyed the stones are scarcely likely to have spared
-so worthless a piece of crockery; and if it were broken at the time,
-it would be in vain a hundred years afterwards to look either for it
-or for bones that in all probability were never laid there. Nor need
-better results have been expected from their trench, 60 feet long. A
-man must know very exactly what he is looking for, and where to look
-for it, who expects to find an object like an urn, a foot in diameter,
-in a 28-acre field. Judging from the experience obtained at Crichie, in
-Scotland, where a funereal deposit was obtained at the foot of every
-one of a circle of stones that stood inside a ditch like the internal
-one at Avebury, it is there we should expect to find the deposit.[86]
-That is just where nobody has thought of looking at Avebury, though
-nothing would be easier. There are fifty or sixty empty holes, and any
-one might without difficulty be enlarged, and if there were a deposit
-at the foot of each, it would then inevitably be found.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-To this we shall return presently. Meanwhile let us see what evidence,
-if any, is to be obtained from the circle on Hakpen Hill.
-
-As before mentioned, this monument consists of two ovals, according to
-Dr. Stukeley the outer one was 138 by 155 feet and the inner 45 by 51
-feet. He does not give the dimensions of the stones; but Aubrey calls
-them from 4 to 5 feet in height, which is confirmed by the Doctor's
-engraving; and, altogether, they do not seem to average one-quarter the
-size of those at Avebury. Of the avenue, only four stones are shown in
-the plan woodcut (No. 16), and the same number is shown in the view
-(plate xxi.). In both instances, the avenue is represented as perfectly
-straight, and as trending rather to the southward of Silbury Hill.[87]
-It extended, according to Aubrey, a quarter of a mile--say 440 yards.
-
-[Illustration: 16. Circle on Hakpen Hill. From Stukeley.]
-
-The most curious circumstance, however, connected with this circle is
-that, at the distance of about 80 yards from the outer oval, there were
-found two rows of skeletons, laid side by side, with their feet towards
-the centre of the circles. In a curious letter, written by a Dr. Toope,
-of Oxford, dated 1st December, 1685, addressed to Mr. Aubrey, and
-published by Sir R. Colt Hoare,[88] it is said:--"I quickly perceived
-them to be human." "Next day dugg up many bushells, with which I made
-a noble medicine. The bones are large and nearly rotten, but the teeth
-extream and wonderfully white. About 80 yards from where the bones were
-found, is a temple 40 yards diameter, with another 15 yards; round
-about bones layd so close that scul toucheth scul. Their feet all round
-turned towards the temple, 1 foot below the surface of the ground. At
-the feet of the first order lay the head of the next row, the feet
-always tending towards the temple." Further on Aubrey asserts that a
-ditch surrounded the temple, which Stukeley denies; but there seems no
-difficulty in reconciling the two statements. The destruction of the
-monument had commenced before Aubrey's time. For it is impossible to
-conceive bodies lying for even 1000 or 1200 years in so light a soil,
-at the depth of 1 foot or even 2 feet, exposed to the influence of rain
-and frost, without their being returned to earth. Most probably there
-was a ditch, and where there was a ditch there must have been a mound,
-and that, if heaped over the bodies, might have protected them. The
-vallum had disappeared in Aubrey's time; the ditch was filled up before
-Stukeley's, and stones and all had been smoothed over in Sir R. Colt
-Hoare's; so that now the site can hardly be defined with certainty. A
-trench, however, cut across it, if it can be traced, might lead to some
-curious revelations, for there can be no doubt whatever with regard
-to the facts stated in Dr. Toope's letter. He was a medical man of
-eminence, and knew human bones perfectly, and was too deeply interested
-in the diggings, from which he drew "his noble medicine," and to which
-he frequently returned, to be mistaken in what he stated.
-
-Meanwhile, however, what interests us more at this stage of the
-enquiry are the differences as well as the similarities of the two
-monuments. The circles at Hakpen are on a very much smaller scale both
-as to linear dimensions and the size of the stones than the circles
-at Avebury; and the difference between burning and burying, which, so
-far as the evidence goes, seems to have prevailed in the two places,
-is also remarkable. Do they belong to two different ages, and, if so,
-which is the elder? The evidence of the tumuli is uniform that the
-inhabitants of this island buried before they burnt. But can these
-bones be so old as this would force us to admit they were? So far as
-the evidence at present goes, it seems impossible to carry the burials
-on Hakpen Hill back to the earliest period of prehistoric interments;
-the condition of the bones is sufficient to render such an hypothesis
-untenable. Unless the phosphates and other component adjuncts remained
-in them, they would have been as useless for medicine as for manure,
-and the exposed position in which they lay would have reduced these to
-dust or mud in a very few centuries. From the descriptions we have, the
-bodies certainly were not in the contracted doubled-up position usual
-in the so-called bronze age, and there were no traces of the cremations
-apparently introduced by the Romans, and practised for some time after
-they left. All appear to have been laid out in the extended position
-afterwards adopted and continued to the present day. In fact everything
-would lead us to suppose that Camden was not far wrong in saying that
-these were the bones of the Saxons and Danes slain at the battle of
-Kennet in A.D. 1006.[89] Even then, unless there was a mound
-over them, they could hardly have lasted 600 years in the state in
-which they were found. If we do not adopt this view, but insist that
-Hakpen and Avebury are contemporary monuments, and part of one great
-plan, the only hypothesis that occurs to me that will at all account
-for their peculiarities is that the victorious army burnt and buried
-their dead at Avebury, and that the defeated force got permission to
-bury their dead more modestly on Hakpen Hill.
-
-[Illustration: 17. Section of Silbury Hill.]
-
-Silbury Hill, which forms the third member of our group, is situated
-nearly due south from Avebury, at a distance of 1200 yards from the
-outside of the ring, of the former, to the foot of the hill, or, as
-nearly as may be, one Roman mile from centre to centre. Mr. Rickman[90]
-based an argument on the latter fact, as if it proved the post-Roman
-origin of the group; and like the many recurring instances of 100 feet
-and 100 yards, which run through all the megalithic remains, it may
-have some value, but, as a single instance, it can only be looked upon
-as a coincidence.
-
-The dimensions of the hill, as ascertained by the Rev. Mr. Smith, of
-Yatesbury,[91] are that it is 130 feet in height, 552 feet in diameter,
-and 1657 feet in circumference; that the flat top is 104 feet or 102
-feet across,[92] according to the direction in which it is measured;
-this last being another Roman coincidence, as the top has no doubt both
-sunk and spread. The angle of the slope of the sides is 30 degrees to
-the horizon.
-
-In the year 1777 a shaft was sunk from the top of the mound to the
-base, by order of the then Duke of Northumberland and Colonel Drax,
-but no record has been preserved of what they found, or rather did
-not find, for had they made any discovery of the least importance,
-it certainly would have been communicated to some of the learned
-societies of the day. Subsequently, in 1849, a shaft was driven nearly
-horizontally from the southern face on the level of the original soil
-to the centre, where it met the Duke's shaft; and subsequently a
-circular gallery was carried round the centre, but in vain; nothing was
-found in these excavations that would show that the mound had ever been
-used for sepulchral purposes, or that threw any light whatever on its
-history or destination.[93]
-
-Judging from the analogies gathered from our knowledge of the parallel
-Indian series, we ought not to be surprised if this really were the
-only result. From the accounts of the Chinese travellers who visited
-India in the fifth and seventh centuries, we learn that about one-half
-of the topes they saw and described were erected to commemorate
-events, and not to contain relics, or as simulated tombs. Wherever
-Buddha or any of his followers performed any miracles, or where any
-event happened of sufficient importance to make it desirable that the
-memory of the locality where it happened should be preserved, there
-a Tope was erected. To take an example as bearing more directly than
-usual on our present subject. When Dutthagamini, king of Ceylon (161
-B.C.), defeated the usurper Ellala, and restored the true
-faith, "he erected near the capital a dagoba in commemoration of his
-victory. A stone pillar marks the spot where the action commenced,
-and another stone pillar exists there with an inscription to the
-effect that it marks the spot rendered sacred by the death and blood
-of Ellala."[94] The dagoba is a simple mound of earth, and, so far as
-known, has never been opened. In Afghanistan, many of the topes opened
-by Messrs. Masson and Honigberger were found to be what they call
-"blind topes," but they were not able to detect by any external sign
-whether their researches were likely to be rewarded with success or to
-end in disappointment.[95]
-
-Whether these analogies are worth anything or not, nothing appears, at
-first sight at least, more probable than that, if the fallen chiefs
-of a victorious army are buried at Avebury, the survivors should
-have employed their prisoners as slaves to erect a mound on the spot
-probably where the chiefs were slain and the battle decided. The
-tradition, however, having been lost, the mound stands silent and
-uncommunicative, and it is not easy now to read its riddle.
-
-It is very premature, however, to speculate either on these analogies
-or on the negative results of the explorations made into the hill:
-these last were undertaken, like the diggings at Avebury, on the
-empirical assumption that the principal deposit would be found in the
-centre, and at Silbury on the ground level, which is exactly the place
-where almost certainly it was not. Supposing that there is a low-level
-sepulture at Silbury, it probably will be found within 30 or 40 yards
-of the outer face of the mound, on the side looking towards Avebury,
-if it is connected with that monument. But the knowledge we have
-acquired, as will be afterwards detailed, from the examination of the
-Minning Lowe, Arbor Lowe, Rose Hill tumuli, and other monuments of this
-class, would lead us to expect to find the principal deposit near the
-summit. The bit of a bridle (woodcut No. 18) and the traces of armour
-which were found in Stukeley's time, near the summit, mark in all
-probability the position of the principal graves, and nothing would
-surprise me less than if five or six entombments were found arranged
-around the upper plateau at a small depth below the surface. We shall
-be in a better position to judge how far this is probable when we have
-finished this chapter; but till the evidence is adduced, it is useless
-to speculate on its effect.
-
-[Illustration: 18. Iron Bit of Bridle. Found in Silbury Hill.]
-
-At one time I hoped that the Roman road might be found to have passed
-under the hill, and if this were the case, it would settle the question
-as to whether it were pre- or post-Roman. In order to ascertain this,
-some excavations were made into the hill in 1867, and simultaneously
-on the high ground to the southward of it. As traces which seemed
-undoubtedly to mark the existence of the road running past the hill,
-at about 50 to 100 yards to the southward, were found there, the
-excavations into the hill were discontinued, and the line of the road
-considered as established. Owing to various mishaps, no plan of these
-discoveries has yet been published, but the annexed woodcut, which is
-traced from the Ordnance Survey sheet, will suffice to explain its
-bearing on the question.
-
-[Illustration: 19. Plan of Avebury, from Ordnance Survey. The line of
-the Roman road is hatched throughout.]
-
-Standing on Silbury Hill and looking westward, the road coming from
-Bath over the downs seems to come direct at the hill. After passing the
-Devizes road, it trends to the southward, and shortly again resumes
-its original direction. About a mile before it reaches the hill, it
-again resumes its southward direction, and passes it at a distance
-of between 50 to 100 yards, making, apparently, for the spot where
-the bridge over the Kennet now exists, and may have existed in Roman
-times. Those who contend for the pre-Roman antiquity of the hill rest
-their case on the assumption that the Romans always made or wished to
-make their roads perfectly straight, and that this being deflected to
-the south, it was in consequence of the hill being there at the time
-the road was made. This, however, is singularly contradicted by the
-line of this very road westwards from the Devizes road. According to
-the Ordnance Survey, it is set out in a curve for 3½ miles till it
-meets the Wandsdyke. Why this was done is not clearer than why the road
-should have been curved to the eastward of the Devizes road. But, on
-the other hand, supposing the hill to have been where it now stands,
-and the Romans wished the road to be straight, nothing in the world was
-so easy as for them to set out a line mathematically straight between
-the Devizes road and the point where it passes the hill. The country
-is and was perfectly open, and quite as flat as any Roman road-maker
-could desire, and signals could have been seen throughout with perfect
-facility. It is crediting the Roman surveyors with a degree of
-stupidity they certainly did not show elsewhere, to say, if they wanted
-a straight road, that seeing the hill before their eyes, they first
-set out their road towards it, when they knew that before they had
-advanced a mile, they must bend it so as to avoid that very obstacle.
-Even then they would have tried to make it as straight as possible,
-and would have adopted the line of the present coach-road, which runs
-inside their line and between it and the hill. At the same time, if
-any one will turn to Sir R. Colt Hoare's map of the Roman roads in
-this district--"Stations Calne and Swindon"--which includes Avebury,
-he will find that all are set out in lines more or less curvilinear,
-and sometimes violently so, when any object was to be gained by so
-doing. Though, therefore, as a general rule, it is safe to argue on the
-presumption of the straightness of Roman roads, it may lead to serious
-error to rely on such evidence in every instance.
-
-The inference drawn from the piece of the Roman road further eastward
-on Hakpen Hill is the same. It is perfectly distinct and quite straight
-for about a mile, but if it had been continued in that line, it would
-have passed the hill at a distance of at least 200 yards to the
-southward, and never have joined the other piece till long after it
-had passed the Devizes road. It was deflected northward in the village
-of Kennet, apparently to reach the bridge, and then to join the piece
-coming from Bath.
-
-The result of all this seems to be, that the evidence of the Roman
-road is inconclusive either way and must be withdrawn. Taking the
-point where it passes the Devizes road, and the piece which is found
-on Hakpen hill as fixed points, to join these it must have passed
-considerably to the southward of the hill; whether it did so in a
-mathematically straight line or in one slightly curved, was a matter
-for the judgment of the surveyor; but till we know his motives, it is
-not in our power to found any argument upon them.
-
-[Illustration: 20. Elevation of the Bartlow Hills. From the
-'Archæologia,' xxx.]
-
-If, however, the Roman road refuses to give evidence in this cause,
-the form of the hill offers some indications which are of value. As
-before mentioned, it is a truncated straight-lined cone, sloping at an
-angle of 30° to the horizon, while all the British barrows known are
-domical or, at least, curvilinear in section. In all his experience,
-Sir R. Colt Hoare met with only one straight-lined monument of this
-class, which consequently he calls the Conical Barrow. Whether it
-was truncated or not is not quite clear. There are bushes, or weeds,
-growing out of the top, which conceal its form.[96] Nothing was found
-in the barrow to indicate its age except a brass (bronze?) spear-head,
-but it was attached to a British village, apparently of the Roman
-period, inasmuch as iron nails and Roman pottery were found in it.[97]
-Be this as it may, there are a range of tumuli at Bartlow, on the
-boundary between Essex and Cambridgeshire, which are all truncated
-cones, and are undoubtedly of Roman origin. A coin of Hadrian was
-found in the chamber of one of them, and Mr. Gage, and the other
-archæologists who were present at the opening, were all agreed that all
-the four opened were of about the same age.[98] We may therefore feel
-assured that they were not earlier than the time of Hadrian, though
-from the style of workmanship of the various articles found, I would
-feel inclined to consider them somewhat more modern, but that is of
-little consequence. The point that interests us most is, that the angle
-of the Conical Barrow quoted above is 45° to the horizon, that of the
-principal tumuli at Bartlow 37½° and that of Silbury Hill 30°. Here
-we certainly have a sequence not long enough to be quite satisfactory,
-but still of considerable value, as an indication that Silbury hill was
-post-Roman.
-
-On the other hand, we have undoubted evidence that the truncated
-conical form was common in post-Roman times. We have one, for instance,
-at Marlborough, close by, and if that place was Merlin's bury, as Sir
-R. Colt Hoare would fain persuade us it was, it assists us considerably
-in our argument. Without insisting on this, however, Mr. George Clark,
-in his most valuable paper on Ancient English Castles,[99] enumerates
-ninety truncated cones erected in England, he considers, between the
-Roman times and the Norman conquest. "These earthworks," he says,
-"may be thus described: First was cast up a truncated cone of earth,
-standing at its natural slope from 50 feet to 100 feet in diameter at
-the top, and from 20 feet to 50 feet high."[100] Mr. Clark does not
-believe that these were ever sepulchral, nor does it occur to him that
-they might be memorial. I should, however, be disinclined to accept
-the first conclusion as absolute till excavations had been made into
-some of them, at least, where I fancy we may find indications rather
-tending the other way. Whether they were memorial or not must depend
-on traditions that have not hitherto been looked for. Mr. Clark's
-contention was that all had at some time or other been used for
-residential purposes, and as fortifications, and many are recorded as
-having been erected as castles. All this is probably quite correct, but
-the point that interests us here is, that there are nearly one hundred
-examples of truncated cones of earth thrown up in England after the
-Roman times, and not one before. If this is so, the conclusion seems
-inevitable that Silbury Hill must belong to the latter age. Whether
-this conclusion can be sustained or not, must depend on what follows
-from the other monuments we are about to examine. The evidence of the
-monument itself, which is all we have hitherto had an opportunity of
-bringing forward, may be sufficient to render it probable, but not to
-prove the case. Unless other examples can be adduced whose evidence
-tends the same way, the case cannot be taken as proved, however strong
-a _prima facie_ presumption may be established.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-[Illustration: 21. Marden Circle. From Sir R. C. Hoare. No Scale.]
-
-Though a little distant, it may be convenient to include the Marden
-circle in the Avebury group. It is situated in a village of that name
-seven miles south of Silbury Hill. When Sir R. Colt Hoare surveyed it
-fifty years ago, the southern half of the vallum had been so completely
-destroyed, that it could not be traced, and he carried it across the
-brook, making the whole area about fifty-one acres.[101] My impression
-is that this is a mistake, and that the area of the circle was only
-about half that extent. The rampart was of about the same section as
-Avebury, and the ditch was inside as there. Within this enclosure were
-two mounds, situated unsymmetrically, like the circles at Avebury. The
-greater one was opened with great difficulty, owing to the friable
-nature of the earth of which it was composed; and Mr. Cunnington was
-convinced that it was sepulchral, and contained one or more burials
-by cremation; but Sir R. Colt Hoare was so imbued with the Druidical
-theory as to Avebury, that he could not give up the idea that so
-similar a monument must be also a Druidical altar, and the whole a
-temple. The second barrow was too much ruined to yield any results, and
-on revisiting the spot, it was found to have been cleared away. A great
-part of the vallum had also been removed, but in it was found at least
-one skeleton of a man who had been buried there.[102] How many more
-there may have been it is impossible to say. The destroyers of these
-antiquities were not likely to boast of the number of bodies they had
-disturbed.
-
-The great interest of this circle is that it contains in earth the
-counterpart of what was found at Avebury in stone; not that this
-necessarily betokens either an earlier or a later age. There are no
-stones to be found at Marden, which is on the edge of the chalk, while
-the country about Avebury was and is covered with Sarsens to this
-day. It may, however, be considered as very positive evidence of the
-sepulchral nature of that monument, if such were needed, and if it
-were thoroughly explored, might perhaps settle the question of the age
-of both. In this respect, the Marden monument affords a better field
-for the explorer than Avebury. The destruction or disfigurement of its
-mound, or vallum, would be no great loss to antiquaries, if a proper
-record were kept of their present appearance; while to do anything
-tending towards the further dilapidation of Avebury is a sacrilege from
-which every one would shrink.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-Before leaving the neighbourhood it now only remains to try and
-determine who the brave men were who were buried at Avebury, and who
-the victors who raised the mound at Silbury, assuming that the one is
-a burying place, and the other a trophy. Some years ago I suggested
-it was those who fell in Arthur's last and greatest battle of Badon
-Hill, fought somewhere in this neighbourhood in the year A.D.
-520,[103] and nothing that has since occurred has at all shaken my
-conviction in the correctness of this determination,[104] but a good
-deal has tended to confirm it.
-
-The authors of the 'Monumenta Britannica' fix the site of this battle
-at Banesdown, near Bath, which is the generally received opinion.[105]
-Carte, and others, have suggested Baydon Hill, about thirteen miles
-west by north from Avebury, while Dr. Guest carries it off to Badbury,
-in Dorset,[106] a distance of forty miles. Unfortunately, Gildas, who
-is our principal authority on this matter, only gives us in three
-words all he has to say of the locality in which it was fought--"Prope
-Sabrinum Ostium";[107] and it has been asserted that these words are
-an interpolation, because they are not found in all the ancient MSS.
-If they are, however, an insertion, they are still of very ancient
-date, and would not have been admitted and repeated if they had not
-been added by some one who knew or had authority for introducing them.
-As the words are generally translated, they are taken to mean near the
-mouth of the Severn, a construction at once fatal to the pretensions
-of Bath, which it is impossible any one should describe as near that
-river, even if any one could say where the mouth of that river is. It
-is most difficult to determine where the river ends and the estuary
-begins, and to a mediæval geographer, especially, that point must
-have been much nearer Gloucester than even Bristol. This, however,
-is of little consequence, as the words in the text are not "Sabrinæ
-ostium," but "Sabrinum ostium"; and as the river is always spoken of
-as feminine, it is not referred to here, and the expression can only
-be translated as "near the Welsh gate." Nor does it seem difficult to
-determine where the Welsh gate must have been.
-
-The Wandsdyke always seems to have been regarded as a barrier erected
-to stop the incursions of the Welsh into the southern counties, and
-that part of it extending from Savernake forest westward, for ten or
-twelve miles, seems at some comparatively recent period to have been
-raised and strengthened[108] (either by the Belgæ or Saxons) to make
-it more effectual for that purpose. According as an army is advancing
-northward from Winchester, or Chichester to the Severn valley, or is
-marching from Gloucester or Cirencester towards the south, the rampart
-either protects or bars the way. In its centre, near the head-waters
-of the Kennet, the Saxons advanced in 557 to the siege of Barbury
-Castle, and having gained that vantage ground, they again advanced in
-577 to Deorham, and fought the battle that gave them possession of
-Glewanceaster, Cyrenceaster, and Bathanceaster.[109] What they then
-accomplished they seem to have attempted unsuccessfully thirty-seven
-years earlier, and to have been stopped in the attempt by Arthur
-at Badon Hill. If this is so, there can be very little difficulty
-in determining the site of the Welsh gate as that opening through
-which the road now passes 2½ miles south of Silbury Hill, in the
-very centre of the strengthened part of the Wandsdyke. If this is
-so, the Saxons under Cerdic must have passed through the village of
-Avebury, supposing it then existed, on their way to Cirencester; and
-if we assume that they were attacked on Waden hill by Arthur, the
-whole history of the campaign is clear. If we may rely on a nominal
-similarity the case may be considered as proved. Waden is the name by
-which the hill between Avebury and Silbury is called at the present
-day by the people of the country, and it is so called on the Ordnance
-survey sheets, and etymologically Waden is more like Badon than Baydon,
-or Badbury, or any other name in the neighbourhood. The objection
-to this is that Waden Hill is not fortified, and that Gildas speaks
-of the "Obsessio Montis Badonici." It is true there is no trace of
-any earthworks on it now, but in Stukeley's time there were tumuli
-and earthen rings (apparently sepulchral) on its summit, which are
-represented in his plates; but no trace of these now remains. The hill
-was cultivated in his day, and in a century or so beyond his time all
-traces of ramparts may have been obliterated, supposing them to have
-existed. The true explanation of the difficulty, however, I believe to
-be found in Jeffrey of Monmouth's account of these transactions. He
-is a frail reed to rely upon; but occasionally he seems to have had
-access to authorities now lost, and their testimony at times throws
-considerable light on passages of our history otherwise obscure.
-According to him there was both a siege and a battle; and his account
-of the battle is so circumstantial and so probable, that it is
-difficult to believe it to be a pure invention. If it is not, every
-detail of his description would answer perfectly to an attack on an
-army posted on Waden Hill.[110] The siege would then probably be that
-of Barbury Hill, which Cerdic would be obliged to raise on Arthur's
-advance; and retreating towards the shelter of the Wandsdyke, he was
-overtaken at this spot and defeated, and so peace was established for
-many years between the Brits and the Saxons. It may be true that the
-written evidence is not either sufficiently detailed or sufficiently
-precise to establish the fact that the battle was fought on this spot.
-It must, however, be conceded that nothing in all that is written
-contradicts what is here advanced, and when to this we add such a
-burying place, Avebury at one end of Waden Hill, and such a monument
-as Silbury Hill at the other, the proofs that it was so seem to me to
-amount as nearly to certainty as we can now expect to arrive at in such
-matters.
-
-Those who believe, however, that all these monuments are absolutely
-prehistoric, will not, of course, be convinced by any argument derived
-from a single monument; but if it should turn out that even a more
-certain case can be made out for the equally modern age of others, that
-point must eventually be conceded. When it is, I feel no doubt that it
-will come eventually to be acknowledged that those who fell in Arthur's
-twelfth and greatest battle were buried in the ring at Avebury, and
-that those who survived raised these stones and the mound at Silbury
-in the vain hope that they would convey to their latest posterity the
-memory of their prowess.
-
-
-STONEHENGE.
-
-Although from its exceptional character Stonehenge is not so valuable
-as some others for evidence of the age or uses of the rest of the
-monuments of this class, it is in some respects even more important
-for our argument, inasmuch as it possesses a more complete mediæval
-history than almost any other of the series. It must be confessed that
-this history is neither so clear nor so complete as might be wished;
-but, with the other evidence that can be adduced, it makes up a case so
-strong as to leave little to be desired. Before, however, proceeding to
-this, it is necessary to ascertain what Stonehenge really is, or rather
-was, for strange to say, though numberless restorations of it have
-been published, not one is quite satisfactory. There is very little
-discrepancy of opinion with regard to the outer circle or the five
-great central trilithons, but there is the greatest possible variety of
-opinion as to the number and position of the smaller stones inside the
-central or between the two great circles.
-
-[Illustration: 22. General Plan of Stonehenge. From 'Knight's Old
-England.']
-
-There seems to be no doubt that the outer stone circle originally
-consisted of thirty square piers, spaced tolerably equally in the
-circle. Though only twenty-six can now be identified, either standing
-or lying in fragments on the ground, it seems equally certain that
-they were all connected by a continuous stone impost or architrave,
-though only six of these are now in _situ_.[111] The diameter of the
-circle is generally stated to be about 100 feet, and as this has been
-suggested as a reason for its being considered as post-Roman, it is
-important to know what its exact dimensions are. It turns out that
-from the face of one pier to that of the opposite one, where both are
-perpendicular, the distance is 97·6, or exactly 100 Roman feet. The
-distance from the outer face of these piers to inside of the earthen
-vallum that surrounds the whole is again 100 feet, though that cannot
-now be ascertained within a foot or two, or even more; but as this
-makes up the 100 yards and the 100 feet which recur so often in these
-monuments, these dimensions can hardly be considered accidental, and
-"valeant quantum" are an indication of their post-Roman date.[112]
-
-Inside these outer circles stand the five great trilithons. Since the
-publication of Sir R. Colt Hoare's plan, their position and plan may
-be considered as settled. According to him, the height of the outer
-pair is 16·3, of the intermediate pair 17·2, and of the great central
-trilithon as it now stands 21·6. In their simple grandeur they are
-perhaps the most effective example of megalithic art that ever was
-executed by man. The Egyptians and Romans raised larger stones, but
-they destroyed their grandeur by ornament, or by their accompaniments;
-but these simple square masses on Salisbury plain are still unrivalled
-for magnificence in their own peculiar style.
-
-All the stones in these two great groups are Sarsens, as they are
-locally called, a peculiar class of silicious sandstone that is found
-as a local deposit in the bottoms of the valleys between Salisbury and
-Swindon. It is the same stone as is used at Avebury, the difference
-being that there the stones are used rough in their natural state,
-here they are hewn and fitted with very considerable nicety. Each of
-the uprights has a tenon on its surface, and the undersides of the
-architrave, or horizontal piece, have each a mortice, or rather two
-mortices, into which these tenons fit with considerable exactness.
-
-[Illustration: 23. Stonehenge as at present existing, from Mr.
-Hawkshaw's plan.]
-
-Besides these there are even now eleven stones, some standing, others
-thrown down, but still existing, within the inner circle. These are
-of a different nature, being all cut from igneous rocks, such as are
-not to be found nearer than Cornwall or even Ireland. It has not been
-exactly ascertained whence they came; indeed, they seem to be of
-various kinds, and consequently must have been brought from different
-places. Locally they are called Blue stones, and it may be well to
-adopt that short title for the present, as involving no theory, and as
-sufficing to distinguish them from the local Sarsens.
-
-[Illustration: 24. Plan of Stonehenge restored.]
-
-None of the blue stones are large; one of the finest (23 in Sir R. Colt
-Hoare's plan) is 7 feet 6 inches high, 2 feet 3 inches wide at base,
-tapering to 1 foot on top. The others are generally smaller. One blue
-stone opposite 23 is grooved with a channel from top to bottom, though
-for what purpose it is not easy to guess. On the most cursory glance,
-it is evident that these stones generally stood in pairs, about 3 feet
-apart; but some are so completely overthrown and displaced, that it
-is not quite clear whether this can be predicated of all. Entering
-the choir on the left hand we find one that seems to stand alone. But
-we may infer that this was not always so, from the circumstance that
-there lies close by it an impost stone with two mortice holes in it,
-only 3 feet 6 inches apart, which must have belonged to a smaller order
-of trilithons, and is just such as would fit a pair of blue stones.
-The next pair on the left is very distinct, and stands between the two
-great trilithons. The next pair is also similarly situated. On the
-opposite side there are two pairs, but situated, as far as can be made
-out, in front of, and not between the trilithons; and again, there
-are two blue stones behind the stone called the Altar stone, but so
-displaced by the fall of the great trilithon behind them, that it is
-impossible to make out their original position with certainty.
-
-It will probably be impossible to determine whether all the pairs of
-the stones were miniature trilithons or not, till we are able to turn
-over all the stones that now strew the ground, and see if there is a
-second stone with two mortices 3 or 4 feet apart. In the meanwhile
-there is a passage in Henry of Huntingdon's work which may throw some
-light on the subject. He describes "Lapides miræ magnitudinis in modum
-portarum elevati sunt, ita ut portæ portis superpositæ videantur."[113]
-With a very little latitude of translation, this might be taken as
-referring to the great trilithons towering over the smaller; but
-if we are to adhere to the literal meaning of the words, this is
-inadmissible. Another explanation has therefore been suggested. The
-impost stone of the great trilithon has apparently mortice holes on
-both sides. If those on one side are not mere wearings of the weather,
-this must indicate that something stood upon it. If we assume two
-cubical blocks, and raise on them the stone now called the Altar stone,
-which is of the exact dimensions required, we would have an arrangement
-very similar to that of the Sanchi gateway,[114] a cast of which is
-now exhibiting at South Kensington, and which would fully justify
-Huntingdon's words. If it is objected that it is a long way to go to
-Sanchi to look for a type, it may be answered that the Imperial coins
-of Cyprus show a very similar construction, and both may be derived
-from a common centre. On the whole, however, I am inclined to the first
-explanation. There certainly were large and small trilithons, and too
-great accuracy of description is not to be expected from a Latin writer
-in the middle ages.
-
-A good deal of astonishment has been expressed at the labour it must
-have required to transport these blue stones from Cornwall or Wales
-and to set them up here. If we refer them to the pre-Roman times of
-our naked blue painted ancestors, the difficulties are, of course,
-considerable. But after Roman times, the class of vessels they were in
-the habit of building in these islands must have made their transport
-by sea easy, even if they came from Ireland, as I believe they did. And
-any one who has seen with what facility Chinese coolies carry about
-monolithic pillars 10 feet and 12 feet long, and thick in proportion,
-will not wonder that twenty or thirty men should transport these from
-the head of Southampton water to Stonehenge.[115] With the works the
-Romans left, and the modicum of civilization the natives could not fail
-to have imbibed from them, the whole was simple, and must have been
-easy.
-
-Still more wonder has been expressed at the mass of the stones
-composing the great trilithons themselves, and speculations have been
-rife as to how our forefathers could, without machinery, drag these
-masses to the spot, and erect them as they now stand. A good deal of
-this wonder has been removed, since it was understood that the Sarsens
-of which they are composed are a natural deposit, found on the surface
-on all the bottoms in the Wiltshire downs. Owing to the progress of
-civilization, they have disappeared about Salisbury, but they are still
-to be seen in hundreds in Clatford bottom, and all about Avebury, and
-in the northern portion of the downs. The distance, therefore, that
-the stones of Stonehenge had to be dragged was probably very small;
-and over a hard, even surface of chalk down, with a few rollers and
-ropes, must have been a task of no great difficulty. Nor would the
-process of blocking them up with a temporary mound composed of wood
-and chalk be one that would frighten a rude people with whom time was
-no object. After all, Stonehenge is only child's play as compared
-with the monolithic masses the Egyptians quarried, and carved, and
-moved all over their country, long before Stonehenge was thought of,
-and without machinery in the sense in which we understand the term.
-In India, our grandfathers might have seen far more wonderful things
-done before we crushed all feeling and enterprise out of the people.
-The great gateway, for instance, at Seringham is 40 feet high, 21 feet
-wide, and 100 feet deep. The four door posts are each of a single block
-of granite, more, consequently, than 40 feet in length, for they are
-partially buried in the earth. The whole is roofed by slabs of granite,
-each more than 21 feet long, and raised to the height of 40 feet;
-and all of these, though of granite, are elaborately carved. Yet the
-building of the gateway was stopped by our quarrel with the French for
-the possession of Trichinopoly in the middle of the last century. The
-Indians in those days had no machinery, but with plenty of hands and
-plenty of leisure mountains may be raised; and it is on this principle
-that barbarous nations act and by which they achieve such wonders. The
-masses of Stonehenge are not, however, so very great after all, but
-they impose by their simplicity. To use an apparent paradox, it is one
-of the most artistic buildings in the world from its very want of art.
-The 40 feet monoliths of Seringham do not impress as much as the 20
-feet stones of Stonehenge, because the one is covered with sculpture,
-the other more nearly in a state of nature, and the effect on the mind
-is immensely enhanced by the monolithic simplicity of the whole.
-
-Strange to say, this very grandeur and apparent difficulty is one of
-the most common reasons adduced for its pre-Roman antiquity. Few can
-escape from an ill-defined impression that what is great and difficult
-must also be ancient, though the probability is, that if the feeling
-were analyzed it would be found to have arisen from the learning we
-imbibed in the nursery, and which told us of the giants that lived in
-the olden time. If, however, we turn from the teachings of nursery
-rhymes to the pages of sober history, what we learn is something very
-different. Without laying too much stress on the nakedness and blue
-paint of our ancestors, all history, and the testimony of the barrows,
-would lead us to suppose that the inhabitants of this island, before
-the Romans occupied it, were sparse, poor in _physique_, and in a very
-low state of civilization. Though their national spirit may have been
-knocked out of them, they must have increased in number, in physical
-comfort, and in civilization during the four centuries of peaceful
-prosperity of the Roman domination, and therefore in so far as that
-argument goes, became infinitely more capable of erecting such a
-monument as Stonehenge after the departure of the Romans than they had
-been before their advent.
-
-It certainly appears one of the strangest inversions of logic to assume
-that the same people erected Stonehenge who, during the hundreds, or
-it may be the thousands, of years of their occupation, could attempt
-nothing greater than the wretched mole-hills of barrows which they
-scraped up all over the Wiltshire downs. Not one of those has even a
-circle of stone round its base; nowhere is there a battle stone or a
-stone monument of any sort. Though the downs must have been covered
-with Sarsens, they had neither sense nor enterprise sufficient even to
-set one of those stones on end. Yet we are asked to believe that the
-same people, in the same state, erected Stonehenge and Avebury, and
-heaped up Silbury Hill. These monuments may be the expression of the
-feelings of the same race; but if I am not very much mistaken, in a
-very different and much more advanced state of civilization.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-We shall be in a better position to answer a question which has
-frequently been raised, whether or not the blue stones were a part
-of the original structure, or were added afterwards, when we have
-discussed the materials for the history of its erection; meanwhile
-we may pass from these, which are the really interesting part of the
-structure, to the circle which is generally supposed to have existed
-between the outer circle of Sarsens and the inner choir of great stones.
-
-With regard to this nothing is certain, except in respect to eight
-stones, which stretched across the entrance of the choir, and may
-consequently be called the choir screen. Of the four on the right hand
-side only one has fallen, but it is still there; on the left hand only
-two remain, and only one is standing, but the design is perfectly
-clear. The two central stones are 6 feet high, and the stones fall off
-by regular gradation right and left to 3 feet at the extremities. They
-are rude unhewn Sarsen stones, but there is nothing to indicate whether
-they were, or were not, a part of the original design.
-
-Beyond this, between the two great Sarsen circles, there exist some
-nine or ten stones, but whether they are in _situ_ or not, or whether
-they were ever more numerous, it seems impossible to determine. On
-the left hand, near the centre, are a pair that may have been a
-trilithon, but the rest are scattered so unsymmetrically that it
-would be dangerous to hazard any conjecture with regard to their
-original arrangement. It seems, however, most improbable that while
-the choir screen is so nearly entire even now, that this circle, if it
-ever existed, should have been so completely destroyed. Had it been
-complete, it would probably have consisted of 40 stones (excluding, of
-course, the choir screen), and of these only 10, if so many, can be
-said to belong to it. These are rude unhewn stones, and of no great
-dimensions.
-
-In addition to these, there are two stones now overthrown lying inside
-the vallum, unsymmetrically with one another, or with anything else.
-Here again the question arises, were there more? There is nothing on
-the spot to guide us to our answer, and as nothing hinges upon it, I
-may perhaps be allowed to suggest that each of these marks a secondary
-interment. At the foot of each, I fancy urns or bones, or some evidence
-of a burial might be found, and if the place had continued for a
-century as a burying place, it might have been surrounded by its circle
-of stones, like Avebury, or Crichie, or Stanton moor. The place,
-however, may have become deserted shortly after these two were erected,
-and none have been added since.
-
-There are still two other stones, one standing, one lying in the short
-avenue that leads up to the temple. Their position is exactly that
-of the two stones, which are all that is visible of the so-called
-Beckhampton avenue, at Avebury. But what their use is it is difficult
-to guess. Were either of the places temples, they would have been
-placed opposite one another on each side of the avenue, so that the
-priests in procession and people might pass between, but being placed
-one behind the other in the centre of the roadway, they must have had
-some other meaning. What that may have been I am unable to suggest. The
-spade may tell us if judiciously applied, but except from the spade I
-do not know where to look for a solution of the riddle.
-
-Those who consider that Stonehenge was a temple have certainly much
-better grounds for such a theory than it would be possible to establish
-in respect to Avebury. Indeed, looking at the ground plan above, there
-is something singularly templar in its arrangement. In the centre is
-a choir, in which a dignified service could be performed, and a stone
-lies now just in such a position as to entitle it to the appellation it
-generally receives of the altar stone. Unfortunately for this theory,
-however, it lies flush with the ground, and even if we assume that
-the surface has been raised round it, its thickness is not sufficient
-to entitle it to be so called, judging from any analogous example we
-know of elsewhere. Around the choir is what may fairly be considered
-the procession path; and if its walls had only been solid, and there
-were any indications that the building had ever been roofed, it would
-be difficult to prove that it was not erected as a temple, and for
-worship. As, however, it has no walls, and it is impossible to believe
-that it was ever intended to be roofed, all the arguments that apply to
-Avebury in this respect are equally applicable here, with this one in
-addition. Unless its builders were much more pachydermatous, or woolly,
-than their degenerate descendants, when they chose this very drafty and
-hypæthral style of architecture, they would certainly have selected a
-sheltered spot on the banks of the Avon close by, where, with trees
-and other devices, they might have provided some shelter from the
-inclemency of the weather. They never would have erected their temples
-on the highest and most exposed part of an open chalk down, where no
-shelter was possible, and no service could be performed except at
-irregular intervals, dependent on the weather throughout the year. As,
-however, it differs not only in plan but in construction--being hewn
-and having imposts--from all the rude stone circles we are acquainted
-with elsewhere, no theory will be quite satisfactory that does not
-account for this difference. My belief is, that this difference arises
-from the fact that alone of all the monuments we know of its class,
-it was erected leisurely and in time of peace by a prince retaining a
-considerable admixture of Roman blood in his veins. All, or most of the
-others, seem to be records of battles erected in haste by soldiers and
-unskilled workmen: but of this hereafter.
-
-Owing to its exceptional character, the usual analogies apply less
-directly to Stonehenge than to almost any other monument.
-
-[Illustration: 25. Tomb of Isidorus, at Khatoura.]
-
-We shall be better able to judge how far those derived from India
-apply, when we have described the monuments of that country. In Europe
-the trilithon is certainly exceptional, and its origin not easily
-traced. My own impression is, that it is only an improved dolmen,
-standing on two legs instead of three, or four; but if that is so,
-the intermediate steps are wanting which would enable us to connect
-the two in a logical manner. They were not, however, quite unknown in
-the Roman world. Several exist in Syria, for instance; three of these
-are engraved in De Vogüé's work. One (the tomb of Emilius Reginus,
-A.D. 195) consists of two Doric columns, with an impost;
-another (woodcut No. 25) is the tomb of a certain Isidorus, and is
-dated A.D. 222, and is more like our Salisbury example; both
-these last-named are situated near Khatoura.[116] The bearing of such
-an example as this on the question of the age of these monuments admits
-of a double interpretation. According to the usual and specious mode of
-reasoning, the ruder form must be the earliest, and the architectural
-one copied from it. But this theory I believe to be entirely at
-variance with the facts, as observed. The rudeness or elaboration of a
-monument will probably be found in all instances to be an index of the
-greater or less civilization of the people who erected it, but seldom
-or ever a trustworthy index of time. What interests us more at present
-is the knowledge that these Syrian examples are certainly sepulchral,
-and their form is thus another argument in favour of the sepulchral
-character of Stonehenge, if any were needed. More satisfactory than
-this, however, is the testimony of Olaus Magnus, archbishop of Upsala,
-quoted above.[117] He describes and figures "the most honourable
-monuments of the great of his country as erected with immense stones,
-and formed like great gates or trilithons" (in modum altissimæ et
-latissimæ januæ sursum transversumque viribus gigantum erecta). There
-is no reason for supposing that this author ever saw or even heard of
-Stonehenge, yet it would be difficult to describe either the purpose or
-the mode of construction of that monument more correctly than he does;
-and in so far as such testimony is considered valuable, it is decisive
-as to both the age and use of the monument.
-
-Passing on from this branch of the enquiry to such local indications
-as the spot affords, we find nothing very relevant or very important
-either for or against our hypothesis. It has been argued, for instance,
-that the number of tumuli that stud the downs within a few miles of
-Stonehenge, is a proof that this temple stood there before the barrows
-were erected, and that they gathered round its sacred precincts. The
-first objection to this view is, that it is applying a Christian
-precedent to a Pagan people. Except the Jews, who seem to have buried
-their kings close to their temples,[118] I do not know of any people in
-ancient or modern times except Christians who did so, and we certainly
-have no hint that the ancient Britons were an exception to this
-universal rule.
-
-[Illustration: 26. Country around Stonehenge. From Ordnance Survey
-maps. Scale 1 inch to 1 mile.]
-
-Assuming, however, for the sake of argument, that this were otherwise,
-we should then certainly find the barrows arranged with some reference
-to Stonehenge. Either they would have gathered closely around its
-precincts, or ranged in rows alongside the roads or avenues leading
-to it. Nothing of the sort, however, occurs, as will be seen from the
-woodcut in the following page. Within 700 yards of the monument there
-is only one very insignificant group, eight in number (15 to 23 of Sir
-R. Colt Hoare's plan). Beyond that they become frequent, crowning the
-tops of the hills, or clustering in the hollows, but nowhere with the
-least apparent reference to Stonehenge. If any one will take the
-Ordnance Survey maps, or Sir R. Colt Hoare's plans, he will find the
-barrows pretty evenly sown all over the surface of the plain, from
-two or three miles south of Stonehenge as far as Chidbury camp, eight
-miles north of it. Indeed, if Sir R. Colt Hoare's plans are to be
-trusted, they were thicker at the northern end of the plain than at
-the southern;[119] but as the Ordnance maps do not bear this out, it
-must not be relied upon. Nowhere over this large area (say 10 miles by
-5 miles) is there any trace of system as to the mode of placing these
-barrows. Indeed, from Dorchester up to Swindon, over a distance of more
-than seventy miles, they are scattered either singly or in groups so
-completely without order, that the only feasible explanation seems to
-be, that each man was buried where he lived; it may possibly have been
-in his own garden, but more probably in his own house. The hut circles
-of British villages are in grouping and in form so like the barrows,
-that it is difficult not to suspect some connexion between them. It may
-have been that when the head of a family died, he was buried on his own
-hearth, and an earthen mound replaced the hut in which he lived. Be
-this as it may, there is one argument that those overlook who contend
-that the barrows came to Stonehenge. It is admitted that Stonehenge
-belongs to the so-called Bronze age,[120] but one half of the barrows
-contain only flint and stone, and consequently were there before
-Stonehenge was built. Nor is it by any means the case that the nearest
-it were those which contained bronze or iron, it is generally quite the
-contrary; with all his knowledge, even Sir R. Colt Hoare never could
-venture to predict from the locality whether the interment would be
-found to belong to one class or to another, nor can we now.
-
-One of the most direct proofs that this argument is untenable is found
-in the fact, that the builders of Stonehenge had so little respect for
-the graves of their predecessors, that they actually destroyed two
-barrows in making the vallum round the monument. Sir R. C. Hoare found
-an interment in one, and from this he adds, "we may fairly infer that
-this sepulchral barrow existed on the plain, I will not venture to say
-before the construction of Stonehenge, but probably before the ditch
-was thrown up."[121]
-
-It seems needless, however, to pursue the argument further. Any one who
-studies carefully the Ordnance Survey sheet must, I think, perceive
-that there is no connexion between the earthen and the stone monuments.
-Or if this fail to convince him, if he will ride from Stonehenge over
-Westdown to Chidbury camp,[122] he can hardly fail to come to the
-conclusion that Stonehenge came to the barrows, not the barrows to
-Stonehenge.
-
-One other indication drawn from the barrows has been thought to throw
-some light on the subject. In one of those (No. 16) near Stonehenge,
-about 300 yards off, were found chippings of the same blue stones
-which form the inner circle of the monuments; but there was nothing
-else in this barrow to indicate its age except a spear-head of brass
-in fine preservation, and a pin of the same metal, which seemed to
-indicate that it belonged to the bronze age. In another (No. 22)
-a pair of ivory tweezers were found. From this discovery it was
-inferred, and not without some show of reason, that the barrows were
-more modern than Stonehenge; and if we are to believe that all barrows
-are pre-Christian, as some would try to persuade us, there is an end
-of the argument. But is this so? We have just seen that the Bartlow
-hills were certainly Roman. We know that the Saxons buried in hows
-in the country, down at least to Hubba the Dane,[123] who was slain
-in 878, and in Denmark, as we shall presently see, to a much later
-period; and we do not know when the Ancient Britons ceased to use
-this mode of interment. Whoever they were that built Stonehenge,
-they were not Christians; or, at all events, it is certainly not a
-Christian building, and we have no reason to assume that those men
-who were employed on its erection, and who had for thousands of years
-been burying in barrows, changed their mode of sepulture before their
-conversion to Christianity. It is infinitely more probable that they
-continued the practice very long afterwards; and till we can fix
-some time when we feel sure that sepulture in barrows had ceased,
-no argument can be drawn from this evidence. That the chief mason
-of Stonehenge should be buried in his own house, or own workshop,
-appears to us the most natural thing in the world; and that a village
-of barrows, if I may use the expression, may be contemporary with the
-monument I regard also as probable; but unless from some external
-evidence we can fix their age, their existence does not seem to have
-any direct bearing on the points we are now discussing.
-
-The diggings inside the area of Stonehenge throw more light on the
-subject of our enquiry than anything found outside, but even they
-are not so distinct or satisfactory as might be desired. The first
-exploration was undertaken by the Duke of Buckingham, and an account of
-it is preserved by Aubrey. He says, "In 1620 the duke, when King James
-was at Wilton, did cause the middle of Stonehenge to be digged, and
-this underdigging was the cause of the falling down and recumbencie of
-the great stone there," meaning evidently the great central trilithon.
-In the process of digging they "found a great many bones of stagges
-and oxen, charcoal, batter dashes (whatever that may mean), heads of
-arrows, and some pieces of armour eaten out with rust. Bones rotten,
-but whether of stagges or of men they could not tell."[124] He further
-adds "that Philip Earl of Pembroke did say that an altar stone was
-found in the middle of the area here, and that it was carried away to
-St. James'." What this means it is not easy to discern, for Inigo Jones
-distinctly describes as the altar the stone now known by that name,
-which measures, as he says, 16 feet by 4. It seems impossible that any
-other could have existed without his knowing it, and if it existed it
-would have favoured his views too distinctly for him not to mention the
-fact.
-
-As the digging above referred to must have taken place between
-what is now called the altar stone and the great trilithon, it is
-of considerable interest to us. But strange to say it leaves us in
-ignorance whether the bones found there were human or not; one thing,
-however, seems tolerably certain, that the arrow-heads and armour were
-of iron, from the state of rust they are described as being in, and
-this so far is indicative of a post-Roman date.
-
-Another curious fact is mentioned by Camden. In his plate (page 122),
-half plan, half elevation--at a spot marked C outside the vallum, men
-are represented as making an excavation, and the reference is "Place
-where men's bones are dug up." This is of no great value in so far as
-Stonehenge itself is concerned, but it is curious from its analogy with
-the place where the bones were found on Hakpen Hill, and may serve as
-an indication to the spot where the bones may yet be found in Avebury.
-As we shall see further on, there are strong reasons for believing
-that the principal interment at least was not inside the circle, but
-situated externally on one side.
-
-In more modern times, Sir R. Colt Hoare adds--"We have found, in
-digging (within the circle), several fragments of Roman as well as
-coarse British pottery, parts of the head and horns of deer and other
-animals, and a large barbed arrow-head of iron," thus confirming what
-Aubrey tells us of the Duke of Buckingham's excavation to the fullest
-extent. Mr. Cunnington also dug near the altar to a depth of nearly 6
-feet, and found the chalk had been moved to that depth. At about the
-depth of 3 feet he found some Roman pottery. Soon after the fall of the
-great trilithon, in 1797, he dug out some of the earth that had fallen
-into the excavation, and "found fragments of fine black Roman pottery,
-and since then another piece on the same spot."[125]
-
-No excavation in the area has been undertaken since Sir R. Colt Hoare's
-day, but as both he and Mr. Cunnington were experienced diggers, and
-perfectly faithful recorders of what they found, it seems impossible
-to doubt, from the finding of iron armour and Roman pottery in such
-places, and at such depths that the building must have been erected
-after the Romans settled in this island. As no one now will probably
-be found to adopt Inigo Jones' theory that it was built by the Romans
-themselves, we must look to some date after their departure to which we
-may assign its erection.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-For the written history of Stonehenge we are unfortunately forced
-to rely principally on Jeffrey of Monmouth, who, though a recorder
-of historical events, was also a fabulist of the most exuberant
-imagination. It is consequently easy to throw discredit on his
-testimony, and some consider themselves justified in putting it aside
-altogether. If, however, we are to reject every mediæval author who
-records miracles, or adorns his tale with fables, we may as well shut
-up our books at once, and admit that, between the departure of the
-Romans and the arrival of the Normans, the history of England is a mere
-confused jumble, in which may be found the names of some persons and
-of the battles they fought with one another, but nothing more. It is
-an easy process, and may be satisfactory to some minds. The attempt
-to separate the wheat from the chaff is a more tedious and laborious
-task, surrounded by difficulties, and open to criticism, but it is one
-that must be undertaken if truth is to be arrived at. In the present
-instance the choice of difficulties seems to be clear. Either we must
-reject the history of Jeffrey as entirely fabulous and unworthy of
-credit, or admit his principal statement that Stonehenge was erected by
-Aurelius Ambrosius as a monument to the memory of the British chiefs
-treacherously slain by Hengist.
-
-The first account we have of the event which led to its erection is
-in Nennius, who lived much nearer to the time of the occurrence than
-Jeffrey, who copied his narrative. It is as follows:--The Saxons having
-been defeated in several actions on the coast of Kent by Vortimir,
-were shut up in Thanet and forced to wait till they could summon
-succour from home. When these arrived, Hengist, before attempting
-open force, had recourse to stratagem, and at a feast held at the
-palace or monastery at Amesbury, to which it was agreed all should
-come unarmed, three hundred British nobles were treacherously slain by
-the followers of Hengist, who had concealed their weapons under their
-cloaks. War ensued on this, and lasted apparently for four years,
-when Ambrosius, who had succeeded to Vortigern, forced the Saxons to
-sue for peace.[126] That being established, Jeffrey represents him
-as erecting Stonehenge by the aid of Merlin as a monument to those
-who were so treacherously slain by Hengist. The massacre took place
-apparently in the year 462, and the erection of Stonehenge consequently
-may have been commenced about the year 466, and carried on during the
-following years, say down to 470 A.D. If he had been content
-to tell the story in as few words as are used here, it probably never
-would have been doubted; but Merlin, in the first place, has a bad
-character, for he is mixed up with the mediæval romances which made
-the story of Arthur famous but fabulous, and the mode in which he
-is represented by Jeffrey as bringing the stones from Ireland is
-enough to induce incredulity in all sober minds.[127] As I understand
-the narrative, it is this--there existed on a mountain in Ireland a
-monument something like Stonehenge, which Merlin, when consulted,
-advised the King to copy. This certainly is the view taken of the
-matter by Geraldus Cambrensis in 1187, inasmuch as he tells us, that
-in the spot referred to "similar stones, erected in a similar manner,
-were to be seen in his day," though in the same sentence he tells us,
-that they, or others like them, were removed to Salisbury Plain by
-Merlin.[128] As he probably speaks of what he saw with his own eyes,
-his words furnish tolerably clear evidence that Merlin had not removed
-what still remained at Kildare so many centuries after his death. It
-is also evidence, however, that the design of the monument was brought
-from Ireland, and even copied from a circle, the remains of which may
-probably still, if looked for, be found. So far as we know there was
-nothing like Stonehenge existing in England, nor in France, in the
-5th century. But, as we shall presently see, there probably may have
-been in Ireland. The only trilithons I know of elsewhere are three in
-a monument in the Deer Park near Sligo. They are small and simulate
-portals, but they are more like Stonehenge than any else now known.
-At the age we are now speaking of Ireland had contrived to nurse her
-old traditions uninfluenced by Roman or foreign examples, and had
-attained to that stage in art which would enable her to elaborate such
-a style of architecture. While in England it is most improbable that
-anything so purely original could have been elaborated during the Roman
-occupation of the island. Still a monument like this must have had a
-prototype, and unless we can prove its existence here before Cæsar's
-time, it is to Ireland or some foreign country that we must look
-for the model that suggested the design. But, after all, are we not
-fighting with a shadow? May it not be that the tradition of a monument
-being brought from Ireland applies only to the blue stones? I have been
-assured by competent geologists, though I have not seen the fact stated
-in any form I can quote, that these belong to rocks not found in Great
-Britain, but which are common in Ireland. If this is so, there would
-be no greater difficulty in bringing them from the Sister Island than
-from Wales or Cornwall. Once on board ship the difference of distance
-is nothing. If they did come from Ireland nothing is more likely than
-that, after a lapse of eight or ten centuries, the facts belonging
-really only to a part should be applied to the whole; and in that case
-the aid of Merlin or of some equally powerful magician would certainly
-have become indispensable. In that age, at least, I do not know any
-other agency that could have accomplished the transference, and I am
-not at all surprised, under the circumstances, that Jeffrey arrived at
-the same conclusion.
-
-The true explanation of the mystery seems to be, that the design of
-Stonehenge may have come from Ireland, the native style of art having
-been in abeyance in England during the Roman occupation, and that the
-blue stones most probably came from the Sister Island, which is quite
-enough to account for the Merlin myth; but of all this we shall be
-better able to judge when we have discussed the Irish antiquities of
-the same age.
-
-To return to our history, however, a little further on Jeffrey asserts
-that Aurelius himself was buried "near the convent of Ambrius within
-the Giant's Dance (chorea gigantum), which in his lifetime he had
-commanded to be made."[129] As far as it goes, this is a distinct
-assertion that the place was used for burial, otherwise from the
-context we would gather that the Britons slain by Hengist were buried
-in the cemetery attached to the monastery, and that Stonehenge was
-consequently a cenotaph and not a monument. But again, in recording
-the life of Constantine, the nephew and successor of Arthur, after
-relating how he defeated the Saxons and took vengeance on the nephews
-of Mordred, he goes on to say--"Three years after this he was killed
-by Conan, and buried close to Uther Pendragon, within the structure of
-stones which was set up with wonderful art, not far from Salisbury,
-and called in the English tongue Stonehenge."[130] This last event,
-though no date is given, must have occurred some time between 546, or
-four years after Arthur's death, and 552, the date of the battle of
-Banbury Hill, where Conan his successor commanded. Assuming for the
-moment that this may be the case, may it not suffice to explain one of
-the mysteries of Stonehenge, the presence of the pairs of blue stones
-inside the choir? Why may we not suppose that these were erected in
-memory of the kings or others who were buried in front of them? Why
-may not Aurelius and Constantine have been buried in front of the two
-small pairs at either end of the so-called altar stone? If this were
-so, and it appears to me extremely probable that it was, the last
-remains of the mist that hangs over the uses of this monument would be
-dispersed.
-
-From the time of Jeffrey (1147) all subsequent mediæval historians
-adopt the account of these events given by him, with occasional but
-generally slight variations, and even modern critics are inclined to
-accept his account of Constantine and Conan, as his narrative can
-be checked by that of Gildas, who was cotemporary with these kings.
-Similar statements are also found in the triads of the Welsh bards,
-which some contend are original and independent authorities.[131]
-My own impression is that they may be so, but I do not think their
-independence has been so clearly established as to enable us to found
-any argument upon it. On the other hand, the incidental allusion of
-Jeffrey to the erection of Stonehenge as a cenotaph to the slain
-nobles, and the subsequent burial there of the two kings, seems so
-likely and natural that it is difficult to see why they should be
-considered as inventions. The two last-named events, at all events, do
-not add to the greatness or wonder of the kings, or of his narrative,
-and are not such things as would be inserted in the page of history,
-unless they were currently known, or were recorded somewhere in some
-writing to which the historian had access.
-
-Before quitting Stonehenge there is one other antiquity connected with
-it, regarding which it is necessary to say a few words. Both in Sir R.
-Colt Hoare's plan and the Ordnance Survey, there are marked two oblong
-enclosures called the greater and lesser "Cursus," and along which
-the antiquaries of the last century amused themselves by picturing
-the chariot races of the Ancient Britons, though as they ascribed the
-introduction of races to the Romans, they admitted that they must have
-been formed after the subjection of the island by that people.[132] The
-greater cursus is about a mile and three-quarters long, by 110 yards
-wide. The smaller is so indistinct that only its commencement can be
-identified; but even as concerns the larger, I walked twice across it
-without perceiving its existence, though I was looking for it, and no
-one I fancy would remark it if his attention were not turned to it.
-Its boundary mounds never could have been 3 feet high, and now in many
-places are very nearly obliterated.
-
-That these alignments were once race-courses, appears to me one of the
-most improbable of the various conjectures which have been hazarded
-with regard even to Stonehenge. No Roman race-course, that we know
-of, omitted to provide for the horses returning at least once past
-the place they started from, and no course was even a mile, much less
-a mile and three-quarters long. What sort of horse-races the British
-indulged in before the Conquest I don't know, nor will I hazard an
-opinion on the subject; but if they wanted the races to be seen, there
-are several beautiful and appropriate spots close at hand where they
-could have laid out a longer course along one of the bottoms, where
-tens of thousands might conveniently have witnessed the sport from
-the sloping banks on either hand, whereas here only the front rank
-could have seen the race at all, and that imperfectly. It may also be
-remarked that the east end of the cursus is closed by a mound which
-must have been a singularly awkward position for the judges, though
-that is the place assigned to them by Sir Richard; and the west end is
-cut off also by an embankment, behind which are several tumuli on the
-course, which seems a very unlikely racing arrangement.
-
-But if not race-courses, what were they? If any one will turn back
-to woodcut No. 12, p. 55, representing the alignments at Merivale
-bridge, and compare them with the cursus as shown in woodcut No. 26,
-p. 102, representing the ground about Stonehenge, I think he must
-perceive that the two cursus, if complete, would occupy exactly the
-same relative position with regard to Stonehenge--on a much larger
-scale of course--as those at Dartmoor do to the circle there. The
-arrangements are so similar that the purposes can hardly be different.
-At first sight this seems to tell against the battle theory. We know
-of no battle fought on Salisbury Plain. This, however, is the merest
-negative assumption possible. We know that the massacre at Amesbury was
-followed by a four years' war, between Ambrosius and the Saxons.[133]
-Battles there must have been, and many, and what so likely as that the
-crowning victory should have been fought in the immediate proximity of
-the capital of one of the contending parties. If these cursus do mark
-the battle-field, it will at once account for the somewhat anomalous
-position of Stonehenge. What is so likely as that the victor should
-have chosen the field of his final victory to erect there a monument
-to the memory of those whose treacherous slaughter had been the cause
-of the war? Of course this is only an hypothesis, and it is only put
-forward as such, but it seems to me infinitely nearer the truth than
-that of the gratuitous suggestion of a race-course, and looks like one
-of the coincidences sure to occur when the investigation is on the
-right path towards the true solution.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-The first impression that the narrative of the preceding pages will
-convey to most readers, will probably be that there must be something
-more to be said on the subject, or that something important is left
-out. If, it may be argued, the case is so clear as here stated, it
-could never have been doubted, and must have been accepted long ago.
-All I can say in answer is, that if anything is omitted I am not aware
-of it. Everything I know of has been stated as fully and as fairly as
-seemed necessary for its being clearly understood. In this instance it
-must be remembered that the usual arguments drawn from the division
-into stone, bronze, and iron ages hardly come into play. Nothing has
-been found inside Stonehenge but iron and Roman pottery. Even admitting
-the barrows in the immediate proximity of Stonehenge to be coeval,
-before their testimony can be of any avail, it must be ascertained when
-men ceased to be buried in barrows, and when a man might not wish a
-bronze spear-head to be entombed with him as a relic, even if he did
-not fight with it in his lifetime. Even then, however, the evidence
-would be too indistinct to outweigh that of the finds inside the circle.
-
-If, after what has been said above, any one still maintains that
-Stonehenge is a temple, and not sepulchral, we have no common ground
-from which to reason, and need not attempt it. Or if any one as
-familiar with the locality as I am personally, or who has studied the
-Ordnance maps with the same care, likes to argue that the barrows came
-to Stonehenge, and not Stonehenge to the barrows, we see things with
-such different eyes that we equally want a common basis for argument.
-
-In a case like the present, however, the great difficulty to be
-overcome is not so much cool argument and close reasoning, as a certain
-undefined feeling that a monument must be old because we know so little
-about it. "Omne ignotum pro antiquo" is a matter of faith with many
-who will listen to no argument to the contrary, and in the case of
-Stonehenge the false notion has been so fostered by nearly all those
-who have written about it since the time of James I., that it will be
-very difficult now to overthrow it. Those who adhere to it, however,
-hardly realize how dark the ages were between the departure of the
-Romans and the time of Alfred the Great, and how much may have been
-done in that time without any record of it coming down to our day. Even
-if we give them all the megalithic monuments we possess, it is very
-little indeed for so large a population in so long a time.
-
-Even at a much later period of English history than we are now occupied
-with, it is wonderful how little we should know of our monuments if we
-depended on the "litera scripta" for our information. Any one who is
-familiar with the guide-books of the last, or beginning of the present
-century, will see what dire confusion of dates existed with regard to
-the erection of our greatest cathedrals and mediæval monuments. Saxon
-and Norman were confounded everywhere, and the distinction of any of
-the styles between Early English and Perpendicular was not appreciated,
-and frequently the dates were reversed. In fact, it was not till
-Rickman took the matter in hand that order emerged out of chaos, and he
-succeeded because his constructive knowledge enabled him to perceive
-progressive developments which formed true sequences, and he was thus
-able to supply the want of written information. Every tyro now can fix
-a date to every moulding in any of our mediæval buildings, but if we
-had only written history to depend upon, in nine cases out of ten he
-could not prove that the building was not erected by the Romans or the
-Phœnicians, or anybody else. If this is the case in an age when
-writing was so common as between the Conquest and the Reformation,
-should we be surprised if we find matters so much darker between the
-departure of the Romans and Alfred, when written history hardly helps
-us at all? But Rickman's method will, when applied to Stonehenge and
-similar monuments, if I am not very much mistaken, render their dates
-nearly as clear as those of our mediæval monuments have been rendered
-by the same method.
-
-None but those who have had occasion specially to study the subject
-can be aware how devoid of all literary records the period is of
-which we are now treating. So meagre and so scarce are they, that
-many well-informed persons doubt whether such a person as King Arthur
-ever lived; and scarcely one of his great actions is established by
-anything like satisfactory contemporary testimony. Yet, in all ages,
-and in all countries where histories either written or oral exist, they
-are filled with the exploits of favourite national heroes--as Arthur
-was--which, even where they are fullest and most diffuse, it is the
-rarest possible thing to find in them a record of the building of any
-temple or tomb. From the building of the Parthenon to the completion
-of Henry VIII.'s Chapel, the notices of buildings in general histories
-are as few and meagre as may be, and are comprised in a few paragraphs
-scattered through many hundred volumes. No one, I am convinced, who
-has thought twice on the subject, would expect to find any notice of
-buildings in the few pages which are all we possess of history between
-the departure of the Romans and the time of the Venerable Bede; yet the
-absence of record is the argument which, if I am not mistaken, has had
-more influence on the popular mind than almost any other. Too generally
-it is assumed that, as we know nothing about them, they must be old. To
-me, on the contrary, nothing appears so extremely improbable as that
-the builders, while leaving no record of their exploits, should have
-left any written account of the erection of the Rude Stone Monuments.
-
-One other point seems worth alluding to before concluding this chapter,
-which is that nothing has been advanced, so far as I know, that would
-lead us to suppose that the people of this island were, before the time
-of the Romans, either more numerous or more powerful, and consequently
-more capable of erecting such monuments as Stonehenge and Avebury,
-than they were after that people had resided for four centuries among
-them. All our existing knowledge seems to tend to a diametrically
-opposite conclusion, and now that the day for vague declamation and _à
-priori_ reasoning is past, if any proof to the contrary can be brought
-forward, it would be well that it were now adduced, for otherwise
-judgment may go by default. If we mistake not, the case must be strong
-and clear that is to outweigh the evidence just brought forward in
-reference to the two monuments the use and age of which we have just
-been discussing.
-
-
-    [Footnote 77: These particulars are taken from a careful survey
-    made by Sir R. Colt Hoare, in 1812, and published in his 'Ancient
-    Wilts,' vol. ii. pl. xiii. p. 70 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 78: 'Stonehenge and Avebury,' p. 34.]
-
-    [Footnote 79: Haca, or Haco, according to Kemble, was some mythical
-    person with a very Danish name which is found in Hampshire and
-    Berkshire, as well as here. Pen seems to mean merely enclosure, as
-    it does now in English. See Kemble, in 'Journal Arch. Inst.' xiv.
-    p. 134.]
-
-    [Footnote 80: 'Bell. Gall.' vi. 17.]
-
-    [Footnote 81: 'Sculptured Stones of Scotland,' ii. p. xli.]
-
-    [Footnote 82: Thurnam, 'Crania Britannica;' London, 1856 to 1865.]
-
-    [Footnote 83: 'Codex diplomaticus Ævi Saxonici,' v. p. 238, No.
-    1120.]
-
-    [Footnote 84: Stukeley, 'Stonehenge and Abury,' p. 27.]
-
-    [Footnote 85: The particulars are taken from a pamphlet entitled
-    'Excavations at Avebury, under the direction of the Secretary of
-    the Wiltshire Archæol. and Nat. Hist. Society,' printed at Devizes,
-    but, so far as I know, not yet published.]
-
-    [Footnote 86: 'Sculptured Stones of Scotland,' vol. i. introd. p.
-    xx.]
-
-    [Footnote 87: A plan of it was published about Stukeley's time by
-    a Mr. Twining, in a pamphlet, which was written to prove that this
-    group of monuments was erected by Agricola, to represent a map of
-    England! A plan accompanies it, which shows all the avenues as
-    straight; but what weight can possibly be attached to any evidence
-    coming from a man with such a theory as this?]
-
-    [Footnote 88: 'Ancient Wiltshire,' ii. p. 63.]
-
-    [Footnote 89: Camden, 'Britannia,' 127.]
-
-    [Footnote 90: 'Archæologia,' xxviii. p. 399 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 91: 'Journal Wiltshire Archæol. and Nat. Hist. Society,'
-    vii. p. 1861.]
-
-    [Footnote 92: Curiously enough these dimensions are almost
-    identical with those of the mound erected by the Belgic-Dutch, to
-    commemorate the part they did not take in the battle of Waterloo.
-    Its dimensions are 130 feet high, 544 feet in diameter, and 1632
-    feet in circumference. The angle of the slope of the sides is
-    lower, being 27½ degrees, owing to the smaller diameter of the
-    flat top, which is only 40 feet.]
-
-    [Footnote 93: Douglas, 'Nenia Brit.' p. 161. See also Salisbury
-    volume of the Archæological Institute, p. 74.]
-
-    [Footnote 94: 'Journal Royal Asiatic Soc.' xiii. p. 164; and Major
-    Skinner's plan of Anurajapura.]
-
-    [Footnote 95: Wilson, 'Ariana Antiqua,' p. 41; and Masson's
-    'Memoir,' _passim_.]
-
-    [Footnote 96: Sir R. C. Hoare, 'Ancient Wiltshire,' i. pl. ii. fig.
-    8.]
-
-    [Footnote 97: Ibid. i. p. 191.]
-
-    [Footnote 98: 'Archæologia,' xxx. p. 300 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 99: 'Arch. Journ.,' xxiv. pp. 92 and 319.]
-
-    [Footnote 100: Ibid. p. 100.]
-
-    [Footnote 101: 'Ancient Wiltshire,' ii. 5. Unfortunately there
-    is no scale attached to the plan of the Marden Circle, and no
-    dimensions quoted in the text.]
-
-    [Footnote 102: 'Ancient Wiltshire,' p. 7.]
-
-    [Footnote 103: I adopt Dr. Guest's dates for this part of the
-    subject, not only because I think them most probable, but because I
-    think, from his knowledge and the special attention he has bestowed
-    on the subject, he is most likely to be right. See _Salisbury
-    Volume Arch. Journal_, p. 62.]
-
-    [Footnote 104: 'Athenæum Journal,' Dec. 13, 1865.]
-
-    [Footnote 105: 'Mon. Brit.' p. 15.]
-
-    [Footnote 106: 'Salisbury Vol.' p. 63.]
-
-    [Footnote 107: 'Mon. Brit.' p. 15.]
-
-    [Footnote 108: Colt Hoare, 'Ancient Wiltshire,' ii. p. 22.]
-
-    [Footnote 109: Saxon Chronicle, in 'Mon. Brit.' p. 304.]
-
-    [Footnote 110: 'Jeffrey of Monmouth,' ix. p. 4.]
-
-    [Footnote 111: The history of the plan given on page 92, and from
-    which all the dimensions in the text are quoted, is this. When I
-    was staying with my friend, Mr. Hawkshaw, the eminent engineer,
-    at Eversley, I was complaining of the incorrectness of all the
-    published plans, when he said, "I have a man in my office whose
-    plans are the very essence of minute accuracy. I will send him
-    down to make one for you." He did so, and his plan--to a scale of
-    10 feet to 1 inch, is before me. I afterwards took this plan to
-    Stonehenge, and identified the position and character of every
-    stone marked upon it.]
-
-    [Footnote 112: I am almost afraid to allude to it even in a note,
-    lest some one should accuse me of founding any theory upon it,
-    like Piazzi Smyth's British inches in the Pyramids, but it is a
-    curious coincidence that nearly all the British circles are set
-    out in two dimensions. The smaller class are 100 feet, the larger
-    are 100 metres in diameter. They are all more than 100 yards. The
-    latter measure is at all events certainly accidental, so far as
-    we at present know, but as a nomenclature and "memoria technica,"
-    the employment of the terms may be useful, provided it is clearly
-    understood that no theory is based upon it.]
-
-    [Footnote 113: 'Historia,' in 'Mon. Brit.' 694.]
-
-    [Footnote 114: 'Tree and Serpent Worship,' by the author, plates
-    iii. _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 115: Twenty Chinese coolies would carry any one of them
-    up in a week.]
-
-    [Footnote 116: 'Serie Centrale' by Comte Melchior de Vogüé. Though
-    this work was commenced some ten years ago, and subscriptions
-    obtained, it is still incomplete. No text has yet been published,
-    and no maps, which makes the identification of the places
-    singularly difficult.]
-
-    [Footnote 117: Vide _ante_, footnote, p. 15.]
-
-    [Footnote 118: 'Topography of Jerusalem,' by the Author, p. 58.]
-
-    [Footnote 119: 'Ancient Wiltshire,' i. p. 178, plan vi.]
-
-    [Footnote 120: Sir John Lubbock, 'Prehistoric Times,' p. 116.]
-
-    [Footnote 121: Sir R. Colt Hoare, 'Ancient Wiltshire,' i. p. 145.]
-
-    [Footnote 122: The name is written as Sidbury in the Ordnance maps.]
-
-    [Footnote 123: 'Archæologia,' vii. pp. 132-134.]
-
-    [Footnote 124: 'Ancient Wiltshire,' i. p. 154.]
-
-    [Footnote 125: 'Ancient Wiltshire,' i. p. 150.]
-
-    [Footnote 126: Nennius, in 'Mon. Brit.' p. 69.]
-
-    [Footnote 127: Jeffrey, viii. c. 9.]
-
-    [Footnote 128: "Fuit antiquis temporibus in Hiberniâ lapidum
-    congeries admiranda, quæ et Chorea gigantum dicta fuit, quia
-    gigantes eam ab ultimis Africæ partibus in Hiberniam attulerunt et
-    in Kildarienes planicie non procul a Castro Nasensi, tam ingenii
-    quam virium opere mirabiliter erexerunt. Unde et ibidem lapides
-    quidam aliis simillimi similique modo erecti usque in hodiernum
-    conspiciuntur. Mirum qualiter tanti lapides tot etiam et tam magni
-    unquam in unum locum vel congesti fuerint vel erecti: quantoque
-    artificiis lapidibus tam magnis et altis alii superpositi sint
-    non minores; qui sic in pendulo et tanquam in inani suspendi
-    videntur ut potius artificum studio quam suppositorum podio
-    inniti videantur. Juxta Britannicam historiam lapides istos rex
-    Britonum Aurelius Ambrosius divina Merlini diligentia de Hiberniâ
-    in Britanniam advehi procuravit; et ut tanti facinoris egregium
-    aliquod memoriale relinqueret eodem ordine et arte qua prius in
-    loco constituit ubi occultis Saxonum cultris Britanniæ flos occidit
-    et sub pacis obtentu nequitiæ telis male tecta regni juventus
-    occubuit."--_Topogr. Hiberniæ_, vol. ii. ch. xviii.
-
-    If we could trust Ware, they still existed in the beginning of
-    the last century. He speaks of "Saxa illæ in gentia et rudia
-    quæ in planitie non longe a Naasa in agro Kildariensi et alibi
-    visuntur."--_Hist. Hib._, xxiv. 103.]
-
-    [Footnote 129: 'Hist. Brit.' viii. ch. xvi.]
-
-    [Footnote 130: 'Hist. Brit.' xi. ch. iv.]
-
-    [Footnote 131: This is the principal argument of Herbert's 'Cyclops
-    Christianus.']
-
-    [Footnote 132: 'Ancient Wiltshire,' i. p. 158. See also woodcut No.
-    26, p. 102. The dotted part of the smaller cursus is a restoration
-    of my own.]
-
-    [Footnote 133: _Vide ante_, p. 107.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER IV.
-
-MINOR ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.
-
-
-AYLESFORD.
-
-The detailed examination of these groups at Avebury and Stonehenge
-will probably be deemed sufficient to establish at least a _prima
-facie_ case in favour of the hypothesis that these monuments were
-sepulchral--that at least some of them marked battle-fields, and
-lastly, that their antiquity was not altogether prehistoric. If this is
-so, it will not be necessary to repeat the same evidence in treating of
-those monuments or groups we are about to describe. Incidentally the
-latter will, if I am not mistaken, afford many confirmations of those
-propositions, but it will not be necessary to insist or enlarge on them
-to the same extent as has been done in the previous pages.
-
-[Illustration: 27. Countless Stones, Aylesford. From a drawing by
-Stukeley.]
-
-Among the remaining groups of stones in England, one of the most
-important is--or rather was--that in front of Aylesford in Kent. The
-best known member of this group is that known as Kit's Cotty--or
-Coity-house, which has, however, been so often drawn and described
-that it is hardly necessary to do much more than refer to it here.
-It is a dolmen, composed of four stones, three upright; the two
-side stones being about 8 feet square and 2 in thickness, the third
-somewhat smaller; these form three sides of a chamber, the fourth
-side being--and apparently always having been--left open. These
-three support a cap stone measuring 11 feet by 8 feet. If we can
-trust Stukeley's drawing,[134] it was an external dolmen standing on
-the end of a low long barrow. At the other end of the mound lay an
-obelisk, since removed, but in Stukeley's time it was said to mark
-"the general's grave." The mound has since been levelled by the
-plough, but the whole forms an arrangement so common both in England
-and in Scandinavia, that I am inclined to place faith in the drawing.
-So little, however, hinges on it here that it is not worth while
-insisting on it, but a trench across the site of the barrow might lead
-to interesting results. Nearly due south of Kit's Cotty-house, at the
-distance of about 500 yards, is another monument of the same class,
-popularly known as the Countless Stones, but so ruined--apparently
-by searchers after treasure--that its plan cannot now be made out.
-In Stukeley's time, however, it was more perfect, and as his pencil
-is always more to be trusted than his pen, it may be worth while to
-reproduce his drawings,[135] for the arrangement of the stones was
-peculiar, but may have analogies elsewhere. Between these two a third
-dolmen is said to have existed within the memory of man, but no trace
-of it is now to be found. In the rear of these groups, nearer the
-village, there exists, or existed, a line of great stones, extending
-from a place called Spring Farm, in a north-easterly direction, for
-a distance of three-quarters of a mile, to another spot known as
-Hale Farm,[136] passing through Tollington, where the greater number
-of the stones are now found. In front of the line near the centre
-at Tollington lie two obelisks, known to the country people as the
-coffin-stones--probably from their shape. They are 12 feet long by 4 to
-6 broad, and about 2 or 3 feet thick.[137] They appear to be partially
-hewn, or at least shaped, so as to resemble one another.
-
-Besides these stones, which are all on the right bank of the river,
-there are several groups at or near Addington, about five miles to the
-westward of Aylesford. Two of these in the park at Addington have long
-been known to antiquaries, having been described and figured in the
-'Archæologia' in 1773.[138] The first is a small circle, about 11 feet
-in diameter, the six stones comprising it being 19 feet high, 7 wide,
-and 2 in thickness. Near it is the larger one of oval form, measuring
-50 paces by 42 paces. The stones are generally smaller than those of
-the other circle. The other groups or detached stones are described
-by Mr. Wright,[139] who went over the ground with that excellent and
-venerable antiquary the Rev. L. B. Larking. They seem to have adopted
-the common opinion that an avenue of such stones existed all the way
-from Addington to Aylesford, but it seems to me that there is no
-sufficient evidence to justify this conclusion. Many of the stones
-seem natural boulders, and in no place is any alignment distinctly
-perceptible.
-
-In addition to these, Mr. Wright found, and attempted to excavate some
-smaller monuments of a sepulchral character, near Kit's Cotty House,
-but situated on the brow of the hill immediately above it. These
-"consist generally of groups of stones buried partly on the ridge of
-the hill, but evidently forming, or having formed, small sepulchral
-chambers." "Each group," he adds, "is generally surrounded by a circle
-of stones."[140]
-
-There only now remains the question, why were all these stones placed
-here, and by whom? Mr. Wright is far too sober and too well-informed
-an antiquary to repeat the usual nonsense about such monuments having
-been Druid temples or altars. The conclusion at which he arrives (p.
-183) is that Kit's Cotty-house, and the cemetery around it, with
-that in the parish of Addington, together formed the grand necropolis
-of the Belgian settlers in this part of the island. Against this
-it must be observed that the Belgians erected no such monuments in
-their own country, Gallia Belgica being exactly that part of France
-in which no stone monuments are found, and it is very unlikely that
-the Belgians should have done here what they did not do at home. But
-another objection is, that the theory is wholly gratuitous, no shadow
-of tradition, no analogy, and no reason being adduced to show why it
-should be so, and, to say the least of it, it is most unlikely. If a
-straight line were drawn from the mouth of the Humber to the head of
-Southampton Water, this is the only group of this class of monuments
-to the eastward of the line, and what possible reason can we have for
-supposing that the princes or people of that vast district chose this
-place, and this only, for their necropolis? Had it been some vast plain
-like Salisbury, or some gloomy valley, or the site of some ancient
-sacred city, the choice might have been intelligible, but a more
-unromantic, unlikely spot than the valley of the Medway could hardly
-have been chosen. It is neither central nor accessible, and neither
-history nor tradition lends any countenance to the suggestion.
-
-Suppose, on the other hand, we assume that these erections are a record
-of the battle which, according to the Saxon chronicle,[141] was fought
-on this spot between Vortigern and Hengist and Horsa, in the year 455,
-and in which Catigren was slain on the side of the British, and the
-redoubted Horsa fell on that of the Saxons. This at least has the merit
-of accounting for all we see--the line of stones at Tollington is just
-such a position as the British army would take up, to cover the ford at
-Aylesford against an enemy advancing from Thanet. The two obelisks in
-front would represent the position of the two chiefs; Kit's Cotty-house
-would become the tomb of Catigren, which tradition always represented
-it to be; the circles at Addington would become the graves of chiefs
-who were wounded in the battle, and taken to the rear and buried with
-due honours, at or near the spot where they died; and lastly the
-tumulus at Horstead would also in accordance with ancient tradition be
-the grave of Horsa.
-
-So much depends on this last determination, that last year through the
-kindness of Colonel Fisher, R.E., the assistance of a party of sappers
-was procured from Chatham, and the mound was thoroughly explored. It
-was found that a cremation (it is presumed of a human body) had taken
-place on the natural surface of the ground, and that a tumulus had
-been raised over it. The chalk was dug down to some depth and found
-quite undisturbed, but no ornament or implement was found anywhere. At
-first this seemed disappointing; but on Mr. Godfrey Faussett, who was
-present at the digging, referring to certain passages in 'Beowulf,' it
-appears to be exactly what should have been expected. The poem, in the
-first place, is about the best authority we could have, inasmuch as,
-according to Kemble, "it gave accounts of exploits not far removed, in
-point of time, from the crossing of Hengist and Horsa into Britain, and
-the poem was probably brought hither by some of those Anglo-Saxons,
-who, in 495, accompanied Cerdic and Cyneric."[142] After Hengist's
-conflict with Fin, the body was burnt (l. 2232-2251); but after
-Beowulf's death not only cremation is mentioned, but a splendid mound
-is raised over the spot where the funeral pile stood, "ad on Eorthen"
-(l. 6266), on the surface of the ground. At Beowulf's funeral, vases,
-and arms, and jewels of all kinds, were thrown upon the pile and burnt
-with him; and no wonder, considering the wealth just rescued from the
-guardianship of the "Wurm" by the victorious hero. Poor Horsa died
-defeated, and all his friends could expect would be to be allowed to
-bury him under a flag of truce, with such rites as would ensure his
-proper reception in the next world. Had they attempted to bury any
-treasures with him, they probably would have been appropriated by the
-victorious Brits.
-
-Bede's expression that Horsa's tomb was situated in "orientalibus
-partibus Cantiæ,"[143] has more than once been quoted to disprove this
-identification. But what did Bede mean by "eastern parts"? May it
-not have been that in his day the Medway divided Kent into east and
-west? Or he may have spoken without sufficient local knowledge. But
-that Horsa fell at Aylesford, is as well authenticated as any fact in
-that age: he most probably was buried near the battle-field; and the
-village where the mound is situated has probably ever since been called
-Horstead, as it is at this day.
-
-All this, it appears to me, makes so strong a case, that I cannot help
-thinking it might be accepted till, at least, something is advanced
-against it. At present I am not aware of any argument to the contrary
-that seems to me entitled to any serious consideration. No flint, or
-bronze, or iron implement of any sort, so far as I know, have been
-found on the spot--this may be only because they have not been looked
-for; but as the case at present stands, the Danish system cannot be
-pleaded for or against this view.
-
-The real difficulty to be feared in obtaining acceptance of this
-explanation of the stone at Aylesford, is its extreme simplicity.
-After all that has been written about the unfathomable mystery and the
-primæval antiquity of this class of monuments, to be told that these
-are merely the memorials of a battle fought on the spot in the year
-455, is too terribly prosaic to be tolerated, nor ought it perhaps to
-be accepted if it stood alone. If, however, it proves to be only one of
-many instances, the ultimate admission of the above views can hardly be
-doubtful.
-
-
-ASHDOWN.
-
-In the neighbourhood of Uffington, in Berkshire, there are three
-monuments, two at least of which still merit a local habitation and a
-name in our history. One of these is the celebrated white horse, which
-gives its name to the vale, and the scouring of which is still used by
-the inhabitants of the neighbourhood on the occasion of a triennial
-festival and games, which have been so graphically described by Mr.
-Thomas Hughes.
-
-[Illustration: 28. The Sarsen Stones at Ashdown. From a drawing by A.
-L. Lewis, Esq.]
-
-The second is a cromlech, known as Wayland Smith's Cave, and
-immortalized by the use made of it by Sir Walter Scott in the novel
-of 'Kenilworth.' The third is as remarkable as either, but still wants
-its poet. The annexed woodcut will give a fair idea of its nature and
-extent.[144] It does not pretend to be minutely accurate, and this
-in the present instance is fortunately of no great consequence. All
-the stones are overthrown: some lie flat on the ground, some on their
-edges, and it is only the smallest that can be said to be standing. The
-consequence is, that we cannot feel sure that we know exactly where
-any of them stood, nor whether they were arranged in lines, like those
-at Carnac; nor if so, in how many rows, or whether they always had
-the confused appearance they now present. They are spread over an area
-of about 1600 feet north and south, and of half that distance east
-and west. The gap in the centre was made purposely to clear the view
-in front of the house when it was built, and many of the stones it is
-feared were employed in the erection. They are the same Sarsens as are
-used at Avebury and Stonehenge, and the largest are about 10 feet long
-from 6 to 9 wide, and from 3 to 4 feet high (in their present recumbent
-position); but there are few so large as this, the majority being from
-2 to 4 feet in length and breadth, and from 1 to 3 high.[145]
-
-No one has yet attempted to give any explanation of the monument
-beyond repeating the usual Druidical formulæ. To me it appears almost
-incontestable that it is a memorial of the battle fought here between
-the Saxons and the Danes in the year 871. From Asser we learn that
-the Pagans, advancing from Reading, occupied the higher ground. It is
-sometimes supposed that Uffington Castle was thrown up by them on the
-occasion, which is by no means impossible. Advancing eastward, they
-then attacked the Christians under Alfred, who occupied the lower
-ground. This, and the ill-timed fit of devotion on his brother's
-part, nearly lost the Christians the day; but Alfred's skill and
-intrepidity prevailed, and the victory was complete.[146] This being
-so, nothing appears more probable than that the victorious army, either
-by themselves or with the assistance of the peasantry, should have
-collected together the Sarsens in the neighbourhood, and have arranged
-them as Alfred and his army stood, when he first received the shock
-of the Pagans. It seems also probable that he would have engraved the
-emblem of the white horse on the side of the hill where the Pagans had
-encamped the night before the battle, and where probably the fight
-ended on the following day.
-
-The question whether Weyland Smith's Cave belongs to the same group, or
-to an earlier date, is not so easily settled. My impression is that it
-is older. It is a three-chambered dolmen almost identical in plan with
-Petrie's No. 27, Carrowmore, to be described in the next chapter, but
-with this difference, that whereas the circle of stones in the Irish
-example contained thirty-six or thirty-seven stones, and was 60 feet
-in diameter, this one contained probably only twenty-eight, and was
-only 50 feet in diameter. This and the fact of the one consisting of
-Sarsens--the other of granite blocks--account so completely for all the
-difference between them, that I cannot believe that so great a lapse
-of time as eight centuries could have taken place between the erection
-of the two. I fancy it must have been erected for the entombment of a
-local hero in the early centuries of the Christian era; but of this we
-will be better able to judge when we are further advanced in our survey
-of similar monuments.
-
-
-ROLLRIGHT.
-
-At Rollright, between Chipping Norton and Long Compton, in Oxfordshire,
-there is a circle, which, from what has been written about it, has
-assumed an importance in the antiquarian world, which is certainly
-not due either to its dimensions or to any traditions that attach to
-it. Every antiquary, from Camden down to Bathurst Deane, has thought
-it necessary to say something about this splendid temple of the Druid
-priesthood, so that the traveller, when he visits it, is sure to
-be dreadfully disappointed. It is an ordinary 100-foot circle, the
-entrance to which is apparently from the south opposite to the five
-largest stones, which are placed in juxtaposition on the north, the
-tallest in the centre being about 5 feet in height. The others average
-about 3 or 4 feet, but are uneven in height and irregularly spaced,
-but with a tendency to form groups of threes, which is a peculiarity
-observable-in some similar circles on Dartmoor.
-
-Across the road, at a distance of about 50 yards, stands a single
-obeliscal stone, about 10 feet high, on a mound which appears to be
-artificial. If it is so, however, it was raised with the materials
-taken out of a pit, which still exists on one side, and not from a
-ditch surrounding it, as is usual in such cases. In another direction,
-about a quarter of a mile from the circle, stands a dolmen, which is
-the finest feature in the group. The cap stone, which has fallen,
-measures 8 feet by 9, and is of considerable thickness; and three of
-the supporting stones are 7, 8, and 10 feet in height respectively.
-
-This circle appears to have been examined by Ralph Sheldon, but without
-results.[147] The mound, so far as is known, is yet untouched, and the
-dolmen could not now be explored without causing its complete ruin; I
-presume no one will contest its being sepulchral. It would be difficult
-now to bring to the test of experiment the question whether the circle
-is so or not, as some forty or fifty years ago, it and the plot round
-it were planted with larch trees, whose roots have spread over the
-surface and could with difficulty be now got rid of. This is to be
-regretted, as from its isolated position the group affords an excellent
-opportunity of testing the usual theories regarding these monuments.
-If it was a temple, it gives us a very low idea of the religious state
-of our ancestors, that for a district of from twenty to thirty miles'
-radius they should have possessed only one single small enclosure,
-surrounded by a low imperfect wall, 3 or 4 feet high. If any other
-had ever existed, traces of it must have been found, or why has this
-one remained so complete, for not one stone apparently is missing. It
-is also strange that, as in other instances, it should be situated on
-the highest and bleakest part of the surrounding country. It is, in
-fact, not only the unlikeliest form, but the most inconvenient site
-for a temple. It also gives us a very low idea of their civilization.
-The circle at Rollright is a sort of monument that the boys of any of
-our larger schools could set up in a week, supposing the stones to be
-found lying about, at no great distance, which there is little doubt
-was the case when it was erected. The dolmen might require a little
-contrivance to get the cap stone hoisted; but there is nothing that the
-villagers in the neighbourhood could not now complete in a few days, if
-so inclined, and certainly nothing that a victorious army, of say even
-1000 men, could not complete between sunrise and sunset in a summer's
-day. Even if the sepulchral character of the group is admitted, it can
-hardly be the burying-ground of a chief, or clan, or family. In that
-case, instead of one dolmen there must have been several, smaller
-it may be, but in succession. The chief must have had ancestors, or
-successors, or relations, and they would not be content that one, and
-one only, of their family should possess an honoured tomb, and that
-they themselves should rest in undistinguished graves. As in other
-cases, unless we are prepared to admit that it marks the site of a
-battle, I know of nothing that will explain the situation and the form
-of the group; nor do I see why we should reject Camden's explanation of
-the circumstances under which it was erected: "These would, I verily
-think, to have been the monument of some victory, and haply erected
-by Rollo the Dane, who afterwards conquered Normandy." "In what time
-he with the Danes troubled England with depredations we read that the
-Danes joined battle with the English thereby at Hock Norton, a place
-for no one thing more famous in old time than for the woeful slaughter
-of the English on that foughten field, under the reign of King Edward
-the Elder."[148] This last, however, is apparently a mistake, for it
-was Eadward (901-923) who was really the contemporary of Rollo. He was
-also the contemporary of Gorm the Old, of Denmark, of whose tumulus and
-Pagan habits we shall hear hereafter.
-
-This again will appear a very prosaic anti-climax to those who are
-nursed on ideas of the hoar antiquity and wondrous magnificence of such
-monuments as Ashdown and Rollright. A visit to them is sufficient to
-dispel one part of that illusion, and a little common-sense applied
-to the other will probably show that the more moderate view meets
-perfectly all the real exigencies of the case.
-
-
-PENRITH.
-
-In the neighbourhood of Penrith in Cumberland there is a group, or
-perhaps it should be said there are three groups of monuments, of
-considerable importance from their form and size, but deficient in
-interest from the absence of any tradition to account for their being
-where we find them. They extend in a nearly straight line from Little
-Salkeld on the north to Shap on the south, a distance of fourteen miles
-as the crow flies, Penrith lying a little to the westward of the line,
-and nearer to its northern than its southern extremity.
-
-About half a mile from the first named village is the circle known
-popularly as Long Meg and her Daughters, sixty-eight in number, if each
-stone represents one. It is about 330 feet (100 metres) in diameter,
-but does not form a perfect circle. The stones are unhewn boulders,
-and very few of them are now erect. Outside the circle stands Long
-Meg herself, of a different class of stone from the others, about
-12 feet high, and apparently hewn, or at all events shaped, to some
-extent.[149] Inside the circle, Camden reports "the existence of two
-cairns of stone, under which they say are dead bodies buried; and
-indeed it is probable enough," he adds, "that it has been a monument
-erected in honour of some victory."[150] No trace of these cairns now
-remains, nor am I aware that the centre has ever been dug into with a
-view of looking for interments. My impression, however, is that the
-principal interment was outside, and that Long Meg marks either the
-head or the foot of the chief's grave.
-
-Close to Penrith is another circle called Mayborough, of about the
-same dimensions--100 metres--as that at Little Salkeld, but of a very
-different construction. The vallum or enclosure is entirely composed
-of small water-worn stones taken from the beds of the Eamount or Eden
-rivers. The stones are wonderfully uniform in size, and just about
-what any man could carry without inconvenience. This enclosure mound
-is now so mined that it is extremely difficult to guess what were
-its dimensions. It may have been from 15 feet to 20 feet high, and
-twice that in breadth at its base. The same cause makes it difficult
-to determine the dimensions of the internal area. The floor of the
-circle I calculated as 290 feet from the foot of one slope to the foot
-of the opposite one, and consequently the whole as from 320 feet to
-340 feet[151] from crest to crest; but these dimensions must be taken
-as only approximative till a more careful survey is made than it was
-in my power to execute. Near, but not quite in the centre, stands a
-single splendid monolith; it may be 12 feet in height, but is more than
-twice the bulk of Long Meg. In Pennant's time there were four stones
-still standing in the centre, of which this was one, and probably
-there may originally have been several more forming a small circle
-in the centre.[152] In his day also he learned that there were four
-stones--two pairs--standing in a gap in the vallum looking like the
-commencement of an avenue. The place, however, is too near Penrith, and
-stone is there too valuable to allow of such things escaping, so that
-nothing now remains which would enable us to restore this monument with
-certainty.
-
-Close by this is a third circle known as Arthur's Round Table.
-
-[Illustration: 29. Sketch Plan of King Arthur's Round Table, with the
-side, obliterated by the road, restored.]
-
-It consists, or consisted, of a vallum of earth, as near as can be
-made out, 300 feet from crest to crest; but about one-third of the
-circle being cut away to form a road, it is not easy to speak with
-certainty. Inside the rampart is a broad berm, then a ditch, and in
-the centre a plateau about 170 feet in diameter, slightly raised in
-the centre. No stone is visible on the surface, though the rampart
-when broken into shows that it is principally composed of them. There
-is now only one entrance through the rampart and across the ditch, but
-as both entrances existed in Pennant's time (1772), and are figured in
-his plan of the monument, I have not hesitated to restore the second
-accordingly.[153] The distance between Mayborough and King Arthur's
-Round Table is about 110 yards, and at about the same distance from
-the last-named monument, a third circle existed in Pennant's time. It
-seems, however, to have been in his day at least only a circular ditch,
-and has now entirely disappeared.
-
-Owing to their more ruined state, the remains at Shap are more
-difficult to describe. They were, however, visited by Stukeley in 1725,
-but he complains it rained all the time that he was there, and rain on
-a bleak exposed moor like Shap is singularly inimical to antiquarian
-pursuits.[154] The remains were also described by Camden,[155] but
-not apparently from personal observation, and others have described
-them since, but the destruction has been so rapid, the village being
-almost entirely built out of them, that it is now extremely difficult
-to ascertain what they really were. All, however, are agreed that the
-principal monument was an alignment, according to some of a double
-row of stones, of which others can only trace a single row. So far
-as I could make out on the spot, it commenced near a spot called
-the Thunder-stone, in the north, where there are seven large stones
-in a field; six are arranged as a double row; the seventh seems to
-commence a single line, from this all the way to a place at the
-southern extremity of the village, called Karl Lofts, single stones
-may be traced at intervals, in apparently a perfectly straight line
-and still beyond this, at a farmyard called Brackenbyr, Mr. Simpson
-fancied he could, in 1859, trace the remains of a circle 400 feet in
-diameter, with a large obelisk in the centre.[156] I confess I was not
-so fortunate in 1869, and I also differ from him as to the position of
-the stone row. He seems to fancy, from the description of Stukeley,
-that it was situated to the southward of Karl Lofts, though he could
-not detect any traces of it. My impression is that it commenced
-with the circle at Brackenbyr, immediately south of Karl Lofts, and
-proceeded in a north-westerly direction for nearly a mile and a half to
-the Thunder-stone, as before mentioned. Rather more than half a mile
-due south of Brackenbyr stands a portion of what was once a very fine
-circle. It was partially destroyed by the railway, but seems to have
-been a hundred-foot circle, and to have stood considerably in advance
-of the line of the avenue, in the same relative position to the stone
-row as the circle at Merivale Bridge (woodcut No. 12), or as Stonehenge
-to its cursus (woodcut No. 26), whether we assume that it was continued
-in this direction, or terminated as above indicated. In front of the
-circle is a noble tumulus, called Kemp How, in which the body of a man
-of gigantic stature is said to have been found.[157]
-
-According to the popular tradition the stone avenue originally
-extended to Muir Divock, a distance of rather more than five miles,
-to which it certainly points. Though this is most improbable, it is
-not wholly without reason, as on Muir Divock there are five or six
-circles of stone and several tumuli. The circles have most of them
-been opened recently, and in all instances were found to contain
-cists or other evidence of interments.[158] Immediately over the Muir
-stands a commanding hill, 1747 feet high, marked on the Ordnance
-Survey as Arthur's Pike. Besides these, on the hill behind Shap, to
-the eastward, are several stone circles, some single, some double,
-but none are of any great size, or composed of stones of very large
-dimensions. The whole aspect of the country is that of a district used
-as a burying-place to an extent far beyond anything that the usual
-inhabitants of the locality could have required, for a bleaker and more
-ungenial spot is not inhabited in any part of these islands.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-So far as I know, no credible tradition attaches to these monuments
-so as to connect them with any historical or local incident. We
-are, therefore, left almost wholly to their intrinsic forms, or to
-analogies, to determine either their history or their purposes.
-
-No one will now probably be found seriously to maintain that the long
-stone row at Shap was a temple either of the Druids or of any one else.
-At least if these ancient people thought a single or even a double
-row of widely-spaced stones, stretching to a mile and a half across
-a bleak moor, was a proper form for a place to worship in, they must
-have been differently constituted from ourselves. Unless they possessed
-the tails, or at least the long-pointed ears with which Darwin endows
-our ancestors, they would have adopted some form of temple more nearly
-similar to those used in all other countries of the world. Nor was it a
-tomb. Not only have no sepulchral remains been found here, but nowhere
-else has any trace of such a purpose been found connected with such
-alignments. Even, however, if it is contended that it is sepulchral,
-it certainly was not the burying-place of the hamlet of Shap, or of
-its neighbourhood, for a more miserable spot for habitation does not
-exist in England, and it cannot be that Shap, like Avebury, should
-require the most magnificent cemeteries in the island, while nothing of
-the sort exists near the great centres of population. Had the country
-been as thickly inhabited as China, we might fancy the people seeking
-waste uncultivable spots in which to bury their dead, but even at the
-present day Woking is the only cemetery that has been selected on this
-principle in England, and at any previous time to which we can look
-back, the idea appears too absurd to be entertained for a moment.
-
-If, therefore, the alignment at Shap was sepulchral, it must have
-been the burying-place of those that fell in some battle on the spot;
-this in fact brings us to the only suggestion I am aware of that seems
-at all tenable: that it marks a battle-field like those on Dartmoor
-(_ante_, p. 54), and others we shall meet with hereafter.
-
-Excavations have proved that all the smaller circles which abound in
-the neighbourhood are graves, and if those from 60 feet to 100 feet
-in diameter are so, all analogy must lead us to the inference that
-the 100-metre circles are so also. Direct proof has not, however, yet
-been obtained of this, but that may arise first from the difficulty of
-excavating so large an area; or it may be that the bodies were buried
-outside the circle, as at Hakpen (_ante_, p. 76), or at the foot of the
-stones, as at Crichie (_ante_, p. 75) or in those circles which have
-no erect stones in a similar position--at the toe of the inner slope
-of the rampart--and these are just the places where they have not been
-looked for. Meanwhile the cairns in the inside of the circle of Long
-Meg's Daughters seem to favour this view of their sepulchral purpose.
-But if sepulchres, certainly they were not family or princely tombs. If
-that was their destination they would not be found only in two or three
-groups in the wildest and most remote parts of the country, but in far
-greater numbers, and nearer those places where men most do congregate.
-We are in fact driven to Camden's suggestion, that they may have been
-made to celebrate some victory; but, if so, what victory? It looks like
-riding a hobby very hard to make the same suggestion as was made with
-regard to Avebury, but I confess I know no other that can be brought
-forward with so much plausibility as that of considering them to be
-memorials of Arthur's campaigns against the Saxon invaders.
-
-The first objection that will naturally be raised to this hypothesis
-is, that King Arthur was a myth, and never fought any battles at all.
-It was not necessary to examine this when speaking of Avebury. All that
-was then required was to know if Waden Hill was Badon Hill. If it was
-the site of that famous battle, there was no further enquiry necessary.
-Arthur, and he only, commanded there; and if we admit the fact of the
-battle being fought, we admit at the same time the existence of him who
-commanded there. But with regard to the other eleven battles mentioned
-by Nennius[159] the case is not so clear, and according to the present
-fashionable school of historical criticism it is thought reasonable to
-reject the whole as a myth, because the evidence is not such as would
-stand examination in a court of law, and also because the story as it
-now stands is so mixed up with incredible fables as to throw discredit
-on the whole. It is very much easier to heap ridicule on the silly
-miracles which Merlin is said by mediæval minstrels to have performed,
-and to laugh at the marvellous exploits of Arthur and the Knights of
-his Round Table, than to attempt to glean the few facts which their
-wild poetry has left unobscured. But if any one will attempt the
-same process with one of the many 'Lhystoires du noble et vaillant
-roy Alexandre le grand,' he will find exactly the same difficulties.
-Aristotle and his master have been rendered quite as fabulous persons
-as Merlin and Arthur, and the miracles of the one and the feats of the
-other are equally marvellous. In Alexander's case we fortunately have
-Arrian and Curtius, and others, who give us the truth with regard to
-him; but Arthur had no contemporary history, and instead of living in
-a highly civilized state that continued for ages after him, he was the
-last brilliant light of his age and race, and after him all was gloom
-for centuries. It was not till after a long eclipse that his name was
-seized upon in a poetical and an uncritical age as a peg for bards
-whereupon to hang their wild imaginings.
-
-This is not the place to examine so large a question. It will be
-sufficient to state what I believe to be the main facts. Those who
-do not admit them need not read further. Arthur, it seems to me, was
-born the prince of one of the smaller states in the West of England,
-probably Cornwall, and after the death of Ambrosius, in or about the
-year 508, took up the struggle the latter had carried on with varying
-success against the hordes of Saxons and others who were gradually
-pushing the Bryts out of England. My impression is, that even before
-the Romans left, Jutes, Angles, and Danes had not only traded with,
-but had settled, both on the Saxonicum littus of Kent, and on the
-coast of Yorkshire, Northumberland, and the Lothians; and that during
-the century that elapsed between the departure of the Romans and the
-time of Arthur, they were gradually pushing the British population
-behind the range of hills which extends from Carlisle to Derby and
-forms the back-bone of England. It was in the plains behind this range
-and further south that all Arthur's battles seem to have been fought.
-With Cumberland, Wales, and Cornwall behind him, he was not only sure
-of support from the native population in his rear, but had a secure
-retreat in case of adverse fortune overtaking him. In all this range
-of country I do not know any spot so favourable strategically for
-a defender of his country to take up as the high land about Shap,
-or the open country extending from thence to Salkeld. The ridges at
-Shap protected his right against an enemy advancing by Lancaster, the
-Caledonian Forest and a very rugged country covered his left, and in
-front there was only a wild inhospitable tract by which the invader
-from the opposite coast could advance against him, while by a single
-day's march to his rear he was among the inaccessible mountains and
-lakes of Cumberland.
-
-I am afraid to lay much stress on the fact of one of the circles at
-Penrith and the hill opposite Shap bearing Arthur's name, because in
-the last few years we have seen two hard-headed sober-minded Scotchmen
-proving, to their own satisfaction, that Arthur was born north of the
-Tweed--that all his battles were fought and all his exploits performed
-in the northern portion of the island. Even Ganora--the faithless
-Guinevere--if not a Scotchwoman, was at all events buried in Miegle
-churchyard under a stone, which some pious descendant sculptured some
-centuries later.[160] Even here, however, I fancy I can perceive
-a difference between the two cases. In the middle ages the Scotch
-had historians like Boece and Fordun, who recorded such fables for
-the edification of their countrymen, and with proper patriotism
-were willing that their country should have as large a share of the
-world's greatness or great men as they could well appropriate. They
-were followed by an educated class throughout the country, who were
-actuated by the same motives, and did exactly what Stukeley and his
-followers did with English monuments. They found Druids who had no
-temples, and remains which they supposed to be temples with no priests;
-so, putting the two together, they made what they fancied was a perfect
-whole out of two incongruous halves. So the Scotch, having a rich
-repertory of fables on the one hand, and on the other having hills
-without names and sculptured stones without owners, joined the two
-together, and went on repeating in the same manner their inventions
-till, from dire reiteration, they took the likeness of fact.
-
-The case was, if I mistake not, very different in Cumberland. The boors
-of that land had no literature--no learning, and none of that ardent
-patriotism which enabled the Scotch poets and pedants to manufacture
-a quasi history for themselves out of other people's doings. It is
-difficult to fancy the inhabitants of Cumberland troubling themselves
-with Arthur and his affairs, and wishing to apply his name to
-their hills or antiquities, unless some ancient tradition had made
-it probable, and, "valeat quantum," these names may therefore be
-considered as suggesting a real connexion between the place and the man.
-
-Owing to the extreme brevity of the record in Nennius,[161] there are
-few things about which greater discrepancy of opinion exists even among
-the believers in Arthur than the localities of his battles. Taking
-them in the order in which they are mentioned, the first is said to
-have been fought on the river Glem of Glein, which the editors of the
-'Monumenta Historica Britannica' suggest may be a river of that name
-in Northumberland. The river indicated is so small a brook that it is
-difficult to fancy its name should be attached to so important an event.
-
-If we must go so far north, I would rather feel inclined to place it
-at Wood Castle, near Lochmaben, in Dumfriesshire, where there is a
-circular enclosure identical in plan and dimensions with King Arthur's
-Round Table at Penrith.[162] Strategically, it is a much more likely
-spot than the exposed east coast of Northumberland; but, except
-the plan of Wood Castle, I know of no authority for placing this
-battle-field in Annandale.
-
-There is no indication where the second, third, or fourth battles were
-fought; but for the fifth we have this important designation that it
-was fought "super aliud flumen quod vocatur Duglas vel Dubglas quod est
-in regione Linuis," or in another MS. Linnuis. A marginal note suggests
-Lindesay, in Lincolnshire, but for no other reason apparently than from
-the first three letters being the same in both. There is a River Duglas
-flowing past Wigan, in Lancashire, which Whittaker, in his 'History
-of Manchester,' boldly adopts as the place indicated, and others have
-been inclined to accept his determination. After going carefully over
-the ground, I confess no spot appears to me more unlikely for a great
-battle than the banks of this river, nor does any local evidence of
-their having been so now remain. One cannot but feel that if Arthur
-ever allowed himself to be pushed into such a corner, with nothing but
-the sea behind him to retreat upon, he certainly was not the general
-that made so successful a stand against the Saxons. I am much more
-inclined to believe that Linnuis is only a barbarous latinization of
-Linn, which in Gaelic and Irish means sea or lake. In Welsh it is Lyn,
-and in Anglo-Saxon Lin, and if this is so, "In regione Linnuis" may
-mean "In the Lake Country."
-
-The name of the river does not appear to me at all an insuperable
-difficulty. All the rivers about Penrith, the Lowther, the Eamount,
-and the Eden, have names that were certainly given to them by the
-Saxons, but they must have had Celtic names before they came; and Dubh
-as an adjective is dark or black, and Glas, green or grey, is used
-as a substantive to denote the sea, in Irish. Such an epithet would
-apply admirably to the Lowther; and if it could be identified with the
-river mentioned by Nennius, our difficulties would be at an end. These
-speculations, however, must of course be taken for what they are worth.
-There is, so far as known, no authority for the name Duglas or Dubhglas
-being applied to the Lowther or Eden.
-
-The sixth battle was on a river called Bassas. It has been suggested
-that this means the Bass Rock in the Frith of Forth; but it need hardly
-be objected that a rock is not a river, and there is an extreme
-improbability that Arthur ever saw the Lothians. In Derbyshire there is
-a Bas Lowe[163] in a neighbourhood where, as we shall presently see,
-there is reason to believe Arthur fought one or more of his battles,
-but I am not aware of any river so called in that neighbourhood.
-
-The seventh war was in Silva Calidonis, "id est Cat Coit Celidon."
-The Cat in the last name is evidently Cat or Cath, "a battle," which
-we frequently meet with, and shall again in describing these matters.
-Coit, only so far as the dictionaries tell us, means coracle, and would
-seem to indicate a struggle in boats. The Caledonian Forest, is what
-will really determine the locality. Generally it is understood to be
-the forest that extended from Penrith to Carlisle; and, if so, any one
-of our Penrith circles might be assumed to mark the site of the seventh
-battle. Most probably in that case it would be the Salkeld circle, or
-it might be one known as the Grey Yawds, near Cumrew, about eight or
-nine miles further north.[164]
-
-The eighth battle was in Castello Guinnion, or Guin, which, from the
-sound of the name, can hardly escape being in Wales or the Welsh
-border, unless indeed we assume that these Welsh appellations were
-common to the whole country before the Saxons re-named many of the
-places. In that case we have nothing to guide us as to where the battle
-was fought.
-
-The ninth battle was "in Urbe Legionis." This may be either Chester
-or Caerleon in South Wales. It most probably was the latter, as in
-another MS. it is added "quæ Britannice Karlium dicitur," or Cair lin
-in another.
-
-The tenth war was on the shores of a river which was called Ribroit.
-Though this is spelt in various MSS. Tribruit, Trathreuroit, and
-Trattreuroit, it seems impossible to identify it. But it must have been
-a large river, or the expression "in littore" would hardly have been
-used.
-
-The eleventh battle "fuit in Monte quod dicitur Agned Cathregonnon;"
-and in different MSS. this is spelt Cathregomion, Cabregonnon,
-Catbregonnion, and in one it is added, "in Somersetshire quem nos
-Cathbregion appellamus." No such name seems now to be known in that
-country; but as we shall presently, I hope, see reason for believing,
-the spot is probably that now known as Stanton Drew.
-
-The twelfth battle was that of Mount Badon, the position of which,
-as we have already pointed out, may almost certainly be fixed in the
-immediate neighbourhood of Avebury.
-
-All this is indistinct enough, it must be confessed, and much of it
-depends on nominal similarities, which are never very satisfactory;
-still the general impression it leaves seems worthy of acceptance. It
-would lead us to think that Arthur commenced his struggles with the
-invaders in the north of England, probably in the time of Ambrosius,
-and fought his way southwards, till after twelve campaigns, or twelve
-battles, he reached his crowning victory at Badon Hill, which gave
-him peace for the rest of his days. At all events, with respect to
-the first seven battles, there seems no reason why we should not
-appropriate any of them except perhaps the first--to our Cumberland
-circles. The proof of whether or not it is reasonable to do so will of
-course depend on the case we can make out for the other circles we have
-to examine, and on the general interdependence which the whole series
-can be shown to have on one another.
-
-At present it may be allowed to stand on an hypothesis, which certainly
-has the merit of explaining the facts as now known; but the probability
-or disproof of which must depend on the facts and arguments to be
-adduced hereafter.
-
-
-DERBYSHIRE.
-
-The next group of monuments with which we have to deal is perhaps as
-interesting as any of those hitherto described. As before mentioned,
-when speaking of the labours of William and Thomas Bateman, the
-north-western portion of the county is crowded with barrows, but none
-apparently of so ancient a character as those excavated by Canon
-Greenwell in Yorkshire, and most of them containing objects of so
-miscellaneous a character as to defy systematic classification. As
-these, however, hardly belong to the subject of which we are now
-treating, it is not necessary to say more about them at present; and
-the less so, that the group which falls directly in with our line of
-research is well defined as to locality, and probably also as to age.
-
-The principal monument of this group is well-known to antiquaries as
-Arbe or Arbor Low,[165] and is situated about nine miles south by
-east from Buxton, and by a curious coincidence is placed in the same
-relative position to the Roman Road as Avebury. So much is this the
-case, that in the Ordnance Survey--barring the scale--the one might
-be mistaken for the other if cut out from the neighbouring objects.
-Minning Low, however, which is the pendant of Silbury Hill in this
-group, is four miles off, though still in the line of the Roman road,
-instead of only one mile, as in the Wiltshire example. Besides, there
-is a most interesting Saxon Low at Benty Grange, about one mile from
-Arbor Low. Gib Hill, Kens Low, Ringham Low, End Low, Lean Low, and
-probably altogether ten or twelve important mounds covering a space
-five miles in one direction, by one and a half to two miles across.
-
-Arbor Low consists of a circular platform, 167 feet in diameter,
-surrounded by a ditch 18 feet broad at bottom, the earth taken from
-which has been used to form a rampart about 15 feet to 18 feet high,
-and measuring about 820 feet in circumference on the top.[166] The
-first thing that strikes us on looking at the plan (woodcut No. 30) is
-that, in design and general dimensions, the monument is identical with
-that called "Arthur's Round Table," at Penrith. The one difference is
-that, in this instance, the section of the ditch, and consequently that
-of the rampart, have been increased at the expense of the berm; but the
-arrangements of both are the same, and so are the internal and external
-dimensions. At Arbor Low there are two entrances across the ditch, as
-there was in the Cumberland and Dumfriesshire examples. As mentioned
-above, only one is now visible there, the other having been obliterated
-by the road, but the two circles are in other respects so similar as to
-leave very little doubt as to their true features.
-
-[Illustration: 30. Arbor Low. From a drawing by Sir Gardner Wilkinson.]
-
-The Derbyshire example, however, possesses, in addition to its
-earthworks, a circle of stones on its inner platform, originally
-probably forty or fifty in number; but all now prostrate, except
-perhaps some of the smallest, which, being nearly cubical, may still be
-in _situ_. In the centre of the platform, also, are several very large
-stones, which evidently formed part of a central dolmen.
-
-There is another very interesting addition at Arbor Low, which is
-wanting at Penrith, this is a tumulus attached unsymmetrically to the
-outer vallum. This was, after repeated attempts, at last successfully
-excavated by the Messrs. Bateman, and found to contain a cist of rather
-irregular shape, in which were found among other things two vases[167]
-one of singularly elegant shape, the other less so. In themselves
-these objects are not sufficient to determine the age of the barrow,
-but they suffice to show that it was not very early. One great point
-of interest in this discovery is its position with reference to the
-circle. It is identical with that of Long Meg with reference to her
-daughters, and perhaps some of the stones outside Avebury, supposed to
-be the commencement of the avenue, may mark the principal places of
-interment.
-
-[Illustration: 31. Vases and Bronze Pin found in Arbor Low.]
-
-[Illustration: 32. Section of Gib Hill. No scale.]
-
-Attached to Arbor Low, at a distance of about 250 yards, is another
-tumulus, called Gib Hill, apparently about 70 to 80 feet in
-diameter.[168] It was carefully excavated by Mr. T. Bateman in 1848;
-but after tunnelling through and through it in every direction on
-the ground level and finding nothing, he was surprised at finding,
-on removing the timber which supported his galleries, that the side
-of the hill fell in, and disclosed the cist very near the summit.
-The whole fell down, and the stones composing the cist were removed
-and re-erected in the garden of Lumberdale House. It consisted of
-four massive blocks of limestone forming the sides of a chamber, 2
-feet by 2 feet 6 inches, and covered by one 4 feet square. The cap
-stone was not more than 18 inches below the turf. By the sudden fall
-of the side a very pretty vase was crushed, the fragments mingling
-with the burnt bones it contained; but though restored, unfortunately
-no representation has been given. The only other articles found in
-this tumulus were "a battered celt of basaltic stone, a dart or
-javelin-point of flint, and a small iron fibula, which had been
-enriched with precious stones."[169]
-
-[Illustration: 33. Summit of Minning Low, as it appeared in 1786. From
-Douglas.]
-
-[Illustration: 34. Plan of Chambers in Minning Low.]
-
-Though Gib Hill is interesting as the first of the high-level dolmens
-which we have met with in this country, Minning Low is a still more
-striking example of that class which we hinted at before as common
-in Aveyron (_ante_, woodcut No. 8), and which we shall meet with
-frequently as we proceed. When it first attracted the attention of
-antiquaries in 1786, Minning Low seems to have been a straight-lined
-truncated cone, about 300 feet in diameter, and the platform on
-its summit measured 80 feet across.[170] Its height could not be
-ascertained.[171] It was even then planted over with trees, so that
-these dimensions, except the breadth of the platform, are hardly to
-be depended upon, and since then the whole mound has been so dug
-into and ruined, that they cannot now be verified. On the platform
-at the top in 1786 there stood live kistvaens, each capable of
-containing-one body; and, so far as can be made out from Douglas'
-plates and descriptions, the cap stone of these was flush with the
-surface, or possibly, as at Gib Hill, they may have been a few inches
-below the surface, and, becoming exposed, may have been rifled as
-they were found; but this is hardly probable, because unless always
-exposed, it is not likely they would have been either looked for in
-such a situation, or found by accident. Below them--at what depth we
-are not told--a stone chamber, or rather three chambers, were found by
-Mr. Bateman, apparently on the level of the ground on the south side
-of the Barrow.[172] To use Mr. Bateman's own words ('Vestiges,' &c.,
-p. 39): "On the summit of Minning Low Hill, as they now appear from
-the soil being removed from them, are two large cromlechs, exactly
-of the same construction as the well-known Kit's Cotty-house, near
-Maidstone, in Kent. In the cell near which the body lay were found
-fragments of five urns, some animal bones, and six brass Roman coins,
-viz., one of Claudius Gothicus (270), two of Constantine the Great, two
-of Constantine, junior, and one of Valentinian. There is a striking
-analogy between this and the great Barrow at New Grange, described by
-Dr. Ledwich, of which a more complete investigation of Minning Low
-would probably furnish additional proofs." Mr. Bateman was not then
-aware that a coin of Valentinian had been found in the New Grange
-mound,[173] which is one similarity in addition.
-
-The fact of these coins being found here fixes a date beyond which
-it is impossible to carry back the age of this mound, but not the
-date below which it may have been erected. The coins found in British
-barrows seem almost always those of the last Emperors who held sway
-in Britain, and whose coins may have been preserved and to a certain
-extent kept in circulation after all direct connexion with Rome had
-ceased, and thus their rarity or antiquity may have made them suitable
-for sepulchral deposits. No coin of Augustus or any of the earlier
-Emperors was ever found in or on any of these rude tumuli, which must
-certainly have been the case had any of them been pre-Roman. This mound
-is consequently certainly subsequent to the first half of the fourth
-century, and how much more modern it may be remains to be determined.
-
-Be this as it may, if Mr. Bateman's suggestion that this monument is a
-counterpart of Kit's Cotty-house is correct--and no one who is familiar
-with the two monuments will probably dispute it--this at once removes
-any improbability from the argument that the last-named may be the
-grave of Catigren. The one striking difference between the two is, that
-Kit's Cotty-house is an external free-standing dolmen, while Minning
-Low is buried in a tumulus. This, according to the views adopted in
-these pages, from the experience of other monuments, would lead to the
-inference that the Kentish example was the more modern of the two. It
-is not, however, worth while arguing that point here; for our present
-purpose it is sufficient to know that both are post-Roman, and probably
-not far distant in date.
-
-Another barrow belonging to this group is at Benty Grange, about a
-mile from Arbor Low, which, though of a different character, may be
-connected with the others. One body only was buried in it, of which
-no trace, however, remained but the hair.[174] There was apparently
-little more than 2 feet of earth over it. The first thing found was a
-leather drinking-cup, ornamented in silver with stars and crosses. Two
-circular enamels were also there, adorned with that interlacing pattern
-found in the earliest Anglo-Saxon or Irish MSS. of the sixth or seventh
-centuries, or it may be a little earlier; a helmet also was found,
-formed of iron bars, with bronze and silver ornaments, and surmounted
-by what Mr. Bateman assures us was a perfectly distinct representation
-of a hog. He then quotes from Beowulf several passages, in which the
-poet describes: "The boar an ornament to the head, the helmet lofty
-in wars" (l. 4299).... "They seemed a boar's form to bear over their
-cheeks" (l. 604).... "At the pile was easy to be seen, the mail-shirt
-covered with gore, the hog of gold, the boar hard as iron" (l. 2213).
-As Beowulf lived, as shown above, probably in the fifth century, the
-poem may be taken as describing perfectly the costume of the warriors
-of his day; and nothing could answer more completely his description
-than the contents of this tomb.
-
-[Illustration: 35. Fragment of Drinking Cup from Benty Grange.]
-
-[Illustration: 36. Fragment of Helmet from Benty Grange.]
-
-In Kenslow Barrow, between Minning Low and Arbor Low, were found a few
-implements of flint and bone; but on clearing out the grave in the
-rock, which had been examined before in 1821, Mr. S. Bateman found some
-portions of the skeleton undisturbed, and with them a small neat bronze
-dagger, and a little above these an iron knife of the shape and size
-usually deposited in Anglo-Saxon interments.[175] Of course the theory
-of successive interments is called on to explain away these disturbing
-facts; but there seems nothing here to justify any other inference than
-that in this case all the deposits belonged to the same age. This,
-therefore, may be added to the examples quoted from the 'Vestiges,' to
-show how little the Danish system is really applicable to the class of
-monuments of which we are treating.
-
-On Stanton Moor, four miles east from Kenslow, and about five miles
-from Arbor Low and Minning Low respectively, there are many monuments,
-both of earth and stone, which, though on a smaller scale, seem to
-belong to the same age as those just described. They seem to have been
-very much overlooked by the Batemans, but a very detailed account of
-them is given by Mr. Rooke in the sixth volume of the 'Archæologia,'
-in 1780. One of them, called the Nine Ladies, has been given already
-(_ante_, p. 49); but westward of it stands or stood a stone, called the
-King Stone, at a distance of 34 yards, thus suggesting a similarity to
-the Salkeld circle. Half a mile west from this, nearer Arbor Low, is
-another group of nine stones, the tallest 17 feet in height, and 75
-yards southward two stones of smaller dimensions; 200 yards from this
-an oval ring, the major axis of which measures 243 feet, the minor 156
-feet. It has what Mr. Rooke calls a double ditch, a rampart outside the
-ditch as well as one inside; it is, in fact, a less-developed example
-of that form of which Arbor Low and Arthur's Round Table are finished
-examples. On the east side of the Moor were three tall isolated stones,
-which in Rooke's time the natives still called Cat Stones, showing
-clearly that the tradition still remained of a battle fought there, but
-when or by whom no tradition lingers on the spot to enlighten us.
-
-All these monuments and many more which it would be tedious and
-uninteresting to particularize, are contained within a circle, which
-may be described with a radius of about three miles, the centre being
-half way between Henty Grange and Stanton Moor. It would perhaps be too
-much to assert that they are all of one age; but there is certainly a
-very strong family likeness among them, and they cannot differ much
-either in age or purpose. It may also perhaps be conceded that they
-are not the tombs or temples of the inhabitants of the moors on which
-they stand. The country where they are situated is a bleak inhospitable
-tract, only not quite so bad as Shap, but hardly more able to support
-a large population, if left only to their own resources, than the
-Wiltshire Downs. These three localities could never consequently have
-been so much richer in this class of monuments than settlements in the
-more fertile parts of the island. Strangers must have erected them, and
-to determine who these strangers were, is the task to which antiquaries
-have now to apply themselves.
-
-Whatever may be determined on the point, one thing, I think, must and
-will be conceded, which is, that Arthur's Table at Penrith, Arbor Low,
-and Avebury, are monuments of the same age, and were dedicated to the
-same purposes. The first is a simple earthen monument, of a certain
-design and with certain dimensions; the second has the same design and
-dimensions, with the addition of a circle of stones and dolmen in the
-centre; the third has all the features that the other two possess, with
-the addition of increased dimensions, and the internal circles being
-doubled. But the internal ditch, the rampart, and the character of the
-circle and other features, are so like each other, and so unlike what
-are found elsewhere, that they must stand or fall together. If any one
-of these belonged to the age of Arthur, all three certainly did. If, on
-the other hand, any one of the three can be proved to belong to another
-age, the other two will hardly be able to maintain their position. The
-circles at Cumrew, Salkeld, and Mayborough, present so many points
-of similarity, that they, too, must probably be classed with these
-three, though there is not the same evidence to justify their being
-classed together. The stone avenue at Shap is also most probably the
-counterpart of that at Kennet; but the destruction of the circle at
-Brackenbyr, and the limited knowledge we have of it, prevent anything
-very definite being predicated regarding it.
-
-If we may consider Gib Hill as the analogue of Silbury Hill, its place
-and position may throw some light on the mystery attaching to the
-latter. The relative distances of these satellites to their primaries
-is nearly proportional to the diameter of the circles, and they both
-present the peculiarity that they have no interment in their base.
-The Archæological Institute in 1849 did exactly what the Batemans had
-done before them. They tunnelled and explored the base of Gib Hill,
-and gave it up in despair, when an accident revealed to them the grave
-over their heads, within 18 inches of the surface. The antiquaries were
-not so fortunate at Silbury; but judging from the analogy of Gib Hill,
-and still more from that of Minning Low, the graves may be expected
-to be found arranged around the plateau on the summit, probably six
-or seven in number, and as probably within a few feet of the surface.
-There was none in the centre of the platform at Minning Low, though
-there was in the smaller tumulus of Gib Hill; and this may account for
-the Duke of Northumberland's ill-success when he dug into the hill
-in 1776. Poor Stukeley was very much laughed at for prizing a very
-modern-looking iron bit, belonging to a bridle that was found on the
-top of the hill[176] (woodcut No. 18); yet it may turn out to be the
-only real fact he brought away from the place. Nothing but an iron
-sword was found in the kistvaen, on the top of Minning Low, but it was
-nearly perfect;[177] why should not the bridle be found, for we know
-that horses were frequently buried with the warriors they had borne in
-battle?
-
-Omitting Cornwall for the present, the circles at Stanton Drew form the
-only other group of any importance in England for which it remains to
-find a purpose and a name; and I confess I see no reason for separating
-them from those just named. There are so many points of similarity,
-that they can hardly be of an age far apart, and their purpose
-certainly is the same. If there is anything in the arguments adduced
-above, they must mark a battle-field. They are certainly not a family
-or a princely sepulchre, still less a local cemetery, nor need it now
-be added, certainly not a temple.
-
-[Illustration: 37. Circles at Stanton Drew. From a plan by Sir R. C.
-Hoare.]
-
-[Illustration: 38. View of the Circles at Stanton Drew. From a sketch
-by Percy Shelton, Esq.]
-
-Their arrangement will be understood from the annexed woodcut (No.
-37). The group consists of one first-class circle or oval, 378 feet
-(?) by 345 feet--100 metres; and two of the second class, one 96 feet,
-the other 129; and a dolmen near the church, at a distance of 157
-yards from the last-named.[178] Attached to the two principal circles
-are short straight avenues, pointing apparently to two stones very
-near to one another--the one at a distance of 300 feet from the large
-circle, the other at the distance of about 100 from the smaller one,
-or at distances relative to their diameters. There is also a very
-large stone, called the King Stone, by the roadside, but beyond the
-limits of the plan. This, with the stones to which the avenues point,
-are probably the analogues of the detached stone, known as Long Meg,
-at Salkeld, or the Ring Stone, which stands 180 feet from one of the
-circles at Avebury; perhaps also of the two which are assumed to be the
-commencement of the Beckhampton avenue at that place, or of the Friar's
-heel at Stonehenge, or of the King Stone at Stanton Moor. In fact, all
-these circles seem to have detached stones standing at some little
-distance from them outside. It is there that I would look for the
-principal interments, rather than in the circles themselves; but this
-is one of the questions that the spade, and the spade only, can decide.
-There is, however, also attached to the smaller of the two circles
-at Stanton Drew a heap of stones which is apparently the ruins of a
-dolmen, and these may mark the real place of interment, as does the
-tumulus attached to Arbor Low, which corresponds with them in position.
-
-The only recorded tradition with regard to this monument at Stanton
-Drew represents Keyna, a holy virgin in the fifth century, the daughter
-apparently of a Welsh prince, obtaining a grant of the land on which
-the village of Keynsham now stands from the prince of the country. She
-was warned, however, of the insecurity of the gift, in consequence of
-the serpents of a deadly species that infested the place. She accepted
-the gift notwithstanding, and by her prayers converted the serpents
-into the stones we now see there,[179] so at least Stukeley and
-Bathurst Dean assure us.
-
-Such a tradition is only valuable as indicating the date that is
-popularly ascribed to the monument. In this instance the fifth century
-is suggested, which may be 50 or even 100 years earlier than I would
-be inclined to assign it to, but such data are of little consequence.
-The date is also shadowed forth in the incident related; for not
-only in Ireland, but in France, and frequently also in England, the
-early struggles of the first Christian missionaries are represented
-as victories over the snakes or snake worshippers. St. Hilda, for
-instance, at Whitby signalized the establishment of Christianity in
-the seventh century by converting the Yorkshire snakes into Ammonites,
-which are still found there in quantities, which in the eyes of the
-peasantry are much more like stone snakes than the stones into which
-St. Keyna transformed her Somersetshire enemies.
-
-Whatever the value of these and such like traditions, one thing seems
-quite certain, that every local tradition which has yet been quoted
-represents these monuments as erected subsequently to Roman times,
-and generally as belonging to that transitional age when Christianity
-was struggling with Paganism for the mastery. The common people are
-generally willing enough to amuse themselves with fables about giants
-and demigods, and to wander back into prehistoric times; but with
-regard to these monuments they do not seem to have done so. I do not
-recollect a single tradition that ascribes any stone circle to the
-pre-Roman period.
-
-If, however, I am correct in assuming that these great groups of
-circles belong to the Arthurian age, we have no difficulty in assigning
-to this one its proper place in the series of his battles. The ninth,
-as we have seen above, was probably fought at Caerleon on the Usk;
-which would seem to indicate that, at a certain point in his career,
-Arthur was forced back quite out of England into South Wales; but
-his return on that hypothesis is easily traced. The tenth battle was
-on the shore of some large river, which ought in consequence to be
-the Severn, though the name given in the text lends no countenance
-to this supposition; the eleventh was "In monte quod dicitur Agned
-in Somersetshire," which would answer perfectly, except in name; for
-Stanton Drew, in that case, would be in the direct line of advance to
-Badon Hill, where the twelfth and crowning victory was fought.
-
-The name here, as throughout, creates the difficulty, but Stanton on
-the Stones, or Stone Town, is simply an epithet applied to all these
-groups by the Saxons at some period subsequent to that of which we are
-speaking, when the memory of their purpose was lost, or little cared
-for by those of a different race, and speaking a different language,
-who had succeeded to the Bryts, who had erected them. Unless we assume
-that Stonehenge, Stanton Drew, the circles on Stanton Moor, and the
-stones at Stennis, and others, were erected by the Saxons themselves,
-they must originally have borne Celtic names, and it would be these
-names that Nennius would quote, and which consequently could not be
-those by which they are now known.
-
-The expression "in monte" is singularly confirmatory of this
-determination, inasmuch as one of the remarkable features of the
-locality is the fortified hill known as Maes[180] Knoll, which
-literally looks into Stanton Drew, and is the most remarkable feature
-seen from it, and a fight on its ridge is as probable an operation as
-any likely to be undertaken in this quarter.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-If the above were all the evidence that could be produced in support
-of the hypothesis that all these great circles belonged to the
-Arthurian age, it might be admitted to be sufficient to establish not a
-conclusion but a fair _prima facie_ case. The reasonableness, however,
-of what has been here advanced will, it is hoped, become more and more
-apparent as we proceed. Absolute mathematical or logical proof it is to
-be feared, in the present state of the evidence, is not available. Till
-attention is fairly turned to a certain definite line of argument, the
-experiments are not made, and the authorities are not read, which bear
-upon it, or if made or read are not understood; but when the arguments
-are examined with the earnest desire to prove or disprove them, new
-light springs up from every quarter, and before long there may be
-grounds for a positive answer.
-
-Meanwhile it may be well to point out, before going further, that this
-class of circles is peculiar to England. They do not exist in France
-or in Algeria. The Scandinavian circles are all very different, so too
-are the Irish. The one circle out of England that at all resembles them
-is that at Stennis, or rather Brogar, in the Orkneys, which will be
-described in detail further on. There we have a great 100-metre circle,
-with a ditch (but no rampart), a smaller 100-foot circle, with a ruined
-dolmen in its stone circle, as at Stanton Drew, and we have the Maes
-Knoll for the Maes How. The Stennis group has also the detached stones,
-though it wants the rudimentary avenues, and some minor peculiarities,
-and it may be more modern, but it is very similar; whereas those in
-Cornwall and elsewhere are small and irregular, and totally wanting
-in the dignity belonging to those which we have ventured to call
-Arthurian.
-
-The arguments adduced in the preceding pages will probably be deemed
-sufficient to make out a strong case to show that these great circles
-were erected, at all events, after the departure of the Romans, and if
-this is so, it confines the field for discussion within very narrow
-limits. Either they must have been erected by the Romanized Britons
-before they were so completely Christianized as to be entirely weaned
-from their Pagan habits, or they were the works of the Saxons or
-Danes. We shall be in a better position to judge how far it is likely
-that the latter were the authors, when we have examined the rude
-stone monuments of Scandinavia or Friesland, from which countries
-the Northmen descended on our shores. When this is done, we shall
-probably come to the conclusion that, as they erected Dolmens as
-burying-places for their dead, and Menhirs or Bauta Stones and circles
-in their battle-fields, there is no improbability of their having done
-so also here. The question, however, is, did they erect these great
-100-metre circles? These are unique, so far as I know; a class quite by
-themselves, and so similar, whether found in Cumberland or Derbyshire,
-or in Wilts or Somersetshire, that, with the probable exception of the
-Orkney group, they must be the work of one people, and also nearly of
-the same age. If, in fact, they do not mark the battle-fields to which
-I have attempted to ascribe them, they must mark something nearly
-approximating to them in date, and as nearly analogous in intention and
-purpose.
-
-
-SMALLER CIRCLES.
-
-[Illustration: 39. Rose Hill Tumulus. From the 'Archæologia,' vol. x.]
-
-It would be as tedious as unprofitable to attempt to enumerate all
-the smaller circles existing in various parts of England; but there
-are two or three which are curious in themselves, and interesting as
-illustrating the large circles of which we have just been treating.
-The first to be mentioned is one situated in Englewood Forest, near
-Rose Hill, and therefore nearly equidistant from Cumrew, Salkeld, and
-Carlisle. Locally, therefore, it belongs to the Cumberland group,
-described above, and may do so in date also. It is a low platform,
-it can hardly be called a tumulus, as it is only 12 feet high. It is
-circular, and measures 63 feet across. On the platform stand, or at
-least stood in 1787, three bilithons, or groups of two tall stones
-standing side by side, like those in the inner circle at Stonehenge.
-Mr. Rooke dug in front of one of these, with the intention of seeing
-how deep it was in the ground, but to his astonishment he found a cist
-formed of six perfectly well fitted hewn stones, but measuring little
-more than 2 feet each way. In front of the other outside group he
-found a similar cist, but a little larger, 2 feet 10 inches by 2 feet
-2 inches, and further removed from the central pair of upright stones,
-and nearer the centre of the circle, a third cist, formed equally of
-hewn and well fitted stones. In all three of these were found human
-bones, fragments of skulls, teeth, &c., but no implements or ornaments
-of any sort, only under one head a metallic lump, with apparently
-particles of gold in it.[181] This was sent to the Society of
-Antiquaries for examination, but with what result is not stated.[182]
-According to the plan, it would appear as if there were originally six
-interments in the mound. In fact, that it was the counterpart of the
-top of Minning Low, with the addition of the pairs of obelisks. Mr.
-Rooke was, however, so much puzzled at finding Druids buried six feet
-below the floor of their own temple, that he did not seek further.
-But if the mound still exists, it would be very interesting to know
-if any more cists exist in the mound, or any burial deeper down below
-them, as in the Derbyshire example. It might contain coins, and if so,
-would be interesting as another example of its date; but meanwhile its
-truncated conoidal form and arrangement of graves, and of trilithons,
-are sufficient to show that it was cotemporary with Minning Low and
-Stonehenge, or at all events not far from their date.
-
-[Illustration: 40. Snaffle-Bit found at Aspatria.]
-
-In the same paper in which Mr. Rooke describes the Rose Hill tumulus
-he gives an account of an excavation at a place called Aspatria, a
-little farther westward, and near St. Bees. They cleared away a barrow
-about 90 feet in diameter, and at 3 feet below the original surface
-of the ground found a cist in which lay the skeleton of a man of
-gigantic stature. As he lay extended, he measured 7 feet from the head
-to the ankle. His feet were decayed and rotted off. At his side, near
-the shoulder-blade, was an iron sword 4 feet in length, the handle
-elegantly ornamented with inlaid silver flowers; a gold fibula or
-buckle was also found, with portions of the shield and his battle-axe.
-One of the most curious things found was the bit of a snaffle-bridle,
-which is so modern-looking that it would not excite interest if seen
-on a stall in Seven Dials. The main interest resides in its similarity
-to that which Stukeley found at Silbury Hill (woodcut No. 18, p.
-81). He cleaned and polished his one carefully. Mr. Rooke had his
-engraved with all the rust upon it, so, at first sight, they are not so
-similar as they are in reality. The fact of this one being found in an
-undoubtedly ancient grave, takes away all _prima facie_ improbability
-from the suggested age of the other. From its form, Stukeley's appears
-to be the older of the two; but we have no chronometric scale for
-bridle-bits.
-
-All these things make this grave look as if it were very modern; but on
-the outside of the stones forming the cist were engraved a variety of
-figures which are of interest as a means of comparison with the Irish
-and Danish engravings we shall meet with hereafter. They are not very
-artistically drawn, and are probably worse engraved; but it is easy to
-recognize the cross in the circle. There are the concentric circles
-with dots in the centre and straight lines proceeding from them and
-other figures found on rocks and elsewhere, which antiquaries have
-hitherto been inclined to ascribe to a primæval antiquity, but which
-this tomb would bring down at least to the Viking age--of which more
-hereafter.
-
-[Illustration: 41. Side Stone, Aspatria Cist.]
-
-[Illustration: 42. Mule Hill, View of Cists.]
-
-[Illustration: 43. Circle of Cists at Mule Hill, Isle of Man.]
-
-The circle of cists on Mule Hill, in the Isle of Man, are interesting
-from another cause; for unfortunately they all have been laid bare
-and rifled before any antiquary took cognisance of them, and we have
-consequently nothing by which their date can be even guessed at. Their
-interest lies in their arrangement, which is that of eight cists
-arranged in a circle, with, it would seem, others at right angles at
-certain intervals.[183] From simple inspection it is evident that
-these cists must at one time have been covered with earth. They are
-not dolmens, or anything that would do for self-standing monuments.
-If covered with earth, they would form a circular mound 45 feet in
-diameter internally, and 65 feet across to the foot of the outer
-slope, and, as far as one example can go, would tend to prove that the
-circular vallum at Avebury and many other places was a place for the
-deposit of bodies. Except in the instance spoken of in describing the
-circle at Marden, I am not aware of bodies having been found in England
-under these ramparts; but they have not been sought for. Of one thing
-we may feel certain, that nothing is unique in these matters, and that
-what occurred once, occurred frequently, and will no doubt be found
-when looked for.
-
-Another peculiarity of this circle is worth observing. There are two
-gaps or openings in the circle opposite one another, as at Arbor
-Low and Penrith. One must not rely too much on this, as the gaps
-here may arise from the removal of cists; but the coincidence is at
-least curious, and if we restored this monument in the sense just
-indicated, and could rely on that restoration, the secret of the
-vallum surrounding Avebury and other similar monuments would no longer
-be a mystery. To my mind it has not been so for many years past; but
-though I dare not yet ask others to follow at once, I trust sufficient
-evidence has been accumulated in the preceding pages to render it
-probable that they were only continuous tumuli.
-
-The circle or rather circles, on Burn Moor, near Wast Water,
-Cumberland, are described by Mr. Williams as consisting of a 100-foot
-circle, formed of forty-four stones, beyond which, at a distance of 25
-feet is an outer circle of fourteen large stones. A niche or square
-enclosure on one side of the inner circle contains a cairn 25 feet in
-diameter, and within the circle are four others, irregularly spaced,
-and measuring 21 to 25 feet in diameter; each like the circle itself,
-surrounded by fourteen stones. These, on being opened, were found to
-contain a rude chamber formed of five stones, in which were found
-remains of burnt bones, horns of stags, and other animals.[184]
-
-One point of interest in this monument is, that it explains the
-existence of a similar square enclosure on one side of a well-known
-100-foot circle near Keswick. There is no sign of a cairn there now;
-it may have been removed, as those at Salkeld were, or it may be that
-the body was interred without this external indication; but that it
-lies, or lay, in this enclosure seems certain. The principal reason
-for referring to it here is that it is undoubtedly sepulchral. We
-shall find many examples equally so further on, but it is well, in the
-meanwhile, to illustrate one which certainly was neither a temple nor
-place of assembly, and which contains, besides, several peculiarities
-to which we shall have occasion to advert hereafter.
-
-[Illustration: 44. Circles on Burn Moor, Cumberland.]
-
-It seems almost equally clear that the Boscawen circles, with which
-we close our illustrations of English circles for the present, were
-neither Temples nor Things. It is very difficult to see how any one
-could fancy that anything so confused as the centre of these circles
-is, could be a temple, still less a place of assembly. But Borlase,
-though generally admitting the sepulchral nature of the circles,
-maintains that this one was a temple, and describes the position
-of the serving Druids and all the ceremonies down to the minutest
-particulars. The circles are small, the largest being only 75 feet in
-diameter, and the whole group only 200 feet across, neither are the
-stones by any means of imposing dimensions. Another circumstance worthy
-of being noticed, is that there are detached stones in front of the
-principal circles. Interesting results might be obtained by excavating
-at their bases, as, for reasons above stated, it seems as if the
-principal interment might be found at their feet.
-
-[Illustration: 45. Boscawen Circles. From Borlase.]
-
-
-DOLMENS.
-
-As stated above, England seems to be the native country of the great
-circles, no 100-metre circles having yet been found anywhere out
-of England, excepting, of course, that at Stennis. France, on the
-contrary, seems to be the native country of the dolmens. They exist
-there in numbers far beyond anything we can show, and of dimensions
-exceeding anything we can boast of. In England proper, when we
-have enumerated Kit's Cotty-house, the dolmen in Clatford Bottom,
-Wayland Smith's Cave, that at Rollright, and one at Drewsteignton, in
-Devonshire, our list is nearly exhausted. There may be heaps of stones
-which seem dolmens, or something like them; and chambered tumuli, whose
-internal kistvaens, if exposed, might be entitled to rank with dolmens;
-but, taking the word in its broad sense, it is difficult to carry our
-list beyond the half-dozen.
-
-In Cornwall the case is different. In the corner to the westward
-of Falmouth there are at least twice as many as in all England. In
-Wales, I think I could enumerate twice as many as in Cornwall; and
-in Anglesea[185] there are certainly as many as in Cornwall, perhaps
-more; and in the Isle of Man they are also numerous. It is difficult
-to be precise, as the same monument is, sometimes at least, recorded
-under two names; but it is not an exaggeration to say that from fifty
-to sixty have been described, and most of them figured, as found in
-the West country, and I should not be surprised if an industrious
-statistician carried the number to 100, including, of course, many that
-are now ruinous.
-
-There are two points of view from which this geographical distribution
-of English dolmens may be regarded. The first and most obvious would
-be to consider that they were erected by the Britons after they were
-driven into the mountain fastnesses of the West, first by the Romans,
-and more completely afterwards by the Saxons. The other view would
-be that they are the work of a different race, who, we have every
-reason to believe, occupied the western country in the time of the
-Romans. Tacitus is particularly explicit on this point. He divides
-the inhabitants of the country into three classes. The red-haired
-Caledonians, resembling the Germans and inhabiting the north; the
-Silures, of dark complexion and curling hair, and whom he describes
-as living in that part of the country which is opposite Spain, and
-he suggests that the ancient Iberians crossed over and occupied
-these regions; and he then adds: "Those nearest to Gaul are similar
-to the inhabitants of that country."[186] There is so much in the
-present aspect of the people of this country to confirm this general
-classification that there seems very little reason for doubting its
-general correctness; and as all these dolmens are found in the country
-of the Silures it may be argued that they belong to them. If he had
-joined the Aquitanians to Iberians he would probably have expressed
-more completely the whole facts of the case as we now know them.
-
-Admitting, however, this ethnographic view of the case to the fullest
-possible extent--which I am prepared to do, it still leaves the
-question of date wholly unsettled. It would be answered if we dared
-to assume that the Silures were driven from the fertile parts of the
-valley of the Severn, which we have reason to suppose they occupied
-in Agricola's time, to the mountain fastnesses, and that it was then
-only that they began to repeat in stone what previously they had only
-erected in earth. If this could be established, we should get both an
-ethnographical and a chronological determination of no small value; but
-of this we shall be better able to form an opinion after discussing the
-monuments of France.
-
-Meanwhile there is one point bearing upon the subject to which it may
-be as well to draw attention. In Wales and Anglesea, which we may
-assume to have been the country of the Silures or that to which they
-were driven, there are no circles, but only dolmens. In Cornwall, where
-the blood was certainly more mixed, there are both circles and dolmens,
-and the same is the case at the other extremity of the western district
-in the Isle of Man.
-
-If it is contended that, being nearer to Spain or Aquitaine than Wales,
-Cornwall must have been earliest and most exclusively inhabited by
-the dark race, the answer is, that though it may originally have been
-so, the races in Cornwall had been mixed with Celtic and other blood
-before the age of the stone monuments; while in the Isle of Man we
-shall probably see reason for believing that northern blood was infused
-into the veins of the people, at a very early age, when few, if any,
-monuments of this class existed, and certainly before all had been
-completed.
-
-[Illustration: 46. Park Cwn Tumulus. Scale 16 feet to 1 inch.]
-
-Even a cursory examination of these West Coast dolmens would, I think,
-be sufficient to prove to any one that the theory that all were
-originally covered with earthen mounds is utterly untenable. That such
-chambered graves as those at Uley in Gloucestershire,[187] or Stoney
-Littleton in Somersetshire,[188] were always intended to be so covered
-up is clear enough. So was this one at Park Cwn, in the peninsula of
-Gower, recently opened and described by Sir John Lubbock.[189] It
-is of the same type as Uley and Stoney Littleton, but has only four
-chambers arranged on each side of the central passage. One of its most
-remarkable characteristics is the beautiful masonry of the retaining
-walls on each side of the funnel-shaped passage leading to the cells.
-These are so carefully built that it is evident that they were meant
-to be seen, and the entrance to be kept open. Indeed, unless we fancy
-it was the monument of some fight, which there seems no reason for
-supposing, it is evident it must have been kept open till forty
-deaths had occurred in the family of the chief to which it served
-as sepulchre, as at least that number of bodies were found in the
-chambers, but in a dreadfully confused condition, as if the grave had
-been rifled before, but no implements or trace of metal were left to
-indicate even approximately its age.
-
-At Uley, in Gloucestershire, half way between Berkeley and Tetbury,
-there is a tumulus which, in its internal arrangement, is very similar
-to that last described. The entrance is of the same form, and there are
-four side-chambers; but those at Uley are grouped more artistically
-in the centre, instead of being separated by a passage, as at Park
-Cwn. Externally the differences are more apparent; the Gloucestershire
-example being oblong, or rather heart-shaped, while that in Gower is
-more circular in form. The Uley tumulus was first opened by a Mr.
-Baker, in 1821, but subsequently examined with great care by Dr.
-Thurnam; and a very careful account, resulting from his own observation
-compared with the records of Mr. Baker's, published by him in the
-'Archæological Journal.'[190] The bodies in the chambers, which were
-numerous, had been disturbed and were lying in disorder, as at Park
-Cwn; but among them was found a vessel resembling a Roman lachrymatory,
-and some pottery which may have been either Romano-British or Mediæval.
-There were also found some fragments of flint implements, apparently
-arrow-heads, and outside two stone axes--one of flint. Near the summit
-of the mound, exactly over the easternmost chamber, there had been
-another interment, and beside the skeleton were found three brass coins
-of the sons of Constantine the Great.
-
-On this evidence, Dr. Thurnam, with the approval probably of every
-antiquary in England, comes to the conclusion that the original
-erection of the chambered tumulus belongs to the long prehistoric past;
-that the pottery, &c., were accidentally introduced; and that the coins
-belong to a secondary post-Roman interment. The only evidence for this
-being the presence of the flints above mentioned, and the assumptions
-based on them; they having become articles of faith with antiquaries
-which it is rank heresy to dispute. As I have already stated, till
-some one can show at what period flint ceased to be used in any
-particular locality, this evidence is worthless. With regard to the
-secondary interments, it appears to be inconceivable that, after the
-lapse of 500 or 600 years at least, and the civilizing influence of the
-Roman occupation, any one should choose the top of one of the mounds
-of the long-forgotten pagan savages for a burying-place. If burying
-in barrows had been the fashion in Gloucestershire, as it was on the
-wolds of Yorkshire or the downs of Wiltshire, something might be said
-in favour of such an hypothesis if we could also assume that the races
-had been undisturbed in the interval. But there are hardly half-a-dozen
-tumuli in the whole county. They, like Uley, Rodmarton,[191] Stoney
-Littleton,[192] are all chambered tumuli of one class and apparently of
-one age. All too, it may be remarked, are close to Roman stations and
-surrounded by evidences of Roman occupation.
-
-In the previous pages we have already met with several instances
-of summit interments, as at Gib Hill, Minning Low, &c., which are
-certainly not secondary, and we have reason to suspect that more will
-be found when looked for; and the finding of Roman coins on or near
-the top of tumuli is too frequent to be accidental, and occurs even in
-Ireland, where the Romans never went.
-
-We shall have occasion to recur to this subject when speaking of the
-tomb of King Harald Hildetand at Lethra, and then propose to treat
-it more in detail; but meanwhile it seems clear that the evidence of
-the coins and the pottery must be allowed to outweigh that of the
-flints; and if this is so, not only Uley but all the chamber-tumuli in
-Gloucestershire or Somerset belong either to the Romano-British, or
-rather to the post-Roman period of British history.
-
-[Illustration: 47. Tumulus, Plas Newydd.]
-
-[Illustration: 48. Entrance to Dolmen, in Tumulus, Plas Newydd.]
-
-Another and even more interesting example of this class has recently
-been brought to light by the Hon. W. O. Stanley, at Plas Newydd, not
-far from the great dolmen represented on woodcut No. 50.[193] It is
-a chamber or cist, 3 feet 3 inches wide by about 7 feet long, and
-covered by two slabs. Before being disturbed, the supporting slabs
-must have formed nearly perfect walls, thus distinguishing the cist
-from those standing on widely-spaced legs. Its principal point of
-interest, however, is the widely-splayed avenue of stones leading up to
-it, showing that it was always intended to be visited; and still more
-curious are the two holes that were pierced in the slab that closed
-the entrance. The upper part of this slab is now broken off, but so
-much remains that it is easy to see that they were originally circular
-and about 10 inches in diameter. Such holed stones are very frequent in
-Eastern dolmens, and are also common in Cornwall and elsewhere;[194]
-but what their purpose may have been has not yet been explained.
-Further on it may be attempted. At present it is the relation of this
-form of chambered tumuli to external dolmens that principally interests
-us.
-
-[Illustration: 49. Dolmen at Pentre Ifan. From 'Archæologia
-Cambrensis.']
-
-Almost all the so-called dolmens in the Channel Islands are of this
-class. One has already been given (woodcut No. 11), and it may safely
-be asserted that all chambers which were wainscoted with slabs,
-so as to form nearly perfect walls, and all that had complicated
-quasi-vaulted roofs were, or were intended to be, covered with
-mounds--more especially those that had covered passages leading
-to them. There is, however, a very wide distinction between these
-sepulchral chambers and such a monument as this at Pentre Ifan, in
-Pembrokeshire.[195] The top stone is so large that it is said five
-persons on horseback have found shelter under it from a shower of
-rain. Even allowing that the horses were only Welsh ponies, men do
-not raise such masses and poise them on their points for the sake of
-hiding them again. Besides that, the supports do not and could not
-form a chamber. The earth would have fallen in on all sides, and the
-connexion between the roof and the floor been cut off entirely, even
-before the whole was completed. Or, to take another example, that at
-Plas Newydd, on the shore of the Menai Strait. Here the cap stone is an
-enormous block, squared by art, supported on four stone legs, but with
-no pretence of forming a chamber. If the cap stone were merely intended
-as a roofing stone, one a third or fourth of its weight would have been
-equally serviceable and equally effective in an architectural point of
-view, if buried. The mode of architectural expression which these Stone
-men best understood was the power of mass. At Stonehenge, at Avebury,
-and everywhere, as here, they sought to give dignity and expression by
-using the largest blocks they could transport or raise--and they were
-right; for, in spite of their rudeness, they impress us now; but had
-they buried them in mounds, they neither would have impressed us nor
-their contemporaries.
-
-[Illustration: 50. Dolmen at Plas Newydd. From 'Archæologia
-Cambrensis.']
-
-As before mentioned, however, the great argument against the theory of
-their having been always covered up is the impossibility of accounting
-for the disappearance of the tumuli. If they had been situated on
-fertile plains where the land was valuable for agricultural purposes,
-it might be assumed that a civilized people with highly cultivated
-antiquarian tastes might have been at the trouble and expense of
-removing the tumuli for the sake of the land, and of preserving the
-dolmens for their historical value. But that the rude peasantry of
-Cornwall and Wales should have done this is inconceivable, more
-especially as by far the greater number of these monuments are situated
-on bleak moorlands of no agricultural value whatever. Still more
-inconceivable is it that they should have done it so neatly and so
-carefully that no trace of the mound can now be found either around the
-stones or in the neighbourhood.
-
-If any history were attached to these Western dolmens, or any remains
-had been found under them which would enable us to fix their dates,
-even approximately, or to arrange them in any intelligible sequence,
-it might be worth while recapitulating their names or illustrating
-their forms. Nothing of the sort, however, has yet been attempted;
-and apparently no materials exist from which any such series could be
-elaborated.
-
-[Illustration: 51. Arthur's Quoit, Gower. From a drawing by Sir Gardner
-Wilkinson.]
-
-[Illustration: 52. Plan of Arthur's Quoit.]
-
-Only one dolmen in Wales, so far as I know, bears a name; but it is the
-illustrious one of King Arthur. The dolmen bearing his name is situated
-in the peninsula of Gower, on the northern slopes of the bleak Bryn
-Cefn, about ten miles west from Swansea.[196] It forms the centre of a
-very extensive group of monuments--eighty cairns, at least, are still
-to be counted in an area less than half a mile in length, by a quarter
-of a mile in width. These are mostly small, 12 to 15 feet in diameter;
-one, 20 feet across, was opened by Sir Gardner Wilkinson, but proved
-to contain no interment. The largest is 68 feet in diameter, but has
-not been opened. About 350 feet from this is the dolmen. The cap stone
-is 14 feet 6 inches in length, 7 feet 5 inches in height, and 6 feet 8
-inches in breadth even now, but a very large piece has been broken off,
-and now lies beside it, measuring upwards of 3 feet in thickness; and
-another piece seems to have been broken off on the other end, so that
-when complete it must have weighed between 35 and 40 tons. It rested
-originally on ten or eleven upright stones, two of which, however,
-have fallen, and only four now touch the cap stone. Sir Gardner is of
-opinion that it once was covered with a tumulus; but this appears
-very doubtful. The slight mound, backed up with large stones, that now
-surrounds it, with a diameter of 73 to 74 feet, seems an enclosure more
-like that of Hob Hurst's House (woodcut No. 53) than the remains of a
-tumulus, and till some further evidence is adduced, we must be allowed
-to doubt whether any cap stone on legs was ever so treated. Sir Gardner
-traced, doubtfully, an avenue, of which, however, only five stones now
-remain, extending to about 500 feet in a direction that would have
-passed the dolmen on the north, as that at Shap did the circle at its
-front, or the lines at Merivale Bridge, the circle still found there;
-Sir Gardner also points out some small circular enclosures, which, from
-the analogy of those found on Dartmoor, he assumes to be hut-circles.
-
-[Illustration: 53. Hob Hurst's House, on Baslow Moor, Derbyshire. From
-a drawing by Thomas Bateman.[197]]
-
-What, then, is this group of monuments? Sir Gardner assumes that it
-is a cemetery of the ancient Britons; but, if so, why are not other
-cemeteries found in the fertile valleys and plains in South Wales?
-Why did they choose one of the barest and bleakest hillsides, and one
-farthest removed from their habitations as a place in which to bury
-their dead? Why did they not, like the inhabitants of Salisbury Plain,
-disperse their graves pretty equally over an area of 30 miles by 10?
-Why crowd them into less than half-a-mile? Without reverting to my
-previous suggestion of a battle-field, I do not see how these questions
-can be answered; and if so, I do not think we have far to go to look
-for its name? As hinted above, Arthur's eighth battle must have been
-fought in Wales. The name of the place is written Guin (Gwyn), Guinon,
-Guinnon, Gunnion,[198] which certainly is Welsh; and when we find it
-immediately preceding the battle of Caerleon on the Usk, and the
-principal monument still bearing Arthur's name, we may fairly, I think,
-adopt the suggestion till, at least, a better is offered.
-
-Be this as it may, I think all antiquaries will agree with Sir Gardner
-Wilkinson in assuming that this is the stone of Cetti[199] mentioned
-in the Welsh triads. 'The 84th Triad' speaks of the Cor of Emmrys in
-Caer Caradawg (another name for Salisbury), and the 88th of the three
-mighty achievements of the Isle of Britain, the raising of the stone
-of Cetti, the building of the work of Emmrys, and the heaping of the
-pile of Cyvragnon.[200] The work of Emmrys (Ambrosius) is generally
-admitted to be Stonehenge. If this is the stone of Cetti, which I see
-no reason for doubting, it only remains to identify the third. Most
-antiquaries suggest Silbury Hill; and, if I am correct in placing these
-three monuments so near one another in date, this seems also extremely
-probable, and so far as it goes, is a satisfactory confirmation of what
-has been advanced above from other sources.
-
-From my ignorance of the Welsh language I am not in a position to say
-what amount of reliance should be placed in the evidence of these
-triads. But Herbert and other competent scholars consider it undoubted
-that Emmrys is Ambrosius, and the 'Work' referred to certainly
-Stonehenge. If this is so, it fixes its date beyond question, and as
-the other two are mentioned in the same breath it is probable they
-were not distant in date. All this may be, I believe certainly is so,
-but the circumstantial evidence adduced above seems to me so much
-clearer and so much more to be relied upon, that it derives very little
-additional force from the utterance of the Welsh bards. It is, however,
-no doubt satisfactory that their evidence coincides with everything
-that has been brought forward above, as bearing directly or indirectly
-on their age or use.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-Before proceeding, it may be as well to revert for one moment to Hob
-Hurst's House. It is quoted here to show how a tumulus, with a dolmen
-on the top of it, may be connected with a low rampart so as not to
-conceal it, exactly, I believe, as is the case with Arthur's Quoit.
-But the name of the place where it is situated may afford a hint which
-may lead to something hereafter. It will be recollected that Arthur's
-sixth battle was fought "super flumen quod vocatur Bassas." This mound
-is situated on "Bas" Moor, the Low being merely the name of the mound
-itself. These nominal similarities are too treacherous to be relied
-upon; but the more the whole group is looked at the more does it appear
-that there are coincidences of name, or form, or purpose, between
-those monuments here called Arthurian, which cannot all be accidental.
-Individually they may not be able to resist hostile criticism, but in
-their cumulative form they appear to me to make up a very strong case
-indeed.
-
-If any of the other dolmens in the West had even so good a title to
-a date as Arthur's Quoit, it might be possible to arrange them in a
-series; but as none have even traditional dates, all we can now do is
-to suggest that the dolmen at Plas Newydd (woodcut No. 50) is of about
-the same age as Arthur's Stone: perhaps something more modern, as it
-is more carefully squared; but this may arise from the one being a
-battle-stone, the other a peaceful sepulchre. In like manner it would
-seem that such an exaggerated form as Pentre Ifan (woodcut No. 49) is
-a "tour de force" of a still more modern date; and if we could get
-one certainly older than any of these, a tentative scheme could be
-constructed which might lead us to satisfactory results.
-
-I by no means despair of being able eventually to construct such a
-scheme of classification, and, even before this Work is concluded, to
-make it tolerably clear that the thing is possible, and then it will
-only remain, if one or two fixed or probable dates can be ascertained,
-to bring the whole within the range of historical investigation.
-
-
-    [Footnote 134: 'Iter Curiosum,' pl. xxxiii.]
-
-    [Footnote 135: 'Iter Curiosum,' p. xxxii.]
-
-    [Footnote 136: When I was there four years ago I was fortunate
-    enough to find an old man, a stonemason, who had been employed in
-    his youth in utilizing these stones. He went over the ground with
-    me, and pointed out the position of those he remembered.]
-
-    [Footnote 137: It is extremely difficult to be precise about the
-    dimensions. One is almost wholly buried in the earth, and its
-    dimensions can only be obtained by probing; the other is half
-    buried.]
-
-    [Footnote 138: 'Archæologia,' ii. 1773, p. 107.]
-
-    [Footnote 139: 'Wanderings of an Antiquary;' London, 1854, p. 175
-    _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 140: _loc. cit._ 175.]
-
-    [Footnote 141: 'Mon. Hist. Brit.' p. 299.]
-
-    [Footnote 142: 'Beowulf: an Anglo-Saxon Poem,' translated by J. W.
-    Kemble, 1835, preface, p. xix.]
-
-    [Footnote 143: 'Mon. Hist. Brit.' p. 121.]
-
-    [Footnote 144: This woodcut is copied literally from one by Mr.
-    Lewis published in the 'Norwich Volume of the International
-    Prehistoric Congress,' and the figures and facts I am about to
-    quote are mostly taken from the paper that accompanied it. The
-    inferences, however, are widely different.]
-
-    [Footnote 145: 'Norwich Volume of the International Prehistoric
-    Congress,' p. 37.]
-
-    [Footnote 146: Asser, in 'Mon. Hist. Brit.' p. 476.]
-
-    [Footnote 147: Stukeley, 'Avebury,' p. 12; Borlase, p. 210.]
-
-    [Footnote 148: Camden, 'Britannia,' i. p. 285. See also Charleton's
-    'Stonehenge restored to the Danes,' p. 36.]
-
-    [Footnote 149: On this stone Sir Gardiner Wilkinson traced one of
-    those circles of concentric rings which are so common on stones in
-    the north of England. I did not see it myself, but assuming it to
-    be true--which I have no doubt it is--it will not help us much till
-    we know when and by whom these circles were engraved.]
-
-    [Footnote 150: 'Brit.' p. 1021.]
-
-    [Footnote 151: Pennant in his text calls the diameter 88 yards, but
-    the scale attached to his plan makes it 110 yards nearly.]
-
-    [Footnote 152: 'Tour in Scotland, 1772,' pl. xxxvii. p. 276.]
-
-    [Footnote 153: Near Lochmaben, in Annandale, a circle exists, or
-    existed, called Wood Castle, which, in so far as the plan and
-    dimensions are concerned, is identical with this. It is figured in
-    General Roy's 'Military Antiquities of the Romans,' pl. viii. I
-    would not hesitate in quoting it as a monument of this class, but
-    for the view which I distrust excessively, but which makes it look
-    like a fortification. As I have no means of verifying the facts, I
-    can only draw attention to them.]
-
-    [Footnote 154: 'Iter Boreale,' p. 42.]
-
-    [Footnote 155: 'Brit.,' Gough edit. iii. p. 401.]
-
-    [Footnote 156: 'Archæological Journal,' xviii. p. 29.]
-
-    [Footnote 157: _Ibid._, xviii. p. 37.]
-
-    [Footnote 158: I am not aware that any account of these diggings
-    has been published. The facts I ascertained on the spot.]
-
-    [Footnote 159: Here, again, I quote from the copy in the 'Mon.
-    Hist. Brit.' p. 47 _et seq._, to which it will not be necessary to
-    refer every time the name is mentioned.]
-
-    [Footnote 160: Stuart Glennie, 'King Arthur.' 1867. L. W. Skene.
-    'Ancient Books of Wales,' i. 52 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 161: 'Mon. Hist. Brit.' p. 73.]
-
-    [Footnote 162: General Roy's 'Mil. Ant. of the Romans,' pl. viii.]
-
-    [Footnote 163: Bateman, 'Ten Years' Diggings,' p. 87.]
-
-    [Footnote 164: I have not seen this circle myself, though I made
-    a long journey on purpose. It is said to consist of eighty-eight
-    stones, and one larger than the rest, standing outside the circle,
-    at a distance of about five yards, or exactly as Long Meg stands
-    with reference to her daughters.]
-
-    [Footnote 165: First described in the 'Archæologia,' vol. viii. p.
-    131 _et seq._, by the Rev. S. Pegge, in 1783.]
-
-    [Footnote 166: These dimensions, as well as the plan, are taken
-    from Sir Gardner Wilkinson's paper in the 'Journal of the
-    Archæological Association,' xvi. p. 116, and may consequently be
-    thoroughly depended upon.]
-
-    [Footnote 167: Bateman, 'Vestiges,' p. 65.]
-
-    [Footnote 168: These dimensions are taken from Sir Gardner
-    Wilkinson's plan. The Batemans, with all their merits, are
-    singularly careless in quoting dimensions.]
-
-    [Footnote 169: _Ante_, p. 11.]
-
-    [Footnote 170: Douglas, 'Nenia Brittanica,' p. 168, pl. xxxv.]
-
-    [Footnote 171: If we knew its height we might guess its age. If
-    it was 65 feet high, its angle must be 30 degrees, and its age
-    probably the same as that of Silbury Hill. If 100 feet, and its
-    angle above 40 degrees, it must have been older.]
-
-    [Footnote 172: 'Ten Years' Diggings,' p. 82.]
-
-    [Footnote 173: 'Petrie's Life,' by Stokes, p. 234.]
-
-    [Footnote 174: The complete disappearance of the body of this
-    undoubted Saxon chief ought to make us cautious in ascribing remote
-    antiquity to many comparatively fresh bodies we find elsewhere.]
-
-    [Footnote 175: Bateman, 'Ten Years' Diggings,' p. 21.]
-
-    [Footnote 176: "In 1723 the workmen dug up the body of a great
-    king buried there in the centre, a very little below the surface.
-    The bones were extremely rotten, and, six weeks after, I came
-    luckily to rescue a great curiosity which they took out there--an
-    iron chain, as they called it. It was the bridle buried along
-    with the monarch. There were deer horns and an iron knife, with
-    a bone handle, too, all excessively rotten, taken up along with
-    it."--Stukeley's 'Stonehenge and Avebury,' pp. 41-12. The bridle is
-    figured, pl. xxxvi.]
-
-    [Footnote 177: Douglas, 'Nenia Brit.' p. 168.]
-
-    [Footnote 178: Nothing can exceed the effrontery with which
-    Stukeley inserted curved avenues between these circles, so as to
-    make the whole into a serpent form. Nothing of the kind exists,
-    nor existed in 1826, when Mr. Croker made, for Sir R. C. Hoare,
-    the survey from which the woodcut is copied, with Sir Gardner
-    Wilkinson's corrections.]
-
-    [Footnote 179: 'Archæologia,' xxv. p. 189.]
-
-    [Footnote 180: What is the meaning of the word "Maes"? It is
-    singular that the Maes How, in Orkney, should bear the same
-    relative position to the Standing Stones of Stennis, in Orkney,
-    that Maes Knoll does to the group of circles. I do not know of the
-    name occurring anywhere else. According to the dictionaries, it
-    merely means "plain" or "field." In Irish "Magh" pronounced "Moy;"
-    but that can hardly be the meaning here.]
-
-    [Footnote 181: 'Archæologia,' x. pl. xi. p. 106.]
-
-    [Footnote 182: It probably may have been a piece of iron pyrites,
-    and may have been used for striking a light.]
-
-    [Footnote 183: 'Archæologia Cambriensis,' third series, vol. xii.
-    p. 54. A fancy plan of the same circle appears in the same volume,
-    but is utterly untrustworthy. It is reproduced by Waring, 'Mon.'
-    &c. pl. xli.]
-
-    [Footnote 184: 'Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries,' iii. p.
-    225.]
-
-    [Footnote 185: The Hon. W. C. Stanley enumerates by name
-    twenty-four in Anglesea.--'Archæologia Cambrensis,' fourth series,
-    vol. i. p. 58.]
-
-    [Footnote 186: Tacitus, 'Vita Agricolæ,' chap. v.]
-
-    [Footnote 187: 'Somerset Archæo. Soc. Proceedings,' viii. p. 51.]
-
-    [Footnote 188: 'Archæologia,' xix. p. 43 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 189: 'Journal of the Ethnological Society,' January,
-    1871, p. 416.]
-
-    [Footnote 190: Vol. xi. p. 315 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 191: 'Pro. Soc. Ant.,' second series, ii. 275. Thurnam,
-    'Archæologia,' xlii. 217.]
-
-    [Footnote 192: 'Archæologia,' xix. p. 43.]
-
-    [Footnote 193: 'Archæologia Cambrensis,' fourth series vol. i. p.
-    51 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 194: For Rodmarton, see 'Proceedings Soc. Ant.' _l. s.
-    c._; for Cornish, see paper by M. Brash, 'Gent. Mag.,' 1864.]
-
-    [Footnote 195: 'Archæologia Cambrensis,' third series, xi. p. 284.]
-
-    [Footnote 196: The following particulars are taken from a paper by
-    Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson, in the first volume, fourth series, of
-    the 'Archæologia Cambrensis,' 1870. It is not only the last, but
-    the best description which I know, and, being from the pen of so
-    accurate an observer, I have relied on it exclusively.]
-
-    [Footnote 197: 'Ten Years' Diggings,' p. 87.]
-
-    [Footnote 198: Dare one suggest Gower?]
-
-    [Footnote 199: Is this the same word as "Cotty," as applied to
-    Kit's Cotty-house, in Kent? It looks very like it.--Coity?]
-
-    [Footnote 200: Herbert, 'Cyclops Christianus,' p. 35.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER V.
-
-IRELAND.
-
-
-MOYTURA.
-
-It is probable, after all, that it is from the Irish annals that the
-greatest amount of light will be thrown on the history and uses of
-the Megalithic monuments. Indeed, had not Lord Melbourne's Ministry
-in 1839, in a fit of ill-timed parsimony, abolished the Historical
-Commission attached to the Irish Ordnance Survey, we should not now
-be groping in the dark. Had they even retained the services of Dr.
-Petrie till the time of his death, he would have left very little to
-be desired in this respect. But nothing of the sort was done. The
-fiat went forth. All the documents and information collected during
-fourteen years' labour by a most competent staff of explorers were cast
-aside--all the members dismissed on the shortest possible notice, and
-our knowledge of the ancient history and antiquities of Ireland thrown
-back half a century, at least.[201]
-
-Meanwhile, however, a certain number of the best works of the Irish
-annalists have been carefully translated and edited by John O'Donovan
-and others, and are sufficient to enable any one not acquainted with
-Irish to check the wild speculations of antiquaries of the Vallancy
-and O'Brien class, and also to form an opinion on the value of the
-annals themselves, though hardly yet sufficient to enable a stranger
-to construct a reliable scheme of chronology or history out of the
-heterogeneous materials presented to him. We must wait till some second
-Petrie shall arise, who shall possess a sufficient knowledge of the
-Irish language and literature, without losing his Saxon coolness of
-judgment, before we can hope to possess a reliable and consecutive
-account of ancient Ireland.
-
-When this is done, it will probably be found that the Irish possess a
-more copious literature, illustrative of the eocene period of their
-early history, than almost any other country of Europe. Ireland may
-also boast that, never having been conquered by the Romans, she
-retained her native forms, and the people their native customs and
-fashions, uninterrupted and uninfluenced by Roman civilization, for a
-longer time than the other countries of Europe which were subjected to
-its sway.
-
-As most important and instructive parts of the Irish annals, it is
-proposed first to treat of those passages descriptive of the two
-battles of Moytura[202] (Magh Tuireadh), both of which occurred
-within a period of a very few years. A description of the fields on
-which they were fought will probably be sufficient to set at rest the
-question as to the uses of cairns and circles; and if we can arrive at
-an approximative date, it will go far to clear up the difficulties in
-understanding the age of the most important Irish antiquities.
-
-The narrative which contains an account of the battle of Southern
-Moytura, or Moytura Cong, is well known to Irish antiquaries. It
-has not yet been published, but a translation from a MS. in Trinity
-College, Dublin, was made by John O'Donovan for the Ordnance Survey,
-and was obtained from their records above alluded to by Sir William
-Wilde. He went over the battle-field repeatedly with the MS. in his
-hand, and has published a detailed account of it, with sufficient
-extracts to make the whole intelligible.[203] The story is briefly
-this:--At a certain period of Irish history a colony of Firbolgs, or
-Belgæ, as they are usually called by Irish antiquaries, settled in
-Ireland, dispossessing the Fomorians, who are said to have come from
-Africa. After possessing the country for thirty-seven years, they
-were in their turn attacked by a colony of Tuatha de Dananns coming
-from the north, said to be of the same race and speaking a tongue
-mutually intelligible. On hearing of the arrival of these strangers,
-the Firbolgs advanced from the plains of Meath as far as Cong, situated
-between Lough Corrib and Lough Mask, where the first battle was fought,
-and, after being fiercely contested for four days, was decided in
-favour of the invaders.[204]
-
-The second battle was fought seven years afterwards, near Sligo, under
-circumstances which will be detailed more fully below, and resulted
-equally in favour of the Tuatha de Dananns, and they in consequence
-obtained possession of the country, which, according to the Four
-Masters, they held for 197 years.[205]
-
-[Illustration: 54. Circle on Battle-field of Southern Moytura. From Sir
-W. Wilde.]
-
-[Illustration: 55. Cairn on Battle-field of Southern Moytura.]
-
-The field on which the four-days' battle of Southern Moytura was fought
-extends from five to six miles north and south. Near the centre of the
-space, and nearly opposite the village of Cong, is a group of five
-stone circles, one of which, 54 feet in diameter, is represented in
-the annexed woodcut (No. 54). Another, very similar, is close by; and
-a third, larger but partially ruined, is within a few yards of the
-first. The other two can only now be traced, and two more are said to
-have existed close by, but have entirely disappeared. On other parts of
-the battle-field there are six or seven large cairns of stone, all of
-them more or less ruined, the stones having been used to build dykes,
-with which every field is surrounded in this country; but none of them
-have been scientifically explored. One is represented (woodcut No. 55).
-Sir W. Wilde has identified all of these as connected with incidents
-in the battle, and there seems no reason to doubt his conclusions. The
-most interesting, however, is one connected with an incident in the
-battle, which is worth relating, as illustrating the manner in which
-the monuments corroborate the history. On the morning of the second day
-of the battle, King Eochy retired to a well to refresh himself with
-a bath, when three of his enemies looking down, recognised him and
-demanded his surrender. While he was parleying with them, they were
-attacked by his servant and killed; but the servant died immediately
-afterwards of his wounds, and, as the story goes, was interred with
-all honours in a cairn close by. In the narrative it is said that the
-well where the king had so narrow an escape is the only open one in
-the neighbourhood. It is so to the present day; for the peculiarity of
-the country is, that the waters from Lough Mask do not flow into Lough
-Corrib by channels on the surface, but entirely through chasms in the
-rock underground, and it is only when a crack in the rock opens into
-one of these that the water is accessible. The well in question is the
-only one of these for some distance in which the water is approached
-by steps partly cut in the rock, partly constructed. Close by is a
-cairn (woodcut No. 56), called to this day the "Cairn of the One Man."
-It was opened by Sir W. Wilde, and in its chamber was found one urn,
-which is now deposited in the Museum of the Royal Academy at Dublin,
-the excavation thus confirming the narrative in the most satisfactory
-manner.
-
-[Illustration: 56. The Cairn of the "One Man," Moytura.]
-
-[Illustration: 57. Urn in the Cairn of the "One Man," Moytura.]
-
-"The battle took place on Midsummer day. The Firbolgs were defeated
-with great slaughter, and their king, who left the battle-field
-with a body-guard of 100 brave men in search of water to allay his
-burning thirst, was followed by a party of 150 men, led by the three
-sons of Nemedh, who pursued him all the way to the strand, called
-Traigh Eothaile, near Ballysadare, in the county of Sligo. Here a
-fierce combat ensued, and King Eochy (Eochaidh) fell, as well as the
-leaders on the other side, the three sons of Nemedh."[206] A cairn is
-still pointed out on a promontory jutting into the bay, about a mile
-north-west of the village of Ballysadare, which is said to have been
-erected over the remains of the king, and bones are also said to have
-been found between high and low water on the strand beneath, supposed
-to be those of the combatants who fell in the final struggle. It may
-be otherwise, but there is a consistency between the narrative and the
-monuments on the spot which can hardly be accidental, and which it will
-be very difficult to explain except in the assumption that they refer
-to the same events.
-
-In fact, it would be difficult to conceive anything more satisfactory
-and confirmatory of the record than the monuments on the plain; and no
-one, I fancy, could go over the field with Sir William's book in his
-hand, without feeling the importance of his identifications. Of course
-it may be suggested that the book was written by some one familiar with
-the spot, to suit the localities. The probability, however, of this
-having been done before the ninth century, and done so soberly and so
-well, is very remote, and the guess that but one urn would be found
-in the cairn of the "One Man," is a greater piece of luck than could
-reasonably be expected. Even, however, if the book was written to suit
-the localities, it will not invalidate the fact that a great battle was
-fought on this spot, and that these cairns and these circles mark the
-graves of those who fell in the fight.
-
-The collection of monuments on the battle-field of Northern Moytura is
-even more interesting than that on Moytura Cong, and almost justified
-the assertion of Petrie "that, excepting the monuments at Carnac,
-in Brittany, it is, even in its present state of ruin, the largest
-assemblage of the kind hitherto discovered in the world."[207] They
-have also this advantage, that the principal group, consisting of some
-sixty or seventy monuments, are situated on an elevated table-land, and
-in an area extending not more than a mile in one direction, and about
-half a mile in another. The country, too, is much less stony than about
-Cong, so that the monuments stand out better and have a more imposing
-look. Petrie examined and described sixty-four monuments as situated in
-or around this space, and came to the conclusion that originally there
-could not have been less than 200.[208] My impression is that there
-may have been 100, but hardly more, though, of course, this is only a
-guess, and the destruction of them is going on so rapidly that he may
-be right after all.
-
-In the space above described almost every variety of Megalithic
-art is to be found. There are stone cairns, with dolmens in their
-interiors--dolmens standing alone, but which have been evidently always
-exposed; dolmens with single circles; others with two or three circles
-of stones around them; and circles without dolmens or anything else in
-the centres. The only form we miss is the avenue. Nothing of the sort
-can now, at least, be traced, nor does it seem that any of the circles
-possessed such appendages.
-
-[Illustration: 58. Battle-field of Northern Moytura.
-
-Scale 6 inches to 1 mile.]
-
-The annexed woodcut (No. 58) will explain the disposition of the
-principal group. It is taken from the Ordnance Survey, and is perfectly
-correct as far as it goes, but being only on the 6-inch scale, is
-too small to show the form of the monuments.[209] In the centre is,
-or rather was, a great cairn, called Listoghil. It is marked by
-Petrie as No. 51, but having for years been used as a quarry for the
-neighbourhood, it is now so mined that it is difficult to make out
-either its plan or dimensions. Petrie says it is 150 feet in diameter;
-I made it 120. It was surrounded by a circle of great stones, within
-which was the cairn, originally, probably, 40 or 50 feet high. All this
-has been removed to such an extent as to expose the kistvaen or dolmen
-in its centre. Its cap stone is 10 feet square and 2 feet thick, and is
-of limestone, as are its supports. All the other monuments are composed
-of granite boulders. "Those who first opened it assert that they found
-nothing within but burnt wood and human bones. The half-calcined bones
-of horses and other animals were and are still found in this cairn in
-great quantities" (Petrie, p. 250). In a note it is said that a large
-spear-head of stone (flint?) was also found in this cairn.
-
-[Illustration: 59. Sketch-plan of Circle 27, Northern Moytura.]
-
-The annexed woodcut (No. 59) will give an idea of the general
-disposition of a circle numbered 27 by Petrie.[210] It is of about the
-medium size, being 60 feet in diameter. The general dimensions of the
-circles are 40, 60, 80, and one (No. 46) is 120 feet in diameter. The
-outer circle of No. 27 is composed of large stones, averaging 6 feet in
-height, and some 20 feet in circumference. Inside this is a circle of
-smaller stones, nearly obliterated by the turf, and in the centre is a
-three-chambered dolmen, of which fifteen stones still remain; but all
-the cap stones, except that of the central inner chamber, are gone, and
-that now stands on its edge in front of its support.
-
-The general appearance of this circle will be understood from the
-annexed view (woodcut No. 60), taken from a photograph. It does not,
-however, do justice to its appearance, as the camera was placed too low
-and does not look into the circle, as the eye does. In the distance is
-seen the hill, called Knock na Rea, surmounted by the so-called Cairn
-of Queen Meave, of which more hereafter.
-
-[Illustration: 60. View of Circle 27, Northern Moytura. From a
-photograph.]
-
-Another of these circles, No. 7, is thus described by Petrie:--"This
-circle, with its cromlech, are perfect. Its diameter is 37 feet, and
-the number of stones thirty-two. The cromlech is about 8 feet high, the
-table-stone resting on six stones of great magnitude: it is 9 feet long
-and 23 feet in circumference." Its general appearance will be seen in
-the annexed view from a photograph (woodcut No. 61); though this, as in
-the last instance, is far from doing justice to its appearance.[211]
-
-[Illustration: 61. Dolmen, with Circle, No. 7, Northern Moytura. From a
-photograph.]
-
-No. 37 is described by Dr. Petrie (p. 248) as a triple circle. The
-inner one 40 feet in diameter. The second of twelve large stones,
-and of 80 feet, the third as a circle of 120 feet in diameter. "The
-cromlech is of the smallest size, not more than 4 feet in height. The
-circumference of the stone table is 16 feet, and it rests on five
-supporters."
-
-Excavations were made into almost all these monuments either by Mr.
-Walker, the proprietor of the ground, or by Dr. Petrie, and, with
-scarcely one exception, they yielded evidence of sepulchral uses.
-Either human bones were found or urns containing ashes. No iron,
-apparently, was found in any. A bronze sword is said to have been
-found, forty years ago, in 63; but generally there was nothing but
-implements of bone or stone. At the time Petrie wrote (1837) these
-were not valued, or classified, as they have since been; so we cannot
-draw any inference from them as to the age of the monuments, and no
-collection, that I am aware of, exists in which these "finds" are now
-accessible. Indeed, I am afraid that Petrie and those who worked with
-him were too little aware of the importance of these material points of
-evidence, to be careful either to collect or to describe the contents
-of these graves; and as all or nearly all have been opened, that source
-of information may be cut off for ever.
-
-Besides these monuments on the battle-field, there are two others,
-situated nearly equidistant from it, and which seem to belong to the
-same group; one known as the Tomb of Misgan Meave, the celebrated
-Queen of Connaught, who lived apparently contemporaneously with Cæsar
-Augustus, or rather, as the annalists insist, with Jesus Christ;[212]
-though, according to the more accurate Tighernach, her death occurred
-in the 7th year of Vespasian, in A.D. 75.[213] It is situated
-on the top of a high hill known as Knock na Rea (woodcut No. 60),
-at a distance of two miles westward from the battle-field. It was
-described by the Rt. Hon. William Burton, in 1779, as an enormous heap
-of small stones, and is of an oval figure, 650 feet in circumference
-at the base, 79 feet slope on one side and 67 feet on the other. The
-area on the top is 100 feet in its longest diameter and 85 feet in
-its shortest. When Petrie visited it in 1837, it was only 590 feet in
-circumference, and the longest diameter on the top only 80 feet. It
-had in the interval, in fact, been used as a quarry; and I have no
-doubt but that the flat top originally measured the usual 100 feet,
-and was circular. "Around its base," says Petrie, "are the remains
-of many sepulchral monuments of lesser importance, consisting of
-groups of large stones forming circular or oval enclosures. A careful
-excavation within these tombs by Mr. Walker resulted in the discovery
-not only of human interments, but also of several rude ornaments and
-implements of stone of a similar character to those usually found in
-sepulchres of this class in Ireland, and which, being unaccompanied by
-any others of a metallic nature, identify this group of monuments as
-of contemporaneous age with those of Carrowmore, among which no iron
-remains are known to have been discovered, and mark them as belonging
-to any period of semi-civilized society in Ireland."[214]
-
-From their situation, it seems hardly possible to doubt that these
-smaller tombs are contemporaneous with or subsequent to the Great
-Cairn; and if this really were the tomb of Queen Meave, it would throw
-some light on our subject. The great cairn has not, however, been dug
-into yet; and till that is done the ownership of the tomb cannot be
-definitely fixed. There are several reasons, however, for doubting
-the tradition. In the first place, we have the direct testimony of a
-commentary written by Moelmuiri, that Meave (Meahbh) was buried at
-Rathcroghan, which was the proper burying-place of her race; "her body
-having been removed by her people from Fert Medhbha; for they deemed it
-more honourable to have her interred at Cruachan."[215] As the Book of
-the Cemeteries confirms this, there seems no good reason for doubting
-the fact, though she may have first been laid in this neighbourhood,
-which may have given rise to the tradition.
-
-If, on the other hand, we may trust Beowulf's description of a
-warrior's grave, as it was understood in the 5th century, no tomb in
-these islands would answer more perfectly to his ideal than the Cairn
-on Knock na Rea:--
-
-  "Then wrought
-  The people of the Westerns
-  A mound over the sea.
-  It was high and broad,
-  By the sea-faring man
-  To be seen afar."
-
-That an Irish queen should be buried on a mountain-top overlooking the
-Western Ocean seems most improbable, and is opposed to the evidence we
-have; but that a Viking warrior should be so buried, overlooking the
-sea and a battle-field, seems natural; but who he may have been is for
-future investigators to discover.
-
-The other cairn is situated just two miles eastward from the
-battle-field, on an eminence overlooking Loch Gill. It is less in
-height than the so-called Queen's Tomb, but the top is nearly perfect,
-and has a curious saucer-like depression, as nearly as can be measured,
-100 feet in diameter. It has never been dug into, nor, so far as I
-could learn, does any tradition attach to it.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-The history of the Battle of Northern Moytura, as told in the Irish
-Annals, is briefly as follows:[216]--
-
-Nuada, who was king of the Tuatha de Dananns when the battle of
-Southern Moytura was fought, lost his arm in the fight. This, however,
-some skilled artificers whom he had with him skilfully replaced by one
-made of silver; so that he was always afterwards known as Nuada of
-the Silver Hand. Whether from this cause or some other not explained,
-he resigned the chief sovereignty to Breas, who, though a Fomorian by
-birth, held a chief command in the Tuatha de Danann army. Owing to
-his penurious habits and domineering disposition, Breas soon rendered
-himself very unpopular with the nobles of his Court; and, at a time
-when the discontent was at its height, a certain poet and satirist,
-Cairbré, the son of the poetess Etan, arrived at his Court. He was
-treated by the king in so shabby a manner and with such disrespect,
-that he left it in disgust; but, before doing so, he wrote and
-published so stinging a satire against the king, as to set the blood
-of the nobles boiling with indignation, and they insisted on his
-resigning the power he had held for seven years. "To this call the
-regent reluctantly acceded; and, having held a council with his mother,
-they both determined to retire to the Court of his father Elatha,
-at this time the great chief of Fomorian pirates, or Sea Kings, who
-then swarmed through all the German Ocean and ruled over the Shetland
-Islands and the Hebrides."
-
-Elatha agreed to provide his son with a fleet to conquer Ireland for
-himself from the Tuatha de Danann, if he could; and for this purpose
-collected all the men and ships lying from Scandinavia westwards for
-the intended invasion, the chief command being entrusted to Balor of
-the Evil Eye, conjointly with Breas. Having landed near Sligo, they
-pitched their tents on the spot--Carrowmore--where the battle was
-afterwards fought.
-
-Here they were attacked by Nuada of the Silver Hand, accompanied by the
-great Daghda, who had taken a prominent part in the previous battle,
-and other chiefs of note. The battle took place on the last day of
-October, and is eloquently described. The Fomorians were defeated, and
-their chief men killed. King Nuada was slain by Balor of the Evil Eye,
-but Balor himself fell soon after by a stone flung at him by Lug his
-grandson by his daughter Eithlenn.
-
-After an interval of forty years, according to the 'Annals of the Four
-Masters,' the Daghda succeeded to the vacant throne, and reigned eighty
-years.[217]
-
-From the above abstract--all the important passages of which are in the
-exact words of the translation--it is evident that the author of the
-tract considered the Fomorians and the Tuatha de Danann as the same
-people, or at least as two tribes of the same race, the chiefs of which
-were closely united to one another by intermarriage. He also identifies
-them with the Scandinavian Vikings, who played so important a part in
-Irish history down to the Battle of Clontarf, which happened in 1014.
-
-This may at first sight seem very improbable. We must not, however,
-forget the celebrated lines of Claudian:[218] "Maduerunt Saxone fuso
-Orcades: incaluit Pictorum sanguine Thule: Scotorum cumulos flevit
-glacialis Ierne." This, it may be said, was written three or even four
-centuries after the events of which we are now speaking; but it was
-also written five centuries before the Northmen are generally supposed
-to have occupied the Orkneys or to have interfered in the affairs of
-Ireland, and does point to an earlier state of affairs, though how much
-anterior to the poet's time there is nothing to show.
-
-It has been frequently proposed to identify the Dananns with the Danes,
-from the similarity of their names. Till I visited Sligo, I confess
-I always looked on this as one of those random guesses from identity
-of mere sound which are generally very deceptive in investigations of
-this sort. The monuments, however, on the battle-field correspond so
-nearly to those figured by Madsen in his 'Antiquités préhistoriques
-du Danemark,'[219] and their disposition is so similar to that of the
-Braavalla feld[220] and other battle-fields in Scandinavia, that it
-will now require very strong evidence to the contrary to disprove an
-obvious and intimate connection between them.
-
-In concluding his account of the battle, Mr. O'Curry adds: "Cormac Mac
-Cullinan, in his celebrated Glossary, quotes this tract in illustration
-of the word _Nes_; so that so early as the ninth century it was looked
-upon by him as a very ancient historic composition of authority."[221]
-If this is so, there seems no good reason for doubting his having
-spoken of events and things perfectly within his competence, and so we
-may consider the account above given as historical till at least some
-good cause is shown to the contrary.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-It now only remains to try and find out if any means exist by which the
-dates of these two battles of Moytura can be fixed with anything like
-certainty. If we turn to the 'Annals of the Four Masters,' which is the
-favourite authority with Irish antiquaries, we get a startling answer
-at once. The battle of Moytura Cong, according to them, took place in
-the year of the world 3303, and the second battle twenty-seven years
-afterwards.[222] The twenty is a gratuitous interpolation. This is
-equivalent to 1896 and 1869 years before Christ. Alphabetical writing
-was not, as we shall presently see, introduced into Ireland till after
-the Christian Era, the idea therefore that the details of these two
-battles should have been preserved orally during 2000 years, and all
-the intermediate events forgotten, is simply ridiculous. The truth of
-the matter seems to be that the 'Four Masters,' like truly patriotic
-Irishmen in the middle of the seventeenth century, thought it necessary
-for the honour of their country to carry back its history to the Flood
-at least. As the country at the time of the Tuatha de Dananns was
-divided into five kingdoms,[223] and at other times into twenty-five,
-they had an abundance of names of chiefs at their disposal, and instead
-of treating them as cotemporary, they wrote them out consecutively,
-till they reached back to Ceasair--not Julius--but a granddaughter
-of Noah, who came to Ireland forty days before the Flood, with fifty
-girls and three men, who consequently escaped the fate of the rest of
-mankind, and peopled the western isle. This is silly enough, but their
-treatment of the hero of Moytura is almost as much so. Allowing that
-he was thirty years of age when he took so prominent a part in the
-second battle, in 3330, he must have been seventy-one when he ascended
-the Irish throne, and, after a reign of seventy-nine years, have died
-at the ripe old age of 150, from the effects of a poisoned wound he
-had received 120 years previously. The 'Four Masters' say eighty
-years earlier, but this is only another of their thousand and one
-inaccuracies.
-
-When we turn from these to the far more authentic annals of Tighernach,
-who died 1088 A.D., we are met at once by his often quoted
-dictum to the effect that "omnia Monumenta Scotorum usque Cimboeth
-incerta erant."[224] It would have been more satisfactory if he could
-have added that after that time they could be depended upon, but
-this seems by no means to have been the case. As, however, Cimboeth
-is reported to have founded Armagh, in the year 289 B.C.,
-it gives us a limit beyond which we cannot certainly proceed without
-danger and difficulty. We get on surer ground when we reach the reign
-of Crimthann, who, according to Tighernach, died in the year of our
-era 85, after a reign of 16 years.[225] The 'Four Masters,' it is true,
-make him contemporary with Christ; but even Dr. O'Donovan is obliged
-to confess that all these earlier reigns, after the Christian era,
-are antedated to about the same extent.[226] Unfortunately for our
-purpose, however, Tighernach's early annals are almost wholly devoted
-to the chronicles of the kings of Emania or Armagh, and it is only
-incidentally that he names the kings of Tara, which was the capital
-both of the Firbolgs and Tuatha de Dananns, and he makes no allusion to
-the battles of Moytura. Though our annalist, therefore, to a certain
-extent deserts us here, there are incidental notices of the Daghda
-and his friends in Irish manuscripts referring to other subjects,
-which seem sufficient to settle the question. The best of these were
-collected together for another purpose by Petrie, in his celebrated
-work on the Round Towers, and, as they are easily accessible there, it
-will not be necessary to quote them in extenso, but merely the passages
-bearing directly on our subject.[227]
-
-The first extract is from a very celebrated work known as the 'Leabhar
-na l'Uidhre,' written apparently before 1106, which is given by the
-'Four Masters' as the date of the author's death. Speaking of Cormac,
-the son of Art and grandson of Conn of a Hundred Battles:--"Before his
-death, which happened in 267, he told his people not to bury him at
-Brugh, on the Boyne, where the kings of Tara, his predecessors, were
-buried, because he did not adore stones and trees, and did not worship
-the same god as those interred at Brugh, for he had faith," adds the
-monkish chronicler, "in the one true God according to the law."
-
-The tract then goes on to say that "the kings of the race of Heremon
-were buried at Cruachan until the times of Crimthann, who was the first
-king of them that was buried in Brugh." The others, including Queen
-Meave, were buried at Cruachan, because they possessed Connaught.
-"But they were interred at Brugh from the time of Crimthann to the
-time of Leoghaire, the son of Niall (A.D. 428), except three
-persons, namely Art the son of Conn, and Cormac the son of Art, and
-Niall of the Nine Hostages." A little further on we have the following
-paragraph:--"(101.) The nobles of the Tuatha de Danann were used
-to bury at Brugh, _i.e._, the Dagdha with his three sons, and also
-Lughaidh and Oe, and Ollam and Ogma, and Etan the poetess, and Corpre
-the son of Etan, and Crimthann followed them because his wife was one
-of the Tuatha Dea, and it was she that solicited him that he should
-adopt Brugh as a burying-place for himself and his descendants."
-
-In the 'Book of Ballymote' (p. 102) it is said, "Of the monument of
-Brugh here, viz., The Bed of daughter of Forann. The monument of the
-Daghda. The mound of the Morrigan. The Barc of Crimthann in which he
-was interred. The Carnail (stone cairn) of Conn of a Hundred Battles,"
-&c. In a second passage we recognise the following names rather
-more in detail: "The Bed of the Dagdha first, the two paps of the
-Morrigan, at the place where Cermud Milbhel, the son of the Dagdha
-was born[228]--(the monuments of) Cirr and Cuirrell wives of the
-Dagdha--there are two hillocks; the grave of Aedh Luirgnech, son of the
-Dagdha." Again, in a prose commentary on a poem which Petrie quotes, we
-have the following apparently by Moelmuori. "The chiefs of Ulster before
-Conchobar (he is said to have died 33[229]) were buried at Talten....
-The nobles of the Tuatha de Dananns, with the exception of seven who
-were interred at Talten, were buried in Brugh, _i.e._, Lugh and Oe, son
-of Ollamh and Ogma, and Carpre the son of Etan, and Etan (the poetess
-herself), and the Daghda and her three sons, and a great many others
-`of the Tuatha de Danann, Firbolgs, and others."
-
-There is no doubt but that many similar passages to these might be
-found in Irish MSS., if looked for by competent scholars, but these
-extracts probably are sufficient to prove two things. First, that
-the celebrated cemetery at Brugh, on the Boyne, six miles west from
-Drogheda, was the burying-place of the kings of Tara from Crimthann
-(A.D. 84) till the time of St. Patrick (A.D. 432), and that it was
-also the burying-place of all those who were concerned--without being
-killed--in the battles of Moytura. We are not, unfortunately, able to
-identify the grave of each of these heroes, though it may be because
-only one has been properly explored, that called New Grange, and that
-had been rifled before the first modern explorers in the seventeenth
-century found out the entrance. The Hill of Dowth has only partially
-been opened. The great cairn of Knowth is untouched, so is the great
-cairn known as the Tomb of the Dagdha. Excavations alone can prove
-their absolute identity; but this at least is certain, we have on the
-banks of the Boyne a group of monuments similar in external appearance
-at least with those on the two Moytura battle-fields, and the date of
-the greater number of those at Brugh is certainly subsequent to the
-Christian era.[230]
-
-The second point is not capable of such direct proof, but seems equally
-clear. It is that the kings of the race of Crimthann immediately
-succeeded to the kings of the Tuatha de Danann, who fought at Moytura.
-If, indeed, we could trust the assertion that Crimthann was the first
-king that was buried at Brugh, we should be obliged to find a place for
-the Daghda under some pseudonym afterwards, and it is possible that
-may be the case,[231] but for the present it seems more reasonable to
-assume that he preceded him at a very short interval.
-
-According to the 'Four Masters,' the Tuatha de Danann had been extinct
-for nearly 2000 years when we find Crimthann marrying a princess of
-that race, and one of sufficient influence to induce him to adopt what
-appears literally to have been the family burying-place of the Dagdha
-for that of himself and his race; and it seems impossible to believe
-that when this took place it could have been old, or neglected, or
-deserted.
-
-According to the 'Four Masters,' the Firbolgs reigned thirty-seven
-years only, so that they do not in this case seem to err on the side of
-exaggeration, and the Tuatha de Danann 196 years. From this, however,
-we must deduct the twenty years they unnecessarily interpolated between
-the two battles, and we must take something from the eighty years the
-Dagdha reigned after he was ninety-one years of age. If we allow, then,
-a century, it will place the battles of Moytura 20 to 30 B.C.,
-and the arrival of the Firbolgs about the middle of the first century
-B.C. This, with a small limit of error either way is, I am
-convinced, pretty nearly the true date of these events.[232]
-
-If we turn to the celebrated Hill of Tara, about ten miles off, where
-those resided who were buried at Brugh-na-Boinne, we find a great deal
-to confirm the views expressed above. When Petrie was attached to the
-Ordnance Survey, he had a very careful plan made of the remains on that
-hill, and compiled a most elaborate memoir regarding them, which was
-published in the eighteenth volume of the 'Transactions of the Royal
-Irish Academy.' It concludes with these words (p. 231): "From the
-historical allusions deduced it will be seen that, with the exception
-of the few last described,[233] they are all nearly contemporaneous
-and belong to the third century of the Christian era. The era of the
-original Tuatha de Danann Cathair belongs to the remote period of
-uncertain tradition. The only other monuments of ascertained date are
-those of Conor Mac Nessa and Cuchullim, both of whom flourished in the
-first century. These facts are sufficient to prove that before the
-time of Cormac Mac Art,[234] Tara had attained to no distinguished
-celebrity."
-
-[Illustration: 62. Rath na Riogh, or, Cathair of Cormac, at Tara.]
-
-The only difficulty in this passage is the allusion to the Tuatha de
-Danann. At the time Petrie wrote it he, like most Irish antiquaries,
-had been unable to emancipate himself from the spell of the 'Four
-Masters,' and, struck by the pains they had taken, and the general
-correctness of their annals after the Christian era, had adopted their
-pre-Christian chronology almost without question. The Cathair here
-alluded to is only an undistinguishable part of the Rath of Cormac,
-to which tradition attaches that name, but neither in plan, nor
-materials, nor construction can be separated from it. That the Dananns
-had a Cathair on this hill is more than probable if, as I suppose,
-they immediately preceded the Crimthann dynasty, who certainly resided
-here. It may also well be that they occupied this site, which is the
-highest on the hill, and that their palace was afterwards enlarged by
-Cormac. The plan of it is worth referring to (woodcut No. 62), from its
-curious resemblance to that of Avebury; what was here done in earth was
-afterwards done in stone in Wiltshire, and it seems as if, as is so
-often the case, the house of the dead was copied from the dwelling of
-the living.
-
-The Dagdha had apparently no residence here. From the context I would
-infer that he resided in the great Rath, about 300 feet diameter, at
-Dowth, where his son, apparently, was born, and near to which, as above
-shown, he also was buried. If, however, he had no residence on the
-Royal hill, his so-called spit was one of the most celebrated pieces of
-furniture of the palace. It was a most elaborate piece of ironmongery,
-and performed a variety of cooking operations in a very astonishing
-manner, and shows, at all events, that the smith who made it had no
-little skill in the working of iron, of which metal it was principally
-composed.[235]
-
-The Rath of Leoghaire (429-458 A.D.) is interesting to us,
-not only as the last erected here, but from the circumstances of its
-builder being buried in its ramparts. It seems that, in spite of all
-the preaching and persuasions of St. Patrick, who was his contemporary,
-Leoghaire refused to be converted to the Christian religion; but like
-a grand old Pagan, he ordered that he should be buried standing in his
-armour in the rampart of his Rath, and facing the country of the foes
-with whom he had contended during life. That this was done is as well
-authenticated as any incident of the time, perhaps even better;[236]
-and I cannot help fancying from the appearance of the Raths, that some
-others of the kings were interred here also. Be that as it may, this
-circumstance ought to prevent our feeling any surprise at the actual
-discovery of the skeleton of a man under the rampart at Marden (_ante_
-p. 86), or if human bones were still found under the vallum at Avebury,
-in spite of the negative evidence of the partial explorations of the
-Wiltshire Archæological Society.
-
-There is still another point of view from which this question may be
-regarded, so as to throw some light on the main issue of the age of
-the monuments in question. If we can ascertain when the art of writing
-was first practised in Ireland, we may obtain an approximate date
-before which no detailed history of any events could be expected to
-exist. Now all the best antiquaries of Ireland are agreed that no
-alphabetic writing was used in Ireland before the reign of Cormac Mac
-Art, A.D. 218-266. There seems to be evidence that, as above
-mentioned, he was converted to Christianity by some Romish priest; and
-though it is unlikely that he himself acquired the art of writing, he
-seems to have caused certain tracts to be compiled. None of these, it
-is true, now exist, but they are referred to and quoted from an ancient
-Irish MS. in a manner that leaves little doubt that some books were
-written in Ireland in the third century, but almost certainly there
-were none before that time. It is true, however, that Eugene O'Curry
-pleads hard for some kind of Ogham writing having existed in Ireland
-before that time, and even before the Christian era.[237] But though
-we may admit the former proposition, the evidence of the latter is of
-the most unsatisfactory description. Even, however, if it could be
-established it would prove very little. It would be as difficult to
-write a connected history in Ogham as it would be in Exchequer tallies,
-and so far as is known, it never was attempted. The utmost Ogham
-ever did, or could do, was to record genealogies; and such detailed
-histories as we possess of the Moytura battles are quite beyond its
-powers. On the other hand, Mr. O'Curry's own account of Senchan's
-difficulties in obtaining copies of the celebrated 'Táin Bó Chuailgne,'
-or 'Cattle Spoil of Cooley,' after the year 598, shows how little the
-art was then practised. No copy of this poem, which contains the life
-and adventures of Queen Meave, in the first century, then existed in
-Ireland. A mission was consequently sent to Italy to copy one said
-to have existed there, and though the missionaries were miraculously
-spared the journey,[238] the inference is the same, that no written
-copy of their most celebrated work existed in Ireland in the year 600.
-
-Petrie is equally clear on the subject. In his history of Tara
-he states that the Irish were unacquainted with letters till the
-introduction of Christianity in the fifth century, with the doubtful
-exception of the writings ascribed to Cormac Mac Art. He consequently
-believes that the authentic history of Ireland commences only with
-Tuathal, A.D. 130, 160, in which he is probably correct.[239]
-
-But here the question arises--Before the introduction of writing into
-a country, how long could so detailed a narrative as that which we
-possess of the Battles of Moytura, and one so capable of being verified
-by material evidences on the spot, be handed down orally as a plain
-prose narrative? Among so rude a people as the Irish avowedly then
-were, would this period be one century or two, or how many? Every
-one must decide for himself. I do not know an instance of any rude
-people preserving orally any such detailed history for a couple of
-centuries. With me the great difficulty is to understand how the memory
-of the battles was so perfectly preserved, assuming them to have taken
-place so long ago as the first century B.C. As it is not
-pretended that the narratives were reduced to writing so early as the
-time of Cormac, I should, from their internal evidence, be much more
-inclined to assume that the battles must have taken place one or two
-centuries after the birth of Christ. At all events, it seems absolutely
-impossible that the date of these battles can be so remote as the Four
-Masters place them, or even as some Irish antiquaries seem inclined to
-admit.
-
-The truth of the matter appears to be that, in the Eocene period
-of Irish history or in the one or two centuries that preceded the
-introduction of writing, we have a whole group of names so inextricably
-mixed together that it is impossible to separate them. We have the
-Dagdha and his wives and their sons. We have Etan the poetess and her
-ill-conditioned son. There is Queen Meave of the Cattle Raid, and her
-husband Conchobhar McNessa. There is Cumbhail, the Fingal of Macpherson
-and Cuchullin; and then such semi-historical persons as Tuathal the
-Accepted, and Conn of a Hundred Battles. All these lived almost
-together in one capital, and were buried in one cemetery, and form a
-half-historic, half-mythic group, such as generally precedes written
-history in most parts of the world. Many of their dates are known
-with fairly approximate certainty, whilst that of others cannot be
-fixed. There seems, however, enough to justify us in almost positively
-affirming that the Battle of Moytura, which raised the Dagdha to
-fame, happened within the fifty years that preceded or the fifty that
-followed the birth of Christ. My own impression is in favour of the
-former as the more probable date.
-
-To some this may appear an over-laboured disquisition to prove an
-insignificant point. It is not, however, one-tenth part of what might
-be advanced on the subject from translated and printed documents, and,
-certainly, it would be difficult to exaggerate its importance with
-reference to the subject matter of this work. If the two groups of
-monuments at Cong and Carrowmore can be proved to be the monuments of
-those who fell in the two battles of Southern and Northern Moytura,
-we have made an immense step towards a knowledge of the use of these
-monuments; and if it can be shown that they date from about the
-Christian Era, we gain not only a standpoint for settling the age
-of all other Irish antiquities, but a base for our reasoning with
-reference to similar remains in other countries.
-
-No Irish antiquary, nor indeed of any other country, so far as I know,
-has ventured to hint a doubt that they mark the battle-fields. Nor, in
-the present state of the evidence, do I see any reason for questioning
-the fact; and, for the present at least, we may assume it as granted.
-The second proposition is more open to question. Irish antiquaries
-generally will dissent from so serious a reduction in the antiquity of
-these two great battles. But, after the most earnest attention I have
-been able to give to all that has been written and said on the subject
-and a careful comparison of the monuments on these fields with those
-of other countries, I would, on the whole, be inclined to bring them
-forward a century or two, if I could find a gap to throw them into,
-rather than date them earlier. They look older and more tentative than
-the English circles described in the last chapter, but not so much
-so as to lead us to expect a difference of four or five centuries.
-On the other hand, they are so like those on the Bravalla field, and
-other monuments in Scandinavia, to be described hereafter, that it is
-puzzling to think that seven or ten centuries elapsed between them.
-But, taking all the circumstances of the case into consideration,
-the conclusions above arrived at appear fair and reasonable, and in
-conformity, not only to what was said in the last chapter, but to the
-facts about to be adduced in the following pages.
-
-
-CEMETERIES.
-
-Although Irish antiquaries have succeeded in identifying the localities
-of a considerable number of the thousand and one battles which, as
-might be expected, adorn at every page the annals of a Celtic race;
-yet, as none of these are described as marked with circles or cairns,
-like those found on the two battle-fields of Moytura, they are of
-no use for our present purpose, and our further illustrations must
-be drawn from the peaceful burying-places of the Irish, which are,
-however, of singular interest.
-
-In the history of the Cemeteries, eight are enumerated;[240] but
-of these only the first three can be identified with anything like
-certainty at the present day. But as the antiquities of Ireland have
-never yet been systematically explored, others may yet be found, and so
-also may many more stone-marked battle-fields. Meanwhile our business
-is with
-
-  "The three cemeteries of the idolaters:
-  The Cemetery of Tailten the select,
-  The Cemetery of the ever fair Cruachan,
-  And the Cemetery of Brugh."[241]
-
-The two last are known with certainty. The first is most probably the
-range of mounds at Lough Crew, recently explored by Mr. Conwell; but,
-as some doubt this identification, we shall take it last, and speak
-first of those regarding which there is more certainty.
-
-Cruachan, or Rathcrogan, is situated five miles west from
-Carrick-on-Shannon, and consists, according to Petrie, of a circular
-stone ditch,[242] now nearly obliterated, 300 feet in diameter. Within
-this "are small circular mounds, which, when examined, are found to
-cover rude sepulchral chambers, formed of stone, without cement of
-any kind, and containing unburnt bones." The monument of Dathi (428
-A.D.), which is a small circular mound with a pillar-stone of
-Red Sandstone, is situated outside the enclosure, at a short distance
-to the east, and may be identified from the following notice of it
-by the celebrated antiquary Duald Mac Firbis. "The body of Dathi was
-brought to Cruachan, and was interred at Relig na Riogh, where most of
-the kings of the race of Heremon were buried, and where to this date
-the Red Stone pillar remains on a stone monument over his grave, near
-Rath Cruachan, to this time (1666)."[243]
-
-Here, therefore, we have the familiar 300-foot circle, with the
-external burial, as at Arbor Low, and external stone monument as
-at Salkeld and elsewhere. The chief distinction between this and
-our English battle-circles seems to be the number of cairns, each
-containing a chamber, which crowd the circle at Rath Crogan, and it is
-possible that if these were opened with great care, a succession might
-be discovered among them; but at present we know little or nothing of
-their contents.
-
-At present there are only two names that we can identify with
-certainty as those of persons buried here. Queen Meave, who, as before
-mentioned, was transferred from Fert Meave--or Meave's Grave, her first
-burying-place, to this Rath, about the end of the first century, and
-Dathi, at the beginning of the fifth. Whether any other persons were
-interred here before the first-named queen seems doubtful. From the
-context, it seems as if her being buried in her own Rath had led to its
-being consecrated to funereal rites, and continuing to be so used till
-Christianity induced men to seek burying-places elsewhere than in the
-cemeteries of the idolaters.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-By far the best known, as well as the most interesting, of Irish
-cemeteries is that which extends for about two miles east and west on
-the northern bank of the Boyne, about five miles from Drogheda. Within
-this space there remain even now some seventeen sepulchral barrows,
-three of which are pre-eminent.[244] They are now known by the names
-of Knowth for the most westward one, Dowth for that to the east, and
-about halfway between these two, that known as New Grange. In front of
-the latter, but lower down nearer the river, is a smaller one, still
-popularly known as that of the Dagdha, and others bear names with more
-or less certainty; but no systematic exploration of the group has yet
-been made, so that we are very much in the dark as to their succession,
-or who the kings or nobles may be that lie buried within their masses.
-
-That at Knowth has never been carefully measured, nor, so far as I
-know, even described in modern times. At a guess, it is a mound 200
-feet in diameter, and 50 to 60 feet in height, with a flat top not
-less than 100 feet across. It is entirely composed of small loose
-stones, which have been extensively utilized for road making and farm
-buildings, so that the mound has now a very dilapidated appearance,
-which makes it difficult to ascertain its original form; and so far as
-is known, its interior has not been accessible in modern times. Petrie
-identifies it (p. 103) with "the cave of Cnodhba, which was searched
-by the Danes on an occasion (A.D. 862), when the three kings,
-Amlaff, Imar, and Auisle, were plundering the territories of Flann, the
-son of Conaing. If this is so, its entrance ought not to be difficult
-to find, but the prospect of the explorers being rewarded by any
-treasure or object of value is very small indeed.
-
-[Illustration: 63. View of Mound at New Grange. From a drawing by
-Colonel Forbes Leslie.]
-
-Less than a mile from this one is the larger and more celebrated mound
-of New Grange. It is almost certainly one of the three plundered by
-the Danes 1009 years ago. No description of it has anywhere been
-discovered, prior to the time when Mr. Llwyd, the keeper of the
-Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, mentioned it in a letter dated Sligo,
-1699.[245] He describes the entrance, the passage, and the side
-chapels, and the three basins as existing then exactly as they do now,
-and does not allude to the discovery of the entrance as being at all
-of recent occurrence, though Sir Thomas Molyneux, in 1725, says it
-was found apparently not long before he wrote, in accidently removing
-some stones.[246] The first really detailed account, however, is that
-of Governor Pownall, in the second volume of the 'Archæologia' (1770).
-He employed a local surveyor of the name of Bouie to measure it for
-him, but either he must have been a bungler, or the engraver has
-misunderstood his drawings, for it is almost impossible to make out
-the form and dimensions of the mound from the plates published. In the
-100 years that have elapsed since his survey was made, the process of
-destruction has been going on rapidly, and it would now require both
-skill and patience to restore the monument to its previous dimensions.
-Meanwhile the accompanying cuts, partly from Mr. Bouie's plates,
-partly from personal observations, may be sufficient for purposes
-of illustration, but they are far from pretending to be perfectly
-accurate, or such as one would like to see of so important a monument.
-
-Its dimensions, so far as I can make out, are as follows: it has a
-diameter of 310 to 315 feet for the whole mound, at its junction with
-the natural hill, on which it stands. The height is about 70 feet, made
-up of 14 feet for the slope of the hill to the floor of the central
-chamber, and 56 feet above it. The angle of external slope appears to
-be 35 degrees, or 5 degrees steeper than Silbury Hill, and consequently
-if there is anything in that argument, it may, at least, be a century
-or two older. The platform on the top is about 120 feet across,
-the whole being formed of loose stones, with the smallest possible
-admixture of earth and rubbish.
-
-[Illustration: 64. New Grange, near Drogheda.]
-
-Around its base was a circle of large stone monoliths (woodcut No.
-63). They stand, according to Sir W. Wilde, 10 yards apart, on a
-circumference of 400 paces, or 1000 feet. If this were so, they were
-as nearly as may be 33 feet from centre to centre, and their number
-consequently must originally have been thirty, or the same number as
-at Stonehenge. From Bouie's plan I make the number thirty-two, but
-this is hardly to be depended upon. From this disposition it will be
-observed that if the tumulus were removed, or had never been erected,
-we should have here exactly such a circle--333 feet in diameter--as we
-find at Salkeld or at Stanton Drew, and it seems hardly doubtful but
-that such an arrangement as this on the banks of the Boyne gave rise
-to those circles which we find on the battle-fields of England two or
-three centuries later. Llwyd, in his letter to Rowland, mentions one
-smaller stone standing on the summit, but that had disappeared, as well
-as twenty of the outer circle, when Mr. Bouie's survey was made.
-
-At a distance of about 75 feet from the outer edge of the mound, and
-at a height of 14 or 15 feet above the level of the stone ring, is the
-entrance to the crypt. The threshold stone is 10 feet long by about
-18 inches thick, and is richly ornamented by double spirals of a most
-elaborate and elegant character;[247] and at a short distance above it
-is seen a fragment of a string-course, even more elaborately ornamented
-with a pattern more like modern architecture than anything else on
-these mounds. The passage into the central chamber is, for about 40
-feet, 6 feet high, by 3 feet in width, though both these dimensions
-have been considerably diminished, the first by the accumulation of
-earth on the floor, the second by the mass of the mound pressing in the
-side walls of the passage, so that it is with difficulty that any one
-can crawl through. Advancing inwards, the roof, which is formed of very
-large slabs of stone, rapidly becomes higher; and at a distance of 70
-feet from the entrance, rises into a conical dome 20 feet in height,
-formed of large masses of stone laid horizontally. The crypt extends
-still 20 feet beyond the centre of the dome; and on the east and west
-sides are two other recesses, that in the east being considerably
-deeper than the one opposite to it.
-
-In each of these recesses stands a shallow stone basin of oval form 3
-feet by 3 feet 6 or 7 inches across, and 6 to 9 inches deep. They seem
-to form an indispensable part of these Irish sepulchres, though what
-their use was has not yet been ascertained.
-
-On one stone in the passage, and on most of those in the inner chamber,
-are sculptured ornaments, mostly of the same spiral character as that
-on the stone at the threshold, but hardly so elaborately or carefully
-executed. One stone on the right hand angle of the inmost chamber
-has fallen forward (see plan), so that by creeping behind it, it is
-possible to see the reverse of some of the neighbouring stones, and it
-is found that several of these are elaborately carved with the same
-spiral ornaments as their fronts, though it is quite impossible that,
-situated as they are, they could have been seen after the mound was
-raised. To account for this, some have asserted that they belonged to
-an older building before having been used in this; but it hardly seems
-necessary to adopt so violent an hypothesis. It may have been that
-the stones were carved before being used, and at a time when no plans
-or drawings existed, may have been found unsuited in size or form for
-the places for which they were first intended, and consequently either
-turned round or used elsewhere. Or it may be that as the crypt must
-have been built and tolerably complete before the mound was raised
-over it, the king may have had it ornamented externally while in that
-state. Labour was of little value in those days, and it is dangerous to
-attempt to account for the caprices of kings in such a state of society
-as must then have existed. The identity of the style and character
-of the ornaments both on the hidden and the visible parts of these
-stones excludes the idea that they were the work of different epochs. A
-removal from an older building implies a desecration and neglect which
-must have been the work of time; and, having regard to their identity,
-it is improbable that a time considerable enough would have elapsed
-to admit of a building being so desecrated and neglected as that its
-stones should be carried away and used elsewhere.
-
-[Illustration: 65. Ornament at New Grange. From a rubbing.]
-
-[Illustration: 66. Ornament at New Grange. From a rubbing.]
-
-The position of the entrance so much within the outline of the Tumulus,
-is a peculiarity at first sight much more difficult to account for.
-As it now stands, it is situated at a distance of about 50 feet
-horizontally within what we have every reason to believe was the
-original outline of the mound. Not only is there no reason to believe
-that the passage ever extended further, but the ornamented threshold,
-and the carved string-course above, and other indications, seem to
-point out that the tumulus had what may be called an architectural
-façade at this depth. One mode of accounting for this would be to
-assume that the original mound was only about 200 feet in diameter at
-the floor level, and that the interior was then accessible, but that
-after the death of the king who erected it, an envelope 50 feet thick
-was added by his successors, forming the broad platform at the top,
-and effectually closing and hiding the entrance to the sepulchre. If
-this were so, we may easily fancy that many of his family, or of his
-followers, were buried in this envelope, and formed the secondary but
-nearly contemporary interments which are so frequently found in English
-mounds. The experience of Minning Lowe (woodcut No. 33), Rose Hill
-(woodcut No. 39), and other English tumuli, goes far to countenance
-such an hypothesis; and there is much besides to be said in its
-favour, but it is one of those questions which can only be answered
-satisfactorily by a careful examination of the mound itself. Meanwhile,
-however, I am rather inclined to adopt the hypothesis that the mound
-had a funnel-shaped entrance like Park Cwn tumulus (woodcut No. 46),
-and that at Plas Newydd (woodcut No. 47), and shown in dotted lines
-in the woodcut No. 64. The reason for this will be more apparent when
-we come to examine the Lough Crew tumuli, but the apparent ease with
-which Amlaff and his brother Danes seem to have robbed these tombs in
-the ninth century, seems to indicate that the entrances were not then
-difficult to find.
-
-[Illustration: 67. Branch at New Grange. From a rubbing.]
-
-[Illustration: 68. Sculptured mark at New Grange, of undecided
-character.]
-
-The ornaments which cover the walls of the chambers at New Grange are
-very varied, both in their form and character. The most prevalent
-design is that of spirals variously combined, and often of great
-beauty. They seem always to have been drawn by the hand, never outlined
-with an instrument, and never quite regular either in their form or
-combination. The preceding woodcuts from rubbings give a fair idea
-of their general appearance, though many are much more complex, and
-some more carefully cut. The most extensive, and perhaps also the
-most beautiful, is that on the external doorstep.[248] These spirals
-are, however, seldom alone, but more frequently are found combined
-with zigzag ornaments, as in (woodcut No. 66), and in lozenge-shaped
-patterns; in fact, in every conceivable variety that seemed to suit
-the fancy of the artist, or the shape of the stone he was employed
-upon. In one instance a vegetable form certainly was intended. There
-may be others, but this one most undoubtedly represents either a palm
-branch or a fern; my impression is that it is the former, though how a
-knowledge of the Eastern plant reached New Grange is by no means clear.
-One other example of the sculptures is worth quoting, if not for its
-beauty, at least for its interest (woodcut No. 68). It is drawn full
-size in the second volume of the 'Archæologia,' p. 238, and Governor
-Pownall, after a learned disquisition, concludes that the characters
-are Phœnician but only numerals (p. 259). General Vallancey and
-others have not been so modest; but one thing seems quite clear, that
-it is not a character in any alphabet now known. Still it can hardly
-be a mere ornament. It must be either a mason's mark, or a recognizable
-symbol of some sort, something to mark the position of the stone on
-which it is engraved, or its ownership by some person. Similar marks
-are found in France, but seem there equally devoid of any recognizable
-meaning.
-
-[Illustration: 69. Chambers in Mound at Dowth. From a MS. plan.]
-
-The third of these great tumuli on the Boyne is known as that of Dowth.
-Dubhad if Petrie is right in identifying it with the third sepulchre
-plundered by the Danes in 862. It was dug into by a Committee of the
-Royal Irish Academy in 1847, but without any satisfactory results. A
-great gash was made in its side to its centre, which has fearfully
-disfigured its form,[249] but without any central chamber being
-reached; but on the western side a small entrance was discovered
-leading to a passage which extended 40 feet 6 inches (from A to D)
-towards the interior. At the distance of 28 feet from the entrance it
-formed a small domical chamber, with three branches, very like that at
-New Grange, but on a smaller scale. In the centre of this apartment was
-one large flat basin (L), similar in form, and, no doubt, in purpose,
-to the three at New Grange, but far larger, being 5 feet by 3 feet. The
-southern branch of the chamber extends to K in a curvilinear form for
-about 28 feet, where it is stopped for the present by a large stone,
-and another partially obstructs the passage at 8 feet in front of the
-terminal stone.
-
-The Academy have not yet published any account of their diggings, nor
-does any plan of the mound exist, so far as I know, anywhere. Even its
-dimensions are unknown. Pending these being ascertained, it does look
-as if this chamber was in an envelope similar to that just suggested
-as having existed at New Grange. In that case the original tumulus was
-probably 120 feet in diameter, and with its envelope 200 feet.
-
-The walls of the chambers of this tomb are even more richly and
-elaborately ornamented than those of the chambers at New Grange, and
-are in a more delicate style of workmanship. Altogether I should be
-inclined to consider it as more modern than its more imposing rival.
-
-One other small tumulus of the cemetery is open. It is situated in
-the grounds of Netterville House. It is, however, only a miniature
-repetition of the central chambers of its larger compeers, but without
-sculptures or any other marked peculiarity.
-
-The mound called the Tomb of the Dagdha and the ten or twelve others
-which still exist in this cemetery, are all, so far as is known,
-untouched, and still remain to reward the industry of the first
-explorer. If the three large mounds are those plundered by the Danes,
-which seems probable, this is sufficient to account for the absence of
-the usual sepulchral treasures, but it by no means follows that the
-others would be equally barren of results. On the contrary, there being
-no tradition of their having been opened, and no trace of wounds in
-their sides, we are led to expect that they may be intact, and that the
-bones and armour of the great Dagdha may still be found in his honoured
-grave.
-
-Nothing was found in the great mounds at New Grange and Dowth which
-throws much additional light either on their age or the persons to
-whom they should be appropriated. Two skeletons are said to have been
-discovered at New Grange, but under what circumstances we are not told,
-and we do not consequently know whether to consider them as original
-or secondary interments. The finding of the coin of Valentinian is
-mentioned by Llwyd in 1699, but he merely says that they were found
-on the top, or rather, as might be inferred, near the top, when it
-was uncovered by the removal of the stones for road-making and such
-purposes. Had it been found in the cell, as at Minning Low, it would
-have given us a date, beyond which we could not ascend, but when and
-under what circumstances the coin of Theodosius was found, does not
-appear, nor what has become of either. A more important find was made
-by Lord Albert Cunyngham in 1842. Some workmen who were employed to dig
-on the mound near the entrance discovered two splendid gold torques,
-a brooch, and a gold ring, and with them a gold coin of Geta[250]
-(205-212 A.D.). A similar gold ring was found about the same
-time in the cell, and is in the possession of Mrs. Caldwell, the wife
-of the proprietor. Although we might feel inclined to hesitate about
-the value of the conclusions to be drawn from the first discovery of
-coins, this additional evidence seems to be conclusive. Three Roman
-coins found in different parts, at different times, and with the
-torques and rings, are, it seems, quite sufficient to prove that it
-cannot have been erected before 380, while the probable date for its
-completion may be about 400 A.D. It may, however, have been
-begun fifty or sixty years earlier. It is most likely that such a tomb
-as this was commenced by the king whose remains it was destined to
-contain; but the mound would not be heaped over the chamber till the
-king himself, and probably his wives and sons, were laid there, and a
-considerable period may consequently have elapsed between the inception
-and the completion of such a monument.
-
-At Dowth there was the usual miscellaneous assortment of things. A
-great quantity of globular stone-shot, probably sling-stones; and
-in the chamber fragments of burned bones, many of which proved to
-be human; glass and amber beads of unique shape, portions of jet
-bracelets, a curious stone button, a fibula, bone bodkins, copper pins,
-and iron knives and rings. Some years ago a gentleman residing in the
-neighbourhood cleared out a portion of the passage, and found a few
-iron antiquities, some bones of mammals, and a small stone urn, which
-he presented to the Irish Academy.[251] In so far as negative evidence
-is of value, it may be remarked that no flint implements and nothing
-of bronze--unless the copper pins are so classed--was found in any of
-these tumuli.
-
-[Illustration: 70. Ornament in Dowth. From a rubbing.]
-
-[Illustration: 71. Ornament in Dowth. From a rubbing.]
-
-The ornaments found inside the chambers at Dowth are similar in general
-character to those at New Grange, but, on the whole, more delicate and
-refined. Assuming the progressive nature of Irish art, which I see no
-reason for doubting, they would indicate a more modern age, and this,
-from other circumstances, seems more than probable. Though spirals are
-frequent, the Dowth ornaments assume more of free-traced vegetable
-forms. It is not so easy to identify the figures in the annexed woodcut
-(No. 70), as in the palm-branch in New Grange (woodcut No. 67), but
-there can be little doubt that the intention was to simulate vegetable
-nature. At other times forms are introduced which a fanciful antiquary
-might suppose were intended for serpents, or writing, or, at all
-events, as having some occult meaning. The annexed from a rubbing is
-curious, as something very similar occurs on a stone at Coilsfield,
-in Ayrshire, and may really be intended to suggest an idea, but of
-what nature we are not yet in a position to guess. It is not so like
-an alphabetical character as those at New Grange (woodcut No. 68),
-and till that is shown to have a meaning, it is hardly worth while
-speculating with regard to this one. We shall be in a better position
-to judge of the value or importance of these ornaments, in an artistic
-or chronometric point of view, when we have examined those at Lough
-Crew and elsewhere; but even irrespectively of such considerations,
-no one can examine the monuments on the banks of the Boyne without
-being struck with the elegance as well as the endless variety of the
-ornaments which cover their walls.
-
-If, however, the material proofs are deficient, the written evidence is
-clearer and more satisfactory than with regard to any group of tombs
-in the three kingdoms. In the passage above quoted, it is said "that
-they"--the kings of Ireland--"were interred at Brugh from the time
-of Crimthann (A.D. 76) to the time of Leoghaire, the son of
-Niall (A.D. 458), except three persons, namely, Art the son of
-Conn, and Cormac the son of Art, and Niall of the nine hostages,"--the
-father of Leoghaire. The reason given why Art and Cormac were not
-buried here was that they had embraced Christianity. Art was buried at
-a place called Treoit; Cormac on the right bank of the Boyne at a place
-called Ros-na-righ, opposite Brugh; and Niall at Ochaim. But having
-disposed of these three, we have still some twenty-seven kings to find
-graves for, and only seventeen mounds can now be traced at Brugh; and,
-besides these, we have to find the tombs of the Dagdha, and his three
-sons, and Etan the poetess and her son Corpre, and Boinn, the wife of
-Nechtan, "who took with her to the tomb her small hound Dabilla," and a
-vast number of nobles of Tuatha de Danann and others. It is impossible
-to find places for all these persons in the graves now visible, if
-each was buried separately. It may be, however, that the great mounds
-contained several sepulchres. The form and position of the chambers at
-Dowth (woodcut No. 69) perhaps countenances such a supposition; but
-many may have been buried under smaller cairns, long since removed to
-make way for agricultural improvements, and many may yet be discovered
-if the place be carefully and systematically explored, which does not
-yet seem to have been done. Before, however, anything like certainty
-could be arrived at as to the distribution of these graves, it would
-be necessary that the great mounds should be thoroughly explored, and
-this, from the nature of their material, will practically involve their
-destruction, which would be very much to be regretted. Meanwhile, if
-I may be allowed to offer a conjecture, I would say that New Grange
-might be the "Cumot or Commensurate grave of Cairbre Lifeachair." He,
-according to the Four Masters, reigned from 271 to 288--but probably
-fifty or sixty years later--and seems to have been a king deserving of
-a right royal sepulchre; and I feel great confidence that the unopened
-tumulus near the river may be what tradition says it is--the grave of
-the Great Dagdha, the hero of Moytura. With regard to the others, it
-would not be safe to hazard any opinion in the present state of our
-knowledge. For the present it is sufficient to feel sure that we have a
-group of monuments all, or very nearly all of which were erected in the
-first four centuries of the Christian era, and from this basis we may
-reason with tolerable certainty regarding the other groups which we may
-meet with in the course of this enquiry.
-
-
-LOUGH CREW.
-
-At a distance of twenty-five miles nearly due west from Brugh na
-Boinn, and two miles south-east from Oldcastle, is a range of hills,
-called on the Ordnance map Slieve na Calliagh--the hags' or witches'
-hill. It is upwards of 200 feet above the level of the sea, and the
-most conspicuous elevation in that part of the country. On the ridge
-of this range, which is about two miles in extent, are situated from
-twenty-five to thirty cairns, some of considerable size, being 120
-to 180 feet in diameter; others are much smaller, and some so nearly
-obliterated that their dimensions can hardly be now ascertained. Till
-seven or eight years ago this cemetery was entirely unknown to Irish
-antiquaries, and the positions of the cairns were hardly even indicated
-in the Ordnance Survey; but in 1863 they attracted the attention of
-Mr. Eugene Conwell, of Trim. In the years 1867-8 he was enabled, with
-the assistance and co-operation of the late Mr. Naper, of Lough Crew,
-the proprietor of the soil, to excavate and explore the whole of them.
-A brief account of the results which he obtained was submitted to the
-Royal Irish Academy in 1868, and afterwards printed by him for private
-circulation in 1868; but the greater work, with plans and drawings, in
-which he intends fully to illustrate the whole, is still in abeyance,
-owing to want of encouragement. When completed it will be one of the
-most valuable contributions to our archæological knowledge that we have
-received of late years. Meanwhile the following meagre particulars are
-derived from Mr Conwell's pamphlet and the information I picked up
-during a personal visit which I made to the spot in his company in the
-Autumn of last year. The illustrations are all from his drawings.
-
-[Illustration: 72. Cairn T, at Lough Crew.--From a plan by E. Conwell.]
-
-One of the most perfect of these tumuli is that distinguished by Mr.
-Conwell as Cairn T (woodcut No. 72). It stands on the highest point of
-the hill, and is consequently the most conspicuous. It is a truncated
-cone, 116 feet in diameter at base, and with a sloping side, between 60
-and 70 feet in length. Around its base are thirty-seven stones, laid on
-edge, and varying from 6 to 12 feet in length. They are not detached,
-as at New Grange, but form a retaining wall to the mound. On the north,
-and set about 4 feet back from the circle, is a large stone, 10 feet
-long by 6 high, and 2 feet thick, weighing consequently above 10 tons.
-The upper part is fashioned as a rude seat, from which it derives its
-name of the Hag's Chair (woodcut No. 73), and there can be little doubt
-but that it was intended as a seat or throne; but whether by the king
-who erected the sepulchre, or for what purpose, it is difficult now to
-say.
-
-[Illustration: 73. The Hag's Chair, Lough Crew.--From a drawing by E.
-Conwell.]
-
-On the eastern side of the mound the stones forming the periphery of
-the cairn curve inwards for eight or nine yards on each side of the
-spot where the entrance to the chamber commences. It is of the usual
-cruciform plan, and 28 feet long from the entrance to the flat stone
-closing the innermost cell; the dome, consequently, is not nearly
-under the centre of the tumulus, as at New Grange, and lends something
-like probability to the notion that the cell at Dowth (woodcut No.
-69), was really the principal sepulchre. Twenty-eight of the stones
-in the chamber were ornamented with devices of various sorts. Two of
-them are represented on the accompanying woodcut (No. 74), which, with
-the drawings on the Hag's Chair give a fair idea of their general
-character. They are certainly ruder and less artistic than those on
-the Boyne, and so far would indicate an earlier age. Nothing was found
-in the chambers of this tomb but a quantity of charred human bones,
-perfect human teeth, mixed with the bones of animals, apparently stags,
-and one bronze pin, 2½ inches long, with a head ornamented and stem
-slightly so, and still preserving a beautiful green polish.
-
-[Illustration: 74. Two Stones in Cairn T, Lough Crew.--E. Conwell.]
-
-Cairn L (woodcut No. 75), a little further west, is 135 feet in
-diameter, and surrounded by forty-two stones, similar to those in
-Cairn T. The same curve inwards of these stones marks the entrance
-here, which is placed 18 feet from the outward line of the circle. The
-chamber here is nearly of the same dimensions as that last described,
-being 29 feet deep and 13 across its greatest width. In one of the side
-chambers lies the largest of the mysterious flat basins that have yet
-been discovered, 5 feet 9 inches long by 3 feet 1 inch broad, the whole
-being tooled and picked with as much care and skill as if executed
-by a modern mason. This one has a curious nick in its rim, but as it
-does not go through, it could hardly be intended as a spout. Till some
-unrifled tomb is found, or something analogous in other countries, it
-is extremely difficult to say what the exact use of these great stone
-saucers may have been. That the body or ashes were laid on them is more
-than probable, and they may then have been covered over with a lid like
-a dish-cover, such as are found on tombs in Southern Babylonia.[252]
-Under this basin were found great quantities of charred human bones
-and forty-eight human teeth, besides a perfectly rounded syenite
-ball, still preserving its original polish, also some jet and other
-ornaments. In other parts were found quantities of charred bones, some
-rude pottery and bone implements, but no objects in metal. The woodcut
-representing the cell, with large basin, gives a fair idea of the
-general style of sculpture in this and the neighbouring cairns. The
-parts cross-hatched seem to have been engraved with a sharp metal tool.
-The ordinary forms, however, both here and on the Boyne are picked;
-but whether they were executed with a hammer, or pick direct, or by a
-chisel driven by a hammer, is by no means clear. My own impression is,
-that it would be very difficult indeed to execute these patterns with a
-hammer of any sort, and that a chisel must have been used, but whether
-of flint, bronze, or iron, there is no evidence to show.
-
-[Illustration: 75. Cell in Cairn L, at Lough Crew.--E. Conwell.]
-
-Cairn H, though only between 5 and 6 feet in height and 54 feet in
-diameter, seems to have been the only one on the hill not previously
-rifled, and yielded a most astonishing collection of objects to its
-explorer. The cell was of the usual cruciform plan, 24 feet from the
-entrance to the rear, and 16 feet across the lateral chambers. In
-the passage and crypts of this cairn Mr. Conwell collected some 300
-fragments of human bones, which must have belonged to a considerable
-number of separate individuals; 14 fragments of rude pottery, 10 pieces
-of flint, 155 sea-shells in a perfect condition, besides pebbles and
-small polished stones, in quantities.
-
-The most remarkable part of the collection consisted of 4884 fragments,
-more or less perfect, of bone implements. These are now in the
-Dublin Museum, and look like the remains of a paper-knife-maker's
-stock-in-trade. Most of them are of a knife shape, and almost all more
-or less polished, but without further ornamentation; but 27 fragments
-appear to have been stained, 11 perforated, 501 engraved with rows of
-fine lines; 13 combs were engraved on both sides, and 91 engraved by
-compass with circles and curves of a high order of art. On one, in
-cross-hatch lines, is the representation of an antlered stag, the only
-attempt to depict a living thing in the collection.
-
-Besides these, there were found in this cairn seven beads of amber,
-three small beads of glass of different colours, two fragments, and
-a curious molten drop of glass, 1 inch long, trumpet-shaped at one
-end, and tapering towards the other extremity; six perfect and eight
-fragments of bronze rings, and seven specimens of iron implements, but
-all, as might be expected, very much corroded by rust. One of these
-presents all the appearance of being the leg of a compass, with which
-the bone implements may have been engraved, and one was an iron punch,
-5 inches long, with a chisel-shaped point, bearing evidence of the use
-of the mallet at the opposite end.
-
-Cairn D is the largest and most important monument of the group, being
-180 feet in diameter, and though it is very much dilapidated, the
-circle of fifty-four stones which originally surrounded it can still
-be traced. On its eastern side the stones curve inwards for about
-twelve paces, in the form universal in these cairns; but though the
-explorers set to work industriously to follow out what they considered
-a sure "find," they could not penetrate the mound. The stones fell
-in upon them so fast, and the risk they ran was so great, that they
-were forced to abandon the idea of tunnelling, and though a large body
-of men worked assiduously for a fortnight trying to work down from
-above, they failed to penetrate to the central or any other chambers.
-It still, therefore, remains a mystery if there is a blind tope, like
-many in India, or whether its secret still remains to reward some
-more fortunate set of explorers. If it has no central chamber, the
-curving inwards of its outer circle of stones is a curious instance of
-adherence to a sacred form.
-
-The other monuments on the hill do not present any features worth
-enumerating in a general summary like the present, though they would
-be most interesting in a monograph. Though differing greatly in size
-and in richness of ornamentation, they all belong to one class,
-and apparently to one age. For our present purpose one of the most
-interesting peculiarities is that, like the group on the banks of
-the Boyne, this is essentially a cemetery. There are no circles, no
-alignments, no dolmens, no rude stone monuments, in fact. All are
-carefully built, and all more or less ornamented; and there is a
-gradation and progression throughout the whole series widely different
-in this respect from the simplicity and rudeness of the English
-monuments described in the last chapter.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-It now only remains to try to ascertain who those were who were buried
-in these tumuli, and when they were laid there to their rest. So far as
-the evidence at present stands it hardly seems to me to admit of doubt
-but that this is the cemetery of Talten, so celebrated in Irish legend
-and poetry:--
-
-  "The host of Great Meath are buried
-  In the middle of the Lordly Brugh;
-  The Great Ultonians used to bury
-  At Talten with pomp.
-
-  "The true Ultonians, before Conchobar,
-  Were ever buried at Talten,
-  Until the death of that triumphant man,
-  Through which they lost their glory."[253]
-
-The distance of the spot from Telltown, the modern representative of
-Talten, is twelve miles, which to some might appear an objection, but
-it must be remembered that Brugh is ten miles from Tara, where all
-the kings resided, who were buried there; and as Dathi and others of
-them were buried at Rath Croghan, sixty-five miles off, distance seems
-hardly to be an objection. Indeed, among a people who, as evidenced
-by their monuments, paid so much attention to funeral rites and
-ceremonious honours to their dead, as the Pagan Irish evidently did,
-it must have mattered little whether the last resting-place of one of
-their kings was a few miles nearer or further from his residence.
-
-It must not, however, be forgotten, that the proper residence of the
-Ultonians, who are said to have been buried at Talten, was Emania or
-Armagh, forty-five miles distant as the crow flies. Why they should
-choose to be buried in Meath, so near the rival capital of Tara, if
-that famed city then existed, is a mystery which it is not easy to
-solve; but that it was so, there seems no doubt, if the traditions
-or Books of the Irish are at all to be depended upon. If their real
-residence was so distant, it seems of trifling consequence whether it
-was ten or twelve miles from the place we now know as Telltown. There
-must have been some very strong reason for inducing the Ultonians to
-bury so far from their homes; but as that reason has not been recorded,
-it is idle to attempt to guess what form it took. What would appear
-a most reasonable suggestion to a civilized Saxon in the nineteenth
-century would in all probability be the direct antithesis of the motive
-that would guide an uncivilized Celt in the first century before
-Christ, and we may therefore as well give up the attempt. Some other
-reason than that of mere proximity to the place of residence governed
-the Irish in the choice of the situation of their cemeteries; what that
-was we may hereafter be able to find out,--at present, so far as I
-know, the materials do not exist for forming an opinion. If, however,
-this is not Talten, no graves have been found nearer Telltown, which
-would at all answer to the descriptions that remains to us of this
-celebrated cemetery; and, till they are found, these Lough Crew mounds
-seem certainly entitled to the distinction. I cannot see that the
-matter is doubtful.
-
-If this is so, there is little difficulty in determining who were
-buried here. Besides the testimony of the poem just quoted, it is
-stated in the Book of the 'Cemeteries'--"At Tailten the kings of Ulster
-were used to bury vig^t. Ollamh Fodhla with his descendants down to
-Conchobhar, who wished to be carried to a place between Slea and the
-sea, with his face to the east, on account of the faith which he had
-embraced." This conversion of Conchobhar is one of the most famous
-legends in Irish ancient history. He was wounded in the head by a ball
-that remained there, and was ordered by his physician to remain quiet
-and avoid all excitement as his only chance of surviving. For seven
-years he followed this advice; but when he saw the eclipse of the sun,
-and felt the great convulsion that came over nature, the day that
-Christ was crucified, he turned to his Druid and asked, "What is this?"
-To which Bacrach, the Druid, replied: "It is true, indeed, Christ, the
-Son of God, is this day crucified by the Jews." "At the recital of
-this enormity, Conchobhar felt so indignant that he went nearly mad:
-his excitement was so great that the ball burst from his head, and he
-died on the very Friday on which the crucifixion took place."[254] All
-this may be silly enough, as the electric telegraph was not then in
-use, but it is worth quoting here, as it seems that it was to establish
-this synchronism that the chronology of the period was falsified to
-the extent of half a century at least. Conchobhar and Crimthann were
-the two kings of the two great dynasties then reigning in Ireland
-whom the annalists strive to synchronize with Christ, and though they
-fail in that, they establish beyond much doubt that those kings were
-contemporaries. If to this we add the fact so often repeated by the
-authorities quoted above, that Conchobhar was the last of his race
-buried at Talten, and that Crimthann was the first of his line buried
-at Brugh, we obtain a tolerably clear idea of the history of these
-cemeteries. Brugh, in fact, succeeded to Talten on the decline of the
-Ultonian dynasty and the rise of Tuatha de Danann after the victories
-at Moytura had established their supremacy and they had settled
-themselves at Tara.
-
-The character of the sculptures in the two groups of monuments fully
-bears out this view. The carvings at Lough Crew are ruder and less
-artistic than those at Brugh. They are more disconnected, and oftener
-mere cup markings. The three stones represented in the preceding and
-following woodcuts (Nos. 75 and 76), are selected from a great many
-in the Conwell portfolios as fair average specimens of the style
-of sculpture common at Lough Crew, and with the woodcut No. 73,
-representing the Hag's Chair, and No. 75, the chamber in cairn L,
-will convey a fair notion of the whole. In no one instance does it
-seem possible to guess what these figures were meant to represent.
-No animal or vegetable form can be recognized, even after allowing
-the utmost latitude to the imagination; nor do the circles or waving
-lines seem intended to convey any pictorial ideas. Beauty of form, as
-a decoration, seems to have been all the old Celt aimed at, and he may
-have been thought successful at the time, though it hardly conveys the
-same impression to modern minds. The graceful scrolls and spirals and
-the foliage of New Grange and Dowth do not occur there, nor anything
-in the least approaching to them. Indeed, when Mr. Conwell's book is
-published, in which they will all be drawn in more or less detail, I
-believe it will be easy to arrange the whole into a progressive series
-illustrative of the artistic history of Ireland for five centuries
-before the advent of St. Patrick.
-
-[Illustration: 76. Stone in Cairn T. Lough Crew.--E. Conwell.]
-
-It would be an extremely dangerous line of argument to apply this law
-of progressive development to all countries. In India, especially, it
-is very frequently reversed. The rudest art is often much more modern
-than the most refined, but in Ireland this apparently never was the
-case. From the earliest scratchings on pillar stones, down to the
-English conquest, her art seems to have been unfalteringly progressive;
-and, beginning with these two cemeteries, which are probably the oldest
-incunabula of her art, its history might be written without a gap, or
-halt, till it bloomed in those exquisite manuscripts and crosses and
-works of gold and metal which still excite such unqualified admiration.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-[Illustration: 77. Stones in Sculptured Graves, Clover Hill. From a
-sketch by the Author.]
-
-There may be, and no doubt are, many other sculptured graves
-in Ireland, but they have not yet been explored, or, at least,
-published. One, however, deserves notice; not, certainly, on account
-of its magnificence, but for several points of interest which its
-peculiarities bring out. It is situated in a field near Clover Hill,
-not far from Carrowmore, the battle-field of northern Moytura.[255]
-It measures only 7 feet by 5, and is 4½ feet deep. Its cap-stone
-was originally flush with the earth, and no cairn or circle of stones
-marks it externally, nor is there any tradition of any such ever
-having existed. The carvings on the stones forming the chamber are
-shallow, and now very indistinct, from being overgrown with lichens
-and moss, but their general character will be understood from the
-annexed woodcut. Its character is something between the sculptures
-of Talten and Brugh, which would agree very well with its date if we
-suppose it connected with the battle-field. This, however, is very
-doubtful, for there are few things that come out more prominently in
-the investigation than the fact that all those monuments which are
-directly or indirectly connected with battle-fields are literally rude
-and untouched by the chisel, but that all, or nearly all those which
-are in cemeteries, or have been erected leisurely by, or for, those who
-occupy them, are more or less ornamented. It may, however, be that some
-one connected with the battle wished to be buried near his companions
-who fell there, and prepared this last resting-place for himself, but
-we must know more before such speculations can be of much value.
-
-One other point is of interest regarding this tomb. If the minor
-sepulchres at Brugh were like the one flush with the surface, we cannot
-guess how many may yet be there undiscovered, and equally difficult to
-say how they are to be disinterred.
-
-
-DOLMENS.
-
-It is extremely difficult to write anything that will be at all
-satisfactory regarding the few standing solitary dolmens of Ireland.
-Not that their history could not be, perhaps, easily ascertained, but
-simply because every one has hitherto been content to consider them as
-prehistoric, and no one has consequently given himself the trouble to
-investigate the matter. The first point would be to ascertain whether
-any of them exist on any of the battle-fields mentioned in the Irish
-annals. My impression is that they do not: but this question can only
-be answered satisfactorily by some one more intimately acquainted with
-the ancient political geography of Ireland than I can pretend to be.
-No connexion has, however, yet been shown to exist between them and
-any known battle-fields, and till this is done, we must be content to
-consider them as the graves of chiefs or distinguished individuals
-whose ashes are contained in the urns which are generally found under
-them.
-
-A still more important question hinges on their geographical
-distribution. Nothing can be more unsafe than to found any important
-deductions on what is known on this subject at present. If all those
-which are described in books and in journals of learned societies
-were marked on a map, the conclusion would be that the most of them
-are found on the east coast of Ireland; a dozen or so in Waterford
-and Wexford; as many in Dublin and Meath, and an equal number in
-County Down. But this knowledge may merely mean that the east coast,
-possessing roads and towns, has consequently been more frequented by
-tourists and antiquaries than the remote or inaccessible west.
-
-Among the records, however, of the Ordnance survey, and in the Du Noyer
-drawings, there are probably sufficient materials for the purpose. Both
-are deposited in the Library of the Royal Irish Academy at Dublin;
-but any person who would attempt to use these materials for the
-purpose of such an investigation, must be not only an enthusiast, but
-have his whole time at his disposal. The disarray in which they now
-exist renders them utterly useless to any ordinary student of Irish
-antiquities.
-
-The Irish themselves seem to have only one tradition regarding their
-dolmens. They call them all "Beds of Diarmid and Graine," and that is
-the name applied to them in the sheets of the Ordnance Survey. The
-elopement of Diarmid with Graine, the daughter of Cormac Mac Art,
-whose date, according to the Four Masters, was A.D. 286, is
-one of the most celebrated of Irish legends.[256] The story is, that
-being pursued all over Ireland by Finn, the disappointed suitor, they
-erected these as places of shelter, or for hiding in. This is, of
-course, absurd enough; but it shows that, in the opinion of the Irish
-themselves, they belong to the period which elapsed between the birth
-of Christ and the conversion of the people to Christianity. There is
-no hint in any Irish book that any of them were erected before the
-Christian era, nor anything that would lead us to suppose that any are
-more modern than the time of St. Columba.
-
-The most extensive group of free standing dolmens known to exist in
-Ireland, is that in or near Glen Columbkille, at the extreme western
-point of Donegal. No account of these has been published--so far as I
-know--in any book or journal, and I am indebted for all I know about
-them to my friend, Mr. Norman Moore, who paid a visit to the spot
-this autumn to obtain the information I wanted, and it is from his
-descriptions that the following is abstracted.[257]
-
-The principal groups are situated in Glen Malin More, a small valley
-running parallel to that of Columbkille, about two miles to the
-southward of it. There are three groups on the north side of this
-valley and two on the south, extending from about half a mile from
-the sea-shore to about three miles inward. The finest group is that
-next the sea on the south side, and consists of six dolmens, situated
-nearly in a row, about 50 or 100 feet apart, and is accompanied by
-some cairns, but so small as hardly to deserve the name of Tumuli. The
-stones of the dolmens range from 6 to 12 feet in height, and their
-cap-stones are still there, though some have been displaced.
-
-The second group, a little way up the glen, consists of ten dolmens
-arranged in two parallel rows, but they are neither so large nor so
-perfect as those nearer to the sea.
-
-Nearly opposite the first-named group on the shore, but on the north
-side of the stream, are two dolmens so nearly contiguous to each
-other that they may almost be considered as one structure. About half
-a mile to the east of this is a fourth group, consisting of four
-dolmens, accompanied by cairns, and two at least of the former are of
-considerable magnificence. The group farthest up the glen consists of
-five or six dolmens, but all except one in a ruinous state.
-
-The number of dolmens in Glen Columbkille is not given by Mr. Moore;
-but, from the context, there must be five or six, making up twenty
-to thirty for the whole group. So far as can be judged from the
-description, the group in Glen Columbkille seems to have better fitted
-and more complete chambers; consequently, I should infer it to be more
-modern than the others. It would, however, require careful personal
-inspection to classify them; though I have no doubt it could be done,
-and that, with a little care, these six groups could be arranged into a
-consecutive series, whatever the initial or final date may turn out to
-be.
-
-The general construction and appearance of these tombs is that of
-the so-called Calliagh Birra's house in Meath, described further on
-(woodcut No. 80). From its situation and appearance, there seems little
-reason for doubt that the Meath example belongs to the fifth or the
-sixth century; and if this is so, as little for doubting that these
-dolmens in Donegal are of about the same age, or, in other words, that
-this mode of interment continued to be practised in certain parts of
-Ireland, especially near the coasts, down to the entire conversion of
-the inhabitants to Christianity.
-
-There are no other traditions, so far as I know, attached to anything
-in this glen, except those that relate to St. Columba, who, it is
-understood, long resided here, attempting to convert the inhabitants
-to Christianity. Whether he was successful or not is not clear. He
-certainly left Ireland in disgust, and settled in the first island
-whence the shores of his detested native land could not be seen. The
-only other tradition that seems to bear on the subject relates to
-St. Patrick, who, being unable to convert the "Demons" about Croagh
-Patrick, in Mayo, drove them into the sea; but, instead of perishing,
-as they ought to have done, when he threw his bell after them, they
-reappeared, and settled on this promontory.[258] The meaning of this
-fable seems to be, that some tribe--not Celtic, for the Celts accepted
-Christianity whenever and wherever it was preached to them, but, it may
-be of Iberian origin--refusing to accept the doctrine, was expelled
-by force from their seats in Mayo, and sought refuge with kindred
-tribes in this remote corner of the island, and here remained till
-St. Columba took up his abode among them. If we might assume that
-the Columbkille group belongs to a time immediately preceding their
-conversion, and that the other five groups in Malin More extended back
-to a date two, three, it may be four centuries before St. Columba's
-time, and that they belonged to an Iberian or Celtiberian race, we
-should have an hypothesis which at least would account for all their
-peculiarities. Though in sight of Carrowmore, on the southern side of
-Sligo Bay, it is certain that these monuments have no affinity with
-them or with the works of any of the Northern circle-building nations.
-Spanish or French they must be; and we can hardly hesitate between the
-two. In Elizabeth's time, and as far back as history reaches, we have
-Spaniards settled in Galway, and on the western coast of Ireland. Such
-colonisation, if lasting, is not the work of any sudden impulse or of
-a long past time; and the probability is that Iberians, before they
-learned to talk Latin, were settled here from a very early age. It
-is also probable from what we know of them and their monuments in the
-Peninsula, that they would refuse for a longer period than the Celts to
-be converted, and that they should use dolmens for their sepulchres in
-preference either to tumuli or circles.
-
-Be this as it may, there are at least two points which we may assume
-negatively with regard to these dolmens. The first is, that they do not
-mark battle-fields: they have none of the appearance of such monuments.
-The second is, that as there is no capital or fertile country in their
-neighbourhood, they are not a royal cemetery; they are not, indeed,
-claimed, even in the remotest manner, by any of the royal races of
-Ireland. They are, so far as we can see, the sepulchres of a foreign
-colony settled on this spot. Whether this is probable or not must,
-of course, depend on a comparison of these monuments with those in
-the countries from which they are supposed to have come. But, in the
-meanwhile, it may be assumed, as an hypothesis which at least accounts
-for the phenomena as we find them in Ireland, even when judged of by
-their own internal evidence alone.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-One of the most interesting of the Irish dolmens is that known as the
-Giant's Grave, near Drumbo, about four miles south from Belfast. The
-interest attached to this monument does not, however, arise so much
-from the grandeur of the structure itself, though it may be considered
-a first-class example and very tolerably perfect, but from its standing
-solitary in the centre of the largest circle in these islands,
-Avebury only excepted. The circle is about 580 feet in diameter, and
-consequently more than six acres in extent, and is formed, not as at
-Avebury or Arbor Low, by a ditch dug inside, and the earth so gained
-being used to form a rampart, but by the top of a hill being levelled
-and the earth removed in so doing being thrown up so as to form a
-circular amphitheatre. Although, consequently, the rampart is not so
-high outside as at Avebury, the whole surface internally having been
-lowered, the internal effect is very much grander.[259]
-
-What, then, was the object of this great earthwork with one solitary
-dolmen in the centre? Was it simply the converse of such a mound as
-that at New Grange? Was it that, instead of heaping the earth over the
-sepulchral chamber, they cleared it away and arranged it round it, so
-as to give it dignity? Or was it that funereal games or ceremonies were
-celebrated round the tomb, and that the amphitheatre was prepared to
-give dignity to their performance? These are questions that can only
-be answered when more of these circles are known and compared with one
-another, and the whole subject submitted to a more careful examination
-than has yet been the case. My impression is that it is the grave of
-a chief, and of him only, and that it is among the most modern of its
-class.
-
-At about the same distance west from Belfast is another dolmen, which,
-in itself, is a much finer example than this Grave of the Giant. Its
-cap-stone is said to weigh 40 tons, and is supported by five upright
-stones of considerable dimensions. It has, however, no circle or
-accompaniments. The Celtic name of the district in which it stands was
-'Baille clough togal,' _i.e._ the Town of the Stone of the Strangers,
-which would seem to indicate that it was not very old, nor its origin
-quite forgotten.
-
-[Illustration: 78. Dolmen at Knockeen.]
-
-At Knockeen, county Waterford, there is a remarkable dolmen (woodcut
-No. 78), though it neither has any surroundings nor any tradition
-attached to it.[260] It is interesting, however, as it looks as if
-we were approaching the form out of which Stonehenge grew, which, I
-have not a doubt, could be found in Ireland if looked for. It is also
-interesting as showing in plan (woodcut No. 79), an arrangement which
-is peculiar, I believe, to Irish dolmens. The cell is well formed, but
-in front of it is a demicell, or ante-chamber, which looks as if it
-might have been used for making offerings to the dead after the cell
-was closed.
-
-[Illustration: 79. Plan of Dolmen at Knockeen.]
-
-[Illustration: 80. Calliagh Birra's House, north end of Parish of
-Monasterboice.]
-
-One other dolmen deserves being illustrated before going further, as it
-belongs to a class of monuments common in Brittany, hitherto unknown in
-Great Britain. It consists of a cell 12 feet 8 inches long internally,
-with a width of 4 feet at the entrance, but diminishing to 3 feet at
-its inner end. It is situated near Monasterboice, at the northern limit
-of the parish, and not far, consequently, from New Grange, and close
-to Greenmount. Locally it is known as the house or tomb of Calliagh
-Vera, or Birra,[261] the hag whose chair is illustrated in woodcut No.
-73, and whose name is indissolubly connected with the Lough Crew tombs.
-According to the traditions collected by Dr. O'Donovan and Mr. Conwell,
-she broke her neck before completing the last tumulus, and was buried,
-close to where she died,[262] in the parish of Diarmor, where, however,
-nothing remains to mark the spot.
-
-From the mode in which it is constructed, it seems hardly doubtful that
-the original intention was to cover it with a tumulus; but probably it
-never was occupied. If I am correct in my surmise as to its age, its
-builder may have been converted to Christianity before he had occasion
-for it. But, be that as it may, its exposed position may serve to
-explain how a king or chief who had erected such a structure for his
-burying-place might very well have amused himself, if his life were
-prolonged, in adorning both the interior and exterior with carvings.
-I cannot believe that the internal ornaments were ever executed by
-artificial light, and both, therefore, must have been completed before
-the chamber was buried.
-
-Last year, General Lefroy excavated a tumulus at Greenmount, Castle
-Bellingham, about five miles north of Calliagh Birra's so-called
-house.[263] In it he found a chamber, 21 feet long by about 4 feet wide
-and 5 feet high, enclosed by two parallel walls built of small stones,
-and closed at each end by similar masonry.
-
-The roof was formed of slabs in two rows, the lower projecting as
-brackets and the upper stretching across beyond the walls on each side.
-In plan, therefore, it was identical with the Birra's house, though
-longer and larger. But, from the mode in which it was constructed,
-it was evidently more modern,--the most modern, in fact, of all the
-chambered sepulchral tumuli yet discovered in Ireland.
-
-[Illustration: 81. Plan and Section of Chamber in Greenmount Tumulus.
-From a drawing by General Lefroy.]
-
-Nothing was found in the chamber: it had been rifled before, but by
-whom and at what period there was nothing to show. At 9 or 10 feet
-below the summit, but still 6 or 7 feet above the floor of the chamber,
-a bronze monument was found with a Runic inscription on it, which, with
-the assistance of the Danish antiquaries, the General decides to belong
-to the ninth century (852?). The one question is, is it coeval with the
-building of the tomb or its destruction? The name Domnal, or Domhnall,
-being Irish, and the position in which it was found seem to prove that
-it belongs to the period of the raising of the mound, not to that of
-its being rifled; and if so, this grave approaches the age to which
-Maeshowe in the Orkneys may belong.
-
-The circumstance, however, which interests us most at present is the
-similarity of the Greenmount Chamber to the Lady Birra's tomb. Being
-locally so close to one another, and so like in plan, they cannot be
-very distant in date, though the more southern is, from its megalithic
-character, undoubtedly the more ancient of the two. If we allow two or
-three centuries it is a long stretch, though even that takes us far
-away from any connexion with the monuments at Lough Crew, and barely
-allows of it following very close on those at Brugh na Boinne.
-
-The similarity of this tomb with those at Glen Columbkille has already
-been pointed out, and no doubt others exist in Ireland, and will be
-brought to light as soon as attention is directed to the subject. But
-meanwhile they seem, so far as we can at present judge, to make up an
-extensive group of pagan or semi-pagan monuments, extending from the
-time of St. Patrick to that of St. Columba, and, as such, are among
-the latest, and certainly among the most interesting, monuments of the
-class in Ireland.
-
-[Illustration: 82. Dolmen of the Four Maols, Ballina.]
-
-Vague as all this may probably appear, there is one dolmen in Ireland
-which seems to have a date. The great grandson of Dathi, whose red
-pillar-stone at Rath Croghan, erected A.D. 428, we have
-already pointed out, was named Ceallach. He was murdered by his four
-foster-brothers through envy about the sovereignty. They were hanged
-for their crime at a spot known as Ard-na-Riagh, near Ballina, and were
-buried on a hill on the opposite side of the river, where a dolmen
-still stands, and is pointed out as the grave of the four Maols, the
-murderers. These particulars are related in the Dinnsenchus, in the
-Book of Lecan, and in the Annals of the Hy Fiachrach, translated by Dr.
-O'Donovan (p. 35), who, in a note, adds that "this evidence, coupled
-with the description of the situation on the other side of the Moy,
-opposite Ard-na-Riagh, leaves no doubt of its identity."
-
-The dolmen in question has nothing very remarkable about it. The
-cap-stone, which measures 9 feet by 7 feet, is hexagonal in form, and
-is supported on three uprights, arranged similarly to those of Kit's
-Cotty House. It is perfectly level, and stands about 4 feet above
-the level of the soil. The cap-stone may have been fashioned into
-its present form by art; but there is no sign of chiselling, and,
-altogether there is nothing that would attract especial attention.[264]
-The interest rests with its date. If it can be established that it
-belongs to the beginning of the sixth century, which I see no more
-reason for doubting than Dr. O'Donovan does, it is a point gained in
-our investigation, in so far at least as dates are concerned.
-
-It would be tedious to enumerate the other dolmens in Ireland which
-have neither dates nor peculiarities to distinguish them from others
-of this class, but there is one monument of a megalithic character in
-Ireland which must be described before leaving the country, though it
-certainly is not a dolmen, and its date and use are both mysterious at
-present.
-
-[Illustration: 83. Sketch-Plan of Monument in the Deer Park, Sligo.
-Scale 40 feet to 1 inch.]
-
-It stands in the deer park of the Hazlewood domain, about four miles
-east of Sligo. It is entered from the south, and consists first
-of an enclosure 54 feet by 24 feet. To the westward of this is a
-smaller apartment, about 30 feet by 12 feet, divided into two by two
-projecting stones. At the east end are two similar apartments side
-by side, but smaller, the whole length of the structure measuring
-about 115 feet.[265] The three entrances from the central to the side
-apartments are trilithons of squared and partially dressed stones, and
-would remind us of Stonehenge, were they not so small. They are only
-3 feet under the lintel, and you must bow low indeed to pass under
-them. Indeed, when speaking of these enclosures as apartments, it
-must be borne in mind that one can enter anywhere by passing between
-the stones, and stepping over the walls, which are composed of stones
-hardly ever touching each other, the highest being only 3 or 4 feet
-high. Many of them, though massive, have only half that height.
-
-What, then, is this curious edifice? It can hardly be a tomb, it is
-so unlike any other tomb which we know of. In plan it looks more like
-a temple; indeed, it is not unlike the arrangement of some Christian
-churches: but a church or temple with walls pervious, as these are, and
-so low that the congregation outside can see all that passes inside,
-is so anomalous an arrangement, that it does not seem admissible. At
-present it is unique; if some similar example could be discovered,
-perhaps we might guess its riddle.
-
-It is situated on the highest plateau of the hill. A little lower
-down is a very fine stone Cathair, or circular fort, with an L-shaped
-underground apartment of some extent in its centre; and on a
-neighbouring eminence are several round tumuli, which, looking like the
-burying-places of the "Castellani," increase the improbability of the
-upper building being a sepulchre.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-Before leaving this branch of the subject, it may be as well to allude
-to a point which, though not very distinct in itself, may have some
-influence with those who are shocked at being told that the rude
-stone monuments of Ireland are so modern as from the preceding pages
-we should infer they were. It is that every allusion to Ireland, in
-any classical author, and every inference from its own annals, lead
-us to assume that Ireland, during the centuries that elapsed between
-the Christian era and St. Patrick, was in a state of utter and
-hopeless barbarism. The testimony of Diodorus[266] and Strabo[267]
-that its inhabitants were cannibals is too distinct to be disputed,
-and according to the last named authority, they added to this an
-ugly habit of eating their fathers and mothers. These accusations
-are repeated by St. Jerome[268] in the fourth century with more than
-necessary emphasis. All represent the Irish as having all their women
-in common, and as more barbarous than the inhabitants of Britain,[269]
-indeed, than any other people of Europe. Nor can it be pleaded that
-these authors wrote in ignorance of the state of the country, for
-Ptolemy's description of the coasts and of the interior, of the cities
-and tribes shows an intimate acquaintance with the island which could
-only be derived from observation.[270] Their own annals do not, it
-is true, repeat these scandals; but nothing we now have can be said
-to have been reduced to writing in anything like the form in which
-we now possess it before the time of St. Patrick; and even that has
-passed through edition after edition at the hands of patriotic Irishmen
-before it assumed the form in which we now find it. Even these tell of
-nothing but fighting and assassination, and of crimes of every sort
-and kind. Even the highest title of one of their greatest kings, Conn
-"of a hundred battles," is sufficiently indicative of the life which
-he led, and the state of the country he governed. As we have every
-reason to believe that the progress of Ireland was steadily and equably
-progressive, it is evident that if it was so, a very short time prior
-to what we find in the early centuries of Christianity would take us
-back to the present state of the natives of Australia, and we should
-find a condition of society when any combined effort was impossible. So
-evident is this, not only from history, but from every inference that
-can be gathered from the state of Ireland in subsequent ages, that the
-wonder really is how such a people could have erected such monuments
-as those we find on the banks of the Boyne in the early centuries of
-our epoch. The answer is, of course, that the idleness of savages
-is capable of wonderful efforts. A nation of men who have no higher
-ambition than to provide for their daily wants, and who are willing to
-submit to any tyrant who will undertake to supply these in order to
-gratify his own pride or ambition, may effect wonders. The pyramids
-of Egypt and the temples of southern India are examples of what may
-be done by similar means. But to effect such things, the people must
-be sufficiently organised to combine, and sufficiently disciplined to
-submit; and we have no reason to suppose that in Ireland they were
-either before the Christian era, and it is even very difficult to
-understand how they came to be so far advanced even in the time of St.
-Patrick. That they were so their works attest; but if we had to trust
-to indications derived from history alone, the inference certainly
-would be that the monuments are considerably more modern than the dates
-above assigned to them; while it seems barely possible they should be
-carried back to any earlier period.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-There may be other rude stone monuments in Ireland besides those
-described or alluded to in the preceding pages, but they can scarcely
-be very numerous or very important, or they could hardly have escaped
-notice. They are not, consequently, likely to disturb any conclusion
-that may be arrived at from the examination of those which are known.
-From these, we may safely conclude that all, with perhaps the exception
-of the Hazlewood monument, are certainly sepulchral; and all, unless
-I am very much mistaken, were erected subsequently to the building of
-Emania by Eochaidh Ollamb Fodlha in the third century B.C.
-There may be cairns, and even dolmens, belonging to the earlier
-Hiberni before the Scoti were driven from the Continent, by the Punic
-or Roman wars, to seek refuge and repose in the green island of the
-West, but they must be insignificant, and probably must remain for ever
-unrecognizable.
-
-From the date, however, of the founding of Emania we seem to have a
-perfectly consecutive and intelligible series commencing with the
-smaller and ruder cairns of Lough Crew, and rising at last to the
-lordly sepulchres of Brugh na Boinne. Between these two stand the
-monuments on the battle-fields of Moytura, and contemporary with the
-last are the Raths on the far-famed hill of Tara. Beyond these we seem
-to have the tomb of the four Moels, the so-called house of Calliagh
-Birra, and the dolmens of Glencolumbkille, all apparently belonging
-to the sixth century. The tumulus at Greenmount is later than any of
-these, but hardly belongs to our Irish series.
-
-From these we pass by easy gradations to the beehive cells and
-oratories of the early Christians. No such stone dwellings probably
-existed before the time of St. Patrick, or we should have found traces
-of them at Tara, or Armagh, or Telltown; but as none such existed
-in these royal seats of the Scots, we may fairly assume that for
-domestic purposes wood and turf alone were used. But as soon as the
-use of stone became prevalent for such purposes, as was the case with
-the introduction of Christianity, we soon find the round towers, with
-their accompanying churches, springing up in every corner of the land,
-and Irish architecture progressing steadily in a groove of its own,
-till its forms were modified, but not obliterated, by the changes
-introduced by the English conquerors. The history of their style from
-St. Patrick to the English conquerers has been so well written by
-Petrie, that little now remains to be said about that division. But the
-history of the preceding seven centuries still remains for some one
-with the leisure requisite to explore the country, and with patience
-and judgment sufficient to read aright the many enigmas which are
-still involved in it, although the main outlines of the story seem
-sufficiently clear and intelligible. If it were written out in detail
-and fully illustrated, it would prove a most valuable commentary on
-the dark period of the history of Ireland before the introduction of
-Christianity, and when the concomitant introduction of alphabetic
-writing first rendered her annals intelligible and trustworthy.
-
-In one other respect the study of these early monuments of Ireland
-seems to afford a subject of most engrossing interest. It is in Ireland
-that we first begin to perceive the threefold division, which, if it
-can be established, will lead to the most important ethnographical
-determinations. It appears that in this island the stone circles of
-the Scandinavians were introduced simultaneously with the dolmens of
-the Iberians or Aquitanians, and we can trace the rude barrows of
-the Celts growing up between them till they expanded into the great
-mounds of the Boyne. That these three forms ever were at any one time
-absolutely distinct is most unlikely, and equally so that they should
-have long remained so in the same country, even if it could be shown
-that at any one time they belonged to three separate races. Generally,
-however, it seems hardly doubtful that they do point to ethnographic
-peculiarities, which may become most important. Combined with their
-history and a knowledge of their uses, these monuments promise to
-rescue from oblivion one of the most curious chapters of Irish history,
-which without them might remain for ever unwritten.
-
-
-    [Footnote 201: Stokes, 'Life of Petrie;' London, 1868, p. 99 _et
-    seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 202: In the following pages it is proposed to follow the
-    popular and pronounceable spelling of Irish proper names. One half
-    of the difficulty of following the Irish annals is the unfamiliar
-    and uncouth mode in which proper names are spelt, and which we
-    learn, from Eugene O'Curry's lectures, never represents the mode
-    in which they are pronounced. In a learned work intended for Irish
-    scholars, like the 'Annals of the Four Masters,' the scientific
-    mode of spelling is, of course, the only one that could be adopted,
-    but in such a work as this it would be only useless and prejudicial
-    pedantry.]
-
-    [Footnote 203: 'Lough Corrib, its Shores and Islands.' Dublin,
-    1867. Sir William possesses a residence on the battle-field, where
-    I was hospitably entertained for some days when I visited that
-    neighbourhood last year.]
-
-    [Footnote 204: These, and all the particulars of the battle of
-    South Moytura, are taken from the eighth chapter of Sir W. Wilde's
-    book, pp. 211-248, and need not, therefore, be specially referred
-    to.]
-
-    [Footnote 205: 'Annals of the Four Masters,' translated by J.
-    O'Donovan, i. p. 23.]
-
-    [Footnote 206: Eugene O'Curry's 'Materials for Ancient Irish
-    History,' p. 246.]
-
-    [Footnote 207: Stokes, 'Life of Petrie,' p. 253.]
-
-    [Footnote 208: _l. c._ p. 242.]
-
-    [Footnote 209: I regret very much that the state of my health,
-    and other circumstances, prevented my mapping and drawing these
-    remains, but I hope some competent person will undertake the task
-    before long. Carrowmore is more easily accessible than Carnac.
-    The inns at Sligo are better than those at Auray, the remains are
-    within three miles of the town, and the scenery near Sligo is far
-    more beautiful than that of the Morbihan; yet hundreds of our
-    countrymen rush annually to the French megaliths, and bring home
-    sketch-books full of views and measurements, but no one thinks of
-    the Irish monuments, and no views of them exist that are in any way
-    accessible to the public.]
-
-    [Footnote 210: It is unfortunately only an eye-sketch, hurriedly
-    taken, and thus not to be implicitly depended upon. The two stones
-    outside, that look like the rudiments of the avenue, I take to mark
-    only an external interment.]
-
-    [Footnote 211: These, and several other photographs of the field
-    and localities near it, were specially made for me by Mr. A.
-    Sleater, 26, Castle-street, Sligo, who executed my commission both
-    cheaply and intelligently.]
-
-    [Footnote 212: O'Curry's 'Materials for Ancient Irish History,'
-    Appendix xxv. p. 41.]
-
-    [Footnote 213: "Meaba Regina occisa est a Furba dio filio Concobari
-    7 Vespasiano," ii. p. 23.]
-
-    [Footnote 214: Stokes, 'Life of Petrie,' p. 256.]
-
-    [Footnote 215: Petrie's 'Round Towers,' p. 107.]
-
-    [Footnote 216: It will be found at more length in E. O'Curry's
-    'Materials for Ancient Irish History,' pp. 247-250.]
-
-    [Footnote 217: It was, according to the same authorities, "during
-    this interval that Lugh, the then reigning king, established
-    the fair at Tailtean, in commemoration of his foster-mother,
-    the daughter of Magh Mor, king of Spain," "This fair," adds Dr.
-    O'Donovan, "continued famous down to the time of Roderic O'Conor,
-    last monarch of Ireland; and the traditions of it are still so
-    vivid, that Telltown was till recently resorted to by the men of
-    Meath for hurling, wrestling, and manly sports." It would be a
-    wonderful instance of the stability of Irish institutions if a
-    fair, established in a miserable inland village eighteen centuries
-    before Christ, should flourish through the middle ages, and hardly
-    now be extinct! It may have been established about the Christian
-    era, but certainly not before, and thus becomes another piece of
-    evidence as to the date of the events we are describing.--'Annals
-    of the Four Masters,' p. 23.]
-
-    [Footnote 218: 'Mon. Hist. Brit.' xcviii.]
-
-    [Footnote 219: Madsen, 'Antiquités préhistoriques du Danemark.'
-    Copenhagen, 1869.]
-
-    [Footnote 220: Sjöborg Samlingar för Nordens Fornälskare,' i. p.
-    12.]
-
-    [Footnote 221: 'Materials for Ancient Irish History,' p. 250.]
-
-    [Footnote 222: 'Annals of the Four Masters,' translated by J.
-    O'Donovan, i. p. 21.]
-
-    [Footnote 223: O'Curry, 'Materials for Ancient Irish History,' p.
-    246.]
-
-    [Footnote 224: O'Connor, ii. p. 1. O'Curry, 'Materials for Ancient
-    Irish History,' p. 63.]
-
-    [Footnote 225: 'Tighernachi Ann.' O'Connor, p. 11-23.]
-
-    [Footnote 226: 'Annals of the Four Masters,' i. p. 99.]
-
-    [Footnote 227: 'Essay on the Ancient Architecture of Ireland,' by
-    G. Petrie, pp. 97-109.]
-
-    [Footnote 228: Could this be the great Rath close to the
-    Netterville domain? See Sir W. Wilde, 'The Boyne and the
-    Blackwater,' p. 211.]
-
-    [Footnote 229: Tighernach, O'Connor, ii. p. 23, "Carcobarus filius
-    Nessæ obiit hoc anno--33."]
-
-    [Footnote 230: In the 'Annals of the Four Masters' (i. p. 89)
-    there is a king called Eochaid Aireamb. "Ideo dictus," says Lynch,
-    translating Keating, "quod tumulos effodi primus in Hiberniâ
-    curavit." I have no doubt the etymology is correct, and the fact
-    also; but it would hardly do to base our argument upon it, though
-    it accords perfectly with the conclusion I have arrived at from
-    other circumstances. He lived, according to the 'Four Masters,'
-    118 B.C. According to the more correct Tighernach, 45
-    B.C.]
-
-    [Footnote 231: The real name of the Daghda was, according to the
-    'Four Masters,' Eochaidh Ollathair; and Eochaid, or Eochy, is
-    one of the most common names in Irish history, and constantly
-    recurring.]
-
-    [Footnote 232: Since the above was written I have been gratified
-    to find so eminent an authority as Dr. Henthorn Todd, late
-    President of the Royal Irish Academy, arriving, by a very different
-    road, at very nearly the same conclusion:--"The Firbolgs, or
-    Belgæ," he says, "invaded Ireland, not from France, but from
-    Britain--Dumnonii, or Devon." "The conquest of Ireland was not much
-    older than Cæsar's time, if it were not a good bit later, and was
-    the first influx of civilization rude, indeed, but much superior to
-    that of the Hiberni."--_Irish Nennius_, translated by J. H. Todd,
-    D.D., Appendix C.]
-
-    [Footnote 233: The principal one of these is the rath of Queen
-    Meave, at some distance off. She, according to Tighernach,
-    was slain by her stepson, in the seventh year of Vespasian,
-    A.D. 75.]
-
-    [Footnote 234: According to Tighernach, Cormac, the grandson of
-    Conn of a Hundred Battles, commonly called Cormac Mac Art, reigned
-    218-266 A.D.]
-
-    [Footnote 235: 'Hist. and Ant. of Tara Hill.'--'Trans. R. I. A.'
-    xviii. p. 212.]
-
-    [Footnote 236: _Ibid._ xviii. pp. 81, 137, 170, &c.]
-
-    [Footnote 237: 'Materials for Ancient Irish History,' Appendix ii.
-    p. 463 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 238: _Ibid._ p. 29 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 239: 'Hist, and Ant. of Tara.'--'Trans. R. I. S.' xviii.
-    p. 46.]
-
-    [Footnote 240: Petrie, 'Round Towers,' 100 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 241: L. c. 105.]
-
-    [Footnote 242: The Irish use ditch, as the Romans used vallum, or
-    the Scotch dyke, to designate either a rampart or the hollow from
-    which it was taken.]
-
-    [Footnote 243: Quotation from 'Book of Geneal,' p. 251. Petrie,
-    'Round Towers,' p. 107.]
-
-    [Footnote 244: Sir W. Wilde, 'The Boyne and the Blackwater,' 1849,
-    p. 188.]
-
-    [Footnote 245: Rowland's 'Mona Antiqua,' p. 314.]
-
-    [Footnote 246: 'Philosophical Transactions,' Nos. 335-336.]
-
-    [Footnote 247: This is well illustrated in Sir W. Wilde's book, p.
-    192, by a woodcut by Wakeman.]
-
-    [Footnote 248: Wakeman, 'Handbook of Irish Antiquities,' p. 25.]
-
-    [Footnote 249: In extenuation of this disfigurement, it must be
-    explained that these Irish cairns are extremely difficult to
-    explore without destroying them. Being wholly composed of loose
-    stones, it is almost impossible to tunnel into them, and almost as
-    difficult to sink shafts through them. The only plan seems to be to
-    cut into them, and, when this is done, disfigurement is inevitable.]
-
-    [Footnote 250: 'Archæologia,' xxx. pl. xii. p. 137.]
-
-    [Footnote 251: Sir W. Wilde, 'The Boyne and the Blackwater,' p.
-    209.]
-
-    [Footnote 252: 'Journal Royal Archæological Society,' xv. p. 270.]
-
-    [Footnote 253: Petrie's 'Round Towers,' p. 105.]
-
-    [Footnote 254: O'Curry's 'Materials for Irish History,' p. 636 _et
-    seq._ So, too, even Tighernach adds, in the year 33:--"Concobares
-    filius Nessæ obiit hoc anno."--_Ann._ p. 18.]
-
-    [Footnote 255: 'Petrie's Life,' by Stokes, p. 256.]
-
-    [Footnote 256: Eugene O'Curry, 'Materials,' &c., 314, 597.]
-
-    [Footnote 257: This most valuable contribution, with his
-    permission, is printed _in extenso_ in Appendix A.]
-
-    [Footnote 258: "Croagh Patrick, a mountain in Mayo, is famous in
-    legendary records as the scene of St. Patrick's final conflicts
-    with the demons of Ireland. From its summit he drove them into the
-    ocean, and completed their discomfiture by flinging his bell among
-    their retreating ranks. Passing northward they emerged from the
-    deep, and took up their abode in the savage wilds of Seang Cean,
-    on the south-west of Donegal. Here they remained unmolested till
-    our Tirconellian saint (Columba) was directed by an angel to rid
-    the place of its foul inhabitants. After a violent struggle he
-    completely routed them. His name was thenceforth associated with
-    the tract, and the wild parish of Glen Columbkille preserves, in
-    its topography and traditions, a living commentary on the legend of
-    St. Columba," &c.--Reeves, _Vita St. Adam._, p. 206.]
-
-    [Footnote 259: I cannot help thinking that the great rath at Dowth
-    was formed by a similar process. It may not, therefore, after all,
-    be a residential rath, as suggested above, but we are not yet in a
-    position to speak positively on such matters.]
-
-    [Footnote 260: 'Journal Kilkenny Archæo. Soc.' v. N. S. p. 479.]
-
-    [Footnote 261: If, instead of this silly legend, we could connect
-    this tomb with Brendanus Biorro, the founder of the monastery of
-    Birra, now Parsonstown, it would be a step in the right direction.
-    His date would accord perfectly with the architectural inferences;
-    for, according to Tighernach, he died 573.[*] The difficulty is to
-    believe that a Christian "propheta," as he is called, could have
-    thought of so pagan a form of sepulchre. It is not easy, however
-    to eradicate long-established habits, and his countrymen may not,
-    within a century of St. Patrick's time, have invented and become
-    reconciled to a new mode of burial. The Danes certainly buried
-    in howes for centuries after their conversion, and the Irish may
-    have been equally conservative. It is, however, hardly worth
-    while arguing the question here, as we have nothing but a nominal
-    similarity to go upon, which is never much to be relied upon.
-
-    * Reeves, 'Vita Adamnani,' p. 210.]
-
-    [Footnote 262: Eugene Conwell's pamphlet descriptive of the Lough
-    Crew Tumuli, p. 2.]
-
-    [Footnote 263: The following particulars are taken from a paper by
-    General Lefroy, in the 'Archæological Journal,' No. 180, 1870, pp.
-    281 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 264: My attention was first directed to this monument by
-    Mr. Samuel Ferguson, Keeper of the Records, Dublin. He considered
-    it then as the only cromlech in Ireland with an authenticated date;
-    but, as he has not published this, I must not be considered as
-    committing him to anything except beyond the desire of putting me
-    on the scent of an interesting investigation.]
-
-    [Footnote 265: There is a model of this curious structure in the
-    Royal Academy Museum, Dublin, but not a correct one; and the
-    woodcut in their catalogue, taken from the model, has still less
-    pretensions to accuracy.]
-
-    [Footnote 266: Diodorus, v. p. 32.]
-
-    [Footnote 267: 'Geo.' iv. p. 201.]
-
-    [Footnote 268: Ed. Valersii, i. p. 413; ii. p. 335.]
-
-    [Footnote 269: Tacitus, 'Agricola,' p. 24.]
-
-    [Footnote 270: Mercator, 'Geogra.' p. 31.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VI.
-
-SCOTLAND.
-
-
-Whatever may be the case as regards Ireland, it is probable that the
-megalithic remains of Scotland are all known and have been described
-more or less in detail. Such descriptions, however, as exist are
-scattered through the pages of ponderous statistical compilations,
-or in the transactions of learned societies in England and Scotland,
-or in local journals, so that it is extremely difficult to acquire a
-connected grasp of the whole subject, or to feel sure you do know all
-that is required, and still more difficult to convey to others a clear
-view of its outlines. Had any one done for the unsculptured stones
-of Scotland what John Stuart has done for those that have devices
-in them, the case would be widely different. Except Daniel Wilson's
-'Prehistoric Annals of Scotland'--whatever that may mean--no general
-account is available, and that work is too brief and too sparsely
-illustrated to be of much use. The introductory matter, however, in
-Mr. Stuart's two volumes,[271] with Mr. Wilson's book, may suffice for
-most purposes; but a complete knowledge can only be obtained by wading
-through the volumes of the Scotch and English Archæologias, and the
-transactions and proceedings of the various antiquarian societies of
-both countries.[272]
-
-Putting aside for the present the sculptured stones as hardly belonging
-to our subject, and the "cat" or battle stones, their predecessors,
-though they are numerous, as might be expected among the pugnacious
-Celtic races who inhabited the country, the remaining rude stone
-monuments are not numerous. The free-standing dolmens are few and far
-between, some half-dozen for the whole country, and none of them with
-histories or traditions attached to them. The circles, however, are
-numerous and important, and to some extent are calculated to throw
-light on our investigations. If we exclude the two battle-fields of
-Moytura, they are infinitely more numerous than those found in all
-Ireland and Wales put together, although there is only one group, that
-at Stennis in the Orkneys, that can compare with the great English
-examples.
-
-Their distribution too is interesting. No stone circles exist in
-the lowlands or south of the Frith of Forth and Clyde; and dolmens
-are rare in these regions, though this may arise from the extent to
-which cultivation is carried on there. Until, however, a statistical
-account is compiled, accompanied with a map, it is difficult to speak
-confidently on such a subject, but the general impression is that the
-lowlands are not, and never were, a region of megalithic remains;
-and if this is so, it is one of the many proofs that the dolmens are
-neither pre-Roman nor Celtic. At least we have no reason to believe
-that the Teutonic races who now occupy that country were settled there
-in the time of Agricola. But if the Celts or Picts who then inhabited
-that land had been in the habit of raising megalithic structures, we
-would have been more likely to find traces of them in that densely
-inhabited country than in the bleak uplands of Aberdeenshire, or the
-bare pastures of the Orkney Islands.
-
-The district of Scotland where these circles and rude stone monuments
-most abound is on either side of a straight line drawn direct from
-Inverness to Aberdeen, which is a locality where sculptured stones are
-also found in considerable numbers, but the rude stone monuments are
-not found in Angus or Fife, where their sculptured successors are most
-numerous. The district of the circles _par excellence_ in Scotland,
-however, is not on the mainland at all, but in the northern and western
-isles. The principal group is in the Orkneys; next in importance are
-those in Lewes. They are found in Skye and Kantyre. There are several
-in Arran, and thence the transition is easy to the Isle of Man, where
-they meet the English group in Cumberland.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-The larger circles in the Orkneys are four in number; three of these
-stand on a long slip of land that divides the loch of Harra from that
-of Stennis. The fourth is at some little distance from the others,
-and separated from them by a narrow strait connecting the two lochs.
-Besides these there are several smaller earthen circles and numerous
-tumuli. The largest circle, known as the Ring of Brogar,[273] is 340
-feet (100 metres) in diameter between the stones. These originally were
-sixty in number, ranging from 6 and 7 to 15 feet in height; outside the
-stones runs a ditch about 30 feet in width, and 6 in depth, but with
-no perceptible rampart on either side. Two causeways cross the ditch
-as at Penrith or Arbor Low (woodcuts No. 29 and 30) opposite to one
-another, but neither square with the axis of the spit of land on which
-the circle is situated, nor facing any of the four cardinal points of
-the heavens.
-
-Next in importance to this is the circle at Stennis, about
-three-quarters of a mile distant. It consisted originally of twelve
-stones 15 to 18 feet in height. Only two are now erect, but a third was
-so not many years ago; and the fourth, of which now only a fragment
-remains, is represented as standing when the drawing, which forms the
-frontispiece to this work, was made.[274] The remains of a dolmen still
-exist within the circle, not however in the centre, but close to its
-side, one of the stones of the circle apparently acting as head-stone
-to it. Beyond the stone circle which measures 104 feet in diameter is
-a ditch 50 feet wide, making the whole diameter of the monument to the
-outward edge of the surrounding mound about 240 feet. Not far from this
-circle, and close to the bridge of Brogar, stands a single monolith 18
-feet in height, which is the finest and highest stone of the group; and
-in another direction a lesser one, with a hole through it. Though only
-8 feet high, 3 feet broad, and 9 inches thick, this stone has become
-more famous than the others, from the use Sir Walter Scott makes of
-it in the 'Pirate,' and because, till a very recent period, an oath
-taken with hands joined through the hole in the Stone of Woden, was
-considered even by the courts in Orkney as more than usually solemn and
-binding.[275]
-
-[Illustration: 84. Circle at Stennis. From Lieutenant Thomas's plan.]
-
-No excavations, so far as I know, have been attempted in the circle
-of Stennis, but its ruined dolmen is probably sufficient to attest
-its sepulchral character. Some attempts at exploration were made in
-the larger Ring at Brogar, but without success. This is hardly to be
-wondered at, for a man must feel very sure where to look, who expects
-to find a small deposit in an area of two acres. The diggings are
-understood to have been made in the centre. There, however, the ground
-looks very like the undisturbed surface of the original moor, and as
-if it had never been levelled or used either for interment or any
-other human purpose, and slopes away irregularly some 6 feet towards
-the loch. My impression is that the deposits, if any exist, will be
-found near the outer circumference of the circle, either at the
-foot of the stones as at Crichie, or outside the ditch as at Hakpen
-or Stonehenge. In the smaller circles the diameter of which does not
-exceed 100 feet, the deposit seems either to have been in the centre;
-or, if at the sides, the stones were so arranged as to mark its place.
-In the larger, or 100-metre circles, we have not yet ascertained where
-to look. Accident may some day reveal the proper spot, but till it is
-ascertained either scientifically or fortuitously, no argument can be
-based on the negative evidence which our ignorance affords.
-
-In the neighbourhood of these stone circles are several bowl-shaped
-barrows similar to those in the neighbourhood of Stonehenge, not only
-externally but internally. When opened they were almost all found to
-contain interments by cremation and rude half-burnt pottery. It is not
-here, however, that these barrows are found in the greatest numbers.
-In the neighbouring parish of Sandwick they exist in hundreds, and
-scattered exactly as on the Wiltshire downs, here and there, singly or
-in pairs, without any apparent arrangement or grouping. It is said that
-there are at least 2000 of these mole-hill barrows in the islands.[276]
-Here, as there, it would seem, that where a man lived and died there
-he was buried, without any reference to anything existing, or that had
-existed. None of these barrows have stone circles of any sort attached
-to them. Indeed, the only rude stone monuments in Orkney of the class
-we are discussing are those just described, and they are all confined
-to one remote inhospitable-looking spot. Close to these, however,
-Lieutenant Thomas enumerates six or seven conoid barrows, whose form
-and contents are of a very different nature. The bodies in them had
-been buried entire without cremation, and with their remains were found
-silver torques and other ornaments, similar as far as can be made
-out--none are engraved--to those found in Skail Bay, along with coins
-of Athelstane, 925, and of the Caliphs of Bagdad, of dates from 887 to
-945.[277] That these conoid graves here, as well as others found in the
-islands, are of Scandinavian origin, can hardly be doubted, and their
-juxtaposition to the circles is at least suggestive. If the circles
-were monuments of the Celts, whom they despised, and in fact had even
-then exterminated, they would hardly choose a burying-place so close to
-them.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-The most important, however, of all the tumuli, not only in this
-neighbourhood, but in the islands, is known as the Maes-Howe. It was
-opened in 1861, in the presence of a select party of antiquaries from
-Edinburgh, who had hoped from its external appearance to find it
-intact: in this, however, they were disappointed. It would seem that
-men of the same race as those who erected it, but who in the meanwhile
-had been converted to Christianity, had apparently in the middle of the
-twelfth century broken into this sepulchre of their Pagan forefathers,
-and despoiled it of its contents. As some compensation for this, they
-have written their names in very legible Runes on the walls of the
-tomb, and recorded, in short sentences, what they knew and believed of
-its origin.[278]
-
-From these Runes we learn, in the first place, that the robbers were
-Christian pilgrims on their way to the Holy Land--Iorsala Farer--from
-which Professor Munch infers that they must have formed part of the
-expedition organized for that purpose by Jarl Ragnvald, 1152. Beyond
-this it is not possible to lay much stress on what these Runes tell
-us. In the first place, because the learned men to whom they have been
-submitted differ considerably in their interpretation,[279] and the
-record, even in the best of them, is indistinct. In one or two respects
-the evidence of the inscriptions may be considered satisfactory. Their
-writers all seem to have known so perfectly what the tomb was, and
-to whom it belonged, that no one cared to record, except in the most
-poetic fashion, what every one on the spot probably knew perfectly
-well. At all events, there is no allusion in these inscriptions to any
-other or earlier race. Every expression, whether intelligible or not,
-bears a northern stamp. Lothbrok, Ingeborg, and all the other names
-introduced are Scandinavian, and all the allusions have a Northern
-twang. Though this is merely negative evidence, it certainly goes some
-way to show that the robbers were aware that the Howe was originally
-erected by people of their own race. If, however, the direct evidence
-of these inscriptions is inconclusive, there is one engraving on a
-pillar facing the entrance which looks as if it were original, both
-from its position and character. It represents a dragon (woodcut No.
-85) of a peculiar Scandinavian type. A similar one is found on a stone
-attached to the tumulus under which King Gorm was buried, at Jellinge,
-in Denmark, in the middle of the tenth century. Making allowance for
-the difference in drawing, they are so like that they cannot be very
-distinct in date. A third animal of this species is found at Hunestadt,
-in Scania,[280] and dating about the year 1150, but very different,
-and very much more modern-looking than this one. Had the Jerusalem
-pilgrims drawn this dragon, it would probably have been much more like
-the Hunestadt example. On the other hand, if the one at Maes-Howe is
-original, the age of the tomb can hardly be half a century distant
-from that of King Gorm's Howe, which in other respects it very much
-resembles. It is, however, very unlikely that Christian pilgrims would
-draw a dragon like this, and still less that they would accompany it
-with a Wurm, or Serpent-Knot, like that found on the same pillar; both
-look like Pagan emblems, and seem to belong to the original decorations
-of the tomb.
-
-[Illustration: 85. Dragon in Maes-Howe.]
-
-[Illustration: 86. Wurm-Knot, Maes-Howe.]
-
-[Illustration: 87. Plan and Section of Maes-Howe. From Mr. Farrer's
-work.]
-
-Among the inscriptions in Maes-Howe is one which, from its apparent
-insignificance, none of the interpreters have condescended to notice.
-It will be observed on one of the loose stones lying in the foreground
-on woodcut No. 88, it consists of only four letters, and reads either
-HIAI or IKIH, according as it is turned one way or another. As it is
-impossible to make a recognisable word, much less sense out of such
-a combination, it is no wonder it was thrown aside; but it is just
-because it is unintelligible that it may turn out to be valuable as an
-index to the age of the monument. Nothing is more unlikely than that a
-Iorsala Farer would have idly engraved these Runes on a loose stone,
-but nothing more likely than that a mason who hewed the stone and
-fitted it to close the "loculus" exactly, would have put a mark upon
-it to show that it belonged to the right-hand chamber in which A or B
-was to be buried. The inscription is on the inner edge of the stone,
-where it would be hid when the stone was _in situ_, and most probably
-was engraved on the stone before it was originally used to close the
-opening.
-
-This, at least, is an explanation of its meaning better than any other
-which has yet been suggested, and if it is the correct one, this
-inscription with the Dragon and the Wurm-Knot are among the original
-sculptures of the tomb; and, if so, it will be difficult to assign it
-to an earlier age than the tenth century, which, from the circumstances
-to be mentioned hereafter, seems on the whole the most probable date.
-
-[Illustration: 88. View of Chamber in Maes-Howe. From a drawing by Mr.
-Farrer.]
-
-The architecture of the tumulus, though offering some indications of
-great value, hardly possesses any features sufficiently marked to fix
-its date with certainty. Externally it is a truncated cone (woodcut
-No. 87), about 92 feet in diameter, by 36 feet in height, and is
-surrounded at a distance of about 90 feet by a ditch 40 feet wide, and
-6 feet deep, out of which the earth seems to have been taken which was
-required to form the mound. Internally it contains a chamber slightly
-cruciform in plan, measuring 15 feet 4 inches, by 14 feet 10 inches,
-and, when complete, probably 17 feet in height. On each of three sides
-of the chamber is a sepulchral loculus, entered by a small opening 3
-feet from the ground. The largest of these, that on the right as you
-enter, is 7 feet by 4 feet 6 inches, and the central one 5 feet 6
-inches by 4 feet 6 inches. Each of these was closed by a single stone
-carefully squared, so as to fit the opening. The passage leading into
-the central chamber was 3 feet wide by 4 feet 6 inches in height, and
-originally closed, apparently by a doorway at 2 feet 6 inches from the
-chamber. Beyond this it is lined by two slabs 18 feet long, reaching
-nearly to a recess, which seems arranged as if to receive the real door
-which closed the sepulchre, probably a large stone. Beyond this the
-passage still extends some 20 feet to the present entrance, but is of
-very inferior class of masonry, and how much of it is modern is not
-clear.
-
-The first thing that strikes any one on examining this mound is that
-it certainly is the lineal descendant of the great cairns on the
-banks of the Boyne, but separated from them by a very long interval
-of time. It is not easy to determine what interval must have elapsed
-before the side chambers of those tombs merged into the "loculi" of
-this, or how long it must have been before their rude unhewn masses
-were refined into the perfectly well-fitted masonry of this one. Some
-allowance must, however, be made for the difference of material. The
-old red sandstone of the Orkneys splitting easily into self-faced
-slabs, offers wonderful facilities for its use, but still the way in
-which the angle-buttresses of the chamber were fitted, and the cells
-finished, and the great slabs line the entrance, all show a progress in
-masonic science that must have required centuries, assuming, of course,
-that they were built by the same people. But was this so? So far as
-we at present know, these islands, when conquered by Harold Harfagar
-in 875, were inhabited by two races called Pape and Peti. The former
-were generally assumed to have been colonies of Irish missionaries and
-their followers, who settled here after the conversion of the Picts
-by St. Columba in the middle of the sixth century. The Peti, it is
-also generally assumed, were the Pechts, or Picts.[281] It will not be
-easy to ascertain now whether they were so or not, as, according to
-Bishop Tulloch, they were so entirely exterminated by the Northmen,
-that of their "posteritie there remained nocht." But if the Pape, or
-Papas were Irish missionaries, they were Christians, and whatever else
-Maes-Howe may be, it certainly is not a place of Christian burial. Nor
-is it Pictish. If it were, we certainly should find something like it
-in Pictland proper; but nothing that can be at all compared with it
-is found in Fife or Forfar, or in any of those countries which were
-occupied by the Picts in the days of their greatness; and it is most
-improbable that a people who could not, or at least did not, erect any
-such sepulchre in the fertile and populous lands which they occupied
-on the mainland, would erect such a one as this on a comparatively
-barren and sparsely inhabited island. On the other hand, there seems
-every reason for believing that the 2000 little barrows above alluded
-to are the graves of the Picts, or original inhabitants of the island
-before they were exterminated by the Northmen. These barrows, however,
-have absolutely no affinity with Maes-Howe. None of them have chambers,
-none have circles of stone round them; all are curvilinear, and none,
-indeed, show anything to induce the belief that in any length of time
-they would be developed into such a sepulchre as that which we have
-been describing. It is in fact the story of Stonehenge and its barrows
-over again. A race of Giants superseding a nation of Pigmies with which
-they certainly had no blood affinities, and erecting among their puny
-sepulchres monuments dedicated, it may be, to similar purposes, but as
-little like them in reality as the great cathedrals of the middle ages
-are to the timber churches of the early Saxons.
-
-Only one hypothesis seems to remain, which is that it is a tomb of
-the northern men who conquered these islands in the ninth century.
-This may seem a very prosaic descent from the primæval antiquity some
-are inclined to ascribe to these monuments, but it certainly is not
-improbable; in the first place, because we have what seems undoubted
-testimony that Thorfin, one of the Jarls (940 to 970 A.D.)
-"was buried on Ronaldshay under a tumulus, which was then known by
-the name of Haugagerdium, and is perhaps the same as that we now call
-the How of Hoogsay," or Hoxay.[282] I have not been able to ascertain
-whether this is literally true or not, but have reason to believe that
-it was not in the How of Hoxay that Thorfin was buried, but in a mound
-close by.[283] The fact of his being buried in a Howe is, however, all
-that is at present demanded. Another important barrow is mentioned by
-Professor Munch,[284] known as Halfdan's Barrow, in Sandy, and raised
-by Torf Einar (925 to 936). So that we know of at least two important
-barrows belonging to the Norwegian Jarls in the tenth century, though
-only one has been identified with absolute certainty. As before
-mentioned, it is quite certain that King Gorm (died 950) and Thyra of
-Denmark were buried in tumuli in outward appearance very similar to
-Maes-Howe. That of Queen Thyra has alone been opened. It is a chamber
-tomb, similar to Maes-Howe, except in this, that the chamber in Denmark
-is formed with logs of wood, in the Orkneys with slabs of stone, but
-the difference is easily accounted for. At Jellinge stone is rare,
-and the country was covered with forests. At Stennis self-faced slabs
-of stone were to be had for the lifting, and trees were unknown. The
-consequence was, that workmen employed the best material available to
-carry out their purpose. Be that as it may, the fact that kings of
-Denmark and Jarls of Orkney were buried in Howes in the tenth century,
-takes away all _à priori_ improbability from the hypothesis that
-Maes-Howe may be a sepulchre of one of those Northmen.
-
-If this is so, our choice of an occupant lies within very narrow
-limits. We cannot well go back beyond the time of Harold Harfagar
-(876 to 920), who first really took possession of these islands, as
-a dependency of Norway, and created Sigurd the elder first Jarl of
-Orkney in 920. Nor can we descend below the age of the second Sigurd,
-who became Earl in 996, as we know he was converted by Olaus to
-Christianity, and was killed at Clontarf in 1014.[285] Within these
-seventy-six years that elapsed between 920 and 996 there is only one
-name that seems to meet all the exigencies of the case, and in a manner
-that can hardly be accidental. Havard "the happy," one of the sons of
-Thorfin, who was buried at Hoxay, was slain at Stennis in 970. Havard
-had married Raguhilda, the daughter of Eric Blodoxe, prince of Norway,
-and widow of his brother Arfin, but she, tired of her second husband,
-stirred up one of his nephews against him, and a battle was fought at
-Stennis, on a spot, says Barry, "which afterwards bore the name of
-Havardztugar, from the event or the slaughter."[286] The same story is
-repeated by Professor Wilson as follows, "Olaf Tryguesson, says Havard,
-was then at Steinsnes in Rossey. There was meeting and battle about
-Havard, and it was not long before the Jarl fell. The place is now
-called Havardsteiger. So it was called, and so M. Petrie writes me, it
-is still called by the peasantry to the present day."[287] Professor
-Munch, of Christiania, who visited the place in 1849, arrived at the
-conclusion "that most of the grave mounds grouped around the Brogar
-circle are, probably, memorials of this battle, and perhaps one of the
-larger that of Havard Earl."[288] In this I have no doubt he is right,
-but that larger one I take to be Maes-Howe, which is in sight of the
-circle, though not so close to it as those he was speaking of.
-
-One circumstance which at first sight renders this view of the case
-more than probable is, that Maes-Howe is, so far as we at present know,
-unique. Thorfin's grave, when found, may be a chambered tumulus, so may
-Halfdan's Barrow, when opened, but no others are known in Orkney. If
-it had been the tomb of a king or chief of any native dynasty, similar
-sepulchres must have been as numerous as they were on the banks of the
-Boyne or Blackwater. There must have been a succession of them, some
-of greater, some of less magnificence. Nothing of the sort, however,
-occurs, and till more are found, the Stennis group cannot be ascribed
-to a dynasty that lasted longer than the seventy-six years just quoted.
-That brief dynasty must also have been the most splendid and the
-most powerful of all that reigned in these islands, as no tomb there
-approaches Maes-Howe in magnificence. If such a description suits any
-other race than that of the Norwegian Jarls, I do not know where to
-look for an account of it.
-
-Assuming for the present that this is so, we naturally turn to the
-Runic inscriptions on the walls of the tomb to see how far they
-confirm or refute this view. Unfortunately there is nothing in them
-very distinct either one way or the other. The only recognizable names
-are those of Lothbrok and Ingiborg. The former, if the Lothbrok of
-Northumbrian notoriety, is too early; the Ingiborg, if the wife of
-Sigurd the Second, is too late, though, as the first Christian countess
-of Orkney, her name may have got mixed up in some way with the tomb
-of the last Pagan Jarl. But should we expect to find any sober record
-of the date and purposes of the Howe in any of the scribblings on the
-walls? The English barbarians who write their names and rhymes on the
-walls of the tombs around Delhi and Agra do not say this is the tomb
-of Humayoon, or Akbar, or of Etimad Doulah, or Seyed Ahmed. They write
-some doggerel about Timour the Tartar, or the Great Mogul, or some
-wretched jokes about their own people. The same feeling seems to have
-guided the Christian Northmen in their treatment of the tomb of their
-Pagan predecessor, and though, consequently, we find nothing that can
-fairly be quoted as confirming the view that it is the tomb of Havard,
-there is nothing that can be assumed as contradicting it.
-
-One inscription may, however, be considered as throwing some light on
-the subject. In XIX.XX. it is related, though in words so differently
-translated by the various experts to whom it was submitted, that it
-is difficult to quote them, that "much fee was found in the Orkhow,
-and that this treasure was buried to the north west," adding, "happy
-is he who may discover this great wealth."[289] A few years ago a
-great treasure was found to the north-west of Maes-Howe, in Skail Bay,
-just in such a position as a pirate on his way to the Holy Land would
-hide it, in the hope, on his return, to dig it up and take it home;
-but shipwreck or fever may have prevented his doing this. With this
-treasure were found, as mentioned above, coins of Athelstane of the
-date of 925, and of the Caliphs of Bagdad, extending to 945, just such
-dates as we should expect in a tomb of 970, recent, but not the most
-recent coins. Connecting these with the silver torques found in the
-conoid barrows around the Ring of Brogar, we seem to have exactly such
-a group of monuments as the histories above quoted would lead us to
-expect, and which with their contents belong almost certainly to the
-age above assigned to them.
-
-Had Maes-Howe been an old sepulchre of an earlier race, when the
-Northmen ravaged the western islands in the early part of the ninth
-century, it is most improbable that they would have neglected to break
-into the "Orkhow." The treasures which Amlaff and his Danes found in
-the mounds on the banks of the Boyne would certainly have stimulated
-these explorers to see what was contained in the Orcadian tumulus.
-Had they done this, the Jerusalem pilgrims would not, three centuries
-later, have been able to record that "much fee" was found in the tomb,
-and was buried to the north-west, apparently in Skail Bay. The whole
-evidence of the inscriptions, in so far as it goes, tends to prove that
-the tomb was intact when broken into in the twelfth century. If this is
-so, nothing is so unlikely as that it could have remained unrifled if
-existing before the year 861, as a Celtic sepulchre. On the other hand,
-nothing seems more probable than that Christian Northmen would have
-plundered the grave of one of their Pagan ancestors, whom they knew had
-been buried "with much fee" in this tumulus two centuries before their
-time. Two hundred years, it must be recollected, is a very long time
-among an illiterate people. A long time, indeed, among ourselves, with
-all our literary aids; and when we add to this the change of religion
-that had taken place among the Northmen in the interval, we need not
-be surprised at any amount of ignorance of history or contempt for
-the customs of their Pagan forefathers on the part of the Jerusalem
-pilgrims. The time, at all events, was sufficiently long fully to
-justify Christian robbers in helping themselves to the treasures of
-their Pagan forefathers.
-
-Even assuming, however, that Maes-Howe is the tomb of Havard, or of
-some other of the Pagan Norwegian Jarls of Orkney, the question still
-remains whether it has any, and, if any, what connexion with the two
-circles in the immediate neighbourhood?[290]
-
-Locally, the Howe and the circles certainly form one group. No such
-tumuli, and no such circles exist in other parts of the islands,
-and the spot is so inhospitable, so far from any of the centres of
-population in the island, that it is difficult to conceive why it
-should have been chosen, unless from the accident of being the scene
-of some important events. If Havard was slain here, which there seems
-no reason for doubting, nothing seems more probable than that one of
-his surviving brothers, Liotr or Laudver, should have erected a tumulus
-over his grave, meaning it also to be a sepulchre for themselves. On
-the other hand, it is extremely unlikely that the six or seven other
-tumuli which are admitted to be of Scandinavian origin should have
-gathered round the Ring of Brogar if it had been a Pagan fane of the
-despised Celts, who preceded them in the possession of the island. It
-cannot be necessary here to go over the questions again, whether a
-few widely spaced stones stuck up around a circle one hundred metres
-in diameter was or was not a temple. It is just such a monument as
-1000 victorious soldiers could set up in a week. It is such as the
-inhabitants of the district could not set up in years, and would not
-attempt, because, when done, it would have been absolutely useless to
-them for any purpose either civil or religious; and if it is not, as
-before said, a ring in which those who fell in battle were buried, I
-know not what it is. The chiefs, in this case, would be buried in the
-conoid barrows close around, the Jarl in the neighbouring howe.
-
-As Stennis is mentioned in the Sagas that give an account of Havard's
-death, it probably existed there, and was called by the simple
-Scandinavian name which the Northmen gave to all this class of stone
-monuments. None, so far as I know, have retained a Celtic denomination.
-Assuming it to be earlier, it still can hardly be carried back beyond
-the year 800. The earliest date of the appearance of the Northmen in
-modern times is in the year 793 in the 'Irish Annals,' where mention
-is made of a "vastatio omnium insularum a Gentibus."[291] In 802,
-and again in 818, they harried Iona,[292] and from that time forward
-seem constantly to have conducted piratical expeditions along these
-coasts, until they ended by formally occupying the Orkneys under Harold
-Harfagar. Though smaller in diameter, Stennis has a grander and a more
-ancient look than Brogar, and may even be a century or two older, and
-be a monument of some chief who fell here in some earlier fight. That
-it is sepulchral can hardly be a matter of doubt from the dolmen inside
-its ring.
-
-Connected with the circle at Stennis is the holed stone[293] alluded to
-above, which seems to be a most distinct and positive testimony to the
-nationality of this group of monuments.
-
-It is quite certain that the oath to Woden or Odin was sworn by persons
-joining their hands through the hole in this ring stone, and that an
-oath so taken, although by Christians, was deemed solemn and binding.
-This ceremony was held so very sacred in those times, that the person
-who dared to break the engagement made there was accounted infamous and
-excluded from society.[294] Principal Gordon, in his 'Journey to the
-Orkney Islands' in 1781, relates the following anecdote:--"The young
-man was called before the session, and the elders were particularly
-severe. Being asked by the minister the cause of so much severity, they
-answered, 'You do not know what a bad man this is; he has broken the
-promise of Odin,' and further explained that the contracting parties
-had joined hands through the hole in the stone."[295]
-
-Such a dedication of a stone to Woden seems impossible after their
-conversion of the Northmen to Christianity about the year 1000, and
-most improbable if the monument was of Celtic origin, and existed
-before the conquest of the country 123 years earlier. If the Northmen
-had not hated and despised their predecessors they would never have
-exterminated them; but while engaged in this work is it likely they
-would have adopted one of their monuments as especially sacred, and
-followed up one of their customs, supposing this to have been one,
-though there is absolutely no proof in a holed stone being used in any
-Celtic cemetery for any such purpose? The only solution seems to be
-that the monument, with this accompaniment, was erected between the
-conquest of the country and the conversion of the conquerors, and, like
-many ancient rites, remained unchanged through ages, not as adopted
-from the conquered races, but because their forefathers had practised
-it from time immemorial in their native land. On any other hypothesis
-it seems impossible that so purely Pagan a rite could have survived
-through eight centuries of Christianity, and still be considered sacred
-by those whose ancestors had worshipped Wodin in the old times many
-centuries before these stones were erected in the islands.
-
-All this seems so clear and consistent, that it may be assumed that
-this group of monuments were erected between the year 800 and 1000
-A.D., till, at least, some argument is brought forward leading
-to a certain conclusion. At present I know of only one which tends
-to make me pause: it is a curious one, and arises from the wonderful
-similarity that exists between this and some of the greater English
-groups. Take, for instance, Stanton Drew (ante, p. 149). It consists of
-a great circle 340 feet in diameter, the same as the Ring of Brogar,
-and of a smaller circle within three feet of the dimensions of that
-of Stennis (101 against 104), both the latter possess a dolmen, not
-in the centre, but on its edge, the only essential difference being
-that the great ring at Stanton had twenty-four stones, and the smaller
-one eight, as against sixty and twelve in the northern example; this,
-however, may arise from the one being in a locality so much more stony
-than the other, and it must be confessed the Stanton stones look older,
-but this also may arise from the different nature of the rocks from
-which they were taken.
-
-The Ring of Bookan answers to the circle in the orchard; the Watch
-or King Stone at Stennis to Hautville's Quoit. Even the names are
-the same, "ton" and "ness" being merely descriptive of the townland,
-and the long slip of land on which they are respectively situated,
-and Maes-Knoll looks down on the one, and Maes-Howe into the other.
-The only thing wanted is a ring stone in the Somersetshire example,
-but that might easily have disappeared, and there is one at Avebury.
-Some of these coincidences may, of course, be accidental, but they
-are too numerous and too exact to be wholly so. If at all admitted,
-they seem to force us to one of two conclusions: either the time which
-elapsed between the ages of the two monuments is less than the previous
-reasoning would lead us to suppose, or the persistence in these forms,
-when once adopted, was greater than, on other grounds, it seems
-reasonable to expect. Three or four centuries seem a long time to have
-elapsed between buildings, the style of which is so nearly identical.
-If, however, their dates are to be brought nearer to one another, it
-seems much more reasonable to bring Stanton Drew down, than to carry
-Stennis back. It is much more consistent with what we know, to believe
-that Stanton Drew was erected by Hubba and his Danes, than that the
-Orkney circles and Maes-Howe could have been the work of the wretched
-Pape and Peti, who inhabited the island before the invasion of the
-Northmen.
-
-As this is the last of the great groups containing first-class circles,
-which we shall have to deal with in the following pages, it may be
-well to try and sum up, in as few words as possible, the points of the
-evidence from which we arrive at the conclusion that it may be of the
-date above assigned to it:--
-
-1. History is absolutely silent either for or against this theory. In
-so far as the _litera scripta_ is concerned, it may either have been
-erected by the Phœnicians or in the time of the Stuarts.
-
-2. The Danish theory is of no avail. No flint, bone, or bronze or iron
-implements have been found in a position to throw any light on its age.
-
-3. There are in the islands some thousands of small mole-hill
-barrows--insignificant, stoneless, unadorned.
-
-4. All parts of the Stennis group show design and power, and produce an
-effect of magnificence.
-
-5. It seems evident that the circles and the barrows belong to two
-different peoples.
-
-6. If so, the barrows belong to the Peti and Pape; the large howes and
-the stone monuments to the Northmen.
-
-7. If this is so, the latter belong to the two centuries comprised
-between 800 and 1000 A.D.
-
-8. Maes-Howe, being unique, must have belonged to the shortest, but
-most magnificent dynasty in the Island.
-
-9. With regard to Havard. He was killed on, or close to the spot where
-Maes-Howe now stands.
-
-10. His father, Thorfin, was buried in a howe in Ronaldshay. His
-contemporary, Gorm, was buried in a howe at Jellinge.
-
-11. A dragon and serpent were carved in Gorm's tomb. Similar
-representations were found in Maes-Howe.
-
-12. The four Runic letters on the closing stone of the right-hand
-loculus, date probably from its first erection.
-
-13. All the subsequent inscriptions on the tomb acknowledge it as a
-Scandinavian monument.
-
-14. The mention of treasure being found in it in 1152 goes far to show
-that it did not exist in 861, or it would then have been robbed by the
-Northmen, as the Irish tombs were.
-
-15. It is extremely probable that the Skail Bay "find" is part of this
-treasure, which is not earlier than 945, and may be twenty or forty
-years later.
-
-16. The torques found in the six large tumuli at Brogar belong to the
-same age.
-
-17. The Holed Stone at Stennis was certainly set up by Northmen and by
-them dedicated to Woden, and it certainly forms part of the group.
-
-18. The name Havard's Steigr, attaching to the place at the present
-day, is important.
-
-Against this, I know of only one argument: _Omne ignotum pro antiquo_;
-which, for reasons, given above, I reject.
-
-If such a case were submitted to anyone, regarding a monument of
-which we had never heard before, no one would probably hesitate in
-considering the case as proved, till, at least, something more to the
-point could be brought forward on the other side. Such, however, is
-the effect of education, and so strong the impression on the minds of
-most Englishmen with regard to Phœnicians and Druids, that nine
-people out of ten will probably reject it; some alleging that it must
-be an unfair, others that it is an inconclusive statement. Let them try
-and state their view in as few words, and I do not believe it will be
-difficult to judge between the two cases.
-
-
-CALLERNISH.
-
-The next in importance after those of Stennis among the Scottish group
-of circles is that at Callernish, in the Isle of Lewis. They are
-situated at the inner end of Loch Roag, on the western coast of the
-island, and consequently more remote from the routes of traffic or
-the centres of Pictish or Celtic civilization than even the Orcadian
-groups. The country, too, in their neighbourhood is of the wildest
-and most barren description, and never could have been more densely
-inhabited than now, which is by a sparse population totally unequal to
-such monuments as these.
-
-[Illustration: 89. Monument at Callernish. From a plan by Sir Henry
-James.]
-
-The group consists of three or four circles, situated near to one
-another, at the head of the bay. They are of the ordinary form, 60
-to 100 feet in diameter, and consequently not remarkable for their
-dimensions, nor are they for the size of the stones of which they are
-composed. One of them, which had been covered up with peat-moss, was
-excavated some years ago, and a number of holes were found, filled,
-it is said, with charcoal of wood;[296] but the account is by no
-means satisfactory. About a mile to the westward of the three, on
-the northern shore of Loch Roag, stands the principal monument. This
-consists of a circle[297] 42 feet in diameter. In the centre of this is
-a tall stone, about 17 feet high, which forms the head-stone of a grave
-of a somewhat cruciform plan; but it is in fact only the tricameral
-arrangement common in tumuli in Caithness and other parts of the north
-of Scotland.[298] It apparently was covered originally by a little
-cairn of its own; but this had disappeared, and the tomb emptied of its
-contents at some period anterior to the formation of the peat which had
-accumulated round the stones, and which was removed a few years ago
-by Sir James Matheson when this grave was first discovered. From the
-central stone a double avenue extends 294 feet, and from the same point
-southward, a single row for 114 feet; making the whole length of the
-avenues 408 feet; while two arms extend east and west, measuring 130
-feet across the whole.
-
-I believe it was John Stuart that first made the remark:--"Remove
-the cairn from New Grange, and the pillars would form another
-Callernish;"[299] and there seems little doubt but that this is the
-true explanation of the peculiar form of the monument. Nor is it
-difficult to see why this should be the case; for it must be borne in
-mind that the whole of the chambers and the access to them must have
-been constructed, and probably stood, naked for some time before they
-began to heap the cairn over them. Calliagh Birra's tomb (woodcut No.
-80), and the numerous "Grottes des fées" we meet with in France and
-elsewhere I look on as chambers, some of which it was intended should
-be buried in tumuli, which, however, never were erected: others,
-when men had become familiar with the naked forms, were like many
-dolmens, never intended to be hidden. It may be a mere fancy; but I
-cannot escape from an impression that, in many instances at least, the
-chambers were constructed during their lifetime by kings or chiefs
-as their own tombs, and that the cairn was not raised over them till
-the bodies were deposited in their recesses. This, at least, is the
-case in the East, where most of the great tombs were erected by those
-who were to lie in them. During their lifetime they used them as
-pleasure-houses, and only after their death were the entrances walled
-up and the windows obscured, so as to produce the gloom supposed to
-be appropriate to the residences of the dead. Another point is worth
-observing. It seems most improbable that sculptures, such as are found
-in the Irish and French chambered tumuli, could have been executed by
-artificial light. Either the stones were sculptured before being put
-into their places--which, to say the least of it, is very unlikely; or
-they were sculptured while the light could still penetrate through the
-interstices of the stones forming the walls. In any case, however, the
-naked forms of these chambers must have been perfectly familiar with
-those who used them; and there is no difficulty in understanding why,
-as at Carrowmore or Callernish, they should have repeated the same
-forms which were certainly never intended to be covered up.
-
-From the occurrence of a similar form at Northern Moytura (woodcut No.
-59), used externally also, it may be argued that this may be of the
-same age. The Irish example, as explained above, is probably of the
-same age as the great chambered tumuli of Meath; but there seems to be
-a difference between the two, which would indicate a very different
-state of affairs.
-
-At Moytura, the covering stones, though thrown down, still exist, and
-there is every appearance of direct imitation. At Callernish, the
-size, the wide spacing, the pointed form of the stones, and the whole
-structure exhibit so marked a difference from anything that could be
-intended to be covered up, that it certainly appears as if a long time
-had passed before the original use of the form could have been so
-completely overlooked as it has been in this instance. Everyone must
-determine for himself how many centuries he would interpose between
-New Grange and Callernish. To me it appears that an interval of very
-considerable duration must have elapsed between them.
-
-At Tormore, on the west coast of the Isle of Arran, there is a third
-group of these monuments, more numerous, but not on so large a scale
-as those of Stennis or Callernish. These were all carefully examined
-by Dr. Bryce, of Glasgow, assisted by a party of archæologists, in
-1864, and the results recorded in the 'Proceedings of the Scottish
-Antiquaries,'[300] and also in a small work on the Geology of
-Arran.[301] All were found to contain sepulchral remains, except one
-which had been rifled, but there the cist still remained. The principal
-circle is now represented by only three upright stones, from 18 to 20
-feet in height; but they originally formed parts of a circle 60 feet
-in diameter. Two other circles can be traced, and two kistvaens of
-considerable dimensions, and two obelisks on the high ground, which
-apparently formed parts either of circles or of some other groups of
-stones.
-
-Though not so large as the other two groups named above, this one at
-Tormore is interesting because it affords fair means of testing whether
-these groups were cemeteries, or marked battle-fields. Here the two
-principal circles are situated on a peat moss which extends to some
-feet, at least, below the bottom of the pillars, and the sepulchral
-deposits were found in the peat. Others of these Tormore monuments are
-situated where the peat joins the sandy soil, and others are situated
-on the summit of the sandy hills, which here extend some way in from
-the shore. Now it seems hardly probable that such a diversity of taste
-should have existed in any line of princes. If the peat was chosen
-as a resting-place for some, it probably would have been for all.
-If elevated sandy hillocks were more eligible for that purpose, why
-should some have chosen the bog? and if a cemetery, why not all close
-together? They extend for about half a mile east and west at a distance
-of about a mile from the shore, and on about as desolate a plain as one
-could find anywhere. If a battle was fought here against some enemy who
-had landed in the bay, and those who were killed in it were interred
-where they fell, all the appearances would be easily explained; but
-it is difficult to guess who the chiefs or princes could be who were
-buried here, if they had leisure to select their last resting-place, or
-why they should have been buried in this scrambling fashion.
-
-There are the remains of two other circles and one obelisk in Brodick
-Bay, on the other side of the island, but widely scattered, and with
-nothing to indicate their purpose. There are also other circles and
-detached standing stones in the Mull of Cantyre, up to the Crinan
-Canal; but the published maps of the Ordnance Survey do not extend so
-far, and such accounts as have been published are too vague to admit of
-any conclusions being drawn from them either as to their age or uses.
-
-The Aberdeenshire circles, above alluded to, differ in some respects
-from those found in other parts of the country, and are thus described
-by Colonel Forbes Leslie, in a Paper read to the British Association
-this year:--"The principal group of stones in these circles always
-contains one stone, larger than the rest, which in different monuments
-varies from 11 to 16 feet in length, and from 2 to 6 in breadth. It is
-never placed upright; but close at each end of this recumbent monolith
-stand two columnar stones; these vary in height from 7 to 10 feet, and
-have generally been selected of a pyramidal form. From the face, and
-near the ends of the recumbent stone, two stones project about 4 feet
-into the circle, and the recess thus formed is occupied by a stone laid
-flat on the ground.
-
-"In several of these circles a raised platform, 5 or 6 feet broad, and
-18 or 24 inches high, can be traced. This has been supported on the
-outer side by a low wall connecting the columnar stones, which are
-disposed at equal distances on the circumference. The inner side of
-the platform has been supported by stones little more than its height,
-placed near each other.
-
-"Circles of this sort are found at Aquhorties, Tyrebagger, Balquhain,
-Rothiemay, Parkhouse, near Deer, Daviot, New Craig, Dunadeer, &c.,
-in Aberdeenshire. There is also a circle on the "Candle Hill of Old
-Rayne,"[302] within sight of which, on the slope of a ridge about a
-mile distant, stood the two sculptured stones now at Newton,--on one
-of which is the unique alphabetical inscription; and on the other
-a serpent, with the broken sceptre, surmounted by the double disk,
-usually called the Spectacle Ornament."
-
-Their general arrangement will be understood from the woodcut overleaf,
-representing one at Fiddes Hill, figured in the fifth volume of
-'Archæologia,' which may be taken as a type of the rest. The sepulchral
-deposit here, is no doubt, in the raised part, in front of the great
-stone, and not in the centre,--a peculiarity we have already had
-occasion to remark upon in the smaller circles at Stanton Drew and
-Stennis. This, however, does not seem to have been always the case. The
-circle, for instance, at Rayne, above alluded to, was excavated under
-the superintendence of Mr. Stuart,[303] and found to contain in its
-centre a pit, in which were "a quantity of black mould, incinerated
-bones, and some bits of charcoal. Fragments of small urns were also
-found, and all the usual accompaniments of a sepulchral deposit."
-In concluding his account of it, Mr. Stuart says:--"It is worthy of
-remark, that on the 2nd of May, 1349, William, Bishop of Aberdeen, held
-a court at the Standing Stones of Rayne, at which the King's Justiciar
-was present" ('Regst. Episc. Aberd.' vol. i. p. 79, Spald. Club). Thus
-clearly proving not only the sepulchral nature of the circles, but the
-use that was subsequently made of them.
-
-[Illustration: 90. Circle at Fiddes Hill, 46 feet in diameter.]
-
-If we may connect these stones at Rayne with the Newton stones, as
-Colonel Forbes Leslie is inclined to do, we obtain a proof of a
-post-Christian date for this sepulchral circle, as well as a mediæval
-use; and though I have no doubt that all this is correct, the mere
-juxtaposition of the sculptured stones and the circle hardly seems
-sufficient to rely upon.
-
-In the Appendix to the Preface of the first volume of the 'Sculptured
-Stones,' Mr. Stuart records excavations made in some fourteen circles,
-similar, or nearly so, to this one at Rayne; and in all sepulchral
-deposits, more or less distinct, were found. In some, as in that of
-Crichie, before alluded to, a sepulchral deposit was found at the
-foot of each of the six stones which surrounded it. Like many of our
-English circles, this last was surrounded by a moat, in this instance
-20 feet wide and 6 feet deep, crossed by two entrances, as is Arbor
-Low and the Penrith circle, and within the moat stood the stones. As a
-general rule, it may be asserted that all the Scotch circles, having
-a diameter not exceeding 100 feet, when scientifically explored, have
-yielded evidences of sepulchral uses. Such, certainly, is the result
-of Mr. Stuart's experience, as detailed above; of Dr. Bryce's, in
-Arran; of Mr. Dyce Nicol[304] and others, in Kincardine; and elsewhere.
-Colonel Forbes Leslie informs me that he has not been so fortunate
-in some of those he mentioned in his lecture, which he either opened
-himself or learnt the details of on the spot. Some of these he admits,
-however, had been opened before, others disturbed by cultivation;
-and altogether his experiences seem to be exceptional, and far from
-conclusive. The preponderance of evidence is so overwhelming on the one
-side, that we may be perfectly content to wait the explanation of such
-exceptional cases as these.
-
-The Aberdeenshire circles are all found scattered singly, or at most in
-pairs, in remote and generally in barren parts of the country; so that
-it is evident they neither marked battle-fields nor even cemeteries,
-but can only be regarded as the graves of chiefs, or sometimes, it may
-be, family sepulchres. There is one group, however, at Clava, about
-five miles east from Inverness, which is of more than usual interest,
-but regarding which the published accounts are neither so full nor so
-satisfactory as could be wished.[305]
-
-According to Mr. Innes, the ruins of eight or nine cairns can still
-be distinguished, though the whole of the little valley or depression
-in which they are situated seems strewn with blocks which may have
-belonged to others, but which the advancing tide of cultivation has
-swept away. The most perfect of those now remaining are three at the
-western end of the valley, the two outer and larger cairns stand
-about 100 yards apart. They are of stone, about 70 feet in diameter,
-surrounded by a circle of upright stones measuring 100 feet across.
-The intermediate one is smaller, being only 50 feet, with a circle
-80 feet in diameter.[306] The two extreme ones have been opened, and
-found to contain circular chambers about 12 feet in diameter, and 9 in
-height, with passages leading to them about 15 feet long and 2 feet
-wide; and in two or three instances the stones in them were adorned
-with cup-marking, though it does not appear that they were otherwise
-sculptured.[307] In that to the west two sepulchral urns were found,
-just below the level of the original soil. They were broken, however,
-in extracting them; and they do not appear to have been put together
-again or drawn, so that no conclusions can be deduced from them as to
-the age of the cairns.
-
-[Illustration: 91. Plan of Clava Mounds. From Ordnance Survey. 25 inch
-scale.]
-
-[Illustration: 92. View of Clava Mounds. From a drawing by Mr. Innes.]
-
-Meagre as this information is, it is sufficient to show that Clava
-does not mark a battle-field. Carefully-constructed chambers with
-horizontally-vaulted roofs are not such monuments as soldiers erect
-in haste over the graves of their fallen chiefs. It evidently is a
-cemetery; and, with the knowledge we have acquired from the examination
-of those in Ireland, there cannot be much hesitation in ascribing it
-to that dynasty which was represented by King Brude, when St. Columba,
-in the sixth century, visited him in his "Munitio," on the banks of
-the Ness.[308] If King Brude were really converted to Christianity
-by Columba, it is by no means improbable that the small square
-enclosure at the west end of the "heugh," which is still used as the
-burying-place of Pagan, or at least unbaptized babies, marked the spot
-where he and his successors were laid after the race had been weaned
-from the more noble burial-rites of their forefathers.
-
-It would be extremely interesting to follow out this inquiry further,
-if the materials existed for so doing; as few problems are more
-perplexed, and at the same time, of their kind, more important, than
-the origin of the Picts, and their relations with the Irish and the
-Gaels. Language will not help us here: we know too little of that
-spoken by the Picts; but these monuments certainly would, if any
-one would take the trouble to investigate the question by a careful
-comparison of all those existing in Scotland and Ireland.
-
-[Illustration: 93. Stone at Coilsfield.]
-
-In the south of Scotland, for instance, we find such a stone as this
-at Coilsfield, on the Ayr,[309] which, taking the difference of
-drawing into account, is identical with that represented in woodcut
-No. 71. There is the same circle, the same uncertain, wavy line,
-and generally the same character. Another was found at Annan-street,
-in Roxburghshire, and is so similar in pattern and drawing that if
-placed in the chamber in the tumuli of New Grange, or Dowth, no one
-would suspect that it was not in the place it was originally designed
-for.[310] But no sculptures of that class have yet, at least, been
-brought to light in Pictland, or, in other words, north of the Forth,
-on the east side of Scotland.
-
-[Illustration: 94. Front of Stone at Aberlemmo, with Cross.]
-
-[Illustration: 95. Back of Stone at Aberlemmo.]
-
-The sculptured stones of the Picts are, however, quite sufficient to
-prove a close affinity of race between the two peoples, but always
-with a difference, which is evident on even a cursory examination.
-To take one instance. There is a very beautiful stone at Aberlemmo,
-near Brechin, which is said to have been put up to record the victory
-gained over the Danes at Loncarty, in the last years of the tenth
-century.[311] Be this as it may, there seems no reason for doubting
-that it is a battle-stone, and does belong to the century in which
-popular tradition places it. On the front is a cross, but, like all
-in Scotland, without breaking the outline of the stone, which still
-retains a reminiscence of its Rude form. In Ireland, the arms of the
-cross as invariably extend beyond the line of the stone, like those at
-Iona, which are Irish, and these are generally joined by a circular
-Glory. The ornaments on the cross are the same in both countries, and
-generally consist of that curious interlacing basket-work pattern so
-common also in the MSS. of that age in both countries, but which exist
-nowhere else, that I am aware of, except in Armenia.[312] The so-called
-"key" ornament on the horizontal arms of the cross at Aberlemmo seems
-also of Eastern origin, as it is found in the Sarnath Tope, near
-Benares, and elsewhere, but is common to both countries; as is also the
-dragon ornament on the side of the cross, though this looks more like
-a Scandinavian ornament than anything that can claim an origin further
-east.
-
-Among the differences it may be remarked that the figure-subjects on
-Irish crosses almost invariably refer to the scenes of the Passion,
-or are taken from the Bible. On the Scotch stones, they as constantly
-refer to battle or hunting incidents, or to what may be considered as
-events in civil life. The essential difference, however, is, that, with
-scarcely an exception, the Pictish stones bear some of those emblems
-which have proved such a puzzle to antiquaries. The so-called broken
-sceptre, the brooch, and the altar, are seen in the Aberlemmo stone;
-but in earlier examples they are far more important and infinitely
-various.[313] It may also be worthy of remark that the only two real
-round towers out of Ireland adorn the two Pictish capitals of Brechin
-and Abernethy. All this points to a difference that can well make
-us understand why St. Columba should have required an interpreter
-in speaking to the Picts;[314] but also to a resemblance that would
-lead us to understand that the cemetery at Clava was the counterpart
-of that on the banks of the Boyne, with the same relative degree of
-magnificence as the Kings of Inverness bore to those of Tara; and if
-we do not find similar tumuli at Brechin or Abernethy, it must be
-that the kings of these provinces--if there were any--were converted
-to Christianity before they adopted this mode of burial. It may be
-suggested that, as Maes-Howe is certainly the lineal descendant of
-the monuments on the Boyne, it too must be a Celtic or Pictish tomb.
-For the reasons, however, given above, such a theory seems wholly
-untenable; but thus much may be granted, that such a tomb would
-probably not have been erected, even by a Northman, in a country where
-there was not an underlying Celtic or Pictish population.
-
-[Illustration: 96. Cat Stone, Kirkliston.]
-
-Before leaving these sculptured stones, it may be as well to point
-out one of those anomalies which meet us so frequently in these
-enquiries, and show how little ordinary probabilities suffice to guide
-to the true conclusion. Among the sculptured stones of Scotland,
-one of the oldest is probably the Newton stone. It has at least an
-Oghan inscription on its edge; and most antiquaries will admit that
-Oghan engravings on stone were discontinued when alphabetic writing
-was introduced and generally understood. It also has an alphabetic
-inscription on its face, but the letters are not Roman. They may be
-bad Greek, but certainly they appear to be pre-Roman, and therefore
-probably the earliest Scotch inscription known. There is another stone
-at Kirkliston, near Edinburgh, which has a Latin inscription on it.
-It is a "cat" or battle-stone, and records the name of Vetta, the
-son of Victis, in good Latin. Whether this Vetta is, or is not, the
-grandfather of Hengist and Horsa, as Sir James Simpson contended,[315]
-is of no great consequence to our present argument. It is of about
-their age, and therefore as old as any of the other stones in Scotland;
-and there is also a third at Yarrow,[316] with a later inscription,
-which seems about the same age as the Lothian example. Now the curious
-part of this matter is, that having begun with alphabetic writing, they
-entirely discontinued it, and during the six or seven centuries through
-which these sculptured stones certainly extend, it is the rarest
-possible thing to find one with an alphabetic inscription; and why this
-should be so is by no means clear. Take, for instance, the Aberlemmo
-stone just quoted. The people who erected it were Christians,--witness
-the cross: the ornaments on it are almost identical with those found in
-Irish MSS. of the seventh and eighth centuries.[317] It is thus evident
-that the persons who drew these ornaments could write, and being able
-to write and carve with such exquisite precision, it seems strange they
-never thought of even putting the name of the persons who erected the
-stone or some word expressive of its purpose. The Irish probably would
-have done so; and the Scandinavians would have covered them with Runes,
-as they did those they erected in the Isle of Man, though probably at
-a somewhat later date. In the instance of the two crosses illustrated
-in the woodcuts, Nos. 97 and 98, the first bears an inscription to
-the effect that "Sandulf the Swarthy erected this cross to his wife,
-Arnbjörg." From their names, both evidently of Scandinavian origin. The
-inscription on the side of the second runs thus: "Mal Lumkun erected
-this cross to his foster-father Malmor, or Mal Muru."[318] Both names
-of undoubted Gaelic derivation, thus showing that at that age at least
-any ethnographic theory that would give these stones exclusively to
-either race can hardly be maintained. The two races seem then to have
-followed the fashion of the day as they did in ruder times. Except
-in the instance of the St. Vigean's stone on which Sir James Simpson
-read the name of Drosten,[319] ascribing it with very fair certainty
-to the year 729 A.D., none of the 101 stones illustrated in
-the splendid volumes of the Spalding Club contains hardly a scrap
-of alphabetic writing. Throughout they preferred a strange sort of
-Heraldic symbolism, which still defies the ingenuity of our best
-antiquaries to interpret. It was a very perverse course to pursue,
-but while men did so, probably as late as Sueno's time, A.D.
-1008,[320] it is needless to ask why men set up rude stones to
-commemorate events or persons when they could have carved or inscribed
-them; or why, in fact, as we would insist on doing, they did not avail
-themselves of all the resources of the art or the learning which they
-possessed?
-
-[Illustration: 97. Cross in Isle of Man, bearing Runic Inscription.]
-
-[Illustration: 98. Cross in Isle of Man, bearing Runic Inscription.]
-
-The other rude-stone monuments of Scotland are neither numerous nor
-important. Daniel Wilson enumerates some half-dozen of dolmens as still
-existing in the lowlands and in parts of Argyllshire, but none of them
-are important from their size, nor do they present any peculiarities
-to distinguish them from those of Wales or Ireland; while no tradition
-has attached itself to any of them in such a manner as to give a
-hint of their age or purpose. Besides these, there are a number of
-single stones scattered here and there over the country, but there is
-nothing to indicate whether they are cat stones or mark boundaries,
-or merely graves, so that to enumerate them would be as tedious as it
-would be uninstructive. What little interest may attach to them will
-be better appreciated when we have examined those of Scandinavia and
-France, which are more numerous, as well as more easily understood.
-When, too, we have mastered them in so far as the materials available
-enable us to do, we shall be able to appreciate the significance of
-much that has just been enunciated. Meanwhile it may be as well to
-remark that what we already seem to have gained is a knowledge that
-a circle-building race came from the north, touching first at the
-Orkneys, and, passing down through the Hebrides, divided themselves on
-the north of Ireland--one branch settling on the west coast of that
-island, the other landing in Cumberland, and penetrating into England
-in a south-easterly direction.
-
-In like manner we seem to have a dolmen-building race who from the
-south first touched in Cornwall, and thence spread northwards, settling
-on both sides of St. George's Channel, and leaving traces of their
-existence on the south and both coasts of Ireland, as well as in Wales
-and the west of England generally. Whether these two opposite currents
-were or were not synchronous is a question that must be determined
-hereafter. We shall also be in a better position to ascertain what the
-races were who thus spread themselves along our coasts, when we have
-examined the only countries from which it is probable they could have
-issued.
-
-
-    [Footnote 271: 'The Sculptured Stones of Scotland.' Two vols.
-    quarto. Published by the Spalding Club. 1856 and 1867.]
-
-    [Footnote 272: A few years ago the late Mr. Rhind, of Sibster,
-    left an estate worth more than 400_l._ per annum, to endow a
-    Professorship of Archæology in Scotland, who was also to act as
-    curator of the monuments themselves, but unfortunately left it
-    encumbered by a life interest to a relative. Two years ago an
-    attempt was made to get the Government to anticipate the falling
-    in of the life interest, and appointing Mr. Stuart to the office
-    at once. It was, perhaps, too much to expect so enlightened an act
-    of liberality from a Government like ours. But their decision is
-    to be regretted; not only because we may thereby lose altogether
-    the services of the best qualified man in Scotland for the purpose,
-    but more so because the monuments are themselves fast disappearing
-    without any record of them being preserved. Agriculture is very
-    merciless towards a big stone or a howe that stands in the way of
-    the plough, and in so improving a country as Scotland, very little
-    may remain for the next generation to record.]
-
-    [Footnote 273: The account of these monuments is abstracted from a
-    paper by Lieutenant Thomas, of H. M.'s surveying vessel _Woodlark_.
-    It is the most detailed and most correct survey we have of any
-    British group. It was published in the 'Archæologia,' xxxiv. p. 88
-    _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 274: Four stones are represented as standing when
-    Barry's view of the monument was published in 1807, and four
-    are represented as standing in a series of etchings made by the
-    Duchess-Countess of Sutherland from her own drawings, in 1805. If
-    the elbow in the bridge shown in the drawing in the frontispiece
-    is not a licence permitted to himself by the artist, my drawing is
-    earlier than either of these. When I first purchased it I believed
-    it to be by Daniel. His tour, however, took place in 1815. From the
-    internal evidence this drawing must be anterior to 1805.]
-
-    [Footnote 275: 'Archæologia,' xxxiv. p. 89.]
-
-    [Footnote 276: 'Archæologia,' xxxiv. p. 90.]
-
-    [Footnote 277: The greater part of this find, with all the coins,
-    is in the Museum of the Society of Antiquaries, Edinburgh. The
-    dates on the coins were kindly copied for me by Mr. Stuart.]
-
-    [Footnote 278: 'Notice on the Runic Inscriptions discovered during
-    Recent Excavations in the Orkneys.' By James Farrer, M.P. 1862.]
-
-    [Footnote 279: 'Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot.' v. p. 70.]
-
-    [Footnote 280: Olaus Wormius, 'Monumenta Danica,' p. 188, fig. 6.]
-
-    [Footnote 281: Barry's 'History of Orkney,' p. 399. See also
-    'Archæologia,' xxxiv. p. 89.]
-
-    [Footnote 282: Barry, 'History of the Orkneys,' p. 124.]
-
-    [Footnote 283: Mr. George Petrie has recently at my request made
-    some excavations in these mounds, but the results have not been
-    conclusive. He is of opinion that one of the mounds he explored may
-    be the grave of Thorfin, but it is too much ruined to afford any
-    certain indication.]
-
-    [Footnote 284: 'Mémoires des Ant. du Nord,' iii. p. 236.]
-
-    [Footnote 285: These dates are taken from Barry, p. 112 _et seq._,
-    but they seem undisputed, and are found in all histories.]
-
-    [Footnote 286: 'History of Orkney.' p. 125.]
-
-    [Footnote 287: 'Prehistoric Annals of Scotland,' p. 112.
-    'Archæologia,' xxxiv. p. 89.]
-
-    [Footnote 288: 'Mémoires des Antiquaires du Nord,' iii. p. 250.]
-
-    [Footnote 289: Farrer, 'Inscriptions in the Orkneys,' p. 37].
-
-    [Footnote 290: A few years ago such a question would have been
-    considered answered as soon as stated; but, as Daniel Wilson writes
-    in a despairing passage in his Introduction,* "This theory of
-    the Danish origin of nearly all our native arts, though adopted
-    without investigation, and fostered in defiance of evidence, has
-    long ceased to be a mere popular error. It is, moreover," he
-    adds, "a cumulative error; Pennant, Chambers, Barry, Mac Culloch,
-    Scott, Hibbert, and a host of other writers might be quoted to
-    show that theory, like a snow-ball, gathers as it rolls, taking up
-    indiscriminately whatever chances to be in its erratic course." In
-    spite of his indignation, however, I suspect it will be found to
-    have gathered such force, that it will be found very difficult to
-    discredit it. Since, too, Alexander Bertrand made his onslaught on
-    the theory, that the Celts had anything to do with the megalithic
-    monuments, the ground is fast being cut away from under their feet;
-    and though the proofs are still far from complete, yet according
-    to present appearances the Celts must resign their claims to any
-    of the stone circles certainly, and to most of the other stone
-    monuments we are acquainted with, if not to all.
-
-    *'Prehistoric Annals of Scotland,' p. xv.]
-
-    [Footnote 291: 'Annales Innisfal.' in O'Connor, 'Rerum. Hib.
-    Scrip.' ii. p. 24. 'Annales Ulton.' _Ibid._ iv. p. 117.]
-
-    [Footnote 292: Duke of Argyll's 'Iona,' p. 100.]
-
-    [Footnote 293: On the left of the view in the Frontispiece.]
-
-    [Footnote 294: 'Archæologia Scot.' iii. p. 119.]
-
-    [Footnote 295: 'Archæologia,' xxxiv. p. 113.]
-
-    [Footnote 296: 'Proceedings Soc. Ant. of Scotland,' iii. p. 213.]
-
-    [Footnote 297: These dimensions and the plan are taken from Sir
-    Henry James's work on 'Stonehenge, Turuschan,' &c.]
-
-    [Footnote 298: Anderson, on horned Tumuli in Caithness, 'Proc. Soc.
-    Ant. of Scotland,' vi. p. 442 _et seq._, and vii. p. 480 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 299: 'Sculptured Stones of Scotland,' ii. p. xxv.]
-
-    [Footnote 300: Vol. iv. p. 499.]
-
-    [Footnote 301: Glasgow, 1865, p. 186 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 302: In the 'Archæologia,' vol. xxii. pp. 200 and 202,
-    are plans and views of six Aberdeenshire circles, and two more are
-    given in the same volume further on.]
-
-    [Footnote 303: 'Sculptured Stones of Scotland,' vol. i. p. xxi.]
-
-    [Footnote 304: In September, 1858, Mr. Dyce Nicol, with a party
-    of experienced archæologists, excavated four circles situated in
-    a row, and extending for nearly a mile, on the road from Aberdeen
-    to Stonehaven, and about 1½ mile from the sea. The first and
-    last had been disturbed before, but the second, at King Caussie,
-    and the third, at Aquhorties, yielded undoubted evidences of their
-    sepulchral origin. The conclusion these gentlemen arrived at was,
-    that "whatever other purposes these circles may have served, one
-    use of them was as a place of burial."--_Proceedings Soc. Ant.
-    Scot._ v. p. 134.]
-
-    [Footnote 305: I regret much that I have been unable to visit
-    this place myself. It was, however, carefully surveyed by Captain
-    Charles Wilson, when he was attached to the Ordnance Survey at
-    Inverness. He also made detailed plans and sketches of all the
-    monuments, but, unfortunately, sent them to the Ordnance Office at
-    Southampton, and they consequently are not accessible nor available
-    for our present purposes.]
-
-    [Footnote 306: These dimensions are taken partly from the Ordnance
-    Survey Sheet, 25-inch scale, and partly from Mr. Innes's paper in
-    'Proceedings Soc. Ant.' iii. p. 49 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 307: _Ibid._ Appendix, vi. pl. x.]
-
-    [Footnote 308: Reeves, 'Adamnan. Vita St. Columb.' p. 150.]
-
-    [Footnote 309: Wilson's 'Prehistoric Annals,' p. 332.]
-
-    [Footnote 310: An amusing controversy regarding the existence of
-    this stone will be found in the 'Proceedings Scot. Ant.' iv. p.
-    524 _et seq._ It seems absolutely impossible that any man, even
-    under the inspiration of some primordial whisky, to have drawn
-    by accident a sculpture so like what his ancestors did fifteen
-    centuries before his time.]
-
-    [Footnote 311: Gordon, 'Iter Septemtrionale,' p. 151.]
-
-    [Footnote 312: In my 'History of Architecture,' ii. p. 345, I
-    ventured timidly to hint that this Armenian ornament would be found
-    identical with that in the Irish and Pictish crosses. Since then I
-    have seen a series of photographs of Armenian churches, which leave
-    no doubt in my mind that this similarity is not accidental, but
-    that the one country borrowed it from the other.]
-
-    [Footnote 313: See Stuart's 'Sculptured Stones,' and Colonel Forbes
-    Leslie's 'Early Races of Scotland,' _passim_.]
-
-    [Footnote 314: Reeves, 'Adamnan. Vita St. Columb.' pp. 65 and 145.]
-
-    [Footnote 315: 'Proceedings Soc. Ant. Scot.' iv. p. 119 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 316: _Ibid._ iv. p. 524.]
-
-    [Footnote 317: Westwood, 'Facsimiles of Irish MSS.' plates 4-28.]
-
-    [Footnote 318: These two woodcuts are borrowed from Worsaae, 'The
-    Danes and Northmen.' London, 1852.]
-
-    [Footnote 319: 'Sculptured Stones of Scotland,' ii. p. 70.]
-
-    [Footnote 320: Camden, 'Brit.' 1268.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VII.
-
-SCANDINAVIA AND NORTH GERMANY.
-
-
-INTRODUCTORY.
-
-So much has been said by the Danes and their admirers of the services
-that they have rendered to the study of prehistoric archæology that it
-is rather disappointing to find that, when looked into, almost less is
-known regarding their megalithic monuments than regarding those of any
-other country in Europe. No work has yet been published giving anything
-like a statistical account of them, and no map exists showing their
-distribution. What little information can be obtained regarding the
-Danish dolmens, and other similar monuments, is scattered through so
-many volumes of transactions and detached essays that it is extremely
-difficult to arrive at any connected view of them--almost, indeed,
-impossible for any one who is not locally familiar with the provinces
-in which they are found. The truth seems to be that the Danish
-antiquaries have been so busy in arranging their microlithic treasures
-in glass cases that they have totally neglected their larger monuments
-outside. They have thus collected riches which no other nation
-possesses, and have constructed a very perfect grammar and vocabulary
-of the science. But a grammar and a dictionary are neither a history
-nor a philosophy; and though their labours may eventually be most
-useful to future enquirers, they are of very little use for our present
-purposes. They have indeed up to this time been rather prejudicial than
-otherwise, by leading people to believe that when they can distinguish
-between a flint or bronze or iron implement they know the alpha and
-omega of the science, and that nothing further is required to determine
-the relative date of any given monument. It is as if we were to adopt
-the simple chemistry of the ancients, and divide all known substances
-into earth, water, fire, and air: a division not only convenient but
-practically so true that there is very little to be said against it. It
-is not, however, up to the mark of the knowledge of the day, and omits
-to take notice of the fact that earths can occasionally be converted
-into gases, and airs converted into liquids or solidified. Instead of
-their simple system, what is now wanted is something that will take
-into account the different races of mankind--some progressive, some
-the reverse--and the different accidents of success and prosperity, or
-disaster and poverty: the one leading to the aggregation of detached
-communities into great centres, and consequent progress; the other
-leading to dispersion and stagnation, if not retrocession, in the
-arts of life which tend towards what we call civilization. At the
-International Congress of Prehistoric Archæology, held at Copenhagen in
-the autumn of 1869, it was understood that many of the best Northern
-antiquaries were inclined to abandon, to a very considerable extent,
-the hard and fast lines of their first system, and to admit not
-only that there may be considerable overlapping, but even, in some
-instances, that its indications were not in accordance with the facts.
-More than two years have elapsed since the Congress was held, but the
-volume containing the account of its proceedings is not yet published;
-when it is, we may probably be in a position to speak much more
-favourably not only of their views but of the extent of their knowledge
-of the antiquities in question.
-
-Under these circumstances, we may congratulate ourselves in possessing
-such a work as that of Sjöborg.[321] He wrote, fortunately, before
-the Danish system was invented, but, unfortunately, before drawing
-and engraving had reached the precision and clearness which now
-characterize them. In consequence of the last defect, we cannot always
-feel sure of our ground in basing an argument on his drawings; but,
-generally speaking, he is so honest, so free from system, that there
-is very little danger in this respect. The work has also the merit of
-being as free from the speculations about Druids and Serpents which
-disfigure the contemporary works of English antiquaries, as it is from
-the three ages of the Danes; though, on the other hand, he relegates
-all the dolmens and such like monuments to a prehistoric "Joter," or
-giant race, who preceded, according to his views, Odin and his true
-Scandinavians, to whom he ascribes all the truly historic monuments.
-
-In addition to the difficulties arising from the paucity of information
-regarding the monuments, the Scandinavians have not yet made up
-their minds with regard to their early chronology. Even the vast
-collections contained in the ponderous tomes of Langebeck and Suhm[322]
-are far from sufficing for the purpose; and such authors as Saxo
-Grammaticus[323] write with an easy fluency too characteristic of our
-own Jeffrey of Monmouth, and others who bury true history under such
-a mass of fables as makes it extremely difficult to recover what we
-are really seeking for. Patient industry, combined with judicious
-criticism, would, no doubt, clear away most of the obscurities which
-now disfigure this page of mediæval history; but, meanwhile, the
-Scandinavian annals are as obscure as the Irish, and more uncertain
-than the contemporary annals of England.
-
-Of the history of Scandinavia anterior to the Christian era, absolutely
-nothing is known. It is now no longer admissible to believe in a
-historic Odin, whom all the mediæval historians represent as living in
-the first century B.C., and as the founder of those families
-who play so important a part in the subsequent histories of our own
-as well as of the whole group of Northern nations. The modern school
-of Germans has discovered that Odin was a god who lived in the sky
-in pre-Adamite times, and never condescended to visit our sublunary
-sphere. It is now rank heresy to assume that during the thousand years
-which elapsed between his pretended date and that of our earliest MSS.
-the wild imaginings of barbarous tribes may not have gathered round the
-indistinct form of a national hero, transferred him back to a mythic
-age, and endowed him with the attributes and surroundings of a god. As
-the Germans have decreed this, it is in vain to dispute it, and not
-worth while to attempt it here, as for our present purposes it is of
-the least possible consequence.
-
-About the Christian era there is said to have been a king, called
-Frode I., who, as he never was deified, may have had a tomb on earth,
-and might, if that could be identified, be allowed to head our list.
-Between him and Harald Harfagar, who, in 880, conquered Norway and came
-into distinct contact with British history in the Orkneys, we have
-several lists of kings, more or less complete, and with dates more or
-less certain.[324] That there were kings in those days, no one will
-probably dispute, nor perhaps is the succession of the names doubtful;
-and if the dates err to the extent of even fifty years or so, it is of
-little consequence to our argument. The monuments extend so far down,
-and to kings whose dates are so perfectly ascertained, that it is of
-no importance whether the earlier ones are assigned to dates forty or
-fifty years too early or too late. Their fixation may be left to future
-research, as it has no direct bearing on the theory we are now trying
-to investigate.
-
-
-BATTLE-FIELDS.
-
-The chief of the Scandinavian monuments, and the most interesting
-for our present object, comprise those groups of stones which mark
-battle-fields. Not only are their dates generally known with sufficient
-precision to throw considerable light on the question of the antiquity
-of such monuments in general, but they also illustrate, if they do
-not determine, the use of many of the groups of stones we meet with
-in other countries. Sjöborg devotes ten plates in his first volume to
-these battle-fields, illustrating twice that number of battles which
-occurred between the fifth and the twelfth centuries after Christ.
-
-[Illustration: 99. View of Battle-field at Kongsbacka. From Sjöborg.]
-
-The first of these, at Kongsbacka, near the coast in Halland, though
-of somewhat uncertain date, is worth quoting from its similarity to
-the alignments on Dartmoor, Ashdown, Karnac, and elsewhere, though,
-unfortunately, no plan or dimensions are given. On the hills beyond is
-a tumulus called the grave of Frode, and on the plain a conspicuous
-stone bears his name; but whether this was Frode V. (400) or some
-other Frode is not clear. Sjöborg assigns it to a date about 500, and
-there seems very little reason to doubt he is at least approximatively
-correct.[325]
-
-The second battle-field illustrated is similar to the last, except
-in the form of the stones, which seem to belong to a different
-mineralogical formation.[326] They are plainly, however, seen to be
-arranged in circles and lines, and are even more like forms with which
-we are familiar elsewhere. It is said to represent a battle-field in
-which the Swedish king Adil fought the Danish Snio, and in which the
-latter with the chiefs Eskil and Alkil were slain. As all these names
-are familiarly known in the mediæval history of these countries there
-can be no great difficulty in ascribing this battle also to about the
-same age as that at Kongsbacka.
-
-With the third we tread on surer ground. No event in the history of
-these lands is better known than the fight on the Braavalla Heath, in
-Östergothland, where the blind old king, Harald Hildetand, met his
-fate in the year 736, or 750 according to others. As the Saga tells
-us, Odin had, when the king was young, taught him a form of tactics
-which gave him a superiority in battle over all his enemies; but the
-god having withdrawn his favour from him, he fell before the prowess of
-his nephew, Sigurd Ring, to whom the god had communicated the secret of
-the battle array. It does not appear to admit of doubt that the circles
-shown in the cut in the opposite page were erected to commemorate
-this event, and that they contain the bodies of those who were slain
-in this action; and if this is so, it throws considerable light on
-the battle-fields of Moytura, illustrated woodcuts Nos. 54 to 61. The
-circles on Braavalla are generally from 20 to 40 feet in diameter,
-and consequently are, on the average, smaller than those at Moytura;
-they are also more numerous, unless we adopt Petrie's suggestion,[327]
-that there must originally have been at least two hundred in the Irish
-field; and if so, it is the smaller ones that would certainly be
-the first to be cleared away, so that the similarity may originally
-have been greater than it now is--so great, indeed, as to render it
-difficult to account for the fact that two battle-fields should have
-been marked out in a manner so similar when so long a time as seven
-centuries had elapsed between them. As it does not appear possible
-that the date of the Braavalla fight can be shifted to the extent of
-fifty years either way, are we deceiving ourselves about Moytura? Is it
-possible that it represents some later descent of Scandinavian Vikings
-on the west coast of Ireland, and that the cairn on Knocknarea--
-
-  "High and broad,
-  By the sailors over the waves
-  To be seen afar,
-  The beacon of the war renowned"[328]--
-
-which they built up during ten days--is really the grave of some
-Northern hero who fell in some subsequent fight at Carrowmore? That
-all these are monuments of the same class, and belong, if not to the
-same people, at least to peoples in close contact with one another,
-and having similar faiths and feelings, does not appear to admit of
-doubt. When, however, we come to look more closely at them, there are
-peculiarities about them which may account for even so great a lapse
-of time. The Braavalla circles are smaller, and on the whole perhaps,
-we may assume, degenerate. There are square and triangular graves,
-and other forms, which, so far as we know, are comparatively modern
-inventions, and, altogether, there are changes which may account for
-that lapse of time; but that more than seven centuries elapsed between
-the two seems to be most improbable.
-
-[Illustration: 100. Part of the Battle-field of Braavalla Heath. From
-Sjöborg.]
-
-[Illustration: 101. Harald Hildetand's Tomb at Lethra.[329]]
-
-To return, however, to King Hildetand. According to the saga, "After
-the battle the conqueror, Sigurd Ring, caused a search to be made for
-the body of his uncle. The body when found was washed and placed in the
-chariot in which Harald had fought, and transported into the interior
-of a tumulus which Sigurd had caused to be raised. Harald's horse was
-then killed and buried in the mound with the saddle of Ring, so that
-the king might at pleasure proceed to Walhalla either in his chariot
-or on horseback. Ring then gave a great funeral feast, and invited all
-the nobles and warriors present to throw into the mound great rings
-and noble armour, in honour of the king Harald. They then closed up
-the mound with care."[330] This mound still exists at Lethra's Harald,
-capital in Seeland. It was mentioned by Saxo Grammaticus in 1236,[331]
-and described and drawn by Olaus Wormius in 1643;[332] and no one ever
-doubted its identity, till recently the Museum authorities caused
-excavations to be made. Unfortunately some "wedges of flint" have
-been found in the earth which was extracted from the chamber, from
-which Worsaae and his brother antiquaries at once concluded that "it is
-beyond all doubt merely a common cromlech of the stone period"[333]--a
-conclusion that seems to me the reverse of logical. No one, I presume,
-doubts that King Hildetand was buried in a tumulus with rings and
-arms; and if this tumulus was regarded historically as his, for the
-last 600 years, and traditionally so from the time of his death, it is
-incumbent upon the antiquaries to show how worthless these traditions
-and histories are, and to point out where he really rests. To form
-an empirical system and to assert--which they cannot prove--that no
-flint implements were used after a certain prehistoric date, and
-that consequently all mounds in which flint implements are found are
-prehistoric, seems most unreasonable, to say the least of it. It would
-be surely far more philosophical to admit that flint may have been
-used down to any time till we can find some reason for fixing a date
-for its discontinuance. In this instance an "instantia crucis" would
-be to dig into some of the circles at Braavalla, and see if any flints
-are to be found there. No metal was found at Moytura, though metal
-was, if history is to be depended upon, then commonly used, and flint
-implements were probably not found because those who opened the tombs
-were not aware of its importance. Pending this test, the form of the
-grave may give us some indication of its age. It is an oblong barrow,
-with an external dolmen at one end, and with a row of ten stones on
-each side, the two end ones being taller than the rest. A similar
-mound, known as the Kennet long barrow, exists at Avebury,[334] so
-similar indeed that if this tomb at Lethra is historical so certainly
-is the English example. If, on the other hand, either can be proved to
-belong to the long forgotten past, the other must also he consigned to
-the same unsatisfactory limbo.
-
-The barrow at West Kennet was carefully explored in 1859 by Dr.
-Thurnam, and the results of his investigation fully detailed in a
-paper in the 'Archæologia,' vol. xxxviii., from which the following
-particulars are abstracted, together with some others from a second
-paper, "On Long Barrows," by the same author, in vol. xlii. of the same
-publication.
-
-Externally it is a mound measuring 336 feet in length by 75 feet at
-its broadest part. Originally it was surrounded by what is called a
-peristalith of tall stones, between which, it is said, a walling of
-smaller stones can still be detected. On its summit, as at Lethra, was
-an external dolmen over the principal chamber of the tomb. The chamber
-was nearly square in form, measuring 8 feet by 9, and approached by
-a passage measuring 15 feet by 3 feet 6 inches in width; and its
-arrangement is in fact the same as that of the Jersey tumulus (woodcut
-No. 11), and, as Sir John Lubbock remarks, "very closely resembles
-that of a tumulus" he had just been describing, of the Stone age,
-in the island of Möen, "and, in fact, the plan of passage graves
-generally."[335]
-
-[Illustration: 102. Long Barrow, Kennet, restored by Dr. Thurnam.
-'Archæologia,' xlii.]
-
-When opened, six original interments were found in the chamber, under
-a stratum of black, sooty, greasy matter, 3 to 9 inches in thickness,
-and which, Dr. Thurnam remarks, "could never have been disturbed since
-the original formation of the deposit" (p. 413). Two of these had
-their skulls fractured during lifetime; the others were entire. To
-account for this, Dr. Thurnam takes considerable pains to prove that
-slaves were sometimes sacrificed at the funeral of their masters, but
-he fails to find any instance in which they were killed by breaking
-their heads; and if they were to serve their master in the next
-world, even a savage would be shrewd enough to know that cracking his
-skull was not the way to render him useful for service either in this
-world or the next. No such mode of sacrifice was ever adopted, so far
-as I know.[336] But supposing it was so, all the six burials in this
-tomb seem to have been nearly equal, and equally honourable, and why,
-therefore, all their skulls were not broken is not clear. If on the
-other hand we assume that it is the grave of six persons who were
-slain in battle, two by blows on the head, and four by wounds in the
-body, this surely would be a simpler way of accounting for the facts
-observed. Even, however, if we were to admit that these men with the
-broken heads were sacrificed, this would by no means prove the grave to
-be prehistoric. Quite the contrary, for we know from the indisputable
-authority of a decree of Charlemagne that human sacrifices were
-practised by the pagan Saxons as late, certainly, as 789,[337] and were
-sufficiently frequent to constitute one of the first crimes against
-which he fulminated his edicts. The fact is that neither historians
-nor antiquaries seem quite to realise the state of utter barbarism
-into which the greater part of Europe was plunged between the collapse
-of the Roman Empire and the revival of order under Charlemagne.
-Christianity no doubt had taken root in some favoured spots, and some
-bright lights shone out of the general darkness, but over the greater
-part of Europe pagan rites were still practised to such an extent as
-easily to account for any heathen practice or any ancient form of
-sepulture which may be found anywhere existing.
-
-To return, however, to our long barrow. Under a piece of Sarsen stone,
-but on the skull of one of the principal persons interred here (No.
-4), were found two pieces of black pottery (fig. 8, page 415), which
-Dr. Thurnam admits may be of the Roman age. Other fragments of the
-same vessel were found in other parts of the tomb, and also fragments
-of pottery (figs. 14 to 17), not British, but to which he hesitates to
-assign an age. So far as I can judge, it seems just such pottery as the
-less experienced British potters would form, on Roman models, after
-the departure of that people. But this is immaterial; for beyond the
-chamber, and deeper consequently into the tumulus, were found fragments
-of undoubted Roman pottery. So far, therefore, everything favours
-the view that it was the sepulchre of persons slain in battle, after
-the departure of the Romans; for we can hardly believe that a battle
-would be fought, and such a tomb raised over the slain, during their
-occupation; and if so, as the pottery proves it could not be before, a
-choice of a date is fixed within very narrow limits. It may either have
-been in 450, immediately after the departure of the Romans, or in 520,
-the date of the battle of Badon Hill, which is the time at which, I
-believe, it was reared. So far as the general argument is concerned, it
-is of no consequence which date is chosen. Against this conclusion we
-have to place the following facts. First, no trace of iron or bronze,
-or of metal of any sort, was found in the tomb. Secondly, at least 300
-flint fragments were found in it. Some of these were mere chippings,
-some cones, but many were fairly formed flint implements (figs. 10 to
-13),[338] not belonging to the oldest type, but such as antiquaries are
-in the habit of ascribing to the pre-metal Stone age. In addition to
-these, the quantity of coarse native pottery was very remarkable. No
-whole vessels were found, but broken fragments that would form fifty
-vessels were heaped in a corner; and there were corresponding fragments
-in another corner. Dr. Thurnam tries to explain this by referring to
-the passage in the grave scene in 'Hamlet,' where our great dramatist
-speaks of "shards, flints, and pebbles," which should be thrown into
-the graves of suicides; the use of which, he adds, "in mediæval times
-may be a relic of paganism." It does not, however, seem to occur to him
-that, if such a custom was known in the sixteenth century, it would be
-likely to have been in full force in the sixth. It is strange enough
-that such a custom, even if only referred to suicides, should have
-survived a thousand years of such revolutions and changes of religion
-as England was subjected to in those days; but that it should be known
-to Christians, after 3000 or 4000 years' disuse, seems hardly possible.
-
-No argument, it appears to me, can be drawn from the different kinds of
-pottery found in the tomb. If any one will take the trouble of digging
-up the kitchen midden of a villa built within the last ten years, in
-a previously uninhabited spot, he will probably find fragments of an
-exquisite porcelain vase which the housemaid broke in dusting the
-drawing-room chimney-piece. He will certainly find many fragments of
-the stoneware used in the dining-room, and with them, probably, some of
-the coarser ware used in the dairy, and mixed with these innumerable
-"shards" of the flower-pots used in the conservatory. According to
-the reasoning customary among antiquaries, this midden must have been
-accumulating during 2000 or 3000 years at least, because it would
-have taken all that time, or more, before the rude pottery of the
-flower-pots could have been developed into the exquisite porcelain
-of the drawing-room vase. The argument is, in fact, the same as that
-with respect to the flints. It may be taken for granted that men used
-implements of bone and stone before they were acquainted with the
-use of metal; but what is disputed is that they ceased to use them
-immediately after becoming familiar with either bronze or iron. So with
-earthenware: men no doubt used coarse, badly formed, and badly burnt
-pottery before they could manufacture better; but, even when they could
-do so, it is certain that they did not cease the employment of pottery
-of a very inferior class; and we have not done so to the present day.
-To take one instance among many. There are in the Museum of the Society
-of Antiquaries at Edinburgh a series of vessels, hand-made and badly
-burnt, and which might easily be mistaken--and often are--for those
-found in prehistoric tombs. Yet they were made and used in the Shetland
-Islands in the last and even in the present century.
-
-The truth of the matter seems to be that, as in the case of a find of
-coins, it is the date of the last piece that fixes the time of the
-deposit. There may be coins in it a hundred or a thousand years older,
-but this hoard cannot have been buried before the last piece which it
-contains was coined. So it is with this barrow. The presence of Roman
-or post-Roman pottery in an avowedly undisturbed sepulchre fixes,
-beyond doubt, the age before which the skeletons could not have been
-deposited where they were found by Dr. Thurnam. The presence of flints
-and coarse pottery only shows, but it does so most convincingly, how
-utterly groundless the data are on which antiquaries have hitherto
-fixed the age of these monuments. It proves certainly that flints and
-shards were deposited in tombs in Roman or post-Roman times; and if
-there is no mistake in Dr. Thurnam's data, this one excavation is, by
-itself, sufficient to prove that the Danish theory of the three ages
-is little better than the "baseless fabric" of--if not "a vision"--at
-least of an illusion, which, unless Dr. Thurnam's facts can be
-explained away, has no solid foundation to rest upon.
-
-If any systematic excavations had been undertaken in the Scandinavian
-long barrows, it would not, perhaps, be necessary to adduce English
-examples to illustrate their age or peculiarities. Several are adduced
-by Sjöborg, but none are reported as opened. This one, for instance,
-is externally like the long barrow at West Kennet, and, if Sjöborg's
-information is to be depended upon, is one of several which mark the
-spot where Frode V. (460-494) landed in Sweden, where a battle was
-fought, and those who fell in it were buried in these mounds, or where
-the Bauta stones mark their graves. If this is so, the form of the
-long barrow with its peristalith was certainly not unknown in the
-fifth century; and there is no improbability of its being employed in
-England also in that age. In settling these questions, however, the
-Scandinavians have an immense advantage over us. All their mounds have
-names and dates; they may be true or they may be false, but they give a
-starting-point and an interest to the enquiry which are wanting in this
-country, but which, it is hoped, will one day enable the Northmen to
-reconstruct their monumental history on a satisfactory basis.
-
-[Illustration: 103. Long Barrow at Wiskehärad, in Halland. From a
-drawing by Sjöborg.]
-
-In most cases antiquaries in this country have been content to appeal
-to the convenient fiction of secondary interments to account for the
-perplexing contradictions in which their system everywhere involves
-them. In the instance of the Kennet long barrow there is no excuse
-for such a suggestion. All the interments were of one age, and that
-undoubtedly the age of the chamber in which they were found, and the
-pottery and flints could not have been there before nor introduced
-afterwards. Indeed, I do not know a single instance of an undoubtedly
-secondary interment, unless it is in the age of Canon Greenwell's
-really prehistoric tumuli. When he publishes his researches, we shall
-be in a condition to ascertain how far they bear on the theory.[339]
-In the chambered tumuli secondary interments seem never to occur; and
-nothing is more unlikely than that they should. As Dr. Thurnam himself
-states: "In three instances at least Mr. Cunnington and Sir R. C. Hoare
-found in long barrows skeletons which, from their extended position and
-the character of the iron weapons accompanying them, were evidently
-Anglo-Saxon."[340] A simple-minded man would consequently fancy that
-they were Anglo-Saxon graves, for what can be more improbable than
-that the proud conquering Saxons would be content to bury their dead
-in the graves of the hated and despised Celts whom they were busy in
-exterminating.[341]
-
-If the above reasoning is satisfactory and sufficient to prove that
-the long barrow at West Kennet is of post-Roman times, it applies also
-to Rodmarton, Uley, Stoney Littleton, and all the Gloucestershire long
-barrows which, for reasons above given (_ante_, page 164), we ventured
-to assign to a post-Roman period; and _à fortiori_ it carries with
-it King Hildetand's tomb at Lethra. It is true we have not the same
-direct means of judging of its date as we have of our own monuments.
-The Danes treat with such supreme contempt any monument that does not
-at once fall in with their system, that they will not even condescend
-to explore it. So soon as Worsaae found some "flint wedges" in the
-tomb, he at once decreed that it was prehistoric, and that it was
-no use searching farther; and we are consequently left to this fact
-and its external similarities for our identification. Here, again,
-is a difficulty. The two drawings above given (woodcuts Nos. 101 and
-102) may show them too much alike or exaggerate differences. The
-one is an old drawing from nature, the other a modern restoration;
-still the essential facts are undoubted. Both are chambered long
-barrows, ornamented by rows of tall stones, either partially or wholly
-surrounding their base, and both have external dolmens on their summit,
-and both contain flint implements. If this is so, the difficulty is
-rather to account for so little change having taken place in 230 years
-than to feel any surprise at their not being identical. The point upon
-which we wish to insist here is that they are both post-Roman, and may
-consequently belong to any age between Arthur and Charlemagne.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-The remaining battle-fields of which representations are given in
-Sjöborg are scarcely so interesting as that at Braavalla, which with
-the tomb of the king slain there are landmarks in our enquiry. If those
-circles on Braavalla Heath do mark the battle-field, and that tomb at
-Lethra is the one in which the blind old king was laid--neither of
-which facts I see any reason for doubting--all difficulties based on
-the assumed improbability of the monuments being so modern as I am
-inclined to make them are removed, and each case must stand or fall
-according to the evidence that can be adduced for or against its age.
-To return, however, to the battle-fields given by Sjöborg. Figures 43
-and 44 represent two groups of circles and Bauta stones near Hwitaby,
-in Malmö. These are said to mark two battle-fields, in which Ragnar
-Lothbrok gained victories over his rebellious subjects in Scania:
-Sjöborg says in 750 and 762, as he adopts a chronology fifty years
-earlier than Suhm. But be this as it may, there does not seem any
-reason for doubting but that these stones do mark fields where battles
-were fought in the eighth century, and that Ragnar Lothbrok took part
-in them. These groups are much less extensive than those at Braavalla,
-but are so similar that they cannot be distant from them in age.
-
-At Stiklastad, in Norway, in the province of Drontheim, a battle was
-fought, in 1030, between Knut the Great and Olof the Holy; and close
-to this is a group of forty-four circles of stones, which Sjöborg
-seems, but somewhat doubtfully, to connect with this battle. But about
-the next one (fig. 49) there seems no doubt. The Danish prince Magnus
-Henricksson killed Erik the Holy, and was slain by Carl Sverkersson,
-in the year 1161, at Uppland, in Denmark; and the place is marked
-by twenty stone circles and ovals, most of them enclosing mounds
-and two square enclosures, 30 to 40 feet in diameter. They are not,
-consequently, in themselves very important, but are interesting, if
-the adscription is correct, as showing how this heathenish custom
-lasted even after Christianity must have been fairly established in the
-country. Another group (fig. 51) is said to mark the spot where, in
-1150, a Swedish heroine, Blenda, overcame the Danish king Swen Grate,
-and the spot is marked by circles and Bauta stones; one, in front of a
-tumulus, bears a Runic inscription, though it merely says that Dedrik
-and Tunne raised the stone to Rumar the Good.
-
-Only one other group need be mentioned here. On a spot of land, in the
-island of Freyrsö, off the entrance of the Drontheim Fiord, in the year
-958, Hakon, the son of Harald Harfagar, overthrew his nephews, the sons
-of Erik Blodoxe, in three battles. The first and second of these, as
-shown in the plan (woodcut No. 104), are marked by cairns and mounds;
-and the third by eight large barrows, three of which are of that shape
-known in Scandinavia as ship barrows, and measure from 100 to 140 feet
-in length. There are also three tumuli at 4 in the woodcut, in one
-of which one of Erik Blodoxe's sons is said to be buried. It is not
-clear whether the five large mounds that stud the plain do not cover
-the remains of those also who fell in this fight. It does not appear
-that any excavations have been made in them. The interest of this
-battle-field to us is not so much because it shows the persistence
-of this plan of marking battle-fields at so late a date--later ones
-have just been quoted--but because all the actors in the scene are
-familiar to us from the part they took in the transactions in the
-Orkneys in the tenth century. If they, in their own country, adhered
-to these old-world practices, we should not be astonished at their
-having erected circles or buried in mounds in their new possessions. It
-is true that none of these Scandinavian circles can compare in extent
-with the Standing Stones of Stennis or the Ring of Brogar, but this
-would not be the first time that such a thing has happened. The Greeks
-erected larger and, in proportion to the population, more numerous
-Doric temples in Sicily than they possessed in their own country;
-and the Northmen may have done the same thing in Orcadia, where they
-possessed a conquered, probably an enslaved, race to execute these
-works.
-
-[Illustration: 104. Battle-field at Freyrsö. From Sjöborg, vol. i. pl.
-16.]
-
-TUMULI.
-
-The number of sepulchral mounds in Scandinavia is very great, and
-some of them are very important; but, so far as I can ascertain, very
-few have been explored, and, until interrogated by the spade, nothing
-can well be less communicative than a simple mound of earth. A map of
-their distribution might, no doubt, throw considerable light on the
-ethnography of the country, and tell us whether the Finns or Lapps
-were their original authors, or whether the Slaves or Wends were their
-introducers; and, lastly, whether the true Scandinavians brought them
-with them from other lands, or merely adopted them from the original
-inhabitants, in which case they can only be treated as survivals.
-Funereal pomp, or tomb-building of any sort, is so antagonistic to
-the habits of any people so essentially Teutonic as the Scandinavians
-were and are, that we cannot understand their adopting these forms, or
-indeed stone circles or monuments of any class, in a country where they
-had not previously existed. If we assume that the modern Scandinavians
-were German tribes who conquered the country from the Cimbri or the
-earlier Lapps and Finns, and did so as warriors, bringing no women
-with them, the case is intelligible enough. Under these circumstances,
-they must have intermarried with the natives of the country, and would
-eventually, after a few generations, lose much of their individual
-nationality, and adopt many of the customs of the people among whom
-they settled, using them only in a more vigorous manner and on a larger
-scale than their more puny predecessors had been able to adopt.[342]
-It is most improbable that the "Northmen," if Germans--as indeed their
-language proves them to be--should ever have invented such things as
-tumuli, dolmens, circles, or any other such un-Aryan forms, in any
-country where they had not existed previously to their occupying it;
-but that as immigrants they should adopt the customs of the previous
-occupants of the land is only what we find happening everywhere. The
-settlement of these points will be extremely interesting for the
-ethnography of Northern Europe, and ought not to be difficult whenever
-the problem is fairly grappled with. In the meanwhile, all that the
-information at present available will enable us to do here is to
-refer to some tumuli whose contents bear more or less directly on the
-argument which is the principal object of this work.
-
-The first of these is the triple group at Upsala, now popularly
-known as the graves of Thor, Wodin, and Freya. It may illustrate the
-difficulty of obtaining correct information regarding these monuments
-to state that, even so late as 1869, Sir John Lubbock, who is generally
-so well informed, and had such means of obtaining information, did
-not know that they had been opened.[343] I was aware of a passage in
-Marryatt's travels in Sweden in which, writing on the spot, he asserts
-that one of them had been opened, and that "in its 'giant's chamber'
-were found the bones of a woman, and, among other things, a piece of a
-gold filagree bracelet, richly ornamented in spiral decoration, some
-dice, and a chessman, either the king or a knight."[344] Wishing,
-however, for further information, I obtained an introduction to Mr.
-Hans Hildebrand, who gave me the following information. Subsequently
-I received a letter from Professor Carl Säve, of Upsala, who kindly
-abstracted for me the only published accounts of the excavations as
-they appeared in a local paper at the time. These were forwarded to me
-by Professor Geo. Stephens, of Copenhagen, who also was so obliging as
-to translate them. They are so interesting that I have printed them,
-as they stand, as Appendix B. From these two documents the following
-account is compiled, and may be thoroughly depended upon.
-
-One of the mounds, known as that of Wodin, was opened, in 1846, under
-the superintendence of Herr Hildebrand, the royal antiquary of Sweden.
-It was soon found that the mounds were situated on a ridge of gravel,
-so that the tunnel had to take an upward, direction. At the junction
-of the natural with the artificial soil, a cairn was found of closely
-compacted stones, each about as large as a man could lift. In the
-centre of the cairn the burial urn was found in the grave-chamber,
-containing calcined bones, ashes, fragments of bronze ornaments
-destroyed by fire, and a fragment of a gold ornament delicately
-wrought. Within the cairn, but a little away from the urn, were found
-a heap of dogs' bones, equally calcined by fire, and fragments of
-two golden bracteates. "The workmanship of the gold ornaments," Herr
-Hildebrand adds, "closely resembles that of the gold bracteates of the
-fifth or sixth centuries, and, with the fragments of these peculiar
-ornaments themselves, settles a date before which these mounds could
-not have been raised." How much later they may be, it is not easy
-to conjecture, without at least seeing the bracteates, which do not
-seem to have been published. With a little local industry, I have
-very little doubt, not only that the date of these tombs could be
-ascertained, but the names of the royal personages who were therein
-buried, probably in the sixth or seventh century of our era.
-
-"The tombs of Central Sweden," Herr Hildebrand adds, "are generally
-constructed in the same way, the urn containing the bones being placed
-on the surface of the soil, at the place of cremation or elsewhere,
-as the case may be. Generally, nothing is found with them but an
-iron nail, or some such trifling object"--a curious and economical
-reminiscence of the extravagant customs of their predecessors.
-According to him, "almost every village in Sweden, with the exception
-of those in some mountain-districts and the most northern provinces,
-has a tomb-field quite close to the side of the houses. The antiquities
-found in the mounds of these tomb-fields all belong to the Iron age.
-The tombs of the earlier ages have no connection with the homesteads of
-the present people."
-
-How far these tombs extend downwards in date cannot be ascertained
-without a much more careful examination than they have yet been
-subjected to. It may safely, however, be assumed that they continued
-to be used till the conversion of the inhabitants to Christianity, and
-probably even for some considerable time afterwards, for such a custom
-is not easily eradicated.
-
-It would be as tedious as unprofitable to attempt to enumerate the
-various mounds which have been opened, for their contents throw little
-or no light on our enquiry; and being distributed in cases in the
-museum, not according to their localities or traditions, but according
-to their systematic classes, it is almost impossible to restore them
-now to their places in history.
-
-[Illustration: 105. Dragon on King Gorm's Stone, Jellinge. From 'An.
-Nord. Oldkund.' xii. 1852.]
-
-At Jellinge, however, on the east coast of Jutland, there are two
-mounds, always known traditionally as those of Gorm the Old and his
-queen Thyra Danebod--the Beloved. The date of Gorm's death seems now
-to be accepted as 950 A.D.;[345] but it is not clear whether
-he erected the tomb himself, or whether it is due to the filial piety
-of his son Harald Blaatand, or Blue-Tooth, and in which case its date
-would be 968.[346] Saxo Grammaticus at least tells us that he buried
-his mother in the tumulus, and then set a whole army of men and oxen
-at work to remove from the Jutland shore an immense stone--a little
-rock--and bring it to the place where his mother lay inhumed.[347]
-That stone still exists, and has sculptured on one side a dragon,
-which calls forcibly to our mind that found on Maes-Howe (woodcut No.
-85), and on the other side a figure, which is, no doubt, intended to
-represent Christ on the cross. On the two sides are Runic inscriptions,
-in which he records his affection for his father and mother and his
-conversion to the Christian faith.
-
-So far as I can ascertain, the tomb of King Gorm has not yet been
-opened. That of Thyra was explored many years ago--in 1820 apparently;
-but no sections or details have been published, so that it is
-extremely difficult to ascertain even the dimensions. Engelhardt
-reports the height as 43 feet, and the diameter as 240 feet;[348]
-Worsaae gives the height as 75 feet, and the diameter as 180 feet, and
-he is probably correct.[349] But in Denmark anything that cannot be put
-into a glass case in a museum is so completely rejected as valueless
-that no one cares to record it. When entered, it was found that it
-had been plundered probably in the middle ages, and all that remained
-were the following articles:--A small silver goblet, lined with gold
-on the inside, and ornamented with interlaced dragons on the exterior;
-some fibulæ, tortoise-shaped, and ornamented with fantastic heads of
-animals; some buckle-heads, and other objects of no great value. The
-chamber in which these objects were found measured 23 feet in length by
-8 feet 3 inches in width, and was 5 feet high;[350] the walls and roof,
-formed of massive slabs of oak, were originally, it appears, hung with
-tapestries, but these had nearly all perished.
-
-Not only are these monuments of Gorm and Thyra interesting in
-themselves, and deserving of much more attention than the Danes have
-hitherto bestowed upon them, but they are most important in their
-bearing on the general history of monuments of this class. In the
-first place, their date and destination are fixed beyond dispute, and
-this being so, the only ground is taken away on which any _à priori_
-argument could be based with regard to the age of any mound anterior
-to the tenth century. As soon as it is realised that sepulchral mounds
-have been erected in the tenth century, it is impossible to argue that
-it is unlikely or improbable that Silbury Hill or any other mound in
-England may not belong to the sixth or any subsequent century down to
-that time. The argument is, however, even more pertinent with reference
-to Maes-Howe and other tumuli in the Orkneys. If the Scandinavian kings
-were buried in "howes" down to the year 1000--I believe they extend
-much beyond that date--it is almost certain that the Orcadian Jarls
-were interred in similar mounds down at least to their conversion to
-Christianity (A.D. 986). Whether Maes-Howe was erected as
-a sepulchre for the sons of Ragnar Lothbrok, as John Stuart seems to
-infer from the inscriptions,[351] or of Havard Earl, as I have above
-attempted to show, is of little consequence to the general argument.
-That it was the grave of a Scandinavian Jarl, erected between 800 and
-1000 A.D., seems quite certain, and my own impression is that
-it is almost as certainly the tomb of the individual Jarl to whom I
-have ventured to ascribe it.
-
-As before mentioned, no argument against these views can be drawn
-from the fact that Thyra's tomb is lined with slabs of oak, while the
-chamber at Maes-Howe is formed with stone. The difference of the two
-localities is sufficient to account for this. Denmark has always been
-famous for its forests, and especially on the shores of the Baltic, at
-Jellinge, wood of the noblest dimensions was always available, whereas
-the stone of the country was hard and intractable. In the Orkneys, on
-the other hand, there is absolutely no timber of natural growth big
-enough to afford a good-sized walking-stick, and stone is not only
-everywhere abundant, but splits easily into slabs, self-faced, and most
-easily worked, so that stone, and stone only, would be the material
-employed in the Orkneys for that purpose, as wood would also be the
-best and most available material in Denmark.
-
-If, before leaving this branch of the subject, we turn back for a few
-minutes to the Irish monuments, we are now in a position to judge more
-correctly of the probabilities of the case than we were. Assuming the
-three-chambered tumulus at New Grange to have been erected between the
-years 200 and 400, and Maes-Howe and Jellinge between 800 and 1000
-A.D., we have a period of from five to six, it may possibly be seven,
-centuries between these monuments. Is this more than is sufficient to
-account for the difference between them, or is it too little? It is
-not easy to give a categorical answer to such a question, but judging
-from the experience gained from other styles, in different parts of the
-world, the conclusion generally would be that the time is in excess
-of what is required. That there was progress, considerable progress
-indeed, made in the interval between the Irish and Scandinavian
-monuments, cannot be denied, but that it should have required five
-centuries to achieve this advance is hardly what would be expected, and
-it would be difficult to quote another example of a progress so slow.
-Yet it is hardly possible to bring down New Grange to the age of St.
-Patrick (A.D. 436), and as difficult to carry back Maes-Howe
-beyond Ragnar Lothbrok (794 at the extreme), and between these dates
-there are only 358 years; but we must certainly add something at
-either one end or the other; and if we do this, we obtain an amount of
-progress so slow that it would be almost unaccountable, but upon the
-assumption that they are the works of two different peoples. At the
-time the sepulchre on the Boyne was erected, Ireland was energetically
-and rapidly progressive, and her arts were more flourishing than might
-have been expected from her then state of civilization. When Maes-Howe
-was erected, the native population was poor and perishing, and as the
-lordly Vikings would hardly condescend to act as masons themselves,
-they did the best they could with the means at their disposal. Explain
-it, however, as we may, it seems impossible to allow a longer time
-between the mounds at Jellinge and Stennis and those on the Boyne than
-has been accorded above; and as it seems equally difficult to bring
-them nearer to one another, the probability seems to be in favour of
-the dates already assigned to them.
-
-To return, however, from this digression; besides those just mentioned,
-Denmark possesses a nearly complete series of royal tombs such as
-are not to be found in any other country of Europe. Even Worsaae
-acknowledges the existence of that of Frode Frodegode, who lived
-about the Christian era, of Amlech, near Wexio--Shakespeare's Hamlet,
-of Humble, and Hjarne,[352] besides those of Hildetand, and Gorm
-and Thyra, already mentioned. If the Danes would only undertake a
-systematic examination of these royal sepulchres, it might settle many
-of the disputed points of mediæval archæology. To explore tombs to
-which no tradition attaches may add to the treasures of their museums,
-but can only by accident elucidate either the history of the country
-or the progress of its arts. If ten or twelve tombs with known names
-attached to them were opened, one of two things must happen: either
-they will show a succession and a progress relative to the age of their
-reputed occupants, or no such sequence will be traceable. In the first
-case the gain to history and archæology would be enormous, and it is
-an opportunity of settling disputed questions such as no other country
-affords. If, on the other hand, no such connection can be traced,
-there is an end of much of the foundations on which the reasoning of
-the previous pages is based, but in either case such an enquiry could
-not fail to throw a flood of light on the subject which we were trying
-to elucidate. The fear is that all have been rifled. The Northmen
-certainly spared none of the tombs in the countries they conquered, and
-our experience of Maes-Howe and Thyra's tomb would lead us to fear that
-after their conversion to Christianity they were as little inclined to
-spare those of their own ancestors. All they however cared for were the
-objects composed of precious metals; so enough may still be left for
-the less avaricious wants of the antiquary.
-
-
-DOLMENS.
-
-So far as is at present known, there are not any tumuli of importance
-or any battle-fields marked with great stones in the north of Germany;
-but the dolmens there are both numerous and interesting, and belong
-to all the classes found in Scandinavia, and, so far as can be
-ascertained, are nearly identical in form. Nothing, however, would
-surprise me less than if it should turn out that both barrows and Bauta
-stones were common there, especially in the island of Rügen and along
-the shores of the Baltic as far east as Livonia. The Germans have
-not yet turned their attention to this class of their antiquities.
-They have been too busy sublimating their national heroes into gods
-to think of stones that tell no tales. Whenever they do set to work
-upon them, they will, no doubt, do it with that thoroughness which
-is characteristic of all they attempt. But as the investigation will
-probably have to pass through the solar myth stage of philosophy, it
-may yet be a long time before their history reaches the regions of
-practical common sense.
-
-No detailed maps having been published, it is extremely difficult
-to feel sure of the distribution of these monuments in any part of
-the northern dolmen region; but the following, which is abstracted
-from Bonstetten's 'Essai sur les Dolmens,' may convey some general
-information on the subject, especially when combined with the map (p.
-275), which is taken, with very slight modifications, from that which
-accompanied his work.
-
-According to Bonstetten there are no dolmens in Poland, nor in Posen.
-They first appear on the Pregel, near Königsberg; but are very rare in
-Prussia, only two others being known, one at Marienwerder, the other at
-Konitz. In Silesia there is one at Klein-Raden, near Oppeln; another
-is found in the district of Liegnitz, and they are very numerous in
-the Uckermark, Altmark, in Anhalt, and Prussian Saxony, as well as in
-Pomerania and the island of Rügen. They are still more numerous in
-Mecklenburg, which is described as peculiarly rich in monuments of this
-class. Hanover possesses numerous dolmens, except in the south-eastern
-districts, such as Göttingen, Oberharz, and Hildesheim. To make up for
-this, however, in the northern districts, Lüneburg, Osnabrück, and
-Stade, at least two hundred are found. The grand-duchy of Oldenburg
-contains some of the largest dolmens in Germany; one of these, near
-Wildesheim, is 23 feet long; another, near Engelmanns-Becke, is
-surrounded by an enclosure of stones measuring 37 feet by 23, each
-stone being 10 feet in height, while the cap stone of a third is 20
-feet by 10. In Brunswick there were several near Helmstädt, but they
-are now destroyed. In Saxony some rare examples are found as far south
-as the Erzgebirge, and two were recently destroyed in the environs of
-Dresden. Keeping along the northern line, we find them in the three
-northern provinces of Holland, Gröningen, Ober-Yssel, and especially in
-Drenthe, where they exist in great numbers, but none to the southward
-of these provinces, and nowhere do they seem to touch the Rhine or its
-bordering lands; but a few are found in the grand-duchy of Luxembourg
-as in a sort of oasis, halfway between the southern or French dolmen
-region and that of northern Germany.
-
-From the North German districts they extend through Holstein and
-Schleswig into Jutland and the Danish isles, but are most numerous on
-the eastern or Baltic side of the Cimbrian peninsula, and they are also
-very frequent in the south of Sweden and the adjacent islands. Dolmens
-properly so called are not known in Norway, but, as above mentioned,
-cairns and monuments of that class, are not wanting there.
-
-The value of this distribution will be more easily appreciated when we
-have ascertained the limits of the French field, but meanwhile it may
-be convenient to remark that, unless the dolmens can be traced very
-much further eastward, there is a tremendous gulf before we reach the
-nearest outlyers of the eastern dolmen field. There is a smaller, but
-very distinct, gap in the country occupied by the Belgæ, between it
-and the French field, and another, but practically very much smaller
-one, between it and the British isles. This is a gap because the
-intervening space is occupied by the sea; but as it is evident from
-the distribution of all the northern dolmens in the proximity to the
-shores and in the islands that the people who erected them were a
-sea-faring people, and as we know that they possessed vessels capable
-of navigating these seas, it is practically no gap at all. We know
-historically how many Jutes, Angles, Frisians, and people of similar
-origin, under the generic name of Saxons, flocked to our shores in the
-early centuries of the Christian era, and afterwards what an important
-part the Danes and Northmen played in our history, and what numbers
-of them landed and settled in Great Britain, either as colonists or
-conquerors, at different epochs, down to at least the eleventh century.
-If, therefore, we admit the dolmens to be historic, or, in other words,
-that the erection of megalithic monuments was practised during the
-first ten centuries after the Christian era, we have no difficulty
-in understanding where our examples came from, or to whom they are
-due. If, on the other hand, we assume that they are prehistoric, we
-are entirely at sea regarding them or their connection with those on
-the continent. The only continental people we know of who settled in
-Britain before the Roman times were the Belgæ, and they are the only
-people between the Pillars of Hercules and the Gulf of Riga who, having
-a sea-board, have also no dolmens or megalithic remains of any sort.
-All the others have them more or less, but the Northern nations did
-not, so far as we know, colonise this country before the Christian era.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-As all the Northern antiquaries have made up their minds that these
-dolmens generally belong to the mythic period of the Stone age, and
-that only a few of them extend down to the semi-historic age of bronze,
-it is in vain to expect that they would gather any traditions or record
-any names that might connect them with persons known in history. We
-are, therefore, wholly without assistance from history or tradition
-to guide us either in classifying them or in any attempt to ascertain
-their age, while the indications which enable us to connect them with
-our own, or with one another, are few and far between.
-
-[Illustration: 106. Dolmen at Herrestrup.]
-
-Among the few that give any sure indications of their age, one of the
-most interesting is at Herrestrup, in Zeeland, which has recently
-been disinterred from the tumulus that once covered it.[353] On it
-are engraved some half-dozen representations of ships, such as the
-Vikings were in the habit of drawing, and which are found in great
-quantities on the west coast of Göttenburg.[354] According to the best
-authorities, these representations range from about A.D. 500
-to 900,[355] and some may perhaps be more modern. Those in this dolmen
-do not appear to be either among the most ancient or the most modern,
-and if we fix on the eighth century as their date, we shall not be very
-far wrong. That they are also coeval with the monument seems perfectly
-certain. We cannot fancy any Viking engraving these on a deserted
-dolmen, say even 100 years old, and then covering it up with a tumulus,
-as this one was till recently. Had it never been covered up, any
-hypothesis might be proposed, but the mound settles that point. Besides
-the ships, however, there are an almost equal number of small circles
-with crosses in them, on the cap stone. Whether these are intended to
-represent chariot-wheels, or some other object, is not clear, but if
-we turn back to woodcut No. 41, representing the side-stone of the
-dolmen at Aspatria, we find the identical object represented there,
-and in such a manner that, making allowance for the difference of
-style in the century that has elapsed between the execution of the two
-engravings, they must be assumed to be identical. No engravings--so
-far as I know--have been published of the objects found in this Danish
-dolmen, but in the English one, as already mentioned, the objects found
-belonged to the most modern Iron age; such things, in fact, as will
-perfectly agree with the date of the eighth century. Among them, as
-will be recollected, was the snaffle-bit, so like, though certainly
-more modern than, Stukeley's bit found in Silbury Hill. We have thus
-three tumuli which from their engravings or their contents confirm
-one another to a most satisfactory extent, and render the dates above
-assigned to them, to say the least of it, very probable. If the date
-thus obtained for the Aspatria monument is accepted, it is further
-interesting as giving that of those mysterious concentric circles, with
-a line passing through them from the centre, which have been found in
-such numbers on the rocks in the north of England and in Scotland.[356]
-These are, so far as I know, the only examples of these circles which
-were buried, and were consequently associated with other objects which
-assist in fixing their age.
-
-[Illustration: 107. Dolmen at Halskov. From a drawing by Madsen.]
-
-As before hinted, many of the monuments engraved by Madsen[357] are so
-extremely like those in the field of Northern Moytura that it is almost
-impossible to believe that they were erected by a different race of
-people, or at any great distance of time. The one, for instance, at
-Halskov is so like the dolmen and circle represented in woodcut No.
-61 that the one might almost pass for the other, were it not that the
-photograph is taken from the wrong side, to bring out the resemblance,
-as it is seen on the spot, while in others the resemblance is as great,
-or even greater. It is very unsatisfactory, however, picking these
-points of similarity from books, some of the engravings in which are
-from imperfect drawings. In others, artistic effect has been more aimed
-at than truth, and some are taken from photographs, which, though
-they give a truthful, generally give an unintelligent representation
-of the object. It is only by personal familiarity that all the facts
-can be verified and pitfalls avoided. But it is always useful to turn
-attention to any forms that may seem novel, and explain peculiarities
-in others which but for such means of comparison would remain
-unnoticed. Here, for instance, is one from Sjöborg, which resembles
-the Countless Stones at Aylesford, as drawn by Dr. Stukeley (woodcut
-No. 27). It is found at a place called Oroust, in Böhuslan,[358] and
-stands on a low mound encircled by twenty large stones at its base. The
-chamber is low, and semicircular in form, and in front of it stands
-what the Germans call a sentinel stone. No date is given to this
-monument by Sjöborg, for he was so far indoctrinated in modern theories
-that he believed all dolmens to be prehistoric, though all the circles
-and Bauta stones marking battle-fields were to him as essentially
-historic as any monuments in his country. From its appearance, the
-dolmen at Oroust may be of the same age as the Countless Stones at
-Aylesford, and if other monuments in the two countries could be
-compared with anything like precision, their forms and traditions might
-mutually throw great light on their real histories.
-
-[Illustration: 108. Dolmen at Oroust. From Sjöborg.]
-
-It is not only, however, from the analogies with similar monuments
-in this country, or from their bearing on their history, that the
-Scandinavian dolmens are interesting to us. They have forms and
-peculiarities of their own which are well worth studying. If materials
-existed for mastering these differences, their aggregate would make up
-a sum which would enable us to separate the Scandinavian group from the
-British, as we can our own from the French, and the French from that
-of Northern Germany. A great deal more must, however, be published,
-and in a more accurate form, before this can be done; but, whenever
-it is possible, it promises to afford most satisfactory results to
-ethnographical science. The problem is similar to that which was
-known to exist in reference to pointed Gothic architecture. That is
-now admitted to be a Celtic-French invention, but it was adopted by
-the Spaniards and Italians on the one hand, and by the Germans and
-ourselves on the other; although always with a difference. No antiquary
-would now for an instant hesitate in discriminating between an Italian
-and a German or between a Spanish and an English example, though the
-difference is so small that it can hardly be expressed in words, and
-must be carefully represented in order to be perceived. In like manner,
-the rude-stone style of art seems to have been invented by some
-pre-Celtic people, but to have been adopted by Celts, by Scandinavian,
-by British, and Iberian races--perhaps not always pure in their own
-countries, but always with considerable differences, which, when
-perceived and classified, will enable us to distinguish between the
-works of the several races as clearly as we can between the mediæval
-styles that superseded them.
-
-[Illustration: 109. Diagram from Sjöborg, pl. i. fig. A.]
-
-Among these peculiarities, the most easily recognised are the square
-or oblong enclosures which surround tumuli, and, sometimes, one, at
-others two, or even three free-standing dolmens. In order to make the
-point clear, I have quoted a diagram from Sjöborg, though it is almost
-the only instance in this work in which a woodcut does not represent a
-really existing object. I have no doubt, however, that it is correct,
-as old Olaus Wormius represents one of two similar ones which in his
-day existed near Roeskilde. Both had enclosures 50 paces square,
-enclosing one tumulus with a circle of stones round its base, another
-halfway up, and, the text says, an altar-dolmen on the top, though the
-woodcut does not show it. The other, on the road to Birck, in Zeeland,
-enclosed three tumuli in juxtaposition, the one in the centre similar
-to that just described, and with a dolmen on its summit; two smaller
-mounds are represented in juxtaposition on either side, but with only
-a circle of stones round their base.[359] Other varieties no doubt
-exist, but modern antiquaries have not favoured us with any drawings of
-them. From the diagram and description it will be perceived that in so
-far as the mound itself is concerned these Danish tumuli are identical
-with those already quoted as existing in Auvergne (woodcut No. 8), but
-so far as I know, the square enclosure does not exist in France, nor
-does it in this country. These square enclosures seem, however, to
-belong to a very modern date, and the stones, consequently, are small,
-and may therefore have been removed, which could easily be done; but
-still there seems little doubt that many of them may still remain, and
-could be found if looked for.
-
-[Illustration: 110. Dolmen near Lüneburg. From Bonstetten.]
-
-One of the most striking examples I know of, an oblong rectangular
-enclosure, enclosing a single free-standing dolmen, is that near
-Lüneburg, figured by Bonstetten[360] (woodcut No. 110); he seldom,
-however, indulges in dimensions, and being perfectly convinced that
-all are prehistoric, he never speculates as to dates, nor condescends
-to notice traditions. What we know of it is therefore confined to the
-representation, which after all may be taken from some other work, as
-he rarely favours us with references. Two others are represented by von
-Estorff as existing near Uelzen, in Hanover.[361]
-
-A good example of two dolmens in a rectangular enclosure is that at
-Valdbygaards, near Soröe, in Zeeland. Here the enclosure is about 70
-feet in one direction by 20 feet in the other--outside measurement. In
-this instance, the enclosing stones are smaller in proportion to the
-dolmens than is usually the case. On the same plate, Madsen represents
-a single dolmen in a much squarer enclosure.[362] It, like that at
-Halskov (woodcut No. 107), is represented as standing on a knoll, but
-whether dolmens stand so or on the flat, like that at Valdbygaards, it
-is quite certain they never were enclosed in tumuli, but always stood
-free, as they now do.
-
-[Illustration: 111. Double Dolmen at Valdbygaards. From Madsen.]
-
-[Illustration: 112. Plan of Double Dolmen at Valdbygaards.]
-
-[Illustration: 113. Triple Dolmen, Höbisch. From Keysler.]
-
-For three dolmens in one square enclosure we are obliged to go back
-to old Keysler, though, in this case, the engraving is so good that
-there can be very little doubt of its correctness.[363] It is situated
-near Höbisch, in Mark Brandenburg, consists of an outer enclosure of
-forty-four stones, and is 118 paces in circuit, and in the middle
-are twelve stones, of which six bear three large stones, placed
-transversely upon them. It is very much to be regretted that no better
-illustration of this curious monument exists, as it probably very
-closely resembles those in Drenthe, with which, indeed, he compares it;
-and as these form one of the most remarkable groups of this class of
-monuments on the continent, it would be most desirable to trace their
-connection with others farther east.
-
-A similar monument to that at Höbisch is figured by Sjöborg (vol. i.
-pl. 6), but without the enclosure; and a third, Oroust, in Böhuslan
-(pl. 3); but in this instance the three long stones are surrounded by
-a circular enclosure with two sentinel stones outside; and there are
-several others which show similar peculiarities in a greater or less
-degree.
-
-The buried dolmens in Scandinavia are, in some respects, even more
-interesting than those which are, and were always intended to be,
-exposed, but our knowledge of them is necessarily more limited than of
-the other class. Sjöborg deserts us almost entirely here, and Madsen
-illustrates only two, while the modern antiquaries have been more
-anxious to secure and classify their contents than to illustrate the
-chambers from which they were obtained. As a rule, they may be older
-than the free-standing examples, but they do not look old, though,
-as metal has not generally been found in them, it is assumed they
-all belong to the Stone age. One example will suffice to display the
-general features of the older group of this class of monuments. The
-next two woodcuts present an internal view and plan of one near Uby,
-in the district of Holbak, in Zeeland. It was opened in 1845, and
-measured then 13 feet in height, and had a circumference of upwards
-of 300 feet. The chamber measures 13 feet by 8 feet, and is walled in
-by nine great stones, which have been split or hewn, so as to obtain
-a flat surface towards the interior, and the interstices are filled
-in with smaller stones very neatly fitted. The entrance gallery is 20
-feet in length, and is closed, or capable of being so, by two doors.
-From the disposition of the entrance it certainly does not appear that
-it was intended to be hid. The whole appearance is that of a dignified
-approach to the tomb. Had it been meant to be closed, the chamber
-would, no doubt, have been in the centre of the tumulus, instead of
-being near one side, as it is. The other monument of the same class,
-illustrated by Madsen,[364] is near Smidstrup, in the district of
-Fredericksborg. It is very similar in dimensions and details, but has
-the peculiarity of having two chambers placed side by side, with two
-separate entrances, and the chambers affect a curve more perfectly
-elliptical than is attained in that at Uby.
-
-[Illustration: 114. View of Interior of Chamber at Uby. From Madsen.]
-
-[Illustration: 115. Plan of Chamber at Uby. From Madsen.]
-
-These last examples from Madsen's work are further interesting to us
-as illustrating the difference between dolmens or chambers always
-intended to be buried in tumuli and those which were always meant to be
-exposed. In the chambers at Uby and Smidstrup the stones are placed so
-closely together that very little packing between them was sufficient
-to keep out the earth, and the passages to them and other arrangements
-all indicate their original destination. The case, however, is widely
-different with the dolmens at Halskov and Valdbygaards, or those
-at Lüneburg or Höbisch, which evidently are now on their mounds as
-originally designed. With a very little study it seems easy to detect
-the original intentions in all these monuments; but there is this
-further difference. None of those intended to be exposed were ever
-buried, while many which were meant to have been covered up never
-received their intended envelope.
-
-A monument having a considerable affinity to the two last quoted
-exists, or perhaps rather existed, at Axevalla, in Westergothland.
-It was opened apparently in 1805, and the representations are taken
-from drawings then made by a Captain Lindgren, who superintended the
-excavation by the king's command. It consists of one apartment 21 feet
-long by 8 feet wide and 9 feet high. The sides and roof are composed
-of slabs of red granite, which, if the plates are to be depended upon,
-were hewn or at least shaped in some mechanical fashion. Instead of the
-bodies being laid on the floor of the chamber as was usually the case,
-and being found mixed up with _débris_ and utensils of various kinds,
-each of the nineteen who occupied this chamber had a little cist to
-itself, so small and irregular-shaped, like those at Rose Hill (woodcut
-No. 39), that the body had to be doubled up, in a most uncomfortable
-position, to be placed in the cist. This was by no means an uncommon
-mode of interment in those early ages, but if the skeletons were really
-found in the attitudes here represented, their interment must date
-from very recent times indeed. I know there is nothing more common
-in archæological books than to represent skeletons sitting in most
-free and easy attitudes in their boxes.[365] But if all the flesh had
-disappeared as completely as these drawings represent, the integuments
-must have gone also, and if they were either rotted or reduced to
-dust, the skeleton must have collapsed and been found in a heap on the
-floor. It would be interesting to know how long, either in very dry
-or in moist places, the integuments would last so as to prevent this
-collapse before they were disturbed. No qualified person has yet given
-an opinion on such a subject, but the time could hardly extend to many
-centuries. But does the case really exist? are not all these queer
-skeletons merely the imaginings of enthusiastic antiquaries?
-
-[Illustration: 116. Dolmen at Axevalla. From Sjöborg.]
-
-Be this as it may, these elliptical and long rectangular dolmens,
-with their arrangement of cists and entrances in the centre of the
-longer side, seem so distinguished from those generally found in other
-countries as to mark another province. It seems scarcely open to doubt
-that the oval forms are the older, though what their age may be is not
-so clear, nor have any descriptions of their contents been published
-which would enable us to form distinct opinion on the subject. Flint
-implements have been found in them, but, so far as I can gather, no
-bronze. According to the Danish system, therefore, they are all before
-the time of Solomon or the siege of Troy. It may be so, but I doubt
-it exceedingly. Those who excavated the Axevalla tomb reported that
-something like an inscription was found on one of the walls (woodcut
-No. 116, fig. A); but whether it was an inscription or a natural
-formation is by no means clear--at all events, as we have no copy of
-it, it hardly helps us in arriving at a date.
-
-[Illustration: 117. Head-stone of Kivik Grave. From Sjöborg.]
-
-In some respects, the Axevalla tomb resembles the grave near Kivik, in
-the district of Cimbrisham, near the southern extremity of Sweden. This
-is the most celebrated of Swedish graves. It is mentioned as perfect by
-Linnæus in 1749, but was shortly afterwards opened, and drawings and
-illustrations of it have from time to time been published since, and
-given rise to the usual diversity of opinion. Suhm and Sjöborg seem to
-agree in connecting it with a battle fought in that neighbourhood by
-Ragnar Lothbrok, about the year 750, in which the son of the then king
-was slain.[366] This date appears probable; had it been later, there
-would almost certainly have been found Runes on some of its stones; if
-earlier, the representations of the human figure would hardly have been
-so perfect. One stone found elsewhere (woodcut No. 117),[367] which
-seems to have been its head-stone, has a curious resemblance to the
-head-stone of the Dol ar Marchant, at Locmariaker, illustrated farther
-on. The likeness may be accidental, but, as in all these cases, it
-is difficult to believe that five or six centuries can have elapsed
-between two monuments which show so little progress; for whether this
-stone belonged to the Kivik grave or not, it certainly is of the same
-age and design, some of the figures on it being identical with those
-found in the tomb, and that can hardly be older than the date above
-quoted. Another of the stones of this tomb has two of those circles
-enclosing crosses which are seen on the Herrestrup dolmen and the
-Aspatria stone, all of which probably belong to the eighth century. The
-tomb itself is not remarkable for its dimensions, being only 14 feet
-long by 3 feet wide, and almost 4 feet in height. It is much too large,
-however, for any single warrior's grave, but we are not told whether
-it was occupied by a number of small cists like that at Axevalla. The
-probability, however, is that this was the case, but 120 years ago men
-were not accurate observers of antiquarian phenomena.
-
-Besides these, there are two other forms of tombs which, so far as is
-yet known, are quite peculiar to the Scandinavian province. The first
-of these are the so-called ship graves, from their form. They consist
-of two segments of a circle joined together at the ends, so as to
-represent the deck of a vessel, and are of all sizes, from 20 or 30
-feet to 200 or 300 feet. They are generally found on the sea-shore, and
-it seems hardly to be doubted that they mark the graves of Vikings.
-
-The other form is quite as peculiar, but more difficult to explain.
-It is marked by a range of stones forming an equilateral triangle,
-sometimes straight-lined, but as frequently the lines curve inwards
-so as to restrict the internal space considerably. It is by no means
-clear what suggested this form, or what it was intended to represent.
-It is, however, found on battle-fields (woodcut No. 118), and solitary
-examples are frequent in Sjöborg's plates, sometimes with a Bauta
-stone in the centre. The one hypothesis that seems to account for this
-form, is that it is the "Cuneatus ordo" of Olaus Magnus, and that it
-marked a spot where a combined phalanx of horse and foot fought and
-conquered.[368] The probability is that where single it marks the grave
-of a particular rank either in the army or in civil life.
-
-All these forms are shown in the next woodcut, from a group found in
-the peninsula of Hjortehammer, in Bleking, in the south of Sweden, but
-others are found in the island at Amrom, and in many other places.[369]
-It has been disputed whether these represent battle-fields or are the
-ordinary graves of the inhabitants of the district in which they are
-found. That those found on the shore at Freyrsö (woodcut No. 101) mark
-the graves of those who fell in Blodoxe's battle there in the tenth
-century seems quite certain, but whether this was always the case
-may be open to doubt; but certainly a sandy peninsula, like that of
-Hjortehammer, seems a most unlikely place for peaceful men to bury
-their dead, especially at a time when not one-tenth part of the land
-around could have been under cultivation.
-
-[Illustration: 118. Graves at Hjortehammer. From Worsaae.]
-
-For our present purposes it is of no great consequence which opinion
-prevails, as these forms have no bearing on those of other countries,
-especially as their date does not seem to be doubted. Worsaae places
-them all between the years 700 and 1000,[370] or in the second and
-latest Iron age, and as no one seems to dispute this, it may be
-accepted as an established fact. Their peculiarities of form, and the
-smallness of the stones of which most of them are composed, are such
-that the date here ascribed to them does not necessarily bring down
-that of the true megalithic remains to anything like the same age. It
-takes away, however, all improbability from the assertion that these
-may be much more modern than was supposed, and this much is certain
-that there was no break between the great English and Irish circles
-and the Viking graves; or, in other words, men did not cease to mark
-their sepulchres with circles and cairns, and then after a lapse of
-centuries revive the custom, and begin it again on a smaller scale.
-There may be a descent, but there was no solution of continuity, and
-any one can consequently form an idea how long a time must have elapsed
-before the great Wiltshire circles could have degenerated into those of
-Hjortehammer.
-
-[Illustration: 119. Circles at Aschenrade. From Bähr.]
-
-There is one other group of monuments it seems worth while to
-illustrate before leaving this branch of the subject. They are found
-in the extreme east of the province, on the banks of the Dwina, in
-Livonia. At a place called Aschenrade, about fifty miles as the crow
-flies from Riga, is a group shown in the accompanying woodcut.[371] The
-arrangement is unusual in Europe, but is met with in Algeria, and seems
-to be only such a combination of the square enclosures of Scandinavia
-as we would expect to find in a cemetery, as contradistinguished from a
-battle-field.
-
-In these graves was found enormous wealth of bronze and other metal
-and personal ornaments, many of which are engraved in Professor
-Bähr's book. They resemble in many respects the celebrated "find" at
-Hallstadt, in the Salzkammergut;[372] but mixed with these Livonian
-treasures were great numbers of coins and implements of iron of very
-modern form. The coins are classified as follows:--
-
-  German coins, dating from                 A.D. 936 to 1040.
-
-  Anglo-Saxon coins, dating from        "        991  " 1036.
-
-  Byzantine coins, dating from          "        911  " 1025.
-
-  Arabic or Kufic coins, dating from    "        906  "  999.
-
-It is curious that the Eastern coins should be so much earlier than the
-others, but they are only five in number, and may have been preserved
-as curiosities. The dates of the others prove, at all events, that some
-of these tombs are not of earlier date than 1040, and all, probably,
-are included in the century which preceded that epoch.
-
-Besides these, however, there are tumuli at a place called Segewolde,
-and circles, sometimes with a stone in the centre, at Bajard, and no
-doubt other remains of the same class in the district. The purpose,
-however, of the only book I know on the subject was not to illustrate
-the forms of tombs, but that of the objects found in them, and to trace
-the ethnographic relations of the people who possessed them with the
-other tribes who at various times inhabited that district. The dates of
-the whole, according to their describer, may safely be included between
-the eighth and the twelfth century.[373]
-
-
-DRENTHE.
-
-The most southern group of these monuments belonging to the northern
-division is one of the most extensive, though unfortunately one of
-the least known. It is situated almost exclusively in the province of
-Drenthe, in North Holland, where the Hunebeds--giants' beds or graves,
-as they are locally called--are spread over an area extending some
-twenty miles north and south, and probably ten or twelve miles in
-the opposite direction. This tract of country is a bare open heath,
-which even now is only partially cultivated, or indeed capable of
-cultivation, and at no time could have supported a population at all in
-proportion to so extensive a group of monuments.
-
-As long ago as 1720, Keysler drew attention to them, and gave
-a representation of one in order to show its similarity to
-Stonehenge.[374] The engraving, however, is so defective that it is
-impossible to make out what it represents, and as no dimensions or
-statistics are given, it adds very little to our knowledge. A short
-paper on the subject appeared in the 'Journal of the Archæological
-Association' in 1870, but unfortunately without any illustrations,[375]
-and we are consequently dependent for our knowledge of them almost
-entirely to a work published at Utrecht in 1848, by the late Dr.
-Janssen, keeper of the antiquities in the museum at Leyden. This work
-is in many respects most painstaking and satisfactory; but, though it
-is hardly correct to say it, is without illustrations, the Hunebeds
-are represented by conventional symbols, which no one would guess
-were intended for buildings of any sort without a most careful study
-of the book. I have ventured to try to translate one of these into
-ordinary forms, in woodcut No. 120, but without at all guaranteeing
-its correctness. It is, however, sufficiently accurate to explain the
-general nature of the monuments.
-
-Within the area above described, Janssen measured and described
-fifty-one Hunebeds still existing, and they were probably at one time
-much more numerous, as he regrets the loss of four which he remembers
-in his youth; and several others have been very much ruined in very
-recent times. This, fortunately, is not likely to happen again, as,
-with a liberality and intelligence not shown by any other government in
-Europe, the Dutch have purchased the Hunebeds and the ground on which
-they stand, with a right of way to the nearest road, so that, so far as
-possible, they will be protected from future depredations.
-
-Of these fifty-one monuments only one is a dolmen, in the sense in
-which we usually understand it, meaning thereby a single cap stone,
-supported by three, or, as in this instance, by four uprights. This one
-is near Exlo, and is one of the few that formed a chamber in a tumulus.
-A few have three cap stones, and from that number they range up to
-ten or twelve, with at least double that number of supports. They are
-all, in fact, of the class which the French call "allées couvertes,"
-or "grottes des fées;" Calliagh Birra's house (woodcut No. 80) and
-the dolmens at Glen Columbkill are of the same class. But the Drenthe
-dolmens have one peculiarity not found either in France or Ireland:
-that they are all closed at both ends, and the entrance, where there is
-one, is always on the longer side. In this respect they more resemble
-the Scandinavian examples, such as the tomb at Axevalla (woodcut No.
-116), or that at Uby (woodcut No. 114).
-
-[Illustration: 120. Plan of Hunebed near Emmen.]
-
-The annexed attempted restoration of one near Emmen will give a fair
-idea of their general arrangements. It is 49 feet long over all, and
-internally from 4 to 6 feet in width. It is roofed with nine or ten
-stones, some of considerable dimensions. Some of these Hunebeds have
-a range of stones round them, not arranged in a circle or oval form,
-but, as in this instance, following the lines of the central chamber.
-This is the case with another near the same place, which is 125 feet
-in length over all. When closely examined, however, it does not seem
-to be one Hunebed, but three ranging in a straight line, with a small
-space between each. Two have five and one six cap stones. As a rule,
-each cap stone stands on two uprights, and though frequently they touch
-one another, as often they form really independent trilithons. It was
-no doubt this fact that induced Keysler to compare these monuments with
-Stonehenge, though in fact no two sets of rude-stone monuments could
-well be more dissimilar either in arrangement or construction. As
-will be seen from the annexed view of one near Ballo[376] (woodcut No.
-121), they are formed of unshaped granite boulders. Sometimes, it may
-be, artificially split, but certainly untouched by the chisel. All that
-has apparently been done has been to select those most appropriate in
-form for the purposes to which they were to be applied, and then rudely
-to heap them one upon the other, but in such a manner as to leave wide
-gaps everywhere between the stones composing the structure.
-
-[Illustration: 121. Dolmen at Ballo. From a Photograph.]
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-The first question that arises with regard to these Hunebeds is, were
-they originally covered with earth or not? That some of the smaller
-ones were and are is clear enough, and some of medium size are still
-partially so; but the largest, and many of the smaller, do not show a
-vestige of any such covering; and it seems impossible to believe that
-on a tract of wretched barren heath, where the fee-simple of the land
-is not now worth ten shillings an acre, any one could, at any time,
-have taken the trouble to dig down and cart away such enormous mounds
-as would have been required to cover these monuments. It seems here
-clearer than almost anywhere else that, even if it had been intended
-to cover them, that intention, in more than half the cases, was never
-carried into effect.
-
-It may be taken for granted that these Hunebeds were at one time
-much more numerous in Drenthe than they now are, but it is a much
-more difficult point to ascertain whether they extended into the
-neighbouring provinces or not. One is found in Gröningen, and one in
-Friesland, and none elsewhere. It may, of course, be that in these more
-fertile and thickly inhabited districts they have been utilised, or
-removed as incumbrances from the soil, while in Drenthe their component
-parts were of no value, and they are useful as sheep-pens and pigstyes;
-and to these uses they seem to have been freely applied. It may be,
-also, that there are no granite boulders in the neighbouring provinces,
-and that they are common in Drenthe. There certainly seem to be none
-in Guelderland, a country in which we would expect to find monuments
-of this class, as it is the natural line of connection with the German
-dolmen region; and unless it is that there were no materials handy for
-their construction, it is difficult to understand their absence.
-
-As these Hunebeds have been open and exposed for centuries at least--if
-they were not so originally--and have been used by the peasantry for
-every kind of purpose, it is in vain to expect that anything will now
-be found in them which can throw much light on their age or use. We
-can only hope that an untouched or only partially plundered example
-may be found in some of the numerous tumuli which still exist all
-over the country. I confess I do not feel sanguine that this will be
-the case. I would hope more from the digging up of the floor of those
-which are known, and a careful collection of any fragments of pottery
-and other objects which may be found in them. Nothing of any intrinsic
-value will be found, of course; but what is perfectly worthless for
-any other purpose may be most important in an antiquarian sense.
-Judging them from a general abstract point of view, they do not seem
-of high antiquity, and may range from the Christian era down to the
-time when the people of this country were converted to Christianity,
-whenever that may have been. This, however, is only inferred from their
-similarity to other monuments mentioned in the preceding pages, not
-from any special evidence gathered from themselves or from any local
-tradition bearing on their antiquity.
-
-When we have examined the megalithic remains of Brittany and of the
-north of France, we shall be in a better position than we now are to
-appreciate the importance of the gap that exists between the French
-and Scandinavian provinces; but in the meanwhile it may be convenient
-to remark even here that it hardly seems doubtful that the Hunebeds
-of Drenthe and the Grottes des fées of Brittany are expressions of
-the same feeling, and, generally, that the megalithic remains of the
-southern and northern divisions of the western parts of the European
-continent are the works of similar if not identical races, applied to
-the same uses, and probably are of about the same age.
-
-These two provinces are now separated by the Rhine valley. It is
-probably not too broad an assertion to say there are no true Rude-Stone
-Monuments in the valleys of the Rhine or Scheldt,[377] or of any of
-their tributaries, or, in fact, in any of the countries inhabited by
-the Germans and Belgæ. The dolmen-building races were, in fact, cut
-in two by the last-named race on their way to colonise Britain. When
-that took place, we have no exact means of knowing. According to Cæsar,
-shortly before his time, Divitiacus ruled over the Belgæ of Gaul and
-Britain as one province;[378] and the inference from all we know--it
-is very little--is that the Belgian immigration to this island was of
-recent date at that time. Whether it was one thousand or ten thousand
-years, the fact that interests us here is that it took place before
-the age of the rude-stone monuments. If we admit that the peoples who,
-from Cadiz to the Cimbric Chersonese, erected these dolmens were one
-race--or, at least, had one religion--and were actuated by one set of
-motives in their respect for the dead, it seems impossible to escape
-from the conclusion that, whether they came direct from the east,
-or migrated from the south northward, or in the opposite direction,
-they at one time formed a continuous community of nations all along
-the western shores of Europe. They were cut across only in one
-place--between Drenthe and Normandy--and that by a comparatively modern
-people, the Belgæ. If this is so, the separation took place in the
-pre-dolmen period, whenever that may have been. If the original races
-in Belgium had been in the habit of erecting dolmens before they were
-dispossessed by the intruders, we should find remains at least of them
-there now, as we do both north and south of that district. As the case
-now stands, the conclusion seems inevitable that it was after their
-separation that the northern and southern families, though no longer
-in contact, adopted, each in its own peculiar fashion, those more
-permanent and megalithic forms which contact with a higher civilization
-taught them to aspire to, without abandoning the distinctions which
-separated them from the more progressive Celts and the thoroughly
-civilized Romans.
-
-
-NOTE.
-
-The map opposite is compiled partly from the two by M. Bertrand,
-mentioned p. 326, and partly from one which accompanies Baron de
-Bonstetten's 'Essai sur les Dolmens,' 1864. It has been corrected,
-in so far as the scale would allow, from the information since
-accumulated; and may be considered as representing fairly our knowledge
-of the distribution of dolmens at the present day. Till, however, the
-Governments of this country and of Denmark condescend to take up the
-subject, such a map must necessarily remain imperfect in its most vital
-parts.
-
-
-    [Footnote 321: 'Samlingar för Norders Fornälskare,' Stockholm,
-    1822-1830.]
-
-    [Footnote 322: 'Scriptures rerum Danicorum medii ævi,' 9 vols.
-    folio, Hafniæ, 1722 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 323: 'Historic Danicæ,' lib. xvi. Soræ, 1644, in fol.]
-
-    [Footnote 324: The following list of the kings of Denmark, copied
-    from Dunham's, and giving the dates from Suhm, and Snorro's
-    'Heimskringla,' will probably suffice for our present purposes:--
-
-    Suhm. Snorro.        A.D. B.C.
-
-    Frode I.              35   17
-    Fridlief              47   --
-    Havar                 59   --
-    Frode II.             87   --
-    Wermund              140   --
-    Olaf                 190   --
-
-                              A.D.
-    Dan Mykillate        270  170
-    Frode III.           310  235?
-    Halfdan I.           324  290
-    Fridlief III.        348  300
-    Frode IV.            407  370
-    Ingel                436  386
-    Halfdan II.          447   "
-    Frode V.             460   "
-    Helge and Roe        494  438
-    Frode VI.            510   "
-    Rolf Krake           522  479
-    Frode VII.           548   "
-    Halfdan III.         580  554
-    Ruric                588   "
-    Ivar                 647  587
-    Harald Hildetand     735   "
-    Sigurd Ring          750   --
-    Rajnar Lothbrog      794   --
-    Sigurd Snogoge       803   --
-    Herda Canute         850   --
-    Eric I.              854   --
-    Eric II.             883   --
-    Harald Harfagar      --   863
-    Gorm the Old (died?) 941   --
-    Harald Blatand       991   --
-    Sweyn               1014   -- ]
-
-    [Footnote 325: 'Samlingar,' &c. i. plate 11, fig. 38, p. 104.]
-
-    [Footnote 326: _Loc. sup. cit._, fig. 39.]
-
-    [Footnote 327: Stokes, 'Life of Petrie,' p. 260.]
-
-    [Footnote 328: Beowulf, _loc. sup. cit._]
-
-    [Footnote 329: Engelhardt, 'Guide illustré du Musée à Copenhague,'
-    p. 33.]
-
-    [Footnote 330: The woodcut is copied from a drawing in Sjöborg, ii.
-    fig. 214. It is repeated by Worsaae, _loc. sup. cit._, both copying
-    from some original I have not cared to trace.]
-
-    [Footnote 331: 'Historia Danica,' viii. p. 133.]
-
-    [Footnote 332: 'Danicorum Monument,' libri sex, i. p. 12.]
-
-    [Footnote 333: 'Primæval Antiquities of Denmark,' p. 113.]
-
-    [Footnote 334: At one time I was, on the authority of a Saxon
-    charter, inclined to believe that this tumulus was the grave of
-    Cissa, Saxon king of Winchester, who was contemporary with Arthur.
-    I am now informed by the Rev. Mr. Jones, who has carefully gone
-    into the matter, that the Charter No. 1094, which is taken from
-    the 'Codex Winton.' fol. 54, refers to Overton in Hants, and not
-    to Overton in Wilts, because Tadanliage (Tadley) is mentioned as
-    part of it. As I cannot dispute the competency of so eminent an
-    authority on such a question, its identification with the tomb of
-    King Cissa must for the present be withdrawn, but it by no means
-    follows in consequence that it may not be of his age.]
-
-    [Footnote 335: 'Prehistoric Times,' p. 153.]
-
-    [Footnote 336: The slaves of the Scythian kings were strangled
-    (Herodotus, iv. 71 and 72).]
-
-    [Footnote 337: "Si quis, hominem diabolo sacrificaverit
-    et in hostiam more paganorum dæmonibus obtulerit, morte
-    moriatur."--Balusius, _Capt. Reg. Franc._ i. 253.]
-
-    [Footnote 338: The wood-blocks of these and other illustrations of
-    Dr. Thurnam's paper were lent to Sir John Lubbock, and used by him
-    in his 'Prehistoric Times,' Nos. 146-156, where they will be more
-    accessible to many than in the 'Archæologia.']
-
-    [Footnote 339: An argument for secondary interments has been
-    attempted to be founded (Lubbock, 'Prehistoric Times,' p. 156) on
-    an edict of Charlemagne, in which he says:--"Jubemus ut corpora
-    Christianorum Saxonum ad cœmeteria ecclesiæ deferantur et non
-    _ad_ tumulos paganorum (Balusius, 'Cap. Reg. Franc.' i. p. 154).
-    If the expression had been "_in_ tumulos," there might have been
-    something in it; but a fair inference from the edict seems to me
-    to be that even in Charlemagne's time converted Saxons insisted on
-    being buried--probably in tumuli--near where the tombs of their
-    fathers were, and probably with pagan rites, in spite of their
-    nominal conversion.]
-
-    [Footnote 340: 'Archæologia,' xlii. p. 195.]
-
-    [Footnote 341: Nothing would surprise me less than the discovery
-    of an interment in the upper part of the barrow at West Kennet,
-    between the roof of the chamber and the dolmen. Many indications in
-    the West Country long barrows lead us to expect that such might be
-    the case, but it by no means follows that it would be secondary. On
-    the contrary, it would probably be, if not the first, at least the
-    chief burial in the mound.]
-
-    [Footnote 342: I have tried hard to follow Worsaae's argument in
-    respect to this point ('Zur Alterthumskunde des Nordens,' 1847),
-    but without success. As he is personally familiar with the country
-    and its monuments, he may be perfectly correct in what he states,
-    but as there are neither maps nor illustrations to this part of the
-    work, it is almost impossible for a stranger to judge; and as, like
-    all Danes, he is a devout believer in the three-age system, it is
-    difficult to know how far this may or may not influence his view.]
-
-    [Footnote 343: 'Prehistoric Times,' p. 107.]
-
-    [Footnote 344: 'One Year in Sweden,' ii. p. 183.]
-
-    [Footnote 345: Engelhardt, 'Catalogue illus.' p. 33. Suhm makes
-    it 991, but this seems more probably to have been the date of the
-    death of his son Harald Blaatand.]
-
-    [Footnote 346: 'Annalen for Nordk. Oldk.' xii. p. 13.]
-
-    [Footnote 347: 'Hist. danica,' x. p. 167.]
-
-    [Footnote 348: 'Guide ill.' p. 33.]
-
-    [Footnote 349: 'Primæval Ant. Denmark,' p. 104.]
-
-    [Footnote 350: Engelhardt, 'Cat. ill. du Musée,' p. 33.]
-
-    [Footnote 351: 'Proceedings Soc. Ant. Scot.' v. p. 265. If Ragnar
-    was taken prisoner by Ella of Northumberland, it must have been in
-    the latter half of the ninth century. Suhm places his death nearly
-    a century earlier, 794.]
-
-    [Footnote 352: 'Primæval Ant. of Denmark,' p. 112.]
-
-    [Footnote 353: 'Annalen for Nord. Aldk.' vi. pl. x.]
-
-    [Footnote 354: Holmberg, 'Scandinavien Hallristingar,' p. 3.]
-
-    [Footnote 355: _Ibid._ p. 21. 'Soc. des Ant. du Nord,' ii. pp. 140
-    _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 356: Sir James Simpson, appendix, vol. vi. 'Proc. Soc.
-    Ant. of Scotland,' _passim_.]
-
-    [Footnote 357: Madsen, 'Antiquités préhistoriques du Danemark,'
-    1869.]
-
-    [Footnote 358: 'Samlingar,' i. pl. iii. fig. 6.]
-
-    [Footnote 359: Olaus Wormius, 'Danica Monumenta,' pp. 8 and 35.]
-
-    [Footnote 360: 'Essai sur les Dolmens,' p. 9.]
-
-    [Footnote 361: 'Heidnische Alterthümer von Uelzen,' Hanover, 1846.]
-
-    [Footnote 362: Madsen, 'Antiquités préhist.' pl. 8.]
-
-    [Footnote 363: 'Antiquitates Septentrionales,' pp. 320 and 519, pl.
-    xvii.]
-
-    [Footnote 364: Madsen, plates 13 and 14.]
-
-    [Footnote 365: Bateman, 'Ten Years' Diggings,' p. 23. Lewellyn
-    Jowett, 'Grave Mounds,' pp. 14 and 15, &c.]
-
-    [Footnote 366: Sjöborg. _loc. sup. cit._]
-
-    [Footnote 367: Now destroyed. Sjöborg, iii. pl. 10, p. 143.]
-
-    [Footnote 368: _Vide ante_, footnote, p. 15.]
-
-    [Footnote 369: The woodcut is reduced from a plate in Worsaae's
-    'Alterthumskunde Scandinaviens,' but both it and the Amrom group
-    are found in the 'English Archæological Journal,' xxiii. p. 187.]
-
-    [Footnote 370: Archæol. Journal,' _loc. sit._ p. 185.]
-
-    [Footnote 371: Bähr, 'Die Gräber der Liven,' Dresden, 1850, pl. i.
-    Unfortunately, as is too often the case, no scale is engraved on
-    the plate, and no dimensions are mentioned in the text.]
-
-    [Footnote 372: Not yet published, so far as I know.]
-
-    [Footnote 373: 'Die Gräber der Liven,' p. 51.]
-
-    [Footnote 374: 'Ant. Septent.' p. 5, pl. ii.]
-
-    [Footnote 375: It is by no means clear whether Mr. Sadler, who is
-    the author of this paper, ever visited the spot, or compiled his
-    information from Janssen's book, which, however, he never mentions.
-    Be this as it may, it is the best paper I know of on the subject,
-    and well worthy of perusal.]
-
-    [Footnote 376: The woodcut is from a photograph kindly lent
-    me by Mr. Franks. It is sufficient to show the nature of the
-    construction, but the camera is a singularly unintelligent
-    interpreter of plan or arrangements.]
-
-    [Footnote 377: There are several dolmens, as before stated, in
-    rugged mountainous parts of Luxemburg, but they seem to belong to
-    the old races that in those corners were not swept away by the
-    Belgian current.]
-
-    [Footnote 378: Cæsar, 'Bell. Gall.' ii. p. 4.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VIII.
-
-FRANCE.
-
-
-It is only in very recent times that the French have turned their
-attention to the study of their Rude-Stone Monuments; but since they
-have done so, it has been in so systematic and scientific a manner
-that, had it been continued a few years longer, little would have been
-left to be desired by the students of that class of antiquities in
-France. War and revolution, however, intervened just as the results of
-these labours were about to be given to the world, and how long we may
-now have to wait for them, no one can tell. The Musée de St.-Germain
-was far from being complete in July last, and only the first parts of
-the great 'Dictionnaire des Antiquités celtiques' had been published at
-that time. We can now hardly hope that the necessary expenditure will
-be continued which is indispensable to complete the former, and it is
-difficult to foresee in what manner the materials collected for the
-dictionary can now be utilised.
-
-Even when much further advanced towards completion, it is hardly to
-be expected that the museums of St.-Germain and Vannes can rival
-the royal collections at Copenhagen; and if the French had confined
-themselves only to collecting, they would not have advanced our
-knowledge very much; but, while doing this, they have also gathered
-statistical information, and have been mapping and describing, so that
-our knowledge of their monuments is much more complete than of those
-of the Danes. To borrow a simile from kindred sciences, it is as if
-the Danes had attended exclusively to the mineralogy of the subject:
-collecting specimens from all parts, and arranging them according to
-their similarities or affinities, wholly irrespective of the localities
-from which they came. The French, on the other hand, have founded a
-science similar to that of geology on their knowledge of the minerals;
-they have carefully noted the distribution of the various classes
-of monuments, and, so far as possible, ascertained their relative
-superposition. The first is, no doubt, a most useful process, and one
-that must to a certain extent precede the other; but unless we map the
-various rocks on the surface and ascertain their stratification, it
-hardly helps us in studying the formation or history of our globe.
-
-In 1864 M. Bertrand published in the 'Revue archéologique' a small map
-of France, showing the distribution of dolmens as then known; and three
-years afterwards another, on a much larger scale, intended to accompany
-the 'Dictionnaire des Antiquités celtiques,' and containing all that
-was then known. Were a second edition of this map published now, it
-would, no doubt, be much more full and complete; but the main outlines
-must still be the same, and are sufficient for our present purposes.
-From these maps and the text which accompanies them we learn that the
-greater number of the rude-stone monuments in France are arranged at no
-great distance on either side of a straight line drawn from the shores
-of the Mediterranean, somewhere about Montpellier, to Morlaix, in
-Brittany. There are none east of the Rhone, none south of the Garonne,
-till we come to the Pyrenees, and so few north of the basin or valley
-of the Seine that they may be considered as wanderers.
-
-Referring to the table at the end of this chapter, which is compiled
-from that of 1864, we find that thirty departments contain more than
-ten monuments. Thirty others, according to M. Bertrand, contain from
-one to eight or nine; and the remaining twenty-nine either contain none
-at all or these so insignificant as hardly to deserve attention.
-
-From this table we learn, at least approximately, several facts of
-considerable interest to our investigation. The first is that, of
-the three divisions into which Cæsar divides Gaul, the northern in
-his day belonged to a race who had had no stone monuments. There are
-none in Belgium proper, and so few in French Flanders, or indeed in
-any part of Gallia Belgica, that we may safely assert that the Belgæ
-were not dolmen-builders. In the next place, I cannot help agreeing
-with M. Bertrand in his conclusion that the Celts properly so called
-have as little claim to the monuments as the Belgæ.[379] We know
-something of the provinces occupied by the Celts six hundred years
-before Christ from Livy's[380] description of the tribes who, under
-Bellevesus, invaded Italy. Their capital was Bruges, and they occupied
-the departments immediately around that city; but they had not then
-penetrated into Brittany, nor north of the Seine, nor into any part of
-Aquitania.[381] But they occupied the whole of the east of Gaul up,
-apparently, to the Rhine and the country on the east bank of the Rhone.
-According to the French statistics, there are 140,000 barrows or tumuli
-in the departments of the Côte-d'Or, Vosges, Haut-Rhin, Bas-Rhin,
-Doubs, Jura, and Ain, but not one single dolmen;[382] and there are
-none to the east of the Rhine. As we proceed westward, the tumuli
-become rarer, and the dolmens are gradually met with. The Averni, for
-instance, were one of the Celtic tribes that accompanied Bellovesus,
-and in their country dolmens are found; but perhaps we need only infer
-from this that in a hilly country like Auvergne the older people still
-remained, and followed their old customs in spite of its partial
-occupation by the conquering Celts. We do not know at what period the
-Celts first invaded Gaul, but there seems no reason for supposing that
-it could not be very long before they first came in contact with the
-Romans; and if we may judge from the rate of progress which they made
-in subduing the rest of the country in historic times, their first
-invasion could hardly have been a thousand years B.C. All the
-tumuli in the east of France which have been dug into have yielded
-implements of bronze and metal,[383] and if they belonged to the Celts,
-this would fairly accord with the conclusions at which archæologists
-have arrived from other sources with regard to the Bronze age. It is
-not, however, worth while following up the question here; for unless
-it could be proved that the dolmens either succeeded or preceded the
-tumuli, it has no bearing on our argument. The fact of their occupying
-different and distinct districts prevents any conclusion of the sort
-being arrived at from geographical or external considerations. Their
-contents, if compared, might afford some information, but up to the
-present time this has not been done, and all we can at present assume
-is that there were two contemporary civilizations, or barbarisms,
-co-existing simultaneously on the soil of France. My impression is,
-however, that the Celtic barrow-builders were earlier converts to
-Christianity, and left off their heathenish mode of burial long before
-the less easily converted dolmen-builders of the west ceased to erect
-their Rude-Stone Monuments.
-
-We are thus reduced to the third of the great provinces into which Gaul
-was divided in Cæsar's time, to try and find the people who could have
-erected the stone monuments of France, and at first sight it seems
-extremely probable that they were erected by the Aquitanians. Both
-Cæsar[384] and Strabo[385] distinctly assert that the people of the
-southern province differed from the Celts in language and institutions
-as well as in features, and add that they resembled more the Iberians
-of Spain than their northern neighbours. When, however, we come to
-look more closely into the matter, we find that the Aquitania of Cæsar
-was confined to the country between the Garonne and the Pyrenees,
-and where, however, few, if any, dolmens now exist. They are rather
-frequent in the Pyrenees[386] and the Asturias, where remnants of the
-dolmen-building races may have found shelter and continued to exist
-after their congeners were swept from the plains; and there are one or
-two on the left bank of the Garonne, but except these there are none
-in Aquitania proper. If, however, we apply the term Aquitania to the
-province as extended by Augustus up to the left bank of the Loire, we
-include the greater part of the provinces where dolmens are found;
-but here again, when we look more closely into it, we find that the
-northern districts of this great province were, in Augustus' time,
-inhabited by Celts, or, at all events, that Celts formed the governing
-and influential bodies in the states. Indeed, the fact seems to be
-that, during the six centuries which elapsed between the invasions
-of Italy by the Gauls and the return invasion of Gaul by the Romans,
-the Celts had gradually extended themselves over the whole of central
-France from the Garonne to the Seine, and had obliterated the political
-status of the people who had previously occupied the country, though
-there is no reason to suppose they had then at least attempted to
-exterminate them. It must thus be either that the Celts were the
-builders of the dolmens, which appears most improbable, or that there
-existed in these provinces a prehistoric people to whom they must be
-ascribed.
-
-Without at all wishing, at present at least, to insist upon it, I may
-here state that the impression on my mind is every day growing stronger
-that the dolmen-builders in France are the lineal descendants of the
-Cave men whose remains have recently been detected in such quantities
-on the banks of the Dordogne and other rivers in the south of
-France.[387] These remains are found in quantities in the Ardèche[388]
-and in Poitou.[389] If they have not been found in Brittany, it may be
-that they have not been looked for, or that the soil is unfavourable
-to their preservation; but they have been found in Picardy, though
-possibly not exactly of the same class. It is, of course, dangerous to
-found any argument on such local coincidence, as new discoveries may be
-made in the east of France or elsewhere; but in the present state of
-our knowledge the Cave men and the dolmens seem not only conterminous
-but their frequency seems generally to be coincident.
-
-As we know next to nothing of the languages spoken in the south-west
-of France before the introduction of the Romance forms of speech,
-philology will hardly assist us in our enquiry. There is, however, one
-particle, _ac_, which I cannot help thinking may prove of importance,
-when its origin is ascertained. In the table at the end of this
-chapter, I have placed the number of the names of the cities having
-this termination in each department[390] next to M. Bertrand's number
-of dolmens. The coincidence is certainly remarkable, more especially as
-it is easy to account for the comparative paucity of names with this
-termination in Brittany by taking into account the enormous reflex wave
-of Celtic population from England that overwhelmed that country in the
-fourth and fifth centuries, and changed the nomenclature of half the
-places in the district: still, Carnac and Tumiac, Missilac, and others,
-as names of monuments, and Yffignac, as the name attached to the port
-which I believe was the place of embarkation for England, with many
-others that remain, are sufficient to attest that more previously may
-have existed.
-
-The question remains, what is this particle? The first impulse is
-to assume that it is the Basque definite article. The Basques, for
-instance, say _Guizon_, "a man," _Guizónac_, "the man," and _Guizónac_,
-"the men," besides using it in other cases, while their local
-proximity to the dolmen country would render such a connection far
-from improbable. Against this, however, it may be urged, that _ac_,
-as a terminal syllable, hardly ever occurs in the Basque provinces,
-and the names to which it is attached in France hardly seem to belong
-to that language. Another suggestion has been made,[391] that it is
-equivalent to the Greek word πὁλις, which would be exactly
-the signification for which we are looking, though in what language
-this occurs is by no means clear. For our present purpose, however, it
-is of little consequence what it may or may not be. It is sufficient
-to know that its occurrence is, as nearly as may be, coincident with
-the existence of dolmens. It does not occur to the eastward of the
-Rhone, nor do dolmens, though both are frequent on the right bank of
-that river; and it is not to be found in the east of France, in those
-countries which we have reason to believe were at the dawn of history
-essentially Celtic, and where the tumuli of the Bronze period exist in
-such numbers. It does, however, occur in that part of Cornwall south of
-Redruth and west of Falmouth,[392] where all the rude-stone monuments
-of that province are found, but it is not found anywhere else in Great
-Britain or Ireland.
-
-Nor is it found in the Channel Islands, though dolmens abound there;
-but this may be accounted for by the subsequent colonisation of
-these islands, as of Brittany in more modern times, by races of a
-different origin, who have to a great extent obliterated the original
-nomenclature of the country.
-
-Equally interesting, however, for our purposes is the fact that, though
-the _ac_-termination occurs frequently in the departments between the
-Garonne and the Pyrenees, no dolmens exist in that region except, as
-before mentioned, a few at the roots of the mountains. This, at first
-sight, might seem to militate against the universality of the theory;
-but I, on the other hand, only take it to express that the _ac_-people
-were driven from that country by Ibero-Aquitanians before they had
-adopted the fashion of stone monuments. If we knew when Aquitania was
-first occupied by the people whom Cæsar and Strabo found there, it
-would give us a date before which dolmens could hardly have existed;
-but as we have no materials for the purpose, all that can be said is
-that, just as the dolmen races were cut in two by the Belgæ before the
-use of stone for funereal monuments had been introduced, so here the
-same phenomenon occurred, and the people we have to deal with were
-driven north of the Garonne, west of the Rhone, and south of the Seine,
-before they took to building dolmens--assuming, of course, that they
-once had extended beyond those limits; but this, except in the case of
-Aquitania proper, does not at present seem capable of being proved.
-
-Before the Romans came in contact with them, and our first written
-accounts describe them, they had ceased to be a nation politically, and
-their language also was lost, or, at least, except in the one syllable
-_ac_, we now know nothing of it. If, therefore, it may be argued, the
-nationality of this people was lost before the Christian era, and their
-language had become extinct, these monuments must belong to a long
-anterior period. There are, however, certain considerations which would
-make us pause before jumping too hastily to this conclusion. There are,
-throughout the whole dolmen region of the south of France, a series
-of churches whose style is quite distinct from that of central and
-northern France. The typical example of this style is the well-known
-church of St.-Front, Périgueux. But the churches at Cahors, at
-Souillac, at Moissac, Peaussac, Tremolac, St.-Avit-Sénieur, and many
-others, are equally characteristic. The cathedral at Angoulême, the
-abbey church at Fontevrault, and St.-Maurice at Angers,[393] and the
-church at Loches--all these churches are characterized by possessing
-domes, and the earlier ones by having pointed arches which look very
-much more as if they were derived from the horizontal arches of the
-tumuli than from the radiating arches of the Romans, which the Celts
-everywhere adopted; and, altogether, the style is so peculiar that no
-one the least familiar with it can ever mistake it for a Celtic style.
-All belong to the same group, and as distinctly as, or even more so
-than, the _ac_-termination, mark out the country as inhabited in the
-eleventh and twelfth centuries by a people differing from the Celts.
-Though, therefore, both their nationality and their language may have
-been superseded by those of the more enterprising and active Celts
-before the time of Cæsar, it is evident they retained their old feeling
-and a separate internal existence to a period at least a thousand years
-later.
-
-There is still another trait that marks this country as a non-Celtic
-country in historical times--it is in the south-west, and there only,
-in France that Protestantism ever flourished or took root. To the Celt,
-the transition was everywhere easy from the government of the hierarchy
-of the Druids to that of the similarly organized priesthood of Rome.
-But it required all the cruel power of the Inquisition--the crusades of
-Simon de Montfort--the exterminating wars against the Camisards of the
-Cevennes---and, in fact, centuries of the most cruel and unrelenting
-persecution down to the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, and, indeed,
-to the French Revolution--to exterminate this people and extirpate the
-faith and feelings to which they clung. If they have in their veins,
-as I fancy they must have, any of the blood of the Cave people, they
-belong to one of the least progressive people of the earth, and we
-should not therefore be surprised if it required two thousand years
-of Celtic aggressiveness, coupled with Celtic ferocity, entirely to
-obliterate this race, if, indeed, that is done even now, which I very
-much doubt.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-Before leaving this part of the subject, there is one other question
-which it may be as well to allude to here, as these investigations into
-the distribution of the rude-stone monuments seem destined to throw a
-new and important light upon it. Few questions have been more keenly
-debated among the learned than the relationship stated to have existed
-between the Cimbri and the Gauls. A great deal has been, and can be,
-said on both sides,[394] but the difficulty appears to me to have
-arisen principally from the erroneous assumption that on other people
-except the Celts existed in France.
-
-There is no trace of Celts or of a Celtic language in the Cimbric
-Chersonese or the north-west corner of Europe, which is generally
-assumed to be the country occupied by the Cimbri, and no such people as
-the Cimbri are found settled in any part of France in historical times.
-If, however, we assume that the relationship may have been between
-the Cimbri and the Aquitanians, the case assumes a totally different
-aspect. As we do not know what the language of the Aquitanians really
-was, no assistance can be obtained from it, but our very ignorance of
-it leaves the field open for any other evidence that may be adduced,
-and that of the monuments seems clear and distinct. It seems almost
-impossible that there should be so much similarity between the
-monuments of the two countries without some community of race, and
-the great likeness that exists between those on the southern frontier
-of the northern dolmen province and those on the northern edge of the
-southern dolmen field seems almost to settle the question.
-
-From history we only know of the existence of this relationship by the
-mode in which they fought together against Marius in the late Roman
-wars. If they were then geographically separated by the Belgæ and the
-Celts having thrust themselves between them, the separation must
-have been recent, for a barbarian people could hardly be brought to
-acknowledge the ties and duties of relationship after a long interval
-of time.[395]
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-As may be gathered from the table, page 376, or the map opposite
-page 324, the rude-stone monuments are pretty evenly distributed
-over the whole of the area extending from the English Channel to the
-Mediterranean Sea. Our knowledge of them is, however, practically
-confined to the northern portion of this zone, known as Brittany. The
-information which is available regarding those of Languedoc and Guienne
-is of the most meagre description. Hundreds of English tourists have
-visited Brittany, and many of them have drawn the monuments there and
-at least described them intelligibly; but I do not know one English
-book that mentions those in the departments of Lot or Dordogne, and
-almost the only information regarding them is to be picked up from the
-local "Statistiques;" but as these are very rarely illustrated, they do
-not suffice. No form of words will convey a correct idea of any unknown
-architectural monument except by comparing it with one that is known;
-and unless both have some well-defined features of style, it is even
-then very difficult, and with rude unshaped stones, almost impossible,
-by words to convey what is intended.
-
-[Illustration: 122. Dolmen at Sauclières.]
-
-It is to be regretted that we do not know more of the southern
-examples,[396] as they are different in several essential features
-from those of the north; and it is probable that any one who was
-familiar with all could point out a gradation of style which would
-aid materially in determining their age. Whatever that may turn out
-eventually to be, no one will, I presume, contend that all are of one
-age or even of one century. It is far more probable that they extend
-over a considerable lapse of time, probably a thousand years, and
-if this is so, there must have been changes of fashion even among
-Cave races as their blood got more and more mixed; and it would be
-interesting to know where and--relatively at least--when this took
-place. My present impression is that the southern are the most modern,
-for this among other reasons.--I look on the sequence of a cist in a
-barrow to a dolmen or chamber in a tumulus as very nearly certain,
-and from that the sequence to the exposed free-standing dolmen, and
-from that to the dolmen on the tumulus, as nearly, if not quite as,
-probable. The latter form, so far as I know, never occurs in Brittany,
-while on the other hand it is common in the south of France.[397]
-If they are of the same age as similar monuments in Scandinavia and
-Ireland, they must be of comparatively modern date. There are also some
-monuments, trilithons of hewn or partially hewn stone, as this one
-at Sauclières (woodcut No. 122), which at least look more modern than
-their northern congeners.
-
-The monument, however, that seems capable of throwing the greatest
-amount of light on their age is the dolmen of St.-Germain-sur-Vienne,
-near Confolens, in Poitou. As will be seen from the woodcuts opposite,
-its cap-stone, measures 12 feet by 15 feet, and is of proportionate
-thickness. The mass was originally supported by five columns of
-Gothic design, but one having fallen away, it now rests only on
-four; but their interest arises from the fact that the style of
-their ornamentation belongs undoubtedly to the twelfth century or
-thereabouts--certainly not earlier than the eleventh. In order to
-explain away so unwelcome an anomaly, it has been suggested, that some
-persons in the twelfth century cut away all the rest of the original
-rude stones which supported the cap-stone, and left only the frail
-shafts which we now see. If this were so, it would in no way alter the
-argument to be derived from it. If men could be found in the twelfth
-century to take the trouble and run the enormous risk of such an
-operation, their respect for the monument must have been quite equal
-to that implied in its erection; but the fact is that each of the five
-columns is composed of three separate pieces--a base, a shaft, and a
-capital,[398] and we see them now as they were originally erected.[399]
-
-There may be doubts about the tomb of the Moals at Ballina (page 233),
-but doubt seems impossible with regard to this: it is a dolmen pure and
-simple, and it was erected in the twelfth century. In itself the fact
-may not be of any very great importance, but it cuts away the ground
-from any _à priori_ argument as to the age of these monuments. It does
-not, of course, prove that they are all modern, but it does show that
-some of them at least were erected after the time of the Romans, and
-at an era extending even far into the middle ages.
-
-[Illustration: 123. Dolmen at Confolens.]
-
-[Illustration: 124. Plan of Dolmen at Confolens.]
-
-It is amusing, however, to see how the French antiquaries resist
-such a conclusion. Dr. de Closmadeuc, for instance, one of the most
-distinguished antiquaries of Brittany, opened a perfectly virgin
-tumulus at Crubelz. After penetrating through three distinct but
-undisturbed strata, he reached the roof of the enclosed dolmen
-or chamber. In this he found the usual products of cremation and
-the inevitable flint arrow-heads, but he refers in triumph to the
-"absence de toute trace des métaux." "Aucun doute," he adds, "n'est
-donc possible. Ce dolmen appartient bien à cette classe de monuments
-primitifs de l'âge de pierre." So far all is clear; but there are
-still difficulties, for he goes on to say: "Nous tenons peu de compte
-des débris de tuiles antiques rencontrées à la superficie du tumulus,
-et même sous les tables du dolmen. Il est raisonnable d'admettre que
-ces fragments de tuiles qui dénoncent l'industrie gallo-romaine, ont
-accidentellement pénétré dans l'intérieur."[400]
-
-Let us pause a moment to consider what is involved in such a
-supposition. These tiles, which it is admitted are scattered in
-quantities over the surrounding plain, must have climbed to the top
-of the mound, penetrated through three undisturbed strata of earth,
-and finally penetrated "accidentally" between the close-fitting slabs
-forming the roof of the chamber. The hypothesis will not bear a
-moment's examination, but anything, however absurd, is to some minds
-preferable to admitting that any dolmen or tumulus can be subsequent to
-Roman times. It is astonishing, however, what effect that shibboleth,
-"no trace of metal," has on the mind of most antiquaries. It is, of
-course, true that before the metals were introduced no trace of them
-could be found in the prehistoric barrows of the rude savages that
-occupied Europe in the earliest times. We do not, at the present day,
-bury metal objects in our graves, and but for the coffin nails it would
-be as fair to argue that the graves in Kensal Green are prehistoric
-because the interments show no trace of metal implements. At all
-events, there are many burying races now existing who do not use
-coffins, nor bury metal objects in their graves; and all these this
-argument would make prehistoric. To me it seems much more logical to
-assume that, in those countries which had been occupied by the Romans,
-the natives, though reverting after their departure to their original
-modes of sepulture, had at least been so far civilized as to know that
-bronze daggers and spear-heads were not likely to be of much use in the
-next world, and had come to the conclusion that the personal ornaments
-of the dead might as well remain with their living friends. This
-hypothesis would at least account for the absence of metal in the long
-barrows of Gloucestershire, and at West Kennet, as well as at Crubelz,
-though Roman pottery was found in all these instances. In fact, it is
-the merest negative presumption to assume that, because no metal is
-found in a grave, it must be prehistoric. It may be of any age, down to
-yesterday's, in so far as such proof is concerned.
-
-Even the presence of metal, however, does not disturb the faith of
-some antiquaries. The Baron de Bonstetten, for instance, opened a
-tumulus not far from Crubelz. At one foot (30 centimetres) below the
-undisturbed surface the usual deposit of flint implements was found;
-and two feet (60 centimetres) below them two statuettes of Latona in
-terra-cotta and a coin of Constantine II. were found, but without this
-in the least degree shaking his undoubting faith in the prehistoric
-antiquity of the tomb![401]
-
-Numerous other Roman coins have been found in these French monuments,
-but their testimony is disregarded. In the Manné er H'roëk, commonly
-called the Butte de César, about half a mile south from Locmariaker,
-near the surface, eleven medals of the Roman emperors, from Tiberius
-to Trajan, were found, together with fragments of bronze, glass, and
-pottery, but there were no signs of a secondary interment.[402] In like
-manner, in another monument at Beaumont-sur-Oise, Roman moneys were
-found, but, as M. Bertrand is careful to explain, in a stratum above
-the stone and flint implements, which, of course, he believed to mark
-the true date of the monument.[403] It seems impossible, however, that
-all these Roman coins can have been accidentally placed there. Those of
-Valentinian and Theodosius in the mound at New Grange were precisely in
-the same position as those of Titus, Domitian, and Trajan in the Butte
-de César or those of Beaumont, and so were those of Constantine found
-at Uley, in Gloucestershire (_ante_, p. 165). Those of Valentinian at
-Minning Lowe were in the tomb itself; so probably might others have
-been found in the other tombs had they not previously been rifled. It
-is not easy to assign a motive for placing these coins in the upper
-part of the mound externally. Their being found in that position at
-New Grange, Uley, Locmariaker, and Beaumont, is, however, sufficient
-to prove it was not accidental, and their value is so small that they
-could not have been buried there for concealment. They must have had
-something to do with some funereal rite or superstition, the memory of
-which has passed away. No ancient British or Gaulish coins have ever
-been found in similar positions, and no Christian coins, which, had
-their presence been purely accidental, would probably have been the
-case. The inference seems to me inevitable that they were looked on as
-valued relics or curiosities, and placed there intentionally by those
-who raised the mounds it may be very long after the dates which the
-coins bear.
-
-
-DOLMENS.
-
-There is nothing specific in the Rude Stone Monuments of France
-sufficient to distinguish them from those of the other countries
-we have been describing. They are larger, finer, and more numerous
-there than in either Scandinavia or the British Isles, but except
-in the negative peculiarity of there being no circles in France
-there is little to distinguish the two groups. It can hardly even be
-absolutely asserted that there are no circles in France. There are
-some semicircles, which may possibly have been parts of circles never
-completed; there are some rows of small stones around or on tumuli; but
-certainly nothing that can for one moment be classed with the great
-circles of Cumberland and Wiltshire, or those of Moytura and Stennis,
-and certainly nothing like the innumerable Scandinavian examples.
-
-We are hardly yet in a position to speculate why this should be so;
-but, so far as I can at present see, I would infer from this that the
-French examples are, as a rule, of earlier date than the British and
-Scandinavian. The circle I take to be one of the latest forms of rude
-stone architecture--the skeleton of a tumulus, after the flesh of the
-sepulchral mound, which gave meaning to the group, had been thrown on
-one side as no longer indispensable. But of this we shall be better
-able to judge as we proceed.
-
-Another characteristic, although not a distinction, is the fondness of
-the French for the "Allée couverte" or "Grotte des fées." No examples
-of this form have yet been brought to light in England, but one is
-engraved (woodcut No. 80) as the Hag Birra's grave near Monasterboice,
-a second from the same neighbourhood, at Greenmount (woodcut No.
-81), and they exist in Scandinavia, but their home is Drenthe and
-the neighbouring corner of Germany. As already mentioned, upwards of
-fifty examples exist in that province. They are much ruder, it must be
-confessed, than those of France; but this may arise from the nature of
-the only material available; they have also the peculiarity of having
-the entrance always at the side instead of at the end.
-
-So far as their distribution in France has yet been ascertained, the
-Grottes des fées exist only on the Loire, and to the north of it, in
-fact in the most northern division of the French dolmen region; while,
-on the other hand, as they are principally found in Drenthe, or at the
-southern extremity of the German dolmen field, we may assume that there
-is some connection between the two, or that there would have been if it
-had not been severed by the Belgians before those in either region were
-erected.
-
-One of the finest of the French examples of this class of monuments
-is that near Saumur, at Bagneux. The walls are composed of only four
-stones on one side and three on the other, yet it measures 57 feet 6
-inches by 14 feet 4 inches across. Another, near Essé, is even larger,
-though not so regular in plan, nor so grand in the character of the
-stones. It measures, however, 61 feet by 12 feet at the entrance,
-increasing to 14 feet over all at the inner end. There is a third at
-Mettray, near Tours, which, though very much smaller, is curiously
-characteristic of the form. The immense mass in the centre (woodcut
-No. 125) and the two smaller which form the roof almost take from it
-the character of rude-stone architecture. There is a fourth, of a
-less megalithic character, at Locmariaker,[404] and several others
-are dispersed over Brittany. It is not possible to know whether the
-intention may not have been that these, like all smaller chambers,
-should have been buried in tumuli. These just quoted, however,
-certainly never were so, but this may have arisen from their having
-been left unfinished. That at Bagneux, however, could hardly have
-supported a heavy mass without falling in, and that at Mettray looks
-too like a finished monument for any one to fancy its builders wished
-it hid.
-
-[Illustration: 125. Dolmen near Mettray. From Gailhabaud.]
-
-[Illustration: 126. Dolmen of Krukenho.]
-
-The more usual form of French dolmens is either square or slightly in
-excess of that form, seldom reaching two squares in plan, and with a
-height equal to its breadth. One of the finest specimens[405] of a
-monument of this class is in the middle of the village of Krukenho,
-halfway between Carnac and Erdeven, and is now used as a cart-shed
-or barn. It certainly never was covered up, though its entrance may
-have been closed; indeed, the stones used for that purpose still lie
-in front of it. From this, which may be styled a first-class dolmen
-of the ordinary type, down to the simple dolmen of four stones, like
-Kit's Cotty house, every possible variety and gradation are to be found
-in France; but, so far as I know, no classification has been hit upon
-which would enable us to say which are the oldest or which the more
-modern.
-
-On the whole, however, I am inclined to look on the Grottes des fées
-as the more modern form. The stones of which they are composed are
-generally hewn, or at least shaped, by metal tools to the extent to
-which those of Stonehenge can be said to be so treated. They also look
-more like ordinary structures than other megalithic monuments, and seem
-rather sepulchral chapels than sepulchres. Even, however, if we were to
-determine to regard them as relatively the most modern of the northern
-dolmens, this would not settle the question of the southern external
-dolmens on tumuli, which may be even more modern. These questions,
-however, must, I fear, remain unanswered till our knowledge of the form
-of the whole group and of the materials of which the monuments are
-composed is more extensive and more accurate than it is at present.
-
-The holed-stone variety occurs frequently in France, either in the form
-of simple four-stone dolmens, like that of Trie, Oise[406] (woodcut
-No. 127), or in a still more characteristic example at Grandmont, in
-Bas-Languedoc[407] (woodcut No. 128). Certainly neither of these was
-intended to be covered up, at least in the first instance, or, at all
-events, only partially; or the use of the hole, which was, no doubt,
-to get access to the chamber, would have been destroyed. The umbrella
-form of the southern example is hardly such as would ever be used for a
-chamber in a tumulus, but as a pent-roof is singularly suitable for an
-open-air monument. The so-called Coves at Avebury were, I believe, in
-this form, and it prevails also in India[408] and elsewhere, and the
-likeness between the two is so remarkable that it may well have given
-rise to speculations as to their common origin.
-
-[Illustration: 127. Holed Dolmen, at Trie. From Gailhabaud.]
-
-[Illustration: 128. Dolmen of Grandmont.]
-
-[Illustration: 129. Demi-dolmen. From Malé, 'Antiquités du Morbihan.']
-
-There is still a form of dolmen very common in France, but found
-also frequently in these islands, though I do not know if it occurs
-in Scandinavia. Mr. Du Noyer proposed to call them "earth-fast
-dolmens,"[409] from one end of the cap-stones always resting on the
-ground, the other only being supported by a pillar or block. At first
-sight it might appear that they were only unfinished or imperfect
-dolmens, as it is more than probable that the mode of erection, in all
-instances, was to raise first one end of the cap-stone and then the
-other, as by this means the weight is practically halved. If, however,
-any faith is to be placed in this representation of a monument by
-Malé,[410] it is clear that it was a deliberate mode of getting rid of
-half the expense and half the trouble of erecting a dolmen sepulchre.
-Generally speaking, however, they are more like the one near Poitiers
-(woodcut No. 130), where the stone either rests at one end on a bank or
-on a flat space sloping upwards. Those in Ireland and Wales seem all
-really to be only demi-dolmens, and as economy would hardly be a motive
-in the good old times, I look upon them as probably a very modern
-form of this class of monument. There is, indeed, one at Kerland, in
-Brittany (woodcut No. 131), which, in spite of the shock such an idea
-will give to most people, I cannot help thinking is and always was a
-Christian monument. At least it is inconceivable to me from what motive
-any Christian could have erected a cross on a pagan monument of this
-class, if it really were one. It seems, on the other hand, perfectly
-intelligible that long after their nominal conversion to Christianity
-the people would adhere to the forms so long practised by their
-ancestors, and there appears to be no great reason why even the most
-bigoted priest should object to it, provided the symbol of the cross
-made it quite clear that the "poor inhabitant below" died in the true
-faith.
-
-[Illustration: 130. Demi-dolmen, near Poitiers.]
-
-[Illustration: 131. Demi-dolmen at Kerland.]
-
-I have purposely refrained from speaking of rocking stones, which play
-so important a part in the forms of Druidical worship invented by
-Stukeley, Borlase, and the antiquaries of the last century, because
-I believe that nine-tenths of those found in this country--if not
-all--are merely natural phenomena. So far from being surprised that
-this should be the case, the wonder is that they are not more frequent
-where loose boulders abound, either ice-borne or freed by the washing
-away of the underlying strata. That some of these should rest in an
-unstable equilibrium easily disturbed is only what might be expected,
-and that they would also be matters of marvel to the country people
-around is also natural; but it does not follow from this that any
-priests purposely and designedly placed, or could place, rude stones in
-such positions, or that they used them for religious purposes.
-
-[Illustration: 132. Pierre Martine.]
-
-In France, however, there is one called the Pierre Martine, near
-Livernon, in the department of the Lot, which was designedly balanced,
-if any one was. Its general appearance will be understood from the
-preceding woodcut, taken from 'La France monumentale et pittoresque,'
-which correctly represents its form and appearance.[411] The cap-stone
-measures 22 feet by 11 feet, and is 16 inches in thickness, and is so
-balanced on its two points of support that a slight pressure of the
-hand is sufficient to set it oscillating with a motion which it retains
-for some time.[412]
-
-[Illustration: 133. Pierre Martine. From Bonstetten.]
-
-[Illustration: 134. Pierre Branlante, in Brittany.]
-
-Another and more celebrated one, in Brittany, which is known as the
-Pierre branlante de Huelgoat, seems rather due to accident. It looks
-as if it formed, or was intended to form, part of a demi-dolmen, but
-happening to rest on one of its supports so as to oscillate, it has
-been allowed to remain so. Even assuming, however, that this was done
-designedly, what would it prove beyond the desire which pervades
-all these monuments, of exciting astonishment by _tours de force_.
-I believe it is correct to say that no passage exists in any book
-ancient or medieval which mentions rocking stones or their uses; nor
-has anyone been able to explain how they delivered their oracles. A
-certain push produced an oscillation, not fitful or irregular, but
-always in proportion to the force applied; so the answer must always
-have been the same and alike to all people. A still more important
-fact is that nowhere do the people appeal to them now. Neither at the
-Beltane nor at Halloween, nor at any of those festivals where country
-people revive every extinct superstition to aid them in prying into
-futurity, are these rocking stones appealed to; and it seems almost
-impossible that, when so many other superstitions have survived, this
-one should be lost, and lost in presence of the rocks themselves, which
-still remain. Wonders they certainly are, but I question much if they
-ever were appealed to for any higher purpose than that of extracting
-sixpences from the pockets of gaping tourists.
-
-
-CARNAC.
-
-In a zone about twenty miles in extent, stretching from Erdeven on the
-north-west to Tumiac in a south-easterly direction, and nowhere more
-than five miles in width, there is to be found the most remarkable
-group of megalithic remains, not only in France, but perhaps in the
-whole world. Not only are examples of every class of monument we
-have been describing, except circles, to be found here, but they are
-larger and finer examples than are generally to be met with elsewhere.
-Another point of interest also is that within the zone are found--if I
-am not mistaken--both a cemetery and a battle-field. At least in the
-neighbourhood of Locmariaker, which there seems no reason for doubting
-was the Dariorigum of the Romans, the capital of the Venetes in Cæsar's
-times,[413] all the monuments are more or less sculptured, and all the
-stones fashioned, not to say hewn. On the other hand, no stone in the
-neighbourhood of Carnac is hewn, or even fashioned, beyond splitting,
-and no sculptures of any class have been traced. The distinction is too
-marked to be accidental, and unless it can be made out that they belong
-to different ages, which appears to me most improbable, goes far to
-establish the conclusion at which we have arrived in previous chapters.
-
-To begin with the Carnac monument,[414] which is the best known and the
-most important. As will be seen by the woodcut on p. 352, it consists
-of two separate alignments, or great stone rows--one, that of Carnac,
-extending for nearly two miles in a direction nearly east and west; the
-other, that of Erdeven, at a distance of two miles and a half from that
-at Carnac, being little more than one mile in length. There is a third,
-but smaller, group at St.-Barbe, about a mile and a half due south of
-Erdeven; and numerous dolmens and tumuli are spread at intervals all
-over the plain.
-
-In order to be understood, the Carnac monument must again be subdivided
-into three portions. Beginning at Le Maenec (the Stones), we have
-eleven rows of very fine stones, measuring from 11 feet to 13 feet in
-height from the ground, and still nearly perfect. Gradually, however,
-they become smaller and more sparse, till, when they reach the road
-from Auray to Carnac, there are few of them that measure 3 feet in
-any direction, and some are still smaller. Shortly after passing that
-road the avenues cease altogether, for a distance of more than 300
-yards, there being nothing but a few natural boulders in the interval
-between. When, however, we reach the knoll on which the farm of
-Kermario stands, the avenues reappear, this time only ten in number,
-but perfectly regular, and with stones as large and as regularly spaced
-as those at Maenec. They diminish more and more in size, however, and
-almost die out altogether before they reach the mound (tumulus?) on
-which the windmill stands, and after that become so small and sparse
-that a stranger riding across the line could hardly remark that they
-were artificially disposed, but would merely regard it as a stony
-piece of land. They again cease entirely before we reach the brook, to
-recommence at Kerlescant, where thirteen rows are found; but these are
-composed of stones of less dimensions and more irregularly spaced than
-those at Maenec, and die out much more rapidly. At a distance of less
-than 500 yards from the head of the column they disappear entirely.
-It may be suggested that these gaps arise from the stones having been
-removed for agricultural and other purposes. I think, however, that
-any one who carefully examines the spot will be convinced that we
-really now possess all, or nearly all, that were ever placed here.
-They are thickest and best preserved in the village of Maenec, and at
-Kermario, where buildings are most frequent, and they disappear exactly
-in those places where there are no buildings or walls, but where the
-ground is an open, barren heath, without roads, and whence it would
-be very difficult to transport them; and in so stony a country it is
-very improbable that the attempt would be made. Besides this, the
-gradual way in which they diminish in size before disappearing shows
-a regularity of design, regarding which there can be no mistake. In
-addition to this, the heads of the three divisions are all marked by
-monuments of different kinds, but which are easily recognizable. At
-the head of the Maenec division there is a curvilinear enclosure of
-smaller stones, none of them being more than 6 feet in height, but set
-much closer together than the rows (woodcut No. 136). It probably was
-once complete, and, if so, joined the centre stone row. At Kermario,
-a dolmen stands in front of the alignment, not remarkable for its
-size, but conspicuous from its position; and at Kerlescant there is
-a quadrangular[415] enclosure, three sides of which are composed of
-stones of smaller size and set closely together, like those at Maenec.
-The fourth side is formed by a tumulus or long barrow. This was dug
-into in 1851, by some persons with or without authority; but who they
-were, or what they found, is not recorded.
-
-[Illustration: 135. MAP OF SOME CELTIC ANTIQUITIES _IN THE
-NEIGHBOURHOOD_ OF CARNAC]
-
-[Illustration: 136.]
-
-The monument at Erdeven is very inferior in scale to that at Carnac,
-and planned on a different principle. Instead of the heads of the
-division following one another, as at Carnac, they face outwards;
-and, like the fabled Amphisbena, this group has two heads, one at
-each end. The principal one is the western, where there is a group of
-very large stones close to the road, but rather confusedly arranged.
-There seem to be nine or ten rows, and a row of large stones branches
-off at right angles to the north. After extending about 100 yards the
-main column dies out, and is resumed again at a distance of 200 yards,
-in smaller stones much more widely spaced. It is again and again so
-interrupted, that it is sometimes difficult to trace it till we come
-near the eastern end, where it resumes its regularity, possessing eight
-well-defined rows of stones similar to those at the west end.[416]
-
-At the west end there can still be traced the remains of what was once
-a tumulus, and, beyond that, a single standing menhir. At the east end
-there is a tumulus of a somewhat oval form, and in the centre, a hill,
-or rising ground, apparently natural, on which are placed two dolmens;
-and, south of the east end, a second hill or mound with two more
-similar monuments.
-
-It is not easy to guess whether the lines of St.-Barbe were ever more
-complete than we now find them. My own impression is that we have them
-now very nearly as originally completed. The head facing the west seems
-to have been intended for a curvilinear enclosure similar to that at
-Maenec, but is now, at least, very incomplete. Its most remarkable
-feature is the group of stones at its head (woodcut No. 137), two of
-which are the largest and finest blocks in the neighbourhood. The
-farthest away in the view is 19 feet long by 12 feet broad, and 8
-feet thick; the other, seen in the foreground, even exceeds it in
-dimensions. Whether these are like the Coffin stones at Aylesford, or
-the two stones found among the stone rows at Dartmoor, or have, indeed,
-any separate meaning, must be left to be determined when we know more
-of the general scheme on which these monuments were planned.
-
-There is nothing at present but juxtaposition to justify us in
-connecting these great stone rows with the smaller groups of stones and
-the dolmens or tumuli which stud the plain where they are found. In
-respect to these, what we find at Carnac seems the exact converse of
-what exists at Stonehenge and Stennis. There the great stone monuments
-stand among the pigmy barrows of another race and age. Here all are
-megalithic and all seem to have been erected nearly at the same time,
-and to belong to one people, whoever they may eventually be proved to
-have been. In so far as any argument as to their age is concerned, it
-is at present of little importance whether this is so or not, for they
-are all equally uncommunicative on this subject.
-
-[Illustration: 137. Head of Column at St.-Barbe. From Messrs. Blair and
-Ronalds' work.]
-
-One of the tumuli known as Mont St.-Michel, is so situated with
-respect to the Maenec row that it seems impossible to dissociate the
-two. It was opened by M. René Galles in 1862, and an account of his
-researches, in the form of a report to the Préfet, was published
-shortly afterwards. The mound itself, at its base, is nearly 400 feet
-in length by half that dimension in width. In modern times its summit
-has been levelled, to form a platform for the church which now occupies
-its eastern summit. In front of the church, M. Galles sunk a shaft
-near the centre of the mound, and came upon a sepulchral chamber of
-irregular form, the side walls of which were formed of very irregular
-and bad masonry of small stones, similar to that of the dolmens at
-Crubelz. Its mean dimensions were about 6 feet by 5 feet, and 3 feet
-6 inches in height. In it were found some magnificent celts of jade
-and tribolite, nine pendents in jasper, and 101 beads in jasper, with
-some in turquoise, all polished and pierced so as to form a necklace.
-The human remains in the principal cell seem utterly to have perished,
-owing probably to the continued penetration of water since, at least,
-the levelling of the summit, though some bones were subsequently found
-in a small chamber adjoining.
-
-On the north side of the avenue at Kerlescant, at a distance of about
-100 paces from it, is a second long barrow, consequently occupying
-the same relative position to it that Mont St.-Michel does to that at
-Maenec. It is so similar in external appearance and general arrangement
-to that forming the north side of the enclosure, which terminates the
-avenue, that there can be little doubt of their being of the same age
-and forming part of the same general arrangement. It had been opened
-some twenty years ago by a gentleman residing at Carnac, but was
-re-examined in 1867 by the Rev. W. C. Lukis.[417]
-
-[Illustration: 138. Long Barrow at Kerlescant.]
-
-In the centre he found a long rectangular chamber, measuring 52 feet
-in length by 5 feet in width internally, and divided into two equal
-compartments by two stones cut away in the centre, so as to leave a
-hole 1 foot 6 inches wide by 3 feet high. A similar but smaller hole
-exists on the side, and is identical with those found in the long
-barrows at Rodmarton and Avening in Gloucestershire.[418] Mr. Lukis,
-among other things, found an immense quantity of broken pottery, some
-of very fine quality. Two vases which he was enabled to restore are
-interesting from their general resemblance to the two which Mr. Bateman
-found in Arbor Low (woodcut No. 31). Though not exactly the same in
-form, there can be little doubt that they belong to the same age.
-
-[Illustration: 139. Hole between Two Stones at Kerlescant.[419]]
-
-[Illustration: 141. Vases found at Kerlescant.]
-
-About a mile from this example, Mr. Lukis mentions a still larger
-one. It measures 81 feet in length by 6 feet in width, is divided
-into two compartments like the one just described, and has also a
-holed entrance. He also measured two in Finistère, one 76 feet, the
-other 66 feet, in length, and both 6 feet wide. Both, however, had
-been rifled long ago, and are now mere ruins. More, no doubt, would be
-found if looked for. Indeed, these straight-lined "allées couvertes,"
-or "Grottes des fées," without cells, as the French call them, as
-before mentioned, are the most characteristic, if not the most common,
-form of French rude-stone monuments. The only other place where they
-are equally common is Drenthe, and it may be that this side hole
-at Kerlescant is an approach to the side entrance so usual in that
-province.
-
-At Plouharnel, about a mile and a half westward from Mont St.-Michel, a
-double dolmen was opened a good many years ago. In it were found some
-beautiful gold ornaments, others in bronze, and some celts or stone
-axes in jade[420]--all these, like those of Mont St.-Michel, belonging
-evidently to what antiquaries call the latest period of the Polished
-Stone age; but until it is determined what that age is, it does not
-help us much to a date.
-
-[Illustration: 142. Plan of Moustoir-Carnac.]
-
-[Illustration: 143. Section of Moustoir-Carnac. From 'Mémoire' by René
-Galles.]
-
-To the north of Kerlescant, at about the distance of half a mile,
-is another long barrow, called Moustoir or Moustoir-Carnac, which
-was opened in 1865, also by M. René Galles. It was found to contain
-four separate interments, dispersed along its length, which exceeds
-280 feet, the height varying from 15 to 20 feet. The western chamber
-is a regular dolmen, of the class called "Grottes des fées," and is
-apparently the oldest of the group. The centre one (_b_) is a very
-irregular chamber, the plan of which it is difficult to make out; the
-third (_c_) is a dolmen, irregular in plan, but roofed with three
-large stones; but the fourth (_d_) is a circular chamber, the walls
-of which are formed of tolerably large stones, the roof being built
-up into the form of a horizontal dome (woodcut No. 144), by stones
-projecting and overlapping, instead of the simpler ceiling of single
-blocks as on all the earlier monuments. This, as well as the walls,
-being built with small stones, I take to be a certain indication of
-a more modern age. A considerable number of flint implements were
-found in the western chamber, with some beads and a partially pierced
-cylinder in serpentine, but no coins, nor any object of an age which
-can be positively dated. Here, however, these troublesome Roman tiles
-make their appearance as at Crubelz. "Ici, comme à Mané er H'roëk,
-nous trouvons les traces caractéristiques du conquerant (les Romains):
-des tuiles à rebord ont croulé, au pied de notre butte funéraire, et
-plusieurs même se sont glissées à travers les couches supérieures des
-pierres, qui forment une partie de la masse."[421]
-
-[Illustration: 144. Section of Chamber _d_ of Moustier-Carnac.]
-
-If these monuments are really prehistoric, it is to me incomprehensible
-that these traces of the Romans should be so generally prevalent in
-their structure. If it is objected that these are not found in the
-chambers of the tombs themselves, the answer seems only too evident
-that hardly one of them is virgin: all, or nearly all, have been
-entered before the time of recent explorers, and all their more
-valuable contents removed. Celts and beads and stone implements were
-not likely to attract the attention of early pilferers, and these they
-left; but except in the instance of the sepulchre at Plouharnel, metal
-is very rarely found in any. But the presence of Roman pottery, or
-other evidence of that people, in the long barrows in Gloucestershire,
-at Kennet, and at Carnac, are too frequent to be accidental. In so far
-as proving that the monument is not prehistoric, the presence of a
-single fragment of Roman pottery is as conclusive as a hoard of coins
-would be, provided it is found so placed that it could not have been
-inserted there after the mound was complete; and this I fancy is the
-case in all the instances mentioned above.
-
-
-LOCMARIAKER.
-
-It is rather to be regretted that no good survey exists of this
-cemetery. Not that much depends on the juxtaposition of the monuments,
-but that, as the French are continually changing their names, and most
-of them have two, it is not always easy to feel sure which monument
-is being spoken of at any particular time. Those on the mainland are
-situated in a zone about a mile in length, running north and south,
-between Mané Lud, the most northern, and Mané er H'roëk, the most
-southern. The first-named is a long barrow, 260 feet by about 165,
-but not, as in England, of one age or containing only one, but, like
-Moustoir-Carnac, several sepulchres, which may either be of the same
-age or erected at different though hardly distant periods, and joined
-together by being buried under one great mound. Of the three which Mané
-Lud contains, the most interesting is the partially covered dolmen at
-the west end. It consists of a chamber of somewhat irregular form, but
-measuring 12 feet by 10 feet, and covered by one enormous block of
-stone, measuring 29 feet by 15 feet, and with a passage leading to it,
-making the whole length from the entrance to the central block of the
-chamber 20 feet. According to Mr. Ferguson,[422] five of the blocks
-of this dolmen are sculptured; according to M. René Galles,[423] nine
-are so ornamented. The stone, however, is so rough and the place so
-dark that it is difficult at times to distinguish them and always so
-to draw them. The principal objects represented seem to be intended
-for boats and hatchets, but there are other figures which cannot be
-so classed, and, though it may be rash to call them writing, they may
-mean numbers or cyphers of some sort. Their great interest is, however,
-their similarity to the engravings on Irish monuments. If any one will,
-for instance, compare this woodcut (No. 145) and woodcut No. 68 from
-New Grange, he can hardly fail to see a likeness which cannot well be
-accidental; and in like manner the curvilinear forms of woodcut No.
-146, in a manner hardly to be mistaken, resemble those from Clover Hill
-(woodcut No. 77).
-
-[Illustration: 145. Sculpture at Mané Lud.]
-
-[Illustration: 146. Sculpture at Mané Lud.[424]]
-
-[Illustration: 147. View of Dol ar Marchant. From Blair and Ronald.]
-
-Close by Mané Lud, but a little nearer to Locmariaker, stands what may
-be considered as the most interesting, if not the finest, free-standing
-dolmen in France. Its roof consists of two stones: one of these
-measures 18 feet by 9 feet,[425] and more than 3 feet in thickness. The
-second stone is very much smaller, and seems to form a sort of porch to
-it. The great stone rests, like that of most free-standing dolmens, on
-three points, their architects having early learned how difficult it
-was to make sure of their resting on more; so that unless they wanted a
-wall to keep out the stuff out of which the tumulus was to be composed,
-they generally poised them on three points like that at Castle Wellan
-(woodcut No. 7).
-
-[Illustration: 148. End Stone, Dol ar Marchant.]
-
-[Illustration: 149. Hatchet in roof of Dol ar Marchant.]
-
-The great interest in this dolmen, however, lies in its sculptures. The
-stone which closes the east end is shaped into the form of two sides of
-an equilateral spherical triangle and covered with sculptures, which
-this time are neither characters nor representations of living things,
-but purely decorative. At one time I thought the form of a cross could
-be traced on the stone. The central stem and the upper arm are shown
-clearly enough in the drawing by Mr. Ferguson; but all the drawings
-show a lower cross-arm--though I confess I did not see it--which quite
-destroys this idea. On the roof a well-sculptured plumed[426] hatchet
-can be traced very distinctly, as shown in the woodcut copied from Mr.
-Ferguson. He fancies he can also trace the form of a plough in the
-sculptures of the roof, but this seems doubtful.
-
-It is to this dolmen that the great fallen obelisk belongs. If it
-was one stone, it measured 64 feet in length and 13 feet across its
-greatest diameter; but I confess I cannot, from the mode in which it
-has fallen, rid myself of the idea that it was in reality two obelisks,
-and not one. Whether this was the case or not, it is a remarkable work
-of art for a rude people, for it certainly has been shaped with care,
-and with the same amount of labour might have been made square or round
-or any other shape that might have been desired. This, however, is
-one of the peculiarities of the style. No one will dispute that this
-obelisk and the stones of the Dol ar Marchant are hewn; but instead of
-adopting the geometrical forms, of which we are so fond, they preferred
-those that reminded them of their old rude monuments, and which to
-their eyes were more beautiful than the straight lines of the Romans. I
-do not feel quite sure that artistically they were not right.
-
-If we compare this dolmen with that at Krukenho (woodcut No. 126), the
-difference between them appears very striking. The Del ar Marchant is a
-regular tripod dolmen, carefully built of shaped stones and engraved.
-The other is a magnificent cist, walled with rude stones, and such as
-would form a chamber in a tumulus if buried in one, though whether this
-particular example was ever intended to be so treated or not is by no
-means clear. Be this as it may, there are two modes of accounting for
-the difference between two monuments so nearly alike in dimensions and
-situated so near to one another. The first would be to assume that the
-Krukenho example is the oldest, it being the rudest and approaching
-more nearly to the primitive form of the monuments: the second would
-be to assume that the one was the memorial of some warrior, erected in
-haste on the battle-field where he fell, by his companions in arms;
-and that the other was a royal sepulchre, prepared at leisure either
-by the king himself or by those who succeeded him in times of peace,
-and consequently who had leisure for such works. We must know more of
-these monuments before a satisfactory choice can be made between these
-two hypotheses. At present I rather incline to the belief that the
-circumstances under which they were erected may have more to do with
-their differences than their relative ages.
-
-To return to Locmariaker. Close to the town there is, or was, a long
-allée couverte.[427] It is 70 feet long, and divided towards its inner
-end into a square chamber, to which a long-slightly curved gallery
-led, composed of fourteen stones on each side. Five of these are
-covered with ornaments, and characters engraved on them. One might be
-considered as representing the leaf of a fern, or possibly a palm; the
-rest are ovals, circles, and similar ornaments, which may or may not
-have more meaning than those at New Grange or other monuments in the
-locality.
-
-[Illustration: 150. Stone found inside Chamber at Mané er H'roëk.]
-
-On the other side of the village is the tumulus already mentioned as
-Mané er H'roëk, where the twelve Roman coins were found, and inside
-it an immense collection of polished celts, but all broken, and one
-slab, which apparently originally closed the door, and is covered with
-sculptured hatchets, similar in character to that on the roof of the
-Dol ar Marchant, but not so carefully drawn nor so well engraved.
-
-[Illustration: 151. Plan of Gavr Innis.]
-
-Besides these there are several--probably as many as a dozen--monuments
-of the same class, within what may fairly be considered the limits of
-this cemetery; but of these the most interesting, as well as the most
-perfect, is that on the island of Gavr Innis, about 2 miles eastward
-from Locmariaker.
-
-[Illustration: 152. Sculptures at Gavr Innis. From a drawing by Sir
-Henry Dryden.[428]]
-
-[Illustration: 153. Holed Stone, Gavr Innis. From a drawing by Sir
-Henry Dryden.]
-
-The plan of the chamber of this monument will be understood from the
-annexed plan.[429] The gallery of entrance measures 44 feet from where
-the lining stones begin to the chamber, which is quadrangular in
-form, and measures 9 feet by 8 feet. All the six stones forming the
-three sides of the chamber, and most of those which line the entrance
-on either hand, are most elaborately sculptured with patterns, the
-character of which will be understood from the annexed woodcuts. The
-pattern, it will be observed, is not so flowing or graceful as those
-found at New Grange or Dowth, and nowhere, I believe, can it be said
-to imitate vegetable forms; and in the woodcut on the left-hand stone
-are some seventeen or eighteen figures, which are generally supposed
-to represent celts, and probably do so; but if they do, from their
-position they must mean something more, either numbers or names, but,
-whatever it may be, its meaning has not yet been guessed. On other
-stones there are waving lines, which are very generally assumed to
-represent serpents, and, I believe, correctly so; but as that is
-somewhat doubtful, it is as well to refrain from citing them. Besides
-these, the general pattern is circles within circles, and flowing
-lines nearly equidistant, but, except on one stone, never of spirals,
-and then less graceful than the Irish. The sculpture, however, on some
-of the stones at Lough Crew, and that in the centre especially of
-woodcut No. 75, is absolutely identical with the patterns found here;
-and altogether there is more similarity between these sculptures and
-those at Lough Crew than between almost any other monuments of the
-class that I know of.
-
-In the chamber on the left-hand side is a stone (woodcut No. 153),
-with three holes in it, which have given rise to an unlimited amount
-of speculation. Generally it is assumed that it was here that the
-Druids tied up the human victims whom they were about to sacrifice.
-But, without going back to the question as to whether there ever were
-any Druids in the Morbihan, would any priest choose a small dungeon 8
-feet square and absolutely dark for the performance of one of their
-greatest and most solemn rites? So far as we know anything of human
-sacrifices, they were always performed in the open day and in the
-presence of multitudes. Assuming for the moment, however, that these
-holes were intended for some such purpose, two would have sufficed, and
-these of a form much simpler and more easily cut. As will be seen from
-the woodcut, not only are the three holes joined, but a ledge or trough
-is sunk below them which might hold oil or holy water, and must, it
-appears to me, have been intended for some such purpose.
-
-The existence of these holes seems to set at rest another question of
-some interest. Generally it has been assumed that the tattooing on the
-stones of the chambers, &c., may have been done with stone implements.
-This cannot be denied, though it seems improbable; but the undercutting
-of the passages between these holes and the formation of the trough
-could only be effected by a tool which would bear a blow on its head,
-and a heavy one too, or, in other words, by some well-tempered metal
-tool.
-
-At Tumiac, opposite Gavr Innis, existed a very large tumulus, which
-was opened in 1853 by Messrs. Fouquet and L. Galles. It was found to
-contain a small chamber, partly formed of large slabs, partly of small
-stones. Some of the former had rude carvings upon them, but without any
-meaning that can now be made out.
-
-The whole has the appearance of being considerably more modern than
-Gavr Innis.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-Besides these, in the neighbourhood of Carnac and Locmariaker, there
-are at least three other groups of stones in France which deserve much
-more attention than has hitherto been bestowed upon them. The first is
-in the peninsula of Crozon, forming the southern side of the roadstead
-of Brest. It consists, among others, of three alignments of stones. The
-principal one is at a place called Kerdouadec, and consists of a single
-line of stones 1600 feet in length, arranged on a slightly curved plan,
-and terminating in a curious "Swastica"-like cross. The second, at
-Carmaret, is a single line, 900 feet long, and with two branches at
-right angles to it, near its centre. The third, at Leuré, is likewise
-a single line with a slight elbow in the centre, from which starts a
-short branch at right angles.[430]
-
-[Illustration: 154. Alignments at Crozon.]
-
-I am not able to offer a conjecture what these alignments represent,
-nor why or when they were placed here. Whether an inspection on the
-spot might suggest some clue is not clear, but they are so unlike
-anything found anywhere else, either in France or any other country,
-that they must for the present, I fear, remain a mystery.
-
-The second group, known as the Gré de Cojou, is situated about halfway
-between Rennes and Redon. The remains here consist of a short double
-alignment some 500 feet long, several tumuli--one at least surmounted
-by a circle of stones--several stone enclosures, and frequent dolmens.
-They have been imperfectly described by M. Ramé,[431] and planned,
-but not published, by Sir Henry Dryden. Until these are given to the
-world more in detail than has hitherto been done, it is impossible to
-say whether they represent a battle-field or a cemetery. From their
-position--a bleak, barren heath, far from any centre of population--I
-would guess the former; but I have not visited the place myself, and
-the information at my command is too meagre to enable me to speak with
-any confidence regarding them.
-
-The third group is in the department of the Lot, near Preissac, in
-the parish of Junies, and extends over half a mile (800 metres) in
-length. Unfortunately we have nothing but verbal descriptions of it,
-and from these it is impossible to realise its form, or predicate its
-destination.[432] We are, indeed, in a state of great ignorance with
-regard to all these megalithic remains in the south of France, but as
-they seem as important and as numerous as those in the north, it is to
-be hoped some one will devote an autumn to their illustration. There
-are probably several other groups as important as those at Junies, but
-they are quite unknown to us at present. These groups must therefore
-be put aside for the present, and any argument regarding age or use of
-this class of monuments must be based wholly on what we know of those
-of the Morbihan.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-So far as I know, no reasonable tradition attaches to any of the
-monuments in the Locmariaker cemetery which would enable us to fix
-their dates with anything like certainty, nor are there any local
-circumstances, except the Roman coins and tiles above alluded to, which
-aid us in our researches. We are thus left to such general inferences
-as the case admits of, and to a comparison with other similar monuments
-whose dates are nearer and better ascertained. No one, however, who is
-familiar with the two great cemeteries of Meath will probably hesitate
-in admitting that the two groups cannot be far separated in date. Of
-course, it is impossible in a general work like the present to put the
-evidence forward in anything like a complete state. In order to do
-this in a satisfactory manner would require a large volume to itself,
-and the illustrations both of the French and Irish examples should be
-drawn by the same person. Even the few illustrations that have been
-given are probably sufficient to show a similarity so great that it
-can hardly be accidental, and I may be allowed to add, from personal
-familiarity with both groups of monuments, that it seems impossible
-to escape the conviction that they are monuments of the same class,
-probably of the same or a closely allied race, and of about the same
-age. This last must always be the most uncertain premiss of the three,
-as we can scarcely hope ever to know the relative state of civilization
-of the two countries at a given time; and consequently, even if we
-could prove that two ornaments in the two countries were identical in
-form, this would not prove that there might not be a difference of
-fifty or a hundred years between them. Even at a later age, in the
-thirteenth century, for instance, the same form and the same style in
-France and England did not prevent a difference of fifty years existing
-between any two examples. In the fourteenth the two were abreast, and
-in the fifteenth century they again diverged, so that, although the
-architecture of both was still Gothic, a comparison of style for this
-purpose became almost impossible.
-
-In like manner, though the central ornament in the middle stone at
-Lough Crew (woodcut No. 75) is almost identical with some of the
-ornaments at Gavr Innis (woodcut No. 152), it by no means necessarily
-follows that the two are exactly of the same age. So, too, the foliage
-at New Grange (woodcut No. 67) and that in the allée--now, I fear,
-destroyed--at Locmariaker are evidently of one style, but still admit
-of a certain latitude of date. On the whole, judging from style alone,
-I should feel inclined to range Gavr Innis rather with the cemetery at
-Lough Crew than with that on the Boyne; as well from its ornaments as
-because I fancy that those monuments which are roofed with flat stones
-only are earlier than those which make some attempt at construction.
-But, on the other hand, I believe that Mané er H'roëk and Mané Lud may
-more probably range with New Grange and Dowth; and as I look upon it
-as quite certain that the monuments on the Boyne were all erected in
-the first four centuries after the birth of Christ, it seems impossible
-that the age of those at Locmariaker can be very distant from that date.
-
-To many it will no doubt seem improbable that these monuments should
-have been erected during the occupation of the country by the Romans.
-If, however, they would take the trouble of studying what is now going
-on in India, their incredulity would, I fancy, soon disappear. The
-natives there at the present day are in many parts of the country
-building temples which it requires a practised eye to distinguish from
-those erected before any European settled in the land; and they follow
-their own customs, and worship their own gods, utterly irrespective of,
-and uninfluenced by, the strangers who have held the chief sway in the
-country for more than a hundred years. It must also be borne in mind
-that the Romans never really settled in Brittany. The country was poor
-then as now, and it led to nowhere. So long as the Bretons remained
-quiet, the Romans seem to have left them to themselves, and certainly
-have left no traces of any establishment of importance in their
-country--nothing that would lead us to suspect such intimate relations
-with the natives as would induce them to change their faith or fashions
-and copy the institutions of the foreigners.
-
-On the other hand, it seems not only possible, but probable, that
-intercourse with the Romans may first have inspired the inhabitants
-of Brittany with a desire to attain greater durability and more
-magnificence, by the employment of stone, instead of earth or wood,
-for their monuments. This they might do, without its creating in
-their minds the smallest desire to copy either Roman forms or Roman
-institutions. On the contrary, we have every reason to believe that in
-these remote districts the Romans would be hated as conquerors, and
-that their religion and their customs would be held in abhorrence as
-strange and unsuited to the land they occupied.
-
-Be this as it may, a comparison with the Irish examples reduces the
-questions at issue with regard to dates within very narrow limits.
-Either these monuments were erected immediately before or during the
-time of the Roman occupation or immediately after their departure,
-but prior to the conversion of the natives to Christianity. We are not
-yet in a position to decide positively between these two hypotheses,
-but the presence of Roman coins and Roman tiles in some of the mounds
-and the whole aspect of the argument seem to me to incline the balance
-in favour of their belonging to Roman times. Some may be anterior to
-the Christian era, but I am very much mistaken if it be not eventually
-admitted that the greater number of them are subsequent to that epoch.
-
-Even, however, if the age of the monuments of the cemetery of
-Locmariaker could be ascertained, it would by no means necessarily
-carry with it that of the stone rows at Carnac. They belong to a
-different category altogether, and may be of a different age.
-
-No one now, I presume, after what has been said above, especially with
-regard to the Scandinavian examples, will think it necessary that I
-should go over the ground to prove that they are not temples. Every
-argument that could be adduced to prove that Avebury or Stonehenge are
-not temples tells with tenfold force here. A temple extending over six
-or seven miles of country is more improbable than one covering only
-28 acres. This one, too, is open everywhere, and has no enclosure or
-"temenos" of any sort, and there being an uneven number of equally
-spaced rows of stones in the principal monument is sufficient to show
-it was not intended and could not be used for processions. In fact I
-hardly know of any proposition that appears to me so manifestly absurd
-as that these stone rows were temples, and I feel sure that no one who
-thinks twice of the matter will venture again to affirm it.
-
-It seems equally clear that they were not erected for any civic or
-civil purpose. No meetings could be held, and no administrative
-functions could be carried on in or around them. Nor are they
-sepulchral in any ordinary sense of the term. In the first place
-because, though men were buried in tumuli or under dolmens, or had
-single head-stones, nowhere were men buried in rows like this,
-extending over miles of heath and barren country. But the great fact
-is that the French savants have dug repeatedly about these stones and
-found no trace of burials. The most conclusive experiment of the sort
-was made by a road surveyor some six or seven years ago. Wishing to
-raise the road from Auray to Carnac, he dug out the sand and gravel on
-the east side of the road, over a considerable area, to a depth of from
-three to four feet; but being of a conservative turn of mind, he left
-the eleven rows of stones each standing on a little pillar of sand. It
-was then easy to trace the undisturbed strata of differently coloured
-earth round and almost under the stones, and to feel perfectly certain
-that it had never been disturbed by any inhumation. It, no doubt, is
-true that the long barrow at Kerlescant, the dolmen at Kermario, and
-the enclosure at Maenec, may have been, indeed most probably were,
-all of them, burying-places, but they can no more be considered the
-monument than the drums and fifes can be considered the regiment. They
-are only the adjuncts; the great rows must be considered as essentially
-the monuments.
-
-If, therefore, they are neither temples, nor town-halls, nor even
-sepulchres, we are driven back on the only remaining group of motives
-which, so far as I know, ever induced mankind to expend time and labour
-on the erection of perfectly unutilitarian erections. They must be
-trophies--the memorials of some great battle or battles that at some
-time or other were fought out on this plain. The fact of the head of
-each division being a tomb is in favour of this hypothesis; but if it
-is considered as the principal part, it is like drawing a jackdaw with
-a peacock's tail--an absurdity into which these men of the olden time
-would hardly fall.
-
-It is more difficult to answer the questions, Are Carnac and Erdeven
-parts of one great design, or two separate monuments? Is Carnac the
-march, St.-Barbe the position before the battle, Erdeven the scene
-of the final struggle for the heights that gave the victory, and the
-tombs scattered over the plain between these alignments the graves of
-those who fell in that fight? Such appears to me the only feasible
-explanation of what we here find; but the great question still remains,
-What fight?
-
-There is, probably, no single instance in which the negative argument
-derived from the silence of the classical authors applies with such
-force as to this. If these stones existed when Cæsar waged war against
-the Veneti in this quarter, he must have seen them, and as it may be
-presumed that the monument was then more complete than it is now, he
-could hardly have failed to be struck with it, and, if so, to have
-mentioned it in his 'Commentaries.' Even, however, if he neglected
-them, the officers of his army must have seen these stones. They must
-have been talked about in Rome, and some gossip like Pliny, when
-writing about stones, must have heard of this wonderful group, and
-have alluded to it in some way. The silence, however, is absolute. No
-mediæval rhapsodist even attempts to give them a pre-Roman origin.
-Such traditions as that of St. Cornely, or Cornelius the Centurion,
-though absurd enough, point, as such traditions generally do, to the
-transition time between paganism and Christianity, when, apparently,
-all mediæval chroniclers seem to have believed that all these
-rude-stone monuments were erected. Till, therefore, some stronger
-argument than has yet been adduced, or some new analogy be suggested,
-the pre-Roman theory must be set aside; and if this is so, we are
-tolerably safe in assuming that no battle of sufficient importance was
-fought which these stones could be erected to commemorate during the
-time when the Romans held supreme sway in the country.
-
-If this is so, our choice of an event to be represented by these great
-stone rows is limited to the period which elapsed between the overthrow
-of the Roman power by Maximus, A.D. 383, and the time when the
-people of the country were completely converted to Christianity--which
-happened in the early part of the sixth century.[433] But if the
-history of England is confused and uncertain during that century and a
-half, that of Brittany is even more so, and has not yet been elucidated
-by the French authorities to the same extent as ours has been.
-
-No one, I believe, doubts that Maximus, coming with an army from
-Britain, landed somewhere in Brittany, where he fought a great battle
-with the forces of Gratian, whom he defeated, and that afterwards,
-in a second battle near Lyons, he expelled the legitimate government
-of the Romans from Gaul.[434] I also see no reason for doubting that
-he was accompanied by a British prince Conan Meriadec, who afterwards
-settled in the country with thousands of his emigrant countrymen, over
-whom he was enabled to establish his chieftainship on the ruins of the
-Roman power.
-
-If this is so, the battle which destroyed the Roman power, and gave
-rise to the native dynasty, would be worthy of such a monument as that
-at Carnac; but so far as local traditions go, the place where Maximus
-and his British allies landed was near St. Malo, and the battle was
-fought at a place called Alleth, near St. Servan.[435] If this is so,
-it was too far off to have any connection with the Carnac stones. Two
-other wars seem to have been carried on by Conan, one in 410 against
-a people who are merely called barbarians,[436] a second against the
-Romans under Exuperantius in 416;[437] but we have no local particulars
-which would enable us to connect these wars with our stones. A war of
-liberation against Rome would be worthy of a national monument, and
-it may be that this is such a one, but I know of nothing to connect
-the two together, though local enquiries on the spot might remove this
-difficulty.
-
-On the whole, however, I am more inclined to look among the events of
-the next reign for a key to the riddle. Grallon was engaged in two
-wars at least: one against the Roman consul Liberius in 439,[438]
-in which he succeeded in frustrating the attempts of that people to
-recover their lost power; the other against the "Norman pirates;"[439]
-and it is to this, as connecting the stone monuments with a Northern
-people, that I should be inclined to ascribe the erection of the Carnac
-alignments. From Grallon being the reputed founder of Landevenec, it
-might seem more probable that the alignments at Crozon marked the
-position of this battle, and I am not prepared to dispute that it may
-be so. The question is not of importance; if either group marked a
-battle-field of this period, the other certainly did so also, and I
-would prefer to refrain from offering any opinion as to what particular
-battle these stones commemorate. That must be determined by some
-local antiquary with much more intimate knowledge of the history and
-traditions of the province than I possess. All I wish to show here is
-that there was a period of a century and a half between the departure
-of the Romans and the time when the Bretons were so completely
-converted to Christianity as to abandon their old habits and customs,
-and that during that period there were wars with the Romans and the
-Northern barbarians of sufficient importance to justify the erection
-of any monuments within the competence of the people. If this is so,
-and we are limited to this period, enough is established in so far as
-the argument of this work is concerned, and the rest may fairly be
-left to be discussed and determined by the local antiquaries. All that
-it is necessary to contend for here is, that the alignments at Carnac
-are neither temples, nor tombs, nor town-halls, and that they were not
-erected before the time of the Romans. If these negative propositions
-are answered, there will not, probably, be much difficulty in admitting
-that they must be trophies, and that the battle or campaign which they
-commemorate was fought between the years 380 and 550 A.D.--in
-fact in the Arthurian age, to which we have ascribed most of those in
-this country.
-
-The monuments in the cemetery at Locmariaker are probably older, but
-some of them extend down to the time when Carnac "closed the line in
-glory."
-
-NUMBER OF DOLMENS IN THIRTY-ONE DEPARTMENTS OF FRANCE ACCORDING TO
-M. BERTRAND, 1864.[440]
-
-
-                            Dolmens.     Terminations in _ac_.
-  Lot                         500               71
-  Finistère                   500                3
-  Morbihan                    250               26
-  Ardèche                     155               16
-  Aveyron                     125               35
-  Dordogne                    100               75
-  Vienne (Haute et Basse)      82               41
-  Côtes du Nord                56                8
-  Maine-et-Loire               53               --
-  Eure-et-Loir                 40               --
-  Gard                         32               16
-  Aube                         28                1
-  Indre-et-Loire               28               --
-  Charente                     26               50
-  Creuse                       26                6
-  Charente-Inférieure          24               21
-  Lozère                       19               16
-  Corrèze                      17               42
-  Vendée                       17               --
-  Loire-Inférieure             16               11
-  Sarthe                       15               --
-  Ille-et-Vilaine              15               18
-  Deux-Sèvres                  15               --
-  Orne                         14               --
-  Indre                        13                3
-  Manche                       13               --
-  Pyrénées-Orientales          12                2
-  Puy-de-Dôme                  10                3
-  Oise                          9               --
-  Cantal                        8               37
-  Tarn-et-Garonne               7               16
-
-
-    [Footnote 379: 'Revue archéologique,' August, 1864, 148 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 380: Livy, v. chap. 34.]
-
-    [Footnote 381: Walcknaer, 'Géographie des Gaules.' The earlier
-    chapters and Map V.]
-
-    [Footnote 382: 'Revue archéologique,' new series, vii. 228.]
-
-    [Footnote 383: _Ibid._]
-
-    [Footnote 384: 'De Bello Gall.' i. 1.]
-
-    [Footnote 385: Strabo, vi. 176, 189.]
-
-    [Footnote 386: 'Archæological Journal,' 1870, cviii. p. 225 _et
-    seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 387: Lartet, Christy, and 'Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ.' London,
-    1865 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 388: 'Monuments mégalithiques du Vivarais,' p. Oll. de
-    Marchand; Montpellier, 1870.]
-
-    [Footnote 389: 'Époques antéhistoriques du Poitou,' P. A.
-    Brouillet; Poitiers, 1865.]
-
-    [Footnote 390: This list must be taken as only tentative. All I
-    have done was to take the Atlas Joanne, and count the number of
-    names as well as I could. I feel far from confident that I have
-    counted all; and, besides, the scale of the maps is too small to
-    feel sure that all, or nearly all, are there. It is, however,
-    sufficient for present purposes of comparison. If it is thought
-    worth while to pursue the investigation farther, it must be done
-    on the 80,000 scale map of France, which would be work of great
-    labour.]
-
-    [Footnote 391: Delpon, 'Statistique du Département du Lot,' i. p.
-    383.]
-
-    [Footnote 392: In the Ordnance Maps, 1-inch scale, the termination
-    _ac_ occurs at least 38 times in this corner, though in these maps
-    always spelt with an additional _k_, as Botallac_k_, Carnidjac_k_;
-    although this is by no means the usual or ancient spelling of the
-    district.]
-
-    [Footnote 393: The whole of these churches are described in more or
-    less detail by Félix de Verneilh in his 'Architecture byzantine en
-    France,' 4to. Paris, 1851. Several of them are also illustrated in
-    my 'History of Architecture,' i. 418-441.]
-
-    [Footnote 394: The argument, which it is not necessary to enter
-    on here, has been well summed up by Dr. Schmitz, in Smith's
-    'Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography,' _sub voce_ Cimbri.]
-
-    [Footnote 395: The existence of this line of dolmens and of a
-    separate people, all the way from Brittany to Narbonne, may serve,
-    perhaps, to explain the mode in which the tin of Britain found
-    its way across France to the Mediterranean Sea. That the Veneti
-    traded from the Côtes-du-Nord and the Morbihan to Cornwall and
-    the Cassiterides, no one, probably, will dispute. Their vessels,
-    according to Cæsar's account, were fully equal to carrying to
-    France all the metal this country could produce. The road by which
-    it reached Marseilles across France was always the difficulty. In
-    later times, the Celtic trade-route across France was apparently
-    up the Rhone, but on its left bank, and down the Seine, or on its
-    right bank; passing then through Celtica, but round the Aquitania
-    of Augustus, and reaching Britain through the country of the
-    Morini, which was the route Cæsar followed. This does not, however,
-    appear to have been the line which was taken by the trade in tin.
-    It followed, so far as we know, the central line of the dolmen
-    country; and the fact of one people and one language prevailing
-    throughout the whole of that region takes away any improbability,
-    and removes all the difficulties that have hitherto impeded the
-    adoption of that hypothesis.]
-
-    [Footnote 396: My intention was to have spent last autumn in
-    travelling through the southern departments of France with this
-    intent; but the war rendered the position of an exploring and
-    sketching foreigner so undesirable that I was forced to desist. Had
-    this book been a "statisque" of the subject, as it was originally
-    intended, I should have been obliged to defer its publication till
-    I had accomplished this journey, or till the monuments had been
-    illustrated. As, however, it has now assumed more the form of an
-    "argument," this is of comparatively little consequence.]
-
-    [Footnote 397: In a paper on the 'Monuments mégalithiques de
-    l'Auvergne,' by M. Cartheilhac, in the Norwich volume of the
-    Prehistoric Congress, he gives drawings of ten as types. Five of
-    these, or one-half, are dolmens on tumuli, which is, however,
-    probably more than a fair proportion. One has already been given,
-    woodcut No. 8.]
-
-    [Footnote 398: 'Statistique monumentale de la Charente,' 141.
-    Richard, 'France monumentale,' p. 677. 'Mém. de la Société royale
-    des Antiquaires de France,' vii. 26.]
-
-    [Footnote 399: The woodcuts are copied from Michon, 'Statistique
-    de la Charente.' In describing it, he quotes the Edict of the
-    Council at Nantes with regard to the destruction of these
-    "venerated stones." He (p. 141) gives the date of this council as
-    A.D. 1262, which would almost make it appear that this was
-    one of the stones against which the decree was fulminated. This
-    date, however, appears to be a mistake. The true date I believe to
-    be 658, as given above, p. 24.]
-
-    [Footnote 400: 'Rev. archéologique,' ix. 400.]
-
-    [Footnote 401: 'Essai sur les Dolmens,' p. 38.]
-
-    [Footnote 402: Paper read by S. Ferguson, Q.C., before the R. I. A.
-    14th Dec. 1863. See also pamphlet by René Galles (Vannes, 1863),
-    describing the exploration.]
-
-    [Footnote 403: 'Congrès préhistorique,' vol. de Paris, 1868, 42.]
-
-    [Footnote 404: All these are represented in Gailhabaud's
-    'Architecture ancienne et moderne,' ii. plates 7 and 8.]
-
-    [Footnote 405: The woodcut is from a publication privately printed
-    by Dr. Blair and Mr. Ronalds.]
-
-    [Footnote 406: Gailhabaud, 'Arch. anc. et mod.' i.]
-
-    [Footnote 407: Renouvier, 'Monuments de Bas-Languedoc.' No numbers
-    to plates.]
-
-    [Footnote 408: See one published by Sir R. Colt Hoare, 'Modern
-    Wiltshire,' iv. p. 57.]
-
-    [Footnote 409: 'Kilkenny Journal,' third series, vol. i. p. 40 _et
-    seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 410: I have not seen the monument myself, nor do I know
-    any one who has, but I cannot believe it to be a pure invention.
-    Too much stress must not, however, be laid upon it.]
-
-    [Footnote 411: There is a woodcut in Bonstetten's work (p. 25)
-    which, being taken endways, explains more clearly how, the
-    cap-stone resting on two points only, it can be understood to
-    oscillate. It is, however, much less correct as a representation.
-      [Illustration: 133. Pierre Martine. From Bonstetten]]
-
-    [Footnote 412: Delpon, 'Statistique du Dép. du Lot,' i. p. 388.]
-
-    [Footnote 413: 'Ptolemæi Geo.' Amstel. 1605, p. 47.]
-
-    [Footnote 414: The only survey of this monument which has
-    been published, and can be depended upon, is that made by Mr.
-    Vicars, a surveyor of Exeter, for the Rev. Dr. Bathurst Deane.
-    It was published by him on a reduced scale in vol. xxv. of the
-    'Archæologia,' and re-engraved, with the principal parts on the
-    original scale, by Dr. Blair and Mr. Ronalds, in the work before
-    alluded to, but unfortunately never published. The original map, on
-    a scale of 440 feet to 1 inch, is still in Dr. Deane's possession,
-    at Bath, and is so valuable a record of what the monument was
-    thirty-two years ago that it is hoped it may be preserved by some
-    public body. Sir Henry Dryden and the Rev. Mr. Lukis have been
-    employed for some years past exploring and surveying in that
-    neighbourhood, and have brought back perfect plans, on a large
-    scale, of all the principal monuments; and if these were published,
-    they would leave little to be desired in that respect. Meanwhile
-    nothing can exceed Sir Henry's kindness and liberality in allowing
-    access to his treasures, and the use of them by any one who desires
-    it; and I am indebted to him for a great deal of the information
-    in this chapter. The general plans here published are from Messrs.
-    Blair and Ronalds' work, which is quite sufficiently correct for my
-    scale or my present purpose.]
-
-    [Footnote 415: The form of this enclosure, as will be seen from
-    the plan, is not an exact square, and some of the angle-stones
-    being removed, it is difficult now to ascertain its exact form.
-    Sir Henry Dryden makes it curvilinear. Messrs. Blair and Ronalds
-    make the east side quite straight; the south and west were slightly
-    curvilinear, but the whole figure is quadrangular; which is my own
-    impression of its form.]
-
-    [Footnote 416: Sir Henry Dryden counts ten rows. Mr. Vicars'
-    survey, from which the woodcut is copied, makes only eight. Their
-    irregularity makes it difficult to feel certain on such a point.]
-
-    [Footnote 417: 'Journal of Archæological Association,' vol. xxiv.
-    pp. 40 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 418: _Ante_, pp. 163 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 419: It is so difficult to realise these similarities,
-    except by representation, that I give here a woodcut of that at
-    Rodmarton. Allowing for the difference of drawing and engraving,
-    the openings are identical, and it is so peculiar in form that the
-    likeness cannot be accidental. If it does not occur anywhere else,
-    or at any other time, it proves, as far as anything can prove, that
-    the French and English long barrows were erected under the same
-    inspiration. If one is post-Roman, so, certainly, is the other; or
-    if one can be proved to be prehistoric, the other must follow.
-
-      [Illustration: 140. Entrance to Cell, Rodmarton.]]
-
-    [Footnote 420: These were exhibited in the inn in the village when
-    I was there. Where they are now, I do not know.]
-
-    [Footnote 421: 'Revue archéologique,' xii. p. 17.]
-
-    [Footnote 422: 'Proceedings of Royal Irish Academy,' vol. viii.
-    1864, p. 298 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 423: 'Revue archéologique,' vol. x. 1864, pl. iv.]
-
-    [Footnote 424: Woodcuts No. 145 and 146 are copied from Mr.
-    Ferguson's paper in the 'Proceedings of Royal Irish Academy,' viii.
-    398 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 425: These dimensions are from Richard; other authorities
-    make it 18 feet by 12 feet.]
-
-    [Footnote 426: The existence of the plume is doubted by Sir Henry
-    Dryden, and he is so accurate that he probably is right; but as
-    others say they have seen it, and nothing depends upon it, I have
-    allowed it to remain.]
-
-    [Footnote 427: It was in a very ruinous state when I saw it five
-    years ago; and there is an ominous silence regarding it among
-    subsequent tourists. The measurements here quoted are from Richard,
-    'France monumentale.']
-
-    [Footnote 428: The plan here given is reduced from one by Sir Henry
-    Dryden, and may be perfectly depended upon as far as the smallness
-    of the scale will allow.]
-
-    [Footnote 429: Sir Henry drew all these sculptures first on
-    the spot, and afterwards corrected his drawings from the casts
-    at St.-Germain. They are the only drawings existing which can
-    thoroughly be depended upon.]
-
-    [Footnote 430: A plan of the first-named alignment was published
-    by Freminville, 'Finistère,' part ii. pl. i., but the above
-    particulars and the woodcut are taken from a diagram by Sir Henry
-    Dryden in the last number of the 'Journal of the Anthrop. Inst.' He
-    has perfect plans of the whole.]
-
-    [Footnote 431: 'Revue archéologique,' new series, ix. pp.
-    81 _et seq._ I may mention that almost every other name in
-    their neighbourhood ends in _ac_. See 'Joanne Atlas,' dép.
-    Ille-et-Vilaine.]
-
-    [Footnote 432: Delpon, 'Statistique du Dép. du Lot,' i. 384.]
-
-    [Footnote 433: "C'est en 465 que Vannes reçut pour premier évêque
-    l'Armoricain St. Patern, qui mourut peu d'années après chez les
-    Francs, où les Goths l'avoient forcé de se réfugier. Modestus en
-    511 mit tout en œuvre pour repandre le Christianisme parmi
-    les Pagani de son diocèse, mais son zèle ne fut pas recompensé,
-    car plus de trente ans après la mort de Patern les habitans de
-    la Vénétie étoient encore presque tous païens. 'Erant enim tunc
-    temporis Venetenses pene omnes Gentiles.'--_Ap. Boll._ 'Vita St.
-    Melan.' vi. Jan. p. 311."--_Courzon_, 'Chartulaire de l'Abbaye de
-    Redon,' cxliii.]
-
-    [Footnote 434: The authority for these events will be found at
-    length in Gibbon, chap. xviii., and are too familiar to need
-    quoting here.]
-
-    [Footnote 435: Daru's 'Histoire de la Bretagne,' vol. i. p. 58.]
-
-    [Footnote 436: _Ibid._ p. 112.]
-
-    [Footnote 437: Dom. Bouquet, 'Recueil des Hist. des Gaules,' i.
-    p. 629. "Exuperantius anno circa 416 Armoricos qui a Romanis
-    defecerunt ad officium reducere tentavit."]
-
-    [Footnote 438: Daru, i. p. 112.]
-
-    [Footnote 439: "Gradlonus gratia dei rex Britonum necnon ex
-    parte Francorum."--_Chartulaire de Landevenec_; quoted by P.
-    Lobineau, ii. 17. And further: "'Pervenit Sancti (Wingaboei)
-    fama ad Grallonum regem Occiduorum Cornubiensium, gloriosum
-    ultorem Normannorum qui post devictas gentes inimicas sibi
-    duces subduxerat.'--_Gurdestan, Moine de Landevenec_, 'Vie de
-    St.-Wingabois.'"--_Daru_, i. p. 69.]
-
-    [Footnote 440: The information in this table must be received with
-    great limitation. In the first place, What is a dolmen? Do the
-    alignments at Carnac count as two, as seven, or as 700? Many also
-    are mere estimates of local antiquaries. It is, for instance, very
-    doubtful if Finistère contains more monuments than the Morbihan;
-    and subsequent information may introduce great modifications into
-    many of the numbers.
-
-    The value of the _ac_ distinction does not come out clearly: first,
-    because of the imperfect mode in which it has been obtained, but
-    more because it does not make it clear that there are in France
-    twenty-nine departments in which there are no dolmens, and no
-    _ac_-terminations; in fact, the negative evidence which does not
-    appear here is stronger than the positive.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER IX.
-
-SPAIN, PORTUGAL, AND ITALY.
-
-
-It would not be easy to find a more apt illustration of the difficulty
-and danger of writing such a book as this than the history of how
-we acquired our knowledge of Spanish dolmens. When Ford published
-his interesting and exhaustive 'Handbook of Spain,' in 1845, he had
-travelled over the length and breadth of the land, and knew its
-literature intimately, but he did not know that there was a single
-"Druidical remain" in the country. The first intimation of their
-existence was in a pamphlet by Don Rafael Mitjana,[441] containing
-the description of one at Antequera; and since then Don Gongora ý
-Martinez[442] has published a work containing views and descriptions of
-thirteen or fourteen important monuments of this class in Andalusia and
-the south of Spain; and from other sources I know the names of at least
-an equal number in the Asturias and the north of Spain.[443] Had this
-work consequently been written only a very few years ago, a description
-of the dolmen at Antequera must have begun and ended the chapter. As
-it now is, we not only know that dolmens are numerous in Spain, but
-we have a distinct idea of their distribution, which may lead to most
-important historical results.
-
-With regard to Portugal, the case is even more striking. Kinsey, in his
-'Portugal Illustrated,' in 1829, gave a drawing of a "Druid's altar"
-at Arroyolos, and it was mentioned also by Borrow,[444] but there our
-information stopped, till the meeting of the International Prehistoric
-Congress at Paris in 1867, when S. Pereira da Costa described by name
-thirty-nine dolmens as still existing in Portugal. He also mentioned
-that as long ago as 1734 a memoir had been presented to the Portuguese
-Academy enumerating 314 as then to be met with; and though this is
-doubtful, it seems that they were at one time very numerous, and many,
-no doubt, still exist which have escaped S. da Costa's enquiries.
-Neither he nor any one else appears to have visited Cape Cuneus, the
-most southern point of Portugal, where, if we read Strabo aright,
-dolmens certainly existed in his day;[445] and if they do so now, it
-would be a point gained in our investigation.
-
-At present, according to S. da Costa, there are twenty-one dolmens in
-Alentejo, two in Estramadura, nine in Beira, four in Tras os Montes,
-and three in Minho. According to my information, they are numerous in
-Gallicia, but have never been described. Three at least are known by
-name in Santander, and as many in the Asturias. One at least is known
-in Biscay, and two in Vitoria; one in Navarre, and one in Catalonia.
-But I am assured that all along the roots of the mountains they are
-frequent, though no one has yet described or drawn them.[446] So far as
-is known, there are none in the Castiles, in the centre of Spain, and
-only that group above alluded to in Andalusia, where probably, instead
-of a dozen, it may turn out that there are twice or thrice that number.
-
-Assuming this distribution of the Spanish dolmens to be correct--and
-I see no reason for doubting that it is so, in the main features at
-least--it is so remarkable that it affords a good opportunity for
-testing one of the principal theories put forward with regard to the
-migrations of the dolmen-building people. According to the theory of M.
-Bertrand, the dolmen people, after passing down the Baltic and leaving
-their monuments there, migrated to the British islands, and after a
-sojourn of some time again took to their ships and landed in France and
-Spain, to pass thence into Africa and disappear.[447] This seems so
-strange, that it is fortunate we have another hypothesis which assumes
-the probability of an indigenous population driven first to the hills
-and then into the ocean by the advancing tide of modern civilization.
-
-The first hypothesis involves the assumption that the dolmen people
-possessed a navy capable of transplanting them and their families from
-shore to shore, and that they had a sufficient knowledge of geography
-to know exactly whither to go, but at the same time possessed with
-such a spirit of wandering that so soon as they settled for a certain
-time in a given place, and buried a certain number of their chiefs,
-they immediately set out again on their travels. According to this
-view, they were so weak that they fled the moment when the original
-possessors of the land rose against them, though, strange to say, they
-had in the first instance been able to dispossess them. What is still
-more unlikely is that they should have possessed the organization to
-keep together, and to introduce everywhere their own arts and their
-own customs, but that, when they departed, they should have left
-nothing but their tombs behind. This hypothesis involves in fact so
-many difficulties and so many improbabilities that I do not think that
-either M. Bertrand or the Baron de Bonstetten would now, that our
-knowledge is so much increased, adhere to it. I at least cannot see
-on what grounds it can be maintained. It is so diametrically opposed
-to all we know of ancient migrations. They seem always--in so far as
-Europe is concerned--to have followed the course of the sun from east
-to west; and the idea that a people, after having peopled Britain,
-should have started again to land on the rugged coasts of the Asturias
-or in Portugal, and not have been able to penetrate into the interior,
-is so very unlikely that it would require very strong and direct
-testimony to make it credible, while it need hardly be said no such
-evidence is forthcoming.
-
-The hypothesis which seems to account much more satisfactorily for
-the facts as we know them assumes that an ancestral worshipping
-people inhabited the Spanish peninsula from remote prehistoric times.
-If so, they certainly occupied the pastoral plains of Castile and
-the fertile regions of Valencia and Andalusia, as well as the bleak
-hills of Gallicia and the Asturias. Whether we call them Iberians, or
-Celtiberians, or, to use a more general term, Turanians, they were
-a dead-reverencing, ancestral worshipping people, but had not in
-prehistoric times learnt to use stone for the adornment of their tombs.
-
-The first people, so far as we know, who disturbed the Iberians in
-their possessions were the Carthaginians. They occupied the sea coast
-at least of Murcia and Valencia, and if, according to their custom,
-they sought to reduce the natives to slavery, they probably frightened
-multitudes from the coast into the interior, but there is no proof that
-they ever made any extensive settlements in the centre of the country,
-nor on its west or north coast. It was different with the Romans: with
-them the genius of conquest was strong; they longed to annex all Spain
-to their dominions, and no doubt drove all those who were impatient
-of their yoke into the remote districts of Portugal and the rugged
-fastnesses of the Asturias and the northern mountains. It is also
-probable that many, to avoid their oppressions, sought refuge beyond
-the sea; but the great migrations are probably due to the intolerance
-of the early Christian missionaries. It thus seems that it was to avoid
-Carthaginian rapacity, Roman tyranny, and Christian intolerance, that
-the unfortunate aborigines were forced first into the fastnesses of the
-hills, and thence driven literally into the sea, to seek refuge from
-their oppressors in the islands of the ocean.[448]
-
-Such an hypothesis seems perfectly consonant with all the facts as we
-now know them, and it also accounts for the absence of dolmens in the
-centre of Spain; for if this is correct, these migrations took place
-in the pre-dolmen period, and just as we find the Bryts beginning to
-use stones after having been driven from the fertile plains of the east
-into the fastnesses of Cumberland and Wales, so we find the Spaniards
-first adopting rude-stone monuments after having been driven into
-Portugal and the Asturias.
-
-The one point which this theory does not seem to account for is the
-presence of dolmens in Andalusia. They however are, if I am not
-mistaken, an outlying branch of the great African dolmen field, and
-belong to the same age as these do, of which we shall be better able
-to judge presently. That there was a close or intimate connection
-from very early times between the south coast of Spain and the north
-of Africa hardly admits of a doubt. The facility with which the Moors
-occupied it in the seventh century, and the permanence of their
-dominion for so many centuries, is in itself sufficient to prove that
-a people of the same race had been established there before them, and
-that they were not a foreign race holding the natives in subjection,
-but dwelling among their own kith and kin.
-
-It seems in vain to look among the written annals, either of Spain
-or Ireland, for a rational account of these events. Both countries
-acknowledge to the fullest extent that the migration did take place;
-and the Spanish race of Heremon is one of the most illustrious of
-those of Ireland, and fills a large page in its history. So, too, the
-Spanish annalists fill volumes with the successful expeditions of
-their countrymen to the Green Island.[449] The mania, however, of the
-annalists of both countries for carrying everything back to the Flood,
-and the sons and daughters of Noah, so vitiates everything they say,
-that beyond the fact, which seems undoubted that such migration did
-occur no reliance can be placed on their accounts of these transactions.
-
-One only paragraph that I know of seems to have escaped perversion. In
-his second chapter of his fourth book, D. O'Campo states:--"Certain
-natives of Spain called Siloros (the Siluri), a Biscayan tribe, joined
-with another, named Brigantes, migrated to Britain about 261 years
-before our era, and obtained possession of a territory there on which
-they settled."[450] This is so consonant with what we know of the
-settlement of the Silures on the banks of the Severn that there seems
-no good reason for doubting its correctness. It is more doubtful,
-however, whether any Spanish colonies reached Ireland at so early an
-age. Even allowing for the existence in the north-east of Ireland of
-the realm of Emania, the only kingdom in Ireland of which we have any
-authentic annals before the Christian era, there was plenty of room
-for the contemporary existence of the race of Heremon in the south and
-west. Tara did not then exist, and, in fact, according to the annals
-of the 'Four Masters,' was founded by Heremon himself, and took its
-first name, Teamair, from Tea, his wife, who selected this spot. All
-this is perfectly consistent with what we know of the history of the
-place. The earliest monument at Tara is the Rath of Cormac[451] (218
-A.D., or probably fifty years later). Though therefore chosen
-by Heremon as a sacred or desirable spot for residence, there is no
-proof that his race ever occupied it; and in the two centuries that
-elapsed from his advent to the time of Cormac his race had passed away
-from Meath at least, and was only to be found in the south and west of
-Ireland. The one reminiscence of the Milesian race that remained at
-Tara, in historical times, is the Lia Fail, or Stone of Destiny, which
-these "veneratores lapidum" are said to have brought with them from
-Spain, but which, with all due deference to Petrie, is not the obelisk
-still standing there,[452] but may be the stone now in Westminster
-Abbey. The Spanish colonists seem principally to have occupied the
-country about Wexford and Galway,[453] and to these places, especially
-the latter, a continual stream of immigration appears to have flowed
-from the first century of our era down to the time of Elizabeth. No
-one can travel in these counties without remarking the presence of a
-dark-haired, dark-eyed race that prevails everywhere; but, strange to
-say, the darkest-complexioned people in the west are those who still
-linger among the long-neglected dolmens of Glen Malim More.
-
-According to the annals of the 'Four Masters,' Heremon landed in
-Ireland fifty years after the death of the great Dagdha. The Irish
-historians say that the country was then ruled by three princesses,
-wives of the grandsons of the Dagdha, and add that the event took
-place 1002 years after Forann (Pharaoh) had been drowned in the Red
-Sea.[454] If that event took place in 1312, as I believe it did,[455]
-this would fix their advent in 310 B.C., which, though less
-extravagant than the chronology of the 'Four Masters, is still, I
-believe, at least three centuries too early. All this may not be--is
-not in fact--capable of absolute proof; but it has at least the merit
-that it pieces together satisfactorily all we know of the history and
-ethnography of these races, and explains in a reasonable manner all the
-architectural forms which we meet with. It is hardly fair to expect
-more from the annals of a rude people who could not write, and whose
-history has never been carefully investigated in modern times. It is
-too early yet to say so, but the fact is, that it is these rude-stone
-monuments which alone can reveal the secrets of their long forgotten
-past. As they have hitherto been treated, they have only added mystery
-to obscurity. But the time is not far off when this will be altered,
-and we may learn from a comparison of the Irish with Spanish dolmens,
-not only what truth there is in the migrations of Heremon, but also at
-what time these Spanish tribes first settled as colonists in the Irish
-isle.
-
-
-DOLMENS.
-
-[Illustration: 155. View of the Interior of Dolmen at Antequera. From
-Mitjana.]
-
-The finest dolmen known to exist in Spain is that of Antequera, above
-alluded to; it will, indeed, bear comparison with the best in France
-or any other country in Europe. The chamber is of a somewhat oval
-shape, and measures internally about 80 feet from the entrance to the
-front of the stone closing the rear. Its greatest width is 20 feet 6
-inches, and its height varies between 9 and 10 feet.[456] The whole is
-composed of thirty-one stones: ten on each side form the walls; one
-closes the end; five are roofing, and three pillars support the last
-at their junction. The stone forming the roof of the cell or innermost
-part measures 25 feet by 21 feet, and is of considerable thickness. All
-the stones comprising this monument are more or less shaped by art--at
-least to the extent to which those at Stonehenge can be said to be
-so; while the three pillars in the centre, which seem to be part of
-the original structure, are certainly hewn. The whole was originally
-covered with a mound about 100 feet in diameter, and is still partially
-at least so buried. Its entrance is, however, and probably always was,
-flush with the edge of the mound, and open and accessible, and it is
-consequently not to be wondered at if nothing was found inside to
-indicate its age or use.
-
-[Illustration: 156. Plan of Dolmen called Cueva de Menga, near
-Antequera.]
-
-If we might assume--there is no proof--that the mound at Antequera was
-originally surrounded by a circle of stones like those at Lough Crew
-(woodcut No. 72), we should have a monument whose plan and dimensions
-were the same as those of Stonehenge, and, _mutatis mutandis_, the two
-would be, as nearly as may be, identical. There is the same circle
-of stone or earth 100 feet in diameter, and the same elliptical
-choir 80 feet in length, assuming that of Stonehenge to be extended
-to the outer circle. Antequera is, in fact, a roofed and covered-up
-Stonehenge, Stonehenge a free-standing Antequera. If both were situated
-in Wiltshire or in Andalusia, I should unhesitatingly declare for
-Antequera being the older. Men do what is useful before they indulge
-in what is merely fanciful. The two, in fact, bear exactly the same
-relation to one another that Callernish does to New Grange; but when so
-widely separated geographically as the former two are, and belonging to
-two different races, it is difficult to say which may be the older. All
-we can feel sure of is that both belong to the same system, and that
-they are not far removed from each other in date. We must, however,
-know more than we do of the local history of Spanish dolmens before we
-can feel sure that Antequera may not be even considerably more modern
-than Stonehenge.
-
-[Illustration: 157. Dolmen del Tio Cogolleros. From Gongora.]
-
-None of the other dolmens in Andalusia approach Antequera in
-magnificence, though they all seem to bear a similar character, and in
-appearance belong to the same age. The supporting stones seem to be all
-more or less shaped by art, and fitted to some extent to one another.
-The cap-stone is generally left in its natural state, largeness being
-the feature that the builders always aimed at. These peculiarities are
-well exhibited in the dolmen called de la Cruz del Tio Cogolleros,
-in the parish of Fonelas, near Guadix. Here the cap-stone measures
-nearly 12 feet each way, and covers what was intended to be a nearly
-square chamber; one side, as at Kit's Cotty House, being left open;
-consequently it could hardly ever have been intended to be covered with
-a mound. Indeed, so far as we can gather from Don Gongora's drawings,
-none of those which he illustrates were ever so buried, nor does it
-appear that it was originally the intention ever to cover them with
-earth. Another monument, called only Sepultura Grande, in the parish
-of Gor, in the same neighbourhood, is interesting from its resemblance
-to the Swedish sepulchre illustrated in woodcut No. 108, and to the
-Countless Stones at Aylesford. Its cap-stone is 12 feet by 8 feet, and
-the side-stones fall away to a point in front. It evidently never was
-intended to be further roofed, nor to be buried in a mound, and, so far
-as can be judged from its appearance, is of comparatively modern date.
-
-The most interesting of Don Gongora's plates is one representing
-a dolmen near Dilar. This, if the drawing is to be depended upon,
-consists of a monolithic chamber, hollowed out of a stone of
-considerable dimensions, and hewn so as almost to look like an Egyptian
-cell. It is surrounded by twelve or fourteen rude-stone pillars,
-apparently 3 feet in height, and like those of Callernish in shape.
-In the distance are seen two other circles of rude stones, but with
-nothing in their centre. If I understand Don Gongora rightly, these
-monuments are now very much ruined, if not entirely destroyed, and it
-is not clear how far the drawings are actual sketches or restorations.
-They may be correct, but without further confirmation it would hardly
-be safe to found any argument upon them.
-
-[Illustration: 158. Sepultura Grande. From Gongora.]
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-So little is known--or at least so little has been published--regarding
-the dolmens of the north of Spain that it is very difficult and very
-unsafe to attempt any generalisation regarding them. There are three,
-however, which do seem to throw some light on our enquiries. The first
-is at Eguilar, in the district of Vitoria, on the road between that
-city and Pampeluna. It is of a horse-shoe form, like the Countless
-Stones at Aylesford, and measures 13 feet by 10 feet internally.
-Originally it was roofed by a single stone, measuring 19 feet by 15
-feet, but which is now, unfortunately, broken. The side-stones and roof
-are closely fitted to one another, showing that it was always intended
-to be, and, in fact, is now, partially covered by a mound of earth.
-
-[Illustration: 159. Plan of Dolmen at Eguilar.]
-
-At Cangas de Onis, in the Asturias, about forty miles east from Oviedo,
-there is a small church built on a mound which contains in it a dolmen
-of rather unusual shape. Its inner end is circular in plan, from which
-proceeds a funnel-shaped nave, formed of three stones on each side,
-and with a doorway formed by two large stones at right angles to its
-direction. On the top of the mound a church was built, probably in
-the tenth or eleventh century,[457] to which this dolmen served as a
-crypt. From this it seems to be a fair inference that, when the church
-was built on the mound, the dolmen was still a sacred edifice of the
-aborigines. Had the Christians merely wanted a foundation for their
-building, they would have filled up or destroyed the pagan edifice, but
-it seems to have remained open to the present day; and though it has
-long ceased to be used for any sacred purpose, it still is, and always
-was, an essential part of the church which it supported.
-
-[Illustration: 160. Plan of Dolmen at Cangas de Onis.]
-
-[Illustration: 161. Dolmen of San Miguel, at Arrichinaga.]
-
-A still more remarkable instance of the same kind is to be found at
-a place called Arrichinaga, about twenty-five miles from Bilboa, in
-the province of Biscay. In the hermitage of St. Michael, at this
-place, a dolmen of very considerable dimensions is enclosed within
-the walls of what seems to be a new modern church. It may, however,
-be the successor of one more ancient; but the fact of these great
-stones being adopted by the Christians at all shows that they must have
-been considered sacred and objects of worship by the natives at the
-time when the Christians enclosed them in their edifice. If the facts
-are as represented in the woodcut,[458] we can now easily understand
-why the councils of Toledo, in 681 and 692, fulminated their decrees
-against the "veneratores lapidum;"[459] and why also the more astute
-provincial priesthood followed the advice that Pope Gregory gave to
-Abbot Millitus, and by means of a little holy water and an image of
-San Miguel turned the sacred stones of the pagans into a temple of the
-true God. It is difficult to say when Christianity penetrated into
-the Asturias--not, probably, before the time of Pelayo (A.D.
-720); but even this would be too early for such churches as those of
-Cangas de Onis and Arrichinaga. They, in fact, seem to carry down the
-veneration for big stones to almost as late a date as the age indicated
-by the dolmen at Confolens (woodcut No. 123), and bring the probable
-erection of some of them at least, if not of all, within the historic
-era.
-
-
-PORTUGAL.
-
-[Illustration: 162. Dolmen at Arroyolos. From Kinsey.]
-
-Only one drawing of a dolmen in Portugal has as yet, so far as I know,
-been published. It is situated on a bleak heath-land at Arroyolos, not
-far from Evora. Mr. Borrow describes it as one of the most perfect and
-beautiful of its kind he had ever seen. "It was circular, and consisted
-of stones immensely large and heavy at the bottom, which towards
-the top became thinner, having been fashioned by the hand of art to
-something like the shape of scallop-shells. These were surmounted by
-a very large flat stone, which slanted down towards the south, where
-was a door. Three or four individuals might have taken shelter within
-the interior, in which was growing a small thorn-tree."[460] Neither
-he nor Kinsey condescend to dimensions, and S. da Costa merely remarks
-that the dolmens which he has seen at Castello da Vide are of a similar
-construction to this one at Arroyolos.[461]
-
-This, it must be confessed, is but a meagre and imperfect outline of
-one of the most important dolmen-fields in Europe, but it is probably
-sufficient to indicate its importance and its bearing on the history
-of megalithic remains in general. When filled up, it promises to throw
-a flood of light on the subject in general, not only from being one of
-the connecting links serving to join the African dolmen-field to that
-of Europe, but more especially from the assistance it seems to afford
-us in understanding the hitherto mysterious connection of the Irish
-Milesians with Spain. If the dolmens on the north and west coasts of
-the Spanish peninsula were carefully examined and compared with those
-in Ireland, their similarity would probably suffice to prove their
-affinity, and to establish on a broad basis of fact what has hitherto
-been left to the wild imaginings of patriotic annalists, more anxious
-for the fabled antiquity of their race than for the prosaic results of
-truthful investigations.
-
-From such knowledge as we at present possess, I see no reason for
-supposing that any of the Spanish dolmens are as old as the Christian
-era; and the facts connected with the two at Cangas de Onis and
-Arrichinaga seem to prove that they were "venerated" as late at least
-as the eighth, it may be the tenth, century, and, if venerated, there
-is no reason why they should not also have been erected at that late
-age.
-
-
-ITALY.
-
-Although the experience we have just acquired with reference to dolmens
-in Spain ought to make any one cautious as to making assertions
-regarding those in Italy, still it probably is safe to assert that,
-with the exception of one group at Saturnia, there are no dolmens in
-that country. In many respects Italy is very differently situated from
-Spain. Her own learned societies and antiquaries have for centuries
-been occupied with her antiquities, and foreign tourists have traversed
-the length and breadth of the land, and could hardly have failed to
-remark anything that called to their recollection the Druids or Dragons
-of their own native lands. As nothing, however, of the sort has been
-recorded, we may feel tolerable confidence that no important specimens
-exist; though at the roots of the hills and in remote corners there can
-be little doubt that waifs and strays of wandering races will reward
-the careful searcher for such objects. One, for instance, is known to
-exist near Sesto Calende, in Lombardy. It is a circle of small stones,
-some 30 feet in diameter, with an avenue 50 feet in length touching
-it tangentially on one side, and with a small semicircle of stones 20
-feet wide a few yards farther off.[462] The whole looks like the small
-alignments on Dartmoor, and if several were found and the traditions of
-the country were carefully sifted, this might lead to some light being
-thrown on the subject. At present it is hardly much bigger or more
-interesting than a sheep-fold.
-
-The Saturnia group is thus described by Mr. Dennis:--"They are very
-numerous, consisting generally of a quadrangular chamber sunk a few
-feet below the surface, lined with rough slabs of rock set upright,
-one on each side, and roofed over with two large slabs resting against
-each other, so as to form a penthouse, or else a single one of enormous
-size, covering the whole, and laid with a slight slope, apparently for
-the purpose of carrying off the rain. Not a chisel has touched these
-rugged masses, about 16 feet square to half that size; some divided,
-like that shown in the annexed woodcut, into two chambers over 18 feet
-across. To most of them a passage leads, 10 or 12 feet long and 3 feet
-wide. All are sunk a little below the surface, because each had a
-tumulus of earth piled around it, so as to cover all but the cap stone."
-
-One tumulus was observed with a circle of small stones set round it,
-and Mr. Dennis suggests "that all may have been so encircled, but that
-the small stones would be easily removed by the peasantry." "Nothing,"
-he adds, "at all like them is seen in any other part of Etruria."[463]
-Saturnia is situated twenty miles from the sea, and if it is true that
-nothing of the sort is found elsewhere in Italy, these dolmens must
-be looked upon as exceptional--the remains of some stray colony of
-dolmen-builders, the memory of which has passed away, and may probably
-now be lost for ever.
-
-[Illustration: 163. Dolmen at Saturnia. From Dennis' 'Etruria.']
-
-If this is a correct representation of what took place in Italy,
-the conclusion seems inevitable that the chambered tumuli of that
-country--all of which are erected with hewn stones--did not grow out
-of rude-stone monuments. In no country in Europe are the tumuli so
-numerous or so important as in Etruria, and, as before mentioned, they
-certainly extend back to an era twelve or thirteen centuries before
-Christ. But if the dolmens of France or Scandinavia are prehistoric,
-or, in other words, extend back to anything like a thousand or fifteen
-hundred years before Christ, there is no reason whatever why dolmens
-should not be found also in Italy, if they ever existed there. Either
-it must be that Italy never possessed any or that those in the rest of
-Europe are very much more modern. If the northern dolmens are only one
-thousand to two thousand years old, the matter is easily explained. If
-they are three thousand or four thousand years old, they ought also to
-be found in Italy.
-
-The fact seems to be that both the Pelasgi of Greece and the Tyrrheni
-of Italy came in contact either with Egypt or some early stone-hewing
-people before they left their homes in the East to migrate into Europe,
-and that they never passed through the rude-stone stage of architecture
-at any period, or at any place with which we are acquainted; and as
-they were, so far as we know, the earliest colonists of the countries
-they afterwards occupied, it seems in vain to look for dolmens where
-they settled. If Attila had lived five centuries before instead
-of after the Christian era, he and his Huns might have produced a
-rude-stone age in Italy. The inhabitants of Etruria were essentially a
-burying, dead-reverencing people, and if they had only been thrown back
-to that stage of barbarism which the rude monuments of our forefathers
-represent, we might have found dolmens there in thousands. The fate
-of Italy was different. Pressed by the Celts of Gallia Cisalpina
-in the north and by the Romans in the south, Etruria was squeezed
-out of existence, but by two races more civilized and progressive
-than herself. So far from throwing her back towards barbarism, Rome
-in adopting many of her forms advanced and improved upon them, and
-imparted to her architecture a higher and more intellectual form than
-she had been herself able to impress upon it. So, too, in Greece. The
-Dorian superseded and extinguished the Pelasgic forms, but after a
-longer interval of time. Four or five centuries elapsed between the
-last tomb we know of, at Mycenæ, and the earliest Doric temple at
-Corinth, and the consequence is that we see far fewer traces of the
-earlier people in the architecture of Greece than we do in that of
-Rome. But in neither instance was there any tendency to retrograde to a
-dolmen stage of civilization.
-
-The case was widely different with such countries as Spain or France.
-There an aboriginal population had existed for thousands and tens of
-thousands of years, unprogressive and incapable, so far as we know, of
-progress within themselves, and only at last slowly and reluctantly
-forced by Roman example to adopt a more ambitious mode of sepulture
-than a mere mound of earth. No semi-civilized race ever settled in
-their lands, and the Carthaginians at Carthagena or Marseilles hardly
-penetrated into the interior, and were besides neither a building nor
-burying race, and had, consequently, very little influence on their
-modes of sepulture.
-
-With Rome the case was different. She conquered and administered for
-centuries all those countries in which we find the earliest traces
-of rude-stone monuments, and she could hardly fail to leave some
-impress of her magnificence in lands which she had so long occupied.
-But when she withdrew her protecting care, France, Spain, and Britain
-relapsed into, and for centuries remained sunk in, a state of anarchy
-and barbarism as bad, if not worse than, that in which Rome had found
-them three or four centuries before. It was in vain to expect that the
-hapless natives could maintain either the arts or the institutions
-with which Rome had endowed them. But it is natural to suppose that
-they would remember the evidences of her greatness and her power, and
-would hardly go back for their sepulchres to the unchambered mole-hill
-barrows of their forefathers, but attempt something in stone, though
-only in such rude fashion as the state of the arts among them enabled
-them to execute.
-
-
-    [Footnote 441: 'Memoria sobre el Tempio Druida de Antequera,'
-    Malaga, 1847.]
-
-    [Footnote 442: 'Antegüedades prehistoricos de Andalucia,' Madrid,
-    1868.]
-
-    [Footnote 443: For a great part of the information regarding them,
-    I am indebted to my friend Don J. F. Riaño, of Madrid.]
-
-    [Footnote 444: 'Bible in Spain,' ii. p. 35.]
-
-    [Footnote 445: Strabo, iii. p. 138.]
-
-    [Footnote 446: There is an interesting paper by Lord Talbot de
-    Malahide on this subject in the 'Archæological Journal,' 108, 1870,
-    illustrated by drawings of hitherto unknown dolmens, by Sir Vincent
-    Eyre.]
-
-    [Footnote 447: 'Revue archéologique,' new series, viii. p. 530.]
-
-    [Footnote 448: "In the year B.C. 218, the second and
-    fiercest struggle between the rival republics of Carthage and Rome
-    was commenced by Hannibal taking Seguntum. The Peninsula thereafter
-    became the theatre of a war afterwards carried by Hannibal into
-    Italy, which was not concluded till 202 B.C., when Spain
-    was added to the growing Italian Republic. But the nation of Spain
-    did not willingly bow to the yoke. One of the bloodiest of all
-    the Roman wars commenced in Spain in 153, and did not finally
-    terminate for twenty years, during which cities were razed to the
-    ground, multitudes massacred and made slaves, and the triumphant
-    arms of Rome borne to the Atlantic shores. Here, therefore, is
-    an epoch in the history of the Spanish peninsula which seems
-    completely to coincide with the ancient traditions of the Scoti,
-    and the knowledge we possess of the period of their arrival in
-    Ireland."--_Dan Wilson_, 'Prehistoric Annals of Scotland,' p. 475.]
-
-    [Footnote 449: See a paper on the migration from Spain to Ireland,
-    by Dr. Madden, 'Proceedings of Royal Irish Academy,' viii. pp. 372
-    _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 450: Madden, _l. s. c._ p. 377.]
-
-    [Footnote 451: _Ante_, p. 193.]
-
-    [Footnote 452: Petrie, "Essay on Tara," 'Trans. R. S. A.' xviii.]
-
-    [Footnote 453: "The two provinces which the race of Heremon
-    possessed were the province of Gailian (_i.e._ Leinster) and the
-    province of Olnemacht (_i.e._ Connaught)."--_Petrie_, 'Round
-    Towers,' p. 100.]
-
-    [Footnote 454: Reeves, translation of Nennius, p. 55.]
-
-    [Footnote 455: 'True Principles of Beauty in Art,' by the Author,
-    appendix, 526.]
-
-    [Footnote 456: These dimensions are taken from Mitjana's book,
-    merely turned into their equivalents in English feet. They do
-    not, however, agree in scale with the plan, but are probably
-    approximately correct.]
-
-    [Footnote 457: There is a view of the mound and church in
-    Parcerisa, 'Recuerdos y Bellezas de España, Asturias y Leon,' p.
-    30, but too small to enable us to be able to form any idea of its
-    age from the lithograph.]
-
-    [Footnote 458: The woodcut is copied from one in Frank Leslie's
-    'Illustrated News;' which is itself, taken from a French
-    illustrated journal. I do not doubt that the American copy is a
-    correct reproduction of the French original; but there may be
-    exaggerations in the first. I see no reason, however, for doubting
-    that the great stones do exist in the hermitage, and that they are
-    parts, at least, of a dolmen---and this is all that concerns the
-    argument. I wish, however, we had some more reliable information on
-    the subject.]
-
-    [Footnote 459: Vide _ante_, p. 24.]
-
-    [Footnote 460: Borrow, 'Bible in Spain,' ii. p. 35.]
-
-    [Footnote 461: 'Congrès international préhistorique,' Paris volume,
-    p. 182.]
-
-    [Footnote 462: 'Congrès international préhistorique,' Paris volume,
-    p. 197.]
-
-    [Footnote 463: 'Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria,' ii. p. 314.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER X.
-
-ALGERIA.
-
-
-It would be difficult to find a more curious illustration of the fable
-of "Eyes and no Eyes" than in the history of the discovery of dolmens
-in northern Africa. Though hundreds of travellers had passed through
-the country since the time of Bruce and Shaw, and though the French
-had possessed Algiers since 1830, an author writing on the subject ten
-years ago would have been fully justified in making the assertion that
-there were no dolmens there. Yet now we know that they exist literally
-in thousands. Perhaps it would not be an exaggeration to say that ten
-thousand are known, and their existence recorded.
-
-The first to announce the fact to the literary world in Europe was
-the late Mr. Rhind. He read a paper on what he called "Ortholithic
-remains in North Africa," to the Society of Antiquaries in 1859, which
-was afterwards published in volume xxxviii. of the 'Archæologia.' It
-attracted, however, very little attention, perhaps in consequence of
-its name, but more from its not being illustrated. It was not really
-till 1863, when the late Henry Christy visited Algeria, that anything
-really became known. At Constantine he formed the acquaintance of a M.
-Féraud, interpreter to the army of Algeria, who took him to a place
-called Bou Moursug, about twenty-five miles south of Constantine,
-where, during a short stay of three days, they saw and noted down
-upwards of one thousand dolmens.[464] M. Féraud afterwards published
-an account of these in the 'Mémoires de la Société archéologique
-de Constantine' for 1863, and the subject having attracted some
-attention in Europe, a second memoir appeared in the following year,
-which contained a good deal of additional information collected from
-different district officers. Since then various memoirs have been
-published in Algeria and France. One by the now celebrated General
-Faidherbe "speaks of three thousand tombs in the single necropolis
-at Roknia, and of another equally extensive within a few leagues of
-Constantine."[465] An excellent _résumé_ of the whole subject will be
-found in the Norwich volume of the International Prehistoric Congress,
-by Mr. Flower. From all these we gather a fair general idea of the
-subject, but, unfortunately, none of the memoirs are written by persons
-combining extensive local experience with real archæological knowledge,
-except, perhaps, Mr. Flower. No plan of any one group has yet been
-given to the world, nor are any of the monuments illustrated with such
-details and measurements as would enable one to speak with certainty
-regarding them. This is especially the case with those represented
-in the 'Exploration scientifique de l'Algérie,' published by the
-French Government. There are in this work numerous representations of
-dolmens carefully and beautifully drawn, but very seldom with scales
-attached to them; and as no text has yet been published, they are
-of comparatively little value for the purposes of research. Had Mr.
-Christy lived a little longer, these deficiencies would doubtless have
-been supplied; but, unfortunately, his mantle has not fallen on any
-worthy successor, and we must wait till some one appears who combines
-leisure and means with the knowledge and enthusiasm which characterized
-that noble-minded man.
-
-It need hardly be added that no detailed map exists showing the
-distribution of the dolmens in Algeria,[466] and as many of the names
-by which they are known to French archæologists are those of villages
-not marked on any maps obtainable in this country, it is very difficult
-to trace their precise position, and almost always impossible to draw
-with certainty any inferences from their distribution. In so far as
-we at present know, the principal dolmen region is situated along and
-on either side of a line drawn from Bona on the coast to Batna, sixty
-miles south of Constantine. But around Setif, and in localities nearly
-due south from Boujie, they are said to be in enormous numbers. The
-Commandant Payen reports the number of menhirs there as not less than
-ten thousand, averaging from 4 to 5 feet in height. One colossal
-monolith he describes as 26 feet in diameter at its base and 52 feet
-high.[467] This, however, is surpassed by a dolmen situated near
-Tiaret, described by the Commandant Bernard. According to his account
-the cap-stone is 65 feet long by 26 feet broad, and 9 feet 6 inches
-thick; and this enormous mass is placed on other rocks which rise
-between 30 and 40 feet above the surface.[468] If this is true, it is
-the most enormous dolmen known, and it is strange that it should have
-escaped observation so long. Even the most apathetic traveller might
-have been astonished at such a wonder. Whether less gigantic specimens
-of the class exist in that neighbourhood, we are not told, but they do
-in detached patches everywhere eastward throughout the province. Those
-described by Mr. Rhind are only twelve miles from Algiers, and others
-are said to exist in great numbers in the regency of Tripoli.[469] So
-far as is at present known, they are not found in Morocco, but are
-found everywhere between Mount Atlas and the Syrtes, and apparently not
-near the sites of any great cities, or known centres of population,
-but in valleys and remote corners, as if belonging to a nomadic or
-agricultural population.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-[Illustration: 164. Bazina. From Flower's Paper.]
-
-When we speak of the ten thousand or, it may be, twenty thousand stone
-sepulchral monuments that are now known to exist in northern Africa,
-it must not be understood that they are all dolmens or circles of
-the class of which we have hitherto been speaking. Two other classes
-certainly exist, in some places, apparently, in considerable numbers,
-though it is difficult to make out in what proportion, and how far
-their forms are local. One of these classes, called Bazina by the
-Arabs, is thus described by Mr. Flower:--"Their general character is
-that of three concentric enclosures of stones of greater or less
-dimensions, so arranged as to form a series of steps. Sometimes,
-indeed, there are only two outer circles, and occasionally only one.
-The diameter of the larger axis of that here represented is about 30
-feet. In the centre are usually found three long and slender upright
-stones, forming three sides of a long rectangle, and the interior is
-paved with pebbles and broken stones.
-
-[Illustration: 165. Choucha. From a drawing by Mr. Flower.]
-
-"The Chouchas are found in the neighbourhood of the Bazinas, and are
-closely allied to them. They consist of courses of stones regularly
-built up like a wall, and not in steps like the Bazinas. Their diameter
-varies from 7 to as much as 40 feet; but the height of the highest
-above the soil does not exceed 5 to 10 feet. They are usually capped
-and covered by a large flag-stone, about 4 inches thick, under which
-is a regular trough or pit formed of stones from a foot and a half
-to 3 feet in thickness. The interior of these little towers is paved
-like the Bazinas; and indeed M. Payen considers that they are the
-equivalents in the mountains of the Bazinas in the plains."[470]
-
-[Illustration: 166. Dolmen on Steps. From 'Exploration scientifique de
-l'Algérie.']
-
-In many instances the chouchas and bazinas are found combined in one
-monument, and sometimes a regular dolmen is mounted on steps similar
-to those of a bazina, as shown in the annexed woodcut, representing
-one existing halfway between Constantine and Bona. But, in fact,
-there is no conceivable combination which does not seem to be found in
-these African cemeteries; and did we know them all, they might throw
-considerable light on some questions that are now very perplexing.
-
-The chouchas are found sometimes isolated, and occasionally 10 to
-12 feet apart from one another in groups. In certain localities the
-summits and ridges of the hills are covered with them, while on the
-edges of steep cliffs they form fringes overhanging the ravines.
-
-In both these classes of monuments the bodies are almost always found
-in a doubled-up posture, the knees being brought up to the chin, and
-the arms crossed over the breast,[471] like those in the Axevalla tomb
-described above (page 312).
-
-[Illustration: 167. Tumuli, with Intermediate Lines of Stones.]
-
-[Illustration: 168. Group of Sepulchral Monuments, Algeria.]
-
-The most remarkable peculiarity of the tumuli and circles in Algeria
-is the mode in which they are connected together by double lines of
-stones--as Mr. Flowers expresses it, like beads on a string--in the
-manner shown in woodcut No. 167. What the object of this was has not
-been explained, nor will it be easy to guess, till we have more,
-and more detailed, drawings than we now possess. Mr. Féraud's plate
-xxviii.[472] shows such a line zigzagging across the plain between
-two heights, like a line of field fortifications, and with dolmens
-and tumuli sometimes behind or in front of the lines, and at others
-strung upon it. At first sight it looks like the representation of
-a battle-field, but, again, what are we to make of such a group as
-that represented in woodcut 168 on the previous page? It is the most
-extensive plan of any one of these groups which has yet been published,
-but it must be received with caution.[473] There is no scale attached
-to it. The triple circles with dolmens I take to be tumuli, like
-those of the Aveyron (woodcuts Nos. 8 and 122), but the whole must be
-regarded as a diagram, not as a plan, and as such very unsafe to reason
-upon. Still, as it certainly is not invented, it shows the curious
-manner in which these monuments are joined together, as well as the
-various forms which they take.
-
-[Illustration: 169. Plan and Elevation of African Tumulus. From Féraud.]
-
-One of these (?) is represented in plan and elevation in the annexed
-woodcut 169.[474] It is, as will be observed, almost identical--
-making allowance for bad drawing--with those of Aveyron just referred
-to, or with the Scandinavian examples as exemplified in the diagram
-(woodcut No. 109). As this class with the external dolmen on the
-summit seems to be very extensive in Algeria, indeed almost typical,
-an examination of their interior would at once solve the mystery of
-their arrangements, and tell us whether there was a second cist on the
-ground level, or where the body was deposited. Where the dolmen stands
-free, but on the flat ground, as is the case with that shown in this
-cut (No. 170), with two rows of stones surrounding it, the body was
-deposited in a cist formed between the two uprights that support the
-cap-stone, which are carried down some 5 or 6 feet into the ground for
-that purpose. My impression is that the same arrangement is met with in
-those which are raised, and that either the supports of the cap-stone
-are carried down to the ground for that purpose or that an independent
-cist, is formed directly under the visible one.
-
-[Illustration: 170. Dolmen with Two Circles of Stones. From Féraud.]
-
-The dolmen in this last instance is of the usual Kit's Cotty House
-style, consisting of three upright stones supporting the cap-stone.
-Sometimes the outer row of stones is replaced by a circular pavement
-of flat stones,[475] forming what may be supposed to be a procession
-path round the monument; but in fact hardly any two are exactly alike,
-and when we come to deal with thousands, it requires very complete
-knowledge of the whole before any classification can be attempted.
-Suffice it to say here that there is hardly any variety met with
-elsewhere of which a counterpart cannot be found in Algeria.
-
-[Illustration: 171. Dolmens on the Road from Bona to Constantine. From
-'Exploration scientifique de l'Algérie.']
-
-Of their general appearance as objects in the landscape, the annexed
-woodcut will convey a tolerable idea. They seem to affect the ridges
-of the hills, but they also stretch across the plain, and in fact are
-found everywhere and in every possible position. Except apparently on
-the sea-coast, nothing like the Viking graves, so far as is known, is
-found in Algeria; whether this indicates that they were a sea-faring
-people or not is not quite clear, but it is a distinction worth bearing
-in mind.
-
-[Illustration: 172. Four Cairns enclosed in Squares. (From 'Soc. arch.
-de Constantine,' 1864.)]
-
-One curious group is perhaps worth quoting as a means of comparison
-with the graves of Aschenrade (woodcut No. 119). It consists of four
-tumuli enclosed in four squares joined together like the squares of
-a chess-board. Single squares enclosing cairns are common enough in
-Scandinavia, but this conjoined arrangement is rare and remarkable,
-and its similarity to the Livonian example is so great that it can
-hardly be accidental. The Aschenrade graves, it will be recollected,
-contained coins of the Caliphs extending down to A.D. 999,
-and German coins down to 1040. There would, therefore, be no _à
-priori_ improbability in these graves in Algeria being as late, if the
-similarity of two monuments so far apart can be considered as proving
-identity of age. Without unduly pressing the argument, the points of
-resemblance which exist everywhere between the Northern Europe and
-North African monuments appear to prove that the latter may be of any
-age down to the tenth or eleventh century, but any decision as to
-their real date must depend on the local circumstances attending each
-individual example.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-The preceding woodcuts are perhaps sufficient to explain the more
-general and more typical forms of Algerian dolmens, but they are so
-numerous and so varied that ten times that number of illustrations
-would hardly suffice to exhibit all their peculiarities. Their study,
-however, is comparatively uninteresting, till we know more of their
-contents, and till something definite is accepted as to their age.
-When, however, we turn to examine that, we find the data from which
-our conclusions must be drawn both meagre and unsatisfactory. Such as
-they are, however, they certainly all tend one way. In the first place,
-the negative evidence is as complete here as elsewhere. The Greeks,
-the Romans, and the early Christians were all familiar with northern
-Africa, and there is not one whisper as to any such monuments having
-been seen by any of them. When we consider our own ignorance of their
-existence till some ten years ago, it may be said that such evidence
-does not go for much; but it is worth alluding to, as a hint in the
-opposite direction would be considered final, and as its absence,
-at all events, leaves the question open. On the other hand, all the
-traditions of the country as reported by M. Féraud, and others, and
-repeated by M. Bertrand and Mr. Flower, ascribe these monuments to
-the pagan inhabitants who occupied the country at the time of the
-Mahommedan conquest. Thus (page 127): "At the epoch the Mussulman
-invasion these countries were inhabited by a pagan population, who
-elevated these vast ranges of stone to arrest the invading host." Or,
-again, they even name the prince who opposed the conquerors. Thus
-(page 117): "Formerly at Machira lived a pagan prince called Abd en
-Nar--fire worshipper. He married Zana, queen of a city now in ruins
-bearing that name. When the Arabs conquered Africa, Abd en Nar abjured
-his crown, became a Mussulman, and from that time called himself Abd en
-Nour--worshipper of the light."[476]
-
-[Illustration: 173. Tombs near Djidjeli. From 'Exploration scientifique
-de l'Algérie.']
-
-This, too, must be taken for what it is worth; but in a cemetery
-near Djidjeli, on the north coast, there is a curious tomb formed of
-a circle of stones like those of the pagan cists, with a head-stone
-which, if it is not the turban-stone that is usually found in Turkish
-tombs of modern date, is most singularly like it. That the cemetery
-belongs to the Mahommedans seems clear, but the circles of stones,
-though small, indicate a very imperfect conversion--just such as the
-tradition indicates.
-
-These arguments, however, acquire something like consistency when we
-come to examine the contents of the tombs themselves. One of them (No.
-4) is described by Mr. Féraud as surrounded by a circular enceinte, 12
-metres, nearly 40 feet, in diameter. The chamber of the dolmen measured
-7 feet by 3 feet 6 inches. At the feet of the skeleton were the bones
-and teeth of a horse, and an iron bridle-bit. In the same grave were
-found a ring of iron, another ring with various other objects in
-copper (bronze?), some fragments of pottery of a superior quality,
-and fragments of worked flint implements, and lastly a medal of the
-Empress Faustina.[477] All the three ages were consequently represented
-in the one tomb, and yet it certainly belongs to the second century.
-None of the others give such distinct evidence of their age, but M.
-Bertrand, who is a strong advocate for the prehistoric age of French
-dolmens, sums up his impressions of M. Féraud's discoveries in the
-following words: "Ceux de la province de Constantine ne pouvaient, à en
-juger par les objets qui y out été trouvés, être de beaucoup antérieur
-à l'ère chrétienne; quelques-uns même seraient postérieurs."[478]
-
-In addition to what he found inside the tombs, M. Féraud discovered a
-Latin inscription in the cap-stone of a dolmen near Sidi Kacem. The
-letters are too much worn to enable the sense of the inscription to be
-made out, but quite sufficient remains to prove that it is in Latin,
-and, from the form of the letters, of a late type.[479]
-
-Monsieur Leternoux found hewn stones and even columnar shafts of Roman
-workmanship among the materials out of which the bazinas at the foot
-of the Aures chain had been constructed, and he gives a drawing of a
-cippus of late Roman workmanship, bearing an inscription in Berber
-character, which he identifies with those on two upright stones of rude
-form, one of which forms parts of a circle near Bona.[480]
-
-[Illustration: 174. Circle near Bona.]
-
-In addition to these there are numerous instances among the plates
-which form the volume of the 'Exploration scientifique de l'Algérie'
-where the rude-stone monuments are so mixed up with those of late Roman
-and early Christian character that it seems impossible to doubt that
-they are contemporary. As no text, however, has yet been published to
-accompany these plates, it is most unsafe to rely on any individual
-example, which from some fault of the draughtsman or engraver may
-be misleading. The general impression, however, which these plates
-convey is decidedly in favour of a post-Roman date, and of their being
-comparatively modern. It requires, however, some one on the spot, whose
-attention is specially directed to the subject, to determine whether
-the rude-stone monuments are earlier than those which are hewn, or
-whether the contrary is not sometimes, perhaps always, the case. If
-M. Bertrand is right, and the Faustina tomb is of any value as an
-indication of age, certainly sometimes at least, the rude monuments are
-the more modern. Carthage fell B.C. 146, and the Jugurthan
-war ended B.C. 106, and it is impossible to conceive that
-a people like the Romans, would possess as they did the sovereignty
-of northern Africa, after that date, and not leave their mark on it,
-in the shape of buildings of various sorts. If we adopt the usual
-progressive theory, all must be anterior to B.C. 100; for on
-that hypothesis it would be considered most improbable that after long
-contact with Carthaginian civilization and under the direct influence
-of that of Rome anyone could prefer rude uncommunicative masses to
-structures composed of polished and engraved stones. It certainly was
-so, however, to a very great extent, and my impression is, for the
-reasons above given, that the bulk of these North African dolmens are
-subsequent to the Christian era, and that they extend well into the
-period of the Mahommedan domination, for it could not, for a long
-time at least, have been so complete as entirely to obliterate the
-feelings and usages so long indulged in by the aboriginal inhabitants
-of the country. Nothing, indeed, would surprise me less than if it were
-eventually shown that some of these rude-stone monuments extended down
-to the times of the Crusades. As, however, we are not yet in a position
-to prove this, it is only put forward here as a suggestion, in order
-that those who may hereafter have the task of opening these tombs may
-not reject any evidence of their being so late, as they probably would
-do if imbued with prehistoric prejudices.
-
-It is to be feared that the question who the people were that set up
-these African dolmens must wait for an answer till we know more of
-the ethnography of northern Africa in ancient times than we do at
-present. The only people who, so far as we now see, seem to be able
-to claim them, are the Nasamones. From Herodotus we learn that this
-people buried their dead sitting, with their knees doubled up to their
-chins, and were so particular about this that, when a man was dying,
-they propped him up that he might die in that attitude (iv. 190). We
-also learn from him that they had such reverence for the tombs of their
-ancestors that it was their practice in their solemn form of oath to
-lay their hands on these tombs, and so invoke their sanction; and in
-their mode of divination they used to sleep in or on these sepulchres
-(iv. 172). All this would agree perfectly with what we find, but
-Herodotus unfortunately never visited the country nor saw these tombs,
-and consequently does not describe them, and we do not know whether
-they were mere mounds of earth, or cairns of stone, or dolmens such
-as are found in Africa. It is also unfortunate for their claim that,
-in his day, the Nasamones lived near the Syrtes and to the eastward
-of them (ii. 32), and it seems hardly possible that they could have
-increased and multiplied to such an extent in the four following
-centuries as to occupy northern Africa as far as Mount Atlas, without
-either the Greeks or the Romans having known it. They are mentioned
-again by Curtius (iv. 7), by Lucan (ix. v. 439), and by Silius Italicus
-(ii. v. 116 and xi. v. 180), but always as a plundering Libyan tribe,
-never as a great people occupying the northern country. Their claim,
-therefore, to be considered the authors of the thousands of dolmens
-which are even now found in the province of Algeria, seems for the
-present wholly inadmissible.
-
-Still less can we admit M. Bertrand's theory alluded to above, that the
-dolmen-builders migrated from the Baltic to Britain, and thence through
-France and Spain to Africa. Such a migration, requiring long land
-journeys and sea voyages, if it took place at all, is much more likely
-to have been accomplished when commercial intercourse was established,
-and the North Sea and the Mediterranean were covered with sailing
-vessels of all sorts; but then it is unlikely that a rude people, as
-the dolmen-builders are assumed to be, could have availed themselves of
-these trade routes.
-
-Still no one can look at such monuments as this of Aveyron (woodcuts
-Nos. 8 and 122) and compare them with those of Algeria, of which
-woodcut No. 169 is a type, without feeling that there was a connection,
-and an intimate one, at the dolmen period, between the people on the
-northern with those on the southern shores of the Mediterranean, which
-can only be accounted for in one of three ways.
-
-Either it was that history was only repeating itself when Marshal
-Bougeaud landed in Algeria in 1830, and proceeded to conquer and
-colonise Algeria for the French. Or we must assume, as has often been
-done, that some people wandering from the east to colonise western
-Europe left these traces of their passage in Africa on their way
-westward. The third hypothesis is that already insisted upon at the end
-of the Scandinavian chapter, which regards these rude-stone monuments
-as merely the result of a fashion which sprung up at a particular
-period, and was adopted by all those people who, like the Nasamones,
-reverenced their dead and practised ancestral worship rather than that
-of an external divinity.
-
-Of all these three hypotheses, the second seems the least tenable,
-though it is the one most generally adopted. The Pyramids were built,
-on the most moderate computation, at least 3000 B.C.[481]
-Egypt was then a highly civilized and populous country, and the art of
-cutting and polishing stones of the hardest nature had reached a degree
-of perfection in that country in those days which has never since been
-surpassed, and must have been practised for thousands of years before
-that time in order to reach the stage of perfection in which we there
-find it. Is it possible to conceive any savage Eastern race rushing
-across the Nile on its way westward, and carrying their rude arts with
-them, and continuing to practise them for four or five thousand years
-afterwards without change? Either it seems more probable to assume that
-the Egyptians would have turned them back, or if they had sojourned
-in their land like the Israelites, and then departed because they
-found the bondage intolerable, it is almost certain that they would
-have carried with them some of the arts and civilization of the people
-among whom they had dwelt. If such a migration did take place, it must
-have been in prehistoric times so remote that its occurrence can have
-but little bearing on the argument as to who built these Algerian
-monuments. But did they come by sea? Did the dolmen-building races
-embark from the ports of Palestine or those of Asia Minor? Were they in
-fact the far-famed Phœnicians, to whom antiquaries have been so fond
-of ascribing these structures. The first answer to this is that there
-are no dolmens in Phœnicia, and that they have not yet been found
-near Carthage, nor Utica, nor in Sicily, nor indeed anywhere where the
-Phœnicians had colonies. They are not even found at Marseilles,
-where they settled, though on the western bank of the Rhone, where they
-had no establishments, they are found in numbers. They may have traded
-with Cornwall, and discovered lands even farther north, but to assume
-that so small a people could have erected all the megalithic remains
-found in Scandinavia and the continent of France, and other countries
-where they never settled, perhaps never visited, is to ascribe great
-effects to causes so insignificant as to be wholly incommensurable.
-So wholly inadequate does the Phœnician power seem to have been to
-produce such effects, that the proposition would probably never have
-been brought forward had the extent of the dolmen region been known at
-the time it was suggested. Even putting the element of time aside, it
-is now clearly untenable, and if there is any truth in the date above
-assigned to this class of monuments, it is mere idleness to argue it.
-
-The idea of a migration from France to Algeria is by no means so
-illogical. The French dolmens, so far as is now known, seem certainly
-older than the African--a fact which, if capable of proof, is fatal to
-the last suggestion--and if we assume that this class of monument was
-invented in western Europe, it only requires that the element of time
-should be suitable to establish this hypothesis. When the Celts of
-central Gaul, six centuries before the Christian era, began to extend
-their limits and to press upon those of the Aquitanians, did the latter
-flee from their oppressors to seek refuge in Africa, as at a latter
-period the dolmen-builders of Spain sought repose in the green island
-of the west? There certainly appears to be no great improbability that
-they may have done so to such an extent as to cause the adoption of
-this form of architecture after it had become prevalent elsewhere; and
-as the encroaching Celts, down to the prosecution of the middle ages,
-may have driven continual streams of colonists in the same direction,
-this would account for all the phenomena we find, provided we may
-ascribe that modern date to the Algerian examples which to me appears
-undoubted.
-
-It is hardly probable, however, that the Aquitanians would have sought
-refuge in Africa unless some kindred tribe existed there to afford them
-shelter and a welcome. If such a race did exist, that would go far to
-get rid of most of the difficulties of the problem. We are, however,
-far too ignorant of North African ethnography to be able to say whether
-any such people were there, or if so, who their representatives may now
-be, and till our ignorance is dispelled, it is idle to speculate on
-mere probabilities.
-
-We know something of the migrations of the peoples settled around the
-shores of the Mediterranean for at least ten centuries before the birth
-of Christ, but neither in Greek or Roman or Carthaginian history, nor
-in any of the traditions of their literature, do we find a hint of any
-migration of a rude people, either across Egypt or by sea from Asia,
-and, what is perhaps more to the point, we have no trace of it in any
-of the intermediate islands. The Nurhags of Sardinia, the Talayots of
-the Balearic Islands, are monuments of quite a different class from
-anything found in France or Algeria. So too are the tombs of Malta,
-and, as just mentioned, there are no such remains in Sicily.
-
-We seem thus forced back on the third hypothesis, which contemplates
-the rise of a dolmen style of architecture at some not very remote
-period of the world's history, and its general diffusion among all
-those kindred races of mankind with whom respect for the spirits of
-deceased ancestors was a leading characteristic.
-
-
-TRIPOLI.
-
-Dr. Barth seems to be the only traveller who has in recent times
-explored the regions about Tripoli to a sufficient extent and with
-the requisite knowledge to enable him to observe whether or not there
-were any rude-stone monuments in that district. About halfway between
-Moursuk and Ghât, he observed "a circle laid out very regularly with
-large slabs, like the opening of a well; and, on the plain above the
-cliffs, another circle regularly laid out, "and," he adds, "like the
-many circles seen in Cyrenaica and in other parts of Northern Africa,
-evidently connected with the religious rites of the ancient inhabitants
-of these regions."[482] This is meagre enough; but fortunately, in
-addition to this, he observed and drew two monuments which are of equal
-and perhaps even of more importance to our present purposes.
-
-[Illustration: 175. Trilithon at Ksaea.]
-
-One of these, situated at a place called Ksaea, about forty-five miles
-east by south from Tripoli, consists of six pairs of trilithons,
-similar to that represented in the annexed woodcut. No plan is given
-of their arrangement, nor does Dr. Barth speculate as to their use;
-he only remarks that "they could never have been intended as doors,
-for the space between the upright stones is so narrow that a man of
-ordinary size could hardly squeeze his way between them."[483]
-
-The other, situated at Elkeb, about the same distance from Tripoli,
-but south by east, is even more curious. It, too, is a trilithon, but
-the supports, which are placed on a masonry platform two steps in
-height, slope inwards, with all the appearance of being copied from a
-carpentry form, and the cap-stone likewise projects beyond the uprights
-in a manner very unusual in masonry. Another curious indication of its
-wooden origin is that the western pillar has three quadrangular holes
-on its inner side, 6 inches square, while the corresponding holes in
-the eastern pillar go quite through. These pillars are 2 feet square
-and 10 feet high, while the impost measures 6 feet 6 inches.[484]
-
-In front of these pillars lies a stone with a square sinking in it
-and a spout at one side. Whatever this may have been intended for, it
-is--if the woodcut and description are to be depended upon--the exact
-counterpart of a Hindu Yoni, and as such would not excite remark as
-having anything unusual in its appearance if found in a modern temple
-at Benares. Beyond these in the woodcut are seen several other stones,
-evidently belonging to the same monument, one of which seems to have
-been formed into a throne.
-
-[Illustration: 176. Trilithon at Elkeb. From a Drawing by Dr. Barth.]
-
-These monuments are not, of course, alone. There must be
-others--probably many others--in the country, a knowledge of which
-might throw considerable light on our enquiries. In the meanwhile the
-first thing that strikes one is that Jeffrey of Monmouth's assertion,
-that "Giants in old days brought from Africa the stones which the
-magic arts of Merlin afterwards removed from Kildare and set up at
-Stonehenge,"[485] is not so entirely devoid of foundation as might at
-first sight appear. The removal of the stones is, of course, absurd,
-but the suggestion and design may possibly have travelled west by this
-route.
-
-[Illustration: 177. Buddhist Monument at Bangkok. From Mouhot's
-'Travels in Indo-China, Cambodia, &c.' vol. i. p. 218.]
-
-If we now turn back to page 100, it seems impossible not to be struck
-with, the likeness that exists between woodcut No. 25 and woodcuts 175
-and 176, especially the first. Such similarity is more than sufficient
-to take away all improbability from Dr. Barth's suggestion that "the
-traces of art which they display may be ascribed to Roman influence."
-It also renders it nearly certain that these African trilithons were
-sepulchral, and adds another to the many proofs adduced above that
-Stonehenge was both sepulchral and post-Roman.
-
-The most curious point, however, connected with these monuments is
-the suggestion of Indian influence which they--especially that at
-Elkeb--give rise to. The introduction of sloping jambs, derived
-from carpentry forms, can be traced back in India, in the caves of
-Behar[486] and the Western Ghâts, to the second century before Christ,
-but certainly to no earlier date. The carpentry forms, but without the
-sloping jambs, continued at Sanchi and the Ajunta caves till some time
-after the Christian era, and where wood is used has, in fact, continued
-to the present day. "Mutatis mutandis," no two monuments can well be
-more alike to one another than that at Elkeb and the Buddhist tomb at
-Bangkok, represented in woodcut 177. The Siamese tomb may be a hundred
-years old; and if we allow the African trilithon to be late Roman, we
-have some fourteen or fifteen centuries between them, which, certainly,
-is as long as can reasonably be demanded. In reality it was probably
-less, but if the one was prehistoric, we lose altogether the thread of
-association and tradition that ought to connect the two.
-
-To all this we shall have occasion to return, and then to discuss
-it more at length, when speaking of the Indian monuments and their
-connection with those of the West. In the meanwhile these two form a
-stepping-stone of sufficient importance to make us feel how desirable
-it is that the country where they are found should be more carefully
-examined. My impression is that the key to most of our mysteries is
-hidden in these African deserts.
-
-
-    [Footnote 464: 'International Congress,' Norwich volume, 1869, p.
-    196.]
-
-    [Footnote 465: Norwich volume of 'Prehistoric Congress,' p. 196.]
-
-    [Footnote 466: A very imperfect one appeared in the 'Revue
-    archéologique,' in 1865, vol. xi. pl. v. It contained most of the
-    names of places where dolmens were then known to exist, but our
-    knowledge has been immensely extended since then.]
-
-    [Footnote 467: 'Mémoires de la Soc. arch. de Constantine,' 1864, p.
-    127.]
-
-    [Footnote 468: Flower, in Norwich volume, p. 204.]
-
-    [Footnote 469: 'Mémoires, etc., de Constantine,' 1864, p. 124.]
-
-    [Footnote 470: Flower, in Norwich volume, pp. 201 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 471: 'Mémoires, etc., de Constantine,' 1864, pp. 109,
-    114.]
-
-    [Footnote: 472: 'Mémoires, etc., de Constantine.']
-
-    [Footnote 473: Another is published by M. Bourguignal, in his
-    'Monuments symboliques de l'Algérie,' pl. i., but it is still more
-    suspicious.]
-
-    [Footnote 474: I have been obliged to take some liberties with M.
-    Féraud's cuts; the plan and elevation are so entirely discrepant,
-    that one or both must be wrong. I have brought them a little more
-    into harmony.]
-
-    [Footnote 475: 'Prehistoric Congress,' Norwich volume, p. 199.]
-
-    [Footnote 476: 'Mémoires, &c., de Constantine,' 1864.]
-
-    [Footnote 477: 'Revue archéologique,' viii. p. 527.]
-
-    [Footnote 478: _Ibid._ _l. s. c._]
-
-    [Footnote 479: 'Mémoires, &c., de Constantine,' 1864, p. 122, pl.
-    xxx.]
-
-    [Footnote 480: Flower, in Norwich volume, pp. 202-206.]
-
-    [Footnote 481: 'History of Architecture,' i. p. 81.]
-
-    [Footnote 482: 'Travels and Discoveries in Northern Africa,' i. p.
-    204.]
-
-    [Footnote 483: _Ibid._ p. 74.]
-
-    [Footnote 484: _Ibid._ p. 59. The holes are not shown in the cut.]
-
-    [Footnote 485: 'British History,' viii. chap. ii.]
-
-    [Footnote 486: 'History of Architecture,' by the Author, ii. p.
-    483.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER XI.
-
-MEDITERRANEAN ISLANDS.
-
-
-Before leaving the Mediterranean Sea and the countries bordering
-upon it, it seems desirable to say a few words regarding certain
-"non-historic" monuments which exist in its islands. Strictly speaking,
-they hardly come within the limits assigned to this book, for they are
-not truly megalithic in the sense in which the term has been used in
-the previous pages; for though stones 15 feet and 20 feet high are used
-in the Maltese monuments, they are shaped and, it may be said, hewn
-with metal tools, and they are used constructively with smaller stones,
-so as to form walls and roofs, and cannot therefore be considered as
-Rude Stone Monuments. Still they have so much affinity with these, and
-are so mixed up in all works treating of the subject with Druidical
-remains and prehistoric mysteries, that it certainly seems expedient to
-explain as far as possible their forms and uses.
-
-The monuments are of three classes. The first, found in Malta, are
-there called giants' towers--"Torre dei giganti"--a name having
-no meaning, but which, as also involving no hypothesis, it may be
-convenient to adhere to. The second class, called Nurhags, are peculiar
-to Sardinia. The third, or Talyots, are found only in the Balearic
-islands. There may be some connection between the two last groups, but
-even then with certain local peculiarities sufficient to distinguish
-them. The Maltese monuments however stand alone, and have certainly no
-connection with the other two, and, as it will appear in the sequel,
-none of the three have any very clear affinity with any known monuments
-on the continent of either Europe or Africa.
-
-
-MALTA.
-
-The best known monuments of the Maltese groups are situated near the
-centre of the Isle of Gozo, in the commune of Barbato. When Houel
-wrote in 1787,[487] only the outside wall with the apse of one of the
-inner chambers and the entrance of another were known. He mistook
-the right-hand apse of the second pair of chambers for part of a
-circle, and so represented it with a dolmen in the centre, led to this
-apparently by the existence of a real circle which then was found at
-a distance of 350 yards from the main group. This circle was 140 feet
-in diameter, composed of stones ranged close together and alternately
-broad and tall, as shown in the next woodcut, which represents the rear
-of the principal monument. The entrance was marked by two very tall
-stones, apparently 20 feet high. The interior was apparently rugged,
-but there is nothing in the plates to show from what cause. When Houel
-made his plan,[488] it had all the appearance of being what was styled
-a regular "Druidical circle," and might have been used as such to
-support any Druidical theory. It is now however evident that it really
-was only the commencement of the envelope of a pair of chambers, such
-as we find in all the monuments of this class on these islands. If the
-plan is correct, it was the most regular of any, which, besides its
-having every appearance of never having been completed, would lead
-us to suppose that it was the last of the series. This monument has
-now entirely disappeared, as has also another of even more megalithic
-appearance which stood within a few yards of the principal group, but
-of which unfortunately we have neither plan nor details. It is shown
-with tolerable distinctness in a view in Mr. Frere's possession, and
-in the plates which are engraved from drawings by a native artist,
-which Admiral Smyth brought home in 1827,[489] and which are engraved
-in volume xxii. of the 'Archæologia.' Unfortunately the text that
-accompanies these plates is of the most unsatisfactory character. This
-he partially explains by saying that he had left his measurements with
-Colonel Otto Beyer, who had just caused the principal pair of chambers
-to be excavated.
-
-The second pair of chambers was excavated by Sir Henry Bouverie when
-he was governor, some time before or about 1836, when a careful plan
-and drawings of the whole were published by Count de la Marmora.[490]
-It has been re-engraved by Gailhabaud and others, and is well known to
-archæologists.
-
-The monuments thus brought to light consisted of two pairs of
-elliptical chambers very similar in dimensions and plan to those at
-Mnaidra (woodcut No. 179). The greatest depth internally from the
-entrance to the apse of the principal pair is 90 feet; the greatest
-width across both 130 feet. The right-hand pair as you enter is
-comparatively plain. The outer chamber of the left-hand pair still
-retained, when excavated, fittings that looked like an altar in the
-right-hand apse, which was separated from the rest by what may be
-called the choir-screen or altar-rail; and this was ornamented with
-spirals and geometric figures neatly and sharply cut. In the inner
-chamber was a stone, near the entrance, on which was a bas-relief of
-a serpent, but no other representation of any thing living was found
-elsewhere.
-
-[Illustration: 178. View of the exterior of the Giants' Tower at Gozo.
-From a drawing in the possession of Sir Bartle Frere, K.C.B.]
-
-The external appearance of the monument may be gathered from the
-woodcut No. 178. The lower part of the wall is composed alternately--as
-in the circle just alluded to--of large stones laid on their sides and
-smaller ones standing perpendicularly between them. Above this the
-courses of stones are of regular masonry, and probably there was some
-kind of cornice or string-course before the beginning of the roof, but
-of this no trace now remains in any of these monuments.
-
-The second group, known as Hagiar Khem, is situated near Krendi, on the
-south side of the island of Malta, and is the most extensive one known.
-The principal monument contains, besides the usual pair of chambers,
-four or five lateral chambers; and a short way to the north is a second
-monument, containing at least one pair; and to the south a third
-group, but so ruined it is difficult to make out the plan. Only the
-tops of the walls and the tall stones which still rise above the walls
-were known to exist of the monument, till in 1839 Sir Henry Bouverie
-authorized the expenditure of some public money to excavate it. An
-account of these excavations, with a plan and drawings, was published
-in Malta at the time by Lieutenant Foulis. The plan was repeated, in
-less detail however, in the 'Archæologia,'[491] and afterwards in the
-Norwich volume of the International Prehistoric Congress, by Mr. Furze,
-from a survey recently made by the Royal Engineers.
-
-The third group, known as that at Mnaidra, is situated not far from the
-last, between it and the sea; and as it never has been published, a
-plan of it is given here[492] from a survey made by Corporal Mortimer,
-of the Royal Engineers. Like the Gozo monument, it consists of two
-pairs of oval chambers in juxtaposition. The right-hand pair, in this
-instance, is larger and simpler in design than that on the left, but
-it is so nearly identical, both in plan and dimensions, with the
-right-hand pair at Gozo that they are probably of the same age and
-served the same purpose. They are also, as nearly as may be, of the
-same dimensions: both would be enclosed, with their side walls, by
-a circle 75 feet in diameter. The left-hand cone at Mnaidra would be
-nearly of the same diameter; but at Gozo the corresponding enclosure
-would require to be, and in fact was, 100 feet in diameter, and the
-inner room, measuring 80 feet by 50 feet, including the apse, was the
-largest and finest apartment of the class in the islands.
-
-[Illustration: 179. Plan of Monument of Mnaidra. From one by Corporal
-Mortimer.]
-
-[Illustration: 180. Section, on the line A B, through Lower Pair of
-Chambers, Mnaidra.]
-
-The section through the lower chambers (woodcut No. 180) will suffice
-to explain the general appearance of these buildings internally,
-as they now stand. A is the entrance into a small square apartment
-in which the altar or table stands, shown more completely in the
-next woodcut (No. 181), from a photograph, which also renders much
-more clear the peculiar style of ornamenting with innumerable "pit
-markings," peculiar to these Maltese monuments. D is the entrance
-into the other chamber, which but for the interference of that last
-described, would have been of the usual elliptical form. My impression
-is that the left-hand apse was removed at some time subsequent to the
-erection of the monument, to admit of its insertion. On each side of
-the doorway are seats, C and E, which are always found in similar
-situations. Beyond, at F, is one of those mysterious openings which are
-so frequent; it is also seen with another in Woodcut No. 182. Between
-this apartment and the upper apartment H are two tiers of shelves or
-loculi, which are also found at Gozo, and for which it is difficult to
-suggest a meaning if they were not used as columbaria for sepulchral
-purposes.
-
-[Illustration: 181. Entrance to Chamber B, Mnaidra, showing Table
-inside. (The Rod is divided into English feet.)]
-
-A difficult question here arises as to which of these two pairs of
-apartments is the older--the upper, with the simpler style and the
-smaller stones, or the apartments with the larger stones and more
-ornate arrangements. On the whole, I am inclined to think the simpler
-the older: among other reasons because the floor of the right-hand pair
-at Mnaidra is 10 feet above the level of the left-hand apartments. As
-the edifices are all placed on heights, it seems improbable that the
-first comer would have chosen a site commanded by a knoll 10 feet above
-him, and touching his half-buried building. But, besides this local
-indication, it seems probable that the style was progressive, and that
-this right-hand chamber at Mnaidra may be the oldest, and the great one
-at Gozo the last completed of all which we know.
-
-[Illustration: 182. North End of Left-hand Outer Chamber at Mnaidra.
-From a photograph.]
-
-The excavations at Mnaidra as well as those at Hagiar Khem have
-sufficed to settle the question of how these buildings were roofed. The
-above woodcut, from a photograph, shows the springing of the roof of
-the north end of the outer left-hand chamber, but, like photographs in
-general, does so unintelligently. Colonel Collinson, however, informs
-me that they bracket outwards, at the rate of 1 foot in 10, and he
-calculates that they would meet at a height of 30 feet so nearly that
-they could be closed by a single stone. He, however, overlooks the
-fact that all these horizontally-constructed domes, whether in Greece,
-or Italy, or Sardinia, are curvilinear, their section being that of a
-Gothic pointed arch, and consequently, if corbelling forward at the
-rate of 1 in 10 near the springing, they would certainly meet in this
-chamber at 15 or 20 feet from their base. When we recollect that before
-the Trojan war the Pelasgic architects of Greece roofed chambers 50 and
-60 feet in diameter (_vide ante_, page 33), we should not be surprised
-at the Maltese architects grappling with apses of 20 feet span. This
-has generally been admitted as easy, but several authors have been
-puzzled to think how the flat spaces joining the two apses could have
-been so roofed. A careful examination of the plans of the Maltese
-building seems to make this easy. Looking, for instance, at the plan
-of Mnaidra, a retaining wall will be observed on the extreme right,
-which is a segment of a circle 75 feet in diameter, and continuing it
-all round, it encloses both chambers. If a similar circle is drawn
-round the left-hand chambers, it equally encloses them, and the circles
-osculate, or have one party wall at a point where there is the group
-of cells. This granted, it is easy to see that the external form of
-the roof was a stepped cone, covering the inner roofs, and so avoiding
-the ridges and hollows which would have rendered independent roofing
-impracticable. The external appearance of the building would thus have
-been that of two equal cones joined together, and rising probably to
-a height of 50 feet above their springing. To erect such a cone on an
-enclosing wall only 8 or 10 feet thick may appear at first sight a
-little difficult for such rude builders as the Maltese were when they
-erected these domes, but when we recollect that the cone was divided
-into two by a cross party wall, which may have been carried the whole
-height, all difficulty vanishes.
-
-When we apply these principles to the ruins at Hagiar Khem, their
-history becomes plain at once. Originally the monument seems to have
-consisted of a single pair of chambers of the usual form, A and B of
-the accompanying plan; but extension becoming necessary, the central
-apse of the inner apartment was removed and converted into a doorway,
-and the left-hand lateral apse was also removed so as to make an
-entrance into four other ovoid apartments, which were arranged radially
-so as to be covered by a cone 90 feet in diameter. Here again the
-difficulty, if any, of constructing a cone of these dimensions is got
-over by the numerous points of support from perpendicular walls which
-honeycomb the building. The external appearance of this building would
-be that of one great cone 90 feet in diameter covering the cells, and
-anastomosing with one 60 feet, or one-third less, in diameter covering
-the entrance chambers.
-
-[Illustration: 183. Plan of Hagiar Khem, partially restored.]
-
-Restored in this manner, the external appearance of these monuments
-would have been very similar to that of the Kubber Roumeia near Algiers
-and the Madracen near Blidah. The former was 200 feet in diameter, with
-a cone rising in steps to the height of 130 feet, which was lower in
-proportion than suggested above, but its interior was nearly solid,
-and admitted therefore of any angle that might appear most beautiful.
-The Madracen looks even lower, but no correct section of it has been
-published. The Kubber Roumeia has now been ascertained to have been the
-tomb of the Mauritanian kings down to the time of Juba II., or about
-the Christian era.[493] Judging from its style, the Madracen may be a
-century earlier. Be this as it may, it hardly seems to me doubtful but
-that these tombs are late Roman translations of a type to which the
-Maltese examples belonged; but the intermediate links in the long chain
-which connects them have yet to be recovered.
-
-[Illustration: 184. View of Madracen. From a plate in Blakesley's 'Four
-Months in Algeria.']
-
-Internally, these Maltese monuments are rude, and exhibit very little
-attempt at decoration. The inner apartments, being dark, are quite
-plain, but the outer, admitting a certain quantity of light by the
-door, have a proportionate amount of ornament. At Gozo, in the outer
-apartment, there are, as mentioned above, scrolls and spirals of a
-style very much more refined than is found in Ireland or in rude
-monuments generally, but more resembling that of those found at Mycenæ
-and other parts of Greece. At Hagiar Khem and Mnaidra the favourite
-ornament are pit markings. Whether these have any affinity with those
-which Sir J. Simpson so copiously illustrated,[494] is by no means
-clear. In Malta they are spread evenly over the stone, and are such a
-decoration as might be used at the present day (woodcut No. 181). An
-altar was found in one of the outer chambers at Hagiar Khem, and in
-both the Maltese monuments, stone tables from 4 to 5 feet high (one is
-shown in the woodcut No. 181), the use of which is not clearly made
-out. They are too tall for altars, and, unless in the Balearic Islands,
-nothing like them is known elsewhere.
-
-After what has been said above, it is hardly worth while to enter
-into the argument whether these buildings are temples or tombs. Their
-situation alone, in this instance, is sufficient to prove that they do
-not belong to the former class. Men do not drop three or four temples
-irregularly, as at Gozo, within a stone's throw of one another, on a
-bare piece of ground, far away from any centres of population. The same
-is the case at Hagiar Khem, where certainly three, probably four, sets
-of chambers exist; and Mnaidra may almost be considered a part of the
-same group or cemetery.
-
-Malta, it is said, was colonised by the Phœnicians, at least was
-so in Diodorus' time,[495] though how much earlier they occupied it,
-we are not told, nor to what extent they superseded the original
-inhabitants. We also learn incidentally that they possessed temples
-dedicated to Melkart and Astarte. This is very probable, and if so,
-their remains will be found near their harbours, and where they
-established themselves; and Colonel Collinson informs me that remains
-of columnar buildings have been found both at Marsa Sirocco and near
-the dockyard creek at Valetta. These, most probably, are the remains
-of the temples in question, though possibly rebuilt in Roman times.
-The little images found in the apartments at Hagiar Khem may be
-representations of the Cabeiri, though I doubt it; but little headless
-deformities, 20 inches high, some of stone and some of clay, are not
-the divinities that would be worshipped in such temples, though they
-might be offerings at a tomb.
-
-If these buildings were tombs, they were the burying-places of a people
-who burnt their dead and carefully preserved their ashes, and who
-paid the utmost respect to their buried dead long after their decease.
-The inner apartments have shelves and cupboards in stone, and numerous
-little arrangements which it seems impossible to understand except on
-the supposition that they were places for the deposit of these sacred
-remains. Some of the recesses have doors cut out of a single slab 2 and
-3 feet square at the opening, some are so small that a man could hardly
-squeeze himself through, and some are holes into which only an arm
-could be thrust,[496] but from the rebate outside of all, the intention
-seems to have been for them all to be closed.
-
-Although from all these arrangements it may broadly be asserted that
-they are not temples in the ordinary sense of the term; the outer
-apartments may be considered as halls in which religious ceremonies
-were performed in honour of the dead, and, so far, as places of
-worship; but essentially they were sepulchres, and their uses
-sepulchral.
-
-We know so little of the ancient history of Malta that it is extremely
-difficult even to guess who the people were who erected and used these
-sepulchres. Most people would at once answer, the Phœnicians;
-but, in order to establish their claim, one of two things is
-necessary--either we must have some direct testimony that they erected
-these monuments, or we must be able to show that they erected similar
-tombs either near their own homes or elsewhere. Neither kind of proof
-is forthcoming. No such tombs are found near Tyre or Sidon, or near
-Carthage, and classical authorities are absolutely silent on the
-subject. The monuments most like them are the tombs at Mycenæ, but the
-differences are so great that I would hesitate to lay much stress on
-any slight similarities that exist. The Greek monuments were always
-intended to be buried in tumuli. Those at Malta have so strongly marked
-and so ornamental a podium outside that it is evident they never were
-so covered up. It may be difficult to prove it, but I fancy if we are
-ever to find their originals, it is to Africa we must look for them.
-They are too unlike anything else in Europe.
-
-It seems even more difficult to define their age than to ascertain
-their origin. Looking at the nature of the stone, their state of
-preservation, and other circumstances, I cannot believe they are
-very old. If they were in Greece, or in Europe, or anywhere where
-they could be compared with other monuments, some useful inferences
-might be drawn; but they are so unique that this mode is unavailable.
-We have nothing we can confidently compare them with, and we are so
-entirely ignorant of the ancient history of Malta that we cannot tell
-in the least at what age she reached that stage of civilization which
-the workmanship of these monuments represents. We are probably safe,
-however, in assuming that they are pre-Roman, and as safe in believing
-that they are not earlier than the monuments of Mycenæ and Thyrns;
-in short, that they belong to some period between the Trojan and the
-Punic wars, but are most probably much nearer to the former than to the
-latter epoch in the world's history.
-
-
-SARDINIA.
-
-It is a curious illustration of the fragmentary nature of society in
-the ancient world that Sardinia should possess a class of monuments
-absolutely peculiar to itself. It is not this time ten or a dozen
-monuments, like those of Malta, but they are numbered by thousands, and
-so like one another that it is impossible to mistake them, and, what
-is still more singular, as difficult to trace any progress or change
-among them. The Talyots of the Balearic Islands may resemble them, but,
-excepting these, the Nurhags of Sardinia stand quite alone. Nothing the
-least like them is found in Italy, or in Sicily, or, indeed, anywhere
-else, so far as is at present known.
-
-A Nurhag is easily recognized and easily described. It is always a
-round tower, with sides sloping at an angle of about 10 degrees to the
-horizon, its dimensions varying from 20 to 60 feet in diameter, and its
-height being generally equal to the width of the base. Sometimes they
-are one, frequently two and even three storeys in height, the centre
-being always occupied by circular chambers, constructed by projecting
-stones forming a dome with the section of a pointed arch. The chamber
-generally occupies one-third of the diameter, the thickness of the
-walls forming the remaining two-thirds. There is invariably a ramp
-or staircase leading to the platform at the top of the tower. These
-peculiarities will be understood from the annexed section and plan of
-one from De la Marmora's work.[497]
-
-[Illustration: 185. Nurhag. From De la Marmora.]
-
-[Illustration: 186. Nurhag of Santa Barbara.]
-
-When the Nurhags are of more than one storey in height, they are
-generally surrounded by others which are attached to them by platforms,
-often of considerable extent. That at Santa Barbara has, or had, four
-small Nurhags encased in the four corners of the platform, to which
-access was obtained by a doorway in the central tower; but frequently
-there are also separate ramps when the platforms are extensive. The
-masonry of these monuments is generally neat, though sometimes the
-stones are unhewn, but nowhere does there appear any attempt at
-megalithic magnificence.
-
-They are, at the same time, absolutely without any architectural
-ornament which could give us any hint of their affinities; and no
-inscriptions, no images, no sculptures of any kind, have been found in
-them. They are in this respect as uncommunicative as our own rude-stone
-monuments.
-
-[Illustration: 187. Nurhag of Santa Barbara. From De la Marmora.]
-
-Written history is almost equally silent. Only one passage has
-been disinterred which seems to refer to them. It is a Greek work,
-generally known as 'De Mirabilibus Auscultationibus,'[498] and ascribed
-doubtfully to Aristotle. It is to the following effect:--"It is said
-that in the island of Sardinia there exist, among other beautiful
-and numerous edifices, built after the manner of the ancient Greeks,
-certain domes (Θόλοι) of exquisite proportions. It is further
-said that they were built by Iolas, son of Iphicles, who, having taken
-with him the Thespiadæ, went to colonise this island." This certainly
-looks as if the Nurhags existed when this book was written, though the
-description is by a person who evidently never saw them. Diodorus so
-far confirms this that he says: "Iolaus, having founded the colony,
-fetched Dedalus from Sicily, and built numerous and grand edifices,
-which subsist to the present day, and are called Dedalean, from the
-name of their builder;"[499] and in another paragraph he recurs to
-the veneration "in which the name of Iolaus is held." This, too, is
-unsatisfactory, as written by a person who never visited the island,
-and had not seen the monuments of which he was speaking.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-It is little to be wondered at if buildings so mysterious and so unlike
-any known to exist elsewhere should have given rise to speculations
-almost as wild as those that hang around our own rude-stone monuments.
-The various theories which have been advanced are enumerated and
-described by De la Marmora[500] so fully that it will not be necessary
-to recapitulate them here, nor to notice any but three, which seem
-really to have some plausible foundation.
-
-The first of these assumes the Nurhags to have been watch-towers or
-fortifications.
-
-The second, that they were temples.
-
-The third, that they were tombs.
-
-[Illustration: 188. Map of La Giara. From De la Marmora.]
-
-Looking at the positions in which they are found, the first of these
-theories is not so devoid of foundation as might at first sight appear.
-As a rule, they are all placed on heights, and at such distances as
-to be seen from one another, and consequently be able to communicate
-by signal at least. Take such an example, for instance, as that of
-Giara, near Isili (woodcut No. 188). Any engineer officer would be
-delighted with the manner in which the position is taken up. Every
-point of vantage in the circumference is occupied, and two points in
-the interior fortified, so as to act as supports. The designer of the
-entrenched camp at Linz might rub his eyes in astonishment to find
-his inventions forestalled by three thousand years, and by towers
-externally so like his own as hardly to be distinguishable to an
-unpractised eye. The form of the towers themselves lends considerable
-plausibility to the defensive theory. Such a Nurhag, for instance, as
-that of Santa Barbara (woodcuts Nos. 186, 187), surrounded by four
-lesser ones, connected by a platform, and dominated by the central
-tower, is a means of defence we might now adopt, provided we may assume
-the existence of a parapet, which has fallen through age.
-
-When we come to look a little more closely at this military question,
-we perceive that we are attempting to apply to a people who certainly
-had no projectiles that would carry farther than arrows, principles
-adapted to artillery or musketry fire. The Nurhags are placed at such
-distances as to afford no support to one another before the invention
-of gunpowder, and though in themselves not indefensible, they possess
-the radical defect of having no accommodation for their garrisons.
-It is impossible that men could live, cook, and sleep in the little
-circular apartments in their interior, and the platforms added very
-little to their accommodation. Had the four detached Nurhags at Santa
-Barbara been connected with walls only, so as to surround the central
-tower with a court, the case would have been very different; but as
-in all instances this is filled up, so as to form a platform, it is
-evident that it was exposure, not shelter, that was sought in their
-construction.[501]
-
-Another, and even stronger, argument is derived from their number. De
-la Marmora asserts that the remains of at least three thousand Nurhags
-can now be traced in Sardinia,[502] and there seems no reason to doubt
-the truth of his calculation, nor his assertion that they were once
-much more numerous, and that they are dispersed pretty evenly over the
-whole island. Can any one fancy a state of society in such an island
-which would require that there should be three thousand castles and
-yet no fortified cities as places of refuge? They were not erected to
-protect the island against a foreign enemy, because most of them are
-inland. They could not be made to serve for the protection of the rich
-during insurrections or civil wars, nor to enable robbers to plunder
-in security the peaceful inhabitants of the plain. In short, unless
-the ancient Sardinians lived in a state of society of which we have no
-knowledge elsewhere, these Nurhags were certainly not military works.
-
-When we turn to the second hypothesis and try to consider them as
-temples, we are met by very much the same difficulties as beset the
-fortification theory. If temples, they are unlike the temples of any
-other people. Generally it is assumed that they were fire temples,
-from their name _Nur_--in the Semitic languages signifying fire--but
-more from their construction. The little circular chambers in their
-interiors are admirably suited for preserving the sacred fire, and
-the external platforms as well adapted for that Sabean worship of
-the planets which is generally understood to be associated with
-fire-worship. But assuming this to be the case, why so numerous? We
-can count on our fingers all the fire-temples that exist, or were ever
-known to exist, in fire-worshipping Persia; and if a dozen satisfied
-her spiritual wants, what necessity was there for three thousand,
-or probably twice that number, in the small and sparsely inhabited
-island of Sardinia? Had every family, or little village community its
-own separate temple on the nearest high place? and did each perform
-its own worship separately from the rest? So far as we know, there
-is no subordination among them, nothing corresponding to cathedrals,
-or parish churches or chapels. Some are smaller, or some form more
-extensive groups than others, but a singularly republican equality
-reigns throughout, very unlike the hierarchical feeling we find in most
-religions. In one other respect, too, they are unlike the temples of
-other nations. None of them are situated in towns or villages, or near
-the centres of population in the island.
-
-Must we then adopt the third hypothesis, that they were tombs? Here
-again the same difficulties meet us. If they were tombs, they are
-unlike those of any other people with whom we are acquainted. Their
-numbers in this instance is, however, no difficulty. It is in the
-nature of the case that sepulchres should accumulate, and their number
-is consequently one of the strongest arguments in favour of this
-destination. Nor does their situation militate against this view.
-Nothing is more likely than that a people should like to bury their
-dead, on high places, where their tombs can be seen from afar. In fact,
-there does not seem much to be said against this theory, except that
-no sepulchral remains have been found in them. It is true that De la
-Marmora found a skeleton buried in one at Iselle,[503] and apparently
-so placed that the interment must have taken place before the tower was
-built, or at all events finished; but the presence of only one corpse
-in two thousand nurhags tells strongly against the theory, as where
-one was placed more would have been found had this form of interment
-been usual, and amidst the hundreds of ruined and half-ruined nurhags
-some evidence must have been found had any of the usual sepulchral
-usages prevailed. To my mind the conclusion seems inevitable that, if
-they were tombs, they were those of a people who, like the Parsees of
-the present day, exposed their dead to be devoured by the birds of the
-air. If there is one feature in the nurhags more consistent or more
-essential than another, it is that of the stairs or ramps that give
-access to their platforms. It shows, without doubt, that, whether for
-defence, or worship, or burial, the platform was the feature for which
-the edifice was erected, and there it must have been that its purposes
-were fulfilled. But is it possible that such a practice ever prevailed
-in Sardinia? It is, of course, precipitate to answer that it did. But
-the custom is old. Anything so exceptional among modern usages is not
-the invention of yesterday, and it may have been far more prevalent
-than it now is, and it may in very ancient times have been brought by
-some Eastern colonists to this Western isle. I dare hardly suggest that
-it was so; but this is certain, that such towers would answer in every
-respect perfectly to the "Towers of Silence" of the modern Persians,
-and the little side chambers in the towers would suit perfectly as
-receptacles of the denuded bones when the time arrived for collecting
-them.
-
-One argument against their being sepulchres has been drawn from the
-fact that frequently a different class of graves, called giants' tombs,
-is found in their immediate proximity. The conclusion I would draw
-from this is in a contrary sense. These giants' tombs are generally
-long graves of neatly fitted stones, with a tall frontispiece, which
-is formed of one stone, always carefully hewn and sometimes carved. On
-each side of the entrance two arms extend so as to form a semicircle in
-front, and when the circle is completed by detached menhirs, these are
-generally shaped into cones and carved. The whole, in fact, has a more
-advanced and more modern appearance than the nurhags, and, as I read
-the riddle, the inhabitants adopted this form, and that found in the
-nurhag at Iselle, after they had ceased to use the nurhag itself as a
-means of disposing of their dead, but were still clinging to the spots
-made sacred by the ashes of their forefathers.
-
-That the nurhags are old scarcely seems to admit of a doubt, though
-I know of only one material point of evidence on the subject. It is
-that the pier of a Roman aqueduct has been founded on the stump of a
-ruined and consequently desecrated nurhag.[504] Some time must have
-elapsed before the primitive and sacred use of the nurhag had been so
-completely forgotten that it should be so used. But the passages above
-quoted from the 'Mirabilibus' and Diodorus show that in the first
-and fifth centuries B.C. nothing was known of their origin by these
-authors, and no other has ventured to hint at their age. In classical
-times they seem to have been as mysterious as they are now:--
-
-  "In the glimmer of the dawn
-  They stand the solemn silent witnesses
-  Of ancient days,--altars--or graves."
-
-
-BALEARIC ISLANDS.
-
-The third group of monuments indicated above are the Talyots of Minorca
-and Majorca. Unfortunately our guide, De la Marmora, deserts us here.
-He went to explore them, but ill health and other adverse circumstances
-prevented his carrying his intent fully into effect, and we are left
-consequently very much to the work of Don Juan Ramis,[505] which is the
-reverse of satisfactory.
-
-[Illustration: 189. Talyot at Trepucò, Minorca. From De la Marmora.]
-
-[Illustration: 190. Talyot at Alajor, Minorca. From De la Marmora.]
-
-Externally they generally resemble the nurhags in appearance, and
-apparently have always chambers in their interior, but De la
-Marmora was unable to determine whether any of them had the internal
-staircase[506] leading to the summit which is the invariable and
-essential characteristic of the nurhag. If they had not this, they
-must be considered as more nearly approaching to our chambered cairns
-than to nurhags; and till this point is settled, and we know more
-about them, we must refrain from speculations on the subject. One
-characteristic feature they have, however, which it is useful to note.
-It is a bilithon, if such a term is admissible--an upright flat stone,
-with one across it forming a sort of table. In appearance it very much
-resembles those stone tables which are found inside the chambers of the
-Maltese sepulchres, but these are always larger, and placed, so far as
-is known, externally. What their use may have been, it is difficult
-to conjecture, but they were evidently considered important here, as
-in woodcut No. 190 one is shown surrounded by a sacred enclosure,
-as if being itself the "Numen" to be honoured. At Malta, as before
-remarked, they certainly were not altars, because pedestals, which were
-unmistakably altars, are found in the same apartments, and they are
-very unlike them. They seem more like the great saucers in the Irish
-tombs, and may have served the same purposes; but altogether these
-Balearic outside tables are unlike anything we know of elsewhere.
-
-Rude-Stone circles seem to be not uncommon in combination with the
-talyots and tall altars, and on the whole they seem to bear as much
-affinity to the monuments of Spain as to those of Sardinia, but again
-till we know more it is idle to speculate on either their age or uses
-beyond the conclusion drawn from all similar monuments--that their
-destination was to honour departed greatness.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-It would be not only interesting but instructive to pursue the subject
-further, for the monuments of these islands deserve a more complete
-investigation than they have yet received; but this is not the place to
-pursue it. Indeed, it is only indirectly that they have any connection
-with the subject of this work. They are not megalithic in the sense in
-which the word is generally used. Nor are they rude, for all the stones
-are more or less shaped by art, and all are used constructively. In
-none of them is the stone itself the object and end of the erection. In
-all it is only a means to an end.
-
-It is their locality and their age that import them into our argument
-if there is anything in the connection between the monuments of France
-and Algeria, as attempted to be shown above. Whether the African ones
-came from Europe, or _vice versâ_, it must have been in consequence
-of long-continued intercourse between the two countries, and of
-an influence of the dolmen builders in the Western Mediterranean
-which could hardly have failed to leave traces in the intermediate
-islands, unless they had been previously civilized and had fixed and
-long-established modes of dealing with their own dead.
-
-Assuming that the nurhags and giants' towers extend back to the
-mythic times of Grecian history, say the war of Troy--and some of
-them can hardly be more modern--it will hardly be contended now that
-the dolmens are earlier. If they were so, it must be by centuries
-or by thousands of years, if we are to assume that the one had any
-influence on the other, for it must have taken long before a truly
-rude-stone monument could have grown into a constructive style like
-that of Sardinia or Malta; and I do not think, after what has been
-said above, any one would now contend for so remote an antiquity. If
-neither anterior nor coeval, the conclusion, if we admit any influence
-at all, seems inevitable that the dolmens must be subsequent. But this
-is just the point at issue. The nurhags did not grow out of dolmens,
-nor dolmens out of nurhags. They are separate and distinct creations,
-so far as we know, belonging to different races, and practically
-uninfluenced by one another. Here, as elsewhere, each group must be
-judged by itself, and stand on its own merits. If any direct influence
-can be shown to exist between any two groups, there is generally very
-little difficulty in arranging them in a sequence and seeing which is
-the oldest, but till such connection is established, all such attempts
-are futile.
-
-In so far as any argument can now be got out of these insular
-monuments, it seems to take this form. If the dolmen people were
-earlier than the nurhag-builders, they certainly would have occupied
-the islands that lay in their path between France or Spain and Africa,
-and we should find traces of them there. If, on the contrary, the
-nurhag-builders were the earlier race, and colonised these islands
-so completely as to fill them before the age of the dolmen-builders,
-the latter, in passing from north to south, or _vice versâ_, could
-only have touched at the islands as emigrants or traders, and not as
-colonists, and consequently could have neither altered nor influenced
-to any great extent the more practically civilized people who had
-already occupied them.
-
-So far as we can see, this is the view that most nearly meets the
-facts of the case at present known, and in this respect their negative
-evidence is both interesting and instructive, though, except when
-viewed in this light, the monuments of the Mediterranean islands have
-no real place in a work treating on rude-stone monuments.
-
-    [Footnote 487: 'Voyage pittoresque en Sicile et Malte,' 4 vols.
-    folio, Paris, 1787.]
-
-    [Footnote 488: _Ibid._ pl. ccxli.]
-
-    [Footnote 489: The three formed part of a set of
-    nine, a duplicate of which has kindly
-    been lent to me by Mr. Frere, of Roydon
-    Hall, Norfolk. Unfortunately there is no
-    artist's name, and no date, upon them.]
-
-    [Footnote 490: 'Nouvelles Annales de l'Institut archéologique,' i.;
-    Paris, 1836.]
-
-    [Footnote 491: With a paper by Mr. Vance, 'Archæologia,'
-    vol. xxix. p. 227.]
-
-    [Footnote 492: For this plan and the photographs
-    of it I am indebted to the kindness of
-    Col. Collinson, R.E., who accompanied
-    them by a very full description and
-    notes on their history and uses, from
-    which much of the following information
-    is derived.]
-
-    [Footnote 493: Berbrugger, 'Tombeau de la Chrétienne--Mausolée des
-    derniers Rois de Mauritanie;'
-    Alger, 1867.]
-
-    [Footnote 494: 'Proceedings Soc. Ant. Scot.,' vi., Supplement.]
-
-    [Footnote 495: Hist., v. 12, 3.]
-
-    [Footnote 496: One at Mnaidra will be seen at F, in woodcut No. 180,
-    and also in the view,
-    woodcut No. 182.]
-
-    [Footnote 497: 'Voyage en Sardaigne,' par le Cte.
-    Albert de la Marmora; Paris, 1840. As
-    this is not only the best but really the
-    only reliable work on the subject, all, or
-    nearly all, the information in this chapter
-    is based upon it.]
-
-    [Footnote 498: Bekker, iii. p. 604, para. 100.]
-
-    [Footnote 499: Diodorus, iv. 30; v. 15.]
-
-    [Footnote 500: 'Voyage en Sardaigne,' chap. iv. pp. 117 to 159.]
-
-    [Footnote 501: The Scotch brochs, which are in their construction
-    the erections most like these, have all courtyards in their centre,
-    in which all the domestic operations of the garrison could be
-    carried on conveniently, and they only needed to creep into the
-    chambers in the wall to sleep.]
-
-    [Footnote 502: 'Voyage en Sardaigne,' pp. 46 and 116.]
-
-    [Footnote 503: 'Voyage,' p. 152.]
-
-    [Footnote 504: De la Marmora, pl. v. p. 149.]
-
-    [Footnote 505: 'Antigüedades Celticas de la Isla de Menorca, &c.;'
-    Mahon, 1818.]
-
-    [Footnote 506: 'Voyage,' pp. 547 _et seq._]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER XII.
-
-WESTERN ASIA.
-
-
-PALESTINE.
-
-Palestine is one of those countries in which dolmens exist, not in
-thousands and tens of thousands, as in Algeria, but certainly in
-hundreds--perhaps tens of hundreds; but travellers have not yet
-condescended to open their eyes to observe them, and the Palestine
-Exploration Fund is too busy making maps to pay attention to a subject
-which would probably throw as much light on the ethnography of the
-Holy Land as anything we know of. Before, however, retailing what
-little we know about the monuments actually existing, it is necessary
-in this instance to say a few words about those which we know of only
-by hearsay. All writers on megalithic remains in the last century, and
-some of those of the present, have made so much of the stones set up by
-Abraham and Joshua that it is indispensable to try to ascertain what
-they were, and what bearing they really have on the subject of which we
-are treating.
-
-The earliest mention of a stone being set up anywhere as a monument or
-memorial is that of the one which Jacob used as a pillow in the night
-when he had that dream which became the title of the Israelites to the
-land of Canaan. "And Jacob rose up early in the morning, and took the
-stone that he had put for his pillows, and set it up for a pillar, and
-poured oil upon the top of it."[507] The question is, What was the size
-of this stone? In the East, where hard pillows are not objected to,
-natives generally use a brick for this purpose. Europeans, who are more
-stiffnecked as well as more luxurious, insist on two bricks, and these
-laid one on the other, with a cloth thrown over them, form by no means
-an uncomfortable headpiece. The fact of Jacob being alone, and moving
-the stone to and from the place where it was used, proves that it was
-not larger than, probably not so large as, the head that was laid
-upon it. It certainly, therefore, was neither the Lia Fail which still
-adorns the hill of Tara nor even the Scone stone that forms the king's
-seat in Westminster Abbey, and, what is more to our present purpose, it
-may safely be discharged from the category of megalithic monuments of
-which we are now treating.
-
-The next case in which stones are mentioned is in Genesis xxxi. 45 and
-46: "And Jacob took a stone, and set it up for a pillar. And Jacob
-said unto his brethren, Gather stones; and they took stones, and made
-an heap: and they did eat there upon the heap." This is not quite so
-clear; but the fair inference seems to be that what they erected was
-a stone altar, on which they partook of an offering, which, under the
-circumstances, took the form of a sacramental oath--one party standing
-on either side of it. The altar in the temple of Jerusalem, we know,
-down even to the time of Herod, was formed of stones, which no iron
-tool had ever touched,[508] and the tradition derived from this altar
-of Jacob seems to have lasted during the whole Jewish period. So there
-is nothing in this instance to lead us to suppose that "the heap" had
-any connection with the megalithic monuments of other countries.
-
-The third instance, though more frequently quoted, seems even less
-relevant. When Joshua passed the Jordan, twelve men, according to the
-number of the tribes, were appointed, each "to take up a stone on
-his shoulder out of the Jordan, in the place where the priests' feet
-had stood, and to carry them and set them down at the place where
-they lodged that night, as a memorial to the children of Israel for
-ever."[509] Here, again, stones that men can carry on their shoulders
-are not much bigger than their heads, and are not such as in any
-ordinary sense would be used as memorials, inasmuch as they could be as
-easily removed by any one, as placed where they were. If ranged on an
-altar, in a building, this purpose would have been answered; but as an
-open-air testimonial such stones seem singularly inappropriate.
-
-The only instance in which it seems that the Bible is speaking of the
-same class of monuments as those we are concerned with is in the
-last chapter of Joshua, where it is said (verse 26), he "took a great
-stone, and set it up there under an oak, that was by the sanctuary of
-the Lord," and said, "Behold, this stone shall be a witness unto us."
-It is the more probable that this was really a great monolith, as it
-seems to be the stone mentioned in Judges ix. 6 as "the pillar of the
-plain," ... or "by the oak of the pillar which was in Shechem;" and if
-this is so, it must have been of considerable dimensions. It therefore
-alone, of all the stones mentioned in the Bible, seems to belong to the
-class of stones we are treating of; but even then its direct bearing
-on the subject is not clear. It by no means follows that because the
-Israelites in Joshua's time set up such a stone for such a purpose that
-either then or a thousand years afterwards the French or Scandinavians
-did the same thing with the same intention. It may be so, but both
-the time and locality seem too remote for us to rely on any supposed
-analogy.
-
-As bearing indirectly on this subject, it is curious to observe that
-the rite of circumcision in these early days of Jewish history was
-performed with flint knives,[510] which, considering that bronze and
-iron were both familiarly known to the Israelites at that period, is a
-remarkable example of the persistence in an old fashion long after it
-might have been supposed it would have become obsolete. It is equally
-curious, if the Septuagint is to be depended upon, that they should
-have buried with Joshua in his grave those very flint implements (τὰς
-μαχαίραγς τὰς πετρίνας) with which the operation was performed. This
-cannot of course be quoted as the latest or even a late example of
-flint being buried in tombs, but it is interesting as explaining one
-reason for the practice. It is at least one instance in which flint was
-used long after metal was known, and one tomb in which stone implements
-were buried for other reasons than the people's ignorance of the use of
-metal.[511] If the Jews used flints for that purpose in Joshua's time,
-and so disposed of them after the death of their chief, the only wonder
-is that they do not do so at the present day.
-
-To turn from these speculations, based on words, to the real facts
-of the case. We find that the first persons who observed dolmens in
-Syria were Captains Irby and Mangles. In their hurried journey from Es
-Salt, in 1817, to the fords of the Jordan, apparently in a straight
-line from Es Salt to Nablous, they observed a group of twenty-seven
-dolmens, very irregularly situated at the foot of the mountain. All
-those they observed were composed of two side-stones, from 8 to 10 feet
-long, supporting a cap-stone projecting considerably beyond the sides
-and ends. The chambers, however, were only 5 feet long internally--too
-short, consequently, for a body to be stretched out at full length.
-The contraction arose from the two transverse stones being placed
-considerably within the ends of the side-stones. One of these appears
-to have been solid, the other to have been pierced with what is called
-a door; but whether this was a hole in one stone, or a door formed by
-two jambs, is not clear.[512] No drawing or plan accompanies their
-description; but the arrangement will be easily understood when we come
-to examine those of Rajunkoloor, in India,[513] described farther on
-(woodcut No. 206).
-
-[Illustration: 191. Dolmens at Kafr er Wâl. From a sketch by Mrs.
-Roberton Blaine.]
-
-The only other reliable information I have is extracted for me from
-his note-books by my friend, Mr. D. R. Blaine. In travelling from Om
-Keis--Gadara--towards Gerash, at a place called Kafr er Wâl, not far
-from Tibné, they met with one considerable group, a portion of which
-is represented in the above woodcut (No. 191). The size of the stones
-varies considerably; generally, however, they are about 12 feet by 6
-feet, and from 1 to 2 feet in thickness. One cap-stone was nearly 12
-feet square, and the side-stones vary from 5 to 6 feet in height. On
-approaching Sûf, a great number of dolmens were observed on either side
-of the road for a distance of from three to four miles. Some of these
-seemed quite perfect, others were broken down; but the travellers had
-unfortunately no time to count or examine them with care.
-
-This is a very meagre account of a great subject--so meagre, indeed,
-that it is impossible to found any argument upon it that will be worth
-anything; but it is interesting to observe that all the dolmens as yet
-noticed in Syria are situated in Gilead, the country of the Amorites,
-and of Og, king of Bashan. If it should prove eventually that there are
-none except in this district, it would give rise to several interesting
-ethnographical determinations. At present all we can feel confident
-about is that there are no dolmens west of the Jordan; but the Amorites
-were originally settled in Hebron,[514] and there are certainly no
-dolmens there. So unless they migrated eastward before the dolmen
-period, they can scarcely lay claim to them. Then these dolmens may
-belong to the Rephaim, the Emim, the Anakim, the Zuzim, and all those
-giant tribes that dwelt beyond Jordan at the time of Chedorlaomer,
-the dreaded king of Elam, who smote the kings of this district at the
-dawn of the Bible history of these regions.[515] The speculation is
-a tempting one, and if it should eventually be proved that they are
-confined to this one district, it will no doubt find favour in some
-quarters. There seems, however, nothing to support it beyond the fact
-that the people in the region beyond the Jordan seem all and always to
-have been of Hamite or Turanian blood, and therefore likely to adopt
-this mode of burial whenever it may have been introduced, in spite of
-the colonization of two tribes and a half of Israelites, who could do
-but little to leaven the mass. I am afraid that, like the theory which
-identified the Roman cities of the Hauran with the giant cities of Og,
-king of Bashan, and his tall contemporaries, this hypothesis will not
-bear examination. Every stone of these cities, it is now known, was
-placed where we now find it, after the time when Pompey extended Roman
-influence to these regions; and nothing would surprise me less than
-to find that these dolmens are even more modern. Before, however, we
-venture to speculate on such a subject, we must feel surer than we now
-do of their extent and their distribution, and know something of their
-contents. On both these subjects we are at present practically entirely
-ignorant.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-Gilead is almost the last safe resting-place at which we can pause in
-our explorations eastward in our attempts to connect the Eastern and
-the Western dolmen regions together. But Gilead is two thousand miles
-from Peshawur, where we meet the first example of the Indian dolmens;
-and in the vast regions that lie between, only one or two doubtful
-examples are known to exist. We can creep on doubtfully a couple of
-hundred miles nearer, in Arabia and Circassia; but that hardly helps
-us much, and unless some discoveries are made in the intermediate
-countries, the migration theory will become wholly untenable.
-
-In the course of the recent ordnance survey of the peninsula of Sinai
-in 1868-9, great numbers of circular buildings were discovered, many of
-which were certainly tombs; and plans and drawings of some of them have
-been engraved, and will be published by the authorities at Southampton.
-But as great bodies move slowly, it may yet be a long time before they
-are accessible to the public. Meanwhile the following particulars,
-gleaned from a paper by the Rev. Mr. Holland,[516] will suffice to
-explain what they are. The buildings are of two classes: the first,
-which were probably store-houses, were built in the shape of a dome,
-about 5 feet high and 5 or 6 feet in diameter in the interior. The
-walls were often as much as 4 feet thick, and a large flat stone formed
-the highest portion of the roof, which appeared to have been covered
-with loose shingle. They had no windows, and one door, about 3 feet
-high and 1½ foot broad. The stones used in their construction were
-often large, but never dressed, and no mortar was used.
-
-The other kind of ruins, which is generally found in close proximity
-to the former, often in separate groups, consists of massively built
-circles of stones, of about 14 to 15 feet in diameter, and 3 feet
-high, but without any roof. "These," Mr. Holland says, "were evidently
-tombs; for I found human bones in all that I opened," which were
-never met with in the buildings of the first class; "and in one two
-skeletons lying side by side, one of them on a bed of flat stones.
-The rings of stones were apparently first half filled with earth; the
-bodies were then laid in them, and they were then quite filled up with
-earth, and heavy stones placed on the top to prevent the wild beasts
-disturbing the bodies. Some of these rings are of much larger size:
-some 45, others 90, feet in diameter, and some contained a smaller
-ring in the centre. Near the mound of Nukb Hawy is one no less than
-375 feet in diameter." From the above description it is evident that,
-except from the dimensions of the last-mentioned, these circles have
-much more affinity with the Chouchas and Bazinas of Algeria than with
-anything farther north or west, and there is probably some connection
-between them. But a wall of coursed masonry of small stones can hardly
-be compared with our megalithic structures, and, so far as is known,
-no dolmens, nor any examples of the great rude-stone monuments we are
-discussing, have been found in the peninsula. When the results of the
-survey are published, we may see reason to alter this opinion; but
-at present these Sinaitic tombs seem to belong to a class altogether
-different from the European examples, except in two points--that they
-are circular and sepulchral. These characteristics are, however, so
-important that eventually other points of comparison may be established.
-
-The rude-stone monuments which Mr. Giffard Palgrave accidentally
-stumbled upon in the centre of Arabia are of a very different class
-from these. According to his account, what he saw was apparently
-one-half of what had once been a complete circle of trilithons; but
-whether continuous, like the outer circle of Stonehenge, or in pairs,
-like the inner circle there, is not quite clear. As he could just
-touch the impost with his whip when on his camel, the height was, as
-he says, about 15 feet--the same as Stonehenge; and the expression he
-uses would lead us to suppose that the whole structure was essentially
-similar. Allowance, however, must be made for his being in disguise,
-which prevented his making notes or writing down his observations; and
-writing afterwards from memory, his description may not be minutely
-correct. He is, however, so clear and acute an observer that he could
-hardly be deceiving himself; and we may take it for granted that
-exactly halfway between the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, near Eyoon,
-in latitude 26° 20´, there exist three rude-stone monuments--he saw
-only one, but heard of two others--of a class similar to those found
-in England and in the continent of Europe,[517] and what is more
-important to our present purpose, similar to those found in Tripoli,
-and illustrated above in woodcuts 175 and 176.
-
-De Voguë's plates of late Roman tombs in the Hauran, especially those
-represented in his plates 93 and 94,[518] take away all improbability
-from the idea that trilithons should have been erected for sepulchral
-purposes in this part of the world. That the one form is copied from
-the other may be assumed as certain; but whether the rude stones
-are anterior to or contemporary with or subsequent to those of the
-Roman order, every one must decide for himself. I believe them to be
-either coeval or more modern, but there is nothing in these particular
-monuments to guide us to a decision either way. If we could fancy that
-the savages who now occupy that country would ever allow it to be
-explored, it would be extremely interesting to know more of the Arabian
-examples, even if they should only prove to be an extension of Syrian
-or North African forms into Central Arabia. If, on the other hand, a
-migration theory is ever to be established, this probably would be the
-southern route, or at least one of the southern routes; though the
-imagination staggers when we come to consider how long it must have
-been ago since any wandering tribes passed through Central Arabia on
-their way westward.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-Are there any dolmens in Asia Minor? It is no answer to this question
-to say that none have been seen by any of the numerous travellers who
-have traversed that country. Ten years ago, by a parity of reasoning,
-their existence in Algeria or in Syria might have been denied. My
-impression is that they will not be found in that region. I expect that
-Asia Minor was too completely civilized in a pre-dolmen period to have
-adopted this form afterwards; but it is dangerous to speculate about a
-country of whose early history, as well as of whose modern geography,
-we really know so little.
-
-It would be extremely interesting, however, if some traveller would
-open his eyes, and tell us what really is to be found there, as it
-would throw considerable light on some interesting problems connected
-with this subject. It would, for instance, be interesting to know
-whether there are or are not dolmens in Galatia. If there are, it would
-go far to assist the Celtic claim to their invention. If they do not
-exist, either the Celts must be asked to waive their claim or we must
-find out some other mode of accounting for their absence.
-
-In like manner, it would be interesting to know if there are dolmens in
-Lydia. As mentioned before, there are numberless chambered tumuli in
-that country, and it would be curious to trace the existence or absence
-of any connection between these two forms of sepulchres. My impression
-is that the case of Lydia is very similar to that of Etruria. It was
-civilized before the dolmen era, and it will consequently be in vain to
-look there for any megalithic remains. The chambers in all the tombs
-yet opened are, so far as we at present know, constructed of small
-stones, and show no reminiscence of a rude-stone stage of art.[519]
-
-When we cross the Black Sea to Kertch, we find a state of affairs
-very similar to that in Lydia--great numbers of chambered tumuli,
-but all of microlithic or masonic forms. The tombs seem to be the
-lineal descendants of those at Mycenæ, and to belong to a totally
-different class from those we are treating of, and, notwithstanding
-their similarity of purpose, have apparently sprung from a different
-source. Yet it is curious to observe that even here the inevitable
-flints reappear. In one tomb, known as Kouloba, or Hill of Cinders,
-were found the remains of a chief, with his wife, their servants, and a
-horse. He wore a cap ornamented with gold, a gold enamelled necklace,
-and gold bracelets, and his sword was of iron. An electrum plate, which
-had formed part of a quiver, was ornamented with figures of animals
-and inscribed with the Greek word Πὁναχο. The queen's ornaments were
-richer in metal and more elaborate in workmanship than her husband's,
-yet among all this magnificence were found a quantity of flakes and
-other implements of flint:[520] a tolerably convincing proof that flint
-implements were not buried in this tomb, any more than in Joshua's,
-because men did not know the use of metals, but for some symbolical
-reason we do not now understand. There is little doubt that other
-examples as striking as these will be found when looked for, and, at
-all events, these do away with all _à priori_ arguments based on the
-probability or otherwise of their being modern.
-
-[Illustration: 192. Holed Dolmen. From Dubois de Montpereux.]
-
-[Illustration: 193. Holed Dolmen, Circassia. From a drawing by Simpson.]
-
-Combined with these are found, very sparsely on the shore of the
-Crimea, but frequently on the eastern shore of the Baltic and in
-Circassia, the forms of dolmens we are familiar with in other parts
-of the world. Nothing like a regular survey of them has yet been
-attempted, nor have we any detailed accounts of them; but from such
-information as is published,[521] the general type seems to be that of
-the holed dolmen, such as those represented in the annexed woodcuts.
-
-As far as can be judged from such illustrations as have been published,
-all the Caucasian or Circassian dolmens are composed of stones more
-or less hewn and shaped and carefully fitted together, giving them a
-more modern appearance than their Western congeners. That, however,
-may be owing to other circumstances than age, and cannot be used as
-an argument either way till we know more about them. It would be
-extremely interesting if some one would make a special study of this
-group, as Circassia lies exactly halfway between India and Scandinavia,
-and if we adopt a migration theory, this is exactly the central
-resting-place where we would expect to find traces of the passage of
-the dolmen-builders. Their route probably would be through Bactria,
-down the Oxus to the Caspian, across Circassia, and round the head of
-the Sea of Azof to the Dnieper, and up that river and down the banks of
-the Niemen or Vistula to the Baltic.
-
-If, on the other hand, we adopt a missionary theory, and are content
-to believe in an Eastern influence only, without insisting on a great
-displacement of peoples, this would equally be the trade route along
-which such influence might be supposed to extend, and so connect
-the north with the east, just as we may suppose a southern route to
-have extended through Arabia and Syria to the southern shores of the
-Mediterranean.
-
-[Illustration: 194. Baba. From Dubois de Montpereux.]
-
-[Illustration: 195. Four-cornered Grave. From Sjöborg.]
-
-Even more important for our present purpose, however, than an
-examination of these Caucasian regions would be an exploration of the
-Steppes to the northward of the route just indicated. If there is any
-foundation for the theory that the dolmens are of Turanian origin, it
-is here that we should expect to find the germs of the system. It is
-one of the best-established facts of ethnology that the original seat
-of the Aryans was somewhere in Upper and Central Asia, whence they
-migrated eastward into India, southward into Persia, and westward into
-Europe. In like manner, the original seat of the Turanians is assumed
-to be somewhat farther north, and thence at an earlier period it is
-believed that they spread themselves at some very early prehistoric
-time over the whole face of the Old World. When we turn to the Steppes,
-whence this great family of mankind are supposed to have migrated,
-we find it covered with tumuli. As Haxthausen[522] expresses it, the
-Kurgans, as they are there called, are counted "non par des milliers,
-c'est centaines de milliers qu'il faudrait dire;" and Pallas equally
-gives an account of their astonishing numbers.[523] These tumuli
-resemble exactly our barrows, such as are seen on Salisbury plain,
-except that they are generally of very much larger dimensions, and
-they have one peculiarity not known elsewhere. On the top of each is
-an upright stone, rudely carved, but always unmistakably representing
-a human figure, and understood to be intended for a representation of
-the person buried beneath. Pallas, Haxthausen, and Dubois, all give
-representations of these figures, but in some instances at least they
-are repetitions of the same original. They are perfectly described
-by the monk Ruberquis, who visited these countries in 1253. "The
-Comanians," he says, "build a great tomb over their dead, and erect
-an image of the dead party thereon, with his face towards the east,
-holding a drinking-cup in his hand before his navel. They also erect
-on the monuments of rich men pyramids, that is to say, little pointed
-houses or pinnacles. In some places I saw mighty towers, made of brick,
-and in other places pyramids made of stones, though no stones are found
-thereabouts. I saw one newly buried in whose behalf they hanged up
-sixteen horse-hides, and they set beside his grave Cosmos (Kumiss) to
-drink and flesh to eat, and yet they say he was baptized. And I beheld
-other kinds of sepulchres, also towards the east, namely, large floors
-or pavements made of stone, some round and some square; and then four
-long stones, pitched upright above the said pavement, towards the four
-regions of the world."[524] The general correctness of this account is
-so fully confirmed by more modern travellers that there seems no reason
-for doubting it; but, as no one has described these "pavements," we
-dare not rely too much on their manifest similarity to the Scandinavian
-square and round graves, with four angle-stones, like the preceding
-one (woodcut No. 195).
-
-It may not be satisfactory to be obliged to go back to a traveller of
-the thirteenth century, however much he may be confirmed by subsequent
-writers, for an account of monuments which we would like to see
-measured and drawn with modern accuracy. It is, on the other hand,
-however, a gain to find a trustworthy witness who lived among a people
-who buried their dead in tumuli and sacrificed horses in their honour,
-and provided them with meat and drink for their journey to the Shades;
-who, in fact, in the thirteenth century were enacting those things as
-living men which we find only in a fossil state in more Western lands.
-
-[Illustration: 196. Tumulus at Alexandropol.]
-
-The general appearance of these tumuli may be judged of by one of the
-most magnificent recently excavated by the Russians near Alexandropol,
-between the Dnieper and the Bazaolouk. It is about 1000 feet in
-circumference and 70 feet high, and was originally surmounted by a
-"Baba," which, however, is not there now. Around its base was a sort
-of retaining wall of small stones, and outside these a ditch and low
-mound, but no attempt whatever at lithic magnificence. Within it were
-several sepulchres. The principal one in the centre had apparently
-been already rifled, but in the subsidiary ones great quantities of
-gold ornaments were found, especially on the trappings of the horses
-which seem to have been buried here almost with more honour than
-their masters. Judging from the form of the ornaments and the style
-of the workmanship, the tomb belonged to the third or fourth century
-B.C.[525]
-
-[Illustration: 197. Uncovered Base of a Tumulus at Nikolajew.]
-
-In Haxthausen's work[526] there is a woodcut which may give us a hint
-as to the genesis of circles. A kurgan, or tumulus, at Nikolajew, in
-the government of Cherson, was cleared away, and though nothing was
-found in it to indicate its age and purpose, its base was composed of
-three or four concentric circles of upright stones, surrounding what
-appears to be a tomb composed of five stones in the centre. Similar
-arrangements have been found in Algerian tumuli, and it looks as if
-the first hint of a sepulchral circle may have arisen from such an
-arrangement having become familiar before being covered up, just as I
-believe the free-standing dolmen arose from the uncovered cist having
-excited such admiration as to make its framers unwilling to hide it.
-
-It does not appear to me to admit of doubt that there is a connexion,
-and an intimate one, between these Scythian or Tartar tombs and those
-of Europe; but the steps by which the one grew out of the other, and
-the time when it took place, can only be determined when we have
-more certain information regarding them than we now possess. It is
-important, however, to observe that, if they are the original models
-or congeners of the tumuli of the Western world, they are not of the
-dolmens or circles, except in such an indirect way as in the last
-example quoted from Haxthausen; nor are they of our menhirs, for all
-the stones we know of are carved as completely as the babas (woodcut
-No. 194); and we know literally of no rude stones connected with them,
-nor do we find any attempt in Scythia to produce effect by masses in
-unhewn stone, which is the fundamental idea that governed their use in
-Europe.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-[Illustration: 198. Circle near Peshawur. From a photograph.]
-
-We tread on surer ground when we reach the Caubul valley, not that
-many proofs of it have yet been published, but the quantity of tumuli,
-topes, and similar monuments,[527] render it certain that circles and
-dolmens will be found there when looked for. Only one typical example
-has been published, but Sir Arthur Phayre, to whom we owe it, heard
-of other similar monuments existing in the neighbourhood. Fourteen of
-the stones composing this circle are still standing, and the tallest
-are about 11 feet in height, but others are lying on the ground more
-or less broken. The circle is about 50 feet in diameter, and there are
-appearances of an outer circle of smaller stones at a distance of about
-50 to 60 feet from the inner one. The natives have no tradition about
-its erection, except the same myth which we find in Somersetshire, that
-a wedding party, passing over the plain, were turned into stone by some
-powerful magician.[528]
-
-[Illustration: 199. Circle at Deb Ayeh, near Darabgerd.]
-
-At present, these Eusufzaie circles, and those described by Sir
-William Ouseley at Deli Ayeh,[529] are almost the only examples we
-have to bridge over the immense gulf that exists between the Eastern
-and Western dolmen regions. Even the last, however, is only a frail
-prop for a theory, inasmuch as we have only a drawing of it by Sir
-W. Ouseley, who, in his description, says: "I can scarcely think the
-arrangement of these stones wholly, though it may be partly, natural
-or accidental." Coupled with the stone represented as figure 13 on
-the same plate, in Sir William Ouseley's work, I feel no doubt about
-these belonging to the class of rude-stone monuments, but we must
-know of more examples and more about them before we can reason with
-confidence regarding them. Another example, which certainly appears to
-be artificial, is recorded by Chardin. In travelling between Tabriz
-and Miana, he observed on his left hand several circles of hewn
-stones, which his companions informed him had been placed there by the
-Caous--the giants of the Kaianian dynasty. "The stones," he remarks,
-"are so large, that eight men could hardly move one of them, yet they
-must have been brought from quarries in the hills, the nearest of which
-is twenty miles distant."[530] Numerous travellers must have passed
-that way since, but no one has observed these stones. It does not,
-however, follow that they are not still there, and hundreds of others
-besides; but while all this uncertainty prevails, it is obviously most
-unsafe to speculate on the manner in which any connexion may have taken
-place. It may turn out that the intervening country is full of dolmens,
-or it may be that practically we know all that is to be learned on
-the subject, but till this is ascertained, any theory that may be
-broached must be open to correction, perhaps even to refutation. It is
-not, however, either useless or out of place to make such suggestions
-as those contained in the last few pages. They turn attention to
-subjects too liable to be overlooked, but which are capable of easy
-solution when fairly examined, while their truth or falsehood does not
-practically in any essential degree affect the main argument. The age
-and uses of the Indian dolmens, as of the European examples, must be
-determined from the internal evidence they themselves afford. Each must
-stand or fall from its own strength or weakness. It would of course
-be interesting if a connexion between the two can be established, and
-we could trace the mode and time when it took place, but it is not
-necessarily important. If anyone cares to insist that there was no
-connexion between the two, he deprives himself of one of the principal
-points of interest in the whole enquiry, but does not otherwise affect
-the argument either as to their age or use. But of all this we shall be
-in a better position to judge when we have gone through the evidence
-detailed in the next chapter.
-
-
-    [Footnote 507: Genesis xxviii. 18; xxxv. 14.]
-
-    [Footnote 508: Josephus, 'Bell. Jud.' v. 6.]
-
-    [Footnote 509: Joshua iv. 2 to 8. There is some mistake in the
-    9th verse; either it is a mistranslation or the verse is an
-    interpolation. It is to be hoped that the Revisers will look to it.]
-
-    [Footnote 510: Exodus iv. 25; Joshua v. 3.]
-
-    [Footnote 511: Herodotus (ii. 86) mentions that, in his day, the
-    Egyptians, after extracting the brain with an iron instrument,
-    cut open the body they intended to embalm with an Ethiopic stone,
-    and Sir Gardner Wilkinson ('Ancient Egyptians,' iii. 262) found
-    two flint knives in a tomb which might have been used for such a
-    purpose.]
-
-    [Footnote 512: Irby and Mangles, 'Travels in Egypt, Nubia, &c.'
-    1823, p. 325.]
-
-    [Footnote 513: Colonel Meadows Taylor, in 'Trans. Royal Irish
-    Academy,' 1865.]
-
-    [Footnote 514: Genesis, xiii. 18; xiv. 13.]
-
-    [Footnote 515: Gen. xiii. 5.]
-
-    [Footnote 516: 'Journal Royal Geographical Society,' 1868, pp. 243
-    _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 517: S. Palgrave, 'Central and Eastern Arabia,' i.
-    p. 251. These appear to be the same as those mentioned by
-    Bonstetten. "Dernièrement encore un missionaire jésuite, le Père
-    Kohen, a découvert en Arabie dans le district de Kasim, près
-    de Khabb, trois vastes cercles de pierres pareils à celui de
-    Stonehenge, et composés chacun de groupes de trilithes d'une grande
-    élevation."--_Essai sur les Dolmens_, p. 27.]
-
-    [Footnote 518: One of them has already been given, woodcut No. 25,
-    p. 100.]
-
-    [Footnote 519: _Ante_, p. 32.]
-
-    [Footnote 520: Dubois de Montpereux, v. pp. 194 _et seq._ pls. xx.
-    to xxv. See also 'Journal Arch. Ass.' xiii. pp. 303 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 521: Dubois de Montpereux, 'Voyage autour du Caucase,'
-    i. p. 43. See also two dolmens from drawings by W. Simpson, in
-    Waring's 'Stone Monuments,' pl. lx.]
-
-    [Footnote 522: Haxthausen, 'Mémoires sur la Russie,' ii. p. 291.]
-
-    [Footnote 523: 'Voyage,' i. p. 495.]
-
-    [Footnote 524: 'Purchas his Pilgrims,' iii. p. 8.]
-
-    [Footnote 525: These particulars are taken from a Russian work,
-    'Recueil d'Antiquités de la Scythie,' 1866. Only one number,
-    apparently, was ever published.]
-
-    [Footnote 526: 'Mémoires sur la Russie,' ii. p. 308.]
-
-    [Footnote 527: Introduction to Wilson's 'Ariana Antiqua,' _passim_.]
-
-    [Footnote 528: 'Journal Asiatic Soc. Bengal,' p. i. No. 1, 1870.]
-
-    [Footnote 529: 'Travels in Persia,' ii. p. 124, pl. lv. fig. 14.]
-
-    [Footnote 530: 'Voyages en Perse, &c.,' i. p. 267.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER XIII.
-
-INDIA.
-
-
-The number of rude-stone monuments in India is probably as great or
-even greater than that of those to be found in Europe, and they are
-so similar that, even if they should not turn out to be identical,
-they form a most important branch of this enquiry. Even irrespective,
-however, of these, the study of the history of architecture in India is
-calculated to throw so much light on the problems connected with the
-study of megalithic monuments in the West that, for that cause alone it
-deserves much more attention than it has hitherto received.
-
-No one, it is presumed, will now be prepared to dispute the early
-civilization at least of the northern parts of India. Whether the
-Aryans crossed the Indus three thousand years B.C., as I
-believe, or two thousand B.C., as others contend, is of little
-consequence to our present purposes. It is generally understood that
-the Vedas were compiled or reduced to writing thirteen centuries before
-Christ, and the Laws of Menu seven or eight hundred years before our
-era, and these works betoken a civilization of some standing. Ayodia
-was a great prosperous city at the time of the incidents described in
-the Ramayana, and Hastinapura when the tragedy of the Mahabharata was
-being enacted; and these great events took place probably one or two
-thousand years before Christ, or between these two dates. Or to come a
-little nearer to our time, all the circumstances depicted in all the
-thousand and one legends connected with the life and teaching of Sakya
-Muni (623 to 543 B.C.), describe a country with cities and
-palaces, and possessing a very high state of civilization; and these
-legends are so numerous and so consentaneous that they may fairly be
-considered, for this purpose at least, as rising to the dignity of
-history. Yet with all this we now know it for a fact that no stone
-building or monument of stone now exists in India that was erected
-before the time of Asoka, B.C. 250. But, besides negative
-proof, we have in the early caves, 150 to 200 B.C., such
-manifest proofs of the stone architecture being then a mere transcript
-of wooden forms that we know certainly that we have here reached the
-very _incunabula_ of a style. Of course it does not follow from this
-that the cities before this time may not have been splendid or the
-palaces magnificent. In Burmah and Siam the palaces and monasteries
-are either wholly or mostly in wood, and these timber erections are
-certainly more gorgeous and quite as expensive as the stone buildings
-of the West, and the Indians seem to have been content with this less
-durable style of architecture till the influence of the Bactrian Greeks
-induced them to adopt the clumsier but more durable material of stone
-for their buildings.
-
-With such an example before us, ought we to be surprised if the rude
-inhabitants of Europe were content with earth and the forms into which
-it could be shaped, till the example of the Romans taught them the
-use of the more durable and more strongly accentuated material? Nor
-will it do to contend that, if our forefathers got this hint from the
-Romans, they would have adopted the Roman style of architecture with
-it. The Indians certainly did not do so. Their early attempts at stone
-architecture are wooden, in the strictest sense, and retained their
-wooden forms for two or three centuries almost unchanged, and when
-gradually they became more and more appropriate to the newly adopted
-material, it was not Greek or foreign forms that they adopted, but
-forms of their own native invention. In Asoka's reign we have Greek or
-rather Assyrian ornaments in one of his lâts,[531] and something like
-a Persepolitan capital in some of the earlier caves,[532] but these
-died out, and it is not till after five centuries that we really find
-anything like the arts of Bactria at Amravati.[533] As the civilized
-race copied their own wooden forms with all the elaborateness of which
-wood carving is capable, so the rude race seems to have used the forms
-which were appropriate to their status, and which were the only forms
-they could appreciate.
-
-Another peculiarity of Indian architecture is worth pointing out here
-as tending to modify one of the most generally received dogmas of
-Western criticism. In speaking of such monuments as New Grange or the
-tombs at Locmariaker, which are roofed by overlapping stones forming
-what is technically called a horizontal arch, it is usual to assume
-that this must have been done before the invention of the Roman or
-radiating arch form. So far as Indian experience goes, this assumption
-is by no means borne out. When Kutb u deen wished to signalise his
-triumph over the idolaters, he, in 1206 A.D., employed the
-Hindus to erect a mosque for him in his recently acquired capital of
-Delhi. In the centre of the screen forming the mosque, he designed a
-great archway 22 feet span, 53 feet in height, and formed as a pointed
-arch of two sides of an equilateral spherical triangle. This was the
-usual form of Saracenic openings at Ghazni or Balkh in the beginning
-of the thirteenth century, but it was almost beyond the power of the
-Hindus to construct it. They did so, however, and it still stands,
-though crippled; but all the courses are horizontal, like their own
-domes, except two long stones which form the apex of the arch.[534] In
-a very few years after this time the Mahommedan conquerors had taught
-the subject Hindus to build radiating arches, and every mosque or
-Mahommedan building from that time forward is built with arches formed
-as we form them; but, except a very few in the reign of the cosmopolite
-Akbar, no single Hindu building or temple, even down to the present
-time, has an arch in the sense in which we understand the word.
-
-One of the most striking instances of this peculiarity is found in the
-province of Guzerat. There are still to be seen the splendid ruins of
-the city of Ahmedabad built by the Mahommedan kings of the province
-between the years 1411 and 1583.[535] There every mosque and every
-building is arched or vaulted according to one system. In the same
-province stands the sacred city of Palitana, with its hundreds of
-temples, some of a date as early as the eleventh, many built within
-the limits of the present century, and some now in the course of
-construction; yet, so far as is known, there is not a single arch
-within the walls of the city. So it is throughout India: side by
-side stand the buildings of the two great sects--those belonging to
-the Mahommedans universally arched, those belonging to the Hindus
-as certainly avoiding this form of construction. This is the more
-remarkable as the moment we cross the frontier of India we find the
-arch universally prevalent in Burmah, as early certainly as the tenth
-or eleventh century, and in all the forms, round, pointed, and flat,
-which we use in the present day.[536] But if we extend our researches
-a little farther east, we again come to a country full of the most
-wonderful buildings known to exist anywhere, with bridges and viaducts
-and vaults; but not one single arch has yet been discovered in the
-length and breadth of the kingdom of Cambodia.
-
-All this is no doubt very anomalous and strange, though, if it were
-worth while, some of it might be accounted for and explained. This,
-however, is not the place for doing so: all that is here required is to
-point out the existence of the apparent anomaly, in order that we may
-not too hurriedly jump to chronological conclusions from the existence
-or absence of arches in any given building.
-
-Another most instructive lesson bearing on our present subject that is
-to be derived from the study of Indian antiquities will be found in
-that curious but persistent juxtaposition that everywhere prevails of
-the highest form of progressive civilization beside the lowest types of
-changeless barbarism. Everywhere in India the past is the present, and
-the present is the past; not, as is usually assumed, that the Hindu is
-immutable--quite the contrary. When contemporary history first dawned
-on us, India was Buddhist, and for eight or nine centuries that was the
-prevalent religion of the state. There is not now a single Buddhist
-establishment in the length and breadth of the land. The religions
-which superseded Buddhism were then new, and have ever since been
-changing, so that India now contains more religions and more numerous
-sects than any portion of the world of the same extent. Even within
-the last six centuries one-fifth of the population have adopted the
-Mahommedan religion, and are quite prepared to follow any new form of
-faith that may be the fashion of the day. But beside all this never
-ceasing change, there are tribes and races which remain immutable.
-
-To take one instance among a hundred that might be adduced. Ougein
-was a great commercial capital in the days of the Greek. It was the
-residence of Asoka, 260 B.C.[537] It was the Ozene of the
-Periplus, the capital of the great Vicramaditya in the middle of the
-fifth century,[538] and it was the city chosen by Jey Sing for the
-erection of one of his great observatories in the reign of Akbar. Yet
-almost within sight of this city are to be found tribes of Bhils,
-living now as they lived long before the Christian era. They are not
-agricultural, hardly pastoral, but live chiefly by the chase. With
-their bows and arrows they hunt the wild game as their forefathers did
-from time immemorial. They never cared to learn to read or write, and
-have no literature of any sort, hardly any tradition. Yet the Bhil was
-there before the Brahmin; and the proudest sovereign of Rajpootana
-acknowledges the Bhil as lord of the soil, and no new successor to
-the throne considers his title as complete till he has received the
-tika at the hands of the nomad.[539] If India were a country divided
-by high mountain-ranges, or impenetrable forests, or did impassable
-deserts anywhere exist, this co-existence of two forms of society might
-be accounted for. But the contrary is the case. From the Himalayas to
-Cape Comorin, no obstacle exists, nor, so far as we know, ever did
-exist, to the freest intercourse between the various races inhabiting
-the country. If we may believe the traditions on which the epic of the
-Ramayana was founded, armies traversed the length and the breadth of
-the land one thousand, it may be two thousand, years before Christ.
-The Brahmins carried their arms and their literature to the south at a
-very early age. The Buddhists spread everywhere. The Jains succeeded
-them. The Mahommedans conquered and settled in Mysore and the Carnatic,
-but in vain. The Bhil, the Cole, the Gond, the Toda, and other tribes,
-remain as they were, and practise their own rites and follow the
-customs of their forefathers as if the stranger had never come among
-them.
-
-
-EASTERN INDIA.
-
-To turn from these generalities to two instances more directly
-illustrative of our European experience. The first is that of the
-Khonds, the Druids of the East, worshipping in groves, _priscâ
-formidine sacris_, and indulging in human sacrifices and other
-unamiable practices of our forefathers.[540] These tribes exist partly
-on a range of hills bounding the province of Cuttack on the western
-side and partly extend into the plains themselves. Almost within
-their boundaries there exists a low range of rocky hills known as
-the Udyagiri, in which are found a series of Buddhist caves, many
-of them excavated before the Christian era, and as beautiful and as
-interesting as any caves in India.[541] A little beyond this are seen
-the great tower of the Bobaneswar temple and of the hundred and one
-smaller fanes dedicated to the worship of Siva, which was established
-here in all its splendour in the seventh century;[542] and a little
-farther on, rises on the verge of the ocean the great tower of the
-temple of Juggernaut, at Puri, established in the twelfth century for
-the worship of that form of Vishnu.[543] Yet in defiance of all this,
-in close proximity to the shrines of the gentle ascetic who devoted
-his life to the prevention of the shedding of the blood of the meanest
-of created beings, in sight of Bobaneswar and Puri, Macpherson tells
-us, unconsciously almost repeating the words of Tacitus[544]: "The
-Khonds use neither temples nor images in their worship. They cannot
-comprehend and regard as absurd the idea of building a house in honour
-of a deity, or in the expectation that he will be peculiarly present
-in any place resembling a human habitation. Groves kept sacred from
-the axe, hoar rocks, the tops of hills, fountains, and the banks of
-streams, are in their eyes the fittest places for worship." It was in
-these sacred and venerable groves, that annually human victims were
-offered up to appease the wrath of the dreaded Tari, and to procure
-fertility for the fields. In 1836 we first interfered to put a stop to
-this, and before the Mutiny believed we had been successful. Perhaps
-we may have been so, but if our strong repressive hand were once
-removed, it cannot be doubted but the sacrifices would be instantly
-resumed. What the Buddhists and the Brahmins, working during at least
-two thousand years, have failed to accomplish, we strangers cannot
-expect to succeed in, in a few years, unless indeed we adopt the system
-followed by our forefathers, and are determined on extirpating those
-who obstinately adhere to such practices. Had it not been that first
-the Roman, and then the Celt, by sword and cord set vigorously to
-improve the older race, we might now have human sacrifices celebrated
-on the plains of Bauce in the neighbourhood of Chartres, and find
-people quietly erecting dolmens in the valley of the Dordogne.
-
-The practices, however, of a Claudius or a Simon de Montfort
-are repugnant to the feelings of the Indians, and so long as no
-political issue is at stake, they rarely interfere with the religious
-proclivities of their neighbours.
-
-When from the hills inhabited by the Khonds we cross the delta of the
-Ganges in a northerly direction, and come to the Khassia hills, we
-find a very different state of things, but equally interesting as an
-illustration of our present studies. These hills are situated between
-the valley of Assam and the plains of Sylhet, and, rising to a height
-of some 5000 to 6000 feet, catch the rains during the south-west
-monsoon, and but for this would be one of the most delightful sanitaria
-of the Bengal province. A country, however, where 300 inches of rain
-fall in three months is, for at least a quarter of the year, an
-undesirable abode, and it is difficult also to keep any soil on the
-rocks. Throughout the whole of the western portion of the hilly region,
-inhabited by tribes bearing the generic name of Khassias, rude-stone
-monuments exist in greater numbers than perhaps in any other portion
-of the globe of the same extent (woodcut No. 200). All travellers who
-have visited the country have been struck with the fact and with the
-curious similarity of their forms to those existing in Europe.[545]
-So like, indeed, are they that it has long been the fashion to assume
-their identity, and it has consequently been often hoped that, if we
-could only find out why the Indian examples were erected, we might
-discover the motive which guided those in Europe who constructed
-similar monuments, while at the same time there seemed every reason for
-believing that it would not be difficult to discover the motives which
-led to the erection of the Indian examples. The natives make no mystery
-about them, and many were erected within the last few years, or are
-being erected now, and they are identical in form with those which are
-grey with years, and must have been set up in the long forgotten past.
-Here, therefore, there seemed a chance of at last solving the mystery
-of the great stones. Greater familiarity with them has, however,
-rather tended to dispel these illusions.
-
-[Illustration: 200. View in Khassia Hills. By H. Walters.]
-
-The Khassias burn their dead, which is a practice that hardly could
-have had its origin in their present abodes, inasmuch as, during three
-months in the year, it is impossible, from the rain, to light a fire
-out of doors, and consequently, if any one dies during that period, the
-body is placed in a coffin, formed from the hollowed trunk of a tree,
-and pickled in honey, till a fair day admits of his obsequies being
-properly performed.[546] According to Mr. Walters, the urns containing
-the ashes are placed in little circular cells, with flat tops like
-stools, which exist in the immediate proximity of all the villages, and
-are used as seats by the villagers on all state occasions of assembly;
-but whether one stool is used for a whole family, or till it is filled
-with urns, or whether a new stool is prepared when a great man dies,
-has not yet been ascertained.[547]
-
-[Illustration: 201. Khassia Funeral Seats. From Yule.]
-
-The origin of the menhirs is somewhat different. If any of the Khassia
-tribe falls ill or gets into difficulties, he prays to some one of
-his deceased ancestors, whose spirit he fancies may be able and
-willing to assist him. Father or mother, uncle or aunt, or some more
-distant relative, may do equally well, and to enforce his prayer, he
-vows that, if it is granted, he will erect a stone in honour of the
-deceased.[548] This he never fails to perform, and if the cure has been
-rapid, or the change in the luck so sudden as to be striking, others
-address their prayers to the same person, and more stones are vowed.
-It thus sometimes happens that a person, man or woman, who was by no
-means remarkable in life, may have five, or seven, or ten--two fives,
-for the number must always be unequal--in their honour. The centre
-stone generally is crowned by a capital, or turban-like ornament, and
-sometimes two are joined together, forming a trilithon, but then they
-apparently count as one. Major Austen mentions a set of five being
-erected in 1869 on the opposite side of the road to an original set of
-the same number with which an old lady had previously been honoured, in
-consequence of the services which after her death she had rendered to
-her tribe.[549]
-
-[Illustration: 202. Menhirs and Tables. From Schlagintweit.]
-
-[Illustration: 203. Turban Stone, with Stone Table.]
-
-[Illustration: 204. Trilithon.]
-
-The origin of the stone tables or dolmens is not so clearly made out.
-Like the tomb stools, they frequently at least seem to be places of
-assembly. One, described by Major Austen, measured 30 feet 4 inches by
-10 feet in breadth, and had an average thickness of 1 foot; it had
-steps to ascend to it; and certainly it looks like a place from which
-it would be convenient to address an audience. The great stone of this
-monument weighed 23 tons 18 cwt., and another is described as measuring
-30 feet by 13 feet, and 1 foot 4 inches in thickness, and others seem
-nearly of the same dimensions; and they are frequently raised some
-height from the ground, and supported on massive monoliths or pillars.
-
-While this is so, we need not wonder at the masses employed in the
-erection of Stonehenge or Avebury, or any of our European monuments.
-Physically the Khassias are a very inferior race to what we can
-conceive our forefathers ever to have been. Their stage of civilization
-is barely removed from that of mere savages, and their knowledge of the
-mechanical arts is of the most primitive description. Add to all this
-that their country is mountainous and rugged in the highest degree. Yet
-with all these disadvantages they move these great stones and erect
-them with perfect facility, while we are lost in wonder because our
-forefathers did something nearly equal to it some fourteen centuries
-ago.
-
-There are apparently no circles and no alignments on the hills, nor
-any of the forms which in the previous pages we have ascribed to
-battle-fields, and no tumuli nor any of their derivatives, and no
-sculptured stones of any sort. The real likeness, therefore, between
-the two forms of art is not so striking as it appears at first sight,
-but still presents coincidences that it is impossible to overlook.
-
-One of the most curious points which an examination of these two Indian
-tribes brings to light with reference to the European congeners is that
-in Cuttack we have sacred groves, human sacrifices, an all-powerful
-priesthood indulging in divination, and various other peculiarities,
-all savouring of Druidism, but not one upright stone or stone monument
-of any sort. In the Khassia hills, on the other hand, we have dolmens,
-menhirs, trilithons, and most of the forms of rude-stone architecture,
-but no dominant priesthood, no human sacrifices, no groves, nor
-anything savouring of the Druidical religion.
-
-To the European student the most interesting fact connected with the
-monuments on the Khassia hills is probably their date. We do not know
-how far back they extend, but we do know that many were erected within
-the limits of the present century, and some within the last few years.
-Yet this has taken place in presence of, and in immediate contact with,
-two far higher forms of civilization.
-
-At the foot of the Khassia hills, to the north, lies the famous Hindu
-kingdom of Kamarupa. How far it extends back to, we do not know,
-but its foundation was certainly anterior to the Christian era;
-and when Hiouen Thsang visited it in the beginning of the seventh
-century, he found it rich and prosperous, and containing "temples by
-hundreds."[550] And now, in the jungles, ruins are continually being
-discovered of temples not so old perhaps as this date, but showing
-continued prosperity down to a far later period. All these temples are
-richly and elaborately carved and ornamented with that exuberance of
-detail characteristic of Hindu architecture.
-
-At the foot of the southern slope of the hills lies Sylhet. When it
-became great, we do not know, but it certainly was occupied by the
-Mahommedans some centuries ago, and adorned with mosques and palaces
-and all that magnificence in which the Moslems indulged in the East.
-Yet the Khassia looks down on these new forms of civilization unmoved.
-As a servant or a trader he must have been for centuries familiar
-with both: but he clings to his old faith, and erects his rude-stone
-monuments, as his forefathers had done from time immemorial, and it is
-doubtful whether either our soldiers or our missionaries will soon wean
-him from this strange form of adoration.
-
-Surely all this is sufficient to make us pause before arguing from our
-own European experiences, or deciding questions when so few facts have
-hitherto been available on which to base any sound conclusions.
-
-
-WESTERN INDIA.
-
-On the other side of India there are some groups of rude-stone
-monuments similar to those found in the Khassia hills, and apparently
-erected for similar purposes. They are, however, much less perfectly
-known, and are described or at least drawn by only one traveller.[551]
-The most conspicuous of these is one near Belgaum. It consists of
-two rows of thirteen stones each, and one in front of them of three
-stones--the numbers being always uneven, as in Bengal--and on the
-opposite side four of those small altars, or tables, which always
-accompany these groups of stones on the Khassia hills. These, however,
-are very much smaller, the central stone being only about 4 feet high,
-and falling off to about a foot in height at the end of each row.[552]
-Whether they were or were not dedicated to the same purpose, Colonel
-Leslie does not inform us; but their resemblance is so marked that
-there seems very little doubt that they were dedicated or vowed to the
-spirits of deceased ancestors.
-
-Another class of circular fanes looks at first sight more promising as
-a means of comparison with ours. Generally they seem to consist of one
-or three stones, in front of which a circular space--in the largest
-instance 40 feet in diameter, but more generally 20 to 30 feet only--is
-marked out by a number of small stones, from 8 to 20 inches in height,
-while the great central stones are only 3 feet high. To compare these,
-therefore, with our great megalithic monuments seems rather absurd.
-So far as can be made out, the central stone seems to represent a
-local village deity, called Vetal or Betal, who, like Nadzu Pennu, the
-village god, one of the inferior deities of the Khonds, is familiarly
-represented merely by a rude-stone, placed under a tree.[553] In the
-instance of Vetal, it seems when a sacrifice--generally of a cock--is
-to be made, all those who are interested bring their own stones, and
-arrange them, in a circular fashion, round the place where the ceremony
-is to be performed; hence the superficial likeness. None, so far as is
-known, are ancient, nor indeed has it at all been made out when and how
-the worship of this deity arose. It is evidently a local superstition
-of some of the indigenous tribes, which latterly under our tolerant
-rule has become more prominent, for the sect is hated and despised by
-the Brahmins; and so far as facts are concerned, it would be difficult
-to carry back the history of this form of architecture for a hundred
-years from this time. It may be older, but there is nothing to show
-that it is so.
-
-So far as the monuments above mentioned are concerned, there seems
-nothing in them that affords a real analogy or establishes any direct
-connexion between the European and Indian examples. The sacrifice of
-a cock to Vetal, when in sickness, looks like a similar sacrifice to
-Esculapius, and the human sacrifices and sacred groves of the Khonds
-are very Druidical in appearance; but no one probably will be found to
-contend that Vetal and Esculapius are the same god, or that the Khonds
-are Celts; and without this being established, the argument halts.
-The case, however, seems different when we turn to the sepulchral
-arrangements of the aboriginal tribes of India. Here the analogies are
-so striking that it is hard to believe that they are accidental, though
-equally hard to understand how and when the intercourse could have
-taken place which led to their similarity.
-
-[Illustration: 205. Dolmen at Rajunkoloor. From a drawing by Colonel
-Meadows Taylor.]
-
-[Illustration: 206. Plan of Open Dolmen at Rajunkoloor.]
-
-[Illustration: 207. Closed Dolmen at Rajunkoloor.]
-
-[Illustration: 208. View of Closed Dolmen at Rajunkoloor.]
-
-As in Europe, the sepulchral monuments of India may be divided into
-two great classes--the dolmens and the tumuli. In the present state
-of our knowledge it is difficult to say which are the more numerous.
-According to Colonel Meadows Taylor,[554] who is our best authority
-on the subject, the dolmens are of two kinds--those consisting of four
-stones, that is to say, three supporting stones and one cap-stone--thus
-leaving one side open--and those in which the chamber is closed by a
-fourth stone; in the latter case this fourth stone has invariably a
-circular opening in it, like the Circassian examples (woodcuts Nos.
-192, 193), and the dolmen at Trie (No. 127). These forms are both shown
-in woodcut No. 205, representing two at Rajunkoloor, in the province
-of Sholapore, between the Bheema and Kistnah, near their junction. The
-side-stones of the larger monument measure 15 feet 3 inches by 9 feet
-in height, and more than 1 foot in thickness. The cap-stone is 15 feet
-9 inches by 10 feet 9 inches, and the internal space 8 feet by 6 feet,
-the third slab being placed at some distance from the rear, and between
-the two side-stones. The same arrangement is followed in the closed
-dolmen, the cross slabs being inside, as shown in the view (woodcut No.
-208), and plan (woodcut No. 207). The interior of the closed dolmen
-contained a little black mould on the surface. Below this a greyish
-white earth, brought from a distance, with which were found human ashes
-and portions of bones and charcoal mixed, and pieces of broken pottery,
-red and black. These rested on the solid rock on which the dolmen was
-erected. Nothing whatever was found in any of the open dolmens; but
-whether this arose from their being plundered, or from being exposed,
-is not clear. It could hardly have been that they were not sepulchral.
-They seem at least to be mixed up indiscriminately with the others,
-and except their being open, there is nothing to distinguish them. The
-arrangement of these dolmens in plan is peculiar. As will be seen from
-the next woodcut (No. 209), they are as regular as in our cemeteries,
-and apparently in certain directions would have gone on extending _ad
-infinitum_; but in another direction are cairns irregularly spaced, and
-showing a distinction in the mode of burying which at present it is
-difficult to account for.
-
-At a place in the Raichore Doab, called Yemmee Gooda, four of the
-dolmens of the first class were surrounded by double circles of stones;
-but this does not seem to be a usual arrangement.
-
-[Illustration: 209. Arrangement of Dolmens at Rajunkoloor. By Colonel
-Meadows Taylor.]
-
-Almost more interesting than the dolmens are the cairns. The following
-plan of the group at Jewurgi, a place fifty miles, as the crow flies,
-north-east from Rajunkoloor, will explain their arrangement and
-juxtaposition. They, too, seem to divide themselves into two classes,
-as shown in the two sections--those with a summit-cist, like those in
-Auvergne, and those without; all, however, apparently have single and
-double circles of stones surrounding them. Two stones are generally
-found protruding slightly through the surface of the tumulus, and when
-an excavation is made between them, the cist is found laid in their
-direction at a depth of 9 to 10 feet below the surface. This seems to
-be generally double, and contains skeletons laid on their faces. At
-one end, but outside the cist, are quantities of pottery, and above
-the cist a number of skeletons, thrown in pellmell, and over these a
-thick layer of earth and gravel. Detached heads are found sometimes
-in the cists, sometimes outside among the pottery, which led Colonel
-Taylor to the conclusion that human sacrifices had been practised at
-the time these cairns were raised, and that these are the remains of
-the wives or slaves of the defunct. It may be so, but it may also be
-that, as in Europe, we must make a distinction between battle-fields
-and cemeteries; and I confess the idea that the cairns at Jewurgi mark
-a battle-field, and the dolmens at Rajunkoloor a cemetery, appears to
-account for the phenomena better than the other hypothesis. If this is
-not so, as the distance between Rajunkoloor and Jewurgi is only fifty
-miles, we must assume either that the district was inhabited by two
-different races of men at the same time, practising different modes of
-sepulture, or we must concede that the one is older than the other, and
-that the one race had been dispossessed and was succeeded by the other.
-The difficulties attending either of these suppositions appear to me
-infinitely greater than those involved in assuming that the one is a
-battle-field, the other a cemetery. The only thing that would make me
-hesitate about this is the presence of several cairns at Rajunkoloor.
-These, however, do not appear to have been opened, and we do not
-consequently know whether the same instances of decapitation were to
-be found, or whether the bodies were arranged in the same manner as at
-Jewurgi.
-
-[Illustration: 210. Cairns at Jewurgi. By Colonel Meadows Taylor.]
-
-[Illustration: 211. Section of Cairn at Jewurgi.]
-
-[Illustration: 212. Section of Cairn at Jewurgi.]
-
-Be this as it may, if these sections are to be depended on, it appears
-to be tolerably certain that these tombs cannot be old. It seems
-impossible that human bones could remain so entire and perfect as these
-are represented to be, so near the surface and in a recently disturbed
-soil, where rain and moisture must easily have penetrated at all times.
-A medical man on the spot might determine whether two or three or five
-centuries have elapsed since these bodies were laid where they are
-found; but I should be very much surprised if he raised their date
-beyond the last named figure. It is hazardous, however, to pronounce on
-such questions from the scanty data we have before us.
-
-There is still another class of dolmens, or rather kistvaens, common
-on the Nilgiri hills and throughout the hill region of Malabar. In it
-the chamber is formed like those described above, but always buried
-in the earth, only showing the cap-stone flush with the surface of
-the soil. One of these, in the Coorg country, is worth quoting, from
-its possessing two circular apertures, like those of the Plas Newydd
-tumulus (woodcut No. 48). This one, however, has a diaphragm dividing
-it into two chambers. If the Welsh one was so partitioned, the wall has
-disappeared.
-
-[Illustration: 213. Double Dolmen, Coorg.[555]]
-
-[Illustration: 214. Tomb, Nilgiri Hills. From a drawing by Sir Walter
-Elliot.]
-
-One other class of monument must be quoted, not as illustrating any
-of our examples, but because it is so nearly identical with the
-chouchas[556] of Northern Africa (woodcut No. 165), and when we try to
-find out whether there was any real connexion between the East and the
-West, such examples may afford valuable flints. According to Sir Walter
-Elliot,[557] they are the commonest, or rather, perhaps, the most
-conspicuous, being perched on the tops of hills or ridges. Their form
-is a circular wall of uncemented rough stones, 4 to 5 feet high, 3 feet
-thick, and 6 to 8 feet in diameter.
-
-[Illustration: 215. Sepulchral Circles at Amravati.]
-
-One other variety is interesting, not only from its similarity to
-those in Europe, especially in Scandinavia, but also from its bearing
-on the question of the age of those in India. The sepulchres of this
-class are all very like one another, and consist of small circles
-of rude stones, generally of two dimensions only, 24 and 32 feet in
-diameter, and have something like an opening on one side, and opposite
-this two or three stones within the circle, apparently marking the
-position of the sepulchral deposit.[558] Monuments very similar to
-these exist in the Nilgiri hills, and elsewhere in India,[559] but
-they are principally found at the roots of the hills round Amravati,
-where they exist literally in hundreds. No one, probably, who studies
-Colonel Mackenzie's map of that district[560] will doubt that they form
-the cemetery of the city of Dharani Kotta, to which the Amravati Tope
-is attached. As in China, burying in the fertile land was not allowed,
-and consequently the place selected for the graves of the inhabitants
-was the nearest uncultivated spot, which was the foot of the hills.
-So far as is at present known, these circular graves exist nowhere in
-such numbers as here, and it can hardly be doubted but that they have
-some connexion with the great circular rail of the Amravati Tope. That
-rail is unique in India, whether we consider its extent, the beauty of
-its sculptures, or the elaborateness of its finish. Other rails exist
-elsewhere surrounding dagobas or sacred spots, but none where the
-circle itself is relatively so much greater and more magnificent than
-the surrounding objects. The question thus arises, did the Amravati
-circle grow out of the rude-stone graves that cluster round the hills
-in its neighbourhood, or are the rude circles humble copies of that
-pride of the city? I have myself no doubt that the latter is the true
-explanation of the phenomena; but the grounds for this conclusion
-will be clearer as we proceed. Meanwhile it is hardly worth while
-enumerating all the smaller varieties of form which the rude-stone
-sepulchres of the Indians took in former days. Their numbers in many
-classes are few, and have no direct bearing on the subject of our
-enquiries.
-
-
-GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.
-
-Nothing would tend more to convey clear ideas on the subject of
-Indian dolmens than a map of their distribution, were it possible to
-construct one. As, however, no nation even in Europe, except France,
-is in a position to attempt such a thing, it is in vain to expect
-that sufficient information for the purpose should exist in India,
-where the subject has been taken up only so recently in so sporadic
-a manner.[561] The following sketch, however, is perhaps not very
-far from the truth regarding them. They do not exist in the valley
-of the Ganges, or of any of its tributaries, nor in the valleys of
-the Nerbudda or Taptee; not, in fact, in that part of India which is
-generally described as north of the Vindhya range of hills. They exist,
-though somewhat sparsely, over the whole of the country drained by
-the Godavery and its affluents. They are very common, perhaps more
-frequent than in any other part of India, in the valleys of the Kistnah
-and its tributaries. They are also found on both sides of the Ghâts,
-through Coimbatore, all the way down to Cape Comorin; and they are also
-found in groups all over the Madras presidency, but especially in the
-neighbourhood of Conjeveran.
-
-The first inference one is inclined to draw from this is that they must
-be Dravidian, as contradistinguished from Aryan; and it may be so.
-But against this view we have the fact that all the races at present
-dominant in the south repudiate them: none use similar modes of burial
-now, nor do any object to our digging them up and destroying them.
-
-If we look a little deeper, we come to a race of Karumbers, to whom
-Sir Walter Elliot is inclined to ascribe the bulk of the rude-stone
-monuments.[562] From his own researches, and the various documents
-contained in the Mackenzie MSS.,[563] they seem to have been a powerful
-race in the south of India, from the earliest times to which our
-knowledge extends, and to have continued powerful about Conjeveran
-and Madras till say the tenth or eleventh centuries, when they were
-overpowered by the Cholas, and finally disappear from the political
-horizon before the rising supremacy of that triumvirate of powers, the
-Chola, Chera, Pandya, who governed the south till the balance of power
-was disturbed by the Mahommedan and Maharatta invasions.
-
-A wretched remnant of these Karumbers still exists on the Nilgiri
-hills, and about the roots of the western Ghâts, but without a
-literature or a history, or even traditions that would enable us to
-identify or distinguish them from any of the other races of the south.
-The only test that seems capable of application is that of language,
-and this philologers have determined to be a dialect of the Dravidian
-tongues.[564] But, in such a case as this, language is a most unsafe
-guide. Within recent times the Cornish have changed their language
-without any alteration of race, and if intercommunication goes on
-at its present rate, English, in a century or two, may be the only
-language spoken in these islands. From the names of places we would
-know that Celtic races had inhabited many localities, but from the
-tongue of the people we should not know now that the Cornish, or then
-that the Welsh, were more Celtic than the inhabitants of Yorkshire or
-the Lothians. So in India nothing seems more likely than that, during
-the last eight or ten centuries, the Tamulian or Dravidian influence
-should have spread northward to the Vindhya, and that the Gonds, the
-Karumbers, and other subject half-civilized races, should have adopted
-the language of their conquerors and masters. It may be otherwise, but
-we know certainly that the southern Dravidians brought their style of
-architecture--as difficult a thing to change almost as language--as far
-north as Ellora, and carved the imperishable rocks there, in the eighth
-or ninth century, in the style that was indigenous at Tanjore;[565] and
-this, too, for the purpose of marking their triumph over the religion
-of Buddha, which they had just succeeded in abolishing in the south.
-
-If this is so, there are still two distinguishing features which may
-help us to discriminate between the candidates for the rude-stone
-monuments. The true Dravidians--the Chola, Chera, Pandya--never were
-Buddhists, and never put forward a claim to have erected any monuments
-of this class. The Karumbers were Buddhists, and claim these monuments;
-and Buddhism and such structures must, I fancy, for reasons to be given
-hereafter, always have gone together.
-
-Further researches may enable us to speak with precision on the
-subject, but all we can at present do is to except, first, the Aryans
-of the north, and all the people incorporated with them, from the
-charge of being builders of rude-stone monuments. We must also except
-the Tamulians or pure Dravidians of the south. But between these two
-there must have been some race, whom, for the present at least, we may
-call Karumbers. One of their centres of power was Conjeveran, but from
-that they were driven, as far as I can make out, about the year 750.
-But it does not appear that they might not have existed as a power on
-the banks of the Upper Kistnah and Tongabudra to a much later period.
-
-The limits of the Chalukya kingdom, which arose at Kalyan early in the
-seventh century,[566] and of that of Vijianagara, which was established
-in the Tongabudra in the fourteenth, are so nearly coincident with the
-limits of the dolmen region--except where the latter was compressed on
-the north by the Mahommedan kingdom of Beejapore--that it seems most
-probable that there must have been a homogeneity among the people of
-that central province of which we have now lost the trace.
-
-This, however, like many other questions of the sort, must be postponed
-till we know something of the Nizam's country. In so far as the history
-or ethnography of the central plateau of India is concerned, or its
-arts or architecture, the Nizam's dominions are absolutely a _terra
-incognita_. No one has visited the country who had any knowledge of
-these subjects, and the Indian Government has done nothing to enquire,
-or to stimulate enquiry, into these questions in that country. Yet, if
-I am not very much mistaken, the solution of half the difficulties,
-ethnological or archæological, that are now perplexing us lies on the
-surface of that region, for anyone who will take the trouble to read
-them. Till this is done, we must, it is feared, be content with the
-vaguest generalities; but even now I fancy we are approaching a better
-state of knowledge in these matters, and I almost believe I can trace
-a connexion between our so-called Karumbers and the Singalese, which,
-if it can be sustained, will throw a flood of light on some of the most
-puzzling questions of Indian ethnography.
-
-
-AGE OF THE STONE MONUMENTS.
-
-A glimmering of light seemed to be thrown on this subject by a passage
-quoted by Sir Walter Elliot from a missionary report from Travancore,
-in which it was stated that an Indian tribe still continued to bury
-in "cromlechs," like those of Coimbatore, "constructed with four
-stones and a covering one."[567] If this were so, we might have got
-hold of one end of a thread which would lead us backwards through the
-labyrinth. It looked so like a crucial instance that Mr. Walhouse
-kindly wrote to Mr. Baker, the author of the report in question, and
-sent me an extract from his reply, which is curious. "The M[a]la
-Arryians are a race of men dwelling in dense jungles and hills.
-Cromlechs are common among them, and they worship the spirits of their
-ancestors, to whom they make annual offerings. At the present day they
-are accustomed to take corpses into the sacred groves, and place small
-slabs of stones, in the form of a box, and, after making offerings
-of arrack, sweetmeats, &c., to the departed spirit, supposed to be
-hovering near, a small stone is placed in the model box or vault, and
-it is covered over with great ceremony. The spirit is supposed to dwell
-in the stone, which in many cases is changed at the annual feast into
-a rough silver or brass figure." As Mr. Walhouse remarks, this looks
-like an echo from megalithic times. The people, having lost the power
-of erecting such huge structures as abound in their hills and on the
-plains around, from which they may have been driven at some early
-period, are content still to keep up the traditions of a primæval usage
-by these miniature shams. There seems little doubt that this is the
-case, and it is especially interesting to have observed it here, as it
-accounts for what has often puzzled Indian antiquaries. In Coorg and
-elsewhere, miniature urns and miniature utensils, such as one sees used
-as toys in European nurseries, are often found in these tombs, and have
-given rise to a tradition among the natives that they belong to a race
-of pigmies: whereas it is evident that it is only a dying out of an
-ancient faith, when, as is so generally the case, the symbol supersedes
-the reality.
-
-The articles found in the cairns and dolmens in India unfortunately
-afford us very little assistance in determining their age. The pottery
-that is found in quantities in them everywhere, is to all appearances,
-identical in form, in texture, and in glaze with the pottery of the
-present day. No archaic forms have, so far as I know, been found
-anywhere, nor anything that would indicate a progression. This might be
-used as an argument to prove how modern they were. In India, however,
-it would be most unsafe to do so. We have no knowledge as to how long
-ago these forms were introduced into or invented in that country, and
-no reason to suppose that they would change and progress as ours do. So
-far as our present knowledge extends, the pottery found in these tombs
-may have been made within the last few centuries, but it may also be a
-thousand or two thousand years old for anything we know to the contrary.
-
-The same remarks apply to the gold and silver ornaments and generally
-to the trinkets found in the tombs. Similar objects may be picked up in
-the bazaars in remote districts at the present day, but they may also
-have been in use in the time of Alexander the Great. Iron spear-heads
-and iron utensils of the most modern shape and pattern are among the
-commonest objects found in these tombs; and if anyone were arguing for
-victory, and not for the truth, these might be adduced to prove that
-the tombs belonged to what the Germans call "the youngest Iron age."
-This reasoning has no application whatever to India. Flint implements
-are found there, and very similar to those of Europe, but never in the
-tombs. Bronze was probably known to the Indians at a remote age, but
-no bronze implements have been buried with the dead so far as we yet
-know, though iron has been, and that frequently; but its presence tells
-us nothing as to age. So far we know, the Indians were as familiar
-with the use of iron in the fourth century B.C. as the Greeks
-themselves were, and, for anything we know to the contrary, may have
-understood the art of extracting it from the ore and using it for arms
-and cutting-tools before these arts were practised in Europe.
-
-[Illustration: 216. Iron Pillar at the Kutub, Delhi. From a
-photograph.]
-
-One of the most curious and interesting illustrations of this is
-found in the existence of the celebrated iron pillar of Dhava, in the
-courtyard of the mosque at the Kutub, near Delhi. This consists of
-a solid shaft of wrought iron, standing 22 feet 6 inches out of the
-ground and is 5 feet 6 inches in circumference at about 5 feet from
-its base. When I visited it, the report was that Colonel Baird Smith
-had dug down and found its base 16 feet below the surface. Lieutenant
-Cole[568] now brings home a report that it is 26 feet deep in the
-ground. Taking, however, the more moderate dimension, a single forging
-nearly 40 feet long and 5 feet circumference was not made, and could
-not have been made, in any country of Europe before the introduction
-of steam-machinery, nor, indeed, before the invention of the Nasmyth
-hammer.
-
-There is an inscription on the pillar which, unfortunately, bears no
-date; but from the form of the characters, the nature of the event it
-describes,[569] coupled with the architecture of the capital of the
-pillar, it leaves no doubt that it was erected in the third or fourth
-century of our era.
-
-It must be left to those practically skilled in the working of metals
-to explain how any human being could work in close proximity to such
-a mass heated to a welding heat, or how it was possible without
-steam-machinery to manipulate so enormous a bar of iron. The question
-that interests us here is, how long must the Hindus have been familiar
-with the use of iron and the mode of working it before they could
-conceive the idea of such a monument and carry it into execution? It
-could hardly have been centuries, it must have been nearer thousands of
-years, and yet they erect rude-stone monuments in India at the present
-day![570]
-
-One other instance, at the lower end of the scale, may be quoted as
-also bearing directly on this subject. Of all the people of India the
-Khassias are probably the most expert in extracting iron from its ores
-and manufacturing it when made; and their mode of doing this is so
-original, and, though rude, so effective, that there can be no doubt
-that it is the result of long experience among themselves.[571] They
-have, in fact, practised the art from time immemorial; yet though
-possessing iron tools for, it may be, thousands of years, they at
-the present day adhere to the practice of using rude unhewn-stone
-monuments, like the Jews, in preference to those "which any iron tool
-had touched at any time."[572] Nor can it be argued that they do
-this because they do not know better. As just mentioned, at any time,
-certainly within the last thousand years, they might have seen the
-Buddhist or Hindu stonemasons of Kamarupa erecting the most elaborately
-carved stone temples, and can now see the domes of the mosques which
-the Mahommedans erected in the cities of Sylhet three or four centuries
-ago.
-
-[Illustration: 217. Sculpture on under side of Cap-stone of a Nilgiri
-Dolmen.]
-
-Although it thus happens that all these _à priori_ reasonings and
-mistaken analogies, drawn from our own progressive state, which are so
-familiar to European antiquaries, break down at once when applied to
-India, still there are a few indications from which approximate dates
-may be obtained, and many more could, no doubt, be found if looked
-for. One of these is, that the greater number of the dolmens of the
-Nilgiri hills are sculptured; but only one of the drawings on them, so
-far as I know, has been published,[573] and though it is ungracious to
-say so, I fear that it is not a very faithful representation. It is,
-however, sufficiently so to enable us to recognise at once a similarity
-to a class of monuments very common in the plains. These are called
-Viracull, if destined to commemorate men or heroes, and Masteecull if
-erected in honour of women who sacrifice themselves on their husband's
-funereal pile. Colonel Mackenzie collected drawings of more than one
-hundred of these, which are now in the India Office, and photographs of
-many others have been made but not published.
-
-The similarity in the costume and style of art displayed in the
-preceding woodcut with that of the memorial stones leaves little or
-no doubt of their being approximately of the same age. As most of the
-memorial stones are inscribed and their dates at least approximately
-known, if the identity can be established the date of the dolmens can
-also be determined. Till, however, some one will take the trouble of
-photographing the cairns, so as to enable us to compare them with the
-standing stones, no certainty can be obtained; but as none of the
-sculptured stones go back a thousand years, and those most like the
-woodcut cannot claim five centuries of antiquity, these sculptured
-cairns in the Nilgiris cannot be so very old as is sometimes assumed.
-
-[Illustration: 218. Dolmen at Iwullee. From a photograph.]
-
-The second instance is curious and instructive. In the centre of the
-courtyard of a now ruined Sivite temple at Iwullee, in Dharwar, in the
-very centre of the dolmen country, now stands a regular tripod dolmen
-of the usual shape (woodcut No. 218). The question is, how got it
-there? No one who knows anything of India will, I presume, argue that
-the Brahminical followers of Siva would erect the sanctuary of their
-god in front of the tomb of one of the despised aboriginal tribes,
-if still reverenced by them, or would have neglected to utilize
-it if neglected. One of two things therefore only seems possible.
-Either a Korumber, or native chief of some denomination, stipulated
-that on his conversion to the faith of the Brahmins, if he erected a
-temple in honour of his newly-adopted god, he should be allowed to be
-buried, "more majorum," in the courtyard. This is possible, but hardly
-probable. It seems more likely that, after the temple was desecrated
-and neglected, some native thought the spot fit and appropriate for
-his last resting-place, and was buried there accordingly. From its
-architecture, there is no doubt that the age of the temple may be
-carried back as far as the thirteenth century, but it more probably
-belongs to the fourteenth. According to the first hypothesis, the age
-of the dolmen would be that of the temple; according to the second,
-one, two, or three centuries more modern.
-
-[Illustration: 219. Stone Monuments at Shahpoor.]
-
-A third indirect piece of evidence is derived from Colonel Meadows
-Taylor's paper in the 'Irish Transactions.' He represents a tolerably
-extensive group of these monuments as placed immediately outside the
-city gate at Shahpoor, and from what he says of them they are evidently
-of the same age as the other examples he quotes. From their position
-and arrangement, it does not seem doubtful that they are the usual
-extramural cemetery so generally attached to Indian cities, and they
-are, in fact, subsequent in date to the erection of the gate in front
-of which they are placed. The gateway, I learn from a letter from
-Colonel Meadows Taylor, undoubtedly belongs to the Mahommedan period.
-It is a regular arch, of the usual pointed form, and consequently
-subsequent to 1347 A.D., when the Bahmany dynasty first
-established themselves in this quarter. This being so, the masons who
-built the gate would certainly have utilized the tombs of the pagans
-had they existed previously. They must, therefore, be subsequent to
-the gate; and as it cannot be five centuries old, we have a limit to
-their age beyond which we cannot go.
-
-[Illustration: 220. Cross at Katapur. From a photograph.]
-
-Our next example is still more curious and interesting. In the cold
-weather of 1867-8, Mr. Mulheran, when attached to the Trigonometrical
-Survey of India, came accidentally across a great group of "cromlechs,"
-situated on the banks of the Godavery, near Nirmul, about halfway
-between Hyderabad and Nagpore, in Central India. Some of these he
-photographed, and sent an account of them to the Asiatic Society of
-Bengal,[574] from which the following particulars are gleaned. "The
-majority of the cromlechs consist of a number of upright stones,
-sunk in the ground in the form of a square, and covered with one
-or two large slabs of sandstone. In some two bodies appear to have
-been interred, and in others only one. The crosses are found in the
-neighbourhood of Malúr and Katapur, two villages on the Nizam's side
-of the river. The crosses at Katapur (woodcut No. 220) are, with one
-exception, uninjured. All are situated to the right of the cromlechs
-near which they have been erected. Judging from the one lying exposed
-at Malúr, they are all above 10 feet in length, although only 6 to
-7 feet appear above ground. They all consist of one stone, and are
-all of the latest form. No information of any kind could be obtained
-regarding the people by whom the crosses or cromlechs were erected.
-There can be no doubt, however, that the crosses are memorials of the
-faith of Christians buried in their vicinity." Close by is a cave,
-before which a cross was erected, which Mr. Mulheran assumes was thrown
-down by the Brahmins when they took possession of it; and he adds, "I
-enclose a note from Captain Glasfurd, who sent a packet of implements,
-rings, and utensils, found in two of the cromlechs he opened, to the
-Asiatic Society." No such packet, however, ever arrived, and we are,
-therefore, left to his photographs and descriptions from which to draw
-our conclusions.
-
-[Illustration: 221. Dolmen at Katapur. From a photograph.]
-
-[Illustration: 222. Dolmen with Cross in Nirmul Jungle.]
-
-In the first place, I think it can hardly be doubted that the crosses
-are Christian emblems; and secondly, that the cromlechs and crosses
-are of the same date. Their juxtaposition and whole appearance render
-escape from this conclusion apparently inevitable. The question,
-therefore, is, when could any community of native Christians have
-existed in India who would bury in dolmens and use the cross as their
-emblems? Their distance from the coast and the form of the cross seem
-at once to cut them off from all connexion with St. Thomas's mission
-or that of the early apostles, even assuming that the records of
-these are authentic. My impression is that this form of cross was not
-introduced as an out-of-doors self-standing sign till, say, the sixth
-or seventh century.[575] On the other hand, it is extremely improbable
-that any such community could have existed after the Mahommedan
-invasion at the end of the thirteenth century. Between these limits
-we know that the Nestorians had establishments as far east as China,
-and extending in a continuous chain westward as far at least as the
-Caspian;[576] and there seems to be no difficulty in assuming that,
-between the seventh and the thirteenth centuries a form of Taiping
-Christianity may have been introduced from the north and established
-itself extensively in the western and central parts of India, but,
-owing allegiance only to the potentate we know of as Prester John,
-may have entirely escaped the knowledge of the Western world. Besides
-helping to fix the date of the dolmens in India, this discovery opens
-out a wide field for those who would investigate the early history of
-the Christian Church in India. There can be little doubt that this
-group is not solitary. Many more will be found, when people open their
-eyes and look for them. Meanwhile it is a curious illustration of the
-policy of Pope Gregory in his advice to Abbot Mellitus, alluded to
-in the Introduction (page 21). It is the same thing as the dolmen at
-Kerland (woodcut No. 131), and that at Arrichinaga (woodcut No. 161),
-repeated in the centre of India, though probably at a somewhat later
-date.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-There is still another point of view from which these Indian monuments
-may be regarded, so as to throw considerable light on the history
-of their analogues in Europe, and perhaps to modify to some extent
-our preconceived views regarding their history. In Ceylon there is a
-class of dagoba, which, in some respects, is peculiar to the island.
-Two of these will suffice for our present purposes, both in the city
-of Anuradhapura, which was the capital of the country from about
-B.C. 400 till the eleventh century. The first of these,
-the Thupa Ramayana, was erected B.C. 161; the second, the
-Lanka Ramayana, A.D. 231.[577] For the sake of the argument
-it would be best to select the first for illustration; but it was,
-unfortunately, so completely restored about forty years ago that, as
-in the case of our unfortunate cathedrals, it requires considerable
-knowledge of the style to discriminate between what is old and what
-new. Notwithstanding the four centuries that elapsed between their
-dates, however, they are so like one another in all essentials that it
-is of little consequence which we select. Neither is large, and both
-consist of nearly hemispherical domes, surmounted by a square box-like
-appendage called a Tee, and both are surrounded by three rows of tall
-stone pillars, as shown in the accompanying woodcut.
-
-[Illustration: 223. Lanka Ramayana Dagoba, A.D. 231. From a
-photograph.]
-
-That the domical part of the dagoba is the lineal and direct descendant
-of the sepulchral tumuli or cairns, which are found everywhere in
-Northern Asia and probably existed in India in primæval times, is
-hardly open to doubt. This the Buddhists early refined into a relic
-shrine, probably immediately after the death of the founder of the
-religion, B.C. 543; and we know from numerous excavations[578]
-that the relic was placed in a cist in the centre of the mound, nearly
-on the level of the soil, exactly where, and in the same manner as,
-the body-containing kistvaens of our sepulchral tumuli. To this,
-however, the Buddhists added a square box on the top, which either
-was invented by them or copied from some earlier form; but no dagoba
-was complete without it, and all the rock-cut examples and sculptured
-representations of topes, with many structural ones, still possess
-it. That it represented a wooden relic-casket may be assumed as
-certain, but whether it was ever used as such is not quite clear. The
-relics were sometimes accessible, and shown to the public on festal
-occasions,[579] and unless they were contained in some external case
-like this it is not easy to see how they could be got at. A third
-indispensable part of a perfect dagoba was an enclosing rail. All the
-early dagobas and all the sculptured representations possess this
-adjunct. In the rock-cut examples and in the later structural ones the
-rail becomes attached to the building as a mere ornament, but is never
-omitted.
-
-[Illustration: 224. Dolmen at Pullicondah.]
-
-If we compare such a sepulchral mound as this at Pullicondah, near
-Madras,[580] or that represented in section, woodcut No. 211, with
-the Lanka or Thupa Ramayana dagobas, we cannot fail to be struck with
-their similarity. Both possess the mound, the rail, and the tee; and in
-this last instance it is a simulated tomb, such as many in Europe are
-suspected of having been. That a people might both bury in barrows and
-erect domical cairns to contain relics would not necessarily involve a
-proof of the one form being copied from the other; but that both should
-be surmounted by a simulated sarcophagus or shrine, and both surrounded
-by one, two, or three rows of useless stones, points to a direct
-imitation of the one from the other which can hardly be accidental.
-
-Assuming for the nonce that the one is copied from the other, the
-ordinary mode of reasoning with which we are familiar in Europe would
-be then something like this. If the Thupa Ramayana were erected
-B.C. 161, this cairn at Pullicondah must probably be as old as
-B.C. 1000, for it would take many centuries before so rude a
-style of architecture could be reformed into so polished an example as
-the Thupa Ramayana, which, as before stated, we may assume as identical
-with the Lanka Ramayana (woodcut No. 223).
-
-[Illustration: 225. Rail at Sanchi, near Bhilsa.]
-
-The conclusions I have arrived at are diametrically opposed to this
-view. As stated at the beginning of this chapter, the architectural
-material of India was wood, down to B.C. 250 or 300. It then
-became timidly lithic, but retained all its wooden forms and simulated
-carpentry fastenings down, at all events, to the Christian era. The
-rail at Sanchi, which was erected in the course of the two centuries
-preceding our era, is still essentially wooden in all its parts, so
-much so that it is difficult to see how it could be constructed in
-stone,[581] and these pillars round the Ceylonese dagobas are copies of
-wooden posts, and not such forms as in any number of centuries would
-have grown out of rude-stone forms. Had they been derived from the
-latter original they would have been thick, strong and massive, and
-never have assumed forms so curiously attenuated as we find here. It
-is difficult to see what these stone pillars or posts were originally
-intended for. It may have been either that garlands might be hung upon
-them on festal occasions, as we see represented in the sculptures, or
-that pictures might be suspended from them, as Fa Hian, who visited
-this place in the year 400, tells us was done all the way from
-Anuradhapura to Mehentele on the occasion of a great procession in
-honour of the Tooth relic which was there exposed to public view.[582]
-
-Be all this as it may, the question which this comparison raises is
-simply this: If we admit the similarity between the Pullicondah cairn
-and the Lanka Ramayana Tope, and that the one grew out of the other,
-it seems to me perfectly evident that the adjunct of the Tope grew out
-of a wooden and not out of a rude-stone original. If this is so, and
-if the Tope did not grow out of the cairn, the conclusion seems to me
-inevitable that the cairn is only a rude copy of a polished original.
-
-The same conclusion hinted at above was forced on me by the examination
-of the rude-stone circles which crowd round the elaborate tope at
-Amravati. Generally, I know of no hypothesis by which the phenomenon
-of polished-stone buildings, with known dates, existing in India for
-the last 2000 years side by side with rude-stone monuments which are
-being erected at this day, can be accounted for, unless we give up our
-favourite system of sequence and are content to take facts as we find
-them.
-
-It is quite certain there were no hewn-stone buildings in India before
-the year 250 B.C., and my impression is that none of the
-rude-stone monuments now existing there were erected till five, it may
-be ten centuries from that time, and when they once began that there is
-no break in the sequence to the present day.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-I know nothing that can be fairly urged against this reasoning, except
-our own ignorance, and that of the natives themselves, with regard
-to the origin and date of these monuments. Neither is much to be
-wondered at, as it is only so lately that Europeans have turned their
-attention to the subject, and the natives know so little about their
-own monuments that it would be strange indeed if they knew anything
-at all about those of the hated and despised Dasyus. Any one who has
-travelled in India knows what sort of information he gets even from
-the best and most intelligent Brahmins with regard to the dates of the
-temples they and their forefathers have administered in ever since
-their erection. One thousand or two or three thousand years is a
-moderate age for temples which we know were certainly erected within
-the last two or three centuries. Or ask any native about the date of
-the rock-cut temples at Ellora or Elephanta, he at once glibly answers,
-they were erected by the Pandus, 3101 B.C.; and if he breaks
-loose from that landmark, ten or twenty thousand years is the least you
-can expect. Yet we know now, from inscriptions and other data, that no
-rock-cut temple can be carried further back than the second century
-B.C.
-
-In this infantile state of the native mind it costs them nothing to
-hide their ignorance in the mists of thousands of years when questioned
-about these rude stones, but their testimony is absolutely worthless,
-and it is only by processes like those just described that we can
-hope to arrive at the truth. Among races so unchangeable as some of
-those existing in India they may carry us back to a time prior to
-the Christian era with some classes of monuments; but, unless I am
-very much mistaken, it will be found that all those mentioned in the
-preceding pages are of comparatively recent date and are members of an
-unbroken series which continues to the present day.
-
-
-COMPARISON OF EASTERN WITH WESTERN DOLMENS.
-
-We are now in a position to approach one of the most interesting, but
-at the same time most difficult, branches of the inquiry we are engaged
-upon, which is the connexion, if any, that exists between these Indian
-rude-stone monuments and those we find in Europe. The difficulties,
-however, do not appear to be so much inherent in the essence of the
-subject as in its novelty. It has never fairly been approached by any
-modern writer, and would consequently require an amount of illustration
-incompatible with such a work as this to make it clear, or, on the
-other hand, it is necessary to assume an amount of information on the
-part of the public which it is feared hardly anywhere exists.
-
-The architectural evidence, as detailed in the preceding pages, seems
-of a nature difficult to resist. It is easy and generally correct to
-assume that men in certain stages of civilization will do the same
-thing or things, in a manner so similar that it is difficult to
-discriminate between them. There would thus be no improbability in
-assuming that all men would raise a mound of earth over the dead bodies
-of their buried ancestors, or that they would protect their bodies
-from being crushed by the superincumbent weight, by a cist or coffin
-more or less artificially formed of stone or wood. It may even further
-be granted that when having got so far they would naturally improve
-and enlarge this cist into a dolmen or chamber and provide it with an
-external entrance. All these things being found together would by no
-means prove a necessary connexion between two races using them, further
-than that the races using or inventing these forms must have belonged
-to the same family of tomb-building ancestral-worshipping people. But
-when we find two distinct people putting this cist outside, on the
-tumulus in the open air, and piercing one of the slabs in it with a
-circular hole 6 or 8 inches in diameter, we come to a coincidence that
-can hardly be considered accidental. As there was no writing and no
-post, either some tribe must have migrated from the east to the west
-and introduced the form, or _vice versâ_, some European must have
-taught the Indians the advantages of this hole, whatever they were; and
-having been once taught to adopt, they afterwards continued to employ
-it.
-
-A still more striking instance is that already pointed out, of the
-combination of a central cistvaen containing a body inside a mound with
-a simulated cist on the top outside, and several circles of stones on
-or around the mound externally. All this is so complicated and shows
-so much design that it cannot possibly be the result of accident,
-if it is found in two distinct lands. The examples quoted above are
-perhaps sufficient to establish this similarity, but they are only a
-fraction of those which might be adduced if the subject were carefully
-followed out. It evidently was much more common in the East than we
-have hitherto had reason to suspect--for this reason alone, if for no
-other--that it continued to last so long. In this example from Burmah
-(woodcut No. 226) we have first an external mound encircling the tope,
-then the circles of rude stones replaced by a complicated rail, and
-above all, in the centre, a simulated dagoba replacing the simulated
-cist. These are great changes, it must be confessed, but hardly so
-great as we might expect when we consider that the Senbya dagoba was
-only erected fifty-five years ago, and that the interval between it and
-the rude-stone monuments is consequently considerable. Another striking
-instance of the modern form this primæval sepulchre assumes is found
-in the celebrated tomb of Akbar the Great at Agra. There the king is
-buried in a vault below the level of the ground, but his simulated
-tomb is on the top of the pyramid, exposed to the air outside; and on
-each stage, externally, little pavilions replace the stones which his
-progenitors had previously employed for a like purpose.
-
-[Illustration: 226. View of the Senbya Pagoda, Burmah. From a
-photograph.]
-
-These two--the holed stone and the simulated cist--are perhaps the most
-direct evidences of similarity between the East and the West, but the
-whole system affords innumerable points of contact, not sufficiently
-distinct perhaps to quote as evidence individually, but collectively
-making up such a case that it seems very difficult to refuse to believe
-that both styles were the product of one kindred race of men, and who
-at the time they erected them must have been more or less directly in
-communication with one another.
-
-The literary evidence is much less complete or satisfactory. So far
-as I know, no paragraph has been detected in any classical authors
-which would lead us to suspect any connexion at any time between India
-and any country so remote from it, as France for instance, and still
-less with Denmark, unless it be the Woden myth belonging to the latter
-country. That, however, was either so indistinct originally, or has
-been so obscured by later additions, that it is now almost impossible
-to say what it is. Though so frequently insisted upon, it seems almost
-impossible that by any process, the gentle ascetic Sakya Muni could
-ever have become the fierce warlike Woden, and except some nominal
-similarities there seems nothing to connect the two. It may be that at
-some time about the Christian era, a chief of that name migrated from
-the Crimean Bosphorus to the Baltic, and may have brought with him some
-Asiatic practices, but the connecting link between him and India seems
-wholly wanting, and not likely to be now supplied.
-
-The one passage that seems to bear directly on the subject, strange
-to say, comes this time from India itself. Among the edicts that
-Asoka engraved on the rocks in various parts of India, the last or
-thirteenth is to the following effect, so far as it can be made out.
-It is unfortunately the nearest to the ground, and consequently in all
-the published copies appears more or less injured. Two more copies of
-the edicts are known to exist,--one in the Dehra Doon, the other in
-Orissa: when they are copied and published, perhaps a more perfect
-translation may be possible. Meanwhile, Mr. Prinsep's translation
-runs thus:--"There is not in either class of the heretics of men a
-procedure marked by such grace ... nor so glorious nor friendly, nor
-even so extremely liberal, as Devanampiyo's (Asoka's) injunction for
-the non-injury and content of living creatures.... And the Greek
-king besides by whom the kings of Egypt, Ptolemaios, Antigonus and
-Magas.... Both here and in foreign countries wherever they go, the
-religious ordinances of Devanampiyo effect conversion. Conquest is
-of every description, but the conquest that bringeth joy, springing
-from pleasant emotion, becometh joy itself. The victory of virtue is
-happiness. Such victory is desired in things of this world and things
-of the next world."[583] In other copies of this edict the names of
-Antiochus and Alexander are found, making five well known names, and
-curiously enough all five are mentioned by Justin within a few lines of
-one another in the last chapter of his twenty-sixth book and the first
-chapter of his twenty-seventh book. There is thus no doubt who the
-kings were, nor of more than a year as to the date of this edict, which
-must have been within a year or so of 257 B.C.
-
-The great interest, however, for our present purpose is that an Indian
-emperor, in the middle of the third century before Christ, should be
-in a condition to form an alliance with Magas of Cyrene so near the
-African dolmen-field. As before mentioned (_ante_, p. 410), we are
-still very deficient in our knowledge of the Megalithic remains of this
-country; but we do know that they exist, and that those which have been
-illustrated are of a singularly Indian type. It is also nearly certain
-that many of the rock-cut chambers about his capital are monasteries or
-temples, not tombs, as has always been too hastily assumed. Whether,
-on further investigation, these will prove to be so essentially Indian
-as they at present appear to be, remains to be seen, but meanwhile the
-possibility of an alliance of this sort two or three centuries before
-Christ, takes away much of the improbability that would otherwise exist
-in assuming that Indian influence might have extended further westward
-at some subsequent period, and that the African dolmens might be proved
-to be allied to, and possibly contemporary with, those of India.
-
-
-BUDDHISM IN THE WEST.
-
-The great basis, however, on which any proof of the existence of
-a connexion between the East and West must eventually rest, will
-probably be found in the amount of pure Buddhism which crept into
-Christianity in the early age of the Church. The subject has not yet
-been fairly grappled with by any one capable of doing it justice. It
-has been frequently alluded to by travellers, who have been struck with
-resemblances which could hardly be accidental, and used sometimes by
-scoffers in order to depreciate Christianity; but no serious historian
-of the Latin Church has had sufficient knowledge of Buddhism or of its
-forms to be able to appreciate correctly either the extent or the cause
-of its introduction; and till some one does this, it will be treated by
-the general reader as an idle speculation. Yet it probably is not too
-much to assert, that at least nine-tenths of the institutions and forms
-which were engrafted on pure evangelical Christianity in the middle
-ages, are certainly derived from Buddhist sources.
-
-Of these, one of the most striking is the introduction of monastic
-institutions, which exercised so important an influence on the forms of
-Christianity during the whole period of the middle ages. It is in vain
-to look for their origin in anything that existed in Europe before the
-Christian era. Nothing can be more forced than the analogies it has
-been attempted to establish between the Vestal virgins and the nuns of
-the middle ages, and no trace of conventual life can be found among the
-semi-secular priesthood of classical times. According to the usually
-received opinion, Antony (A.D. 305[584]) was the first monk,
-and from him and about his time a prolific progeny are traced to the
-Thebais, which is usually assumed to be the cradle of the institution.
-Monastic life was, however, absolutely antithetical to the religious
-institutions of the ancient Egyptians, amongst whom the king was high
-priest and god, and where civil could hardly be distinguished from
-religious rank. It was equally opposed to the feelings of the Arabic
-or at least Semitic races, that superseded the Coptic in that country,
-and could consequently hardly have existed at all, unless introduced
-from some foreign source and maintained by some extraneous influence.
-The Essenes are the only sect to whom in the ancient world in the
-West anything like the peculiar institutions of monasticism can be
-traced; but unfortunately we do not know how or when they adopted them.
-Josephus represents them as only one of the three principal sects into
-which the Jews in his time were divided; but the silence not only of
-the Bible but of the Rabbis weakens the force of his statement, while
-his unfortunate omission of the name of their Lawgiver[585] leaves us
-in the dark on the most essential point. That it was not Moses, whose
-name is usually interpolated, is quite certain. He never inculcated any
-such doctrines, and one hardly dares to suggest the Indian name, which
-would clear up the whole mystery at once. Be this as it may, the sect
-only arose apparently in the time of the Maccabees, and practically
-disappeared with the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus; all which would
-accord perfectly with the hypothesis of their Indian origin, but would
-hardly suffice to support the idea that they were the sect from whom,
-in the fourth century, the Christian Church adopted the principles and
-practices of Asceticism.
-
-When from these sparse indications we turn to the East, we are met
-by the difficulty that none of the books we possess were reduced
-to writing in their present form till the time of Buddhaghosa,
-A.D. 412,[586] or even later; and any one who knows what
-wild imaginings can in the fertile East creep into works during the
-remodellings of a thousand years, will easily understand with what
-caution they must be used. Fortunately in this instance the monuments
-and inscriptions come to our assistance, and we are enabled to form a
-fair idea of the progress of monasticism in India from what they tell
-us.
-
-Before the first monuments, the books tell us of three great
-convocations: the first held immediately on the death of the founder
-of the religion, B.C. 543, at Rajagriha; the second 100 years
-afterwards, at Vaisali; and the third by Asoka, 250 B.C., at
-Pataliputta, or Patna. These we are told were attended by thousand and
-tens of thousands of monks.[587] But Asoka's edicts give no countenance
-to any such extension of the system in his day. Shortly after this,
-however, the earlier caves show cells appropriated to hermits, or
-even for the reunion of a limited number of monks under one roof.
-These Viharas or monasteries are small at first, and insignificant as
-compared with the Chaityas or church caves to which they are attached,
-as at Karlee, Baja, Bedsa and elsewhere; but shortly afterwards, at
-Nassick and Jooneer, in the first or second centuries they become more
-important; and when we reach such a series as that at Ajunta or Baug,
-for instance, we find the Vihara becoming all important, the Chaitya
-sinking into comparative insignificance. This great change took place
-apparently about the end of the third or beginning of the fourth
-century of our era, and continued till Buddhism actually perished,
-smothered under the weight of its enormously developed hierarchy some
-three centuries later.
-
-The sculptures tell the same story. There are no representations of
-priests in the form we afterwards find them in at Sanchi, in the first
-century of our era. Ascetics there are, dwelling in woods and lonely
-places, but not congregated in monasteries, nor jointly performing
-ceremonies. But at Amravati, three centuries later, we have shaven
-priests in their distinctive robes, and every symptom of a well
-developed system.
-
-If this is so, it could hardly have been before the era of the Roman
-Empire that these peculiar institutions penetrated to the West; nor
-could they have done so during its supremacy without attracting
-attention. But in the great "débacle" which followed the change of
-the seat of government and the destruction of the old faith, it is
-easy to see how these forms may have crept in, together with the new
-Eastern faith, which an illiterate people were adopting, without much
-knowing whence it came, and without being able to discriminate what was
-Christian and what Buddhist in the forms or doctrines that were being
-presented to them.
-
-Among the peculiarities then introduced, one of the most remarkable
-was the segregation of the clergy from the laity, and the devotion
-of the former wholly to the performance of religious duties. Still
-more so was their seclusion in monasteries, living a life of the most
-self-denying asceticism, subsisting almost wholly on alms, and bound
-by vows of poverty, chastity and temperance, to a negation of all the
-ordinary enjoyments of life. That the two systems are identical no one
-has doubted, and no one, indeed, can enter now a Buddhist monastery in
-the East and watch the shaven priests in the yellow robes at matins, or
-at vespers, issue from their cells and range themselves on either side
-of a choir, on whose altar stands an image of the Queen of Heaven, or
-of the three precious Buddhas, and listen to their litanies, chanted
-in what to them is a dead or foreign tongue, without feeling that
-he is looking in the East on what is externally the same as he had
-long been familiar with in the West.[588] If he follows these monks
-back to their cells and finds them governed by a mitred abbot, and
-subordinated as deacons, priests, and neophytes, learns that they are
-bound by vows of celibacy, live by alms, and spend their lives in a
-dull routine of contemplation and formal worship, he might almost fancy
-he was transported back into some Burgundian convent in the middle
-ages, unless he is prepared, like Huc and Gabet, to believe that it is
-a phantasm conjured up by the author of all evil for the confusion of
-mankind. We know from the form and arrangement of the great Chaitya
-caves, that these forms prevailed as early at least as the first
-century B.C., and, as they are practised without change in the
-East to the present day, it seems clear that it is thence that they
-were introduced into Europe.
-
-Canonization is another remarkable institution common to the Buddhist
-and Christian Churches, and to them only. It has frequently been
-attempted to draw a parallel between the demigods of Greece and Rome
-and the institution of Saints in the mediæval Church; but this argument
-has always failed, because in fact no two institutions could in their
-origin be more essentially different. The minor gods of the heathen
-pantheon, though sometimes remarkable for their prowess or virtues,
-were all more or less connected by ties of blood or marriage with the
-great Olympic family, and owed their rank rather to their descent than
-to their merits. It is true that in later times the deification of
-Roman emperors and others of that class, which the abject flattery of
-a corrupt age had introduced, was a nearer approach to the practice of
-Buddhism, which was then flourishing in the East, than anything before
-known in the pagan world. But canonization in its purity, as practised
-both in the East and West, is not to be attained through either birth
-or office, but by the practice of ascetic virtues on the part of the
-clergy, and by piety coupled with benefactions to the Church by those
-outside its pale. In these casteless institutions any man, however
-obscure his origin, by devotion to the interests of his adopted order,
-and the practice of the asceticism, heightened if possible by the
-endurance of self-inflicted tortures, might attain to Buddhahood or
-saintship. But such a path to adoration in this world, or to worship
-hereafter, was utterly unknown in Europe until it was introduced from
-the East, after the Christian era.
-
-Relic-worship is another peculiarity which the mediæval Church
-certainly borrowed from the East. No tradition is more constant than
-that which relates that the relics of Buddha were, after cremation,
-divided into eight parts, and distributed to eight different
-kingdoms, and the history of some portions of these can be traced to
-comparatively modern times. Perhaps too much reliance should not be
-placed on these very early traditions, as no material evidence of
-them exists, nor in the often-repeated assertion that Asoka built
-84,000 dagobas,[589] to receive relics. That he built several is quite
-certain. The fact of the relics of two of the favourite disciples of
-Buddha--Mogalana and Sariputra--and of ten of the principal dignitaries
-of the Buddhist Church in the time of Asoka having been found at
-Sanchi in topes certainly anterior to the Christian era,[590] is quite
-sufficient for our present purpose. As is well known, the Tooth relic,
-whose history can be traced back with certainty for more than fifteen
-centuries, is now worshipped under British protection in Ceylon.
-
-No such form of worship existed in classical antiquity, nor is it quite
-clear how it came to be adopted by the Christian Church. Buddhism was
-a reform of a material, ancestral-worshipping, body-respecting form
-of religion. The sepulchral tumulus with them became in consequence a
-dagoba, or relic shrine, containing a bone, or a vessel, or rag, or
-something that belonged to Buddha or some of his followers; and all
-the grosser superstitions of the Turanian natives, whose faith he was
-trying to elevate and refine, were sublimated into something immaterial
-and more pure. But Christianity never could have wanted this, and its
-adoption of relic worship was either a piece of blind imitation adopted
-without thinking, among other things, for which there was more excuse,
-or it was one of the many instances of the toleration of foreign
-elements which characterized the Christian priesthood in the early age
-of the Church.
-
-It is as little clear when this worship was introduced as why it was
-done, for Christian legends in regard to relics are not more to be
-depended upon than those of the Buddhists. It could not have been
-common in the days of Clemens of Alexandria, or he would not have
-mentioned as a wonder that the Indians worshipped a bone enclosed in a
-pyramid;[591] but shortly after Constantine's time the fashion became
-prevalent, and the miracles performed by the touch of relics became
-one of the favourite delusions of the middle ages. If this is correct,
-and we are justified in assuming that the Buddhism which we find in
-mediæval Christianity was introduced after Constantine's time, we may
-take it for granted that any influence which the East exercised on the
-Western rude-stone monuments was also subsequent to that monarch's
-reign. If this is so, a considerable portion, at least, of those found
-in both countries must also belong to the dark ages that closed with
-the Crusades.
-
-It would be easy to go on multiplying instances of Eastern customs
-introduced into the Western Church were this the place to do it. All
-that is required here, however, is to adduce sufficient evidence to
-accentuate an assertion which no one, probably, who knows anything of
-the subject would be found to dispute. It is, that the mediæval Church
-borrowed many of its forms from pre-existing Buddhism, and that these
-were introduced not before but after the time of Constantine. If,
-after having reached conviction on this point, we turn to our books to
-ascertain what light they throw on the subject, we find them absolutely
-silent. You may wade through all the writings of the Fathers, all the
-ponderous tomes of the Bollandists, without finding a trace, or even
-a hinted suspicion, that such a transference of doctrine took place.
-Except from one or two passages in Clemens of Alexandria, we should
-not be able to show that before the time of Constantine the nations
-of the West knew even the name of Buddha,[592] much less anything
-of his doctrines. While this is so it is obviously idle to ask for
-written evidence with regard to the influence of either country on the
-architectural style of the other. Men write volumes on volumes with
-regard to doctrines and faiths, but rarely allude to anything that
-concerns mere buildings; and while written history is so absolutely
-silent respecting the introduction of Buddhist forms into the West, it
-is in vain to hope that any allusion will be found to the influence
-Eastern forms may have had on the sepulchral monuments of Northern
-Africa or Europe. In this case, the "litera scripta" is not to be
-depended upon, but the monuments and their inscriptions are, and it
-is from them and them only, that either correct dates or reliable
-materials for such an investigation can be obtained. So far as I am
-capable of forming an opinion, their evidence is amply sufficient, in
-the first place, to take away all _à priori_ improbability from the
-assumption that there may have been a direct influence exercised by
-the East on the Western rude-stone monuments. But it seems to me at
-the same time sufficient to render it extremely probable that while
-influencing to so great an extent the religious institutions of the
-country, they should also have modified their sepulchral forms so
-as fully to account for all the similarities which we find existing
-between them.
-
-It may not be possible, in the present state of our knowledge, to
-explain exactly how this influence was exercised, and we must,
-consequently, rest content with the fact that as Buddhism did so
-influence the religion of the West in those early ages, the same agency
-may equally have acted upon the architectural or sepulchral forms of
-the same class in our population.
-
-To explain this it is necessary to revert for a moment to a
-proposition I have often had occasion to advance, and have not yet
-seen refuted--that Buddhism is the religion of a Turanian race, using
-that word, as used by its inventors, in the broadest possible sense.
-The Persians say Iran and Turan, and Iran and Aniran, terms equivalent
-to our Aryan and non-Aryan; and Buddhism is not and never was, but
-exceptionally, the religion of the Aryan race, and is not now professed
-by any Aryan people in any quarter of the globe. It is essentially the
-faith of a quiescent, contemplative race, with no distinct idea of a
-god external to this world, or of a future state other than through
-transmigrations accomplished in this world, leading only to eternal
-repose hereafter; its followers, however, still believing in the direct
-influence of the temporarily-released spirits of their forefathers in
-guiding and controlling the destiny of their offspring, thus leading
-directly to ancestral worship. In India this primitive faith was
-refined and elevated into one of the most remarkable and beneficent of
-human institutions by the Aryan Sakya Muni and his Brahmin coadjutors,
-and did at one time nearly obliterate the Aryan faith which it
-superseded. After, however, a thousand years of apparent supremacy,
-the old faith came again to the surface and Buddhism disappeared from
-India, but still remains the only faith of all the Turanian nations
-around it and wherever the Aryan races never seem to have settled.
-
-If any Turanian blood remained in the veins of any of the various races
-who inhabited Europe in the middle ages, it is easy to understand how
-the preaching or doctrines of any Buddhist missionaries or Turanian
-tribes must have struck a responsive chord in their hearts, and how
-easily they would have adopted any new fashion these Easterns may have
-taught. As we have had occasion to point out above, the dolmen-builders
-of Europe certainly were not Aryan. Nor, if we may trust M. Bertrand
-and the best French antiquaries, were they Celts; but that an old
-pre-Celtic people did exist in those parts of France in which the
-dolmens are generally found appears to me indisputable. Though the more
-active and progressive Celts had commenced their obliteration of this
-undemonstrative people at the time when written history first began in
-their country, there is no reason to suppose that their blood or their
-race was entirely exterminated till a very recent period, and it may
-still have been numerically the prevalent ingredient in the population
-between the fourth and the tenth centuries of our era.
-
-Of course, it is not intended to assert or even to suggest that the
-Western nations first adopted from the East the practice of using stone
-to accentuate and adorn their sepulchral monuments. The whole evidence
-of the preceding pages contradicts such an assumption. But what they
-do seem to have borrowed is the use or abuse of holed stones, and the
-arrangement of external dolmens on the summit of tumuli combined with
-two or three circles of rude stones. These I fancy to have been among
-the latest of the forms which rude-stone architecture adopted, and may
-very well have been introduced in post-Constantinian times; and when we
-become more familiar with the peculiarities of these monuments, both in
-the East and the West, there may be other forms which we may recognize
-as modern and interchangeable, while many others, such as the great
-chambered tumuli and the tall solitary menhirs, seem as original and as
-peculiar to the West.
-
-Having now made the tour of the Old World, it will be convenient to
-try to resume, in as few words as possible, the principal results we
-have arrived at from the preceding investigation.
-
-First, with regard to their age. It seems that the uncivilized,
-ancestral-worshipping races of Europe first borrowed from the
-Romans--or, if any one likes, from the Phœnicians or Greeks of
-Marseilles--the idea of using stone to accentuate and adorn the
-monuments of their dead. In like manner, it certainly was from the
-Bactrian Greeks that the Indians first learned the use of stone as a
-building material. How early the Eastern nations adopted it in its rude
-form we do not know. In its polished form it was used as early as the
-middle of the third century B.C., but we have no authentic instance
-of the rude form till at least a century or two after Christ; but,
-once introduced, its use continued to the present day. Its history
-in the West seems somewhat different. The great chambered tumuli at
-Gavr Innis, and others in France, as well as those at Lough Crew, in
-Ireland, seem to belong to a time before the Romans occupied the states
-of Western Europe; but no stone monument of this class has yet made
-out its claim to an antiquity of more than two centuries, if so much,
-before the Christian era. Some of those in Greece about Mycenæ, and
-those at Saturnia, may be earlier, but they are as yet undescribed
-scientifically, and we cannot tell. From shortly before the Christian
-era, till the countries in which they are found became entirely and
-essentially Christian, the use of these monuments seems to have been
-continual, whenever a dolmen-building race--or, in other words, a race
-with any taint of Turanian blood in their veins--continued to prevail.
-This, in remote corners of the world, seems to have extended in France
-and Britain down to the eighth or ninth century. In Scandinavia
-it lasted down to the eleventh or twelfth, and sporadically, in
-out-of-the-way and neglected districts, as late both in France and
-Great Britain.
-
-These results do not, of course, touch the age of the earthen tumuli
-or barrows, for the determination of whose age no scale has yet been
-invented; still less do they approach the question of the antiquity of
-the Cave men or the palæolithic stone implements, the age of which we
-must, for the present at least, leave wrapped in the mists of the long
-prehistoric past.
-
-Their uses seem more easily determined than their dates; with only a
-few rare and easily-recognizable exceptions, all seem originally to
-have been intended for sepulchral or cenotaphic purposes. Either, like
-the great chambered tumuli and the dolmens, they were actually the
-burying-places of the illustrious dead; or, like the greater circles
-and the alignments, they marked battle-fields, and were erected in
-honour of those slain there, whether their bodies were actually laid
-within their precincts or not; or, like the rude stone pillars of the
-Khassia hills, they were offerings to the spirits of the departed.
-
-With the fewest possible exceptions[593] and these of the most
-insignificant character, their connexion with the relics of the dead
-can be proved from all having become places for ancestral worship and
-having under various forms been used for commemorating or honouring
-departed spirits. No single instance has been authenticated of either
-circles or dolmens in any other form, except perhaps single stones,
-having ever been used for the worship of Odin, or of the gods called
-Mercury, Mars, Venus, or the other gods of the Druids, still less
-is there any trace of the worship of the sun or moon or any of the
-heavenly host; nor, I am sorry to think, can the serpent lay claim to
-any temple of this class. Honour to the dead and propitiation of the
-spirits of the departed seem to have been the two leading ideas that
-both in the East and West gave rise to the erection of these hitherto
-mysterious structures which are found numerously scattered over the
-face of the Old World.
-
-
-    [Footnote 531: 'History of Architecture,' by the Author, ii. p.
-    459, fig. 968.]
-
-    [Footnote 532: 'Caves of Baja and Bedsa in Western Ghâts;'
-    unpublished.]
-
-    [Footnote 533: 'Tree and Serpent Worship,' quotation from Hiouen
-    Thsang, p. 135, and plates, _passim_.]
-
-    [Footnote 534: 'History of Architecture,' by the Author, ii. p.
-    649.]
-
-    [Footnote 535: 'Architecture of Ahmedabad.' 120 photographs, with
-    text. Murray, 1868.]
-
-    [Footnote 536: Yule, 'Mission to the Court of Ava,' p. 43, pl. ix.]
-
-    [Footnote 537: 'J. A. S. B.,' vii. p. 930.]
-
-    [Footnote 538: 'J. R. A. S.,' new series, iv. p. 88.]
-
-    [Footnote 539: 'Tods Rajastan,' i. p. 224.]
-
-    [Footnote 540: The information regarding the Khonds is principally
-    derived from a work entitled 'Memorials of Service,' by Major
-    Charteris-Macpherson (Murray, 1865), and his papers in 'J. R. A.
-    S.' xiii. pp. 216 _et seq._ I quote by preference from the latter,
-    as the more generally accessible.]
-
-    [Footnote 541: For several years past I have officially and
-    privately been exerting all the influence I possess to try and get
-    two bassi relievi that exist in these caves cast or photographed,
-    or at least carefully copied in some form, but hitherto in vain. In
-    1869 the Government sent an expedition to Cuttack with draftsmen,
-    photographers, &c., but they knew so little what was wanted that
-    they wasted their time and money in casting minarets and sculptures
-    of no beauty or interest, and, having earned their pay, returned
-    _re infecta_. I am not without hopes that something may be done
-    during the present cold season. When representations are obtained,
-    they will throw more light on the history of the Yavanas or Greeks
-    in that remote part of India than anything else that could be done,
-    and would clear up some points in the history of Indian art that
-    are now very obscure.]
-
-    [Footnote 542: Sterling's account of Cuttack, 'Asiatic Researches,'
-    xv. p. 306.]
-
-    [Footnote 543: _Loc. s. c._ p. 315.]
-
-    [Footnote 544: Tacitus' 'Germania,' 9.]
-
-    [Footnote 545: H. Walters, 1828, 'Asiatic Researches,' xvii. pp.
-    499 _et seq._ Colonel Yule, 'Proceedings, Soc. of Antiq. Scot.'
-    i. p. 92. Hooker's 'Himalayan Journals,' ii. p. 276. Major Godwin
-    Austen, 'Journal Anthropological Institute,' vol. i. Part II.]
-
-    [Footnote 546: Schlagintweit, in 'Ausland,' No. 23, 1870, pp. 530
-    _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 547: 'Asiatic Researches,' xvii. p. 502.]
-
-    [Footnote 548: Major Godwin Austen, 'Journal Anthrop. Institute,'
-    i. p. 127.]
-
-    [Footnote 549: 'Journal Anthrop. Inst.' i. p. 126.]
-
-    [Footnote 550: 'Mémoires sur les Contrées occidentales,' iii. p.
-    76.]
-
-    [Footnote 551: Colonel Forbes Leslie, 'Early Races of Scotland,'
-    vol. ii. pls. lviii. lix. lx. They have also been described by Dr.
-    Stevenson, 'J. R. A. S.' v. pp. 192 _et seq._ It would be extremely
-    interesting, in an ethnographic point of view, if some further
-    information could be obtained regarding these stone rows.]
-
-    [Footnote 552: 'Early Races of Scotland,' ii. 459.]
-
-    [Footnote 553: 'J. R. A. S.' xiii. p. 268.]
-
-    [Footnote 554: I quote from a paper by him, published in the
-    'Trans. R. Irish Academy,' xxiv. pp. 329 _et seq._ There is an
-    earlier paper by him in the 'J. B. B. R. A. S.' vol. iii. p. 179,
-    but it is superseded by the later publication.]
-
-    [Footnote 555: 'Proceedings, Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1868,' p. 152.]
-
-    [Footnote 556: 'International Prehistoric Congress,' Norwich
-    volume, p. 200.]
-
-    [Footnote 557: 'International Prehistoric Congress,' Norwich
-    volume, p. 245.]
-
-    [Footnote 558: 'J. R. A. S.' new series, iii. p. 143.]
-
-    [Footnote 559: 'International Prehistoric Congress,' Norwich
-    volume, p. 257.]
-
-    [Footnote 560: Published on a reduced scale, 'Tree and Serpent
-    Worship,' p. xlvi.]
-
-    [Footnote 561: The principal sources of information on the subject
-    are the papers of Sir Walter Elliot and Col. Meadows Taylor, so
-    often referred to above. But I am also indebted to Mr. M. J.
-    Walhouse, M.C.S., for a great amount of valuable information on the
-    subject. His private letters to me are replete with details which
-    if he would only consent to arrange and publish would throw a flood
-    of light on the subject.]
-
-    [Footnote 562: Norwich volume, 'International Prehistoric
-    Congress,' pp. 252 _et seq._ He places the destruction of the
-    Karumbers as early as the seventh century, but the dates are, to
-    say the least, often very doubtful. When, for instance, Hiouen
-    Thsang visited Conjeveran in 640--the Buddhist establishment--they
-    were still flourishing, and no signs apparent of the storm, which
-    did not, I fancy, break out till at least a century after that
-    time. See also 'The Seven Pagodas,' by Capt. Carr, Madras, 1869, p.
-    127.]
-
-    [Footnote 563: Second Report by the Rev. W. Taylor, 'Madras Lit.
-    Jour.' vii. p. 311 _et passim_.]
-
-    [Footnote 564: Caldwell's 'Dravidian Grammar,' pp. 9 _et seq._
-    'The Tribes of the Nilgiri Hills,' by a German missionary (Madras,
-    1856)--the Rev. F. Metz, who probably knows more of their language
-    than any one now living. Mr. Walhouse's letters are also strong on
-    this point.]
-
-    [Footnote 565: See 'Rock-cut Temples,' by the Author, p. 50.]
-
-    [Footnote 566: Sir Walter Elliot, 'J. R. A. S.' iv. pp. 7 _et
-    seq._; and new series, i. 250.]
-
-    [Footnote 567: Sir W. Elliot, 'Journal Ethnological Soc.,' new
-    series, 1869, p. 110.]
-
-    [Footnote 568: Lieut. Cole, R.E., has brought home a cast of the
-    upper part of this pillar, which is now at the South Kensington
-    Museum.]
-
-    [Footnote 569: 'Journal Asiatic Soc. Bengal,' vii. p. 629.]
-
-    [Footnote 570: The crack and bend in the upper part of the pillar
-    are caused by a cannon shot, the dent of which is distinctly
-    visible on the opposite side. I hope it was not fired by the
-    English, but I do not know who else would, or could, have done it.]
-
-    [Footnote 571: Hooker's 'Himalayan Journals,' ii. p. 310. Percy's
-    'Metallurgy: Iron and Steel,' p. 254 _et seq._ All the original
-    authorities will be found referred to in the last-named work.]
-
-    [Footnote 572: Josephus, 'Bell. Jud.,' v. p. 6.]
-
-    [Footnote 573: 'Journal Madras Lit. Soc.' xiv. pl. 8.]
-
-    [Footnote 574: 'J. A. S. B.' xxxvii. p. 116 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 575: An elaborate paper by the Rev. Mr. Joyce, in the
-    'Archæological Journal,' 108, 1870, shows, I think clearly, that
-    these crosses could not be earlier than 470 A.D.--all the
-    crosses he quotes being of the usual Greek form, though possessing
-    one longer limb. Indeed, I do not myself know of any crosses like
-    those at Nirmul earlier than the 10th or 11th century; but, as my
-    knowledge of the subject is not profound, I have allowed the widest
-    possible margin in the text. I cannot prove it, but my impression
-    is, that they belong to the 11th or 12th century.]
-
-    [Footnote 576: As it is wholly beside the object of this work I
-    have not attempted to go into the history of the Siganfu Tables,
-    nor the records of the early churches in the East. If the reader
-    cares to know more, he will find the subject fully and clearly
-    discussed in Col. Yule's 'Cathay, and the Way Thither,' published
-    by the Hakluyt Society, 1866. It is the last work on the subject,
-    and contains references to all the earlier ones.]
-
-    [Footnote 577: 'J. R. A. S.,' xiii. 164 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 578: Wilson's 'Ariana Antiqua,' Introduction _passim_.
-    Cunningham, 'Bhilsa Topes,' &c., _passim_.]
-
-    [Footnote 579: Hiouen Thsang, 'Vie et Voyages,' p. 77.]
-
-    [Footnote 580: 'Madras Journal of Lit. and Science,' xiii. pl. 14.]
-
-    [Footnote 581: 'Tree and Serpent Worship,' p. 82, woodcut 8.]
-
-    [Footnote 582: 'Foe Koué Ki,' p. 335.]
-
-    [Footnote 583: 'J.R.A.S.' xii. p. 233. 'J.B.A.S.' vii. p. 261 _et
-    seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 584: Gibbon, 'Decline and Fall,' iv. p. 392, where the
-    original authorities are found.]
-
-    [Footnote 585: Josephus, 'B. J.,' II. viii. p. 9.]
-
-    [Footnote 586: "The prestige of such a witness as Buddhaghosa soon
-    dwindles away, and his statements as to kings and councils 800
-    years before his time are, in truth, worth no more than the stories
-    told of Arthur, by Geoffrey of Monmouth, or the accounts we read in
-    Livy of the early history of Rome"--_Chips from a German Workshop_,
-    i. p. 198. As a mere linguist, and dependent wholly on books, Max
-    Müller was perfectly justified in making this statement, while his
-    ignorance of everything connected with the archæology or art of
-    India, prevented his perceiving how these wild statements could be
-    verified or controlled. Till he learns that there are other means
-    of investigation than mere words his statements on these subjects
-    are untrustworthy, and, in many cases, absolutely worthless.]
-
-    [Footnote 587: Turnour's 'Mahawanso,' 12 _et seq._ 'J. A. S. B.,'
-    vii. _passim_.]
-
-    [Footnote 588: Huc and Gabet, in their 'Travels in Thibet,' give
-    a most amusing account of their bewilderment on observing there
-    these things:--"La crosse, la mitre, la dalmatique, la chape ou
-    pluvial, que les grands Lamas portent en voyage, ou lorsqu'ils font
-    quelque cérémonie hors du temple; l'office des deux chœurs, la
-    psalmodie, les exorcismes, l'encensoir soutenu par cinque chaines,
-    et pouvant s'ouvrir et se fermer à volonté; les bénédictions
-    données par les Lamas, en étendant la main droite sur la tête des
-    fidèles; le chapelet, le célibat ecclesiastique, les retraites
-    spirituelles, le culte des saints, les jeûnes, les processions,
-    les litanies, l'eau bénite: voilà autant des rapports que les
-    Bouddhistes ont avec nous."--Vol. ii. p. 110.]
-
-    [Footnote 589: 'Mahavanso,' p. 26.]
-
-    [Footnote 590: Cunningham, 'Bhilsa Topes,' p. 289 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 591: Clemens, i. 194. Oxford, 1715.]
-
-    [Footnote 592: Clemens, i. 132. Translation by Potter, _ut sup._ p.
-    504.]
-
-    [Footnote 593: The accidental resemblance of the microlithic
-    temples of the Deccan mentioned above (p. 467) can hardly be quoted
-    as an exception. They are said to be dedicated to Vetal, but it is
-    not clear that the stones of the circle do not represent dead, as
-    they certainly do absent persons, and the sacrifice, after all,
-    is offered up to their departed spirits; it being a form of the
-    present day we do not know how much its spirit may not be changed
-    from the ancient rite which it was originally intended to typify.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER XIV.
-
-AMERICA.
-
-
-If this work had any pretension to being a complete history or
-statistical account of the Rude Monuments of the world, it might be
-necessary to describe somewhat in detail, and to illustrate those of
-the New World as well as those of the Old. In the form that it has now
-taken, however, nothing more is required than to point out as briefly
-as possible what the American monuments really are, with sufficient
-detail to show whether they have or have not any connexion with those
-we have been describing, and to point out what bearing--if any--their
-peculiarities may have on the main argument of this work.
-
-In so far as the rude monuments of North America are concerned, there
-is fortunately no difficulty in speaking with confidence. In the
-first volume of the 'Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge,'[594]
-the Americans possess a detailed description of their antiquities of
-this class such as no nation in Europe can boast of. The survey was
-carefully and scientifically carried out by Messrs. Squier and Davis,
-to whom it was entrusted. The text is tersely and clearly written,
-mere theories or speculations are avoided, and the plates are clearly
-and carefully engraved. If we had such a work on our own antiquities
-we should long ago have known all about them; but unfortunately there
-are no Smithsons in this country, and among our thousand and one
-millionaires, to whom the expense would be a flea-bite, there is not
-one who has the knowledge requisite to enable him to appreciate the
-value of such a survey, nor consequently the liberality sufficient to
-induce him to incur the expense necessary for its execution.
-
-
-NORTH AMERICA.
-
-With this work before us, we feel justified in making the assertion
-that there are no rude-stone monuments on the continent of North
-America. There are extensive earth works of nearly all the classes
-found in the Old World, and some--especially the animal forms--which
-are peculiar to the New.
-
-These earthworks Messrs. Squier and Davis classify as follows (page
-7):--
-
-  1. Enclosures for defence.
-  2. Sacred and miscellaneous enclosures.
-  3. Mounds of sacrifice.
-  4. Mounds of sepulture.
-  5. Temple mounds.
-  6. Animal mounds.
-
-With the first we have nothing to do: they are similar to those erected
-everywhere and in all ages of the world. They consist of a ditch, the
-earth taken in forming which is thrown up on its inner side, so as to
-form an obstacle to the advance of an enemy, and to become a shelter to
-the defenders. Some of these in America are of great extent, and show
-not only considerable proficiency in the art of defence, but indicate
-the presence of an extensive and settled population. The so-called
-"sacred enclosures" are not only numerous and extensive, but are unlike
-anything met with elsewhere. In Ross county alone our authors state
-that there are 100 at least of various sizes, and in the State of Ohio
-1000 to 1500, some of them enclosing areas from 100 to 200 acres in
-extent.
-
-[Illustration: 227. Enclosure in Newark Works.]
-
-Their typical form will be understood from the annexed woodcut. All
-seem to have a forecourt either square or octagonal in form, with 4
-or 8 entrances to it, and beyond this is a circle generally quite
-complete, and entered only by a passage or opening from the forecourt.
-These are enclosed by earthen mounds varying from 5 to 30 feet in
-height, with the ditch almost invariably on the inside.
-
-The last peculiarity is in itself, as in the case of the English
-circles, quite sufficient to preclude the idea of their being
-fortifications or meant for defence, and they certainly are not
-sepulchral in any sense in which we understand the term. In the first
-place, because we know perfectly what the sepulchres of these people
-were, from the thousands and tens of thousands of tumuli which dot the
-plains everywhere; but also because, unlike the English circles, which
-are as a rule found in the most remote and barren spots, these American
-enclosures as generally occupy the flattest and richest spots in the
-country. They are most frequently situated near the rivers, and on the
-natural lines of communication; so much so indeed that many of the
-cities of the present occupants of the country stand on the same spots
-and within the enclosures of the earlier races who raised these mounds.
-
-We are thus left to the choice between two hypotheses. Either they
-are sacred enclosures, as suggested by our authors, or they are royal
-residences--temples or palaces.
-
-All the arguments, derived from its excessive size, that were urged
-against Avebury being a temple, apply with redoubled force to these
-American enclosures. Temples occupying 50 to 100 acres are certainly
-singular anomalies when we try to realise what these admeasurements
-imply. Our largest square, Lincoln's Inn Fields, occupies only 12
-acres; the Green Park is 53; and all our parks together do not occupy
-the same space as the Newark enclosures, which, according to Messrs.
-Squier and Davis, cover more than four square miles.[595] Yet all these
-are circles and squares with connecting lines, and all with inside
-ditches. Temples of these dimensions, without divisions, or enclosures,
-or mounds, or permanent works of any kind, are anomalies difficult to
-understand, and must belong to some religion of which I, at least, have
-no knowledge; and no one, so far as I know, has yet suggested what
-that religion was, nor how these vast spaces could be utilized for any
-religious purpose.
-
-If we adopt the idea that they were the residences of the chiefs of
-the people, the mystery does not seem so great. If the circular wigwam
-of the chief was erected in the centre of the circles, and the wigwams
-of his subordinates and retainers in concentric circles around him,
-it would account for their dimensions, and also for the disappearance
-of all traces of habitation. The forecourt would thus be the place of
-assembly of the tribe, the exercise ground or gymnasium, and for such
-purposes it is admirably adapted, and both the size and the situation
-of these enclosures seem easily explicable.
-
-One curious circumstance tends to render this view more tenable. On
-plate xxi. of Messrs. Squier and Davis's work four groups of squares
-with circles are delineated, situated in different parts of the
-country; but all the four squares are almost identical in size, each
-side measuring 1080 feet. Why four temples should be exactly alike is a
-mystery, but that a tetrarchy of chiefs should be bound down to equal
-dimensions for their rival residences seems reasonable from a civil
-point of view.
-
-It does not seem difficult to explain the meaning of the inside ditch
-when fortification was not intended, as it must have been almost a
-necessity with a people who had not arrived at the elevation of using
-brick drains or drain-pipes. Without some such arrangement all the
-rain that fell within these solid enclosures would have remained on
-the surface, or in the squares could only have escaped through the
-openings, but a deep and broad ditch all round would drain the whole
-surface without inconvenience, and secure the only mode which would
-prevent the enclosure, be it a temple or palace, from becoming a swamp.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-Messrs. Squier and Davis divide the conical mounds which they excavated
-into two classes. The first they call "Mounds of sacrifice," because
-on digging into them they found on the level of the soil what appeared
-to be altars--raised floors which exhibited evidence of intense heat,
-and what they considered a long-continued practice of burning. It is
-evident, however, that such results might be produced in a week as well
-as in years, and it is very difficult to understand why at any time
-that which had been an altar should be buried in a tumulus. If it had
-been used for years, why, and on what occasion, was it agreed to bury
-it? If it was the funereal pyre of some chief, and used for burning
-sacrifices for the time the funeral services lasted, and was then
-buried, the case is intelligible enough, but the other hypothesis is
-certainly not easy of explanation.
-
-The true "Sepulchral mounds" are, as before mentioned, immensely
-numerous, and of all sizes, from a few feet up to such as the Grave
-Creek mound, 70 feet high and 1000 feet in circumference, or that at
-Miamisburgh, 68 feet high, and 852 feet in circumference at its base.
-The dead were buried in them apparently without coffins or cists,
-unless of wood, and generally in the contracted doubled-up position
-found so frequently in Scandinavia and in Algeria.
-
-The "Temple mounds" are generally square or oblong truncated pyramids,
-with inclined planes leading up to them on three and frequently on all
-four sides. They are in fact in earth the same form as the Teocallis
-of the Mexicans, though the latter seem always to have been in stone.
-Whether in the one material or the other, they are of a perfectly
-intelligible templar form. If a human sacrifice or any great ceremonial
-is to take place before all the people, the first requisite is an
-elevated platform where the ministrants can stand above the heads of
-the crowd, and be seen by all; and the absence of this in the Ohio
-and in our English circles is one of the most fatal objections to the
-temple theory. In one or two instances a single earthen Teocalli is
-found within the circles, but this no further militates against the
-supposition that they were residences than the presence of a chapel or
-place of worship in any of our palaces would prove them to be temples
-also. It must, however, be borne in mind that it is always difficult to
-draw a hard and fast line between the House of God and the Palace of
-the King. In Egypt it is never possible, and in the middle ages royal
-monasteries and royal residences were frequently interchangeable terms.
-We should not therefore feel surprised if, in America, we found the
-one fading into the other. But, on the whole, the enormous number of
-these circular enclosures--1000 and 1500 in one State--their immense
-size, 100 and 200 acres being not unfrequent, and the general absence
-of all signs of preparations for worship, seem sufficient to prove that
-they must be classed among civil and not among sacred erections. This
-seems to be the case even though sometimes three or four temple mounds
-are found together surrounded by a rampart just sufficient to enclose
-them with the necessary space for circulation all round; in which case,
-however, it is evident that they have passed the line separating the
-two divisions, and may, probably must, be classified as really sacred
-enclosures. These are generally found in the South, in Texas, and in
-the States most nearly bordering on Mexico, which looks as if they
-belonged to another race more nearly allied to the Toltecs or Aztecs
-than to the northern tribes.
-
-The only remaining class of mounds are those representing "Animals,"
-to which plates xxxv. to xliv. of Messrs. Squier and Davis's book are
-devoted. One of these, our authors have no doubt, represents a serpent
-700 feet long as he lies with his tail curled up into a spiral form,
-and his mouth gaping to swallow an egg (?) 160 feet long by 60 feet
-across. This at first sight looks so like one of Stukeley's monstrous
-inventions that the first impulse is to reject it as an illusion on the
-part of the surveyors. When, however, we bear in mind that the American
-mound-builders did represent not only men, but animals, quadrupeds,
-and lizards, in the same manner, and on the same relative scale, all
-improbability vanishes. At the same time the simple fact that the form
-is so easily recognisable here is in itself sufficient to prove that
-our straight-lined stone rows were not erected with any such intention,
-and could only be converted into Dracontia by the most perverted
-imagination.
-
-Though therefore we may assume that this mound really represents a
-serpent, it by no means follows that it was an idol or was worshipped.
-It seems to represent an action--the swallowing of something, but
-whether a globe or a grave is by no means clear, and must be left for
-further investigation. It is, however, only by taking it in connection
-with the other animal mounds in America that we can hope to arrive at a
-solution. They were not apparently objects of worship, and seem to have
-no connexion with anything found in the Old World.
-
-The other mounds representing quadrupeds are quite unmistakable: they
-are a freak of this people whoever they were. But it seems difficult to
-explain why they should take this Brobdignagian way of representing the
-animals they possessed, or were surrounded by. If we knew more of the
-people, or of their affinities, perhaps the solution would be easy; at
-present it hardly interests us, as we have no analogue in Europe.[596]
-
-It only now remains to try and ascertain if any connexion exists
-or existed between these American monuments and those of the Old
-World; and what light, if any, their examination may be expected to
-throw on the problems discussed in the preceding chapters. If it is
-wished to establish anything like a direct connexion between the two
-continents, we must go back to the far distant prehistoric times when
-the conformations of land and water were different from what they
-now are. No one, I presume, will be found to contend that, since the
-continents took their present shape, any migration across the Atlantic
-took place in such numbers as to populate the land, or to influence the
-manners or customs of the people previously existing there. It may be
-that the Scandinavians did penetrate in the tenth or eleventh centuries
-to Vinland, by the way of Greenland, and so anticipated the discovery
-of Columbus by some centuries;[597] but this is only a part of that
-world-pervading energy of the Aryan races, and has nothing whatever
-to do with the people of the tumuli. If any connexion really existed
-between the Old and the New World, in anything like historic times,
-everything would lead us to believe that it took place _viâ_ Behring
-Strait or the Aleutian Islands. It seems reasonable to suppose that the
-people who covered the Siberian Steppes with tumuli may have migrated
-across the calm waters of the Upper Pacific, and gradually extended
-themselves down to Wisconsin and Ohio, and there left these memorials
-we now find. It may also be admitted that the same Asiatic people may
-have spread westward from the original hive, and been the progenitors
-of those who covered our plains with barrows, but beyond this no
-connexion seems to be traceable which would account for anything we
-find. Nowhere, however, in America do these people ever seem to have
-risen to the elevation of using even rude stones to adorn their tombs
-or temples. Nor do they appear to have been acquainted with the use of
-iron or of bronze; all the tools found in their tombs being of pure
-unalloyed native copper--both of which circumstances seem to separate
-these American mound-builders entirely from our rude-stone people in
-anything like historic times.
-
-Unfortunately, also, the study of the manners and customs of the
-Redmen, who occupied North America when we first came in contact with
-them, is not at all likely to throw any light on the subject. They
-have never risen beyond the condition of hunters, and have no settled
-places of abode, and possess no works of art. The mound-builders, on
-the contrary, were a settled people, certainly pastoral, probably to
-some extent even agricultural; they had fixed well chosen unfortified
-abodes, altogether exhibiting a higher state of civilization than we
-have any reason to suppose the present race of Redmen ever reached or
-are capable of reaching.
-
-Although, therefore, it seems in vain to look on the Red Indians who
-in modern times occupied the territories of Ohio and Wisconsin as the
-descendants of the mound-builders, there are tribes on the west coast
-of America that probably are, or rather were, very closely allied to
-them. The Hydahs and the natives inhabiting Vancouver's Island and
-Queen Charlotte's Sound seem both from their physical condition, and
-more so from their works of art, to be just such a people as one would
-expect the mound-builders to have been. If this is so, it again points
-to Northern Asia, and not to Europe, as the country where we must
-look for the origin of this mysterious people; and it is there, I am
-convinced, if anywhere, that the solution of our difficulties with
-regard to this phase of North American civilization is to be found.
-
-
-CENTRAL AMERICA.
-
-When we advance a little farther south, we meet in Mexico and Yucatan
-with phenomena which are the exact converse of those in Ohio and
-Wisconsin. There everything is in stone; earth either never being
-used, or, if employed at all, it was only as a core to what was faced
-or intended to be faced with the more durable material. There is one
-fact, however, which takes the Mexican monuments entirely out of the
-category of the works contemplated in this book. All the stones in
-Central America are carved. So far as is known, no rude stones were
-ever set up there, even the obelisks which stand alone, and look most
-like our menhirs in outline, are, like the Babas of the Steppes, all
-carved, most of them elaborately; and though it may be true that they
-may, at some remote period, have been derived from some such rude
-originals as are found in Europe, still till we find some traces of
-these in Central America they cannot be said to belong to the class
-of monuments of which we are now treating; nor can they be used as
-affording any analogies or illustrations which it would be worth while
-citing in this place.
-
-
-PERU.
-
-The same remarks apply to what we find in Peru with equal force, but
-not with equal distinctness. No one will, I presume, contend that there
-was any direct communication between Europe and the west coast of South
-America before the time of Columbus. Yet there are similarities between
-the masonry of the Peruvian monuments and those of the Pelasgi in
-Greece and Tyrrheni in Italy which are most striking, and can only be
-accounted for, at present, on the assumption that nations in the same
-stage of civilization, and using similar materials, arrive nearly at
-the same results. Perhaps we ought to add to this, provided they have
-some taint of the same blood in their veins; and that, in this case,
-does not seem absolutely improbable.
-
-Be this as it may, there are, so far as I know, no rude-stone monuments
-in Southern America. The ruins, for instance, of Tia Huanaco, which
-have often been quoted for their similarity to "Druidical remains,"
-are as far removed as possible from that category. It is true that
-there are rows of squared stones that now stand apart, and in imperfect
-drawings look like our menhirs enclosing a square or circular space.
-In reality, however, as we learn from photographs, they are carefully
-squared stones, which formed pilasters in walls constructed with
-Adobes, or imperfectly burned bricks, or smaller stones which have been
-removed.[598] The doorways which led into this enclosure are hewn out
-of a single block of stone, and are more carefully cut and polished
-than anything else to be found anywhere out of Egypt, and there only in
-the best days of her great Pharaohs.
-
-The same remarks may apply to the circles and squares illustrated by
-Mr. Squier.[599] I may be mistaken, but my impression is that like
-Houel's Druidical circles in Gozo, above alluded to, they are only the
-foundation courses of square and circular buildings, the upper parts of
-which have perished. At all events, till they are excavated, or some
-traditional or real use is found for them, I should be very unwilling
-to base any argument on their accidental similarity with our stone
-circles.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-There can be no doubt that these earthen mounds and primitive carved
-stones of the American continent form in themselves a most interesting
-group of monuments, well deserving more attention than has yet been
-bestowed upon them, and that, when properly investigated, they will
-throw more light on the origin and migrations of the various aboriginal
-races of that country than can be expected from any other source.
-They are not, however, of the class we are treating of, nor do they
-seem to have any direct connexion with those of the Old World. As,
-besides this, their examination does not promise to solve any of our
-difficulties, they do not necessarily occupy an extended space in
-a work devoted to the elucidation of the Use and Age of Rude-Stone
-Monuments.
-
-
-    [Footnote 594: 'Ancient Monuments in the Mississippi Valley;'
-    Philadelphia, 1847.]
-
-    [Footnote 595: 'Ancient Monuments,' &c., p. 49. Hyde Park,
-    including Kensington Gardens, occupies about one square mile.]
-
-    [Footnote 596: I cannot help fancying that the great animals in
-    stone that line the avenues leading to the tombs of the emperors in
-    China may have some affinity with the American animal sculptures,
-    which occur principally in Wisconsin and the farther West. I am
-    unable, however, to obtain any information with regard to the
-    Chinese or Siberian examples sufficiently reliable to found any
-    argument upon.]
-
-    [Footnote 597: 'Annal. for Nordk. Oldkyndighed,' ii. p. 3 _et seqq_.
-    See also C. C. Rafn, 'Antiquitates Americanæ,' &c., Hafniæ, 1837.]
-
-    [Footnote 598: 'History of Architecture,' by the Author, vol. ii.
-    pp. 774 _et seq._]
-
-    [Footnote 599: 'The American Naturalist,' iv., March, 1870,
-    figures 1, 8, and 9.]
-
-
-
-
-APPENDIX A.
-
-(_Referred to, page 225._)
-
-
-  DUNMINNING, GLARRYFORD, CO. ANTRIM,
-
-  _August 18, 1871_.
-
-  MY DEAR SIR,--I was unable to get to Glen Columbkille till
-  this week, and I am afraid that I shall be too late to be of use
-  to you. As, however, I did not forget to examine the monuments, I
-  send the notes I made on them. All were written down at the stones
-  themselves. Glen Columbkille is about 4 miles long and 3 broad. Its
-  eastern boundary is a steep rocky mountain, from which the floor of
-  the glen slopes down to the sea, and ends westward in Glen Bay. Glen
-  Bay is of considerable width from its southern point, Rossan, to its
-  northern, Glen Head, but it has only a short beach. There is also
-  a dangerous bar, so that it is an almost impossible landing-place
-  except for curraghs, and in smooth weather for boats. The north side
-  of Glen Columbkille is rocky and steep, and is chiefly formed by the
-  mountain Ballard. The south side, though in parts precipitous, and
-  nowhere a very gradual slope, is not so steep as its opposite. The
-  coast south and north of Glen Bay for miles is a range of cliffs, of
-  from 1900 to 100 feet, with here and there a small beach, but no safe
-  landing-places. South of Glen Columbkille is a smaller and shallower
-  valley, Glen Malin. The sides of Glen Malin are all gradual; its
-  coast is precipitous; on the south it is bounded by a mountain of
-  large base, Leathan. Both Glen Columbkille and Glen Malin are in the
-  parish of Glen Columbkille and barony of Banagh. Most of the great
-  stone structures are in Glen Malin.
-
-  The monuments are of three kinds: (1) cromlechs;[600] (2) stone
-  chambers; (3) solitary stones. They are in groups of various size and
-  compactness. There are five distinct groups, a considerable distance
-  apart, and with no apparent connexion of arrangement. Three groups
-  are on the north and two on the south side of the glen. The stones in
-  each have been more or less disturbed, and have been made to serve
-  in lime-kilns and byres and as malt stores. While examining one set,
-  I felt my foot sink, and, lifting the edge of a piece of heather,
-  found an excavation filled with barley, soaking. On getting into
-  another cavity, I found two black lambs inside, and in another some
-  pigs, in another calves. The most remarkable general feature of the
-  architecture that I noticed was that the stones in each group were
-  much of a size, but that in some groups they were a good deal larger
-  than in others. I shall speak of the groups as they are marked by
-  letters in a plan I made for my own use on the spot.
-
-  [Illustration: 228. Plan of the Uprights of Cromlech D I.]
-
-  D. This group, which is that nearest the sea on the south side of the
-  river, consists of six cromlechs, arranged in line, with considerable
-  intervals. A few yards west of this group are several mounds of
-  stones with some large blocks amongst them, but no blocks more than 4
-  feet long. These extend for some 50 yards in line from west to east.
-  A few yards above them is a large pile of stones, in the midst of
-  which is a stone 6 feet high and 3 feet wide. These heaps have been
-  augmented by stones collected from the fields, but I think there are
-  indications that they were originally of the nature of the cromlechs.
-
-  There are six cromlechs, and from the first the other five are in
-  sight. The line in which they are placed along the glen side is not
-  quite straight. The westernmost cromlech is some yards south of the
-  others, and the west to east line is not exact with regard to the
-  others, but is nowhere so much departed from as with the first pile.
-  The first is about half a mile from the sea. I shall describe them
-  from west to east.
-
-  I. This was a cromlech of five huge stones and a top. The top stone
-  has fallen to westward, and the uprights are all somewhat displaced.
-  Three of the upright stones are still erect; two are fallen, but not
-  quite to the ground. At the west end are some smaller blocks and
-  another slab. These are hidden by small stones and earth; I think
-  there were two support stones and a slab. After examining all the
-  monuments of the two glens, I came to the conclusion that this (D I.)
-  was a cromlech with a stone chamber beside it. There is a space 2
-  feet 6 inches wide between the two tallest uprights. The annexed plan
-  shows the arrangement of the uprights. The top slab has fallen over
-  _e_; _d_ and _e_ are fallen; _a_, _b_, and _c_ are upright, but slant
-  more or less. The dimensions are:--
-
-
-                            Ft. In.
-
-  (_a_) Height              12   9    (_a_) slants somewhat to
-      Breadth                9   4  westward; the height from its tip
-      Thickness(about)       3   0   to the ground is 10 feet 2 inches.
-      Widest girth          23   0
-
-  (_b_) Height               7   5    (_b_) from tip perpendicular
-      Breadth                4   3  the height is 6 feet 6 inches.
-      Thickness              2   0
-
-  (_c_) Height               7   0
-      Breadth                2  10
-      Thickness              1   0
-
-  (_d_) Length              10   0
-      Breadth                5   0
-      Thickness              2   0
-
-  (_e_) Length               7   0    (_e_) is hard to measure, as it
-                                    lies under earth, stones, and the
-                                     top slab.
-
-  All these are of a gritty stone, veined with quartz, a rock plentiful
-  in Sliabh Liag, Sliabh Leathan, and the cliffs of the coast. Their
-  shape is rugged.
-
-  The top slab is of pure quartz. It is about a foot thick, and is
-  smooth on both sides. This sort of stone splits with a smooth
-  surface, as may be seen on Sliabh Liag and in some of the cliffs.
-  The slab is a tolerably regular oblong, 9 feet 8 inches by 6 feet 6
-  inches. The smaller slab alluded to above, and which was, I think,
-  the top of the chamber, is about 6 feet by 3 feet.
-
-  D II. lies about 40 feet east of D I. It, too, is a cromlech, but the
-  stones of which it is built are of smaller size than those of D I.
-  There are no traces of a chamber, but otherwise it is constructed as
-  D I. The highest standing stone is 4 feet high. There seem to have
-  been five uprights. The top slab has fallen to the west side. It
-  measures 6 feet 3 inches by 5 feet.
-
-  [Illustration:
-
-  229. Plan showing the actual position of the Stones of D III.  ]
-
-  D III. is situate 55 feet east of D II. It is a cromlech of five
-  uprights and one slab. One upright only is erect now. Its height is 5
-  feet, its width 3 feet. The slab which was atop is 8 feet by 7 feet,
-  and averages 2 feet in thickness.
-
-  D IV. is 31 feet east of D III. It is a small-sized cromlech. The
-  uprights are all fallen. The slab measures 6 feet 8 inches by 6 feet.
-  A series of low mounds with large stones sticking out here and there
-  forms a sort of connexion with the next cromlech, which stands 48
-  feet farther east.
-
-  D V. Its slab has fallen to eastward, and the uprights in several
-  directions. The tallest upright is 6 feet high. The slab is of
-  quartz, and measures 10 feet by 7 feet, and is about 13 inches thick.
-  Around this cromlech are numbers of loose stones. They are from 1
-  foot to 2 feet long, and are of mica-schist and quartz. They are not
-  such as would be picked off the meadow, and seem to have been in some
-  way connected with the cromlech.
-
-  [Illustration: 230. Plan (excl. Top Slab).]
-
-  D VI. stands 96 feet farther east. It is a very large cromlech. It is
-  a good deal fallen; all the stones of which it is built have more or
-  less the character of slabs. It is used as one side of a respectable
-  byre. One great smooth piece of quartz seems to have been the roof.
-  It measures 18 feet 7 inches by 11 feet. The biggest of the stones
-  seems to have formed the east wall of the chamber. Its dimensions are
-  12 feet by 14 feet, and it is 4 feet thick. I took the dimensions of
-  three others:--1. Length 5 feet 6 inches, width 4 feet; 2. Length 11
-  feet, width 8 feet; 3. Length 9 feet, width 3 feet, thickness 3 feet.
-
-  From the flat nature of the component stones, the chamber inside
-  would have had few gaps in its walls. Near this cromlech is a low
-  stony mound.
-
-  From a few yards east of D VI. a ridge runs slantwise up the side
-  of Leathan. Many stones stick up out of it, but I could make out no
-  arrangement. The highest projecting stone is not 4 feet high. This
-  ridge is about a quarter of a mile long. It might be natural, but it
-  has very much the look of a human work. Some 150 yards up the ridge
-  I noticed a slab projecting from the heather. It might possibly be
-  the top of a chamber, of which the walls are beneath the earth. This
-  seeming road does not lead to another group of stones, but disappears
-  a short way up the mountain side. Near the mountain top there is a
-  small bare cliff, the only bare bit of rock on the otherwise smooth
-  slopes of Leathan. The rock exposed is quartz, and the position of
-  the little cliff leads one at a glance to imagine that it may have
-  been the quarry whence the slabs were brought. In this case the ridge
-  may have been the road down the mountain. When one goes up to the
-  crag, it looks less like a quarry than from below, but at the same
-  time I could perceive no geological reason for the exposure of so
-  small a surface of rock.
-
-  Some distance up Glen Malin, and on the same side of the river as D,
-  but not in sight from it, is another group, E, of stone monuments.
-
-  The large stones of this group are surrounded by numbers of rough,
-  weather-worn stone blocks, averaging 2 feet in length. The monuments
-  seem to be all cromlechs or chambers, and, as far as I could tell,
-  are about a dozen in number. One cromlech stands a good deal higher
-  than the rest. West of it are two stony mounds; these seem to have
-  been chambers. They are built of long flat slabs, with similar slabs
-  at the ends and top.
-
-  [Illustration: 231. Plan of the Arrangement of the Cromlechs of Group
-  E.
-  _a._ Eastmost one.
-  _b._ Highest.
-  _c_, _d_. Mounds.]
-
-  The ground beyond the cromlechs is moorland, and without loose
-  stones. The stony area is oval, and measures east to west 130 feet,
-  north to south 50 to 60 feet.
-
-  All the cromlechs are about the same size. In the construction
-  of all, the aim seems to have been a well shut-in chamber. The
-  easternmost one is a chamber 9 feet 10 inches long. At each end it
-  has a flat stone 3 feet high. The side stones are 7½ feet long
-  and 3 feet high The width of the chamber is 4 feet 6 inches. At each
-  side, and at each end, are heaps of loose small stones. The top slab
-  is about 1 foot thick, and is almost a square of 9 feet.
-
-  On the north side of Glen Malin, there are three groups:--
-
-  A. This, which is the group furthest from the sea, is of five or six
-  cromlechs, but only one is in good preservation. It consists of a
-  slab resting on four flat blocks, and encloses a chamber. The side
-  stones are each 5 feet 8 inches long. This group stands on a small
-  flat piece of ground below a crag and above a stream. Leading from the
-  chamber there seems to have been a passage, the sides of which were
-  formed of slabs of stone, of which a few remain.
-
-  Some distance lower down the glen, on the north side, is a solitary
-  pointed stone. It is 6 feet 1 inch high, and its girth is 5 feet 5
-  inches. Higher on the slope by 110 feet, and 18 feet farther west,
-  group B begins.
-
-  B. The first of this group is a chamber cromlech. It is much buried
-  in the heather. Some loose stones lie around the cromlech. What seems
-  to have been the top slab is 10 feet across and nearly square, and 2
-  feet thick. One of the side slabs of the chamber is 10 feet 8 inches
-  by 4 feet. The tallest stone is at the east end, and is in height 6
-  feet 8 inches. Lower down the slope, below this cromlech, are several
-  low mounds, from which there are no projecting stones; 200 yards west
-  in a straight line is a huge cromlech. It seems to have consisted of
-  a gigantic slab, supported on three upright stones, not forming a
-  closed chamber. The top slab is still on its supports; it is 3 feet
-  thick, and measures 13 feet by 10 feet 9 inches. The tallest of the
-  uprights is 9 feet high, and is rather pointed at top. The third
-  upright seems to have been broken into several pieces. Some 10 yards
-  from this is another cromlech of equal dimensions, and a little south
-  of these several large loose stones are lying on the ground. Forty
-  yards west is a chamber cromlech of small dimensions, and near it are
-  many mounds with stones projecting, possibly artificial.
-
-  C. This group is some distance farther down on the same side of the
-  glen; it consists of two cromlechs, separated by a short ridge, so
-  that I think they are really parts of one structure. The eastern part
-  is fallen; it consists of three uprights and a top slab. The western
-  part consists of two stones leaning gablewise against one another.
-  Between the two there is a short ridge, from which several stones
-  stick out. Each of the western pair of stones is about 7 feet high
-  by 6 feet broad. The dimensions of the eastern part of the monument
-  are:--Top slab, 11 feet by 7 feet; thickness, 1½ foot. Uprights:
-  (_a_) 8 feet (and I think 2 feet below ground) by 7 feet 7 inches
-  broad; 2 feet 3 inches thick. (_b_) 9 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 8
-  inches; thickness 2 feet 5 inches, (_c_) 9 feet 6 inches by 3 feet 5
-  inches; thickness, 1 foot 9 inches.
-
-  The other groups do not command remarkable prospects, but from this
-  last group there is a fine view of the sea, with the island of
-  Rathlin O'Beirne close below, and beyond the mountainous coast line
-  of Mayo as far as Belmullet.
-
-  So far the stone monuments of Glen Malin.
-
-  In Glen Columbkille is but one group. It stands in the townland of
-  Farn MacBride, on the north side of the glen, and at the foot of the
-  mountain Ballard. Its monuments are all of the chamber kind. The
-  chambers are made of huge slabs, one at each side, one atop, one at
-  each end. I measured one, and found the sides each 12 feet long and
-  4 feet broad. Most of the monuments project but little above the
-  ground. One is used to keep calves in, one for pigs, and one for
-  lambs. A native of the townland told me that his brother had dug up a
-  skull and a piece of earthenware near one of the cromlechs. The skull
-  was buried in the churchyard, and its grave is forgotten. The same
-  man also told me that, digging to clear a cromlech for a malt-store,
-  they found that the side slabs rested on a basement slab. The ground
-  is very rugged about these monuments, and some are quite beneath
-  ground, but I think there are altogether six.
-
-  I hope that, if these notes are too late to be of use for your book,
-  they may yet be of some interest to you, and
-
-  I remain, my dear Sir, yours sincerely,
-
-  NORMAN MOORE.
-
-  _James Fergusson, Esq._
-
-
-On receiving the above communication, I forwarded to Mr. Moore an
-impression of the woodcut No. 80, representing Calliagh Birra's Tomb or
-House, and received the following reply:--
-
-
-  DUNMINNING, GLARRYFORD, CO. ANTRIM,
-
-  _August 28, 1871_.
-
-  MY DEAR SIR,--The cromlechs of Farn MacBride, as they stand
-  apparently undisturbed, exactly resemble in plan that depicted in
-  the woodcut. With one or two exceptions the cromlechs of Glen Malin,
-  as far as one can tell in their fallen condition, are built on the
-  same plan. The shape of the stones at the sides and of the top slabs
-  of the cromlech in the engraving is exactly the shape of the stones
-  of the cromlechs in both Glen Malin and Farn MacBride. In one or
-  two of the cromlechs I noticed stones which might correspond to the
-  buttress-like outside stones of the ground-plan in the cut.
-
-  The number of slabs in the side walls of the Glen cromlechs is
-  smaller than the number in the woodcut.
-
-  The very large cromlech, easternmost of the group the first described
-  in my letter, is in every particular, except the number of its
-  component blocks, the counterpart of your engraving.
-
-  _In fine_, the plan of all the cromlechs of Glen Columbkille, except
-  one or two, the variety of which may be owing to disarrangement, is
-  that of the Meath cromlech.
-
-  NORMAN MOORE.
-
-
-   [Footnote 600: Throughout this paper Mr. Moore uses the term
-    "Cromlech," as is usually done by English antiquaries, in the sense
-    in which "Dolmen" is employed in the body of the work.]
-
-
-
-
-APPENDIX B.
-
-THE DIGGINGS IN ODEN'S HOWE, &c. Gamla, Upsala, 1846-7.
-
-
-  These diggings were conducted by Riks Antiquary B. E. Hildebrand and
-  Lieut.-Colonel Ståt, chiefly in the days of August-September, 1846,
-  and June 7-22, 1847. The only printed notices thereon appeared at the
-  time, chiefly from the pen of B. E. Hildebrand, in the Upsala paper
-  'Correspondenten,' Nos. 75, 77, 79--September 12, 19, 26, 1846, and
-  Nos. 50, 53--June 23 and July 3, 1847.
-
-  1. 'Correspondenten,' September 12, 1846.--Diggings going on, but
-  prove more laborious than had been expected.
-
-  2. 'Correspondenten,' September 19, 1846.--A boarded gallery 7
-  Swedish feet 5 inches high and 5 feet broad has been constructed from
-  the east side of the howe (Oden's Howe, the largest of the three
-  so-called King-howes), towards the centre. After penetrating 68 feet
-  (20 met.), a mighty wall of granite blocks was struck, probably a
-  grave-chamber. The gently rising gallery abuts on the lowest stones
-  of the chamber. During the diggings have been found unburnt animal
-  bones, bits of dark wood, charcoal, burnt bones, &c. Thus this was
-  evidently a sepulchral mound. The name _King-howes_ is evidently
-  correct. Diggings have also been made in the smaller cairns near by,
-  and although they have been opened before, burial-urns have been
-  found, burnt human bones, bones of animals and birds, bits of iron
-  and bronze, &c.
-
-  3. 'Correspondenten,' September 26, 1846.--The great wall has proved
-  to be the edge of a mighty chamber. Between 200 and 300 large granite
-  blocks have been taken out. Some of them have traces of tooling. The
-  gallery has been carried 16 Swedish feet through the stone mass,
-  which lies on hard packed clay, over a layer of fine sand, resting
-  on large stones above the natural soil. At the middle of the howe
-  the grave-chamber is 9 feet above the level of the soil, 18 feet
-  under the top of the howe. On the bed of clay under the great stones
-  have been found an iron clinker 3 inches long, remains of pine poles
-  partly burnt, a lock of hair chestnut coloured, &c. The numerous
-  clusters of charcoal show that the dead had been burned on the layer
-  of clay, and the bones have been collected in an urn not yet found.
-  In one of the nearest small howes have been found a quantity of
-  burnt animal and human bones, two little-injured bronze brooches, a
-  fragment of a golden ornament, &c.
-
-  4. 'Correspondenten,' June 23, 1847.--The burial-urn has been found
-  in the grave-chamber. Also have turned up bones of men, horses, dogs,
-  a golden ornament delicately worked, a bone comb, bone buttons, &c.
-
-  5. 'Correspondenten,' July 3, 1847.--The gallery has been driven 4
-  feet farther, thereafter has been made a side gallery, 8½ feet
-  wide and 8 feet long, up to the burial-urn. This was found 3 inches
-  under the soil, and was covered with a thin slab. It was 7 inches
-  high, 9 inches in diameter, filled with burnt bones, human and animal
-  (horse, dog, &c.), ashes, charcoal (of needle and leaf trees), nails,
-  copper ornaments, bone articles, a bird of bone, &c. In the mass of
-  charcoal about were found bones, broken ornaments, bits of two golden
-  bracteates, &c. Coins of King Oscar were then placed in the urn, and
-  everything restored as before.
-
-  Frey's Howe was opened, and showed the same results.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-  The gallery remained for some years, and was visited by thousands of
-  persons, but afterwards fell in, and the howe is now inaccessible.
-
-  CARL SÄVE.
-
-  UPSALA, _March 1, 1871_.
-
-
-
-
-APPENDIX C.
-
-
-Since the sheets containing the account of the Scottish monuments were
-printed off, I have received from Sir Henry Dryden slips of two letters
-which he addressed to the editor of the _John o' Groat's Journal_,
-giving an account of some explorations he had made in Caithness during
-this autumn. One of these contains an account of certain chapels,
-brochs, and circles he had examined. The first two classes do not
-concern us here, and are therefore omitted; but the circles are of
-interest as probably belonging to the same category as those in the
-Orkneys, and the description of them is consequently printed with the
-other letter, which gives an account of four alignments which are so
-germane to our subject that Sir Henry's description is printed _in
-extenso_. The name of the first, "The Battle Moss, Yarhouse," is of
-itself singularly suggestive, and I have little doubt that, if properly
-inquired into, the peasantry could tell what battle was fought there,
-and what, consequently,  these lines were erected to commemorate.
-Taken in conjunction with the horned cairns described by Mr.
-Anderson,[601] and the circles, it does not seem to me doubtful that
-the whole of this Caithness group belongs to the tenth century. The
-circles, and especially the horned cairns, are the exact counterparts
-of the fanciful forms of the Viking graves found at Hjortehammer
-(woodcut No. 118) and elsewhere in Scandinavia, which resemble them in
-more respects than one, and the alignments are such as those at Ashdown
-(woodcut No. 28). Nor need we go far for the events they commemorate.
-Between the years 970 and 996, A.D., two great battles, at
-least, are recorded to have taken place in Caithness, between the sons
-of Thorfin, and between Liotr, the victor of the first fight, and the
-Scots, who in vain attempted to avenge the death of Skiuli; and besides
-these there may have been many subordinate frays. It is probable that
-both brothers were buried in Caithness, and we are distinctly told
-that Laudver, the last surviving son of Thorfin, was certainly buried
-there.[602]
-
-[Illustration: 232. Horned Cairn, Caithness.]
-
-The fact of these alignments and horned cairns and semicircles being
-unlike what is found elsewhere in Scotland, separates this group from
-anything existing further south. Their similarity to the Viking graves
-of Scandinavia, avowedly of the tenth century, points to an age from
-which they cannot be distant; and when it is recollected that Caithness
-in the tenth century formed part of the Orcadian Jarldom, it does not
-seem that we have far to seek for an authentic explanation of all we
-find in that remote corner of the isle.
-
-J. F.
-
-
-    [Footnote 601: 'Proceedings Soc. Ant. Scot.,' vii. 480 _et seqq._]
-
-    [Footnote 602: 'Barry's History of Orkney,' pp. 125-129.]
-
-
-
-
-LETTER FROM SIR H. DRYDEN, BART.,
-
-TO THE
-
-_Editor of the 'John o' Groat's Journal.'_
-
-   LINES, BATTLE MOSS, YARHOUSE. LINES AND CIST,
-  GARRYWHIN. LINES, "MANY STONES," CLYTH. LINES,
-  CAMSTER. CIRCLE(?) ACHANLOCH. CIRCLE, GUIDEBEST,
-  LATHERONWHEEL.
-
-
-  GROUPS OF LINES.
-
-  I am not aware of any similar groups in Great Britain, though no
-  doubt there are some, and have no books at hand to refer to any in
-  Denmark, Norway, or Sweden. The groups of lines in France (of far
-  larger stones and greater length than those in Caithness) have the
-  largest stones and widest intervals and the highest ground (the
-  heads) to the west or thereabouts, and the smallest stones and
-  narrowest intervals and lowest ground (the tails) to the east or
-  thereabouts. The Caithness groups differ entirely in principle. The
-  one at Yarhouse Loch runs north and south, does not radiate, and
-  is on nearly level ground; but the three others have the narrower
-  intervals and higher ground to the north (which end we may call the
-  head), and radiate towards the south and lower ground. The group
-  at Battlemoss, near Yarhouse, is on ground falling slightly to
-  north-west. It consists of eight lines placed north and south. The
-  width at the south end is forty-four feet. The lines are somewhat
-  irregular, and appear to radiate slightly towards the north, but this
-  is uncertain. One line extends 384 feet, and another one 170 feet,
-  but the remaining six now only extend 133 feet. The ground is covered
-  with peat and heather, and other stones may be hidden below the
-  surface. There is no cairn or other grave now visible in proximity to
-  the lines. The largest stones are about 2 feet 6 inches high, 2 feet
-  6 inches wide, and 1 foot 3 inches thick.
-
-  The group at Garrywhin consists of six lines. The whole width at the
-  head (north-east end) is 50 feet, and at the bottom 107 feet. The
-  central line bears N.N.E. or S.S.W. The length of this line is 200
-  feet. The fall is 20 feet to the S.S.W. At the head is a cist of
-  slabs 3 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches, and 2 feet 4 inches deep,
-  placed east and west. As this grave is on the highest point of the
-  knoll, and as the lines commence at it, it is fair to presume that
-  they are connected. In the cist were found ashes, pieces of pottery,
-  and flint chips, but no bones. As the cist is between the third and
-  fourth lines, it is fair to presume that there never were more than
-  six lines.
-
-  The group called "Many Stones" has the head on the top of a knoll,
-  from which the ground falls on all sides. The lines are on the south
-  slope, and are 22 in number. The width at the head or north end is
-  118 feet, and at the bottom is 188 feet. The length in the centre is
-  145 feet, but there is no proof that this was the original length,
-  and the presumption is the reverse. The average bearing is north
-  and south, and the fall 10 feet 3 inches. The largest stones now
-  remaining are about 3 feet high, 3 feet wide, and 1 foot 6 inches
-  thick. There are numerous blocks of stone lying about the head,
-  where, however, the rock is exposed, but the example of Garrywhin
-  makes it probable that a cairn once existed on this knoll. There are
-  no traces of any _sunk_ grave, but the cairn may have contained a
-  chamber above ground, like many in the vicinity.
-
-  The group at Camster is on the moor, on ground falling slightly
-  to the south-west. A considerable depth of peat overlies the rock
-  here, and many stones are below the surface. There are now six lines
-  ascertained. The length is 105 feet, width at the head or north end
-  30 feet, and at the tail or lower end 53 feet. The average bearing is
-  north and south. The stones are smaller than at the last mentioned
-  group. There is no cairn or other grave apparent close to these
-  lines, but in a direction due north, at 346 feet, is a chambered
-  cairn. No stones are now traceable between; but as there are gaps in
-  the lines themselves, this blank interval may once have had lines on
-  it to connect the cairn with the existing group. No habitation _now_
-  exists near the spot, but there were many in this strath, which may
-  account for destruction of stones in former times. A few hundred feet
-  farther north is the huge horned cairn described by Mr. Anderson, and
-  at 436 feet N.N.E. from the small cairn is the round chambered cairn
-  described in the same paper.
-
-
-  CIRCLE AT ACHANLOCH, ESTATE OF FORSE, IN PARISH OF LATHERON.
-
-  The name is spelt Achinloch and Auchinleck. These no doubt are wrong,
-  and probably the name is derived from Gaelic words signifying "The
-  Field at the Loch," or "The Field of the Stones," from these standing
-  stones. The place is close to the new road from Lybster to Thurso.
-  This series of standing-stones, entitled "circle," as a classname,
-  is in the form of a donkey's shoe, the length being N.N.W, and
-  S.S.E., the open end to the latter. The sides are nearly parallel.
-  The area is covered with heather and peat, on a substratum of rock
-  of the slaty character common to the district. The ground falls from
-  the area to the west, north, and east. In the latter direction, the
-  ground falls only for a short distance, and then rises to much higher
-  ground. On the north-east, at 700 feet or 800 feet, is the loch of
-  Stemster.
-
-  There is no evidence that the two south ends were ever joined by a
-  straight or curved line of stones; and as the sides are of equal
-  length, we may infer that they never were joined, though possibly
-  intended to be so. The highest point of the area is about 13 feet
-  above the hollow on the east. This donkey-shoe-shaped series of stones
-  is 226 feet long, and 110 feet wide in the middle, inside measure. The
-  two extremities are 85 feet 3 inches apart.
-
-  There are now 36 stones existing, of which only one is down; but by
-  filling up intervals at usual distances, it appears there were 54
-  stones, supposing the lower end vacant as now. The average interval
-  seems to have been 8 feet. The highest stone is 5 feet 7 inches high
-  above ground; the widest 5 feet 4 inches; and the thickest 1 foot 7
-  inches.
-
-  All these stones are of a slaty character, and have their sides
-  parallel, so that in width (long sides) they are generally three
-  or four times their thickness (short sides). But the singular
-  characteristic of this series is that the stones are set with their
-  long sides at right angles to the curve, projecting like cogs of a
-  wheel.
-
-  In many circles some or all of the stones have no decided difference
-  in the measures of width and thickness; but in all cases, when I have
-  found a difference, the long sides are in the line of the curve.
-
-  Any notice of an arrangement similar to that at Achanloch would be a
-  favour.
-
-  There is no appearance of any part of the area having been disturbed
-  for burial or other purposes. There is a ruin of a chambered cairn
-  south-east of the circle; and in the loch of Rangag, about a mile
-  west, is the remain of a brough.
-
-
-  CIRCLE AT GUIDEBEST, LATHERONWHEEL, PARISH OF LATHERON.
-
-  The place is on the north bank of the burn, one mile and a half
-  up the strath. The circle is nearly true in form, and though now
-  imperfect, doubtless was once complete. It is 170 feet in diameter.
-  The area is flat, covered with heather and peat, on a substratum of
-  rock in some places, and of alluvial gravel in others. It is 15 feet
-  above the brook, which has washed away the cliff very close up to the
-  south-west stone, and appears likely, unless prevented, to dislocate
-  the stones on that side.
-
-  There are now only seven stones existing--all erect--and by filling
-  up the gaps at usual distances there were thirteen stones. The
-  average interval seems to have been 45 feet. The highest stone is
-  5 feet 3 inches above ground; the widest 3 feet 2 inches; and the
-  thickest 1 foot 10 inches. The stone is of the common argillaceous
-  slate of the district.
-
-  The stones are nearer square or circular in plan than those at
-  Achanloch, but (so far as they can be) are all set with the long
-  sides to the curve. The south stone is a little beyond the line of
-  the circle, but is evidently a moved and erected stone.
-
-  There are numbers of stones lying about the area; but no evidence of
-  a cairn or other burial-place in or near the circle. From its soil,
-  and the absence of remains, it was probably not sepulchral, though
-  some antiquaries hold that all circles are sepulchral.
-
-  Lower down the strath on the same side of the brook were many circles
-  which were destroyed in "improving" the land some years ago. These
-  are stated to have been 20 or 30 yards across, of stones 2 feet to
-  4 feet high. No remains are known to have been found in them; but
-  no observations or measures were made. It is probable that these
-  circles were sepulchral--the absence of stones in the centres
-  notwithstanding. Nearer the road and shore are other remains of
-  broughs, cairns, cists, &c.
-
-  I remain your obedient servant,
-
-  H. DRYDEN,
-
-  Hon. Mem. of the Soc. of Antiquaries of Scotland.
-
-  _Caithness, September 21, 1871._
-
-  [Illustration: 233. Dolmen near Bona, Algeria.]
-
-
-
-
-INDEX.
-
-
-  Abbeville, museum at, 16.
-  Abbot Millitus, Pope Gregory's letter to, 21.
-  Abd en Nar and Abd en Nour, 404.
-  Aberdeenshire circles, 202 _et seq._
-  Aberlemmo, stone at, with cross, 268;
-    date, 270;
-    memorial of what, 270.
-  Abraham, stone set up by, 438.
-  Ac, import of termination, 329, 330;
-    its prevalence in West of France, 329;
-    its coincidence with dolmens, 329;
-    its occurrence in West of England, 330;
-    names of cities with this termination in France, 328, 376.
-  Achemlock circle, 530.
-  Addington, groups at, 118;
-    circles at, 119.
-    _See_ Aylesford.
-  Adil, Swedish king, defeats Snio, 279.
-  Africa. _See_ Algeria, Tripoli.  Its monuments may furnish key to
-    solution of mysterious questions, 414.
-  African prince mentioned by Asoka, 498.
-  Age between exodus of Romans and Alfred, darkness of, 113-4;
-    stones more eloquent than books then, 114.
-  Agra, tomb of Akbar at, 496.
-  Agricola, 20.
-  Ahmedabad, city of, 457.
-  Aix la Chapelle, decree of, 25.
-  Ajunta, importance of Vihara at, 501.
-  Akbar, sovereign of India, 459;
-    tomb of, 47, 496.
-  Alajor, Talyot at, 435.
-  Alaska, Hydahs in, 18.
-  Aleutian Islands, route of peoplers of America, 516.
-  Alexander mentioned in edict of Indian prince, 498.
-  Alfred, 23-4;
-    his victory at Ashdown, 123;
-    how commemorated, 123.
-  Alentejo, dolmen in, 378.
-  Algeria, no Druids in, 6;
-    long ignorance as to its numerous dolmens, 395;
-    researches of Messrs. Rhind, Christy, and M. Féraud, 395;
-    Bou Moursug, 395;
-    Setif, 396;
-    Tiaret, 397;
-    Tripoli, 397;
-    their ordinary position, 397;
-    Bazinas, 397;
-    Chouchas, 398;
-    dolmen on steps, 398;
-    tumuli with lines between, 399;
-    sepulchral stones, 399;
-    plan and elevation of African tumulus, 400;
-    dolmen with two circles, 400, 471;
-    others on road from Bona to Constantine, four
-    cairns enclosed in squares, 402;
-    analogy to examples in Scandinavia, 403;
-    age of Algerian examples, 403;
-    of what race, 403;
-    Djidjeli, tombs near, with circle, 404;
-    find there, _ib._;
-    their age, _ib._;
-    Sidi Kacem, dolmen near, and inscription, 405;
-    circle near Bona, 405;
-    Algerian monuments contemporary with early Christians, 405-6;
-    their general age, 406;
-    who erected them, 406 _et seq._;
-    date of, 403;
-    compared to Aveyron, 407.
-  Alignment, at Shap, 130;
-    Carnac, Erdeven, St.-Barbe, 354 _et seq._;
-    two heads, 354;
-    singular head of column, 355;
-    Crozon, Kerdouadec, Carmaret, Leuré, Gré de Cojou, 368;
-    Preissac, 368;
-    Stonehenge, why made, 110-1;
-    Sesto Calende, 391.
-    _See_ Avebury, Avenues, Beckhampton, Caithness.
-  Alkil, Danish chief, 279.
-  Allées couvertes ou grottes des Fées in France, 340 _et seq._, 358-9;
-    at Lochmariaker, 365.
-  Alleth, battle at, 374.
-  Alphabetical writing, date of its introduction into Ireland, 189,
-      196, 271;
-    interruption of use for centuries, 272.
-  Altars, 425.
-  Altmark, dolmen at, 301.
-  Alyattes, tomb of, 31.
-  Ambrius, convent of, 109.
-  Ambrosius Aurelius said to have erected Stonehenge, and why, 106;
-    forces a peace upon Saxons, 107.
-  America, North, Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge;
-    survey of Messrs. Squiers and Davis, 510;
-    absence of rude-stone monuments, _ib._;
-    earthworks, American peculiarity, 511;
-    _enclosures for defence_, extent of, _ib._;
-    inference from, _ib._;
-    _sacred enclosures_, peculiarity and number of, size and form of
-      enclosures, _ib._;
-    Newark Works, _ib._;
-    whether residences of chiefs, 513;
-    _conical mounds_, mounds of sacrifice, finds, _ib._;
-    Grave Creek mound, Miamisburgh mound, 514;
-    _temple mounds_ compared to Teocallis of Mexicans, _ib._;
-    difficulty of distinguishing between temple and palace, _ib._;
-    were the mounds not civil? _ib._;
-    animal mounds, gigantic serpent form, doubt
-     whether animal object of worship, 515;
-    whether European emigrants account for population of America, 517;
-    way of communication, 516;
-    material of tools found in America, 517;
-    Redmen and mound-builders distinguished, these correspond with the
-      "Hydahs," 517.
-  America, Central, and Peru, carved stone monuments, 517-8;
-    Peruvian compared to those of Pelasgi and Tyrrheni, 518;
-    no rude-stone monuments observed in South America, _ib._;
-    Tia Huanaco not like so-called Druidical remains, _ib._;
-    circles and squares, 519.
-  American Indians non-progressive, 18.
-  Amesbury, Hengist's meeting with British chiefs at, 107.
-  Amlaff, King, 253.
-  Amlech, or Hamlet, tomb of, 299.
-  Amorites, dolmens in country of, and perhaps nowhere else in
-      Palestine, 442.
-  Amravati, arts of Bactria at, 456;
-    sepulchral circles at, 474;
-    tope and rail, 475, 493;
-    representations of priests at, 501.
-  'Ancient and Modern Wiltshire,' 5.
-  'Ancient English Castles,' Mr. Clark's, 84.
-  Andalusia, dolmens in, 378.
-  Anderson, Mr., horned cairns described by, 528.
-  Angles, _see_ Saxons.
-  Anglesea, Druids in, 5;
-    circles in, 162.
-  Anhalt dolmen, 301.
-  Animal mounds in America, 515;
-    whether of Chinese origin, 517 _note_.
-  'Annals of the Four Masters,' 176, 187-8.
-  Annandale, 129;
-    circle, _see_ Woodcastle.
-  Antequera dolmen, 383.
-  Antigonus } mentioned in edict of Asoka, 498.
-  Antiochus }
-  Antiquity, why caution necessary in assigning, 144;
-    of rude and polished stone monuments, 508.
-  Antony, whether founder of Monasticism, 499.
-  Aquhorties circle, 263.
-  Aquitania in time of Cæsar, 328;
-    of Augustus, 328;
-    language of, unknown, 333;
-    pressed upon by Celts, 409;
-    whether they migrated to Africa, 410.
-  Aquitanians perhaps in Britain, 163, 238;
-    and perhaps dolmen builders, 328;
-    but few dolmens between Garonne and Pyrenees, 328.
-  Arabia, rude-stone monuments in, 444 _et seq._
-  Arabs, their conquest of North Africa, 404;
-    their feeling as to monasticism, 500.
-  Arborlowe, vallum and ditch of, 62.
-    _See_ Derbyshire.
-  Archæological Congress at Copenhagen, 10.
-  Arches not in use amongst Hindus, but Burmese, 458.
-  Architecture, meagreness of historical accounts of buildings between
-      erection of Parthenon and Henry VII.'s Chapel, 114;
-    Irish, 221 _et seq._;
-    law of progressive development, 222;
-    when inapplicable, 222-3;
-    sequence in monuments of Ireland, 237-8;
-    three styles of three races perhaps simultaneous there, 238;
-    of monuments at Stennis, 255-6;
-    differences of style of similar monuments in different countries,
-      306;
-    sequence of style in dolmens, 335;
-    without drawings no words can describe style, 334;
-    peculiarity of church architecture in south dolmen region in France,
-      332;
-    Celtic, _ib._;
-    similarity of style no proof of synchronism, 369;
-    different examples compared, 369;
-    influences of Roman, 414;
-    of Indian Art, _ib._;
-    of dolmens or nurhags and giants' towers, which the older, 437;
-    sequence of style and material in India, 456 _et seq._;
-    wood, stone imitation of wood architecture, 456;
-    Mahommedan mosque built by Hindus, 457;
-    arches not used by Hindus, _ib._;
-    ruins of Ahmedabad, 457;
-    Palitana, _ib._;
-    Burmah, Cambodia, 458;
-    Hindu not immutable, 459;
-    Indian unprogressive tribes, _ib._;
-    rude and refined architecture, co-existence of, in India, 482;
-    early crosses in India, of what date?, 486 _et seq._;
-    appropriation by Romanists of pagan forms, 489;
-    connexion of Singalee dagobas and sepulchral tumuli, 491;
-    Tee, what it represented, 490;
-    wood and then stone forms--rails, 492-3;
-    styles of Eastern and European dolmens compared, 494;
-    points of similarity and dissimilarity, 495;
-    cists outside tumuli, holed slabs, simulated summit cists,
-      concentric enclosing circles, 496 _et seq._;
-    use of stone imitated by rude nations in Europe, from what nations,
-      508;
-    and in India from what race, _ib._;
-    when introduced in the East in its rude form, and in its polished
-      form, _ib._;
-    ditto in the West, _ib._;
-    age of introduction of tumuli or barrows unascertained, _ib._;
-    as also of Cave men and stone implements, _ib._;
-    uses sepulchral or cenotaphic, 509;
-    or for battle-field, or offerings to spirits of the departed, _ib._;
-    connexion with relics of the dead, _ib._;
-    whether dedicated to God, sun or moon, &c., or serpents, _ib._;
-    twofold principle of erection of such structures, _ib._;
-    North America, 511;
-    civil and sacred, royal and monastic, 514;
-    animal, gigantic earthen forms, 515.
-  Ard-na-Raigh, place of execution, 233.
-  Ardèche, remains of Cave men in, 321.
-  Arfin, Prince of Norway, 250.
-  Argyllshire dolmens, 273.
-  Arles council, 24, 25.
-  Arnbjörg, wife of Sandulf, 272.
-  Art, King, where buried, 212.
-  Arthur, King, his existence doubted by some, 114, 132;
-    round table, 62;
-    contemporary history null, 114;
-    his round table, 128 (_see_ Penrith);
-    probable history of Arthur, 133;
-    his defensive war against invaders, 134;
-    his supposed Scottish career, 134;
-    ill-founded, 135;
-    localities of his twelve battles, 135 _et seq._;
-    of his last battle, 86-7;
-    views of the author, 152;
-    fables respecting, likened to those about Alexander, 133;
-    Arthur's pike at Shap, 130;
-    Arthur's Quoit, 170.
-    _See_ Baden Mound, Bas Lowe, Caerleon, Caledonian Forest, Gain,
-      Salkeld, Stanton Drew, Woodcastle Lyn.
-  Arrichinaga dolmen, 388.
-  Arroyolos dolmen, 377;
-    described by Borrow, 389.
-  Aryans a progressive race, 18, 19;
-    occupation of Greece, 39;
-    when they crossed Indus, 445;
-    penetrate into North America, by what route, 516;
-    Aryan, non-Aryan, equivalents of what, 506.
-  Aschenrade, singular arrangement of circles, 317.
-  Ashdown, Sarsen stones at, 121-3;
-    drawing of, 122;
-    contrasted with Carnac, _ib._;
-    Druidical, 123;
-    or monument of battle between Saxons and Danes, _ib._
-  Asia Minor, dolmens not yet found in, 445.
-  Asoka, King, monument of, 47;
-    introduction of stone monuments in India, 48, 455;
-    his rock-engraved edict, 498;
-    convocation, 501.
-  Aspatria, 155;
-    compared to Herrestrup, 304.
-    _See_ Circles.
-  Asser cited as to battle between Saxons and Danes, 123.
-  Astarte, _see_ Melkart.
-  Asturias, dolmens in, 378.
-  Atridæ, tombs of, 32;
-  Atreus, 33.
-  Aubrey, 3;
-    his account of Hakpen Hill, 76;
-    cited, 104.
-  Augustine, St., cession of temple at Canterbury to, 22-3.
-  Augustus, tomb of, 40;
-    no coins of, found in Britain, 144.
-  Auisle, King, 201.
-  Aurelius, _see_ Ambrosius.
-  Axevalla, singular dolmen at, 312-3;
-    find there, 312.
-  Aztecs, buildings of, 515.
-  Avebury, 1, 3, 6, 7, 61;
-    age of, 17;
-    pretended serpent worship, 4;
-    represented, 62;
-    vallum, ditch and circle, 62, 63;
-    Sarsens, 62;
-    Kennet avenue, 63;
-    no curved avenues, 64;
-    double circle or oval, 64;
-    who interred there, 86;
-    author's opinion, 86, 89;
-    holes, 343;
-    Beckhampton avenue, 64, 98;
-    Silbury hill, 62;
-    Waden hill, 62;
-    object of structure, 65;
-    theory of Druidical temples, 66;
-    disputed, 66 _et seq._;
-    Avebury a burying-place, 72;
-    charter of Athelstan as to, 73;
-    stone row, 73;
-    plan of, 81;
-    sepulchral or battle-field, 116;
-    attached to circles, 29, 51;
-    with or without circles or dolmens, 29, 53;
-    example at St. Helier, Jersey, 51;
-    chamber there found buried, 54;
-    at Merivale Bridge, on Dartmoor, _ib._;
-    why erected, _ib._;
-    what they represent, 56.
-  Avening, holes in chamber at, 357.
-  Avenue. _See_ Alignments, Avebury, Aylesford.
-  Averni Celts mentioned by Livy, 327.
-  Aylesford, 110 _et seq._
-    Kit's Cotty House, what, 116;
-    description of, 110;
-    why erected, 119;
-    erroneous view of Mr. Wright as to Belgian burials there, 119;
-    Tollington, stones at, purpose of, 119;
-    obelisks or coffin stones, 117;
-    in memory of what, 119;
-    circles of Addington abbey, _ib._;
-    Horstead, tumulus at, 120;
-    explored by Colonel Fisher, _ib._;
-    absence of valuables or other articles in tombs there, accounted
-      for, _ib._;
-    "Countless stones," 117;
-    resembles Oroust, 305;
-    drawing of, 117;
-    a supposed avenue near, 117-8;
-    other groups at Addington and near Kit's Cotty House, 118;
-    Aylesford the stage of a battle between Vortigern and Saxons, 119;
-    Bede's statement of locality of battle not conclusive, 121.
-
-
-  BABA, images of, buried, 449.
-  Babylon, age of its palaces, 1.
-  Bactrian Greeks, influence of, upon Indian architecture, 456, 508.
-  Badon Hill, Arthur's battle there, 138. _See_ Battles.
-  Bahmany dynasty in India, 485.
-  Bähr, Professor, his book of Graves, 318.
-  Baille clough togal dolmen, 229.
-  Baker, Mr., his account of Aryan interments, 479.
-  Balk, Saracenic arches, 457.
-  Ballina, _see_ Maols.
-  Ballo dolmen, 321.
-  Ballysadare, cairn at, 179.
-  Balor of the Evil Eye, 187.
-  Balquhain circle, 263.
-  Banesdown battle, 87.
-  Bang, importance of monastery at, 50.
-  Bangkok, Buddhist monument at, 413.
-  Barbarism of early Irish, 235.
-  Barbato, monuments in, 415.
-  Barbury Castle, siege of, 88.
-  Bards, 19;
-    testify to Druids, 6.
-  Barrows, 11;
-    of Roman period, 36 (_see_ Bartlow Hills);
-    British, 65;
-    Silbury, _ib._;
-    conical, 83;
-    their number and position, 102;
-    age of, 104;
-    Derbyshire, 138;
-    Yorkshire, _ib._;
-    on Boyne, 200;
-    in Orkneys at Stennis;
-    bowl-shaped, 243;
-    find, 243;
-    Sandwick, _ib._;
-    conoid barrows, _ib._;
-    find, _ib._;
-    of what race the barrows, 243-4;
-    _see_ Maes-Howe;
-    little barrows by thousands in Orkneys, of what race, 249;
-    Halfdan's barrow, 250;
-    Danish Royal barrow, _ib._;
-    _Long_ barrow at Lethra, 282;
-    and at West Kennet, 284;
-    whose grave, 283;
-    date, 285;
-    explored by Thurnam, 283;
-    find there, 285;
-    inference from, 286-9;
-    post-Roman, 286;
-    long barrow at Wiskehärad in Halland, 288;
-    what it marks, _ib._;
-    long barrows post-Roman, 289;
-    ship barrows, 291-2;
-    numerous in East France, 327;
-    holed chambers in long barrows at Kerlescant and Rodmarton, 357.
-  Barry's 'Views in Orkneys,' 241.
-  Bartlow Hills barrow, 36;
-    elevation, 14, 83.
-  Bas Lowe, Arthur's table, 137.
-  Basin, flat-bottomed, mysterious, 216-7.
-  Bassas, Arthur's battle on, 136.
-  Bateman, Messrs., diggings by, 138, 140-4;
-    finds at Benty Grange, 145;
-    and at Kenslow barrow, _ib._;
-    overlook monuments at Stanton Drew, 146.
-  Bateman, Mr., explores Arbor Lowe, 357;
-    his and author's remarks on finds by, 13-4.
-  Bath, _see_ Battles.
-  Battles.--Arthur's, 12, 135 _et seq._;
-    Ashdown, 122;
-    Aylesford, 119;
-    Badbury, 87;
-    Badon Hill, 86;
-    place of Arthur's last battle disputed, 86-7;
-    Banbury Hill, date of, 109;
-    Banesdon, 87;
-    Bath, 87;
-    Battlemoss, Yarhouse, 526;
-    Braavalla, 188, 280-2;
-    Deorham, 88;
-    Kongsbacka, 279;
-    Moytura, South and North, 176 _et seq._;
-    Rollright, 126.
-  Battlefields marked by megalithic remains, 14.
-  Battlestones in Scotland, 240, 272;
-    Kirkliston, 272.
-  Bauta stones, 60, 272.
-  Bazinas in North Africa, 397-8.
-  Beaumont-sur-Oise, find at, 339.
-  Beckhampton avenue, 64;
-    position of stone, 98.
-  Bede, his division of Kent explained, 121.
-  "Beds" of Diarmid and Graine, 225.
-  Behring's Straits route of peoplers of America, 516.
-  Beira dolmens, 378.
-  Belgæ, absence of dolmens amongst, 302;
-    their pre-dolmen immigration into Britain, 323-4;
-    Belgæ or Firbolgs in Ireland, 176.
-  Belgaum, altars and tables at, 467.
-  Belgians, erroneous statement of interments at Kit's Cotty House, 119.
-  Bellovesus, his invasion of Italy, 327.
-  Benares, style of architecture at, 412.
-  Benty Grange barrow, 144. _See_ Derbyshire.
-  Beowulf's poem contains incidents of Saxon burials, 120;
-    Beowulf's victory over Wurm, _ib._;
-    his interment, _ib._;
-    his helmet, 145;
-    his verses on Knock na Rea, 185.
-  Bernard, Commandant, his description of enormous dolmen at Tiaret,
-      397.
-  Bertrand, Alexander, attacks Celtic origin of megalithic monuments,
-      254.
-  Bertrand, M., 6;
-    his essay upon dolmens, 324;
-    his theory as to migration of dolmen race, 378-9, 407;
-    as to builders in North Africa, 403.
-  Betal or Vetal, worship of, 467.
-  Bhils, Coles, Gonds and Toda, non-progressive tribes in India, 459;
-    their tenacity to usages, _ib._
-  Bilithons, 435.
-  Birck, dolmen enclosed in square, 307.
-  Birra the hag, 231;
-    monastery, 231 _note_.
-  Biscay dolmens, 378.
-  Bits of Bridle, 81, 304. _See_ Stukeley.
-  Blaine, Mr. D. R., his notes and sketch of dolmen at Kafr er Wâl, 441.
-  Blair, Dr., engraves Carnac, 350.
-  Blenda, Swedish heroine, her victory, 291.
-  Bluestones, if part of Stonehenge, 97;
-    whence the stones, 108;
-    story explained, 108-9. _See_ Sarsens.
-  "Bluetooth," 296.
-  Boece and Fordun, their fables, 134.
-
-  Boinn, wife of Nechtan, 212;
-    "her small hound" buried with her, _ib._
-  Bollandists' work silent as to Buddhism, 505.
-  Bona, circle near, 405;
-    dolmen, 532.
-  Bonstetten, cited, 308, 379;
-    map, 324;
-    according to, no dolmen in Poland, 301.
-  Borlase cited as to Boscawen circles, 160.
-  Borrow mentions monument at Arroyolos, 377.
-  Borther Lowe, find at, 12.
-  Boscawen, 160. _See_ Circles.
-  Boucher de Perthes, collection by, 16.
-  Bouie's survey of New Grange, 204.
-  Bousquet, dolmen of, 46, 49.
-  Boyne, monuments on, 200, 290;
-    burials, 212.
-  Braavalla Heath battle, 280-2. _See_ Battle-fields.
-  Brachenbyr dolmen, 46, 49.
-  Brahmins, their domination in India, 459.
-  Breas' invasion of Ireland and defeat, 187.
-  Brest Menhir, 58.
-  Brigantes join Silures, 381.
-  British chiefs massacred by Hengist, where, 106.
-  British isles described by Diodorus, 8;
-    not more prosperous before Roman invasion than in 5th century,
-      114-5;
-    Spaniards, Silures, settle in, 383.
-  British Rude-Stone Monuments,
-    how affected by conquest by and withdrawal of Romans, 394.
-  Britons, 20, 21, 37;
-    peace with Saxons, when, 89.
-  Brittany, monuments in, 6. _See_ Carnac.
-  Broad-pated race, 306.
-  Brochs, Scotch, resemble Nurhags, 431 _note_.
-  Brodick Bay circles, 262.
-  Brogar, King of, in Orkneys, 241;
-    failure of search there, 243;
-    how to proceed, _ib._;
-    tumuli, 252-3;
-    compared to Stanton Drew circles, 256.
-  Bronze age, Stonehenge belongs to, 102;
-    as also tumuli in South of France, 327.
-  Brouillet, M., his work on Poitou, 329.
-  Brown, Mr., his account of Hydahs, 18.
-  Bruges, capital of Celts, temp. Bellovesi, 327.
-  Brugh, burial-place of Kings of Tara, 190, 199, 212.
-  Brugh na Boinne, burials at, 191 _et seq._
-  Brunswick dolmens, 301.
-  Bryce, Dr., his observations in Arran, 265.
-  Buckingham, Duke of, directs diggings at Stonehenge, 104.
-  Buddha, Dagobas or Stupas of, 41.
-  Buddhagosa, no written books before, 500.
-  Buddhism, 458;
-    in India, 458 _et seq._;
-    in the West, 499 _et seq._;
-    in Christianity, 499;
-    monastic institutions, _ib._;
-    monasticism opposed to Egyptian institutions and Arab or Semitic
-      feeling, 500;
-    relation of Essenes to Buddhism, _ib._;
-    monasticism in India apparent from monuments and inscriptions, 501;
-    three convocations: cells: Viharas, Chaityas, 501;
-    sculptures: Sanchi: Ascetics: Amravati shaven priests: date of
-      similar institutions in West, _ib._;
-    peculiarities of, separation of clergy from laity, 501;
-    canonization, relic worship, 503;
-    date, silence of the Fathers, eloquence of architecture, 506;
-    Buddhism Turanian, _ib._;
-    nature of the faith, _ib._;
-    Turanians in Europe in Middle Ages, 507;
-    what with respect to stone monuments the West borrowed from the
-      East, 507;
-    of what Buddhism was the reform, 504.
-  Buddhist architecture, 40-2.
-  Buddhist Topes 46;
-    rails, 48, 492;
-    Lâts or Stambas, 57;
-    convocations, 501.
-  Burials, usages of, in the Steppes, 449.
-  Burmah, date of temples at, 1;
-    dagobas, 41.
-  Burmah and Siam, architecture of wood, 456.
-  Burn Moor, 159. _See_ Circles.
-  Burton, Right Hon. W., describes cairn Knock na Rea, 184.
-  Butte de Cæsar, find there, 339.
-  Buxton, rude monuments near. _See_ Derbyshire.
-
-
-  CABEIRI, images of, 425.
-  Caboul valley, 452.
-  Cæsar mentions Druids, but not their temples, 20;
-    stood, perhaps, at Carnac, _ib._;
-    inference from his and Pliny's silence, 373.
-  Caerleon, or Chester, Arthur's ninth battle at, 137.
-  Cairns at Rath Cruachan, 200;
-    Lough Crew, 213;
-    Glen Columbkille, 226;
-    Freyrsö, 292;
-    Norway, 302;
-    the distribution of dolmens in Europe, 301-2;
-    dolmens belong to a sea-faring race, 302;
-    four cairns enclosed in squares, 402;
-    compared to Aschenrade, 403;
-    Jewurgi, 471-2;
-    probably battle-field, 472;
-    huge horned cairn Caithness, 528, 530;
-    of "one Man," find there, 178-9.
-  Caldwell, Mrs., find in possession of, 210.
-  Caledonians like Germans, 162;
-    Caledonian Forest, place of Arthur's battle, 137.
-  Callernish, age of, 52.
-  Calliagh Birra's House, 230.
-  Calvaries in Brittany, 59.
-  Cambodia, monuments of, not ancient, 1;
-    style of buildings, 458.
-  Camden, his remark as to place of interments at Stonehenge, 105;
-    as to Rollright and Rollo in England, 126;
-    as to Long Meg, 127;
-    as to ruins at Shap, 129;
-    and Penrith, 132.
-  Camster alignment, 529.
-  Cangas de Onis, 387.
-  Cannibalism of early Irish, 235.
-  Canonization in the East, 503.
-  Canterbury, Roman Cathedral at, 22.
-  Canute forbids adoration of stones, 25.
-  Caons, or Giants' circles, 453.
-  Cape St. Matthieu, 59.
-  Carder Lowe, barrow opened at, 1.
-  Carl Sverkersson slays Danish prince, 291.
-  Carmaret, alignment at, 367.
-  Carnac, 1;
-    Rev. Bathurst Deane's plan of, 6;
-    Cæsar perhaps saw from it battle with Veneti, 20;
-    described, 349;
-    plan, 352.
-  Carnutes, Druids' chief seat amongst, 5.
-  Carrowmore, 181;
-    field of battle, 187, 198, 223.
-  Carte, Mr., as to field of battle at Baydon hill, 87.
-  Carthaginians in Spain, 379;
-    not building or burying race, 394.
-  Cartheilhac, M., his paper on megalithic monuments, 335.
-  Cas Tor avenue, 56.
-  Castern, find at, 13.
-  Castille, if dolmens in, 378.
-  Castle Wellan dolmen, 45.
-  Cat stones, 57, 146. _See_ Derbyshire battle stones.
-  Catalonia, dolmens in, 378.
-  Cathair, or round fort, 235;
-    of Tuatha de Danann, 193;
-    of Cormac at Tara, 194.
-  Cathregomion, Cabregonnon, Catbregonnion, or Cathbregion, Arthur's
-      11th battle there, 138. _See_ Stanton Drew.
-  Catigren, where buried, 144. _See_ Kitt's Cotty House.
-  Cattle spoil of Cooley, 196.
-  Cave men, 17, 18, 329;
-    like Red Indians, 17;
-    or Esquimaux, _ib._;
-    under what circumstances found in France, 16;
-    and England, 16, 17.
-  Cave races, gradations of style of monuments among, 335.
-  Caves, early, in India, 456;
-    Buddhist, 460.
-  Ceallach, murder of, 233.
-  Cedric, Saxon chief, 88-9.
-  Celtiberians, _see_ Iberians.
-  Celtic race, priests of, 3, 4;
-    whether French megalithic monuments belong to, 6;
-    their influence upon Etruria, 393.
-  Celts, ready converts to Christianity, 227;
-    date of the first invasion of Gaul, _ib._;
-    were earlier converts than dolmen builders, 328;
-    spread themselves through centre of France, _ib._;
-    either Celts or a prehistoric race built the dolmens, 329;
-    the Cave men, _ib._;
-    who these were, _ib._;
-    dolmens and Cave men perhaps conterminous, _ib._;
-    Cimbri, Celts, and Gauls, 333;
-    Cimbri and Aquitanians, relation of, _ib._;
-    their capital temp. Bellevesi, 327;
-    described by Livy, _ib._;
-    Averni, _ib._;
-    if dolmens in Galatia, important bearing upon Celtic theory, 446;
-    their invasions of other countries, 409.
-  Cemeteries of Ireland, 199;
-    Cruachan, or Rathcrogan, _ib._;
-    circular mounds there, _ib._;
-    monument of Dathi, _ib._;
-    Relig na Riogh, 200;
-    Red stone pillar, _ib._;
-    circle, _ib._;
-    cairns, _ib._;
-    burials, Queen Meave and Dathi, _ib._;
-    compared with Arbor Low and Salkeld, _ib._;
-    Knowth, _ib._;
-    New Grange, 201;
-    plundered by Danes, _ib._;
-    first mentioned by Mr. Lloyd, _ib._;
-    Sir T. Molyneux's statement, _ib._;
-    Governor Pownall's, 202;
-    engravings of by Bouie, 203;
-    if uncovered, resemblance to Salkeld and Stanton Drew, _ib._;
-    sculpture, 204;
-    reverses of stones elaborately carved, 205;
-    how such came to be covered, _ib._;
-    entrance, position of, _ib._;
-    ornaments, 206-7;
-    sculptured mark, 207;
-    whether characters, _ib._;
-    Dowth, or perhaps Dubhad, plundered by Danes, 208;
-    diggings, _ib._;
-    find there, 210;
-    Netterville House, 209;
-    tomb of the Dagdha, _ib._;
-    perhaps intact, _ib._;
-    find there, 209, 210;
-    ornaments at Dowth, 211-2;
-    written evidence respecting these three cemeteries, 212;
-    and persons buried, _ib._;
-    author's conjecture as to New Grange, 213;
-    Lough Crew, 213 _et seq._;
-    if cemetery of Talten, 219;
-    choice of plan of cemetery amongst Irish, 220;
-    'Book of the Cemeteries' cited, 221;
-    stone in cairn T, Lough Crew, 222;
-    stones in sculptured graves, 223;
-    Clover Hill, _ib._;
-    Shahpoor, 485.
-  Cetti, stone of, 173.
-  Ceylon dagobah, 41;
-    Thupa Ramayana, and Lanka Ramayana, 489, 490.
-  Chaityas, _see_ Church Caves.
-  Champollion's discoveries, 1.
-  Chardin cited as to circles at Tabriz and Miana, 453.
-  Chariot wheels sculptured on dolmens, 304.
-  Charlemagne condemns stone worship, 25.
-  Charleton, Dr., 15;
-    Inigo Jones's theory attacked by, 3.
-  Chartham Downs, find at, 13.
-  Chartres Carnutes, 5.
-  Chester, _see_ Caerleon.
-  China, monuments of, not ancient, 1.
-  Chinese not progressive, 19.
-  Chisel, early use of, in Ireland, 217.
-  Chorœa Gigantum, _see_ Giants' Dance.
-  Chouchas in North Africa, 398-9;
-    position of bodies in, _ib._
-  Christian era, rude-stone monuments subsequent to, 27;
-    according to Danes, iron introduced about commencement of, 9.
-  Christianity, according to Welsh and Irish writers, their Druids prior
-      to, 6;
-    date of introduction into Denmark, 10;
-    into India, 489;
-    in what respect influenced by Buddhism, 499 _et seq._
-  Christians in India, _see_ Crosses.
-  Christy, Mr., his researches in Algeria, 395-6.
-  Church caves at first more important than Viharas, 501.
-  Cimboeth marks date in Irish history, 189;
-    founds Armagh, _ib._
-  Cimbri, their cognate races, 333.
-  Cimbrian Chersonese visited by Pytheas, 38.
-  Circassia, dolmens in, of shaped stone, 447;
-    importance of, to migration or missionary theory, 447-8.
-  Circles, 154;
-    Englewood Wood, or Rosehill tumulus, _ib._;
-    platform, _ib._;
-    bilithons, 155;
-    find, _ib._;
-    Aspatria, 156;
-    barrow, _ib._;
-    find, 156-7;
-    circle of cists in Isle of Man, _ib._;
-    Mule Hill, _ib._;
-    view and plan of, 158;
-    openings to circle, 159;
-    Burn Moor, Cumberland, _ib._;
-    find there, _ib._;
-    square enclosure there, 160;
-    plan, 160;
-    Boscawen not Temples nor "Things," _ib._;
-    plan of, 161;
-    at Moytura, 183;
-    triple, _ib._;
-    sculptured, enclosing crosses, 304, 315;
-    mysterious concentric circles, with lines traversing them, 304;
-    the use of circles and Viking graves continuous in Ireland and
-      England, 317;
-    singular arrangement at Aschenrade and in Algeria, 317-8;
-    circles with stone in centre at Bajard, 318;
-    circular groups in India, 467 (_see_ Bazina, Choucha);
-    Alexandropol circles, 450;
-    Nikolajew concentric circles, base of tumulus, 451;
-    Western circles not imitation of Tartar, 452;
-    Peshawur, 453;
-    Deh Ayeh, near Darabgerd, _ib._;
-    circles attributed to Caons or Giants, _ib._;
-    enclosed circles in America, 511-3;
-    at Caithness (_see_ Scotland);
-    Amravati, 474.
-  Circles, great English, peculiar, 153;
-    and belong probably to Arthurian age, _ib._;
-    post-Roman, 154;
-    of what race, _ib._;
-    in Wales and Anglesea no circles, 163;
-    Giant's grave, Drumbo, 228;
-    circle there object of, 224;
-    in Scotland, 240;
-    district of circles _par excellence_ not on mainland, _ib._;
-    Orkneys, 241;
-    King of Brogar and Stennis, 241-2;
-    part of entire group, 254;
-    date, 256;
-    Callernish, 259;
-    circle-building race, 274;
-    opposite currents of migration, _ib._;
-    Braavalla Heath, 280;
-    in France, 340;
-    circle the skeleton of tumulus, 340;
-    circle at Sesto Calende, 391;
-    semicircle, _ib._;
-    circles, 397-9;
-    triple and quadruple, 399;
-    enclosed in squares, 402;
-    at Djideli, 404;
-    Bona, 405;
-    Malta, 416;
-    Sinai, 443-4;
-    Arabia, 444.
-  Circles surrounding tumuli or dolmens, circles without tumuli or
-      dolmens, 29, 47, 50;
-    at Addington, 118-9;
-    at Rollright, 124;
-    Dartmoor, _ib._;
-    at Penrith, 126;
-    concentric, 127 _note_;
-    at Marden, 65, 85;
-    at Shap, 130;
-    Merivale Bridge, _ib._;
-    at Arbor Low, 139;
-    Stanton Drew, 150.
-  Circular temple mentioned by Diodorus among Hyperboreans, 8.
-  Cissa, King, his tomb where, 283.
-  Cists, _see_ Kistvaens.
-  Civil and sacred structures, where indistinguishable, 515.
-  Clark, Mr. George, his paper on Ancient English Castles, 84.
-  Clatford Bottom, 44;
-    Sarsen stones at, 63;
-    circles at, 161.
-  Claudian, verses of, as to disasters of Saxons, Picts, and Scots, in
-      the North, 188.
-  Claudius Gothicus, coins of, 12, 36, 52;
-    Claudius, 461.
-  Clava, 265;
-    circles and mounds, _ib._;
-    perhaps burial-place of King Brude, 267.
-  Clemens of Alexandria, his surprise at relic-worship, 504;
-    as to Buddhism, 505.
-  Clergy and laity, separation of, in the East, 502.
-  Closmadeuc, Dr., antiquary, 337.
-  Clover Hill, 223.
-  Cnodhba, cave of, identified with Knowth, 201.
-  Cock sacrificed to Betal, 467.
-  Cocumella, tomb at, 33.
-  Cœlus, God, Stonehenge ascribed to, 3.
-  Cœre, tomb at, 33-4.
-  Cogolleros, dolmen del Tio, 385.
-  Coibi, his conversion, 23.
-  Coilsfield, rubbing on stone at, 211;
-    stone, 267.
-  Coins, Roman, of what Emperors generally found, 144;
-    in Ireland, 166;
-    inference from, _see_ Finds.
-  Cojou, Gré de, alignment at, 367.
-  Cole, _see_ Bhil.
-  Cole, Lieutenant, his report as to Kutub pillar, 181.
-  Collas barrow mentioned in Charter of Athelstan, 73.
-  Collinson, Colonel, finds columnar buildings in Malta, 425.
-  Columba, St., 59.
-  Columbus, America peopled by Europeans prior to, 516.
-  Columns, _see_ Alignment.
-  Come Lowe, find at, 13.
-  Commerce of early Britons, with what races, 133-4.
-  Conaing, 201.
-  Conan, _see_ Meriadec.
-  Concentric circles, _see_ Circles.
-  Conchobhar McNessa, 197;
-    husband of Queen Meave, 197, 221;
-    his conversion, 221;
-    where buried, _ib._
-  Confolens, dolmen at, 337.
-  Cong, at Moytura, 177;
-    place of battle, 198.
-  Conical form, Roman and Post-Roman, 84.
-  Conjeveran, city of Kurumbers, 478.
-  Conn of a Hundred Battles, 193-7, 212, 236.
-    _See_ Cormac MacArt.
-  Conor MacNessa, 193.
-  Constantine, Saxons defeated by, 109;
-    his supposed interment at Stonehenge, and when, 109;
-    coins, 11, 12, 13.
-  Constantine Junior, coins of, 12.
-  Constantinople, coins of, 11.
-  Constans, coins of, 11.
-  Constantius, coins of, 11.
-  Conwell, Mr., exploration of Lough Crew, 199, 213, 222.
-  Copenhagen, congress at, 10;
-    museum, 16, 325.
-  Cormack, son of Conn, 190;
-    where buried, 212.
-  Cormack MacArt, 193;
-    convert to Christianity, 196;
-    orders tracts to be written, _ib._;
-    could he write? _ib._
-  Cornelius, tradition as to, 373.
-  Cornwall, circles, 162;
-    circle-building race in, 274.
-  Corpre, Etan's son, 191.
-  Costa, S. Pereira da, his account of Portuguese dolmens, 377.
-  Cotty or Coity House, _see_ Aylesford.
-  Councils of Arles, Nantes, Rouen, Toledo, Tours, 24;
-    their decrees as to stoneworship, 23-4.
-  Countless Stones, _see_ Aylesford.
-  Court held at standing stones of Rayne by Bishop of Aberdeen, 264.
-  Cove, Long stone, 4.
-  Cremation amongst Saxons, 120.
-  Crew, Lough, 199.
-  Crichie, find at, 75.
-  Crimthann, when he lived, 190, 221;
-    where buried, 192;
-    seat of his dynasty, 194.
-  Croker, Mr., his survey of Stanton Drew, 150.
-  Crom, meaning of word, 44 _note_.
-  Cromlech, near Merivale, 55;
-    among M[a]la Aryans, 479.
-    _See_ Dolmen.
-  Cross Flats, 11.
-  Crosses, 270, 272;
-    Irish, how distinguished from Scottish, 270;
-    Isle of Man, with Runic inscriptions, 273;
-    crosses in circles, 304;
-    "Swastica"-like cross, 367;
-    in India, and their date, 486 _et seq._
-  Crozon, alignment at, 367;
-    what battle there, 375.
-  Cruachan, ancient burial-place of Kings of Tara, find, 190-9.
-  Crubelz, 359.
-  Crusades, rude-stone monuments in time of, 406.
-  Cuchullin, 193-7.
-  Cumberland, no mention of Druids in, 5;
-    rude monuments, 127, 128;
-    circles in, probably of same age, 147;
-    circle-building race in, 274.
-  Cumbhail (Fingal), 197.
-  Cumot, or Commensurate grave of Cairbre Lifeachaire, 213.
-  Cumrew, Salkeld and Mayborough, circles at, similar, 147.
-  Cuneus, Cape, unvisited by Portuguese writers, 378.
-  Cunningham, Lord Albert, finds by, at Dowth, 210.
-  Cunnington, Mr., his opinion as to Marden, 86;
-    excavation by, at Stonehenge, 105-6;
-    finds in long barrows, 289.
-  Curtius cited as to Nasomenes, 407.
-  Cuthbert, 22.
-  Cuttack, sacred groves at, 465.
-  Cyvragnon, pile of, mentioned in Welsh Triads, what, 173.
-
-
-  DABILLA, the hound, interment of, 212.
-  Daghda, the general, 187;
-    and king, _ib._;
-    where buried, 191;
-    when, 190;
-    real name Eochy, 192;
-    cairn of, _ib._;
-    residence, 195;
-    his spit, _ib._;
-    family, 197, 212;
-    his tomb where, according to author, 213;
-    written evidence as to, 212.
-  Dagoba, Buddhist, 41, 79, 490 _et seq._;
-    relic, cists, Tee, rail, 490-1;
-    compared to dolmen at Pullicondah, 491.
-  Dananns, Tuatha de, 177 _et seq._;
-    arrival in Ireland, 193;
-    when, _ib._;
-    burial of, 212.
-    _See_ Ireland, Moytura.
-  Danes, cemeteries plundered by, 209.
-  Danish antiquaries, their opinion as to epoch of introduction of
-      bronze and iron into Denmark, 9, 37;
-    their system respecting, 9, 10, 28;
-    too hastily adopted in France and England, 10, 388;
-    their mistaken proceedings, 10-14, 16, 146, 257, 275;
-    International Congress of Prehistoric Archæology, 276;
-    merits of Sjöborg, 276.
-  Danish isles, dolmens in, 301.
-  Danish settlers in Greenland, 18;
-    in Britain and Scotland before Roman invasion, 133-4;
-    commerce, &c., 133.
-  Daoulas, menhir and cross at, 59.
-  Darabgerd, circle near, 453.
-  Dariorigum, standing stones of, 20.
-  Dartmoor parallel stones at Merivale Bridge, 54;
-    circles and cromlechs, 55;
-    avenues at Cas Tor, 56;
-    circles compared with those at Rollright, 124.
-  Dasyus the despised, 493.
-  Date, priority of, in dolmens external or covered, 144.
-  Dates, found and corrected by architects, 113;
-    comparative antiquity of certain classes of monuments, 261;
-    rude-stone sometimes more modern, 407.
-  Dathi, monument of, 199.
-  Daviot circle, 263.
-  Dead, images of, 449.
-  Deane, Rev. Bathurst, adopts Stukeley's views, 6, 151;
-    visits Carnac, 351.
-  Decrees of Councils respecting veneration of stone monuments, 24, 25.
-  Dedalean buildings in Sardinia, why so called, 429.
-  Deer Park, Sligo, monument in, 234-5.
-  Defence, _see_ Mounds.
-  Deh Ayeh, circle at, 453.
-  Delhi, iron pillar near, 35;
-    mosque of Kutb u deem, 457.
-  Demi-dolmens, 345.
-  Demons, _see_ St. Patrick.
-  Denmark, megalithic remains in, 9;
-    museums, _ib._;
-    bronze and iron, date of their introduction into, _ib._;
-    tombs of kings described by Olaus Magnus, 15;
-    ignorance of Romans respecting, 38;
-    tumuli in, 39;
-    circles in, 47;
-    Bauta or battle-stones, 60.
-  Dennis' 'Etruria' cited, 391.
-  Derbyshire dolmens, date of, 36;
-    rude-stone monuments in, 138.
-  Derbyshire Rude-Stone Monuments, 138;
-    Arbor Low, 139;
-    description of, 139;
-    similarity to Arthur's Round Table, 139;
-    plan of, 140;
-    circle, 140;
-    dolmen, _ib._;
-    tumulus, _ib._;
-    excavations and find there, 140-1;
-    Gib Hill tumulus, 141;
-    excavation and find, 141-2;
-    Minning Low, 142;
-    plans of, 142-3;
-    find there, 143;
-    similarity to New Grange, _ib._;
-    and Kit's Cotty House, 144;
-    first Roman, _ib._;
-    Benty Grange barrow, _ib._;
-    find there, 144-5;
-    Kentlow barrow, 45-6;
-    Stanton Moor, 146;
-    monuments of earth and stone, _ib._;
-    Nine Ladies, _ib._;
-    King Stone, _ib._;
-    other groups near Arbor Low, _ib._;
-    cat stones, _ib._;
-    Derbyshire monuments not temples nor tombs of inhabitants, 147;
-    monuments of what race? _ib._;
-    similar in purpose and age to those in Cumberland, _ib._;
-    find in former, 148;
-    Stanton Drew, _ib._
-  Devil's Quoits, 64.
-  Devonshire, circles in, 161.
-  Diarmid and Graine, _see_ Beds.
-  Dinnsenchus, 233.
-  Diodorus, cited as to circular temple, 8;
-    text explained, _ib._;
-    as to barbarism of Irish, 235;
-    Phœnicians in Malta in his time, 425;
-    Dedalean buildings, 429.
-  Divitiacus, 323.
-  Djideli, tombs near, 404;
-    whose, _ib._;
-    find there, _ib._
-  Dodwell, tombs of Atridæ discovered by, 33;
-    that of Minyas explored, _ib._
-  Dolicocephalic race, 35.
-  Dolmens, 29;
-    free-standing, 29;
-    on outside of tumuli, 29;
-    progress of tomb-building, 40-43;
-    kistvaens, 43;
-    chambers, _ib._;
-    with gallery, _ib._;
-    dolmens covered, 44;
-    uncovered, _ib._;
-    opinion that all once covered with tumuli refuted, _ib._;
-    dolmen at Wellan, 45;
-    de Bousquet, 46;
-    excavation suggested of dolmen-crowned tumuli, _ib._;
-    at Kit's Cotty House, 116;
-    at Rollright, 124;
-    in Cumberland (_see_ Penrith);
-    at Arbor Low, 140;
-    France native country of, 161;
-    few in England, _ib._;
-    and most of English in Cornwall, 162;
-    in Wales more numerous, _ib._;
-    and Anglesea, _ib._;
-    and Isle of Man, _ib._;
-    by whom erected, _ib._;
-    where, 163;
-    all not originally buried, 163, 169;
-    some always intended to be covered, 164, 168;
-    dolmen in Park Cwn tumulus, 164;
-    find there, 165;
-    Uley, _ib._;
-    find there, _ib._;
-    judicious conclusions of Dr. Thurnam from, _ib._;
-    Plas Newydd, 166-9;
-    stone avenue leading to, 167;
-    holes in slab, 168;
-    Pentre Ifan, _ib._;
-    Arthur's Quoit, 170;
-    whether originally in tumulus, 171-2;
-    alleged avenue, 172;
-    group of cairns there, 171;
-    purpose, 172;
-    not a cemetery, _ib._;
-    but battle-field? _ib._;
-    Arthur's 8th battle there? 173;
-    the stone of "Cetti," _ib._;
-    Hob Hurst's House, 172-3;
-    dates of dolmens, 173;
-    at Moytura, 183;
-    in Ireland, how situated, 224;
-    not on battle-fields, _ib._;
-    perhaps most on east coast, _ib._;
-    beds of Diarmid, 225;
-    elopement of, with Graine, _ib._;
-    legend as to dolmens, _ib._;
-    legitimate inference from legend, _ib._;
-    Glen Columbkill and Glen Malin More, _ib._;
-    cairns there, 226;
-    age of, _ib._;
-    tradition as to St. Columba, 227;
-    of what race the group, 227-8;
-    Spaniards or Iberians in Ireland, 228;
-    giant's grave, 228;
-    circle there, 229;
-    object of, _ib._;
-    Town of the Stone of the Strangers, _ib._;
-    dolmen at Knockeen, _ib._;
-    Knockeen, plans of, 230;
-    Calliagh Vera or Birra, _ib._;
-    Greenmount tumulus, 231;
-    the "four Maols," Ballina, 232;
-    dolmens in Ireland do not mark battle-fields, 228;
-    dolmens in Scotland, 240;
-    many dolmens erected by kings, &c., as their burial-places, and
-      covered after their interment, 260 _et seq._;
-    comparative antiquity of Callernish and New Grange, 261;
-    dolmens in North Germany, 300;
-    silence of German archæology, _ib._;
-    no dolmens in Poland, 301;
-    Prussia, _ib._:
-    Silesia, _ib._;
-    Prussian Silesia, Pomerania, Rügen, _ib._;
-    Mecklenburg, Hanover, Oldenburg, _ib._;
-    Wildesheim and Engelmanns Becke, _ib._;
-    Helmstädt, _ib._;
-    Holland, _ib._;
-    Saxony, Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, _ib._;
-    Holstein Schleswig, Jutland, Danish isles, _ib._;
-    Sweden, _ib._;
-    none in Norway, 302;
-    Herrestrup, 303;
-    dolmen with representations of ships, and circles with crosses,
-      304;
-    analogous to dolmen at Aspatria, _ib._;
-    Halskov, 305;
-    Oroust, 306;
-    dolmens in the different countries have distinguishing features,
-      _ib._;
-    oblong enclosures, 307;
-    diagram from Sjöborg, _ib._;
-    Roeskilde and Birck dolmens with oblong enclosures, _ib._;
-    Lüneburg, 308;
-    Hanover, _ib._;
-    Valdbygaards, near Soröe, double dolmen, 308-9;
-    triple dolmens, Höbisch, 309;
-    sentinel stones, 310;
-    buried dolmens, _ib._;
-    Uby, 311;
-    Smidstrup, _ib._;
-    Axevalla, and find there, 312-3;
-    dolmens,   elliptical and oblong, 313;
-    age of, _ib._;
-    find, 314;
-    inscription at Axevalla, _ib._;
-    head-stone with drawings on it, of Kivik Grave, _ib._;
-    its resemblance to one at Locmariaker, _ib._;
-    dolmen at Exlo, 320;
-    peculiarity of Drenthe dolmens, _ib._;
-    Ballo, 321;
-    distribution of dolmens map, 324;
-    pre-dolmen immigration of Belgæ into Britain, 323;
-    Luxemburg, _ib._;
-    Belgians and pure Celts not dolmen builders, 326;
-    sequences of dolmens, 335;
-    Sauclières, _ib._;
-     St. Germain-sur-Vienne or Confolens, 336;
-    date of, _ib._;
-    demi-dolmens, 345;
-    others in Ireland and Wales, _ib._;
-    Poitiers and Kerland, 346;
-    rocking stones, Pierre Martine, 347;
-    whether accidental, 347-9;
-    Pierre branlante de Huelgoat, 348;
-    double dolmen at Plouharnel, and find, 358;
-    dolmens, &c., if built with small stones, more modern, 359;
-    Mané Lud, dolmen with sculptured stones, similar to Irish, 360-3;
-    Dol ar Marchant, sculpture decorations, 361-2;
-    Bertrand's list of dolmens in France, 376;
-    termination of names in ac, _ib._;
-    dolmens in Spain, Portugal, 377 _et seq._;
-    dolmen race, migration of, 378-9;
-    Spain, Antequera, 383;
-    its stone town once wholly buried, circle, 384;
-    contrasted with Stonehenge, _ib._;
-    Tio Cogolleros, 385;
-    Sepultura Grande, 386;
-    compared to what, _ib._;
-    dolmen near Dilar, _ib._;
-    Eguilar, Cangas de Onis, 387;
-    dolmen of San Miguel, Arrichinaga, 388;
-    Portugal, Arroyolos, 389;
-    Cangas de Onis, Arrichinaga, 390;
-    why not so numerous in Italy, 392;
-    influence of conquest and withdrawal of Romans upon, 394;
-    distribution in Algeria, 396;
-    principal dolmen region, _ib._;
-    Tiaret, enormous dolmen there, 397;
-    Tripoli, _ib._;
-    Morocco, _ib._;
-    but not near populous centres, _ib._;
-    inference thence as to nomadic origin, 397;
-    dolmen on steps, 398;
-    on a circled tumulus, 400;
-    with two circles of stones, 401;
-    resemblance to Kit's Cotty House, _ib._;
-    dolmens on road from Bona to Constantine, 402;
-    no dolmens in Phœnicia nor in their colonies, 409;
-    Nurhags and giants' towers earlier than dolmens, 437;
-    in Palestine, 441;
-    in Gilead, whether of the giant tribe, 443;
-    long interval from the first Indian dolmen at Peshawur, _ib._;
-    query as to dolmens in Asia Minor, 445;
-    holed dolmen in Circassia, 447;
-    migration theory of dolmens, 448;
-    missionary theory, _ib._;
-    important bearing of searches in the Steppes upon theories, 448;
-    Tartar tumuli not models of Western dolmens, 452;
-    space unexplored for dolmens in East, 454;
-    Rajunkoloor, 468, 470;
-    dolmens with holes, find, 468;
-    double circles round dolmens at Yemmee Gooda, 470;
-    arrangement of dolmens at Rajunkoloor, 470;
-    Nilgiri hills: Courg double dolmens with circular openings, 473;
-    tomb, _ib._;
-    sepulchral circles at Amravati, 474;
-    rail there, 475;
-    geographical distribution, 475 _et seq._;
-    of what race, 476 _et seq._;
-    age of, 479 _et seq._;
-    finds in Indian dolmens, 480;
-    Nilgiri sculptured dolmen, 483;
-    singular position of one at Iwallee, 484;
-    stone monuments at Shahpoor, 485;
-    Katapur, 487;
-    find, _ib._;
-    dolmen with cross in Nirmul jungle, 489;
-    illustration of Romish policy, _ib._;
-    dolmen at Pullicondah compared with Cingalese Dagoba, 491;
-    Eastern and European dolmen compared, 494 _et seq._;
-    whether connexion between them to be inferred from similarity, 495;
-    or from literature, or from rock-engraved edict of Asoka, 496.
-    _See_ Glen Columbkille;
-    dolmen near Bona, Algeria, 532.
-  Dordogne, monuments in, insufficient knowledge of, 335.
-  Doric supersedes Pelasgic style, 393;
-    earliest Doric temple, interval between and last Pelasgic tomb, 393.
-  Dowe Lowe, "find" in, 13.
-  Down, English tumuli on, 48.
-  Dowth Hill, 192, 200;
-    the Dagdha's Rath at, 195;
-    his son born there, _ib._
-  Dracontia, 515. _See_ Serpent, Stukeley.
-  Dragon in Maes-Howe, 245.
-  Drenthe, dolmens in, 301, 320;
-    Hunebeds at, their extent, 319;
-    compared by Keysler to Stonehenge, 319;
-    described by Dr. Janssen, 319;
-    Hunebeds, grottes des fées, 341.
-  Dresden, dolmens destroyed near, 301.
-  Drew, Stanton, circles at, 7, 161.
-  Drosten, name inscribed on stone, 273.
-  Druids, human sacrifices by, at Stonehenge, no longer believed, 1;
-    Dr. Stukeley's fancy respecting their temples, 3;
-    Cæsar's account of them, 4, 5;
-    serpent worship supposed, 4;
-    by Stukeley and Sir R. C. Hoare, 5;
-    Druids in Mona met by Suetonius, _ib._;
-    none ever seen in regions of principal rude monuments, 6;
-    nor in Algeria nor India, _ib._;
-    in Wales, according to Welsh writers, before Christianity
-      introduced, _ib._;
-    controversy in France respecting so-called Druidical monuments,
-      _ib._;
-    difficulty of connecting them with Druids, _ib._;
-    Stukeley's idea adopted by Deane, _ib._;
-    Stonehenge pretended to be their observatory, 7;
-    remarks of author, 7, 20, 61;
-    gods worshipped by Druids, according to Cæsar, 66;
-    Druidical institutions in India, 465;
-    Druids and serpents, freedom of Sjöborg from errors as to, 274.
-  Dryden, Sir Henry, explores Carnac, 350;
-    near Emmen, 320;
-    and Caithness, 530;
-    letter from, to author, _ib._;
-    cited, 362;
-    his drawings of Gavr Innis, 365;
-    describes Gré de Cojou, 368.
-  Duald Mac Firbis, antiquary, 199.
-  Dubois, cited, 449.
-  Duglas or Dubglas River, Arthur's battle on, 136;
-    meaning of word, _ib._
-  Dunadeer Circle, 263.
-  Du Noyer, M., cited, 345;
-    drawings, 225.
-  Dutthagamini, _see_ Ellala.
-
-
-  EADWARD, contemporary of Rollo, 126.
-  East, _see_ Palestine.
-  Easter Island, images in, 53.
-  Eguilar dolmen, 387.
-  Egypt, iron when introduced into, 37.
-  Egyptians, tomb building race, 31;
-    pyramids contained true and false tombs, 46;
-    their feelings as to monasticism, 500;
-    royal monasteries and residences indistinguishable, 514.
-  Eithlenn, daughter of Balor, 187.
-  Ellala, his defeat by King Dutthagamani commemorated by Dagoba, 80.
-  Elliot, Sir Walter, cited on Indian interments, 479.
-  Elliptical dolmens, _see_ Dolmens.
-  Ellis, Mr., his opinion that Stonehenge was an Observatory, 7.
-  Ellora and Elephanta, dates of, 494.
-  Elopement of Diarmid with Graine, 225.
-  Emmen, 320. _See_ Hunebed.
-  Emmrys, work of, in Welsh Triads, what, 173.
-  Enclosures, dolmens with, 307 _et seq._, 354;
-    in America, for defence, 511;
-    sacred and miscellaneous, 311.
-  End Low mound, 139. _See_ Derbyshire.
-  England, circle-building race in, 274;
-    dolmen-building race, _ib._;
-    old race in, improved by Celts and Romans, 461.
-  Engelmanns-Becke, dolmen near, 301.
-  English idolatry, letter of Gregory the Great concerning, 21.
-  Eochy, King, tradition as to his bath, 179;
-    his death, _ib._
-  Eochy the Daghda, 192 _note_.
-  Erdeven, 350.
-  Eric Blodoxe, 250;
-    sons of, 291.
-  Eric the Holy, 291.
-  Eskil, 279.
-  Esquimaux, Cave men similar to, in what respects, 17.
-  Es Salt, dolmens near, 441.
-  Essenes, their connexion with Buddhism, 500.
-  Estremadura, dolmens in, 378.
-  Etan, poetess, 197;
-    where buried, 212.
-  Ethelbert, cedes temple at Canterbury to Augustine, 22.
-  Ethnography, _see_ Races.
-  Etrurians, tomb-building race, 31, 393;
-    dead reverencing, 393;
-    tomb of Commella, 33;
-    of Regulini Galeassi, 34;
-    contents of, 34;
-    belong to age of bronze, 34;
-    imitated at Rome, 40.
-  Europe, Northern, limited knowledge of, before Roman epoch, 38.
-  Eusufzaie circles, 453.
-
-
-  FA HIAN, his visit to Sanchi, 492.
-  Faidherbe, General, his remarks on tombs in Roknia, 396.
-  Family sepulchres marked by megalithic monuments, 15.
-  Faussett, Mr. Godfrey, his happy reference to Beowulf, 120.
-  Féraud, M., his researches in Algeria, 395;
-    his opinion as to building-race, 403;
-    respecting find at Djideli, 404.
-  Ferguson, Mr., drawings by, of sepulchres at Dol ar Marchant, 362.
-  Fiddes Hill circle, 263-5.
-  Fin, his conflict with Hengist, 120.
-  Finds: altar stone, 104;
-    armour, 79, 104;
-    amber beads, 218;
-    amulet of
-    iron, 14;
-    arrow-head, flint, 11, 12;
-      ditto, iron, 104-6, 337;
-    awl, 13;
-    axe-stone, 165;
-    ball syenite, 217;
-    batter dishes, 104;
-    battle-axe, 156;
-    basaltic celt, 11;
-    and hammer head, 12;
-      beads of glass, 13, 218, 359;
-      and of amber, 218;
-    bird of bone, 527;
-    bluestone, chippings of, 103;
-    bones, 74, 526;
-      burnt, 13, 142, 159, 210, 526;
-      charred, 217;
-      calcined, 11;
-      human bones, 155, 179, 182, 199, 216, 219, 446;
-      bones of animals, 143-5, 182, 216;
-      bones of mammalia, 210;
-      of horse, 404, 446;
-      dogs, 527;
-      rats, 13;
-      stags, 104;
-      oxen, _ib._;
-      of men, _ib._;
-      bones incinerated, 264;
-    bone bodkin, 210;
-      comb, 527;
-    box of bronze, 13;
-    brass, 165;
-    brass or copper pin, 12;
-      spear-head, 103;
-    bracelet, gold, 447, 527;
-    bridle bit, 12, 80, 81, 148, 157, 404;
-    bronze, 11, 13, 120, 141, 145, 184, 216, 318, 339, 358, 526;
-    buckle, 43;
-    and heads, 297;
-      of gold, 156;
-    burial urn, 527;
-    cap ornamented with gold, 446;
-    carvings, rude, 366;
-    celt, basaltic, 11;
-      stone, 11, 142;
-      of bronze, 127;
-      of jade, 358;
-    chamber, rude, 159;
-    charcoal, 103, 265, 469, 526;
-    chief, and wife and children, remains of, 446;
-    chippings of stones, 103;
-    circular instrument, 13;
-    circumcision, instruments of, 440;
-    cists, 12, 140-1, 155-6;
-    coal, Kimmeridge, 13;
-    coins (_see_ Roman Coins);
-    coins, German, 318;
-      Anglo-Saxon, _ib._;
-      Byzantine, _ib._;
-      Arabic or Kufic, _ib._;
-    coins, Roman, 74;
-    brass coins, 11;
-    Claudius, Gothicus, 12, 33, 143;
-    Constantine, 11, 12, 143, 165;
-      family of, 11;
-    Constans, 11;
-    Constantine II., 11, 339;
-    Constantinopolis, 11;
-    Constantine Junior, 12, 143;
-      Gratian, 11;
-      Hadrian, 84;
-      from Tiberius to Trojan, 339;
-      Theodosius, 209;
-      Urbs Roma, 11;
-      Valens, 11;
-      Valentinian, 11, 12, 36, 143, 144, 209;
-    combs, engravings on, 218;
-    compass, leg of, 218;
-    comb, 527;
-    copper, 120;
-    cromlechs, 143;
-    cylinder partially pierced, 359;
-    dagger, bronze, 145;
-      brass or bronze, 12, 13, 14;
-    dart or javelin point, 142;
-    dog's bones, 527;
-    drinking cup (fragments), 12, 145, 297;
-    earthenware, 525;
-    electrum plate, part of quiver ornamented with figures of animals
-      and Greek inscription, 446-7;
-    enamels, 145;
-    engraved dagger and Wurm knot, 245;
-    fibula, 11, 13, 142, 210, 297;
-    fibula, gold, 156;
-    flat basin, large, 217;
-    flint, 11, 12, 14, 146, 165, 182, 218;
-    fragments of, 286;
-    flakes, and instruments of, 447;
-    flowers, silver, 156, 339;
-    Faustina, medal of, 405;
-    garnets, 11;
-    giant, remains of, 130, 156;
-    glass, 13, 339;
-    glass beads, _ib._;
-    glass, molten drop of, 218;
-    gold-enamelled necklace and bracelets, 440;
-    gold cross, 11;
-    necklace, 12;
-    brooch, 212;
-    ornaments, 13, 358, 451;
-    goblet, silver, 297;
-    gold, traces of, 155;
-    hair, human, chestnut-coloured, 526;
-    hammer-head, 12;
-    handle of knife, 13;
-    helmets ornamented with bronze and silver, 114;
-    hone of sandstone, 12;
-    horns, 74;
-      stags', 13, 105;
-      of other animals, 105, 150;
-    horse, 446;
-      bones and teeth of, 404;
-    teeth, 12;
-    bones, 183, 527;
-    human remains, 165, 209, 217, 356, 444;
-      ashes and bones, 469;
-      hair, 526;
-    human interments, 185, 359;
-      original or secondary, 209, 284;
-    inscriptions, 246, 314;
-    implements of flint and bone, 145, 184, 185, 217, 218, 359;
-      of iron, 218;
-      of modern form, 318;
-      of flint, 286;
-    inscriptions, 246, 314;
-    instruments, 13;
-    ironstone, 12;
-    ivory tweezers, 103;
-    jade, axes in, 358;
-    jet bracelet, 210;
-      ornaments, 217;
-    knife, 11, 146;
-    knife with iron sheath, 12;
-    iron, 212;
-    knife-shaped articles, 218;
-    lacrymatory, Roman, 165;
-    medal, 404;
-    metal, lump, 155;
-    nails, 527;
-    ornaments, Anglo-Saxon, 11;
-      rude, 185;
-      more refined, 211;
-      of goblet, 297;
-      dragons, tortoise, fantastic heads of animals, 297;
-      in gold and bronze, 358, 526;
-      and copper, 527;
-    oyster shells, 74;
-    pebbles, 218;
-    pin, iron, 13;
-      bronze ditto, 141, 216;
-      copper, 210;
-    pine poles partly burnt, 526;
-    point, flint, of dart or javelin, 142;
-    pottery, fine, broken, 357;
-    pottery, rude, 12, 217, 218, 285, 339;
-      Roman, 105, 106;
-      black, 285;
-      fine, 404;
-      red and black, rude British, 105, 285;
-      Roman British, or Mediæval, 165;
-    precious stones, traces of, 142;
-    punch, iron, 218;
-    rat's bones, 13;
-    ring, gold, 210;
-      iron, _ib._;
-      bronze, 218, 487;
-    Runes, 244;
-    representations of stag and camels, 218;
-    shield, fragments of, 156;
-    silver-flower sword-ornaments, 156;
-    slate, 525;
-    spear-heads, flint or stone, 182;
-    skulls, human, 155, 525;
-    snaffle bridle, 156;
-    sword, iron, 148, 156, 184, 446;
-    syenite, 217;
-    sea shells, 218;
-    silver, 13, 243;
-    skeletons, human, 11, 14, 17, 76, 145, 148, 165, 209, 289, 313;
-    sling-stones, 210;
-    spear-head, 11, 12;
-      of brass, 103;
-    sculptured slab, 365;
-    stained fragments, 218;
-    stag's bones, 216;
-    statuettes, 339;
-    stone, 11, 165;
-    polished stones, 218;
-    stone button, 210;
-    stone shot, _ib._;
-    studs of coal, 13;
-    tiles, Romano-Gallic, 338;
-      others, 359;
-    teeth of animals, 12;
-      human, 155, 216;
-      of horse, 404;
-    tweezers, ivory, 103;
-    terra cotta, 339;
-    torques, gold, 210;
-      silver, 243;
-    urns, 11-13, 143, 179, 264;
-      with ashes, 184, 210;
-      of stone, 210;
-      for burial, 527;
-    vases, 140-1, 357;
-    whetstone, 13;
-    wood, coals, 74;
-    wood, burnt, 182;
-    wood, dark, 526.
-  Finds in Denmark, 10;
-    Derbyshire, 11;
-    Winster Moor, _ib._;
-    Pegges Barrow, _ib._;
-    Long Rood, _ib._;
-    Haddon Field Barrow, _ib._;
-    Gib Hill, _ib._;
-    Cross Flats, _ib._;
-    Galley Lowe, 12;
-    Minning Lowe, _ib._;
-    Borther Lowe, _ib._;
-    Rolley Lowe, _ib._;
-    Ashford Moor, _ib._;
-    Carder Lowe, _ib._;
-    New Inns, _ib._;
-    Net Lowe, 13;
-    Castern, _ib._;
-    Chartham Downs, _ib._;
-    Stand Lowe, _ib._;
-    Wetton and Ilam, _ib._;
-    Middleton Moor. _ib._;
-    Come Lowe, _ib._;
-    Dowe Lowe. _ib._;
-    valley of Somme, 16;
-    Abbeville, _ib._;
-    Gray's Inn Lane, _ib._;
-    Nineveh, 34;
-    at Avebury, 74;
-    at Crichie, 75;
-    at Hakpen, 76;
-    contents of, 250;
-    tumuli, analysis of contents of, 11;
-    finds at Stonehenge, 103-5;
-    at West Kennet, 285 _et seq._;
-    inferences from, 288;
-    inference from nature of, 106;
-    from coins, 338;
-    from absence of British, Gallic, and Christian coins, 340;
-    from Roman pottery, 360;
-    few inferences of age possible from finds in India, and why, 480;
-    no iron or bronze, but copper, in North America, 517;
-    and tools only of copper, 517.
-  Finn, suitor of Graine, 225.
-  Firbolgs, or Belgæ, in Ireland, 176;
-    when, 193;
-    defeat at Moytura, 179;
-    how long in Ireland, 193;
-    whence they came thither, 193.
-  Fire, worship of, forbidden by Councils, 25.
-  Flann, son of Conaing, 201.
-  Flint remains found at Abbeville, 16 _note_;
-    inference from, 166;
-    symbolic of what, 447.
-    _See_ Finds.
-  Flower, Mr., account of African monuments, 396;
-    and their builders, 403.
-  Ford, Mr., his 'Handbook of Spain.'
-  Fordun, _see_ Boece.
-  Fomorians, from Africa settled in Ireland, 176;
-    dispossessed by Belgæ, 176;
-    of same race as Dananns, 187.
-  Forres, Sweno's stone at, 59.
-  Fountains, worship of, 24-5.
-  Fouquet, M., _see_ Galles, M.
-  Four-cornered grave, 449.
-  "Four Masters" cited, 213, 225, 382.
-  France, climate of, at epoch of "Cave men," 17;
-    finds in, 16;
-    menhirs, 59;
-    a single sculptured stone there, 59 _note_;
-    French study of rude-stone monuments, recent, but scientific, 325;
-    'Dictionnaire des Antiquités Celtiques,' _ib._;
-    Bertrand, M., his map of France, 326;
-    general distribution of French monuments, _ib._;
-    no dolmens in East of France, 327;
-    date of Celtic first invasion of Gaul, 327, 334;
-    two early contemporary races in, 328;
-    the 'ac' termination, 329;
-    church architecture in dolmen region of the South of France, 331;
-    form of dolmen distinguishes dolmens in Brittany from those in South
-      of France, 335;
-    Confolens, 337;
-    plan of, _ib._;
-    error of French antiquaries, _ib._;
-    find, 337-9;
-    dolmens, 340;
-    size, number, and beauty of, _ib._;
-    few and imperfect circles, _ib._;
-    "Allée couverte" or "Grotte des Fées," _ib._;
-    examples of, elsewhere than in France, _ib._;
-    their distribution here, 340;
-    Saumur, Essé, Locmariaker, Bagneux, Mettray, 341;
-    form of French dolmens, 342;
-    Krukenho, _ib._;
-    comparative age of, 343;
-    demi-dolmens, rocking stones, &c., 345 _et seq._;
-    Carnac, cemetery and battle-field, 349;
-    alignments, Carnac and Erdeven, St. Barbe, 350;
-    Maenec and Kermario, 351;
-    map, 352-3;
-    stone rows, 354;
-    differ how, from Stonehenge and Stennis, 355;
-    head of column of St. Barbe, Mont St. Michel, _ib._;
-    find, 356;
-    Kerlescant, find, 357;
-    Plouharnel, double dolmen and find, 358;
-    long barrow, Moustoir-Carnac, _ib._;
-    find, 359;
-    Locmariaker, cemetery, dolmen, 360;
-    sculptured stones at Mané Lud, 361;
-    dolmen, Dol ar Marchant, _ib._;
-    end stone and roof, sculptured, 362;
-    fallen obelisk, 363;
-    compared to dolmen at Krukenho, _ib._;
-    allée couverte, 364;
-    ornamented stones, _ib._;
-    Mané er H'roëk, and find, _ib._;
-    Gavr Innis, sculptured stones, 365;
-    resemble sculptures at Lough Crew, 366;
-    three-holed stone, tools used, _ib._;
-    Tumiac, tumulus and find, _ib._;
-    Crozon alignments, their origin and purpose obscure, 367;
-    Gré de Cojou, double alignment, circle, enclosures, dolmen, 367-8;
-    Preissac, _ib._;
-    date and object of monuments at Carnac, 370 _et seq._;
-    Carnac, Erdeven, and St. Barbe, are they parts of one whole? 372;
-    argument against their existence in Cæsar's time, 373;
-    not pre-Roman, _ib._;
-    early history not satisfactory, _ib._;
-    battle between Maximus and Gratian, _ib._;
-    Conan Meriadec, 374;
-    author's view as to origin of Carnac monuments, 374-5;
-    Grallon's war with Liberius and Northern pirates, 374;
-    Romans never settled in Brittany, 370;
-    effect there of Roman building-style, ib;
-    and of withdrawal of Romans, 394.
-  Franks, M., his photograph of Ballo dolmen, 321.
-  French antiquaries, errors of, 337.
-  Frere, Mr., his find at Abbeville, 16 _note_.
-  Freyrsö, battle at, 276.
-  Frey's Howe, opened, 527.
-  Friar's Heel stone at Stonehenge, 7.
-  Frode Frodegode, tomb of, 299.
-  Frode V., 278, 288.
-
-
-  GALATIA, importance of dolmens there, if any, to Celtic theory, 446.
-  Galles, M. René, explores Mont St. Michel,354;
-    with M. Fouquet explores Tumiac, find, 366.
-  Galley Low, find at, 12.
-  Gallicia, dolmens in, 378.
-  Ganora, _see_ Guinevere.
-  Gariock, Newton stone at, 57.
-  Garrywhin alignment, 529.
-  Gaul, Pliny's tale of snakes in, 4;
-    no stone temples in, mentioned by Cæsar or Tacitus, 20.
-  Gavr Innis, in Morbihan, 43, 364;
-    sculptures, holed stone, 365;
-    compared to Lough Crew, 366;
-    holes and trough below, _ib._;
-    object of it.
-  Geraldus Cambrensis, his statement as to removal of stones to
-      Stonehenge, 107;
-    how fable originated, 108.
-  Germans, worship of, in groves only, 20.
-  Germany, North (_see_ Scandinavia); dolmens in, 301.
-  Gervaise mentions cemetery at Canterbury, 22.
-  Ghazni, Saracenic arches at, 457.
-  Giant tribes in Palestine, builders of dolmens? 442;
-    circles, 453.
-  "Giant's dance," Geraldus and Ware cited as to, 107 _note_.
-  Giant's grave, 229;
-    circle there, _ib._
-  Giants' towers, 415.
-  Giara, plan of, Nurhag of, 430. _See_ Mediterranean Islands.
-  Gib Hill, find at, 11, _see_ Derbyshire;
-    analogue of Silbury Hill, 147.
-  Gildas cited, 87;
-    as to interments at Stonehenge, 110.
-  Gilead, dolmens in, 442;
-    last safe place for dolmens before India, 443.
-  Gizeh, date of pyramid of, 31.
-  Glasfurd, Capt., find by, 487.
-  Glem, or Glein, river, Arthur's battle near, 135.
-  Glen Columbkille, 225.
-  Glen Columbkille and Glen Malin, survey of Mr. Norman Moore, 520;
-    cromlechs or dolmens, stone chambers, solitary stones, 320;
-    plan of one, 521;
-    groups of, 523-4;
-    find, 525;
-    resemblance of one to Calliagh Birra's tomb, 525.
-  Glen Malin More, 225.
-  Godmundingham, destruction of church at, 23.
-  Gond, _see_ Bhil.
-  Gongora y Martinez, Don, his work cited, 377.
-  Gordon, Principal, anecdotes of, respecting holed stones at Stennis,
-      255.
-  Gorm, monument of, 27;
-    date of, 126, 296 _et seq._;
-    dragon on, 245.
-  Gothland perhaps mentioned by Diodorus, 8.
-  Göttenburg, drawings of ships on stones at, 303.
-  Göttingen, no dolmens in, 301.
-  Gower caves, 16.
-  Gozo, spirals and scrolls at, compared to those at Mycenæ, 424.
-  Graine, daughter of Cormac Mac Art, _see_ Beds.
-  Grallon, king of Briton, his wars, 374.
-  Grandmont, holed dolmen at, 343.
-  Grange, New, cairns at, 52.
-  Gratian, defeat of, in Brittany, 374.
-  Grave, four cornered, 449.
-  Greece, Aryan occupation of, 39;
-    early tombs in Greece, _ib._;
-    succession of architectural styles, 393. _See_ Bactrian.
-  Greeks of Bactria introduce usage of stone monuments in India, 48;
-    Greek kings mentioned by Asoka, 498.
-  Greenland, route of early peoplers of America, 516.
-  Greenmount, tumulus at, 231;
-    diggings at, _ib._;
-    date, 232.
-  Greenwell, Canon, his researches as to prehistoric tumuli, 289.
-  Gregory the Great, letter of, respecting English idols, 21.
-  Gröningen, dolmens in 301.
-  Grottes des Feés, _see_ Alées couvertes.
-  Groups of stones in England, 56.
-  Groves, sacred, 465.
-  Guest, Dr., accuracy of his dates, 86;
-    opinions as to place of Arthur's last battle, 87.
-  Guidebert circle, 531.
-  Guin, Arthur's 8th battle there, 137, 172.
-  Guinevere, where born and buried? 134.
-  Guzerat, ruins in, of Mahommedan city, 457.
-
-
-  HACAS PEN, _see_ Hakpen Hill.
-  Hadrian, mausoleum of, 40;
-    coins of, 84.
-  Hagiar Khem, plan of cone, 423;
-    pit-markings, 424;
-    altar, 425;
-    headless image, _ib._
-  Hag's Hill, 213. _See_ Slieve na Calliage.
-  Haken, his victory, 291.
-  Hakpen Hill, circle and avenue, 4;
-    double circles, 64;
-    Dr. Stukeley's theory as to, 4;
-    dimensions, 65;
-    mentioned in Charter of Athelstane, 73;
-    dimensions of ovals, 75;
-    stones, 76;
-    find, 76;
-    date of interments, 77;
-    Camden's account, 78;
-    Saxon and Danish burials, _ib._;
-    Roman road at, 83.
-  Hale Farm, 117.
-  Halkor, 305;
-    dolmen, with drawing of ships, circles with crosses or
-      chariot-wheels, 304.
-  Hamlet, citation from, 286.
-  Hannibal in Spain, 380.
-  Hanover dolmen, 301;
-    with enclosure, 308.
-  Harald Blaatand, 296.
-  Harald Hildetand, his defeat, 280;
-    grave, 282.
-  Harold Harfagar, 248;
-    when took the Orkneys, 250.
-  Haugagerdium, 249.
-  Havard the Happy, 250.
-  Havard, Earl, where interred, 298.
-  Hauran, Roman tombs in the, 445.
-  Haxthausen, cited as to Steppes, 448-9.
-  Head-stone, _see_ Kivik.
-  Hecatæus cited, 8.
-  Height of mound an indication of its age, 142 _note_.
-  Helmstädt, once dolmens were near, 301.
-  Hengist and Horsa, 119;
-    Hengist's grandson, 57;
-    his treachery, 107.
-  Henry of Huntingdon cited as to triliths at Stonehenge, 94.
-  Heracleidæ, return of, what figured by, 39.
-  Heraldic symbolism, 273.
-  Heremon, Spanish race of, in Ireland, 381 _et seq._;
-    kings of this race in Ireland, where buried, 200.
-  Herodotus, his descriptions of tomb of Alyattes, 31;
-    his account of the Nasomenes, 407.
-  Herrestrup, dolmen at, 303;
-    ships, and circles with crosses engraved upon, 303.
-  Hesiod, his statement as to respective antiquity of brass or iron, 35.
-  Hiero's temple at mouth of Loire, 21.
-  Hildebrand, his account of diggings and find at Oden's Howe, 526.
-  Hildesheim, no dolmen at, 301.
-  Hindu Goni, 412.
-  Hindus as builders, 457;
-    did not employ the arch, 457;
-    not immutable, 458.
-  Historic, monuments not, 416.
-  Hjarnæ, tomb of, 299.
-  Hjortehammer, singular form of graves at, 316;
-    date of, according to Worsaae, 316;
-    Viking graves at, 528.
-  Hoare, Sir R. C., 5;
-    his work on Wiltshire, _ib._;
-    his authority, in what questionable, 10;
-    his account of Hakpen, 77;
-    etymology of Marlborough, 84;
-    surveyed Marden, 85;
-    his opinion of, 86;
-    plan of Stonehenge, 91;
-    cited as to Stonehenge, 101-5, 110;
-    Stanton Drew, 150;
-    find by long barrows, 289.
-  Hob Hurst's house, 172.
-  Höbisch, double dolmen at, 309.
-  Hock Norton, defeat of English at, 126.
-  Holback, 310.
-  Holes in dolmens, 161;
-    Plas Newydd monolith at Stennis, 255;
-    ceremony connected with, _ib._;
-    date of, 256;
-    certainly Scandinavian, 258;
-    in France, Trie, Grandmont, Bas Languedoc, 343-4;
-    umbrella form has analogues in India, &c., 343;
-    holes as entrances to chambers at Kerlescant and Rodmarton, 357;
-    others at Finistère, 358;
-    Gavr Innis, 365;
-    objects of holes there, trough below, 366;
-    in trilithon, 411;
-    in dolmen in Circassia, 447;
-    at Rajunkoloor, 469;
-    inference of connexion of race from, 495.
-    _See_ Tumulus.
-  Holland, dolmens in, 301.
-    _See_ Drenthe, Hunebeds.
-  Holland, Rev. Mr., cited as to Sinai, 443;
-    find by, 444.
-  Holstein, dolmens in, 301.
-  Holy Land, _see_ Palestine.
-  Horsa, his burial-place, 119-21;
-    battle between and Vortigern, 119.
-  Horses, sacrifices of, in the Steppes, 449-52.
-  Horstead, Horsa perhaps there buried, 121.
-  Houel's monuments in Malta, 416.
-  Howes, Danish and Saxon burials in, 104;
-    British ditto, to what date, _ib._;
-    Danish kings buried, 250;
-    to what date, argument from, 297.
-  Hoxay, 249-50.
-  Hubba the Dane, his era, 104.
-  Huc and Gabet cited as to monasticism in the East, 502.
-  Human remains, _see_ Finds.
-  Human sacrifices amongst Anglo-Saxons, 284-5;
-    and Khonds in India, 460;
-    in Cuttack, 465.
-  Humble, tomb of, 299.
-  Hunebeds, 318, _et seq._;
-    Emmen, 320-1;
-    Ballo, 321;
-    were they originally covered, 321;
-    Gröningen and Friesland, 322;
-    use and date, _ib._
-  Hunestadt, dragon at, 245.
-  Hwitaby circles and Bacta stones, 290.
-  Hydahs in Alaska, 18;
-    compared to Cave men, _ib._;
-    accounts of, 18 _note_;
-    whether of race of mound builders, 517.
-  Hy Fiachrach cited, 233.
-  Hyperboreans, mentioned by Diodorus, 8;
-    circular temples amongst, _ib._;
-    falsely supposed to be inhabitants of Britain, _ib._
-
-
-  IBERIANS, or Celtiberians, 227;
-    in Britain, 162;
-    in Donegal, 227;
-    dolmens, 228;
-    Irish dolmens, 238;
-    not very ready converts to Christianity, 228.
-  Idols, worship of, Councils forbidding, 24, 25.
-  Ilam, find at, 13.
-  Images, headless, 425;
-    of dead on tombs, 449.
-  India, temples of, 1;
-    no Druids in, 6;
-    observations on, 7;
-    when iron first known in, 35;
-    tombs in, 41;
-    holed stones, 343;
-    westernmost dolmen, 443;
-    rude-stone monuments, 455;
-    dates of Aryans crossing Indus, of Vedas and laws of Menou, 455;
-    no existing stone building prior to Asoka, _ib._;
-    progress of Indian architecture contrasted with that of other
-      countries, 457;
-    Hindu not immutable, 459;
-    but other races are so, 459-461;
-    Khassia Hills, 462;
-    rude monuments there similar to European examples, _ib._;
-    cremation amongst Khassias, 463;
-    funereal seats, _ib._;
-    origin of menhirs there, stone turbans, 464;
-    menhirs and tables, _ib._;
-    turban-stone, stone-table, trilithon, _ib._;
-    no circles and alignments, tumuli, nor sculptures, but coincidences
-      with Western nations, 465;
-    points of similarity and of dissimilarity to Druidical institutions,
-      _ib._;
-    date of monuments, _ib._;
-    Kamarupa, 466;
-    Sylhet, _ib._;
-    Western India, _ib._;
-    Belgaum altars or tables, 467;
-    small circles, central stones, worship of Betal, _ib._;
-    dolmen at Rajunkoloor, 468;
-    closed dolmen, 469;
-    find, 470;
-    cairns, _ib._;
-    Raichore Doab dolmens surrounded by double circles, 470;
-    arrangement of dolmens at Rajunkoloor, _ib._;
-    cairns at Jewurgi, find, 471;
-    purpose of each set of dolmens, 472;
-    their ages, _ib._;
-    double dolmen, Coorg, 473;
-    tomb, Nilgiri Hills, _ib._;
-    sepulchral circles at Amravati, 474;
-    circular rail, 475;
-    distribution of dolmens in India, _ib._;
-    Karumbers Buddhists, 477;
-    Dravidians or Tumulians, 478;
-    Karumbers and Singalese, connexion of, _ib._;
-    importance of the unexplored territory of Nizam, _ib._;
-    Travancore cromlechs, 479;
-    mode of interment, offerings to departed spirits, explanation of
-      miniature utensils, 479;
-    finds, 480;
-    age of monuments, iron how long known in India, iron pillar at Kutub,
-      Delhi, 481;
-    sculptured Indian dolmen, 483;
-    Iwallee, 484;
-    group at Shahpoor, 485;
-    cross and dolmen at Katapur, 486-7;
-    dolmen with cross at Nirmul Jungle, 488;
-    dagobas in Ceylon, 489, 490;
-    dolmen at Pullicondah, 491;
-    Sanchi, rail near, 492;
-    author's view as to dates of hewn and rude-stone buildings, ignorance
-      of natives, 493-4;
-    Eastern and Western dolmens, similarities between, how far proof of
-      connexion, 495;
-    tomb of Akbar at Agra, 496;
-    proof from literature inconclusive, 496;
-    from Asoka's rock-engraved edict, 498.
-  Indian Buddhists, rails of, 48;
-    art influences elsewhere, 414.
-  Indian origin of Essenes, 500.
-  Inhumation, different kinds and history of, 30.
-  Inigo Jones, his treatise on Stonehenge, 23.
-  Inquisition, 332.
-  Inscriptions in Maes-Howe, 246;
-    Newton Stone, perhaps earliest Scotch inscription, 271;
-    Kirkliston, 271;
-    Ogham inscription, 271.
-  Interments, place of, in case of circles, 132, 151;
-    at Shap, Hakpen, and Crichie, 131-2;
-    Saxon (_see_ Beowulf);
-    articles deposited by Saxons, 145-6;
-    theory of successive interments, 146;
-    secondary interments, 165-6;
-    fallacy as to, 288-9;
-    Sir John Lubbock's argument respecting summit interments, 166.
-  International Prehistoric Congress at Paris, 337.
-  Iolaus with Thespiadæ colonizers of Sardinia, 429.
-  Iorsala Farer or pilgrims, 244.
-  Iran and Turan or Aniran, of what these words the equivalents, 506.
-  Irby and Mangles, Captains, observe dolmens in Syria, 441.
-  Ireland, tomb-building in, 43;
-    dolmens in, 45;
-    external ditto, 46;
-    menhirs in, 58;
-    no symbolage in, 59;
-    bluestones from, transported to England, 108;
-    rude-stone monuments in, 175;
-    best illustration of megalithic remains, _ib._;
-    obstruction of the study of Irish monuments, _ib._;
-    services of Dr. Petrie, _ib._;
-    materials for history of, _ib._;
-    copious literature, 176 (_see_ Moytura);
-    King Eochy, 178;
-    Firbolgs or Belgians, 179;
-    tradition of the "One Man," _ib._;
-    Queen Misgan Meave, 184-6;
-    Dananns who? 188;
-    King Nuada of the Silver Hand, 186;
-    Fomorians, 186-7;
-    Breas, 186;
-    Balor of the Evil Eye, 187;
-    the great Daghda, _ib._;
-    Fomorians and Dananns alleged to be of same Scandinavian race, _ib._;
-    their very early intercourse with Irish, 188;
-    Dananns were Danes, _ib._;
-    chronology of early events, 188 _et seq._;
-    places of royal interment, 190;
-    race of Crimthann, 132;
-    introduction of alphabet, 189, 196;
-    division into kingdoms, 189;
-    early accounts of its peopling, _ib._;
-    Irish history doubtful until Cimboeth, _ib._;
-    burial-places of ancient kings, 190;
-    first influx of civilization, when, according to Dr. Todd,
-      193 _note_;
-    Oghams, 196;
-    authentic history of Ireland, when commences, according to Petrie,
-      _ib._;
-    legend of the Beds of Diarmid, 225;
-    tradition as to (_see_ Cemeteries);
-    St. Colomba, 227;
-    Iberians in Ireland, monuments of, 227;
-    murder of Dathi by foster-brothers, 233;
-    barbarism of Irish before St. Patrick, 235-6;
-    their civilization progressive, 236;
-    stages of architecture, 237-8;
-    marks of triple system of monuments, 238;
-    importance of them to history, 238;
-    age and sequence of its monuments, 237-8;
-    circle-building race in, 274;
-    dolmen-building ditto, 274, 381;
-    Spanish migration to, Heremon, 381;
-    where Spaniards settled, 382;
-    date, _ib._
-    _See_ Glen Columbkille.
-  Iron, when known to Greeks, Israelites, Etruscans, 35;
-    argument from absence of iron in tombs considered, 37;
-    when introduced into Denmark, England, Egypt, _ib._;
-    iron, early manufacture of, in India, 482;
-    and now by Khassias especially, _ib._
-  Iron pillar at Kutub, 481;
-    date of, 482.
-  Italy, tomb-building in, 40;
-    dolmen at Saturnia, 391-2;
-    chambered tumuli, 392;
-    hewn stones, _ib._;
-    Etruria, _ib._;
-    why dolmens not so uniform in Italy as in France and Scandinavia,
-      393;
-    earliest colonists, the Pelasgi and Tyrrheni, in contact with merely
-      stone-hewing peoples, _ib._;
-    reverence of Etrurians for dead, _ib._;
-    their effacement by more progressive races, _ib._;
-    Rome adopts and improves Etruscan architecture, _ib._;
-    and forces Spain and France to a more ambitious sepulture, 394;
-    their relapse into rude-stone monuments, _ib._
-  Iwallee, singular place of dolmen, 484.
-
-
-  JACOB, stone set up by, 438-9.
-  Jains succeeded Buddhists in India, 459.
-  James I. directs researches respecting Stonehenge, 3, 104.
-  Janssen, Dr., his work on Hunebeds, 319.
-  Jarl Ragnvald, his expedition, 244.
-  Jarls, Orcadian, how buried, 297.
-  Jeffrey of Monmouth cited, 88;
-    account by, of Stonehenge, 106 and of Merlin, are justified, 412;
-    his character as writer, 106.
-  Jellinge, King Gorm's tomb at, 245, 296 _et seq._
-  Jersey, tumulus in, 51;
-    circle, 52.
-  Jewurgi, cairns at, 471-2.
-  Jey Sing, observatories of, 7, 459.
-  John, St., Baptistery of, at Canterbury, erected, 22.
-  Jones, _see_ Inigo.
-  Joshua, stone set up by, 438-40;
-    flint instruments of circumcision interred with him, 440.
-  Joyce, Rev. Mr., on crosses, 488.
-  Juggernaut, temple of, 460.
-  Junies, remains there, 368.
-  Jutes, settle in and trade with Britain before Cæsar's time, 133.
-  Jutland, dolmens in, 301.
-
-
-  KAFR ER WÂL, dolmen at, 441.
-  Kamarupa, Hindu kingdom, 466.
-  Karl Lofts, if circle there, 130.
-  Karumbers, 476 _et seq._;
-    originators of rude monuments in India, 478.
-  Katapur, cross and dolmen at, 486-7.
-  Kemble cited, 64, 73;
-    as to historical value of poem of Beowulf, 120.
-  Kemp How, 130.
-  Kennet Avenue at Avebury, 63-4;
-    called "stone row" in charter of Athelstan, 74;
-    river, station of Saxons upon, 88;
-    long barrow similar to Lethra, 283.
-    _See_ River Kennet.
-  Kens Low, 139;
-    barrow, find at, 145.
-  Kent, division of, by Bede, 120.
-  Kent's Hole, 16.
-  Kerdouadec alignment, 367.
-  Kerland demi-dolmen, 336.
-  Kerlescant, 351, 356;
-    long barrow opened, find, 356.
-  Kermario avenues, 350.
-  Keyna, traditions respecting, 151.
-  Keysler, citations from, 24, 25;
-    compares Drenthe to Stonehenge, 319.
-  Khassia Hills, rude-stone monuments, 462 _et seq._;
-    tribes practise cremation, 463;
-    funereal usages, 463;
-    iron manufacture, 482.
-  Khatoura, tomb of Isidorus at, 100.
-  Khonds (_see_ Gonds), usages of, resemblance to Druids, 460;
-    Major Macpherson's remarks respecting their worship, 461;
-    difficulty of putting an end to their human sacrifices, _ib._
-  King Stone, 146.
-    _See_ Stanton Drew.
-  Kings of Denmark, tombs of, 15.
-  Kinsey, his 'Portugal Illustrated,' 377.
-  Kistvaens, or cists, how composed, 43;
-    contents of, _ib._;
-    when covered, 43-4;
-    passages into, 43;
-    sculpture in, _ib._;
-    New Grange, _ib._;
-    Gavr Innis, _ib._;
-    Maes-Howe, _ib._;
-    Arbor Low, 140;
-    Gib Hill, 141;
-    Plas Newydd, 166.
-  Kit's Cotty House, 116;
-    whether ever covered, 44.
-  Kivik grave, head-stone of, 314;
-    figures upon, _ib._;
-    date assigned to, _ib._;
-    resembles one in France, _ib._
-  Klein-Raden, 301.
-    _See_ Cotty House.
-  Knock na Rea, 184;
-    cairn at, 280.
-    _See_ Queen Misgan Meave.
-  Knockeen, dolmen at, 229.
-  Knowth, cairn of, 192, 200;
-    identified by Petrie with cave of Cnodhba, 201;
-    searched by Danes, _ib._
-  Knut, the great battle between and Olof, 291.
-  Kongsbacka battle-field, 279.
-  Königsberg, dolmens near, 301.
-  Konitz, dolmen at, 301.
-  Krukenho, allée couverte at, 342;
-    dolmen compared with Dol ar Marchant, 36.
-  Kubber Roumeia, tomb of Mauritanian kings, 423-4.
-  Kurgans or mounds in the Steppes, 448.
-  Kutb u Deen, his mosque at Delhi, 457.
-  Kutub iron pillar, 35, 481.
-
-
-  LAITY, _see_ Clergy and Laity.
-  Landevenec founded by Grallon, 374.
-  Landver, son of Thufin, where buried, 528.
-  Largs, battle of, 58;
-    stone to mark, 58.
-  Larking, Rev. Mr., his visit to Aylesford, 118.
-  Latheronwheel, 530 _et seq._
-  Lean Low mound, 139.
-    _See_ Derbyshire.
-  Lecan, book of, cited, 233.
-  Lech, meaning of word, 44.
-  Ledwich, Dr., his description of New Grange, 143.
-  Lefroy, General, his diggings at Greenmount, 231.
-  Leoghaine, 212-3.
-  Leslie, Col. Forbes, 264;
-    his paper upon Aberdeenshire circles, 263;
-    Belgian group described by, 467.
-  Lethra, tomb at, of Harold, 282, 289.
-  Leuré, alignment at, 367.
-  Lia Fail, 382, 439.
-    _See_ Stone of Destiny.
-  Liberius, Consul, defeat of, 374.
-  Liegnitz, dolmen at, 301.
-  Lifeachaire Cairbre, his grave, 213.
-  Linn} _see_ Linuis; meaning of word, 136;
-  Lyn } perhaps Lake country, 136.
-  Linuis, where, 136;
-    locality of a battle of Arthur, different opinions respecting
-      locality, 136.
-  Liotr, or Landver, sepulchre, 254.
-  Listoghil cairn, 181;
-    mentioned by Petrie, _ib._;
-    find there, 182.
-  Llwyd, Mr., 201.
-  Lockmaben, 129.
-    _See_ Wood Castle.
-  Locmariaker, allée couverte at, 341;
-    Dariorigum, capital of Venetes, 349;
-    long barrow, Mané Lud 360;
-    Mané er H'roëk, 360;
-    dolmen and sculpture, 360-1;
-    Dol ar Marchant, 361;
-    allée couverte near, 364;
-    date, 370.
-  Loire, grottes des fées along, 341.
-  Loncarty, defeat of Danes at, 270.
-  Long Stow Cove, 64.
-  Long-headed race, superior antiquity of, 36.
-  Long Roods, barrow at, 11.
-  Lot, department of, 334.
-  Lothbrok Ragnar, victories of, 290;
-    sepulchre of, 298;
-    battle fought by, 314.
-  Lough Crew, 199, 213;
-    excavations, 213;
-    cairn T. 214;
-    Hag's Chair, 215;
-    two stones, 216;
-    cairn L, 217;
-    cairn H, _ib._;
-    find there, 218;
-    cairn D, 219;
-    other monuments at, _ib._
-  Lubbock, Sir John, analysis by, of contents of numerous tumuli, 11;
-    Park Cwn tumulus described by, 164.
-  Lucan cited as to Nasomenes, 407.
-  Lug, grandson of Balor, 187.
-  Lukis, Rev. Mr., explores Carnac, 350, 356-7.
-  Lumberdale House, cist at Gib Hill removed to, 141.
-  Lüneburg, dolmen near, with enclosures, 308.
-  Luxembourg, Grand Duchy, dolmens in, 301, 323;
-    to whom referred, 323.
-  Lyons, battle near, 374.
-
-
-  MACKENZIE, Col., his map cited, 474;
-    his drawings of Viraculls and Masteeculls, 483.
-  Macpherson, Major Charteris, his work, memorials of service in India
-      cited, 460.
-  Madracen, 423;
-    of same type as Maltese examples, 424.
-  Madsen, his 'Antiquités préhistoriques du Danemark,' 188;
-    gives examples of buried dolmen, 310.
-  Maenec, Le, 350 _et seq._
-  Maes-Howe tumulus, 244;
-    opened, _ib._;
-    early spoliation of, _ib._;
-    runes descriptive of origin, _ib._;
-    the spoilers, who, _ib._;
-    inference from runes, _ib._;
-    engraving of dragon, similar to Danish, 245, 246 _et seq._;
-    Wurm knot, 245;
-    inscription, 246;
-    age of, _ib._;
-    architecture of howe, 247;
-    chamber and loculi, _ib._;
-    resemblance of mound to those on Boyne, 248;
-    of what race and age, 249-256;
-    unique monument must have belonged to most magnificent race, 258.
-  Magas mentioned by Asoka, 498.
-  Magh Mor, King of Spain, his connexion with Ireland, 187.
-  Magnus Henricksson, Danish Prince, 291.
-  Magnus Olaus, description by, of megalithic remains in Sweden, 15, 101.
-  Mahabharata, date of the, 455.
-  Mahommedans could not influence the non-progressive tribes of India,
-      459.
-  Mahommedanism, aversion to, in India, 459.
-  Majorca and Minorca, _see_ Mediterranean Islands, 434.
-  Mal Lumkun, cross erected by, 272.
-  Malé, M., his example of demi-dolmen, 345.
-  Malmor, or Mal Muru, 272.
-  Malta, tombs of, 410;
-    giants' towers, 415;
-  Maltese monuments, _see_ Mediterranean Islands.
-  Man, Isle of, circles in, 162;
-    crosses in, 273.
-  Mané er H'roëk, find there, 339, 360, 364;
-    singular sculptured slab, 364.
-  Mané Lud, 360.
-  Mangles, Captain, _see_ Irby.
-  "Many Stones," group, 529.
-  Maols, or Murderers, graves of four, at Ballina, 233, 336;
-    certain date of, 233.
-  Marden, 63;
-    circle, plan, 85.
-  Marienwerder, dolmen at, 301.
-  Marlborough, etymology of word, 84.
-  Marmora, Count de la, his work on Sardinia, 428 _et seq._
-  Marsa Sirocco, remains at, 425.
-  Masses, immense, moved by rude peoples, 465.
-  Masteeculls, what, 483.
-  Mauritanian kings, tombs of, 424.
-  Maximus, overthrow of Roman power by, 373;
-    his battle, 374.
-  Mayborough (_see_ Penrith and Cumrew);
-    circle at, compared to Little Salkeld, 127.
-  Meave Misgan, Queen, _see_ Misgan.
-  Mecklenburg, dolmens in, 301.
-  Mediterranean islands, non-historic monuments of, shaped stones, 415,
-      436;
-    Malta, giants' towers, circles, 416;
-    Gozo, 417;
-    Hagiar Khem, 419, 423;
-    Mnaidra, 418-22;
-    roofing of Maltese monuments, 422;
-    these compared to Kubber Roumeia and Madracen, 424;
-    Gozo scrolls and spirals compared to those of Mycenæ and Greece,
-      _ib._;
-    pit-markings, _ib._;
-    altars and stone tables, 225;
-    monuments not temples but sepulchres, 425-6;
-    Phœnicians in Malta, 425;
-    the monuments, of what race and age, 426, 437;
-    prior to dolmens, 437;
-    Sardinic Nurhags, 427;
-    storeys of Nurhags and groups, plan of, _ib._;
-    Santa Barbara, 428, 431;
-    silence of history as to them, 429;
-    Dedalean buildings according to Diodorus, _ib._;
-    La Giara, 430;
-    what Nurhags were, 431;
-    derivation of, 432;
-    view of author as to purpose of Nurhags, 433;
-    Balearic islands, Talyots at Trepucò, Minorca bilithon, 435;
-    Alajor, _ib._;
-    stone tables, 435-6;
-    rude-stone circles, 432.
-  Megalithic monuments at Moytura, 180 _et seq._;
-    every kind of, except avenues, 180-1;
-    monument in Deer Park, Sligo, 234;
-    its anomalous nature, 235;
-    Celts had nothing to do with, according to Bertrand, 254;
-    gap of, between France and Scandinavia, 323;
-    none in valleys of Rhine or Scheldt, _ib._;
-    distribution of, 334;
-    map, 324;
-    table, 376;
-    demi-dolmens, rocking stones, 345 _et seq._;
-    Carnac, 350;
-    Tiaret, 397.
-  Megalithic remains, how to study, 19;
-    rarely in this country contain flint, bronze, or iron, 19;
-    style uniform, 36;
-    age of, 37;
-    resemblance to Buddhist structure, 42 (_see_ Kistvaens);
-    mark battle-fields, family sepulchres, or graves of distinguished
-      men, 15;
-    great light as to, derivable from Irish remains, 175.
-  Melkart and Astarte, temple in Malta dedicated to, 425.
-  'Memorials of Service,' work of Major Charteris-Macpherson, 460.
-  Menhirs, 29;
-    derivation of word, 57;
-    where, _ib._;
-    purpose, _ib._;
-    single stones in Scripture, Greece, Etruria, _ib._;
-    rarely inscribed, _ib._;
-    in Ireland, Wales, Scotland, 59;
-    France, _ib._;
-    at Lochrist, _ib._;
-    Denmark, 60 (_see_ Monoliths);
-    purpose of menhir in Khassia, 463;
-    Western not after Tartar models, 452.
-  Menou, laws of, date of, 455.
-  Meriadec Conan, British Prince in France, 374;
-    wars of, _ib._
-  Merivale, bridge at, 55-6;
-    parallel lines of stones at, 54;
-    their purpose, _ib._;
-    avenue, circles, and cromlech at, 55-6.
-  Merlin, his bury, 84;
-    his connexion with Stonehenge, 107;
-    fable about, 133;
-    explained, 412.
-  Mettray, allée couverte at, 341.
-  Mexican temples, 514;
-    race non-progressive beyond a certain point, 19.
-  Mexico, carved stone monuments in, 517.
-  Miamisburgh, sepulchral mound at, 514.
-  Miana, circle at, 453.
-  Microlithic remains, 40, 41, 47.
-  Miegle, alleged burial-place of Guinevere, 134.
-  Migration from France to Algeria, 409;
-    of people settled around Mediterranean, 410.
-  Migration theory, how proved or disproved, 443, 445.
-  Minho, dolmens in, 378.
-  Miniature urns and utensils in Indian tomb, use of, explained, 479.
-  Mitjana, Don Rafael, pamphlet by, 377.
-  Minning Low, 130, 142-3.
-    _See_ Derbyshire.
-  Minorca, _see_ Mediterranean.
-  Minyas, tomb of, 33.
-  'Mirabilibus Auscultationibus, De,' work ascribed to Aristotle, 429,
-      434.
-  Miscellaneous, _see_ Mounds.
-  Misgan Meave, Queen, cairn of, 183;
-    killed by whom, 184 (_see_ Moytura);
-    poem of her life and adventures, 196;
-    her husband, 197.
-  Mnaidra, elliptical chambers, 417;
-    plans of monuments at, 418-22;
-    cones, 419;
-    pit-markings, 420;
-    openings in walls, shelves or loculi or columbaria? 420;
-    roofs, 421.
-  Modestus, his zeal of proselytism unsuccessful in Brittany, 373.
-  Mogalana and Sariputra, disciples of Buddha, 504.
-  Mogols, domes of, 40.
-  Molyneux, Sir Thomas, 202.
-  Monasticism in the West, 499;
-    Vestal Virgins, Antony, _ib._;
-    Essenes, 500;
-    history silent as to monasticism in the East, not so architecture,
-      501;
-    imitated by the West from the East, _ib._;
-    peculiarities introduced, 502.
-  Monoliths at Stennis, 242;
-    holed, 242, 255;
-    Setif, 397.
-  Mont St. Michel, possibly occupied by Cæsar, 20;
-    find, 356.
-  Montfort, Simon de, 481.
-  'Monumenta Britannica' cited, 87.
-  Monuments, _see_ Rude-Stone.
-  Moon worship forbidden, 25.
-  Moore, Norman, Mr., his visit to Glen Columbkille, 225;
-    letters from, respecting, _Appendix_, 520-3.
-  Moors in Spain, 381.
-  Motes, or places of judgment, stones to mark, 26.
-  Mounds of sacrifice in North America, 513;
-    of sepulture, 514;
-    temple, _ib._;
-    animal mounds, 515;
-    conical mounds, 513.
-  Moustoir Carnac, long barrow and find, 358-9.
-  Moytura, 176;
-    two battles at, 175;
-    narrative of, by O'Donovan, 176;
-    first battle at North Moytura, 176-7;
-    second battle at South Moytura, 177-9;
-    circles, 177;
-    cairns, _ib._;
-    cairn of "One Man," 178;
-    importance and varieties of monuments at Northern Moytura, 180;
-    map, 181;
-    plan of circles, 182-3;
-    dolmen, 183;
-    tomb of Misgan Meave, 184;
-    locality of it doubted, 185;
-    account of battle of Northern Moytura, 186;
-    dates of battles, 188, 197;
-    when accounts first written, 197;
-    localities of battles, 198;
-    monuments at, contrasted with English and Scandinavian examples, 198;
-    resemblance of, to Braavalla, 280, 304.
-  Muir Divock, 130;
-    circles at, 130.
-  Mule Hill, 157-8.
-    _See_ Circles, Small.
-  Mulheran, Mr., account of Katapur, 487.
-  Mull of Cantyre circles, 262.
-  Munch, Professor, his observations as to spoilers of Maes-Howe, 244;
-    mentions Halfdan's barrow, 250.
-  Mycenæ, tombs of Atridæ at, 32, 36;
-    analogous to Jersey circles, 52, 53;
-    scrolls and spirals there resemble those of Gozo, 424.
-
-
-  NABLOUS, dolmens on road to, 441.
-  Naper, Mr., excavations by, 213.
-  Nasamones, who, 407;
-    Herodotus mentions their veneration of dead, _ib._;
-    a plundering tribe, _ib._
-  Navarre, dolmens in, 378.
-  Nemedh, three sons of, 179.
-  Nennius, his account of origin of Stonehenge, 107;
-    of Arthur's battles, 135.
-  Nestorians, how far to the east, 488.
-  Net Lowe, find, 13.
-  Netterville House, tumulus, 209.
-  New Craig circle, 263.
-  New Grange, 43, 52;
-    Royal cemetery, 192, 201.
-  New Inn, 12.
-  Newark Works in America, 511.
-  Newton, 263;
-    sculptured stone, 263, 271.
-  Niall, father of Leoghaire, 212.
-  Nicol, Dr., his observations in Kincardine, 265.
-  Nikolajew, uncovered base of tumulus, 451.
-  Nilgiri Hills, tombs and dolmens, 472-3;
-    sculptured dolmens, 483.
-  Nine Ladies, circle of, at Stanton Moor, 48-9, 140.
-  Nineveh, dates of buildings at, how ascertained, 1, 34.
-  Nirmul Jungle dolmen with cross, 488.
-  Nizam's unexplored territory important to art and history, 478.
-  Nonhistoric monuments, 415.
-  Norman pirates, Grallon's war with, 374.
-  North Germany, _see_ Scandinavia.
-  Norway, no dolmens in, but cairns and such like monuments, 302.
-  Nuada, king, "of the silver hand," battle and death, 187.
-  Nur, meaning of, 432.
-  Nurhags of Sardinia, 410, 415, 427 _et seq._;
-    derivation of word, _see_ Sardinia.
-
-
-  OAK used in Thyra's tomb, 298.
-  Obelisk, development of, 59;
-    at Aylesford, 117, 119;
-    at Rollright, 124;
-    at Dol ar Marchant, 363.
-  Oberhartz, no dolmens in, 301.
-  Oberyssel, dolmen in, 301.
-  O'Brian, wild speculations of, 175.
-  Observatories in India, 459.
-  Ochaim, Niall's burying-place, 212.
-  O'Curry, his account of battle cited, 188;
-    his view as to date of Ogham writing, 196.
-  Oden's Howe, exploration of, 526;
-    find, _ib._
-  O'Donovan, his account of Moytura, 176;
-    his confession of uncertainty of Irish chronology, 190;
-    remarks as to dolmen of four Maols, 233.
-  Og, king of Bashan, 442.
-  Oghams, 29;
-    on menhirs, 58;
-    date of introduction, 196;
-    little used, and for what, _ib._;
-    on Newton Stone, 271.
-  Ohio, sacred enclosures in, 511;
-    district of, how first peopled, 516.
-  Oise, holed dolmen at, 343.
-  Olaus, _see_ Wormius, Magnus.
-  Old Testament, stones mentioned in, 57.
-  Oldenburg, dolmens in, 301.
-  Olfers, Dr., tomb of Alyattes examined by, 32.
-  Olof the Holy, 241.
-  Ophite theory, 4, 7.
-  Oppeln, dolmen near, 301.
-  Orchomenos sepulchre explored by Dodwell, 33;
-    lined with bronze, 34;
-    inference from, as to civilization, 39.
-  Orkneys (_see_ Maes-Howe, Scotland, Stennis);
-    no timber in, 298.
-  Orkhow, treasure there, 252.
-  Oroust, dolmen at, 305-6;
-    resembles Countless Stones, 305;
-    in enclosure, 310.
-  Osnabrück, dolmen in, 301.
-  Ougein, observatories in, 7;
-    commercial capital of Asoka, 459.
-  Ouseley, Sir W., cited as to Eastern circles, 453.
-  Oval dolmens, _see_ Dolmens.
-  Ozene, or Ougein, which see.
-
-
-  PAGAN TEMPLES, similarity of, to Christian, 22-3.
-  Palestine and the East, dolmens, 438;
-    of stones mentioned in Scripture but one of megalithic class, 438-40;
-    monolith, 440;
-    dolmens between Es Salt and Nablous, 441;
-    and Kafr-er-Wâl, _ib._;
-    whether dolmens outside of Gilead, 442;
-    of what tribe known examples are, _ib._;
-    age of, 443;
-    Peshawur, _ib._;
-    circular-domed tombs at Sinai, and stone circles, _ib._;
-    find, 444;
-    Nukb Hawy ring, _ib._;
-    resemblance to Bazinas and Chouchas, _ib._;
-    Arabia, near Eyoor, rude-stone monuments mentioned by Palgrave,
-      resembling those of the West and at Tripoli, 445;
-    interest attaching to Arabian examples, _ib._;
-    Asia Minor, unsolved problems respecting, 446;
-    Kertch, chambered tumuli, and finds, 447;
-    dolmens of shaped stones, holed in Circassia, Crimea, and on shore of
-      Baltic, 447.
-  Palgrave, Mr. Giffard, rude-stone monuments seen by him in Arabia, 444.
-  Pallas cited, 449.
-  Pancras, St., temple at Canterbury dedicated to, 22.
-  Pandus, temples popularly assigned to, 494.
-  Pape and Peti, early inhabitants of Orkneys, 248.
-  Parallel lines or avenues, 50.
-    _See_ Avenues.
-  Park Cwn tumulus, 164;
-    meant to be visible, 164;
-    find at, _ib._
-  Parkhouse circle, 263.
-  Pataliputta, _see_ Patna.
-  Patan, Emperors, domes of, 40.
-  Patna, convocation at, 501.
-  Pausanias, tomb of Atridæ described by, 32, 33.
-  Pegges Barrow, 11.
-  Pelasgi and Tyrrheni, in contact with only stone-hewing races, 393.
-  'Pelasgic Remains,' work by Dadwell, 33;
-    style superseded by Doric in Greece, 393.
-  Pembroke, Philip, Earl of, his testimony as to Stonehenge, 104.
-  Pen, prefix, meaning of, 64.
-  Pennant cited as to Mayborough, 128-9.
-  Penrith, Arthur's Round Table at, 82;
-    Long Meg and her Daughters, 126 _et seq._;
-    mentioned by Camden, 127;
-    Mayborough, _ib._;
-    monolith, 128;
-    King Arthur's Round Table, _ib._;
-    plan of, _ib._;
-    history of monuments, 131;
-    Shap alignment not Druidical, _ib._;
-    nor sepulchral, _ib._;
-    at least not the cemetery of Shap, _ib._;
-    marks battle-field, 132;
-    victory over Saxons, perhaps, _ib._;
-    objections, 132-3;
-    monuments near, mark victories of Arthur, 132.
-  Pentre Ifan dolmen, 168.
-  'Periplus,' the, cited, 459.
-  Perthes, M. Boucher de, "find" by, on the Somme, 16.
-  Peru, carved stone monuments in, 518;
-    resemble Pelasgic and Tyrrhenian, _ib._
-  Peshawur dolmen, 443;
-    circle, 452;
-    and at Deh Ayeh, 453;
-    hewn-stone circles ascribed to Caons or giants, 453;
-    if other dolmens in the East? 454.
-  Peti or Picts, 248-9.
-    _See_ Pape.
-  Petrie, Dr., his useful but interrupted services in Ireland, 175;
-    observations of, as to cairn Listoghil, 181;
-    Moytura, 181 _et seq._;
-    Tara, 193;
-    introduction of writing into Ireland, 196;
-    Oghams, _ib._;
-    Knowth, 201;
-    cited as to Talten, 219;
-    style of Irish monuments, 238;
-    his excavations in the Orkneys, 249;
-    his suggestion as to Moytura, 280.
-  Phayre, Sir Arthur, on circle at Peshawur, 452.
-  Phœnicians, Romans, and Greeks of Marseilles, their influence upon
-      architecture of rude nations, 508.
-  Phœnicians, voyages of, to Cornwall, 38;
-    written characters at New Grange, 207;
-    not builders of rude-stone monuments, 409.
-  Picardy, remains of Cave men in, 329.
-  Pictland, features of, 58.
-  Picts, origin and relations with Irish and Gauls, 267;
-    their capitals, 271;
-    language, _ib._
-  Pierre branlante, Brittany, 348.
-  Pierre Martine, rocking stone, 347-8.
-  Pilgrim Scandinavian pirates, 244.
-  Pit-markings, 424.
-  Plas Newydd dolmen, 167-9.
-  Pliny, _see_ Cæsar.
-  Plouharnel, double dolmen at, 358.
-  Poitiers, demi-dolmen, 346.
-  Poitou, Cave men's remains in, 329.
-  Poland and Posen, no dolmens in, 301.
-  Pomerania, dolmens in, 301.
-  Portugal, writers on its rude-stone monuments, 377;
-    dolmens, _ib._;
-    Strabo, an authority for its dolmens, _ib._;
-    Cuneus, 378;
-    distribution of dolmens, _ib._;
-    throws light upon theories, _ib._;
-    course taken by dolmen race, 378 _et seq._;
-    Arroyolos, dolmen at, 389.
-  Posen, _see_ Poland.
-  Pownall, Governor, his disquisition upon marks at New Grange, 202, 207.
-  Pregel, dolmens on, 301.
-  Prehistoric prejudices, 406.
-    _See_ International.
-  Preissac, alignment at, 368.
-  Pre-Roman theory, 373.
-  Progressive theory, 406.
-  Prussia, dolmens rare in, 301.
-  Prussian Saxony, _see_ Saxony.
-  Priam's house of brass, 35.
-  Prinsep, Mr., his translation of an edict of Asoka, 498.
-  Priority of dates, _see_ Dates.
-  Ptolemy, mentioned in edict of Indian Prince, 498.
-  Pullicondah, cairn or dolmen, 491.
-  Puri, temple of Juggernaut at, 460.
-  Pyramids, inference as to climate from pictures in, 17;
-    date of that at Gizeh, 31;
-    antecedent structures supposed, _ib._;
-    contain tombs true and false, 46;
-    probable date of, 408.
-  Pytheas, visit of, to Cimbrian Chersonese, 38.
-
-
-  QUEEN Charlotte's Sound, whether natives a race of mound-builders, 517.
-
-
-  RACE, inference as to, from use of circles, 163;
-    of dolmens, _ib._;
-    of circles and dolmens, _ib._;
-    divisions of, in Britain by Tacitus, 162;
-    inference from simultaneous monuments of three kinds in Ireland as to
-      races, 238;
-    relations of Picts with Irish and Gaels, shown by comparison of
-      monuments, 267, 271;
-    circle-building and dolmen-building races, 274;
-    whence each came, and course which each took, _ib._;
-    dolmens, historic, 302;
-    distribution of, _ib._;
-    prehistoric theory leaves subject of races obscure, _ib._;
-    dolmen-building race not so ready converts to Christianity as the
-      Celts, 328;
-    inference from church architecture in South of France, 332;
-    and Protestant feeling in South of France, _ib._;
-    non-progressive, _ib._;
-    Cimbri, Celts, and Gauls, 333;
-    Cimbri and Aquitani related, _ib._;
-    race traced by dolmens from Brittany to Narbonne, 334;
-    Iberians, Celtiberians, Turanians, 379;
-    disturbed by Carthaginians, 379;
-    Romans, 380;
-    Moors, their easy conquest of Spain, how accounted for, 381;
-    Spanish settlers in Ireland and Britain, _ib._;
-    Tara, 382;
-    Lia Fail, _ib._;
-    Heremon, 381-3;
-    ethnography of North Africa, 406, _et seq._;
-    different theories as to, _ib._;
-    connexion between races on the northern and southern sides of
-      Mediterranean, 408;
-    chief race in India, 458;
-    Bhil, Cole, Gond, and Toda, non-progressive, 459;
-    Hindus not immutable, _ib._;
-    inference from style of architecture, 495;
-    peopling of America, 516;
-    by what way, 516;
-    Mound-builders, Redmen, Hydahs, 517;
-    Aztecs and Toltecs, 515;
-    Pastoral or Agricultural races, ditto Hunters in North America, _ib._
-  Race-course, notion that alignments at Stonehenge were, 111.
-  Raguhilda, wife of Eric, 250.
-  Rail, Sanchi, 492.
-  Rajagriha, convocation at, 501.
-  Rajpootana, pertinacity of Bhil usages, 459.
-  Rajunkoloor, 468 _et seq._
-  Ramayana, the date of, 455.
-  Ramé, M., describes alignment at Gré de Cojou, 377.
-  Rath at Dowth, residence of the Dagdha, 195.
-  Rath of Leoghaire, 195;
-    singular direction by him as to his burial, _ib._
-  Rath of Queen Meave, 193.
-  Rath na Riogh, 194;
-    resembles Avebury, _ib._
-  Rathcrogan, supposed burial-place of Queen Meave, 183.
-  Rayne, old circle at, 263.
-  Rectangular dolmens, 313.
-    _See_ Dolmens.
-  Redmen of North America, 517;
-     not mound-builders, _ib._
-  Redstone pillar, 200.
-  Relic worship in the East, 503.
-  Relig na Riogh, Dathi's burial-place, 200.
-  Rhind, Mr., his bequest for Professorship
-    of Archæology in Scotland, 239;
-    paper on ortholithic remains in Africa, 395-7.
-  Ribroit, Arthur's tenth battle there, 137.
-  Rickman, his perception of progress and sequence in monuments, 113;
-    value of his process in fixing dates, 114.
-  Ring Sigurd, 280;
-    saga as to, 282.
-  Ringham Low, group, 139.
-    _See_ Derbyshire.
-  Rocking stones, 347.
-  Rodmarton, chambered tumulus, 166;
-    post-Roman, 289;
-    holes in entrance, resembles Kerlescant, 357.
-  Roeskilde, dolmen in square, 307.
-  Rolley Lowe, 12.
-  Rollo in England, 126.
-  Rollright, circle at, 124;
-    obeliscal stone, _ib._;
-    dolmen, _ib._;
-    examined by R. Sheldon, 125;
-    unimportance of monuments there, _ib._;
-    whether sepulchral, _ib._;
-    assigned by Camden to Rollo, 126.
-  Roman coins, find of, in Ireland, 166.
-    _See_ Coins, Finds.
-  Roman pottery found at Stonehenge, 105;
-    inference from, 106.
-    _See_ Finds.
-  Roman road at Silbury Hill, 81;
-    argument from its state, 82;
-    and of that at Hakpen Hill, 83.
-  Romans, Stonehenge assigned to, by Inigo Jones, 3;
-    in England, 96;
-    effect of Roman art upon British civilization, _ib._;
-    and architecture, 394;
-    in Africa, 414;
-    pressure of, upon Etruria, 393.
-  Ronalds, Mr., his engraving of Carnac, 350.
-  Rooke, Mr., his account of Stanton Moor, 146;
-    snaffle-bit found by, 156.
-  Rose Hill tumulus, 155.
-    _See_ Circles, Small, 155.
-  Ros-na-righ, who buried there, 212.
-  Ross County, North America, sacred enclosures in, 511.
-  Rothiemay circle, 263.
-  Round tower, _see_ Tower.
-  Roy's, General, 'Military Antiquities of Romans' cited as to circle at
-      Wood Castle, 129.
-  Rude-Stone monuments erected even where letter inscriptions and carving
-      practised, 273;
-    none in the valleys of Scheldt and Rhine, 323;
-    sometimes comparatively modern, 406;
-    result sometimes of fashion, 408;
-    Aryans and pure Dravidians or Tamulians not builders of, in India,
-      447-8.
-  Rudeness of monument, what it proves, 100.
-  Rügen, island of, dolmens in, 301.
-  Runes on menhirs, 29;
-    Maes-Howe, 246-8, 251;
-    Isle of Man, 273.
-
-
-  SABÆAN worship of planets, 432.
-  "Sabrinum ostium," meaning of words, 87;
-    Arthur's last battle fought near, _ib._
-  Sacrifices, _see_ Human.
-  Sagas, 254;
-    as to Harald Hildetand, 280.
-  Sakya Muni, date of, 455;
-    influences Buddhism, 506;
-    is not Woden, 496.
-  Salkeld, Arthur's seventh battle, 137.
-    _See_ Cumrew.
-  Sanchi rail, 492;
-    gate, 94;
-    no images of priests, 501;
-    relics of saints, 504;
-    dagobas and stupas, 41.
-  Sandulf the Swarthy, 272.
-  Santa Barbara, Nurhags at, 428 _et seq._
-    _See_ Mediterranean Islands.
-  Santander dolmens, 378.
-  Sardis, tombs at, 32;
-    age of, 32.
-  Sariputra, see Mogalana.
-  Sarsen stones, at Ashdown, 122;
-    what they represent, _ib._;
-    at Avebury, 73, 86;
-    whence they came, 95;
-    at Stonehenge, 94.
-  Saturnia, dolmen at, 391-2.
-  Sauclières dolmen, 335.
-  Saumur, grotte des feés near, 341.
-  Säve, Karl, letter from, respecting diggings at Oden's Howe, 526-7.
-  Savernake Forest, 87.
-  Saxo-Grammaticus as to Gorm's son, 296.
-  Saxons, defeat of, by Vortimer, 106;
-    battle with Vortigern, 119.
-  Saxons, march of, in the West, 88;
-    encounter Arthur, 88-9, 132;
-    their defeat near Penrith, 132;
-    traded with and settled in Britain before Cæsar's time, 133-4;
-    grave mounds in England, 36;
-    articles supposed Saxon at Stand Lowe, 13.
-  Saxons, Prussian, 301.
-  Saxony, dolmens in, 301.
-  Scandinavia and North Germany, 275;
-    Danes, their megalithic remains little known, _ib._;
-    false route of their antiquaries, 276;
-    except Sjöborg, 277;
-    their early historians little reliable, _ib._;
-    Scandinavian history prior to Christ, _ib._;
-    Odin, fable as to, _ib._;
-    Frode I., date of, 278;
-    and of Harald Harfagar, _ib._;
-    list of kings, _ib._;
-    battle-fields, _ib._;
-    Kongsbacka, 279;
-    its analogy to Dartmoor, Ashdown, and Karnac alignments, _ib._;
-    view of, _ib._;
-    grave of Frode, but which Frode? _ib._;
-    battle-field of Swedes and Danes, _ib._;
-    Braavalla Heath, 280;
-    resemblance to Moytura, _ib._;
-    circles, _ib._;
-    doubt as to date of, _ib._;
-    square and triangular graves, 282;
-    King Harald Hildetand, saga of, and Sigurd Ring, 283;
-    tomb of former, 282;
-    find of flints, 283;
-    erroneous inference, _ib._;
-    form of grave, _ib._;
-    Hwitaby circles and Bauta stones at, 290;
-    battle-fields, whose, _ib._;
-    Lothbrok, 291;
-    Stiklastad, and circles there, _ib._;
-    circles and ovals, mounds and square enclosures, _ib._;
-    victory of Blenda, _ib._;
-    Freyrsö cairns, mounds, and ship barrows, _ib._;
-    tumuli, to what race due, aboriginal or invading, 293;
-    Scandinavians, of what race, _ib._;
-    Worsaae's argument, _ib._;
-    triple group at Upsala, 294;
-    find, _ib._;
-    mound of Wodin, _ib._;
-    Jellinge, tombs of Gorm and Thyra, 296;
-    importance of, 297;
-    diggings in the latter, 296;
-    find, 297;
-    date, _ib._;
-    compared to Maes-Howe, 299;
-    comparative dates of Danish, Irish, and Stennis monuments, _ib._;
-    series of Royal Danish tombs, _ib._;
-    might furnish dates of styles, 300.
-    _See_ Scotland, Caithness.
-  Scandinavian antiquaries commended, 15.
-  Scandinavians in Ireland, 187;
-    different tribes of, 187;
-    Vikings, _ib._;
-    in Scotland, Orkneys, 244;
-    pilgrims, Christian, and pirates, _ib._;
-    conoid graves, 243;
-    ship graves, 315;
-    equilateral triangles, _ib._;
-    meaning of the latter form, 315-6;
-    singular arrangement of circles at Aschenrade, 317;
-    resembles Algerian example, 318;
-    finds, _ib._;
-    no Druids amongst, 6;
-    ignorant of iron, 37.
-  Schleswig dolmens, 301.
-  Scone stone, 439.
-  Scotland, menhirs in, 57;
-    megalithic remains in, 239;
-    Wilson's 'Prehistoric Annals' of, _ib._;
-    scanty means of studying monuments in, _ib._;
-    cat or battle-stones, dolmens, circles, 240;
-    distribution of, _ib._;
-    Orkneys, 241;
-    circles, tumuli, _ib._;
-    Stennis, _ib._;
-    dolmens, 241, 355;
-    monoliths, 242;
-    holed monument, 242, 255;
-    bowl-shaped barrows, 243;
-    find, _ib._;
-    conoid barrows, _ib._;
-    find there, _ib._;
-    Maes-Howe, _ib._;
-    spoliation of, _ib._;
-    runes, _ib._;
-    dragon and Wurm knot, 245;
-    inscription at Maes-Howe, 246;
-    chamber there, 247;
-    and loculi, 248;
-    resemblance to Boyne monuments, _ib._;
-    red sandstone material, _ib._;
-    conquest of Island by Harold Harfagar, _ib._;
-    Pape and Peti, who these races were, _ib._;
-    what is Maes-Howe, 248-9;
-    and what the barrows, _ib._;
-    Haugagerdium, perhaps How of Hoogsay, who buried there, _ib._;
-    Halfdan's Barrow, 250;
-    similarity to Danish royal tumuli, _ib._;
-    account of conquest of Orkneys by the Norwegians, _ib._;
-    Stennis, scene of what battle, 250-1;
-    runic inscriptions, 251;
-    scantiness of, accounted for, 252;
-    an inscription confirmed by a find, _ib._;
-    Maes-Howe, whether it has connexion with circles, 253-4;
-    dates of early invasions of Northmen, 255;
-    Brogar, 254;
-    less ancient than Stennis, 255;
-    conversion of Northmen to Christianity, _ib._;
-    date of group of monuments at Stennis, 256;
-    analogy of to Stanton Drew, _ib._;
-    author's reasons justifying date assigned to group at Stennis, 257-8;
-    Callernish circles, _ib._;
-    cruciform grave, 259;
-    avenue, 260;
-    Tormore,
-    Isle of Arran, cist circles, 261-2;
-    Brodick Bay circle, and obelisk, 262;
-    Mull of Cantyre, _ib._;
-    Aberdeenshire circles, 263;
-    Fiddes Hill, 264;
-    circle at Rayne and find, 263;
-    post Christian date of, 264;
-    moat and entrances, 265;
-    uses merely sepulchral, _ib._;
-    Clava mounds and circular chambers, 266;
-    find, _ib._;
-    their use, 267;
-    stone at Coilsfield, _ib._;
-    stone at Aberlemmo, 268-9;
-    its purpose, 270;
-    Caithness alignments differ from British and French, 529;
-    horned cairn, 530;
-    circles inferred by Sir H. Dryden not always to be sepulchral, 532;
-    date, 528;
-    similarity to Viking graves, 528.
-  Scott, Sir Walter, his description of holed monolith in Orkney, 242.
-  Scrolls and spirals in Irish sculpture, 222.
-  Sculpture, 29;
-    difficulty of reasoning from gradation of style as to Irish or
-      Scottish, 59;
-    chiselled, engraved, pricked, 217;
-    what tools employed, _ib._;
-    at Mané Lud, imitations of boats, hatchets, writing, 361;
-    at Dol ar Marchant, hatchet, plume, 362.
-  Secondary, _see_ Interment.
-  Semitic race, their feeling to monasticism, 500.
-  Senbya dagoba, 496-7.
-  Sentinel stones, 310.
-  Sepultura Grande dolmen, 386.
-  Sepulture, _see_ Cairns, Circles, Cists, Dolmens, Mounds, Tombs,
-      Tumuli.
-  Seringham, monoliths of, 96;
-    monstrous size of, _ib._;
-    work there, how interrupted, _ib._
-  Serpent temples, false theory as to, 4, 21, 64;
-    gigantic serpent-forms in earth in America, 515;
-    serpent knot, _see_ Wurm.
-  Sesto Calende, rude-stone monuments at, 391.
-  Setif, dolmen near, 396.
-  Shahpoor stone monuments, 485.
-  Shap avenue, counterpart of Kennet, 147.
-    _See_ Penrith.
-  Ship graves, 316.
-  Ships sculptured in dolmens, 303.
-  Siam, 456;
-    dagobas and stupas in, 41.
-  Siberian Steppes, America peopled from, 516.
-  Side-stone, Aspatria cist, 157.
-  Siganfu tables, 488 _note_.
-  Sigurd, converted by Olaus, 250.
-  Silbury Hill, Roman writers silent as to monuments, 20;
-    their purpose and age, 65, 84;
-    description of, 78;
-    dimensions, 79;
-    researches there, _ib._;
-    negative results, _ib._;
-    accounted for, _ib._;
-    find in, 81;
-    mound, who raised, 86;
-    near Wansdyke, 88;
-    Arthur's last battle, 89;
-    mound, why created, _ib._;
-    analogue of Gib Hill, 147.
-  Silesia, dolmens in, 301.
-  Silius Italicus cited, 407.
-  Silures in Britain, 162-3;
-    in Wales and Anglesea, 163;
-    Cornwall, _ib._;
-    join with Brigantes, 381.
-  Simpson, Sir J., cited as to Vetta, 271;
-    as to pit-markings, 425.
-  Sinai, monuments at, 443-4.
-  Sing, Jey, observatory, 7.
-  Sivite temple, ruined, at Iwullee, 484.
-  Sjöborg, 276;
-    his merits, 276-9;
-    treats dolmens all as prehistoric, 306.
-  Skail Bay, 252.
-  Skiuli, death of, 528.
-  Skene, _see_ Stuart, Glennie.
-  Slieve na Calliagh, 213 (_see_ Hengist and Horsa);
-    when first remarked, 213;
-    illustrations of, 214 _et seq._;
-    style of sculpture, 215;
-    find at, 215-6;
-    mysterious great stone saucer, 216;
-    find, 217-8;
-    absence of circles, alignments, and rude-stone monuments, 219.
-  Sligo trilithon, 108;
-    cairn of Ballysadare, King Eochy's tomb, 179.
-  Smidstrup, buried dolmen at, 311.
-  Smith, Colonel Baird, his excavation at Kutub pillar, 481.
-  Smith, Dr., his astronomical theory, 7.
-  'Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge' cited, 510 _et seq._
-  Smyrna, date of tombs at, 32.
-  Smyth, Piazzi, his theories, 31, 91.
-  Snake theory, _see_ Stukeley, Dr.
-  Snio, king, where slain, 279.
-  Spain, writers on its rude-stone monuments, 377;
-    dolmens there, _ib._;
-    dolmen race, 378;
-    its navigation, in which direction, 378 _et seq._;
-    prehistoric race in Spain, 379;
-    its characteristics, _ib._;
-    and non-use of stone in prehistoric times, _ib._;
-    Iberians, Celtiberians, Turanians, _ib._;
-    Carthaginians, Romans, 381;
-    Moors' easy conquest proves earlier settlements in Spain, _ib._;
-    Spanish race of Heremon in Ireland, _ib._;
-    Spaniards, Siloros, migrate to Britain, _ib._;
-    part occupied by them in Ireland, 382;
-    date of Heremon, 383;
-    light thrown by rude-stone monuments on connexion of Spain and
-      Ireland, _ib._;
-    Roman architecture, its influence upon rude-stone monuments, 394.
-  Spaniards in Ireland, 227.
-  Spring Farm, 117.
-  Square enclosures in North America, 511-12.
-  Squares in Algeria, 399;
-    four cairns enclosed in squares, 402.
-  Squier and Davis, Messrs., their survey of America, 510 _et seq._
-  St. Augustine's monastery, 23.
-  St. Barbe, 354;
-    head of column at, 355.
-  St. Columba, 227;
-    converts Picts, 248;
-    visits King Brude, 267;
-    language of Picts unknown to, 271.
-  St. Front, Périgueux, church, 330.
-  St. Germain-sur-Vienne, 336.
-    _See_ Confolens.
-  St. Helier, cells at, 52.
-  St. Jerome cited as to barbarism of Irish, 235.
-  St. Malo, Maximus and British landed there, 374.
-  St. Pancras, heathen fane consecrated to, 22.
-  St. Patern, a Breton, his death, 373.
-  St. Patrick fails to convert Leoghaire, 195;
-    legend of him and demons, 227.
-  St. Servan, battle near, 374.
-  St. Vigean's stone, 273.
-  Stand Low find, 13.
-  Stanton Drew circles, 64;
-    not observatories, 7;
-    circles at, 148;
-    similar to those in Derbyshire and Cumberland in purpose and date,
-      _ib._;
-    plan of, 149;
-    oval, _ib._;
-    avenues, 150;
-    Kingstone, _ib._;
-    Stukeley's interpolation of serpentine avenues, _ib._;
-    ruins of dolmens, 151;
-    tradition as to Keyna, _ib._;
-    date of, 151-2;
-    belongs to Arthurian age, 152;
-    scene of Arthur's 9th battle, _ib._;
-    meaning of "Stanton," _ib._;
-    Maes Knoll, 153;
-    meaning of word Maes, _ib._;
-    similarity to Stennis, 256-7.
-  Stanton Moor circle, 48, 49.
-  Stanley, Hon. W. C., circles enumerated by, 162;
-    cist found by, at Plas Newydd, 166.
-  Stawell, Lord, excavation directed by, at Avebury, 74-5.
-  Stennis, 241;
-    dolmen, _ib._;
-    great circle like English ones, 161;
-    like Stanton Drew, 257;
-    date, _ib._;
-    countless barrows, _ib._;
-    magnificent effect of group, _ib._;
-    circles and barrows belong to different and what races, _ib._;
-    dates thereof, _ib._
-  Steppes, importance of exploring with reference to Turanian origin of
-      dolmens, 447 _et seq._;
-    tumuli, 448-9;
-    images of dead on tombs, 449;
-    usages as to interments and sepulchres, _ib._;
-    four-cornered grave, _ib._;
-    tumulus at Alexandropol, 450;
-    find, 451;
-    uncovered base of tumulus, _ib._;
-    genesis of circles, _ib._;
-    Tartar and European tombs cognate, but not of same origin as Western
-      dolmen or circles, or menhirs, 452;
-    Haxthausen's example an exception, _ib._;
-    examples in the Steppes carved, _ib._
-  Stiklastad in Norway, battle at, 291.
-  "Stone of Destiny," where now, 382.
-  Stone tables, 425.
-  Stone temples, no classical writer connects Druids with, 20.
-  Stonehenge, theories respecting, 3, 4;
-    not an observatory, 7;
-    not alluded to by Diodorus, 8;
-    ill-judged proceedings as to, 15;
-    age of, 17;
-    not mentioned by Roman writers, 20;
-    plans, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93;
-    circles, 100-3;
-    Sarsen or bluestones, 92-7;
-    trilithons, 95, 98, 100;
-    means of transport, 95-6;
-    who erected, 97;
-    intermediate circle, _ib._;
-    mere stones more numerous, 98;
-    was Stonehenge a temple, 99;
-    why hewn stones there, _ib._;
-    erected leisurely, _ib._;
-    trilithons called gates by Olaus, 101;
-    question as to priority in time of the barrows or stone monuments,
-     _ib._;
-    connexion between circles and British villages, 102;
-    diggings there, 104;
-    map of country around, 102;
-    its builders not Christians, 104;
-    whether sepulchral, 112, 116;
-    why erected and by whom, 106, 116.
-    _See_ Alignments, Avenues, Barrows, Bluestones, Finds, Sarsens.
-  Stones, worship of, forbidden, 24-6.
-  Stoney Littleton, chambered tumulus, 166;
-    grave intended to be covered, 164;
-    post-Roman, 289.
-  Strabo, account of Druids by, 5;
-    of temple by, 21;
-    barbarism of early Irish, 235.
-  Stuart, Glennie, and Kendal, W., assign Scottish birthplace and
-      campaign to Arthur, 134.
-  Stuart, J., cited, 52, 239;
-    as to diggings at Rayne, 264-5.
-  Stukeley, Dr., wild theory of, 3, 4, 15, 21, 64;
-    adopted by Sir R. C. Hoare, 5;
-    misunderstands text of Diodorus, 8;
-    drawings by, 44;
-    his visit to Shap, 129;
-    compared in one respect to Boece, 135;
-    his serpent interpolation at Stanton Drew, 150;
-    his snake bit, 151.
-  Stupas in India, 41.
-  Suetonius, Druids met by, 5.
-  Sûf, dolmens near, 442.
-  Suhm, cited as to date of Lothbrok victories, 290.
-  Summit interments, 166.
-    _See_ Interments.
-  Sun worship forbidden, 25.
-  Sutherland, Duchess of, her etchings of ruins in Orkneys, 241.
-  Swansea, Arthur's Quoit at, 170.
-  Sweden, South, megalithic remains in, 15;
-    circles, 47;
-    dolmens in, 301.
-  Swen Grate, King, 291.
-  Sylhet, Mohammedan kingdom, 466.
-  Symbol stage, none in Ireland, 59.
-  Syria, trilithons in, 100.
-
-
-  TABLE-STONES, 435-6.
-  Tabriz circle, 453.
-  Tacitus cited as to three races in Britain, 162.
-  Tailten, Talton, or Telltown, burial of Irish kings there, 199;
-    of Lough Crew, 219 _et seq._;
-    fair in honour of Magh Mor, King of Spain, 186.
-  Táin Bó Chuailgne, 196.
-  Talyots, or talayots, 434 _et seq._;
-    in Balearic isles, 410, 415.
-  Tamulians not builders of rude-stone monuments in India, 477.
-  Tantalais tumulus, 32.
-  Tara, Hill of, remains at, 193;
-    early celebrity of, _ib._;
-    capital of Firbolgs and Dananns, 190, whence the name, 382.
-  Tartar tombs, 451.
-  Taylor, Col. Meadows, cited as to Indian dolmens, 469;
-    and Shahpoor monuments, 485.
-  Teamair, wife of Heremon, 382.
-  Tee in Tope, 46;
-    in rock at Ajunta, 47, 491;
-    as connecting links between Eastern and Western dolmens, 489-90.
-  Temples, what structures not, 512;
-    megalithic remains not, 20 _et seq._
-    _See_ mounds.
-  Teocallis, Mexican, what, 514.
-  "Things," meaning of word, 26.
-  Thomas, Lieut., his account of monuments in the Orkneys, 241, 248.
-  Thorfin, 250;
-    sons of, 528;
-    where buried, 249;
-    battle between them and Liotr, 528.
-  Three Ages, Danish doctrine of, 9;
-    illusive application of, 10.
-  Thunder-stone at Shap, 129, 130.
-  Thurnam, his work on British Skulls, 35, 36, 72;
-    his inference from finds, 165, 286;
-    as to West Kennet, 287.
-  Thyra, monument of Queen, 27, 250;
-    finds, 297.
-  Tia Huanaco, ruins at, not like those attributed to Druids, 518;
-    what they were, 519.
-  Tigernach, his date of Queen Meave's death, 184;
-    of Crimthann's, 190.
-  Tika received by Rajahs from Bhils, 459.
-  Tin, route of ancient British commerce in, 334.
-  Toda tribe in India, 459.
-    _See_ Bhil.
-  Toltecs, buildings of, 515.
-  Tollington, supposed avenue at, 117-9;
-    obelisks at, 117.
-  Tombs--of Alyattes, 3;
-    Atridæ, 32, 33;
-    Cocumella, 33;
-    Cœre, 33;
-    Regulini Galeassi, 34;
-    of great men marked by megalithic monuments, 15;
-    of Isidorus, 100;
-    Tartar, 451;
-    Nilgiri hills, 473.
-  Toope, Dr., his letter to Aubrey respecting Hakpen Hill, 76, 77.
-  Tooth-relic, worship of, 504.
-  Topes in India found blind, 80.
-    _See_ Dagoba.
-  Tormore, 261.
-  Towers, round, at Brechin and Abernethy, 271.
-  Town of the Stone of the Strangers, 229.
-  Tras os Montes dolmens, 378.
-  Tree-worship forbidden, 24, 25.
-  Trepucò talyot, 435.
-  Triads, Welsh authority for interments at Stonehenge, 110;
-    as to stone of Cetti, 173;
-    value of, as authority, _ib._
-  Triangular monuments, 315;
-    perhaps cuneatus ordo of Olaus Magnus, _ib._
-  Trie, holed dolmens, 343.
-  Trilithons at Stonehenge, 99;
-    connexion with dolmens, 100;
-    in Sligo, 108;
-    at Ksaea at Elkeb, 412;
-    Hauran, 445.
-  Tripoli, trilithons at Ksaea, 411;
-    Elkel with holes, 411-2;
-    compared to Hindu Yoni, 412;
-    Buddhist monument at Bangkok, 43.
-  Tuatha de Dananns, _see_ Dananns.
-  Tuathal, authentic history begins with, 196;
-    "the accepted," 197.
-  Tumiac tumulus and find, 366.
-  Tumuli, 29;
-    different kinds of, _ib._ (_see_ Barrows, Pyramids, Tombs);
-    history of inhumation, 30;
-    Troy, 32;
-    Roman, 84;
-    truncated cones, _ib._;
-    spoliation of their own ancestors' tombs by Northmen, 300;
-    Kemp How at Shap, 130;
-    find at, _ib._;
-    chambered tumuli, 166, 168;
-    Freyrsö, 291;
-    certain Danish, identical with some in Auvergne, 323;
-    tumuli by thousands in the east of France, 327;
-    finds, _ib._;
-    numerous in Etruria, 392;
-    peculiarity of tumuli in North Africa, 399;
-    plan and elevation of two sepulchral monuments, _ib._;
-    not battle-field, 400;
-    quadruple circles, _ib._;
-    tumuli chambered in Lydia and Kertch, 446;
-    kouloba on hill of cinders, _ib._;
-    find there, 446-7;
-    tumuli in the Steppes, 448;
-    at Alexandropol, 450;
-    finds there, _ib._;
-    uncovered base of, at Nikolajew, 451;
-    Tartar tumuli perhaps models of Western, 452.
-  Turanian origin of dolmens, theory of, how to be proved or
-      disproved, 448;
-    Turanian race in Europe, 507.
-  Twining's strange map theory, 76.
-  Tyrebagger, circle at, 263.
-  Tynwald Mount, 71.
-  Tyrrheni, _see_ Pelasgi.
-
-
-  U, buried dolmen at, 310;
-    chamber, 311.
-  Udyagiri Hills, Buddhist caves in, 460.
-  Uekermark, dolmen at, 301.
-  Uelzen, dolmen with enclosures near, 308.
-  Uffington Castle, monuments near, 121;
-    why constructed, 123.
-  Uley, 163;
-    chambered grave, 163, 166;
-    post-Roman, 289.
-  Ultonians, tombs of, 219, 220.
-  Upland, Danish prince killed at, 291.
-  Urn found in cairn of One Man, 179.
-
-
-  VAISALI, convocation at, 501.
-  Valdbygaards, two dolmens in enclosure, 308.
-  Vallancy, wild speculations of, 175, 207.
-  Vancouver's Island, natives of, whether mound-builders, 517.
-  Vannes, Museum of, 326.
-  Vedas, date of, 455.
-  Veneti, Cæsar's naval battle with, 20, 37;
-    hence what inference of age of monuments, 372;
-    iron nails used by, 37.
-  Verneilh, Felix de, his 'Byzantine Architecture in France,' 332.
-  Vestal Virgins, no just analogy of Nuns, to, 499.
-  Vetta, his name on Cat stone, 57;
-    supposed grandfather of Hengist and Horsa, 271.
-  Via Badonica, under Silbury Hill, 20.
-  Vicars, Mr., surveys Carnac, 350.
-  Vicramaditya, his capital, 459.
-  Viharas, early date and growth of, in India, 501.
-  Vikings, 303-4;
-    grave, 315, 317.
-  Vinland, America peopled through, 516.
-  Viraculls, what, 483.
-  Vitoria, dolmens in, 378.
-  Voguë's, De, plates of Roman tombs in the Hauran, 445.
-  Vortigern, victory of, at Aylesfor, 119.
-  Vulci, tomb at, 33.
-
-
-  WADEN HILL, where and what it is, site of what battle, 88-9.
-  Wales, Druids in, when 6;
-    dolmen-building race, 274.
-  Walhouse, Mr., cited, 479.
-  Walker, Mr., his find at Knock na Rea, 185.
-  Wansdyke, barrier against Welsh, 87, 88, 89.
-  Ware, statement of, as to Giant stones in Kildare, 108;
-    circles in, 162.
-  Waterloo, mound at, 56.
-  Wayland Smith's Cave in Berkshire, used by Scott in 'Kenilworth,' 122;
-    what it was, 123-4;
-    great circle there, 161.
-  Webb's reply to Dr. Charleton respecting Stonehenge, 3.
-  Welsh Gate, what and where it was, 87-89.
-  Welsh Triads, _see_ Triads.
-  West Kennet, 4;
-    its similarity to barrow in Denmark, 283 _et seq._
-    _See_ Barrow.
-  Western Islands, no Druids in, 6.
-  White Horse, near Uffington, described by Mr. T. Hughes, 121.
-  Wilde, Sir W., his residence at Moytura, 176;
-    his work, 177, 202 _et seq._
-  Wildesheim, dolmen at, 301.
-  Wilkinson, Sir Gardner, observations on Long Meg, 127;
-    on Arbor Low, 139, and Gib Hill, 141;
-    his corrections to Croker's survey of Stanton Drew, 150;
-    dolmen at Gower opened by, 171.
-  Wilson, Captain, his survey of Clava, 265.
-  Wilson, Daniel, dolmen mentioned by, in Argyllshire, 273.
-  Wilson's 'Prehistoric Annals,' 239;
-    his remarks upon Daw's theory as to origin, 253.
-  Wiltshire, Sir R. C. Hoare's work on, 5.
-  Wisconsin and Ohio, how first peopled, 516.
-  Woden myth, its allusion to Indian
-    origin, 496;
-    Woden not Sakya Muni, 496.
-  Woking, principle of selection of, as cemetery, 131;
-    not applied by ancients, 131.
-  Wood worship forbidden, 25;
-    early employment of, in Indian architecture, 492.
-  Wood Castle, circle at, 129 _note_;
-    Arthur's battle there, 135.
-  Wormius Olaus, correspondence with Dr. Charleton respecting
-      Stonehenge, 3;
-    mentions dolmens with square enclosures, 307.
-  Worsaae cited as to Scandinavian monuments, 297 _et seq._
-  Wright, Mr., account of monuments at Aylesford, 118.
-    _See_ Aylesford.
-  Written history, errors of, 113;
-    deficiency of, supplied by monuments, 113;
-    and by architectural study, 113;
-    uncertain accounts of King Arthur, 114.
-  Wurm Knot in Maes-Howe, 245.
-
-
-  YARHOUSE, battle at, 529.
-  Yarrow, inscription in stone at, 272.
-  Yucatan, 516;
-    carved stone monuments, 517.
-  Yule, Col., his 'Cathay,' 488 _note_.
-
-
-  ZANA, Queen, 404.
-  Zealand, _see_ Bilk Valdbygaards.
-
-
-THE END.
-
-
-
-
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-[Illustration: _Map, designed to illustrate the distribution of
-Dolmens, and probable lines of the migrations of the Dolmen builders._]
-
-
-
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-
-
-
-Transcriber's note:
-
-  1. Simple spelling, grammar, and typographical errors have been
-     silently corrected.
-
-  2. Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed.
-
-  3. The original book contained several unpaired double quotation
-     marks which could not be corrected with certainty.
-
-  4. Out of order entries in Index have been corrected.
-
-  5. Page 324: "Note" refers to the map opposite. There is no Map.
-
-  6. Page 411: "Footnote Anchor 484" is missing. An anchor has been added
-     at the end of the paragraph in which the text, to which it refers,
-     appears.
-
-  7. Index: The entry "Ross County, North America, sacred enclosures
-       in, 811." should read "Ross County, North America, sacred
-       enclosures in, 511." Index corrected.
-
-  8. Variations in hyphenation (e.g. battlefields/battle-fields)
-     have not been harmonised.
-
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-<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Rude Stone Monuments in All Countries, by
-James Fergusson</h1>
-<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
-and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
-restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
-under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
-eBook or online at <a
-href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>.  If you are not
-located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the
-country where you are located before using this ebook.</p>
-<p>Title: Rude Stone Monuments in All Countries</p>
-<p>       Their Age and Uses</p>
-<p>Author: James Fergusson</p>
-<p>Release Date: April 28, 2017  [eBook #54620]</p>
-<p>Language: English</p>
-<p>Character set encoding: UTF-8</p>
-<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RUDE STONE MONUMENTS IN ALL COUNTRIES***</p>
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<h4>E-text prepared by Sonya Schermann, Brian Wilsden,<br />
-    and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
-    (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br />
-    from page images generously made available by<br />
-    Internet Archive<br />
-    (<a href="https://archive.org">https://archive.org</a>)</h4>
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10">
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top">
-      Note:
-    </td>
-    <td>
-      Images of the original pages are available through
-      Internet Archive. See
-      <a href="https://archive.org/details/rudestonemonumen00ferg">
-      https://archive.org/details/rudestonemonumen00ferg</a>
-    </td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<hr class="pg" />
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[Pg ii]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_frontis.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">THE STANDING STONES OF STENNIS. From an original drawing
-in the possession of the Author. FRONTISPIECE</div>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p>
-
-<h1><span class="xxlarge">RUDE STONE MONUMENTS</span>
-
-<br /><br />
-
-<span class="small">IN</span>
-
-<br /><br />
-
-ALL COUNTRIES;
-
-<br /><br />
-
-<i>THEIR AGE AND USES</i>.</h1>
-
-<div class="topspace1"></div>
-
-<div class="center"><span class="smcap">By</span><span class="large"> JAMES FERGUSSON, D.C.L., F.R.S.,</span><br />
-<span class="smaller">V.P.R.A.S., F.R.I.B.A., &amp;c.</span></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_title.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Demi-Dolmen, Kerland.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="center"><span class="small">WITH TWO HUNDRED AND THIRTY-FOUR ILLUSTRATIONS.</span>
-
-<div class="topspace1"></div>
-
-LONDON:<br />
-<span class="large">JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.</span><br />
-1872.
-
-<div class="topspace1"></div>
-
-<span class="xsmall"><i>The right of Translation is reserved.</i></span>
-
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="center">
-<span class="large">LONDON:</span><br />
-<span class="smaller">PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET,<br />
-AND CHARING CROSS.</span>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2 id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class="p1"><span class="smcap">When</span>, in the year 1854, I was arranging the scheme for the 'Handbook
-of Architecture,' one chapter of about fifty pages was allotted to
-the Rude Stone Monuments then known. When, however, I came seriously
-to consult the authorities I had marked out, and to arrange my ideas
-preparatory to writing it, I found the whole subject in such a state
-of confusion and uncertainty as to be wholly unsuited for introduction
-into a work, the main object of which was to give a clear but succinct
-account of what was known and admitted with regard to the architectural
-styles of the world. Again, ten years afterwards, while engaged in
-re-writing this 'Handbook' as a 'History of Architecture,' the same
-difficulties presented themselves. It is true that in the interval
-the Druids, with their Dracontia, had lost much of the hold they
-possessed on the mind of the public; but, to a great extent, they had
-been replaced by prehistoric myths, which, though free from their
-absurdity, were hardly less perplexing. The consequence was that then,
-as in the first instance, it would have been necessary to argue every
-point and defend every position. Nothing could be taken for granted,
-and no narrative was possible. The matter was, therefore, a second
-time allowed quietly to drop without being noticed. I never, however,
-lost sight of the subject, and I hoped some time or other to be able
-to treat of it with the fulness its interest deserves; and in order
-to forward this project, in July, 1860, I wrote an article in the
-'Quarterly Review,' entitled 'Stonehenge,' in which I stated the views
-I had then formed on the subject; and again, ten years afterwards, in
-April of last year, another article, entitled 'Non-Historic Times' in
-the same journal, in which I added such new facts and arguments as I
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span>
-
-had gathered in the interval. The principal object it was sought to
-attain in writing these articles, was to raise a discussion on the moot
-points which I hoped would have tended towards settling them. If any
-competent arch&#230;ologist had come forward, and could have pointed out the
-weak point in the argument, he would have rendered a service to the
-cause; or if any leading authority had endorsed the views advocated in
-these articles, the public might have felt some confidence in their
-correctness. This expectation has not been fulfilled, but they have
-probably not been without their use in preparing the minds of others
-for the views advanced in them, while, as no refutation has appeared,
-and no valid objection has been urged against them, either in public
-or in private, I may fairly consider myself justified in feeling
-considerable confidence in their general correctness.</p>
-
-<p>Till antiquaries are agreed whether the circles are temples or tombs
-or observatories, whether the dolmens are monuments of the dead or
-altars for sacrificing living men, and whether the mounds are tombs
-or law courts, it seems impossible, without arguing every point, to
-write anything that will be generally accepted. Still more, till it
-is decided whether they are really prehistoric or were erected at
-the periods where tradition and history place them, it seems in vain
-to attempt to explain in a simple narrative form either their age or
-uses. As a necessary consequence of all this confusion, it is scarcely
-practicable at present to compile a work which shall be merely a
-Historical and Statistical account of the Rude Stone Monuments in all
-parts of the world; but till something is settled and agreed upon, we
-must be content with one which to a certain extent, at least, takes the
-form of an argument. Many of its pages which would have been better
-employed in describing and classifying, are occupied with arguments
-against some untenable theory or date, or in trying to substitute
-for those usually accepted, some more reasonable proposition.
-Notwithstanding this, however, it is hoped
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span>
-
-that this work will be found to contain a greater number of new facts
-regarding Rude Stone Monuments, and of carefully selected illustrations
-extending over a larger area, than have yet been put together in a
-volume of the same extent.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>It may fairly be asked, and no doubt will, how I dare to set up
-my opinions with regard to these monuments in opposition to those of
-the best informed antiquaries, not only in this country but on the
-Continent? The answer I would venture to suggest is, that no other
-antiquary, so far as I am aware, has gone so carefully and fully into
-the whole subject, or has faced all the difficulties with which the
-questions are everywhere perplexed. The books that have hitherto been
-written are either the work of speculative dreamers, like Stukeley,
-Higgins, or Vallancey, who having evolved a baseless theory out of
-their own inner consciousness, seek everywhere for materials to prop
-it up, and are by no means particular as to the inferences they draw
-from very obscure or slender hints: or they are, on the other hand,
-the works of local antiquaries, whose opinions are influenced mainly
-by what they find in their own researches. The works of such men are
-invaluable as contributions to the general stock of knowledge, but
-their theories must be received with caution, as based on too narrow
-a foundation either of facts or inferences; for it need hardly be
-insisted upon that no amount of local experience can qualify any one
-to write on such a subject as this. It does not even seem sufficient
-that an author should be familiar with all the varieties of megalithic
-remains. Unless he has also mastered the other forms of architectural
-art, and knows in what manner and from what motives the styles of one
-people are adopted from or influenced by that of another race, he will
-hardly be able to unravel the various tangled problems that meet him at
-every step in such an investigation. When looked at, however, from the
-same point of view, and judged by the same laws as other styles, that
-of the dolmen builders does not appear either
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span>
-
-mythical or mysterious. They seem to be the works of a race of men
-actuated by the same motives and feelings as ourselves, and the
-phenomena of their arts do not seem difficult of explanation.</p>
-
-<p>It is because I have spent the greater part of my life in studying
-the architecture of all nations, and through all ages, that I believe
-myself entitled to express an opinion on the perplexed questions
-connected with megalithic remains, though it differs widely from that
-generally received, and that I dare to face the objection which is sure
-to be raised that my work is based on too narrow an induction, and that
-I have overlooked the evidences of prim&#230;val man which exist everywhere.
-It is not, however, that I have neglected either the evidence from
-the drift, or from the caves, but that I have rejected them as
-irrelevant, and because I can hardly trace any connexion between
-them and the megalithic remains, to the investigation of which this
-work is specially devoted. I have also purposely put on one side all
-reference to hut circles, Picts' houses, brochs, and other buildings
-composed of smaller stones, which are generally mixed up with the big
-stone monuments. I have done this, not because I doubt that many of
-these may be coeval, but because their age being doubtful also, it
-would only confuse and complicate the argument to introduce them, and
-because, whenever the age of the great stones is determined these minor
-monuments will easily fit into their proper places. At present, neither
-their age or use throws any light either for or against that of the
-great stones.</p>
-
-<p>It need hardly be remarked, to anyone who knows anything about
-the subject, that the difficulties in the way of writing such a book
-as this are enormous, and I do not believe any one could, in a first
-edition at all events, avoid all the pitfalls that surround his path.
-The necessary information has to be picked up in fragments from some
-hundreds of volumes of travels, or the Transactions and Journals of
-learned Societies, none of which are specially devoted to the subject,
-and very
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span>
-
-few of which are indexed, or have any general r&#233;sum&#233; of their
-contents. Add to this that the older works are all untrustworthy,
-either from the theories they are twisted to support, or from bad
-drawing or imperfect knowledge; and too many of the modern examples are
-carelessly sketched and still more carelessly engraved. Another source
-of difficulty is, that it is rare with readers of papers and writers in
-journals to quote references, and sometimes when these are given they
-are wrong. I have thus been forced to limit the field from which my
-information is taken very considerably. I have tried hard to introduce
-no illustration I could not thoroughly depend upon, and I have not
-intentionally quoted a single reference I had not verified from the
-original authorities.</p>
-
-<p>In one respect I cannot but feel that I may have laid myself open to
-hostile criticism. On many minor points I have offered suggestions
-which I do not feel sure that I could prove if challenged, and which,
-consequently, a more prudent man would have left alone. I have done
-this because it often happens that such suggestions turn the attention
-of others to points which would otherwise be overlooked, and may lead
-to discoveries of great importance; while if disproved, they are only
-so much rubbish swept out of the path of truth, and their detection can
-do no harm to any one but their author. Whatever my shortcomings, I am
-too much in earnest to look forward with any feelings of dismay to such
-a contingency.</p>
-
-<p>Besides the usual motives which prompt the publication of such a work
-as this, there are two which seem to render its appearance at this time
-particularly desirable. The first is to promote enquiry by exciting
-interest in the subject; the second is to give precision to future
-researches. So long as everything is vague and mythical, explorers do
-not know what to observe or record: this work, however, presents a
-distinct and positive view of the age or use of the megalithic remains,
-and every new fact must tend either to upset or confirm the theory it
-seeks to establish. With this view, I need hardly add that I shall
-be extremely grateful for any new facts or additional sources of
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span>
-
-information which may be communicated to me, either through the public
-press or privately. Numerous persons having local experience must know
-many things which may have escaped me. It is very probable that these
-may induce me to modify some of the details of this work; but so much
-is now known, and the field from which my inductions are gathered is so
-wide, that I have no fear that they will touch the main arguments on
-which the theory of this work is founded.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
-
-<p>However this may be, I trust that this work may lay claim to being,
-in one respect at least, a contribution to the cause of truth regarding
-the much-disputed age and use of these Rude Stone Monuments. It states
-distinctly and without reserve one view of the mooted question, and so
-openly that any one who knows better can at once pull away the prop
-from my house of cards and level it with the ground. If one thing comes
-out more clearly than another in the course of this investigation, it
-is that the style of architecture to which these monuments belong is a
-style, like Gothic, Grecian, Egyptian, Buddhist, or any other. It has
-a beginning, a middle, and an end; and though we cannot yet make out
-the sequence in all its details, this at least seems clear&mdash;that
-there is no great hiatus; nor is it that one part is prehistoric, while
-the other belongs to historic times. All belong to the one epoch or to
-the other. Either it is that Stonehenge and Avebury and all such are
-the temples of a race so ancient as to be beyond the ken of mortal man,
-or they are the sepulchral monuments of a people who lived so nearly
-within the limits of the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span>
-
-true historic times that their story can easily be recovered. If this
-latter view is adopted, the whole, it appears to me, hangs so perfectly
-together, and presents so complete and so rational an account of all
-the local or historical facts which are at present known concerning
-these remains, that I feel great confidence that it must eventually
-be adopted as the true explanation of the phenomena. If it is it will
-have this further advantage, that when any serious attempt is made to
-investigate either the history or the manners and customs of these
-ancient peoples, it is probable that these megalithic remains will be
-found to be the best and surest guide.</p>
-
-<p>From the circumstances above detailed, this work would have been a
-much more meagre production than it is hoped it will be found, had
-it not been for the kindness of many friends who have assisted me in
-my undertaking. My chapter on Ireland, for instance, would have been
-much less full had not Sir W. Wilde, Mr. Eugene Conwell, and Mr. Moore
-assisted me with illustrations and information; and for my knowledge of
-Scotch antiquities I owe much to my friend John Stuart, of Edinburgh,
-while Sir Henry Dryden's invaluable collections have been of the utmost
-service to me both as regards Scotland and Brittany. Professor S&#228;ve
-and Mr. Hildebrand have materially aided me in Sweden, and M. Ria&#241;o
-in Spain; but the post apparently suppresses any correspondence on
-arch&#230;ological subjects with France and Denmark. Without the kindness
-of Sir Bartle Frere and his elder brother in lending me drawings, or
-Colonel Collinson in procuring information, my account of the Maltese
-antiquities would have been very much less satisfactory than it is; and
-I also owe my best thanks to Mr. Walhouse, of the Madras Civil Service,
-and Mr. Burgess, of Bombay, for their assistance in respect to Indian
-antiquities. I have tried in the text to acknowledge my obligations to
-these and all other parties who have assisted me. If I have omitted
-any, I trust they will believe it has not been intentionally, but
-through inadvertence.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>For myself, I hope I may be allowed to plead that I have spared no
-pains in investigating the materials placed at my disposal, and no
-haste in forming my conclusions; and I may also add, they are by no
-means those of predilection or that I wished to arrive at. When I
-first took up the subject, I hoped that the rude stone monuments would
-prove to be old,&mdash;so old, indeed, as to form the "incunabula" of other
-styles, and that we might thus, by a simple process, arrive at the
-genesis of styles. Bit by bit that theory has crumbled to pieces as my
-knowledge increased, and most reluctantly have I been forced to adopt
-the more prosaic conclusions of the present volume. If, however, this
-represents the truth, that must be allowed to be an ample compensation
-for the loss of any poetry which has hitherto hung round the mystery of
-the Rude Stone Monuments.</p>
-
-<p><span style="margin-left:2em;"><i>Langham Place, Dec. 1, 1871.</i></span></p>
-
-<div class="footnotes">
-<blockquote>
-<p class="footnote"><span class="smcap"><b>Footnotes</b></span></p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>
-What is really wanted now is, a "Megalithic Monument
-Publication Society." After the meeting of the Prehistoric Congress
-at Norwich, a committee for this purpose was formed in conjunction
-with the Ethnological Society. After several meetings everything
-was arranged and settled, but, alas! there were no funds to meet
-the necessary expenses, or, at least, risk of publication, and
-the whole thing fell through. To do what is wanted on
-a really efficient scale a payment or a guarantee of 1000<i>l.</i> would
-be necessary, and that is far beyond what is attainable in this poor
-country. If it could be obtained, the materials are abundant. Sir
-Henry Dryden alone could fill a volume with the materials he already
-possesses; and Lieut. Oliver, Mr. Conwell, and others, have drawings
-sufficient to keep the society at work for a long time.
-</div>
-
-</blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2 id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<div class="topspace2"></div>
-
-<table summary="Contents" style="width:70%">
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdr">PAGE</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Introductory</span></td>
-<td class="right"><a href="#INTRODUCTORY">1</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdh">CHAPTER II.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Preliminary Observations</span>.&nbsp; &nbsp; Tumuli&mdash;Dolmens&mdash;</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left:2em;">Circles&mdash;Avenues&mdash;Menhirs</span></td>
-<td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">29</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdh">CHAPTER III.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">England</span>.&nbsp; &nbsp; Avebury and Stonehenge</td>
-<td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">61</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdh">CHAPTER IV.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Minor English Antiquities</span>.&nbsp; &nbsp; Aylesford&mdash;Ashdown&mdash;</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left:2em;">Rollright&mdash;Penrith&mdash;Derbyshire&mdash;</span></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left:2em;">Stanton Drew&mdash;Smaller Circles&mdash;Dolmens</span></td>
-<td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">116</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdh">CHAPTER V.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Ireland</span>.&nbsp; &nbsp; Moytura&mdash;Cemeteries&mdash;Boyne&mdash;</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left:2em;">Lough Crew&mdash;Clover Hill&mdash;Dolmens</span></td>
-<td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">175</a></td>
-</tr>
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdh">CHAPTER VI.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Scotland</span>.&nbsp; &nbsp; Orkney Stone Circles&mdash;Orkney Barrows&mdash;</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left:2em;">Maes-Howe Dragon and Serpent-Knot&mdash;</span></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left:2em;">Holed Stone of Stennis&mdash;Callernish&mdash;Aberdeenshire Circles&mdash;</span></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left:2em;">Fiddes Hill&mdash;Clava Mounds&mdash;Stone at Aberlemmo&mdash;</span></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left:2em;">Sculptured Stones&mdash;Crosses in Isle of Man</span></td>
-<td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">239</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdh">CHAPTER VII.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Scandinavia and North Germany</span>.&nbsp; &nbsp; Introductory&mdash;Battle-fields&mdash;</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left:2em;">Harald Hildetand's Tomb&mdash;Long Barrows&mdash;Tumuli&mdash;</span></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left:2em;">Dolmens&mdash;Drenthe: Hunebeds</span></td>
-<td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">275</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdh">CHAPTER VIII.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">France</span>.&nbsp; &nbsp; Introductory&mdash;Distribution of Dolmens&mdash;Age of Dolmens&mdash;</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left:2em;">Grottes des F&#233;es&mdash;Demi-Dolmens&mdash;Rocking Stones&mdash;Carnac&mdash;</span></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left:2em;">Locmariaker&mdash;Alignments at Crozon&mdash;Age of the Monuments&mdash;</span></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left:2em;">What are these Monuments?&mdash;They must be Trophies&mdash;</span></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left:2em;">Time of the Fight&mdash;M. Bertrand's List of Dolmens in Thirty-one</span></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left:2em;">Departments of France</span></td>
-<td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">325</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdh">CHAPTER IX.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Spain, Portugal, and Italy</span>.&nbsp; &nbsp; Introductory&mdash;Dolmens&mdash;</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left:2em;">Portugal&mdash;Italy </span></td>
-<td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">377</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdh">CHAPTER X.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Algeria and Tripoli</span>.&nbsp; &nbsp; Introductory&mdash;Bazinas and Chouchas&mdash;</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left:2em;">Free-Standing Dolmens&mdash;Age of Dolmens&mdash;Circle near Bona&mdash;</span></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left:2em;">The Nasamones&mdash;Origin of African Dolmen-builders&mdash;Tripoli:</span></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left:2em;">Trilithons&mdash;Buddhist Monument at Bangkok</span></td>
-<td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">395</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdh">CHAPTER XI.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Mediterranean Islands</span>.&nbsp; &nbsp; Malta&mdash;Sardinia&mdash;Balearic Islands</td>
-<td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">415</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdh">CHAPTER XII.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Western Asia</span>.&nbsp; &nbsp; Palestine&mdash;Sinai&mdash;Arabia&mdash;Asia Minor&mdash;Circassia&mdash;</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left:2em;">The Steppes&mdash;Cabul</span></td>
-<td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">438</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdh">CHAPTER XIII.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">India</span>.&nbsp; &nbsp; Introductory&mdash;Eastern India&mdash;Khassia&mdash;Western India&mdash;</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left:2em;">Geographical Distribution&mdash;Age of the Stone Monuments&mdash;</span></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left:2em;">Comparison of Dolmens&mdash;Buddhism in the West</span></td>
-<td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">455</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdh">CHAPTER XIV.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">America</span>.&nbsp; &nbsp; North America&mdash;Central America&mdash;Peru</td>
-<td class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">510</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdh"><hr class="r25" /></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Appendix A.</span>&mdash;Glens Columbkille and Malin</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#APPENDIX_A">520</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left:2em;">"<span style="margin-left:2em;"><span class="smcap">B</span>.&mdash;Oden's Howe, &amp;c., Upsala</span></span></td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#APPENDIX_B">526</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left:2em;">"<span style="margin-left:2em;"><span class="smcap">C</span>.&mdash;Antiquities of Caithness</span></span></td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#APPENDIX_C">527</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#INDEX">533</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-</table>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2 id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class="topspace2"></div>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<div class="topspace2"></div
->
-<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Frontispiece</span>.&mdash;Standing Stones of Stennis. <span class="smcap">Vignette</span>.&mdash;Demi-Dolmen at
-Kerland.</p>
-
-<table summary="Illustrations" style="width:75%">
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">NO.</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdr">PAGE</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">1.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Section of Tomb of Alyattes</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration1">31</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">2.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Elevation of Tumulus at Tantalais</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration2">32</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">3.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan and Section of Chamber in Tumulus at Tantalais</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration3">32</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">4.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Section and Plan of Tomb of Atreus at Mycen&#230;</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration4">33</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">5.</td>
-<td class="tdl">View of Cocumella, Vulci</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration5">33</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">6.</td>
-<td class="tdl">View of principal Chamber in Regulini Galeassi Tomb</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration6">34</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">7.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen in Castle Wellan, Ireland</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration7">46</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">8.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen de Bousquet</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration8">46</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">9.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Tee cut in the Rock on a Dagoba at Ajunta</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration9">47</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">10.</td>
-<td class="tdl"> Nine Ladies, Stanton Moor</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration10">49</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">11.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Chambered Tumulus, Jersey</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration11">51</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">12.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Avenues, Circles, and Cromlech, near Merivale Bridge, Dartmoor</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration12">55</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">13.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Lochcrist Menhir</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration13">60</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">14.</td>
-<td class="tdl">View of Avebury restored</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration14">62</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">15.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan of Avebury Circle and Kennet Avenue</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration15">63</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">16.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Circle on Hakpen Hill</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration16">76</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">17.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Section of Silbury Hill</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration17">78</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">18.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Iron Bit of Bridle, Silbury Hill</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration18">81</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">19.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan of Avebury</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration19">81</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">20.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Elevation of the Bartlow Hills</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration20">83</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">21.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Marden Circle</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration21">85</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">22.</td>
-<td class="tdl">General Plan of Stonehenge</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration22">90</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">23.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Stonehenge as at present existing</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration23">92</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">24.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan of Stonehenge restored</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration24">93</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">25.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Tomb of Isidorus, at Khatoura</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration25">100</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">26.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Country around Stonehenge</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration26">102</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">27.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Countless Stones, Aylesford</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration27">116</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">28.</td>
-<td class="tdl">The Sarsen Stones at Ashdown</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration28">122</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">29.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Sketch Plan of King Arthur's Round Table, with the side,</td>
-<td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left:2em;">obliterated by the road, restored</span></td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration29">128</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">30.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Arbor Low</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration30">140</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">31.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Vases and Bronze Pin found in Arbor Low</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration31">141</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">32.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Section of Gib Hill</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration32">141</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">33.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Summit of Minning Low, as it appeared in 1786</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration33">142</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">34.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan of Chambers in Minning Low</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration35">142</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">35.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Fragment of Drinking Cup from Benty Grange</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration35">145</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">36.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Fragment of Helmet from Benty Grange</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration36">145</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">37.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Circles at Stanton Drew</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration37">149</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">38.</td>
-<td class="tdl">View of the Circles at Stanton Drew</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration38">150</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">39.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Rose Hill Tumulus</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration39">154</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">40.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Snaffle-Bit found at Aspatria</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration40">156</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">41.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Side Stone, Aspatria Cist</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration41">157</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">42.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Mule Hill, Isle of Man, View of Cists</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration42">157</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">43.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Circle of Cists at Mule Hill</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration43">157</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">44.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Circles on Burn Moor, in Cumberland</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration44">160</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">45.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Boscawen Circles</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration45">161</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">46.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Park Cwn Tumulus</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration46">163</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">47.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Tumulus, Plas Newydd</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration47">166</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">48.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Entrance to Dolmen, in Tumulus, Plas Newydd</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration48">166</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">49.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen at Pentre Ifan</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration49">168</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">50.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen at Plas Newydd</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration50">169</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">51.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Arthur's Quoit, Gower</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration51">170</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">52.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan of Arthur's Quoit</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration52">171</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">53.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Hob Hurst's House, on Baslow Moor, Derbyshire</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration53">172</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">54.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Circle on Battle-field of Southern Moytura</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration54">177</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">55.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Cairn on Battle-field of Southern Moytura</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration55">177</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">56.</td>
-<td class="tdl">The Cairn of the "One Man," Moytura</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration56">179</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">57.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Urn in the Cairn of the "One Man," Moytura</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration57">179</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">58.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Battle-field of Northern Moytura</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration58">181</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">59.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Sketch Plan of Circle 27, Northern Moytura</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration59">182</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">60.</td>
-<td class="tdl">View of Circle 27, Northern Moytura</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration60">183</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">61.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen, with Circle, No. 7, Northern Moytura</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration61">183</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">62.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Rath na Riog, or, Cathair of Cormac, at Tara</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration62">194</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">63.</td>
-<td class="tdl">View of Mound at New Grange</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration63">201</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">64.</td>
-<td class="tdl">New Grange, near Drogheda</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration64">203</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">65, 66.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Ornaments at New Grange</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration65">205</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">67.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Branch at New Grange</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration67">207</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">68.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Sculptured mark at New Grange, of undecided character</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration68">207</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">69.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Chambers in Mound at Dowth</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration69">208</a></td>
-<td class="tdr"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[Pg xviii]</a></span></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">70, 71.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Ornaments in Dowth</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration70">210</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">72.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Cairn T, at Lough Crew</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration72">214</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">73.</td>
-<td class="tdl">The Hag's Chair, Lough Crew</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration73">215</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">74.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Two Stones in Cairn T, Lough Crew</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration74">216</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">75.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Cell in Cairn L, at Lough Crew</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration75">217</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">76.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Stone in Cairn T, Lough Crew</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration76">222</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">77.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Stones in Sculptured Graves, Clover Hill</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration77">223</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">78.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen at Knockeen</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration78">229</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">79.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan of Dolmen at Knockeen</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration79">230</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">80.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Calliagh Birra's House, north end of Parish of Monasterboice</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration80">230</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">81.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan and Section of Chamber in Greenmount Tumulus</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration81">232</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">82.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen of the Four Maols, Ballina</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration82">233</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">83.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Sketch-Plan of Monument in the Deer Park, Sligo</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration83">234</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">84.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Circle at Stennis</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration84">242</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">85.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dragon in Maes-Howe</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration85">245</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">86.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Wurm-Knot, Maes-Howe</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration86">245</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">87.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan and Section of Maes-Howe</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration87">246</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">88.</td>
-<td class="tdl">View of Chamber in Maes-Howe</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration88">247</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">89.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Monument at Callernish</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration89">259</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">90.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Circle at Fiddes Hill</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration90">264</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">91.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan of Clava Mounds</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration91">266</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">92.</td>
-<td class="tdl">View of Clava Mounds</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration92">266</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">93.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Stone at Coilsfield</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration93">267</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">94.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Front of Stone at Aberlemmo, with Cross</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration94">269</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">95.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Back of Stone at Aberlemmo</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration95">269</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">96.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Cat Stone, Kirkliston</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration96">271</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">97, 98.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Crosses in Isle of Man, bearing Runic Inscriptions</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration97">273</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">99.</td>
-<td class="tdl">View of Battle-field at Kongsbacka</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration99">279</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">100.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Part of the Battle-field of Braavalla Heath</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration100">281</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">101.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Harald Hildetand's Tomb at Lethra</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration101">282</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">102.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Long Barrow, Kennet, restored by Dr. Thurnam</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration102">284</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">103.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Long Barrow at Wiskeh&#228;rad, in Halland</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration103">288</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">104.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Battle-field at Freyrs&#246;</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration104">292</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">105.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dragon on King Gorm's Stone, Jellinge</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration105">296</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">106.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen at Herrestrup</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration106">303</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">107.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen at Halskov</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration107">304</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">108.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen at Oroust</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration108">306</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">109.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Diagram from Sj&#246;borg</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration109">307</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">110.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen near L&#252;neburg</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration110">308</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">111.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Double Dolmen at Valdbygaards</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration111">309</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">112.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan of Double Dolmen at Valdbygaards</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration112">309</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">113.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Triple Dolmen, H&#246;bisch</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration113">309</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">114.</td>
-<td class="tdl">View of Interior of Chamber at Uby</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration114">311</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">115.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan of Chamber at Uby</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration115">311</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">116.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen at Axevalla</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration116">313</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">117.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Head-stone of Kivik Grave</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration117">314</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">118.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Graves at Hjortehammer</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration118">316</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">119.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Circles at Aschenrade</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration119">317</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">120.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan of Hunebed near Emmen</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration120">320</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">121.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen at Ballo</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration121">321</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">122.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen at Saucli&#232;res</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration122">334</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">123.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen at Confolens</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration123">337</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">124.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan of Dolmen at Confolens</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration124">337</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">125.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen near Mettray</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration125">342</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">126.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen at Krukenho</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration126">342</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">127.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Holed Dolmen, at Trie</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration127">344</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">128.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen of Grandmont</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration128">344</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">129.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Demi-dolmen, Morbihan</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration129">344</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">130.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Demi-dolmen, near Poitiers</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration130">347</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">131.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Demi-dolmen at Kerland</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration131">347</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">132.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Pierre Martine</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration132">347</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">133.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Pierre Martine, end view</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration133">348</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">134.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Pierre Branlante, near Huelgoat, in Brittany</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration134">348</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">135.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Map of Celtic Antiquities, near Carnac</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration135">352</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">136.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Carnac Antiquities, on enlarged Scale</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration136">353</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">137.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Head of Column at St.-Barbe</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration137">355</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">138.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Long Barrow at Kerlescant</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration138">356</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">139.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Hole between Two Stones at Kerlescant</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration139">357</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">140.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Entrance to Cell, Rodmarton</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration140">357</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">141.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Vases found at Kerlescant</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration141">357</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">142.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan of Moustoir-Carnac</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration142">358</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">143.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Section of Moustoir-Carnac</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration143">358</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">144.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Section of Chamber of Moustoir-Carnac</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration144">359</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">145. 146.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Sculptures at Man&#233; Lud</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration145">361</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">147.</td>
-<td class="tdl">View of Dol ar Marchant</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration147">361</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">148.</td>
-<td class="tdl">End Stone, Dol ar Marchant</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration148">362</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">149.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Hatchet in Roof of Dol ar Marchant</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration149">362</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">150.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Stone found inside Chamber at Man&#233; er H'ro&#235;k</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration150">364</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">151.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan of Gavr Innis</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration151">364</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">152.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Sculptures at Gavr Innis</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration152">364</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">153.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Holed Stone, Gavr Innis</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration153">364</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">154.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Alignments at Crozon</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration154">367</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">155.</td>
-<td class="tdl">View of the Interior of Dolmen at Antequera</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration155">383</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">156.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan of Dolmen called Cueva de Menga, near Antequera</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration156">384</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">157.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen del Tio Cogolleros</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration157">385</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">158.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Sepultura Grande</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration158">386</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">159.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan of Dolmen at Eguilar</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration159">387</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">160.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan of Dolmen at Cangas de Onis</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration160">387</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">161.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen of San Miguel, at Arrichinaga</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration161">387</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">162.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen at Arroyolos</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration162">389</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">163.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen at Saturnia</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration163">392</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">164.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Bazina</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration164">397</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">165.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Choucha</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration165">398</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">166.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen on Steps</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration166">398</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">167.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Tumuli, with Intermediate Lines of Stones</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration167">399</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">168.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Group of Sepulchral Monuments, Algeria</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration168">399</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">169.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan and Elevation of African Tumulus</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration169">400</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">170.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen with Two Circles of Stones</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration170">401</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">171.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmens on the Road from Bona to Constantine</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration171">402</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">172.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Four Cairns enclosed in Squares</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration172">402</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">173.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Tombs near Djidjeli</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration173">404</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">174.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Circle near Bona</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration174">405</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">175.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Trilithon at Ksaea</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration175">411</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">176.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Trilithon at Elkeb</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration176">412</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">177.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Buddhist Monument at Bangkok</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration177">413</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">178.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Giants' Tower at Gozo</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration178">417</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">179.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan of Monument of Mnaidra</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration179">419</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">180.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Section through Lower Pair of Chambers, Mnaidra</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration180">419</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">181.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Entrance to Chamber B, Mnaidra, showing Table inside</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration181">420</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">182.</td>
-<td class="tdl">North End of Left-hand Outer Chamber at Mnaidra</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration182">421</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">183.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan of Hagiar Khem, partially restored</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration183">423</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">184.</td>
-<td class="tdl">View of Madracen</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration183">424</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">185.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Nurhag</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration185">428</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">186.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Nurhag of Santa Barbara</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration186">428</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">187.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Section and Ground-plan of Nurhag of Santa Barbara</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration187">429</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">188.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Map of La Giara</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration188">430</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">189.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Talyot at Trepuc&#242;, Minorca</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration189">435</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">190.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Talyot at Alajor, Minorca</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration190">435</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">191.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmens at Kafr er W&#226;l</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration191">441</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">192.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Holed Dolmen</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration192">447</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">193.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Holed Dolmen, Circassia</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration193">447</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">194.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Baba</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration194">448</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">195.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Four-cornered Grave</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration195">448</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">196.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Tumulus at Alexandropol</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration196">450</a></td>
-<td class="tdr"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">[Pg xix]</a></span></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">197.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Uncovered Base of a Tumulus at Nikolajew</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration197">451</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">198.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Circle near Peshawur</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration198">452</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">199.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Circle at Deh Ayeh, near Darabgerd</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration199">453</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">200.</td>
-<td class="tdl">View in Khassia Hills</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration200">462</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">201.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Khassia Funereal Seats</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration201">463</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">202.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Menhirs and Tables</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration202">464</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">203.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Turban Stone, with Stone Table</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration203">464</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">204.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Trilithon</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration204">464</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">205.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen at Rajunkoloor</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration205">468</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">206.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan of Open Dolmen at Rajunkoloor</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration206">468</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">207.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Closed Dolmen at Rajunkoloor</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration207">468</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">208.</td>
-<td class="tdl">View of Closed Dolmen at Rajunkoloor</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration208">468</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">209.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Arrangement of Dolmens at Rajunkoloor</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration209">470</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">210.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Cairns at Jewurgi</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration210">472</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">211, 212.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Sections of Cairn at Jewurgi</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration211">472</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">213.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Double Dolmen, Coorg</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration213">473</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">214.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Tomb, Nilgiri Hills</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration214">473</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">215.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Sepulchral Circles at Amravati</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration215">474</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">216.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Iron Pillar at the Kutub, Delhi</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration216">481</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">217.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Sculpture on under side of cap-stone of Nilgiri Dolmen</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration217">483</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">218.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen at Iwullee</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration218">484</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">219.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan of Stone Monuments at Shahpoor</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration219">485</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">220.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Cross at Katapur</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration220">486</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">221.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen at Katapur</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration221">487</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">222.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen with Cross in Nirmul Jungle</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration222">487</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">223.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Lanka Ramayana Dagoba</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration223">490</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">224.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen at Pullicondah</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration224">491</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">225.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Rail at Sanchi, near Bhilsa</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration225">492</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">226.</td>
-<td class="tdl">View of the Senbya Pagoda, Burmah</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration226">497</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">227.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Enclosure in Newark Works, North America</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration227">511</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">228.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan of Uprights, Cromlech D I., Columbkille</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration228">521</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">229.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Position of Stones of D III.</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration229">522</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">230.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan of D VI.</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration230">522</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">231.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Plan of Cromlechs of Group E.</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration231">523</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">232.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Horned Cairn, Caithness</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration232">528</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">233.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmen near Bona, Algeria</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#Illustration233">532</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-</table>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p class="center">DIRECTION TO BINDER.</p>
-
-<p class="center">The <span class="smcap">Map</span> illustrating the distribution of Dolmens to be placed
-at the end of the Volume.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2 id="RUDE_STONE_MONUMENTS">RUDE STONE MONUMENTS.<br /></h2>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<h3 id="INTRODUCTORY">INTRODUCTORY.</h3>
-
-<div class="topspace2">&nbsp;</div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">So</span> great and so successful has been
-the industry recently applied to subjects of arch&#230;ological research
-that few of the many problems in that science which fifty years ago
-seemed hopelessly mysterious now remain unsolved. Little more than
-forty years have elapsed since Champollion's discoveries enabled us to
-classify and understand the wonderful monuments of the Nile Valley.
-The deciphering of the cuneiform characters has in like manner enabled
-us to arrange and affix dates to the temples and palaces of Babylon
-and Nineveh. Everything that was built by the Greeks and the Romans
-has been surveyed and illustrated; and all the medi&#230;val styles that
-arose out of them have been reduced to intelligible sequences. The
-rock-cut temples of India, and her still more mysterious dagobas,
-have been brought within the domain of history, and, like those of
-Burmah, Cambodia, or China, shown to be of comparatively modern date.
-The monuments of Mexico and Peru may be said still to defy those who
-are endeavouring to wrest their secrets from them; but even for these
-a fairly approximate date has been obtained. But amidst all these
-triumphs of well-directed research there still remains a great group of
-monuments at our own doors, regarding whose uses or dates opinions are
-nearly as much divided as they were in the days of rampant empiricism
-in the last century. It is true that men of science do not now pretend
-to see Druids sacrificing their bleeding victims on the altar at
-Stonehenge, nor to be able to trace the folds of the divine serpent
-through miles of upright stones at Carnac or at Avebury; but all they
-have yet achieved is simple unbelief in the popular fallacies, nor have
-they hitherto ventured to supply anything better to take
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span>
-
-their places. They still call the circles temples, but without being
-able to suggest to what god they were dedicated, or for what rites they
-were appropriate, and, when asked as to the age in which they were
-erected, can only reply in the words of the song, that it was "long
-long ago."</p>
-
-<p>This state of affairs is eminently unsatisfactory, but at the same time
-to a great extent excusable. Indeed it is not at first sight easy to
-see how it is to be remedied. The builders of the megalithic remains
-were utterly illiterate, and have left no written records of their
-erection; nor are there any legible inscriptions on the more important
-monuments which would afford any hints to the enquirer. What is even
-more disheartening is that in almost every instance they are composed
-of rough unhewn stones, not only without any chisel marks, but even
-without any architectural mouldings capable of being compared with
-those of other monuments, or, by their state of preservation, of giving
-a hint as to their relative age.</p>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>"They stand, but stand in silent and uncommunicative majesty."</p>
-
-</blockquote>
-
-<p>So silent, indeed, that it is hardly to be wondered at that fanciful
-antiquaries have supplied them with voices most discordantly and
-absurdly various, or, on the other hand, that the better class of
-enquirers have shrunk from the long patient investigations and
-thoughtful ponderings which are necessary to elicit even a modicum of
-truth from their stolid reticence.</p>
-
-<p>If the investigation into the age and uses of the megalithic remains
-were a new subject which had for the first time been taken up some
-thirty or forty years ago, it is probable that a solution might have
-been obtained before now, or at all events would not be far off. When,
-however, an investigation gets into a thoroughly vicious groove, as
-this one has done, it is very difficult to rescue it from its false
-position. The careless are willing to accept any empirical solutions
-that are offered, however absurd they may be, and the thoughtful are
-deterred from meddling with an enquiry which has hitherto led only to
-such irrational conclusions.</p>
-
-<p>The first of those who, in this country at least, led off the wild
-dance was the celebrated Inigo Jones, the architect of Whitehall. It
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>
-
-seems that when King James I. was on a visit to the Earl of Pembroke
-at Wilton, he was taken to see Stonehenge, and was so struck with its
-majesty and mystery that he ordered his architect to find out by whom
-it was built, and for what purpose. Whether the treatise containing the
-result of his enquiries was ever submitted to the King is not clear. It
-certainly was not published till after its author's death, and though
-it shows a very creditable amount of learning and research, the results
-he arrived at were very startling. After a detailed statement of the
-premises, his conclusions&mdash;as condensed in the Life prefixed to his
-treatise&mdash;were "That it was a Roman temple, inscribed to C&oelig;lus, the
-senior of the heathen gods, and built after the Tuscan order."</p>
-
-<p>This theory was attacked by Dr. Charleton, one of the physicians of
-Charles II. He had corresponded for some time with Olaus Wormius, the
-celebrated Danish antiquary, and struck with the similarity in form and
-of construction that existed between the monuments in Denmark and those
-of this country, he came to the conclusion that Stonehenge and other
-similar monuments were erected by the Danes, and consequently after
-the departure of the Romans. This attack on the theory of Inigo Jones
-raised the wrath of a Mr. Webb, by marriage a relative, who replied in
-a very angry treatise, in which he reiterates all Jones's arguments,
-and then, adding a considerable number of his own, he concludes by
-triumphantly&mdash;as he supposes&mdash;restoring Stonehenge to the Romans.
-<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
-
-<p>So far no great harm was done; but Dr. Stukeley, who next appeared
-in the controversy, was one of the most imaginative of men and one
-of the wildest of theorists. His studies had made him familiar with
-the Druids, whom classical authorities describe as the all-powerful
-priests of the Celtic race, but who had no temples; on the other hand,
-his travels made him acquainted with Stonehenge and Avebury, to the
-latter of which attention had just been called by the researches of his
-friend Aubrey. Here, then, were temples without priests. What could
-be so natural as to join
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>
-
-these two, though in most unholy matrimony.
-Our stone circles must be temples of the Druids! But there was still
-one difficulty. What divinities did they worship therein? C&#230;sar tells
-us that the Celts or Celtic Druids principally worshipped Mercury
-and some other Roman gods whom he named;
-<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>
-but no images of these
-gods are found in these temples, nor anything that would indicate a
-dedication to their worship. Unfortunately, however, Pliny
-<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>
-tells a very silly tale, how in Gaul the snakes meet together on a certain
-day and manufacture from their spittle an egg (<i>Anguinum</i>), which,
-when complete, they throw aloft, and if any one wants it, he must
-catch it in a blanket before it falls to the ground, and ride off with
-it on a fleet horse, for if the snakes catch him before he crosses a
-running stream, a worse fate than Tam o' Shanter's may befall him! He
-then goes on to add that this egg was considered as a charm by the
-Druids. From this last hint Dr. Stukeley concluded that the Druids
-were serpent-worshippers, and consequently that Stonehenge, Avebury,
-&amp;c., were serpent temples&mdash;Dracontia, as he calls them, daringly
-assuming that a word, which in the singular was only the name of a
-plant, was actually applied by the ancients to serpent temples, of the
-form of which, however, they were as ignorant as the Doctor himself.
-Having advanced so far, it only remained to adapt the English circles
-to this newly discovered form of worship, and Avebury was chosen as
-the principal illustration. There was a small circle on Hakpen Hill,
-which had a stone avenue formed by six or eight stones running east
-and west; between West Kennet and Avebury there was another avenue
-leading to the circles, but trending north and south. By introducing
-a curved piece between these fragments, Hakpen became the head of the
-snake, the avenue its body; Avebury a convoluted part of it, and then
-a tail was added, a mile long, on the authority of two stones in the
-village, and a dolmen, called Long Stone Cove, about halfway between
-Avebury and the end of the tail! Stanton Drew and other circles were
-treated in the same way; curved avenues, for which there is not a
-shadow of authority, except in the Doctor's imagination, were added
-wherever required, and serpents manufactured wherever wanted. It never
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>
-
-seems even to have occurred to the Doctor or his contemporaries to ask
-whether, in any time or place, any temple was ever built in the form of
-the gods to be worshipped therein or thereat, or how any human being
-could discover the form of the serpent in rows of stones stretching
-over hills and valleys, crossing streams, and hid occasionally by
-mounds and earthworks. On a map, with the missing parts supplied, this
-is easy enough; but there were no maps in those days, and in the open
-country it would puzzle even the most experienced surveyors to detect
-the serpent's form.</p>
-
-<p>Had so silly a fabrication been put forward in the present day,
-it probably would have met with the contempt it deserves; but the
-strangest part of the whole is that it was then accepted as a
-revelation. Even so steady and so well informed an antiquary as Sir
-Richard Colt Hoare adopts Dr. Stukeley's views without enquiry. His
-magnificent works on 'Ancient and Modern Wiltshire,' which are not only
-the most splendid, but the most valuable works of their class which
-this country owes to the liberality and industry of any individual,
-are throughout disfigured by this one great blemish. He sees Druids
-and their Dragons everywhere, and never thinks of enquiring on what
-authority their existence rests.</p>
-
-<p>It is not of course for one moment meant to contend that there were
-not Druids in Europe in ancient days. C&#230;sar's testimony on this point
-is too distinct, and his knowledge was too accurate to admit of any
-doubt on this point. It is true, however, that the description of them
-given by Diodorus,<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>
-and Strabo,<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>
-who mix them up with the bards
-and soothsayers, detracts somewhat from the pre-eminence he assigns to
-them: but this is of minor importance. The Druids were certainly the
-priests of the Celts, and had their principal seat in the country of
-the Carnutes, near Chartres, where, however, megalithic remains are
-few and far between. Neither C&#230;sar, however, nor any one else, ever
-pretended to have seen a Druid in England. Suetonius met 'Druid&#230;'
-in the Island of Anglesea (Mona),<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>
-but none were ever heard of in
-Wiltshire, or Derbyshire, or Cumberland, where the principal monuments are
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
-
-situated; nor in the Western Islands, or in Scandinavia. Still
-less are they known in Algeria or India, where these megalithic remains
-abound. According to the Welsh bards and Irish annalists, there were
-Druids in Wales and Ireland before the introduction of Christianity.
-But, even admitting this, it does not help us much; as even there they
-are nowhere connected with the class of monuments of which we are now
-treating. Indeed, it has been contended lately, and with a considerable
-show of reason, that the Celts themselves, even in France, had nothing
-to do with these monuments, and that they belong to an entirely
-different race of people.<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a>
-It is not, in short, at all necessary
-to deny either the existence of the Druids or their power. The real
-difficulty is to connect them in any way, directly or indirectly, with
-the stone monuments: and it seems still more difficult to prove that
-the Celts ever worshipped the serpent in any shape or form.
-<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
-
-<p>Notwithstanding all this, in the present century, an educated gentleman
-and a clergyman of the Church of England, the Rev. Bathurst Deane,
-adopts unhesitatingly all that Stukeley and his school had put forward.
-He took the trouble of going to Brittany, accompanied by a competent
-surveyor, and made a careful plan of the alignments of Carnac.
-<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>
-Like the avenues at Avebury, they certainly bore no resemblance to serpent
-forms, to eyes profane, but looked rather like two straight lines
-running nearly parallel to one another at a distance of about two miles
-apart. But may not an intermediate curvilinear piece some three miles
-long have existed in the gap and so joined the head to the tail? It is
-in vain to urge that no trace of it now exists, or to ask how any human
-being could trace the forms of serpents seven or eight miles long in an
-undulating country, and how or in what manner, or to what part of this
-strange deity or monster, he was to address his prayers.</p>
-
-<p>It would be incorrect, however, to represent all antiquaries as
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>
-
-adopting the Ophite heresy. Another group have argued stoutly that
-Stonehenge was an observatory of the British Druids. This theory was
-apparently suggested by views published by Daniell and others of the
-observatories erected by Jey Sing of Jeypore at Delhi, Ougein, Benares,
-and elsewhere in India. All these, it is true, possess great circles,
-but each of all these circles contains a gnomon, which is as essential
-a part of such an astronomical instrument as it is of a sun-dial, and
-no trace of such a feature, it need hardly be said, occurs in any
-British circle. One antiquary, who ought to be better informed,<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>
-concluded that Stonehenge was an observatory, because, sitting on a
-stone called the Altar on a Midsummer morning, he saw the sun rise
-behind a stone called the Friar's Heel. This is the only recorded
-observation ever made there, so far as I know; and if this is all, it
-is evident that any two stones would have answered the purpose equally
-well, and as the Altar stone is sixteen feet long, it allows a latitude
-of observation that augurs ill for the Druidical knowledge of the exact
-sciences. Neither Mr. Ellis, however, nor Dr. Smith, nor the Rev. Mr.
-Duke,<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>
-nor indeed any of those who have taken up the astronomical
-theory, have yet pointed out one single observation that could be made
-by these circles that could not be made as well or better without
-them. Or, if they were orreries, as is sometimes pretended, no one has
-explained what they record or represent in any manner that would be
-intelligible to any one else. Till some practical astronomer will come
-forward and tell us in intelligible language what observations could be
-performed with the aid of the circles of Stonehenge, we may be at least
-allowed to pause. Even, however, in that case, unless his theory will
-apply to Avebury, Stanton Drew, and other circles so irregular as to be
-almost unmeasurable, it will add little to our knowledge.</p>
-
-<p>It might be an amusing, though it certainly must be a profitless,
-task to enlarge on these and all the other guesses which have from
-time to time been made with regard to these mysterious remains. It
-is not, however, probable that theories so utterly groundless will
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>
-
-be put forward again, or, if promulgated, that they will be listened
-to in future. The one excuse for them hitherto has been that their
-authors have been deprived of all their usual sources of information
-in this matter. It is not too much to assert that there is not one
-single passage in any classical author which can be construed as
-alluding directly or indirectly to the megalithic remains on these
-isles or on the continent. With all their learning and industry, the
-antiquaries of the last century could only find one passage which, with
-all their misapplied ingenuity, they could pervert to their purposes.
-It was this&mdash;in his second book, Diodorus, quoting from Hecat&#230;us,
-mentions that in an island, not less in size than Sicily, and opposite
-to Celtica, there existed among the Hyperboreans a circular temple
-magnificently adorned.<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>
-Stukeley and his followers immediately
-jumped to the conclusion that the island not less than Sicily and
-opposite Gaul must be England, and the circular temple Stonehenge,
-which was consequently dedicated to Apollo and the serpent Python, and
-our forefathers were the Hyperboreans, and our intercourse with Greece
-clear and frequent. It is marvellous what a superstructure was raised
-on such a basis. But against it may be urged that the whole of the
-second book of Diodorus is dedicated solely to a description of Asia.
-In the preceding chapter he describes the Amazons, who, if they ever
-existed, certainly lived in that quarter of the globe. In the following
-chapters he describes Arabia, and even in this one (xlvii.) he speaks
-of the Hyperboreans as inhabiting the northern parts of Asia. By the
-utmost latitude of interpretation we might assume this island to have
-been in the Baltic&mdash;&OElig;sel probably, Gothland possibly, but certainly
-not further west. It is impossible Diodorus could be mistaken in the
-matter, for in his fifth book he describes the British Isles in their
-proper place, and with a very considerable degree of accuracy.<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>
-But, after all, what does it amount to? In this island there was a circular
-temple. We are not told whether it was of wood or of stone, whether
-hyp&#230;thral, or roofed, or vaulted, and certainly there is not a shadow
-of a hint that it was composed of a circle of rude stones like those in
-this country with which the antiquaries of the last century tried to
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>
-
-assimilate it.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>It is little to be wondered at if all this rashness of speculation
-and carelessness in quotation should have produced a belief that the
-solution of the problem was impossible from any literary or historical
-data, or if consequently our modern antiquaries should have grasped
-with avidity at a scheme, first proposed by the Danes, which seemed
-at all events to place the question on a scientific basis. No country
-could well be more favourably situated for an enquiry of this sort than
-Denmark. It is rich in megalithic remains of all sorts. Its tumuli and
-tombs seem generally to have been undisturbed; and it was exceptionally
-fortunate in having a government with sufficient common sense to enact
-a law of treasure-trove, so just and, at the same time, so liberal as
-to prevent all metal articles from finding their way to the melting
-pot, and governors so intelligent as fully to appreciate the scientific
-value of these early remains. In consequence of all this, the museums
-at Copenhagen were soon filled with one of the richest collections of
-antiquities of this sort that was ever collected, and when brought
-together it was not difficult to perceive the leading features that
-connected them in one continuous sequence.</p>
-
-<p>First it appeared that there was an age extending into far prehistoric
-times, when men used only implements of stone and bone, and were
-ignorant of the use of any of the metals; then that an age had
-succeeded to this when the use of bronze was known, and also probably
-that of gold; and, lastly, that there was a third age, when iron had
-been introduced and had superseded the use of all other metals for
-weapons of war and utilitarian purposes.</p>
-
-<p>The Danish antiquaries were somewhat divided in opinion as to the exact
-period when bronze was first introduced, some carrying it back as far
-as 2000 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, others doubting whether it was known in Denmark
-more than 1000 or 1200 years <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, but all agreed that iron
-was introduced about the Christian era. Having satisfied themselves on
-these points, the Danish antiquaries proceeded at once to apply this
-system to the monuments of their country. Any tomb or tumulus which was
-devoid of any trace of metal was dated at once at least 1000, probably
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
-
-2000, years before Christ, and might be 10,000, or 20,000 years old, or
-even still older. Any tomb containing bronze was at once set down as
-dating between the war of Troy and the Christian era; and if a trace
-of iron was detected, it was treated as subsequent to the last-named
-epoch, but still as anterior to the introduction of Christianity, which
-in Denmark dates about the year 1000 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span></p>
-
-<p>This system seemed so reasonable and philosophical, compared with the
-wild theories of the British antiquaries of the last century, that it
-was instantly adopted both in the country of its birth and in England
-and France; and the succession of the three ages&mdash;stone, bronze, and
-iron&mdash;was generally looked upon as firmly established as any fact in
-chronology. Gradually, however, it has been perceived that the hard and
-fast line at first drawn between them cannot be maintained. At the last
-meeting of the International Arch&#230;ological Congress, held at Copenhagen
-in the autumn of 1869, it was admitted on all hands that there was
-a considerable overlap between each of the three ages. Men did not
-immediately cease to use stone implements when bronze was introduced;
-and bronze continued to be employed for many purposes after the use of
-iron was well known.<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>
-Antiquaries have not yet made up their minds to what extent the overlap
-took place; but on its determination depends the whole value of the
-scheme as a chronometric scale.</p>
-
-<p>If the Danes, instead of breaking up their "finds" and distributing
-them in cases according to a pre-conceived system, had kept and
-published a careful record of the places where the contents of their
-museums were found, and in what juxtaposition, we should not probably
-be in our present difficulty. Under the circumstances, it is perhaps
-fortunate that we had no central museum, but that our antiquaries have
-published careful narratives of their proceedings. Sir Richard Colt
-Hoare's great works are models of their class, but are scarcely to be
-depended upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
-in the present instance, as the importance of flint
-and flint implements was not appreciated in his time to the extent
-it now is.<a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>
-The explorations of the Messrs. Bateman in Derbyshire are more
-completely up to the mark of the science of the present day. A few
-extracts from one of their works will show how various and how mixed
-the contents of even a single group of tombs are, and will prove
-consequently how little dependence can be placed on any one class of
-objects to fix the age of these monuments.</p>
-
-<p>In his 'Vestiges of the Antiquities of Derbyshire,' published in 1848
-by Thomas Bateman, we find the following among other interesting facts,
-taking them as they are found arranged in his volume, without any
-attempt at classification:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>On Winster Moor (p. 20), a gold Greek cross&mdash;undoubtedly Christian,
-with a fibula of the same metal richly ornamented, and a quantity of
-glass and metal ornaments.</p>
-
-<p>Pegges Barrow (p. 24). Several Anglo-Saxon ornaments, most probably of
-the seventh or eighth century.</p>
-
-<p>In a barrow at Long Roods (p. 28) were found two urns, with calcined
-bones and a brass coin of Constantine, of the type "Gloria exercitus."</p>
-
-<p>In Haddon Field Barrow (p. 30) were found 82 brass coins: among them
-Constantine 9, Constans 17, Constantius II. 9, family of Constantine 3,
-Urbs Roma 1, Constantinopolis 2, Valentinian 5, Valens 12, Gratian 3.
-The remainder illegible.</p>
-
-<p>At Gib Hill, near Arbor Low (p. 31), of which more hereafter, there
-were found a flint arrow-head 2&frac12; inches long, and a fragment of a
-basaltic celt; also a small iron fibula, and another piece of iron of
-indeterminable form.</p>
-
-<p>On Cross Flatts (p. 35) the weapons found with the skeleton were an
-iron knife, the blade 5 inches long; a piece of roughly chipped flint,
-probably a spear-head; and a natural piece of stone of remarkable form.
-A similar iron knife and a stone celt were afterwards found within a
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
-few yards of the barrow, probably thrown out and overlooked when first
-opened.</p>
-
-<p>In Galley Lowe (p. 37), a very beautiful gold necklace set with
-garnets, and a coin of Honorius; but towards the outer edge of the
-Lowe, and consequently, as far as position goes, probably later,
-another interment, accompanied with rude pottery, a small arrow-head of
-grey flint, and a piece of ironstone.</p>
-
-<p>In the great barrow at Minning Lowe (p. 39) were found coins of
-Claudius Gothicus, Constantine the Great, Constantine Junior, and
-Valentinian.</p>
-
-<p>In a smaller barrow close by were found fragments of a coarse,
-dark-coloured urn, a flint arrow-head, a small piece of iron, part of a
-bridle-bit, and several horses' teeth; lower down, a cist with an iron
-knife, with an iron sheath; and on the outer edge another interment,
-accompanied by a highly ornamented drinking-cup, a small brass or
-copper pin, and a rude spear or arrow-head of dark grey flint.</p>
-
-<p>In Borther Lowe (p. 48) were found a flint arrow-head much burnt and a
-diminutive bronze celt.</p>
-
-<p>In Rolley Lowe (p. 55) were found a brass coin of Constantine, and
-a brass pin 2&frac34; inches long; and lower down a rude but highly
-ornamented urn, and with it two very neat arrow-heads of flint of
-uncommon forms; and in another part of the barrow a spear-head of
-coarse flint, with the fragments of an ornamented drinking-cup.</p>
-
-<p>In a barrow on Ashford Moor (p. 57) were found, scattered in different
-parts, a small iron arrow-head and five instruments of flint.</p>
-
-<p>In Carder Lowe (p. 63) were found several instruments of flint, amongst
-the latter a neatly formed barbed arrow-head; and lower down, with the
-primary interment, a splendid brass or bronze dagger; a few inches
-lower down a beautiful axe hammer-head of basalt. In another part of
-the barrow another interment was discovered, accompanied by an iron
-knife and three hones of sandstone.</p>
-
-<p>A barrow was opened at New Inns (p. 66), where, along with the
-principal interment, was found a beautiful brass dagger, with smaller
-rivets than usual; and in another part a skeleton, with two instruments
-of flint, and some animal teeth.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>In Net Lowe (p. 68), close to the right arm of the principal interment,
-a large dagger of brass, with the decorations of its handle, consisting
-of thirty brass rivets; two studs of Kimmeridge coal. With the
-above-mentioned articles were numerous fragments of calcined flint, and
-amongst the soil of the barrow two rude instruments of flint.</p>
-
-<p>At Castern (p. 73), in one part of the mound, an instrument was
-found, with a fine spear-head of flint, and a small arrow-head of the
-same. In other parts, but in apparently undisturbed earth, a circular
-instrument, and various chippings of flint, and the handle of a knife
-of stag's horn, riveted in the usual way on to the steel. A similar one
-is figured in Douglas's 'Nenia Britannica,' plate 19, fig. 4, as found
-with an interment in one of the barrows on Chartham Downs, Kent.</p>
-
-<p>In Stand Lowe (p. 74), on digging towards the centre, numerous flint
-chippings and six rude instruments were found, and above the same place
-a broken whetstone. The centre being gained, an iron knife was found
-of the kind generally attributed to the Saxons. This was immediately
-followed by a bronze box and a number of buckles, fibul&#230;, and articles
-of iron, silver, and glass, all showing the principal interment to have
-been of very late date. Mr. Bateman adds&mdash;"the finding of instruments
-of flint with an interment of this comparatively modern description is
-rather remarkable, but by no means unprecedented."</p>
-
-<p>In a barrow midway between Wetton and Ilam (p. 79) with the interment
-were found three implements of flint of no great interest, some
-fragments of an ornamented urn, and an iron pin, similar to the awl
-used by saddlers at the present day. Mr. Bateman adds&mdash;"one precisely
-similar was found in a barrow on Middleton Moor in 1824."</p>
-
-<p>In a second barrow near the same place were found the remains of a
-coarse and rudely ornamented urn with its deposit of burnt bones. A
-third brass coin of Constantine the Great was also found on the summit,
-just under the surface.</p>
-
-<p>In Come Lowe (p. 95), with an interment of a very late period, were
-found gold and iron ornaments and glass beads, as well as the usual
-chippings of flint and rats' bones.</p>
-
-<p>In Dowe Lowe (p. 96) the most remote interment consisted of two much
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
-
-decayed skeletons lying on the floor of the barrow about two yards from
-its centre; one was accompanied by a fluted brass dagger placed near
-the upper bone of the arm, and an amulet of iron ore with a large flint
-implement, which had seen good service, lying near the pelvis.</p>
-
-<p>The other tumuli examined by this indefatigable explorer either
-contained objects generally of the same class or nothing that was of
-interest as marking their age. If his other works, or those of others,
-were abstracted in the same way, numerous examples of the same sort
-might be adduced. The above, however, are probably sufficient to show
-how little reliance can be placed on the hard and fast distinction
-between the flint, bronze, and iron ages which have hitherto been
-supposed to govern every determination of age in this science. If in a
-hundred short pages of one man's work so many instances of overlapping,
-and, indeed, of reversal of the usual order of things, can be found, it
-is easy to understand how many might be added if other works were also
-examined. All, however, that is wanted here is to show that the Danish
-system is neither perfect nor final, and that we must look for some
-other means of ascertaining the age of these monuments if we are to
-come to a satisfactory conclusion regarding them.</p>
-
-<p>The fact is that, though a tomb containing only stone and bone
-implements may be 10,000 or 20,000 years old, unless it can also be
-shown that stone and bone were no longer used after the Christian era,
-it may also be as modern, or more so, than that epoch. Unless, also,
-it can be proved that stone implements were never used after iron was
-introduced, or that bronze was never employed down to a late period,
-this system is of no avail; and after the examples just quoted from the
-Bateman diggings, it seems the merest empiricism to assume that the
-use of each class of implements ceased on the introduction of another;
-and till it can be shown at what date their use did really cease,
-any argument based on their presence is of very little value. This,
-however, is a task to which no antiquary has yet applied himself; all
-have been content to fix the age of the monuments from the assumed age
-of their contents, empirically determined. It is a far more difficult
-task, however, to ascertain the age of the contents from that of the
-monument in which they are found; it is a task that requires an
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
-
-investigation into the history and circumstances of each particular
-example. With the scant materials that exist, this is by no means easy;
-but as it seems the only mode by which truth can be arrived at, it is
-the task to which we propose to devote the following pages; should it
-prove impossible, we may indeed despair.</p>
-
-<p>It is curious to observe how different would have been the fate of this
-science, had the Scandinavians followed up the line of investigation
-commenced by their writers in the sixteenth century. Olaus Magnus,
-for instance, Archbishop of Upsala, writing in 1555, describes the
-megalithic remains of Sweden with the sobriety and precision with which
-a man in the present day might give an account of the cemeteries of
-Kensal-green or of Scutari. Some, he tells us, marked battle-fields,
-some family sepulchres, others the graves of greatly distinguished
-men.<a name="FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>
-In like manner, Olaus Wormius, in 1643, describes the tombs
-of the kings of Denmark as a writer in the present day might the
-Plantagenet sepulchres in Westminster Abbey.<a name="FNanchor_18" id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>
-Neither have any doubt or hesitation about the matter, and though Dr.
-Charleton was hasty in following this author too implicitly in applying
-his data to this country, still, so far as I can form an opinion, if
-that line of research had been steadily followed out, there would now
-have been as little doubt about the age of Stonehenge, as there is
-about that of Salisbury Cathedral. Stukeley, however, cut the vessel
-adrift from the moorings of common sense, and she has since been a
-derelict tossed about by the winds and waves of every passing fancy,
-till recently, when an attempt has been made to tow the wreck into
-the misty haven of prehistoric antiquity. If ever she reaches that
-nebulous region, she
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
-
-may as well be broken up in despair, as she can be of no further use
-for human purposes.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>Whether this will or will not be her fate must depend on the result
-of the new impulse which has within the last ten or twelve years been
-given to the enquiry. Hitherto it seems certainly to be in a direction
-which, it is to be feared, is not likely to lead to any greater degree
-of precision in the enquiry. While the Danish "savans" were arranging
-their collections in the museums at Copenhagen, M. Boucher de Perthes
-was quietly forming a collection of flint implements from the drift
-gravels of the valley of the Somme, which far exceeded all hitherto
-found in antiquity. For many years his discoveries were ridiculed and
-laughed at, till in 1858 the late Hugh Falconer visited his museum at
-Abbeville, and being then fresh from his investigations at Kent's Hole
-and the Gower Caves,<a name="FNanchor_19" id="FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a>
-he at once saw their value and proclaimed
-it to the world. Since then it has not been disputed that the flint
-implements found in the valley of the Somme are the works of man, and
-that from the position in which they are found their fabricators must
-have lived at a period on the edge of the glacial epoch, and when
-the configuration of the continent differed from what it now is, and
-when probably the British isles were still joined to France. Similar
-implements have before and since been found in Suffolk,<a name="FNanchor_20" id="FNanchor_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a>
-and other parts of England in analogous circumstances, and all allied with a
-fauna which was extinct in these parts before historic times.<a name="FNanchor_21" id="FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>
-If you ask a geologist how long ago the circumstances of the globe were
-such as these conditions represent, he will answer at once not less
-than a million of years! But they deal in large figures, and it is not
-necessary to investigate them now. It was a very long time ago.</p>
-
-<p>Even more interesting than these for our present purposes was the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
-discovery a few years later of human remains in the valleys of the
-Dordogne and other rivers of the south of France. Here geology does not
-help us, but climatology does. At that time the climate of the south
-of France was so cold that the inhabitants of these caves had all the
-habits of people now dwelling in the Arctic regions. Their principal
-domestic animal was the reindeer, but they were familiar with the
-woolly-haired mammoth, the cave bear, and the aurochs. The climate was
-so cold that they could throw on one side the d&#233;bris of their feasts,
-and floor their dwelling with marrow bones and offal without dreading
-pestilence or even suffering inconvenience. They were, in fact, in
-every respect, so far as we have the means of judging, identical with
-the Esquimaux of the present day, and must have inhabited a climate
-nearly similar to that of Arctic North America. How long ago was this?
-We know from the pictures in the tombs near the pyramids that the
-climate of Egypt was the same 5000 or 6000 years ago as it is now, and
-we have no reason to suppose that, while that of the southern shores of
-the Mediterranean remained unchanged, the northern would vary in any
-very different ratio. Clearing of forests may have done something, but
-never could have accounted for such a change as this. If we take 50,000
-or 60,000 years instead of 5000 or 6000, it will not suffice for such a
-revolution, though geologists will be wroth if we assume only 100,000;
-as a convenient number this will answer our present purposes.</p>
-
-<p>Having at least this space of time at their disposal, the tendency of
-modern antiquaries has been to sweep everything into this great gulf.
-Why, they ask, may not Stonehenge and Avebury be 10,000, 20,000, or
-50,000 years old? Man then existed, and why may he not have erected
-such monuments as these? Of course he might, but there is no proof
-that he did, and as no single tangible reason has yet been adduced
-for supposing them so old, the mere presumption that they might be so
-cannot count for much.</p>
-
-<p>To my mind the force of argument seems to tend the other way. If a race
-of men lived on the face of the globe for 100,000 years so utterly
-unprogressive as these cave men, incapable of discovering the use of
-metals for themselves during that long period, or even of adopting them
-from Egypt and the East, where bronze certainly, and most probably
-iron, were known at least 6000 or 7000 years ago; if this people
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
-
-used flint and bone during all this period, is it likely that they
-would adopt new-fangled implements and new customs the first time they
-were presented to them? The Esquimaux have been familiar with the
-Danish settlers in Greenland for some centuries, and could easily have
-procured improved implements and many of the advantages of civilization
-had they been so inclined. They have not been changed a hair's-breadth
-by the influence of the stranger. The red man of North America has been
-in contact with the white man for centuries now. Has he changed, or
-can he change? In Alaska, and to the northward of Vancouver's Island,
-there is a race of savages, called Hydahs, with all the artistic tastes
-and faculties of the men of the Dordogne caves, and with about the
-same degree of civilization.<a name="FNanchor_22" id="FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>
-All these are dying out, and may soon disappear, but they present at
-this day exactly the same phenomenon as we see in the south of France,
-say 10,000 years ago. They have been exterminated in all the civilized
-parts of Europe by the progressive Aryan races who have usurped their
-places; and it seems only too certain that, like them, their American
-kindred must perish before the growing influence of the white man,
-but they cannot change. In so far as we can judge from such facts as
-are before us, if any family of this old people still lurked among
-our hills or on any rocky island, their habits, or customs, and their
-implements, would be as like those of the cave men as those of the
-Esquimaux or Alaska savages are at the present day. It appears most
-unphilosophical to apply to those people the principles of progress
-that are found among the higher races of mankind, and to represent them
-as eagerly seizing on any improvement offered them, and abandoning
-their old faith and their old habits at the bidding of any wandering
-navigator that visited their shores.</p>
-
-<p>This is not the place to enter on such an enquiry, but so far as can at
-present be seen, it seems that mankind has progressed not so much by
-advance within the limits of certain races as by the superposition of
-more highly organized races over those of an inferior class. Thus we
-have those stone men of the caves who possessed the world for 100,000
-or a million of years, and made no more progress in that period than
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
-
-the animals they were associated with. Even the progress from a chipped
-to a polished stone implement seems to have been taught them by a
-foreign bronze-using people. We have then such races as the Egyptian,
-the Chinese, or the Mexican, who can progress to a certain point, but
-stop and cannot go beyond; and, lastly, we have the Aryans, the last
-to appear in the field, but the most energetic, and the only truly
-progressive race. Our great error in reasoning with regard to the older
-races seems to be that we insist on applying to them the reasoning and
-principles which guide us, but which are wholly inapplicable to the
-less progressive races of mankind.</p>
-
-<p>All this will be plainer in the sequel; but in the meanwhile it may
-safely be asserted that, up to this time, no royal road has been
-discovered that leads to an explanation of our megalithic antiquities.
-No one has yet been able so to classify the contents of cognate
-monuments as to construct a chronometric scale which is applicable for
-the elucidation of their dates; and no <i>&#224; priori</i> reasoning has been
-hit upon that is of the smallest use in explaining either their age or
-their peculiarities. The one path that seems open to us is a careful
-examination of each individual monument, accompanied by a judicial
-sifting of all or any traditions that may attach to it, and aided by a
-comparison with similar monuments in other countries. By this means we
-have a chance of arriving at a fair proximate degree of certainty; for,
-though no one monument will tell its own tale directly, a multitude of
-whispers from a great number may swell into a voice that is clear and
-distinct and be audible to every one; while no system yet invented,
-and no <i>&#224; priori</i> reasoning, can lead to anything but deepening the
-ignorance that now prevails on the subject. This is especially true
-with regard to the great megalithic circles in this country. With the
-rarest possible exceptions, no flint and no bronze or iron implements
-have been found within their precincts. They cannot be older than the
-invention of flint implements, and iron has been in continuous use
-since the art of smelting its ores was first discovered. If, therefore,
-they have no written or traditional history which can be relied upon,
-their age must for ever remain a mystery. The conviction, however,
-under which this book is written is that such a history does exist;
-that, when all the traditions attached to the monuments are sifted
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
-
-and weighed, they amount to such a mass of circumstantial evidence as
-suffices to prove the case and to establish the main facts of their
-history and use, wholly independently of any system or of any external
-testimony.</p>
-
-<p>Direct literary evidence, in the sense in which the term is usually
-understood, cannot be said to exist. As before mentioned, no classical
-author alludes, either directly or indirectly, to these megalithic
-structures; yet they could not have been ignorant of them if they
-existed. When C&#230;sar and his army witnessed the fight between his
-galleys and the fleet of the Veneti in the Morbihan, he must have
-stood&mdash;if he occupied the best place&mdash;on Mont St. Michel, if it then
-existed, and among the stone avenues of Carnac. Is it likely that such
-an artist would have omitted the chance of heightening his picture by
-an allusion to the "standing stones" of Dariorigum? The Romans occupied
-Old Sarum probably during the whole time they remained in this island,
-and the Via Badonica passed so immediately under Silbury Hill that they
-could not have been ignorant of either Stonehenge or Avebury. Nor in
-France could they possibly have missed seeing the numerous dolmens with
-which the country is covered. Notwithstanding all this, the silence is
-absolute. The circular temple of the Hyperboreans is the only thing any
-one has ever pretended to quote against this; and that, for reasons
-given above being inadmissible, any argument based on it falls to the
-ground.</p>
-
-<p>Neither C&#230;sar nor Tacitus, though describing the religious observances
-of our forefathers, make any mention of temples; nor, indeed, does
-any other classical author. Tacitus<a name="FNanchor_23" id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a>
-tells us that the Germans worshipped only in groves; and though this is
-hardly to the point, his relations with Agricola were so intimate that
-had the Gauls and Britons had temples of stone, he could hardly have
-avoided alluding to them. The inference from C&#230;sar and all the other
-authors is the same, but there is no direct evidence either way.</p>
-
-<p>There is no passage in any classical authors which connects the Druids,
-either directly or indirectly, with any stone temples or stones of any
-sort. Dracontia are wholly the creation of Dr. Stukeley's very fertile
-imagination.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>So far, therefore, as negative evidence goes, it is complete in showing
-that our megalithic circles did not exist in the time of the Romans,
-and that they were not temples. Unfortunately, however, no amount of
-negative evidence is sufficient to prove an affirmative, though it may
-suffice to establish a strong presumption in favour of a particular
-view, and, at all events, clears the way for the production of any
-direct evidence which we may have. The direct written evidence that has
-been adduced is, however, of the most shadowy character. It amounts
-to little more than this:&mdash;that every allusion to these monuments in
-medi&#230;val authors, every local tradition, every scrap of intelligence
-we have regarding them, points to a post-Roman origin. No writer, of
-any age or country, suggested their being prehistoric or even pre-Roman
-before the age of Stukeley,&mdash;say 1700.</p>
-
-<p>There is, so far as I know, only one paragraph in any classical
-author which mentions a French or British temple; but it belonged to
-so exceptional a community that it would hardly be safe to base an
-argument upon it. A "hieron," Strabo tells us, existed at the mouth
-of the Loire, inhabited by a colony of women who lived apart from
-their husbands, but the roof or thatch of the roof of whose temple
-was renewed annually:<a name="FNanchor_24" id="FNanchor_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a>
-  a fact that shows, in the first place, that it had a roof, and in the
-  second, that it was not a very dignified or permanent structure.</p>
-
-<p>It would add very much to the clearness of our conception on this
-subject if the early Christian writers had left us some descriptions
-of the temples of the Britons when the missionaries first came among
-them. Though not quite so silent on the subject as the classical
-authors, their direct evidence is far from being so complete as
-might be wished. One of the passages most distinctly bearing on this
-question is found in a letter which Pope Gregory the Great addressed
-to the Abbot Millitus, then on a mission to England. In this letter he
-instructs him by no means to destroy the temples of the idols belonging
-to the English, but only the idols which are found in them; and adds,
-"Let holy water be made, and sprinkled over them. Let altars be
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
-
-constructed, and relics placed on them; insomuch as if these temples
-are well constructed, it is necessary that they should be converted
-from the worship of d&#230;mons to the service of the true God. So that the
-people, seeing their temples are not destroyed, may put away errors
-from their hearts, and, acknowledging the true God and adoring Him, may
-the more willingly assemble in the places where they were accustomed
-to meet."<a name="FNanchor_25" id="FNanchor_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a>
-A little further on he adds, in order that no apparent
-change may be made, "that on great festivals the people may erect huts
-of boughs around those churches which have been converted (commutat&#230;)
-from temples."</p>
-
-<p>The fair inference from this paragraph seems to be that there was so
-little difference between the temples of the Pagans and the churches
-of the Christians that a little holy water and a few relics&mdash;as much
-esteemed in the West as in the East in those days&mdash;were all that was
-required to convert the one into the other.</p>
-
-<p>We gather the same impression from another transaction which took
-place at Canterbury about the same time. After taking possession of
-the Cathedral, built of old by the Romans,<a name="FNanchor_26" id="FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a>
-St. Augustine obtained from the recently converted King Ethelbert
-the cession of the temple in which he had been accustomed to worship
-his idols, and without more ado dedicated it to St. Pancras, and
-appropriated it as a burying place for himself and his successors from
-the circumstance of its being outside the walls.<a name="FNanchor_27" id="FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a>
-We further learn from Gervaise<a name="FNanchor_28" id="FNanchor_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>
-that it was so used till Cuthbert, the second archbishop, got
-permission to allow burials within the walls, and then erected the
-baptistry of St. John for this purpose, where apparently Becket's
-crown now stands. Afterwards the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
-
-monastery of SS. Peter and Paul, now St. Augustine's, was erected "in
-fundo Templi"&mdash;whatever that may mean&mdash;but at that time St. Augustine
-seems to have accepted the Pagan temples as perfectly appropriate to
-Christian rites.</p>
-
-<p>In like manner when King Redwald, after his conversion to Christianity
-was persuaded by his wife not rashly to forsake the faith of his
-forefathers, he set up two altars side by side in his temple (in fano),
-and dedicated the one to Christ, the other to the "victims of the
-d&#230;mons."<a name="FNanchor_29" id="FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a>
-The temple, apparently, was equally appropriate to either.</p>
-
-<p>A still more instructive example is the description of the destruction
-of the church at Godmundingham by Coifi&mdash;the heathen priest&mdash;on his
-conversion to Christianity. He first desecrated it by throwing a spear
-into it&mdash;whether by the door or window we are not told&mdash;and then
-ordered his people to burn it to the ground with all its enclosures.
-These, therefore, must all have been in wood or some equally
-combustible material.<a name="FNanchor_30" id="FNanchor_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p>
-
-<p>All this is not much nor very distinct, but by these passages, and
-every hint we have on the subject, it would appear that the temples
-of the Pagans, between the departure of the Romans and the time of
-Alfred, were at least very similar to those of the Christians. Both
-were derived from the same model, which was the temple or basilica of
-the Romans, and both were apparently very rude, and generally, we may
-infer, constructed of wood. The word circular does not occur in any
-description of any Pagan temple yet brought to light, nor the word
-stone; nothing, in fact, that would in the remotest degree lead us to
-suppose that Bede, or any one else, was speaking or thinking of the
-megalithic monuments with which we are now concerned.</p>
-
-<p>Although the classical authorities are silent regarding these rude
-stone monuments, and contemporary records help us very little in
-trying to understand the form of the temples in which our forefathers
-worshipped, till they were converted to Christianity, still the Decrees
-of the Councils render it quite certain that Rude Stone Monuments were
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
-
-objects of veneration&mdash;certainly in France, and, by implication, in
-England&mdash;down to the times of Charlemagne and Alfred, at least.</p>
-
-<p>One often-quoted decree of a Council, held at Nantes, exhorts "Bishops
-and their servants to dig up, and remove, and hide in places where they
-cannot be found, those stones which in remote and woody places are
-still worshipped, and where vows are still made."<a name="FNanchor_31" id="FNanchor_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a>
-Unfortunately the date of this Council is not certain; but Richard places it in
-658, which is probably at least nearly correct.<a name="FNanchor_32" id="FNanchor_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a>
-This, however, is of comparatively little consequence, as in 452 a Council at Arles
-decreed that "if, in any diocese, any infidel either lighted torches
-or worshipped Trees, Fountains, or Stones, or neglected to destroy
-them, he should be found guilty of sacrilege;"<a name="FNanchor_33" id="FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a>
-and about a century later (567), a Council at Tours exhorts the clergy to excommunicate
-those who, at certain Stones or Trees or Fountains, perpetrate things
-contrary to the ordinances of the Church.<a name="FNanchor_34" id="FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p>
-
-<p>Still another century further on (681), a Council held at Toledo
-admonishes those who worship Idols or venerate Stones, those who light
-torches or worship Fountains or Trees, that they are sacrificing
-to the devil, and subject themselves to various penalties, &amp;c.<a name="FNanchor_35" id="FNanchor_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a>
-Another Council held in the same city, in the year 692, enumerates
-almost in the same words the various heresies which were condemned by
-the preceding Council.<a name="FNanchor_36" id="FNanchor_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>
-A Council at Rouen, about the same time,
-denounces all who offer vows to Trees or Fountains or Stones as they
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
-
-would at altars, or offer candles or gifts, as if any divinity resided
-there capable of conferring good or evil.
-<a name="FNanchor_37" id="FNanchor_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p>
-
-<p>Lastly, a decree of Charlemagne, dated Aix-la-Chapelle in 789, utterly
-condemns and execrates before God Trees, Stones, and Fountains, which
-foolish people worship.<a name="FNanchor_38" id="FNanchor_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p>
-
-<p>Even as late as in the time of Canute the Great, there is a statute
-forbidding the barbarous adoration of the Sun and Moon, Fire,
-Fountains, Stones, and all kinds of Trees and Wood.<a name="FNanchor_39" id="FNanchor_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p>
-
-<p>The above which are taken from Keysler<a name="FNanchor_40" id="FNanchor_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a>
-are not all he quotes, nor certainly all that could be added, if it
-were worth while, from other sources; but they are sufficient to show
-that, from Toledo to Aix-la-Chapelle&mdash;and from the departure of
-the Romans till the tenth, or probably the eleventh century&mdash;the
-Christian priesthood waged a continuous but apparently ineffectual
-warfare against the worship of Stones, Trees, and Fountains. The
-priests do not condescend to tell us what the forms of the Stones were
-which these benighted people worshipped, whether simple menhirs or
-dolmens, or "grottes des f&#233;es," nor why they worshipped them; whether
-they considered them emblems of some unnamed and unknown God, or
-memorials of deceased ancestors, in whose honour they lighted candles,
-and whom they propitiated with offerings. Nor do they tell us what the
-form of that worship was; they did not care, and perhaps did not know.
-Nor do we; for, except an extreme veneration for their dead, and a
-consequent ancestral worship,<a name="FNanchor_41" id="FNanchor_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a>
-mixed with a strange adoration of Stones, Trees, and
-Fountains, we do not know now what the religion was of these rude
-people. The testimony of these edicts is, therefore, not quite so
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
-
-distinct as we might wish, and does not enable us to assert that the
-Rude Stone Monuments, whose age and uses we are trying to ascertain,
-were those alluded to in the preceding paragraphs. But what it
-does seem to prove is, that down to the 11th century the Christian
-Priesthood waged a continuous warfare against the veneration of some
-class of Rude Stone Monuments, to which the pagan population clung with
-remarkable tenacity, and many, if not most of which may consequently
-have been erected during that period. This is, at all events,
-infinitely more clear and positive than anything that has been brought
-forward in favour of their prehistoric antiquity. If, like the other
-branches of the written argument, this is not sufficient to prove, by
-itself, that the monuments were generally or even frequently erected
-after the Christian era, it certainly entitles that assertion to a fair
-<i>locus standi</i> in the argument we are attempting to develop.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>If, however, the pen has been reticent and hesitating in its testimony,
-the spade has been not only prolific but distinct. It is probably
-not an exaggeration to say that three-fourths of the megalithic
-monuments&mdash;including the dolmens, of course&mdash;have yielded sepulchral
-deposits to the explorer, and, including the tumuli, probably
-nine-tenths have been proved to be burial places. Still, at the present
-stage of the enquiry, it would be at least premature to assume that
-the remaining tenth of the whole, or the remaining fourth of the stone
-section, must necessarily be sepulchral. Some may have been cenotaphic,
-or simply monuments, such as we erect to our great men&mdash;not necessarily
-where the bodies are laid. Some stones and some tumuli may have been
-erected to commemorate events, and some mounds certainly were erected
-as "Motes" or "Things"&mdash;places of judgment or assembly. In like manner
-some circles may have been originally, or may afterwards have been
-used as places of assembly, or may have been what may more properly be
-called temples of the dead, than tombs. These, however, certainly are
-the exceptions. The ruling idea throughout is still of a sepulchre,
-with what exceptions, and at what age erected, is the thesis which we
-now propose to investigate.</p>
-
-<p>At present these are mere assertions, and it is not pretended that
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
-
-they are more, and they are only brought forward in this place in order
-to enunciate the propositions it is hoped we may be able to prove as we
-advance in this enquiry. These are,&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>First, that the Rude Stone Monuments with which we are concerned are
-generally sepulchral, or connected directly, or indirectly, with the
-rites of the dead.</p>
-
-<p>Secondly, that they are not temples in any usual or appropriate
-sense of the term, and, Lastly,&mdash;that they were generally erected by
-partially civilized races after they had come in contact with the
-Romans, and most of them may be considered as belonging to the first
-ten centuries of the Christian Era.</p>
-
-<p>In stating these three propositions so broadly, it must be borne in
-mind, that the evidence on which their proof or disproof rests is
-eminently cumulative in its character; not perhaps with regard to the
-use to which the monuments were applied, that probably will be admitted
-as settled, as so large a proportion of the tumuli can be shown to have
-a fair title to a sepulchral character, and most of the stone monuments
-can equally lay claim to being erected for the same purpose to which
-one-half of them have been certainly proved to have been dedicated.
-This is the more clear, as, on the other hand, in spite of every
-surmise or conjecture, no one monument of the class we are treating of
-can be proved to have been erected as a temple, or as intended for any
-civic or civil purpose.</p>
-
-<p>With regard to their age, the case is not quite so easily settled.
-Except such monuments as those of Gorm and Thyra, and one or two
-others, to be mentioned hereafter, few can produce such proof of their
-age as would stand investigation in a court of law. But when all the
-traditions, all the analogies, and all the probabilities of the case
-are examined, they seem to make up such an accumulation of evidence
-as is irresistible; and the whole appears to present an unbroken and
-intelligible sequence which explains everything. The proof of all this,
-however, does not rest on the evidence of two or three, or even of a
-dozen, of instances, but is based upon the multiplication of a great
-number of coincidences derived from a large number of instances, which
-taken together in the cumulative form, make up a stronger body of
-proof than could be obtained from the direct testimony of one or two
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
-
-cases. To appreciate this, however, the whole must be taken together.
-To try to invalidate it by selecting one or two prominent cases, where
-the proof is manifestly insufficient when taken by itself, is to
-misunderstand and misrepresent the whole force of the argument.</p>
-
-<p>One point, I fancy, there will be very little difficulty in proving,
-which is, that the whole form one continuous group, extending in an
-unbroken series, from the earliest to the latest. There is no hiatus
-or break anywhere; and if some can be proved to belong to the 10th
-century, it is only a question how far you can, by extenuating the
-thread, extend it backwards. It can hardly be much beyond the Christian
-era. It seems that such a date satisfies all the known conditions of
-the problem, in so far as the Stone Monuments at least are concerned.
-There is, so far as I know at present, absolutely no evidence on the
-other side, except what is derived from the Danish system of the three
-ages: if that is established as a rule of law, <i>cadit questio</i>, there
-is no more to be said on the subject. But this is exactly what does not
-appear to have yet been established on any sufficient or satisfactory
-basis. There need be no difficulty in granting that men used stone and
-bone for implements, before they were acquainted with the use of the
-metals. It may also be admitted, that they used bronze before they
-learned the art of extracting iron from its ores. But what is denied
-is, that they abandoned the use of these primitive implements on the
-introduction of the metals; and it is contended that they employed
-stone and bone simultaneously with bronze and iron, down to a very late
-period. The real fact of the case seems to be, that the people on the
-shores of the Baltic and the North Sea, were as remote from the centres
-of civilization on the Mediterranean and to the eastward of it in the
-earlier centuries of our era, and were as little influenced by them,
-as the inhabitants of the islands in the Pacific and Arctic America
-were by Europe in the last century. In the remote corners of the world,
-a stone and bone age exists at the present day, only modified by the
-use of such metal implements as they can obtain by barter or exchange:
-and this appears to have been the state of northern Europe, till, with
-their conversion to Christianity, the new civilization was domesticated
-among its inhabitants.</p>
-
-<div class="topspace1"></div>
-<div class="footnotes">
-<blockquote>
-<p class="footnote"><span class="smcap"><b>Footnotes</b></span></p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>
-Those three treatises were afterwards republished in one volume, small folio,
-with all the plates, &amp;c., in London, 1725. It is from this volume that the above is
-abstracted.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>
-C&#230;sar, 'De Bell. Gal.' vi 13-20.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>
-'Hist. Nat.' xxix. 3.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>
-'Historia,' v. 31.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>
-'Geographica,' iv. 273.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a>
-Tacitus, 'Ann.' xiv. 29.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a>
-See controversy between M. Bertrand
-and M. Henri Martin, in volume of
-'Congr&#232;s pr&#233;historique' (Paris, 1867), 193,
-207, &amp;c. See also 'Revue arch&#233;ologique,'
-ao&#251;t, 1864, 144.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a>
-For further information on the subject,
-the reader is referred to 'Tree and
-Serpent Worship,' by the author, p. 26
-<i>et seq.</i>, where the subject is treated of
-at length.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a>
-'Arch&#230;ologia,' xxv. 188 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a>
-Mr. Ellis, 'Gent. Mag.' 4th series, ii. 317.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a>
-'Proceedings of the Arch&#230;ological Institute, Salisbury,' volume 113.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a>
-Diodorus, ii. 47.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a>
-Ibid. v. 21 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a>
-The volume containing the account
-of the proceedings of the congress has
-not yet been published; so those who
-were not present cannot feel sure to
-what extent these modifications were
-carried or admitted. A short account
-of the Congress was published by Gen.
-Lefroy, in the 'Journal of the Arch&#230;ological
-Institute,' Nov. 1869, p. 58 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a>
-"According to an analysis made by
-Sir John Lubbock, of the contents of
-250 tumuli described by Sir Richard
-Colt Hoare, in the first volume of his
-'Ancient Wiltshire,' 18 only had any
-implements of stone, only 31 of bone,
-67 of bronze, and 11 of iron, while one-half
-of them contained nothing to indicate
-their age; but whether those that
-contained nothing are earlier or more
-modern is by no means clear."&mdash;<i>Prehistoric</i>
-<i>Times</i>, 2nd edit. p. 131.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a>"
-Veterum Gothorum et Suevorum
-antiquissimus mos est ut ubi acriores
-in campis seu montibus instituissent et
-perfecissent pugnas, illic erectos lapides
-quasi Egyptiacas pyramides collocare
-soliti sunt ... Habent itaque h&#230;c
-saxa in pluribus locis erecta longitudine
-x. vel xv. XX. aut xxx. et amplius et
-latitudine iv. vel vi, pedum, mirabili situ
-sed mirabiliori ordine et mirabilissimo
-charactere, ob plurimas rationes collocata
-literato, rectoque et longo ordine videlicet
-pugilarum certamina, quadrato, turmas
-bellantium, et spherico familiarum designantia
-sepulturas ac cuneato equestrium
-et pedestrium acies ibidem vel prope fortunatum
-triumphasse," &amp;c. &amp;c.&mdash;<i>De</i>
-<i>Gentibus Septentrionalibus</i>, &amp;c. p. 48.
-</p>
-
-<p>Or again:&mdash;"Quos humi recondere
-placuit honorabiles statuas lapidum
-excelsorum prout hodie cernuntur mira
-compagine in modum altissim&#230; et latissim&#230;
-janu&#230;, sursum transversumque
-viribus gigantum erecta."&mdash;<i>Ibid.</i> 49.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a>
-'Danicorum Monumentorum,' libri sex, 22 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_19" id="Footnote_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a>
-'Memoirs of Hugh Falconer,' by Dr. Murchison, ii. p. 596.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_20" id="Footnote_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a>
-In 1797, Mr. John Frere found flint implements identical with those at Abbeville,
-and published an account of them, with engravings, in vol. xiii. of the
-'Arch&#230;ologia,' in 1800.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_21" id="Footnote_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a>
-In the first years of the last century
-a flint implement, together with some
-bones of the <i>Elephas primigenus</i>, were
-found in an excavation in Gray's Inn
-Lane. An engraving of it was published
-in 1715, and the implement itself is now
-in the British Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a>
-For the last, and one of the best, accounts of the Hydahs, see 'Proceedings of the
-Royal Geographical Society,' vol. xiii. No. V. p. 386 <i>et seq.</i>, by Mr. Brown.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_23" id="Footnote_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a>
-'Germania,' 9.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_24" id="Footnote_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a>
-Strabo, iv. p. 198.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_25" id="Footnote_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a>
-Bede, 'Hist. Eccles.' i. 30.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_26" id="Footnote_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a>
-"Inibi antiquo Romanorum fidelium opere factam," Bede, 'Hist. Eccles.' i. 32.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a>
-Thorn, 'Dec. Script. Col.' 1760:&mdash;"Erat
-autem non longe ab ipsa civitate
-ad orientem quasi medio itinere inter
-ecclesiam Sti. Martini et muros civitatis
-Phanum sive ydolum situm ubi rex
-Ethelbertus secundus ritum gentis su&#230;
-solebat orare et cum nobilibus suis d&#230;moniis
-et non deo sacrificare. Quod
-Phanum Augustinus ab iniquinamentis
-et sordibus gentilium purgavit et simulacro
-quod in eo erat infracto, synagogam
-mutavit in ecclesiam, et eam in nomine
-Sti. Pancratii martyris dedicavit."</p>
-
-<p>Of this "Fane" we further learn from
-Godselinus ('Leland Collect.' vol. iv. p. 8),
-that "extat adhuc condita ex longissimis
-et latissimis lateribus more
-Britannico ut facile est videre in muris
-Verolamiensibus," and may now be seen
-in this very church at Canterbury. "Basilica
-Sti. Pancratii nunc est ubi olim
-Ethelbertus idolum suum coluit. Opus
-exiguum structum tamen de more veterum
-Britannorum."</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_28" id="Footnote_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a>
-Gervaise, 'Acc. Pont. Cant.' p. 1640.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_29" id="Footnote_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a>
-Bede, 'Hist. Eccles.' ii. 15.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_30" id="Footnote_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a>
-"Succendere fanum cum omnibus septis suis," Bede, 'Hist. Eccles.' ii. 13.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_31" id="Footnote_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a>
-Summo decertare debent studio episcopi
-et eorum ministri ut&mdash;<i>Lapides</i>
-quoque, quos in ruinosis locis et silvestribus,
-demonum ludificationibus decepti
-venerantur ubi et vota vovent et deferunt,
-funditus effodiantur, atque in tali
-loco projiciantur ubi nunquam a cultoribus
-suis inveniri possint et omnibus
-annunciatur quantum scelus est idolatria.&mdash;Labbeum,
-t. ix. 474.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_32" id="Footnote_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a>
-Richard, 'Analyse des Conciles,' i. 646.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_33" id="Footnote_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a>
-Si in alicujus episcopi territorio
-infideles, aut faculas accendunt, aut arbores,
-fontes vel <i>Saxa</i> venerentur si hoc
-eruere neglexerit, sacrilegii reum se esset
-cognoscat.&mdash;Labb., iv. 1013.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a>
-Contestamur illam solicitudinem tam
-pastores quam presbyteros, gerere ut
-quemcunque in hac fatuitate persistere
-viderint, vel ad nescio quas <i>petras</i> aut
-arbores vel fontes, designata loca gentilium
-perpetrare, qu&#230; ad ecclesi&#230; rationem
-non pertinent eos ab ecclesia
-sancta auctoritate repellant.&mdash;Baluz, i. 518.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_35" id="Footnote_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a>
-Cultores idolorum, veneratores <i>Lapidum</i>,
-accensores facularum excolentes
-sacra fontium vel arborum admonemus,
-&amp;c.&mdash;Baluz, vi. 1234.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_36" id="Footnote_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a>
-Illi diversis suadelis decepti cultores
-idolorum efficiuntur, veneratores
-<i>Lapidum</i>, accensores facularum, excolentes
-sacra fontium vel arborum, &amp;c.&mdash;Baluz,
-vi. 1337.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_37" id="Footnote_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a>
-Si aliquis vota ad arbores, vel fontes,
-vel ad <i>Lapides</i> quosdam, quasi ad altaria,
-faciat aut ibi candelam, seu quolibet
-munus deferet velut ibi quoddam Numen
-sit quod bonum aut malum possit inferre.&mdash;Baluz,
-1. 2, p. 210.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_38" id="Footnote_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a>
-Item de arboribus vel <i>Petris</i> vel
-fontibus ubi aliqui stulti luminaria vel
-aliquas observationes faciunt omnino
-mandamus, ut iste pessimus usus et deo
-execrabilis ubicunque invenitur tolletur
-et distruatur.&mdash;Baluz, t. i. p. 235.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_39" id="Footnote_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a>
-Barbara est autem adoratio, sive
-quas idola (puta gentium divos), Solem,
-Lunam, Ignem, Profluentem, Fontes,
-<i>Saxa</i>, cujusque generis arbores lignam
-coluerunt.&mdash;Keysler, 'Antiquitates Septemtrion.'
-(Hanover&#230;, 1720), p. 18. He
-quotes also a canon of Edgar (967) to the
-same effect.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_40" id="Footnote_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a>
-'Ant. Sept.' chap. ii.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_41" id="Footnote_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a>
-Laing in his wrath seems to have, by
-accident, very nearly guessed the truth,
-when, refuting the authenticity of Ossian,
-he accuses Macpherson of "having rendered
-the Highlanders a race of unheard-of
-infidels, who believed in no Gods but
-the ghosts of their fathers."</p>
-</div>
-
-</blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a><br />
-<span class="small">PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class="topspace2"></div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Before</span> attempting to examine or describe particular instances&mdash;in
-which, however, the main interest of the work must eventually be
-centred&mdash;it would add very much to the clearness of what follows if
-a classification could be hit upon, which would correctly represent
-the sequence of forms. In the present state of our knowledge such an
-arrangement is hardly possible, still the following 5 groups, with
-their sub-divisions, are sufficiently distinct to enable them to be
-treated separately, and are so arranged as roughly to represent what we
-know of their sequence, with immense overlappings, however, on every
-joint.</p>
-
-<table summary="Tomb Types" style="width:70%">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">I.</td>
-<td class="tdl">&mdash;<span class="smcap">Tumuli</span></td>
-<td class="tdl"><i>a.</i></td>
-<td class="tdl">Or barrows of earth only.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl"><i>b.</i></td>
-<td class="tdl">With small stone chambers or cists.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl"><i>c.</i></td>
-<td class="tdl">With megalithic chambers or dolmens.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl"><i>d.</i></td>
-<td class="tdl">With external access to chambers.</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">II.</td>
-<td class="tdl">&mdash;<span class="smcap">Dolmens</span></td>
-<td class="tdl"><i>a.</i></td>
-<td class="tdl">Free standing dolmens without tumuli.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl"><i>b.</i></td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmens upon the outside of tumuli.</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">III.</td>
-<td class="tdl">&mdash;<span class="smcap">Circles</span></td>
-<td class="tdl"><i>a.</i></td>
-<td class="tdl">Circles surrounding tumuli.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl"><i>b.</i></td>
-<td class="tdl">Circles surrounding dolmens.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl"><i>c.</i></td>
-<td class="tdl">Circles without tumuli or dolmens.</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">IV.</td>
-<td class="tdl">&mdash;<span class="smcap">Avenues</span></td>
-<td class="tdl"><i>a.</i></td>
-<td class="tdl">Avenues attached to circles.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl"><i>b.</i></td>
-<td class="tdl">Avenues with or without circles or dolmens.</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">V.</td>
-<td class="tdl">&mdash;<span class="smcap">Menhirs</span></td>
-<td class="tdl"><i>a.</i></td>
-<td class="tdl">Single or in groups.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl"><i>b.</i></td>
-<td class="tdl">With oghams, sculptures, or runes.</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class="topspace2"></div>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Tumuli.</span></h3>
-
-<p>The first three of the sub-divisions of the first class are so
-mixed together that it is almost impossible in the present state of
-our knowledge to separate them with precision either as to date or
-locality, while, as they hardly belong to the main subject of this
-book, it will not be worth while to attempt it here.</p>
-
-<p>Without being too speculative, perhaps, it may be assumed that
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
-
-the earliest mode in which mankind disposed of the bodies of their deceased
-relatives or neighbours was by simple inhumation. They dug a hole in
-the earth, and, having laid the body therein, simply replaced the
-earth upon it, and to mark the spot, if the person so buried was of
-sufficient importance to merit such care, they raised a mound over the
-grave. It is difficult, however, to believe that mankind were long
-content with so simple a mode of sepulture. To heap earth or stones on
-the body of the beloved departed so as to crush and deface it, must
-have seemed rude and harsh, and some sort of coffin was probably early
-devised for the protection of the corpse,&mdash;in well-wooded countries,
-this would be of wood, which, if the mound is old, has perished long
-ago&mdash;in stony countries, as probably of stone, forming the rude cists
-so commonly found in early graves. That these should expand into
-chambers seems also natural as civilization advanced, and as man's
-ideas of a future state and the wants and necessities of such a future
-became more developed.</p>
-
-<p>The last stage would seem to be when access was retained to the
-sepulchral chamber, in order that the descendants of the deceased might
-bring offerings, or supply the wants of their relative during the
-intermediate state which some nations assumed must elapse before the
-translation of the body to another world.</p>
-
-<p>It is probable that some such stages as these were passed through by
-all the burying races of mankind, though at very various intervals
-and with very different details, while fortunately for our present
-subject it seems that the earliest races were those most addicted to
-this mode of honouring their dead. All mankind, it is true, bury their
-dead either in the flesh or their ashes after cremation. It is one of
-those peculiarities which, like speech, distinguish mankind from the
-lower animals, and which are so strangely overlooked by the advocates
-of the fashionable theory of our ape descent. All mankind, however,
-do not reverence their dead to the same extent. The peculiarity is
-most characteristic of the earlier underlying races, whom we have
-generally been in the habit of designating as the Turanian races of
-mankind. But if that term is objected to, the tomb-building races may
-be specified&mdash;beginning from the East&mdash;as the Chinese; the Monguls in
-Tartary, or Mogols, as they were called, in India; the Tartars in
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
-
-their own country, or in Persia; the ancient Pelasgi in Greece; the
-Etrurians in Italy; and the races, whoever they were, who preceded the
-Celts in Europe. But the tomb-building people, <em>par excellence</em>, in the
-old world were the Egyptians. Not only were the funereal rites the most
-important element in the religious life of the people, but they began
-at an age earlier than the history or tradition of any other nation
-carries us back to. The great Pyramid of Gizeh was erected certainly as
-early as 3000 years before Christ; yet it must be the lineal descendant
-of a rude-chambered tumulus or cairn, with external access to the
-chambers, and it seems difficult to calculate how many thousands of
-years it must have required before such rude sepulchres as those our
-ancestors erected&mdash;many probably after the Christian era&mdash;could have
-been elaborated into the most perfect and most gigantic specimens of
-masonry which the world has yet seen. The phenomenon of anything so
-perfect as the Pyramids starting up at once, absolutely without any
-previous examples being known, is so unique<a name="FNanchor_42" id="FNanchor_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a>
-in the world's history, that it is impossible to form any conjecture
-how long before this period the Egyptians tried to protect their bodies
-from decay during the probationary 3000 years.<a name="FNanchor_43" id="FNanchor_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration1"></a>
-<img src="images/i_001.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">1. &nbsp; &nbsp; Section of Tomb of Alyattes. From Spiegelthal. No
-scale.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Outside Egypt the oldest tumulus we know of, with an absolutely
-authentic date, is that which Alyattes, the father of Cr&oelig;sus,
-king of Lydia, erected for his own resting-place before the year 561
-<span class="smcap">B.C.</span> It was described by Herodotus,<a name="FNanchor_44" id="FNanchor_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a>
-and has of late years
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
-
-been thoroughly explored by Dr. Olfers.<a name="FNanchor_45" id="FNanchor_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a>
-Its dimensions are very considerable, and very nearly those given by
-the father of history. It is 1180 feet in diameter, or about twice
-as much as Silbury Hill, and 200 feet in height, as against 130 of
-that boasted monument. The upper part, like many of our own mounds,
-is composed of alternate layers of clay, loam, and a kind of rubble
-concrete. These support a mass of brickwork, surmounted by a platform
-of masonry; on this still lies one of Steles, described by Herodotus,
-and another of the smaller ones was found close by.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration2"></a>
-<img src="images/i_002.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">2. &nbsp; &nbsp; Elevation of Tumulus at Tantalais. From Texier's
-'Asie Mineure.' 100 ft. to 1 in.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration3"></a>
-<img src="images/i_003.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">3. &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan and Section of Chamber in Tumulus at Tantalais.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>There is another group of tombs, called those of Tantalais, found near
-Smyrna, which are considerably older than those of Sardis, though their
-date cannot be fixed with such certainty as that last described. Still
-there seems no good reason for doubting that the one here represented
-may be as old as the eleventh or twelfth century <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, nor
-does it seem reasonable to doubt but these tumuli which still stand on
-the plain of Troy do cover the remains of the heroes who perished in
-that remarkable siege.<a name="FNanchor_46" id="FNanchor_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p>
-
-<p>A still more interesting group, however, is that at Mycen&#230;, known
-as the tombs or treasuries of the Atrid&#230;, and described as such by
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
-
-Pausanias.<a name="FNanchor_47" id="FNanchor_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a>
-The principal, or at least the best preserved of these, is a circular
-chamber, 48 feet 6 inches in diameter, covered by a horizontal vault,
-and having a sepulchral chamber on one side. Dodwell discovered three
-others of the five mentioned by Pausanias,<a name="FNanchor_48" id="FNanchor_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a>
-and he also explored the sepulchre of Minyas at Orchomenos, which had a
-diameter of 65 feet.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration4"></a>
-<img src="images/i_004.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">4. &nbsp; &nbsp; Section and Plan of Tomb of Atreus at Mycen&#230;. Scale
-of plan 100 ft. to 1 in.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration5"></a>
-<img src="images/i_005.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">5. &nbsp; &nbsp; View of Cocumella, Vulci.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Another group of tombs, contemporary or nearly so with these, are
-found in the older cemeteries of the Etrurians at C&oelig;re, Vulci, and
-elsewhere. One of the largest of these is one called Cocumella, at
-Vulci, which is 240 feet in diameter, and must originally have been
-115 to 120 feet in height. Near the centre rise two steles, but so
-unsymmetrically that it is impossible to understand why they were
-so placed and how they could have been grouped into anything like a
-complete design. The sepulchre, too, is placed on one side.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>A still richer and more remarkable tomb is that known as the Regulini
-Galeassi Tomb at C&oelig;re, the chamber of which is represented in the
-annexed woodcut.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration6"></a>
-<img src="images/i_006.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">6.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; View of principal Chamber in Regulini Galeassi Tomb.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>It is filled, as may be seen, with vessels and furniture, principally
-of bronze and of the most elaborate workmanship. The patterns on these
-vessels are so archaic, and resemble so much some of the older ones
-found at Nineveh, whose dates are at least approximately known, that we
-may safely refer the tomb to an age not later than the tenth century
-<span class="smcap">B.C.</span><a name="FNanchor_49" id="FNanchor_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p>
-
-<p>We have thus around the eastern shores of the Mediterranean a group of
-circular sepulchral tumuli of well defined age. Some, certainly, are as
-old as the thirteenth century <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, others extend downwards
-to, say 500 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> All have a podium of stone. Some are wholly
-of that material, but in most of them the cone is composed of earth,
-and all have sepulchral chambers built with stones in horizontal
-layers, not so megalithic as those found in our tumuli, but of a more
-polished and artistic form of construction.</p>
-
-<p>The age, too, in which these monuments were erected was essentially
-the age of bronze; not only are the ornaments and furniture found in
-the Etruscan tombs generally of that metal, but the tombs at Mycen&#230;
-and Orchomenos were wholly lined with it. The holes into which the
-bronze nails were inserted still exist everywhere, and some of the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
-
-nails themselves are in the British Museum. It was also the age in
-which Solomon furnished his temple with all those implements and
-ornaments in brass&mdash;properly bronze&mdash;described in the Bible,<a name="FNanchor_50" id="FNanchor_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a>
-and the brazen house of Priam and fifty such expressions show how common
-the metal was in that day. All this, however, does not prove that iron
-also was not known then. In the Egyptian paintings iron is generally
-represented as a blue metal, bronze as red, and throughout they are
-carefully distinguished by these colours. Now, in the tombs around the
-pyramids, and of an age contemporary with them, there are numerous
-representations of blue swords as there are of red spear-heads, and
-there seems no reason for doubting that iron was known to the Greeks
-before the war of Troy, to the Israelites before they left Egypt (1320
-<span class="smcap">B.C.</span>), or to the Etruscans when they first settled in Italy.
-Hesiod's assertion that brass was known before iron may or may not be
-true.<a name="FNanchor_51" id="FNanchor_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a>
-In so far as his evidence is concerned we learn from it that
-iron was certainly in use long before his time (800 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>); so
-long indeed that he does not pretend to know when or by whom it was
-invented, and the modes of manufacturing steel&mdash;&#7936;&#948;&#8049;&#956;&#945;&#963;&mdash;seem also to
-have been perfectly known in his day.</p>
-
-<p>In India, too, as we shall see when we come to speak of that country,
-the extraction of iron from its ores was known from the earliest ages,
-and in the third or fourth century of our era reached a degree of
-perfection which has hardly since been surpassed. The celebrated iron
-pillar at the Kutub, near Delhi, which is of that age, may probably
-still boast of being the largest mass of forged iron that the world yet
-possesses, and attests a wonderful amount of skill on the part of those
-who made it.</p>
-
-<p>When from these comparatively civilized modes of sepulture we turn to
-the forms employed in our own country, as described by Thurnam<a name="FNanchor_52" id="FNanchor_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a>
-or Bateman,<a name="FNanchor_53" id="FNanchor_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a>
-we are startled to find how like they are, but, at the same time, how
-infinitely more rude. They are either long barrows covering the remains
-of a race of dolicocephalic savages laid in rudely-framed cists, with
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
-
-implements of flint and bone and the coarsest possible pottery, but
-without one vestige of metal of any sort, or circular tumuli of a
-brachycephalic race shown to have been slightly more advanced by their
-remains being occasionally incinerated, and ornaments of bronze and
-spear-heads of that metal being also sometimes found buried in their
-tombs.</p>
-
-<p>According to the usual mode of reasoning on these subjects, the
-long-headed people are older than the broad-pated race, the one
-superseding the other, and both must have been anterior to the people
-on the shores of the Mediterranean, for these were familiar with the
-use of both metals, and fabricated pottery which we cannot now equal
-for perfection of texture and beauty of design.</p>
-
-<p>The first defect that strikes one in this argument is that if it proves
-anything it proves too much. We certainly have sepulchral barrows in
-this country of the Roman period, the Bartlow hills, for instance&mdash;of
-which more hereafter&mdash;and Saxon grave mounds everywhere; but according
-to this theory not one sepulchre of any sort between the year 1200
-<span class="smcap">B.C.</span> and the Christian era. All our sepulchres are ruder, and
-betoken a less advanced stage of civilization than the earliest of
-those in Greece or Etruria, and therefore, according to the usually
-accepted dogma, must be earlier.</p>
-
-<p>It may be argued, however, that several are older than the Argive
-examples. That the Jersey tomb (<a href="#Illustration11">woodcut No. 11</a>),
-notwithstanding the
-coin of Claudius, is older, because more rude, than the Treasury at
-Mycen&#230; (<a href="#Illustration4">woodcut No. 4</a>); but that the Bartlow
-hills and the Derbyshire dolmens and tumuli above alluded to
-(<a href="#Page_11">page 11</a> et seq.), containing coins of
-Valentinian and the Roman Emperors, are more modern. Such an
-hypothesis as this involves the supposition that there is a great gap
-in the series, and that after discontinuing the practice for a 1000
-or 1500 years, our forefathers returned to their old habits, but with
-ruder forms than they had used before, and after continuing them for
-five or six centuries, finally abandoned them. This is possible, of
-course, but there is absolutely no proof of it that I know. On the
-contrary, so far as our knowledge of them at present extends, the
-whole of the megalithic rude stone monuments group together as one
-style as essentially as the Classical or Gothic or any other style
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
-
-of architecture. No solution of continuity can be detected anywhere.
-All are&mdash;it may be&mdash;prehistoric; or all, as I believe to be
-the case, belong to historic times. The choice seems to be between
-these two categories; any hypothesis based on the separation into a
-historic and a prehistoric group, distinct in characteristics as in
-age, appears to be utterly untenable.</p>
-
-<p>The argument derived from the absence of iron in all our sepulchres
-also proves more than is desirable. The Danish antiquaries all admit
-that iron was not known in that country before the Christian era. Our
-antiquaries, from the testimony of C&#230;sar as to its use in war by the
-Britons, are forced to admit an earlier date, but it is hardly, if
-ever, found in graves. It is, on the other hand, perhaps correct to
-assume that its use was known in Egypt 3000 years before Christ; even
-if this is disputed, it certainly was known in the 18th dynasty, 15
-centuries <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, and generally in the Mediterranean shortly
-afterwards. If, then, the knowledge of the most useful of metals took
-3000 or even 1500 years to travel across the continent of Europe, it
-seems impossible to base any argument on the influence these people
-exercised on one another, or on the knowledge they may have had of each
-others' ways.</p>
-
-<p>Or to take the argument in a form nearer home. When C&#230;sar warred
-against the Veneti in the Morbihan, he found them in possession of
-vessels larger and stronger than the Roman galleys, capable of being
-man&oelig;uvred by their sails alone, without the use of oars. Not only
-were these vessels fastened by iron nails, but they were moored by
-chain cables of iron. To manufacture such chains, the Veneti must
-have had access to large mines of the ore, and had long familiarity
-with its manufacture, and they used it not only for purposes on shore
-like the Britons, but in vessels capable of trading between Brest and
-Penzance&mdash;no gentle sea&mdash;and quite equal to voyages to the Baltic or
-other northern ports, which they no doubt made; it is asserted that, in
-50 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, the Scandinavians were ignorant of the use of iron,
-though their country possessed the richest mines and the best ores of
-Europe.</p>
-
-<p>The truth of the matter appears to be that, a century or so
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
-
-before Christ, England and Denmark were as little known to Greece and
-Italy, and as little influenced by their arts or civilization, as
-Borneo or New Zealand were by those of modern Europe at the beginning
-of the last century. Even now, with all our colonization and civilizing
-power, we have had marvellously little real influence on the native
-races, and were our power removed, all traces would rapidly disappear,
-and the people revert at once to what they were, and act as they were
-wont to do, before they knew us.</p>
-
-<p>In like manner the North American Indians have been very little
-influenced by the residence of some millions of proselytizing Europeans
-among them for 200 years, and while this is so, it seems most
-groundless to argue because a few Ph&oelig;nician traders may have visited
-this island to purchase tin, that, therefore, they introduced their
-manners and customs among its inhabitants; or because a traveller like
-Pytheas may have visited the Cimbrian Chersonese, or even penetrated
-nearly to the Arctic Circle, that his visit had, or could have, any
-influence on the civilization of these countries.<a name="FNanchor_54" id="FNanchor_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a>
-Civilization, as far as we can see, was only advanced in northern and
-western Europe by the extermination of the ruder races. Had this rude
-but effective method not been resorted to, we should probably have a
-stone-using people among us at the present day.</p>
-
-<p>We may not know much of what happened in northern Europe before the
-time of the Romans, but we feel tolerably safe in asserting that
-none of the civilized nations around the Mediterranean basin ever
-colonized and settled sufficiently long in northern Europe to influence
-perceptibly the manners or usages of the natives. What progress was
-made was effected by migrations among themselves, the more civilized
-tribes taking the place of those less advanced, and bringing their
-higher civilization with them.</p>
-
-<p>If these views are at all correct, it seems hopeless by any
-empirical theories founded on what we believe ought to have happened or
-on any analogies drawn from what occurred in other countries to arrive
-at satisfactory conclusions on the subject. It is at best reasoning
-from the unknown towards what we fancy may be found out. A much more
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
-
-satisfactory process would be to reason from the known backwards so far
-as we have a sure footing, and we may feel certain that by degrees as
-our knowledge advances we shall get further and further forward in the
-true track, and may eventually be able to attach at least approximative
-dates to all our monuments.</p>
-
-<p>From this point of view, what concerns us most, in the first instance
-at least, is to know how late, rather than how early, our ancestors
-buried in tumuli. We have, for instance, certainly, the Bartlow
-Hills, just alluded to, which are sepulchres of the Roman period,
-probably of Hadrian's time; and we have in Denmark the tumuli in which
-King Gorm and his English wife, Queen Thyra Danebode, were buried
-in <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 950. We probably also may be able to fill in a few
-others between these two dates, and add some after even the last.
-Thus, therefore, we have a firm basis from which to start, and working
-backwards from it may clear up some difficulties that now appear
-insuperable.</p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Dolmens.</span></h3>
-
-<p>The monuments alluded to in the last section were either the rude
-barrows of our savage ancestors, with the ruder cists, or the chambered
-tumuli of a people who, when we first became acquainted with them,
-had attained nearly as high a degree of civilization as any Turanian
-people are capable of attaining. The people who erected such buildings
-as the Tombs of Mycen&#230; or Orchomenos must have reached a respectable
-degree of organization. They possessed a perfect knowledge of the use
-of metals, and great wealth in bronze at least, and had attained to
-considerable skill in construction. Yet it is not difficult to trace
-back&mdash;in imagination, at least&mdash;the various steps by which a small rude
-chamber in a circular mound, just capable of protecting a single body,
-may by degrees have grown into a richly-ornamented brazen chamber, 50
-or 60 feet in diameter and of equal height. Nor is it more difficult
-to foresee what this buried chamber would have become, had not the
-Aryan occupation of Greece&mdash;figured under the myth of the return of
-the Heracleid&#230;&mdash;put a stop to the tomb-building propensities of the
-people. Before long it must have burst from its chrysalis state,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>
-
-and assumed a form of external beauty. It must have emerged from its
-earthen envelope, and taken a form which it did take in Africa<a name="FNanchor_55" id="FNanchor_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a>
-a thousand years afterwards,&mdash;a richly-ornamented podium, surmounted by a
-stepped cone and crowned by a stele. In Greece it went no further, and
-its history and its use were alike strange to the people who afterwards
-occupied the country.</p>
-
-<p>In Italy its history was somewhat different. The more mixed people of
-Rome eagerly adopted the funereal magnificence of the Etruscans, and
-their tumuli under the Empire became magnified into such monuments as
-the Tomb of Augustus in the Campus Martius, or the still more gorgeous
-mausoleum of Hadrian, at the foot of the Vatican hill.</p>
-
-<p>In like manner, it would not be difficult by the same process to trace
-the steps by which the rude tep&#233;s of the Tartar steppes bloomed at last
-into the wondrous domes of the Patan and Mogol Emperors of Delhi or
-the other Mahomedan principalities in the East. To do all this would
-form a most interesting chapter in the history of architecture, more
-interesting, perhaps, than the one we are about to attempt; but it is
-not the same, though both spring from the same origin. The people or
-peoples who eventually elaborated these wonderful mausoleums or domed
-structures affected, at the very earliest periods at which we become
-acquainted with them, what may be called Microlithic architecture. In
-other words, they used as small stones as they could use, consistently
-with their constructive necessities. These stones were always squared
-or hewn, and they always sought to attain their ends by construction,
-not by the exhibition of mere force. On the other hand, the people
-whose works now occupy us always affected the employment of the largest
-masses of stone they could find or move. With the rarest possible
-exceptions, they preferred their being untouched by a chisel, and as
-rarely were they ever used in any properly constructive sense. In
-almost every instance it was sought to attain the wished-for end by
-mass and the expression of power. No two styles of architecture can
-well be more different, either in their forms or motives, than these
-two. All that they have in common is that they both spring from the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>
-
-same origin in the chambered tumulus, and both were devoted throughout
-to sepulchral purposes, but in form and essence they diverged at a very
-early period. Long before we become acquainted with either; and, having
-once separated, they only came together again when both were on the
-point of expiring.</p>
-
-<p>The Buddhist Dagobas are another offshoot from the same source, which
-it would be quite as interesting to follow as the tombs of the kings or
-emperors; for our present purposes, perhaps, more so, as they retained
-throughout a religious character, and being consequently freed from the
-ever-varying influence of individual caprice, they bear the impress of
-their origin distinctly marked upon them to the present day.</p>
-
-<p>In India, where Buddhism, as we now know it, first arose, the prevalent
-custom&mdash;at least among the civilized races&mdash;was cremation. We do
-not know when they buried their dead; but in the earliest times of
-Buddhism they adopted at once what was certainly a sepulchral tumulus,
-and converted it into a relic shrine: just as in the early ages of
-Christianity the stone sarcophagus became the altar in the basilica,
-and was made to contain the relics of the saint or saints to whom
-the church was dedicated. The earliest monuments of this class which
-we now know are those erected by the King Asoka, about the year 250
-<span class="smcap">B.C.</span>; but there does not seem much reason for doubting that
-when the body of Buddha was burnt, and his relics distributed among
-eight different places,<a name="FNanchor_56" id="FNanchor_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a>
-Dagobas or Stupas may not then have been erected for their reception.
-None of these have, however, been identified; and of the 84,000
-traditionally said to have been erected by Asoka, that at Sanchi<a name="FNanchor_57" id="FNanchor_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> is the only one we can feel quite sure
-belongs to his age; but, from that date to the present day, in India as
-well as in Ceylon, Burmah, Siam, and elsewhere, examples exist without
-number.</p>
-
-<p>All these are microlithic, evidently the work of a civilized and
-refined people, though probably copies of the rude forms of more
-primitive races. Many of them have stone enclosures; but, like that
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
-
-at Sanchi, erected between 250 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>
-and 1 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, so evidently derived from carpentry
-that we feel it was copied directly, like all the Buddhist architecture
-of that age, from wooden originals. Whether it was from the fashion of
-erecting stone circles round tumuli, or from what other cause, it is
-impossible now to say; but as time went on the form of the rail became
-more and more essentially lithic, and throughout the middle ages the
-Buddhist tope, with its circle or circles of stones, bore much more
-analogy to the megalithic monuments of our own country than did the
-tombs just alluded to; and we are often startled by similarities which,
-however, seem to have no other cause than their having a common parent,
-being, in fact, derived from one prim&#230;val original. There is nothing in
-all this, at all events, that would lead us to the conclusion that the
-polished stone monuments of India were either older or more modern than
-the rude stone structures of the West. Each, in fact, must be judged by
-its own standard, and by that alone.</p>
-
-<p>For the proper understanding of what is to follow the distinctions just
-pointed out should always be borne in mind, as none are more important.
-Half indeed of the confusion that exists on the subject arises from
-their having been hitherto neglected. There is no doubt that occasional
-similarities can be detected between these various styles, but they
-amount to nothing more than should be expected from family likenesses
-consequent upon their having a common origin and analogous purposes.
-But, except to this extent, these styles seem absolutely distinct
-throughout their whole course, though running parallel to one another
-during the whole period in which they are practised. If this is so,
-any hypothesis based on the idea that the microlithic architecture
-either preceded or succeeded to the megalithic at once falls to the
-ground. Nor, if these distinctions are maintained, will it any longer
-be possible to determine any dates in succession in megalithic art from
-analogies drawn from what may have happened at any period or place
-among the builders of microlithic structures. The fact which we have
-got to deal with seems to be that the megalithic rude stone art of our
-forefathers is a thing by itself&mdash;a peculiar form of art arising either
-from its being adopted by a peculiar race or peculiar group of races
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
-
-among mankind, or from its having been practised by people at a certain
-stage of civilization, or under peculiar circumstances, and this it is
-our business to try to find out and define. But to do this, the first
-thing that seems requisite is to put aside all previously conceived
-notions on the subject, and to treat it as one entirely new, and as
-depending for its elucidation wholly on what can be gathered from its
-own form and its own utterances, however indistinct they may at first
-appear to be.</p>
-
-<p>Bearing this in mind, we have no difficulty in beginning our history
-of megalithic remains with the rude stone cists, generally called
-kistvaens, which are found in sepulchral tumuli. Sometimes these
-consist of only four, but generally of six or more stones set edgeways,
-and covered by a cap-stone, so as to protect the body from being
-crushed. By degrees this kistvaen became magnified into a chamber, the
-side stones increasing from 1 or 2 feet in height to 4 or 5 feet, and
-the cap-stone becoming a really megalithic feature 6 or 10 feet long,
-by 4 or 5 feet wide, and also of considerable thickness. Many of these
-contained more than one funeral deposit, and they consequently could
-not have been covered up by the tumuli till the last deposit was placed
-in them. This seems to have been felt as an inconvenience, as it led to
-the third step, namely, of a passage communicating with the outer air,
-and formed like the chambers of upright stones, and roofed by flat ones
-extending across from side to side. The most perfect example of this
-class is perhaps that in the tumulus of Gavr Innis in the Morbihan.
-Here is a gallery 42 feet long and from 4 to 5 feet wide, leading to a
-chamber 8 feet square, the whole being covered with sculptures of the
-most elaborate character.</p>
-
-<p>A fourth stage is well illustrated by the chambers of New Grange, in
-Ireland, where a similar passage leads to a compound or cruciform
-chamber rudely roofed by converging stones. Another beautiful example
-of the same class is that of Maeshow in the Orkneys, which, owing to
-the peculiarity of the stone with which it is built, comes more nearly
-to the character of microlithic art than any other example. It is
-probably among the last if not the very latest of the class erected in
-these isles, and by a curious concatenation of circumstances brings the
-megalithic form of art very nearly up to the stage where we left its
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>
-
-microlithic sister at Mycen&#230; some two thousand years before its time.</p>
-
-<p>All this will be made clearer in the sequel, but meanwhile there are
-one or two points which must be cleared up before we can go further.
-Many antiquaries insist that all the dolmens<a name="FNanchor_58" id="FNanchor_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a>
-or cromlechs,<a name="FNanchor_59" id="FNanchor_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a>
-which we now see standing free, were once covered up and buried in
-tumuli.<a name="FNanchor_60" id="FNanchor_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a>
-That all the earlier ones were so, is more than probable,
-and it may since have been originally intended also to cover up many of
-those which now stand free; but it seems impossible to believe that the
-bulk of those we now see were ever hidden by any earthen covering.</p>
-
-<p>Probably at least one hundred uncovered dolmens in these islands could
-be enumerated, which have not now a trace of any such envelope. Some
-are situated on uncultivated heaths, some on headlands, and most of
-them in waste places. Yet it is contended that improving farmers at
-some remote age not only levelled the mounds, but actually carted
-the whole away and spread it so evenly over the surface that it is
-impossible now to detect its previous existence. If this had taken
-place in this century when land has become so valuable and labour
-so skilled we might not wonder, but no trace of any such operation
-occurs in any living memory. Take for instance Kits Cotty House, it is
-exactly now where it was when Stukeley drew it in 1715,<a name="FNanchor_61" id="FNanchor_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a>
-and there was no tradition then of any mound ever having covered it.
-Yet it is contended that at some earlier age when the site was probably
-only a sheep-walk, some one carried away the mound for some unknown
-purpose, and spread it out so evenly that we cannot now find a trace of
-it. Or take another instance, that at Clatford Bottom,<a name="FNanchor_62" id="FNanchor_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a>
-also drawn by Stukeley. It stands as a chalky flat to which cultivation
-is only now extending, and which certainly was a sheep-walk in Stukeley's time,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
-
-and why, therefore, any one should have taken the trouble or been at
-the expense of denuding it is very difficult to understand, and so
-it is with nine-tenths of the rest of them. In the earlier days when
-a feeling for the seclusion of the tomb was strong, burying them in
-the recesses of a tumulus may have been the universal practice, but
-when men learned to move such masses as they afterwards did, and to
-poise them so delicately in the air, they may well have preferred the
-exhibition of their art to concealing it in a heap which had no beauty
-of form and exhibited no skill. Can any one for instance conceive that
-such a dolmen as that at Castle Wellan in Ireland ever formed a chamber
-in barrow, or that any Irish farmer would ever have made such a level
-sweep of its envelope if it ever had one? So in fact it is with almost
-all we know. When a dolmen was intended to be buried in a tumulus the
-stones supporting the roof were placed as closely to one another as
-possible, so as to form walls and prevent the earth penetrating between
-them and filling the chambers, which was easily accomplished by filling
-in the interstices with small stones as was very generally done. These
-tripod dolmens, however, like that at Castle Wellan, just quoted, never
-had, or could have had walls. The cap-stone is there poised on three
-points, and is a studied exhibition of a <i>tour de force</i>. No traces of
-walls exist, and if earth had been heaped upon it the intervals would
-have been the first part filled, and the roof an absurdity, as no
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>
-
-chamber could have existed. These tripod dolmens are very numerous, and
-well worth distinguishing, as it is probable that they will turn out to
-be more modern than the walled variety of the same class. But with our
-present limited knowledge it is hardly safe to insist on this, however
-probable it seems at first sight.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration7"></a>
-<img src="images/i_007.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">7.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen in Castle Wellan, Ireland. From a drawing by
-Sir Henry James.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration8"></a>
-<img src="images/i_008.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">8.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen de Bousquet. From a drawing by E. Cartailhac.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The question, however, fortunately, hardly requires to be argued,
-inasmuch as in Ireland, in Denmark,<a name="FNanchor_63" id="FNanchor_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a>
-and more especially in France, we have numerous examples of dolmens on
-the top of tumuli, where it is impossible they should ever have been
-covered with earth. One example for the present will explain what is
-meant. In the Dolmen de Bousquet in the Aveyron<a name="FNanchor_64" id="FNanchor_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a>
-the chamber is placed on the top of a tumulus, which from the three
-circles of stone that surround it, and other indications, never could
-have been higher or larger than it now is.</p>
-
-<p>So far as I know, none of these dolmen-crowned tumuli have been dug
-into, which is to be regretted, as it would be curious to know whether
-the external dolmen is the real or only a simulated tomb. My own
-impression would be in favour of the latter hypothesis, inasmuch as a
-true and a false tomb are characteristic of all similar monuments. In
-the pyramids of Egypt they coexisted. In every Buddhist tope, without
-exception, there is a Tee, which is in every case we know only a
-simulated relic-casket. Originally it may have been the place where
-the relic was deposited, and as we know of instances where relics
-were exposed to the crowd on certain festivals, it is difficult to
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>
-
-understand where they were kept, except in some external case like
-this. In every instance, however, in which a relic has been found it
-has been in the centre of the Tope and never in the Tee. A still more
-apposite illustration, however, is found in the tombs around Agra and
-Delhi. In all those of any pretension the body is buried in the earth
-in a vault below the floor of the tomb and a gravestone laid over it,
-but on the floor of the chamber, under the dome, there is always a
-simulated sarcophagus, which is the only one seen by visitors. This
-is carried even further in the tomb of the Great Akbar (1556, 1605).
-Over the vault is raised a pyramid surrounded, not like this tumulus by
-three rows of stones, but by three rows of pavilions, and on the top,
-exposed to the air, is a simulated tomb placed exactly as this dolmen
-is. No two buildings could well seem more different at first sight, but
-their common parentage and purpose can hardly be mistaken, and it must
-be curious to know whether the likeness extends to the double tomb also.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration9"></a>
-<img src="images/i_009.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">9.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Tee cut in the Rock on Dagoba at Ajunta.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>This, like many other questions, must be left to the spade to
-determine, but, unless attention is turned to the analogy above alluded
-to, the purpose of the double tomb may be misunderstood, even when
-found, and frequently, I suspect, has already been mistaken for a
-secondary interment.</p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Circles.</span></h3>
-
-<p>Circles form another group of the monuments we are about to treat of,
-in this country more important than the dolmens to which the last
-section was devoted. In France, however, they are hardly known, though
-in Algeria they are very frequent. In Denmark and Sweden they are both
-numerous and important, but it is in the British Islands that circles
-attained their greatest development, and assumed the importance they
-maintain in all the works of our antiquaries which treat of megalithic
-art.</p>
-
-<p>The cognate examples in the microlithic styles afford us very
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
-
-little assistance in determining either the origin or use of this class
-of monument. It might, nay has been suggested, that the podium which
-surmounts such a tumulus, for instance, that of the Cocumella
-(<a href="#Illustration5">woodcut No. 5</a>) would, if the mound were removed,
-suggest, or be suggested, by the stone circles of our forefathers.
-This podium, however, seems always to have been a purely constructive
-expedient, without any mystic or religious significance, for unless the
-base of an earthen mound is confined by a rev&#234;tement of this sort
-it is apt to spread, and then the whole monument loses that definition
-which is requisite to dignity.</p>
-
-<p>The Rails of the Indian Buddhists at first sight seem to offer a more
-plausible suggestion of origin, but it is one on which it would be
-dangerous in the present state of our knowledge to rely too much; if
-for no other reason, for the one just given, that up to the time of
-Asoka, <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 250, they, like all the architecture of India,
-were in wood and wood only. Stone as a building material, either rude
-or hewn, was unknown in that country till apparently it was suggested
-to them by the Bactrian Greeks. Unless, therefore, we are prepared to
-admit that all our stone circles are subsequent, by a considerable
-interval of time, to the epoch of Asoka, they were not derived from
-India. My own impression is that all may ultimately prove to have been
-erected subsequently to the Christian Era, but till that is established
-we must look elsewhere than to India for our original form, and even
-then we have only got a possible analogy; and nothing approaching to a
-proof that any connexion existed between them.</p>
-
-<p>The process in this country, so far as I can make out, was different,
-though tending to a similar result. The stone circles in Europe appear
-to have been introduced in supercession to the circular earthen mounds
-which surround the early tumuli of our Downs. These earthen enclosures
-still continued to be used, surrounding stone monuments of the latest
-ages, but, if I mistake not, they first gave rise to the form itself.
-Such a circle, for instance, as that called the Nine Ladies on Stanton
-Moor, I take to be a transitional example. The circular mound, which is
-38 feet in diameter, enclosed a sepulchral tumulus, as was, no doubt,
-the case from time immemorial, but, in this instance, was further
-adorned and dignified by the circle of stones erected upon it. A
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
-
-century or so afterwards, when stone had become more recognized as a
-building material, the circular mound may have been disused, and then
-the stone circle would alone remain.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration10"></a>
-<img src="images/i_010.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">10.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Nine Ladies, Stanton Moor. From a drawing by L.
-Jewitt.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>These stone circles are found enclosing tumuli, as in the Dolmen de
-Bousquet (<a href="#Illustration8">woodcut No. 8</a>), in three rows, and sometimes five or seven
-rows are found. They frequently also enclose dolmens, either standing
-on the level plain or on tumuli, but often, especially in this country,
-they are found enclosing nothing that can be seen above ground. This
-has led to the assumption that they are "Things," comitia&mdash;or places
-of assembly&mdash;or, still more commonly, that they are temples, though,
-now that the Druidical theory is nearly abandoned, no one has been able
-to suggest to what religion they are, or were, dedicated. The spade,
-however, is gradually dispelling all these theories. Out of say 200
-stone circles which are found in these islands, at least one-half, on
-being dug out, have yielded sepulchral deposits. One-quarter are still
-untouched by the excavator, and the remainder which have not yielded up
-their secret are mostly the larger circles. Their evidence, however, is
-at best only negative, for, till we know exactly where to dig, it would
-require that the whole area should be trenched over before we can feel
-sure we had not missed the sepulchral deposit. When, as at Avebury,
-the circle encloses an area of 28 acres,<a name="FNanchor_65" id="FNanchor_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a>
-and the greater part of it is occupied by a village, no blind digging
-is likely to lead to any result, or can be accepted as evidence.</p>
-
-<p>Still the argument would be neither illegitimate nor illogical if, in
-the present state of the evidence, it were contended that all stone
-circles, up say to 100 feet diameter, were sepulchral, as nine-tenths
-of them have been proved to be, but that the larger circles were
-cenotaphic, or, if another expression is preferred, temples dedicated
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
-
-to the honour or worship of the dead, but in which no bodies were
-buried. But to admit&mdash;and it cannot now be denied&mdash;that all
-circles up to 100 feet are sepulchral, yet to assert that above that
-dimension they became temples dedicated to the sun, or serpents, or
-demons, or Druids, without any other change of plan or design but
-increased dimensions, appears a wholly untenable proposition.</p>
-
-<p>All this will, it is hoped, be made more clear in the sequel when we
-come to examine particular examples, regarding which it is more easy to
-reason than merely from general principles; but in the meanwhile there
-is one other peculiarity which should be pointed out before proceeding
-further. It is that where great groups of circles are found, they&mdash;so
-far as is at present known&mdash;never mark cemeteries where successive
-generations of kings or chiefs were buried, but battle-fields. The
-circles, or dolmens, or cairns grouped in these localities seem always
-to have been erected by their comrades, to the memory of those who
-on these spots "fiercely fighting, fell," and are monuments as well
-of the prowess of the survivors as of those who were less fortunate.
-The proof of this also must depend on individual examples to be
-brought forward in the following pages. It does not, however, seem to
-present much difficulty, the principal point in the argument being
-that they are generally found in solitary places far removed from the
-centres of population, or are sometimes single and that they show no
-progression. Had they been cemeteries or sepulchres of kings, several
-would undoubtedly have been found grouped together; progression and
-individuality would have been observed; and lastly, they are just such
-monuments as an army could erect in a week or a month, but which the
-inhabitants of the spot could not erect in years, and could not use for
-any conceivable purpose when erected.</p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Avenues.</span></h3>
-
-<p>It is somewhat unfortunate that no recognized name has yet been hit
-upon for this class of monument. Alignment has been suggested, but the
-term is hardly applicable to two rows of stones, for instance, leading
-to a circle. Parallellitha is, at best, a barbarous compound, and as
-such better avoided. Though therefore, the word avenues can hardly be
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
-
-called appropriate to rows of stones leading from nowhere to no place,
-and between which there is no evidence that anybody ever was intended
-to walk, still it seems the least objectionable expression that has yet
-been hit upon, and as such it will be used throughout.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration11"></a>
-<img src="images/i_011.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">11.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Chambered Tumulus, Jersey.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>These avenues are of two classes. First, those leading to circles.
-About the origin of this class there can be very little hesitation.
-They represent externally the passages in tumuli which lead to
-the central chamber; take, for instance, this example from a now
-destroyed<a name="FNanchor_66" id="FNanchor_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a>
-tumulus near St. Helier, in Jersey.<a name="FNanchor_67" id="FNanchor_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a>
-The circular chamber was 24 feet in diameter, and contained originally
-seven little cells, each roofed by a single slab of stone. This
-circular area was approached by an avenue, 17 feet long at the time
-of its destruction, which was roofed throughout the whole length with
-slabs of stone. The central chamber never, however, appears to have
-been vaulted, so that access to the tombs through this passage could
-never have been possible after the mound was finished. The chamber
-was found filled with earth, and the whole monument covered up by a
-tumulus of considerable extent. It need hardly be observed that it is
-more unlikely that any people should cover up such a monument at any
-subsequent age, than that they should dig out such monuments and leave them standing without
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
-
-their envelopes, as is so generally assumed. The tumulus was removed,
-because the officer in command of the neighbouring fort wanted a level
-parade-ground. As it stood uncovered it was a miniature Avebury, and
-the position of its cells may give us a hint where the bodies may be
-found there&mdash;near the outer circle of stones, where they have not
-been looked for. But of this hereafter. It is meanwhile evident that
-while these monuments were in course of erection they stood as shown
-in the last woodcut, and it is also tolerably clear that when people
-became familiar with their aspect in this state, they may have learned
-to regret hiding under a heap of earth what we certainly would have
-thought more interesting as it was. In like manner, as John Stuart well
-remarks, "If the cairns at New Grange were removed, the pillars would
-form another Callernish."<a name="FNanchor_68" id="FNanchor_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a>
-It is true, however, that if the Jersey monument is the type of
-Avebury, the latter must be comparatively modern, as a coin of Claudius,
-found in one of the cells at St. Helier,<a name="FNanchor_69" id="FNanchor_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a>
-probably fixes its date. Again, as we expect to be able to
-prove that New Grange is subsequent to the Christian era, Callernish
-must be more modern also. Be this as it may, I think there can be very
-little doubt that these exposed circles, with their avenues, took their
-rise, as in the case of dolmens, from people becoming familiar with
-their forms before they were covered up, and eventually reconciling
-themselves to dispense with the envelope. In the case of the circles,
-the new plan was capable of infinitely greater extension than in that
-of the dolmens; but the process seems to have been the same in both
-instances.</p>
-
-<p>Before leaving the Jersey circle, if any one will compare it with the
-chamber at Mycen&#230; (<a href="#Illustration4">woodcut No. 4</a>), they can hardly fail to perceive
-the close similarity and probable identity of destination that exists
-between them; but as the island example is very much ruder, according
-to the usual reasoning it must be the more ancient of the two. This,
-however, is the capital fallacy which has pervaded all reasoning on
-the subject hitherto. It is true that nothing can be more interesting
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
-
-or more instructive than to trace the progress of the Classical, the
-Medi&#230;val, and the Indian styles through their ever-changing phases,
-or to watch the influence which one style had on the other. That
-progress was, however, always confined within the limits of a nation,
-or community of nations, and the influence limited to such nations
-as from similarity of race or constant intercourse were in position
-to influence reciprocally not only the architecture, but their arts
-and feelings. In order to establish this in the present instance,
-we must prove that there was such community of race and frequency
-of intercourse between the Channel Islands and Greece 1000 years
-<span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, that the latter would copy the other, or rather that
-2000 years <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> the Channel Islanders gave the Greeks those
-hints which they were enabled to elaborate, and of which the chambers
-at Mycen&#230; about the time of the Trojan war were the result. Had this
-been the case the influence could hardly have ceased as civilization
-and intercourse with other countries increased, and we ought to find
-Tholoi in great perfection in these islands, and probably temples and
-arts in all the perfection to which they were afterwards expanded in
-Greece. In fact, we get into such a labyrinth of conjecture, that no
-escape seems possible. It would be almost as reasonable to argue that
-the images on Easter Island, which we know continued to be carved in
-our day, were prehistoric, because they are so much ruder than the
-works of Phidias. The truth is, that where we cannot trace community
-of race or religion, accompanied by constant and familiar intercourse,
-we must take each people as doing what their state of civilization
-enabled them to accomplish, wholly irrespective of what was doing or
-had been done by any other people in any other part of the world. All
-that it is necessary to assume in this case is, that a dead-revering
-ancestral-worshipping people wished to do honour to the departed, as
-they knew or heard was done by other races of their family of mankind
-elsewhere, and that they did it in the best manner the state of the
-arts among them admitted of&mdash;rudely, if they were in a low state of
-civilization, and more perfectly if they had advanced beyond that stage
-in which rude forms could be tolerated.</p>
-
-<p>It is much more difficult to trace the origin of the avenues which are
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
-
-not attached to circles, and do not lead to any important monuments.
-Nothing that is buried at all resembles them in form, and no erections
-in the corresponding microlithic style, either in the Mediterranean
-countries or in India, afford any hints which would enable us to
-suggest their purpose. We are thus left to guess at their uses solely
-from the evidence which can be gathered from their own form and
-position, and from such traditions as may exist; and these, it seems,
-have not hitherto been deemed sufficient to establish even a plausible
-hypothesis capable of explaining their intention.</p>
-
-<p>Take, for instance, such an example as the parallel lines of stones
-near Merivale Bridge on Dartmoor. They certainly do not form a temple
-in any sense in which that word is understood by any other people or in
-any age with which we are acquainted. They are not procession paths,
-inasmuch as both ends are blocked up; and, though it is true the sides
-are all doors, we cannot conceive any procession moving along their
-narrow gangway, hardly three feet in width. The stones that compose
-the sides are only two and three feet high; so that, even if placed
-side by side, they would not form a barrier, and, being three to six
-feet apart, they are useless except to form an "alignment." There is no
-place for an image, no sanctuary or cell; nothing, in fact, that can be
-connected with any religious ceremonial.</p>
-
-<p>If the inhabitants of the place had really wanted a temple, in any
-sense in which we understand the term, there is a magnificent tor,
-a few hundred yards off to the northward, where Nature has disposed
-some magnificent granite blocks so as to form niches such as human
-hands could with difficulty imitate. All that was wanted was to move
-the smaller blocks, lying loose in front of it, a few yards to the
-right or left, and dispose them in a semicircle or rectangular form,
-and they would have one of the most splendid temples in England in
-which to worship the images which C&#230;sar tells us they possessed.<a name="FNanchor_70" id="FNanchor_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a>
-They, however, did nothing of the kind. They went to a bare piece of
-moorland, where there were no stones, and brought those we find there,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>
-
-and arranged them as shown on the plan; and for what purpose?</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration12"></a>
-<img src="images/i_012.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">12.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; AVENUES, CIRCLES AND CROMLECH, NEAR MERIVALE BRIDGE,
-DARTMOOR.<br />From a drawing by Sir Gardner Wilkinson.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The only answer to the question that occurs to me is that these
-stones are intended to represent an army, or two armies, drawn up in
-battle array; most probably the former, as we can hardly understand
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
-
-the victorious army representing the defeated as so nearly equal to
-themselves. But if we consider them as the first and second line,
-drawn up to defend the village in their rear&mdash;which is an extensive
-settlement&mdash;the whole seems clear and intelligible. The circle in front
-would then represent the grave of a chief; the long stone, 40 yards in
-front, the grave of another of the "menu" people; and the circles and
-cromlech in front of the first line the burying-places of those who
-fell there.</p>
-
-<p>There is another series of avenues at Cas Tor, on the western edge of
-Dartmoor,<a name="FNanchor_71" id="FNanchor_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a>
-some 600 yards in length, which is quite as like a battle
-array as this, but more complex and varied in plan. It bends round the
-brow of the hill, so that neither of the ends can be seen from the
-other, or, indeed, from the centre; and it is as unlike a temple or
-anything premeditated architecturally as this one at Merivale Bridge.
-There are several others on Dartmoor, all of the same character, and
-not one from which it seems possible to extract a religious idea.</p>
-
-<p>When speaking of the great groups of stones in England and France, we
-shall frequently have to return to this idea, though then basing it on
-traditional and other grounds; but, meanwhile, what is there to be said
-against it? It is perhaps not too much to say that in all ages and in
-all countries soldiers have been more numerous than priests, and men
-have been prouder of their prowess in war than of their proficiency in
-faith. They have spent more money for warlike purposes than ever they
-devoted to the service of religion, and their p&#230;ans in honour of their
-heroes have been louder than their hymns in praise of their gods. Yet
-how was a rude, illiterate people, who could neither read nor write,
-to hand down to posterity a record of its victories? A mound, such as
-was erected at Marathon or at Waterloo, is at best a dumb witness. It
-may be a sepulchre, as Silbury Hill was supposed to be; it may be the
-foundation of a caer, or fort, as many of those in England certainly
-were; it may be anything, in short. But a savage might very well
-argue: "When any one sees how and where our men were drawn up when we
-slaughtered our enemies, can he be so stupid as not to perceive that
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
-
-here we stood and fought and conquered, and there our enemies were
-slain or ran?" We, unfortunately, have lost the clue that would tell
-us who "we" and "they" were in the instance of the Dartmoor stones at
-least; but uncultivated men do not take so mean a view of their own
-importance as to fancy this possible.</p>
-
-<p>This theory has at least the merit of accounting for all the facts
-at present known, and of being at variance with none, which is more
-than can be said for any other that has hitherto been proposed. Till,
-therefore, something better is brought forward, it must be allowed
-to stand at least as a basis to reason upon, in order to explain the
-monuments we have to describe in the following pages.</p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Menhirs.</span></h3>
-
-<p>The Menhirs, or tall stones,<a name="FNanchor_72" id="FNanchor_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a>
-form the last of the classes into which we have thought it necessary
-for the present, at least, to divide the remains of which we are
-now treating. They occur in all the megalithic districts, but from
-their very singleness and simplicity, it is almost more difficult
-to ascertain their purpose than it is that of any more complicated
-monuments; nor do the analogies from the cognate microlithic styles
-help us much. The stones mentioned in the early books of the Old
-Testament, though often pressed into the service, were all too small to
-bear any resemblance to those we are now concerned with. Neither Greece
-nor Etruria help us in the matter, and though it is true that the
-Buddhists in India, from Asoka's time downward, were in the habit of
-setting up L&#226;ts or Stambas, it seems with them to have been always, or
-nearly so, for the purpose of bearing inscriptions, which is certainly
-not a distinguishing characteristic of our Menhirs. It is true that we
-have in Scotland two stones. The Cat stone near Edinburgh, bearing the
-name of Vetta, the grandson of Hengist (who probably was slain in battle
-there),<a name="FNanchor_73" id="FNanchor_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a>
-and the Newton stone in Garioch, which is still unread. We have also one in France
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
-
-near Brest,<a name="FNanchor_74" id="FNanchor_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a>
-equally illegible, and no doubt others exist. Perhaps these may be
-considered as early lispings of an infant, which certainly are the
-preludes of perfect speech, and only to be found where that power of
-words must afterwards exist. Here the analogy is, to say the least of
-it, remote.</p>
-
-<p>There also are, especially in Ireland, but also in Wales and in
-Scotland, a great number of stones with Ogham inscriptions. So far as
-these have been made out they seem to be mere head-stones of graves,
-intimating that A, the son of B, lies buried there. A custom, it
-need hardly be observed, that continues to the present day in every
-cemetery in the land. The fact seems to be that so soon as the use of
-stone was suggested and men were sufficiently advanced to be able to
-engrave Oghams, it was at once perceived that a stone pillar with an
-inscription upon it was not only a more durable but a more intelligent
-and intelligible record of a man's life or death than a simple mound
-of "undistinguishable earth." It in consequence rapidly superseded the
-barrow, and has continued in use to the present time, and been adopted
-by both Christians and Mahomedans, by all, in fact, who bury, as
-contradistinguished from those who burn their dead.</p>
-
-<p>In Scotland the story of the stones is slightly different. A great
-many of these are no doubt cat stones or battle memorials, but as they
-have not even Ogham inscriptions, they tell no tale. It is doubtful,
-indeed, if an Ogham inscription could describe a battle, or anything
-more complex than a genealogy, and still more so if it did whether we
-could read it. But without it how can we say what they are? If, for
-instance, the battle of Largs had not been fought in historic times,
-how could we tell that the tall stone that now marks the spot was
-erected in the thirteenth century? Or how, indeed, can we feel sure of
-the history of any one? By degrees, however, in Scotland they faded
-into those wonderful sculptured stones which form so marked and so
-peculiar a feature of Pictland. Whether we shall ever get a key to the
-hieroglyphics with which these stones are covered is by no means clear,
-but even if we do they probably will not tell us much. They certainly
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
-
-contain neither names nor dates, but even now their succession can be
-made out with tolerable distinctness. The probability seems to be that
-the figures on them are tribal marks or symbols of rank, and, as such,
-would convey very little information if capable of being read.</p>
-
-<p>It is easy to trace the perfectly plain obelisk being developed
-into such as the Newton stones, which have only one or two Pagan
-symbols, but are certainly subsequent to the Christian era. From
-these we advance to those on the back of which the Christian cross
-timidly appears, and which certainly date after St. Columba's time
-(<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 563), and from that again to the erection of Sweno's
-stone, near Forres, in the first years of the eleventh century, where
-the cross occupies the whole of the rear, and an elaborate bas-relief
-supersedes the rude symbols in the front.</p>
-
-<p>In Ireland the rude stones do not appear to have gone through the
-"symbol stage," but early to have ripened into the sculptured cross,
-for it was not from a timidly engraved cross as in Scotland that
-they took their origin. The Irish crosses at once boldly adopted the
-cross-arms, surrounded by a glory, with the other characteristics of
-that beautiful and original class of Christian monuments.</p>
-
-<p>In France the menhir was early adopted by the Christians; so early
-that it has generally been assumed that those examples which we see
-surmounted by a cross were pagan monuments, on which at some subsequent
-time Christians have added a cross. This, however, certainly does not
-appear to have been always the case. In such a cross, for instance, as
-that at Lochcrist, the menhir and the cross are one, and made for one
-another, and similar examples occur at Cape St. Matthieu, at Daoulas,
-and in other places in Brittany.<a name="FNanchor_75" id="FNanchor_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a>
-In France the menhir, after being adopted by the Christians, does not
-seem to have passed through the sculptured stage<a name="FNanchor_76" id="FNanchor_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a>
-common to crosses in Scotland and Ireland, but to have bloomed at once
-into the Calvary so frequent in Brittany. Here the cross stands out
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
-
-as a tall tree, and the figures are grouped round its base, but how
-early this form was adopted we have no means of knowing.</p>
-
-<p>In Denmark the modern history of the Bauta stones, as the grave or
-battle stones are there called, is somewhat different. They early
-received a Runic as the Irish received an Ogham inscription, but
-Denmark was converted at so late an age to Christianity (the eleventh
-century) that her menhirs never passed through the early Christian
-stage, but from Pagan monuments sank at once into modern gravestones,
-with prosaic records of the birth and death of the dead man whose
-memory they were erected to preserve.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration13"></a>
-<img src="images/i_013.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">13.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Lochcrist Menhir.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In all these instances we can trace back the history of the menhirs
-from historic Christian times to non-historic regions when these rude
-stone pillars, with or without still ruder inscriptions, were gradually
-superseding the earthen tumuli as a record of the dead. It is as yet
-uncertain whether we can follow back their history with anything like
-certainty beyond the Christian era. This, however, is just the task to
-which antiquaries should address themselves. Instead of reasoning as
-hitherto from the unknown to the known, it would be infinitely more
-philosophical to reason from the known backwards. By proceeding in this
-manner every step we make is a positive gain, and eventually may lead
-us to write with certainty about things that now seem enveloped in mist
-and obscurity.</p>
-
-
-<div class="topspace1"></div>
-<div class="footnotes">
-<blockquote>
-<p class="footnote"><span class="smcap"><b>Footnotes</b></span></p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_42" id="Footnote_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a>
-It is so curious as almost to justify
-Piazzi Smyth's wonderful theories on the
-subject. But there is no reason whatever
-to suppose that the progress of art
-in Egypt differed essentially from that
-elsewhere. The previous examples are
-lost, and that seems all.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_43" id="Footnote_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a>
-Herodotus, ii. 123; and Sir Gardner
-Wilkinson's 'Ancient Egyptians,' second
-series, i. 211; ii. 440 <i>et passim</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_44" id="Footnote_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a>
-Herod, i. 93.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_45" id="Footnote_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a>
-'Lydische K&#246;nigsgr&#228;ber,' Berlin,<br />
-1859.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_46" id="Footnote_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a>
-I am, of course, aware that the now
-fashionable craze is to consider Troy a
-myth. So far, however, as I am capable
-of understanding it, it appears to me
-that the ancient solar myth of Messrs.
-Max M&#252;ller and Cox is very like mere
-modern moonshine.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_47" id="Footnote_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a>
-Paus. ii. ch. 16; 'Dodwell's Pelasgic Remains in Greece and Italy,' pl. 11.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_48" id="Footnote_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a>
-Dodwell, 1. c. p. 13.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_49" id="Footnote_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a>
-More particulars and illustrations of these tombs will be found in the first
-volume of my 'History of Architecture,' and they need not, therefore, be repeated
-here.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_50" id="Footnote_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a>
-1 Kings, vii. 13 <i>et seq.</i>; 2 Chron. iv.
-1 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_51" id="Footnote_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a>
-Hesiod. 'Works and Days,' 1. 150.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_52" id="Footnote_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a>
-'Crania Britannica,' <i>passim</i>. 'Arch&#230;ologia,' xxxviii.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_53" id="Footnote_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a>
-'Vestiges of the Antiquities of Derbyshire,'
-1848. 'Ten Years' Diggings,'
-1861.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_54" id="Footnote_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a>
-See controversy between Sir George
-Cornewall Lewis in his 'Astronomy of
-the Ancients,' p. 467 <i>et seq.</i> and Sir
-John Lubbock, in 'Prehistoric Times,'
-p. 59 <i>et seq.</i> with regard to Pytheas
-and his discoveries.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_55" id="Footnote_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a>
-In the Kubber Roumeia, in the Sahil, or the Madracen, near Blidah.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_56" id="Footnote_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a>
-See Turnour in 'J. A. S. B.' vii. p. 1013.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_57" id="Footnote_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a>
-Cunningham, 'Bilsah Topes,' <i>passim</i>; and 'Tree and Serpent Worship,' by the
-author, p. 87-148.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_58" id="Footnote_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a>
-Dolmen is derived from the Celtic
-word <i>Daul</i>, a table&mdash;not <i>Dol</i>, a hole&mdash;and
-<i>Men</i> or <i>Maen</i>, a stone.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_59" id="Footnote_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a>
-<i>Crom</i>, in Celtic, is crooked or curved,
-and therefore wholly inapplicable to the
-monuments in question; and <i>lech</i>, stone.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_60" id="Footnote_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a>
-The most zealous advocate of this
-view is the Rev. W. C. Lukis, who, with
-his father, has done such good service in
-the Channel Islands. His views are embodied
-in a few very distinct words in the
-Norwich volume of the 'Prehistoric Congress,'
-p. 218, but had previously been
-put forward in a paper read to the Wiltshire
-Arch&#230;ological Society in 1861, and
-afterwards in the 'Kilkenny Journal,'
-v. N. S. p. 492 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_61" id="Footnote_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a>
-'Iter Curiosum,' pl. xxxii. and xxxiii.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_62" id="Footnote_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a>
-'Stonehenge and Avebury,' pl. xxxii.
-xxxiii. and xxxiv.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_63" id="Footnote_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a>
-Madsen, 'Antiquit&#233;s Pr&#233;historiques,' pl. 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_64" id="Footnote_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a>
-Norwich volume of 'Prehistoric Congress,' p. 355, pl. vi.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_65" id="Footnote_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a>
-Sir H. Colt Hoare, 'Ancient Wiltshire,' ii, 71.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_66" id="Footnote_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a>
-The stones of which it was composed were transported by General Conway
-to Park Place, near Henley-on-Thames, and re-erected there.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_67" id="Footnote_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a>
-'Arch&#230;ologia,' viii. p. 384.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_68" id="Footnote_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a>
-'Sculptured Stones of Scotland,' ii. Introd. p. 25.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_69" id="Footnote_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a>
-'Arch&#230;ologia,' viii. p. 385.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_70" id="Footnote_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a>
-Deum maxime Mercurium colunt. Hujus sunt plurima simulacra. 'Bell. Gal.'
-vi. 16.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_71" id="Footnote_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a>
-Sir Gardner Wilkinson in 'Journal, Arch&#230;ological Association,' xvi. p. 112,
-pl. 6 for Cas Tor, and pl. 7 for Merivale Bridge.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_72" id="Footnote_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a>
-From <i>Maen</i>, as before, stone, and <i>hir</i>&mdash;high. Minar is supposed to be the
-same word. It cannot, at least, be traced to any root in any Eastern language.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_73" id="Footnote_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a>
-'Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland,' iv. 119 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_74" id="Footnote_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a>
-'Freminville, Finist&#232;re,' pl. iv. p. 248.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_75" id="Footnote_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a>
-All these, and many others, are
-to be found illustrated in Taylor and
-Nodier's 'Voyage Pittoresque dans l'ancienne
-Bretagne;' but as the plates in that
-work are not numbered they cannot be
-referred to.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_76" id="Footnote_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a>
-I know only one instance of sculptured
-stone in France; it occurs near the
-Chapelle St. Marguerite in Brittany.</p>
-</div>
-
-</blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2 id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<h3>AVEBURY AND STONEHENGE.</h3>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">If</span> there existed any acknowledged facts or accepted data with regard to
-the megalithic remains we are now treating of, the logical method of
-following out the subject would be to describe first their geographical
-distribution, and then their uses and dates. While, however, everything
-concerning them is considered as uncertain&mdash;in fact, as unknown, such
-a mode of treatment, though satisfactory to believers, would fail
-to carry conviction to the minds of those who doubt. It appears,
-therefore, that under the circumstances a preferable mode will be to
-take three or four of the principal and best known British groups,
-and to subject them to a tolerably exhaustive examination. If it is
-possible to dispel the errors that have grown up around them, and to
-fix their uses and dates on anything like a reasonable basis, the
-rest will be easy; but so long as men believe in Druids or Dragons,
-or even think it necessary to relegate these monuments to prehistoric
-antiquity, it is useless to reason regarding them. By the process it
-is proposed to follow, it is hoped at least to be able to dispel these
-mists. Others must judge whether the landscape their dispersion will
-reveal is either real, or pleasing to contemplate.</p>
-
-<p>The first monument we propose selecting for examination is Avebury,
-as the largest, and in some respects the most important of the class
-in this country. Stonehenge might at first sight seem to have equal
-claims to precedence, but it is exceptional. It is the only hewn stone
-monument we possess, the only one where trilithons are found with
-horizontal architraves, and where the outer circle also possesses
-these imposts. It is, in fact, the megalithic monument which exhibits
-the most civilized forms, and to prove its age and use would not
-necessarily prove those of any rude stone monument found elsewhere.
-Avebury, on the contrary, though larger than the others, is constructed
-on precisely the same principle. It has the enclosing vallum, with its
-ditch inside, like Arborlow, Marden, Arthur's round table, at Penrith,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
-
-and others we shall meet with further on, while its circle and avenues
-are identical, as far as we can judge, with numerous examples found
-elsewhere.</p>
-
-<p>Before, however, proceeding to reason about Avebury, the first point
-is to ascertain what the group really consists of, which is a much
-more difficult task than would at first sight appear. Stukeley has
-introduced so many of his own fancies into his description of the
-place, and they have been so implicitly followed by all who have since
-written on the subject, that it is now no easy task to get back to the
-original form.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration14"></a>
-<img src="images/i_014.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">14.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; View of Avebury restored. <i>a.</i> Silbury Hill. <i>b.</i>
-Waden Hill.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The principal monument at Avebury consists of a vallum of earth nearly,
-but not quite, circular in form, with an average diameter of about
-1200 feet. Close on the edge of its internal ditch stood a circle
-apparently originally consisting of about 100 stones, with a distance
-consequently of about 33 feet from centre to centre. Inside this were
-two other double circles, placed not in the axis of the great one,
-but on its north-eastern side. The more northern one was apparently
-350 feet in diameter, the other 325 feet.<a name="FNanchor_77" id="FNanchor_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a>
-In the centre of the northern one stood what is here called a
-cove, apparently consisting of three upright stones supporting a
-cap-stone&mdash;a dolmen, in fact, such as we shall frequently meet
-with in the following pages. In the southern circle there was only one
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
-
-stone obelisk or menhir. These facts we gather from Stukeley and Colt
-Hoare, for all is now so completely ruined and destroyed, that without
-their description no one could now make even an approximate plan of the
-place. The stones that comprise these inner as well as the outer circle
-are all the native Sarsens, which occur everywhere on these downs. In
-some places, such as Clatford Bottom, about a mile from Avebury, they
-lie still in numbers sufficient to erect a dozen Aveburys, and many are
-still to be seen in the Bottoms to the southward, and indeed in every
-place where they have not been utilized by modern civilization. No mark
-of a chisel is to be seen on any of the stones now standing here. For
-their effect they depend wholly on their mass, and that is so great as
-to produce an impression of power and grandeur which few of the more
-elaborate works of men's hands can rival.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration15"></a>
-<img src="images/i_015.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">15.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan of Avebury Circle and Kennet Avenue, from Sir
-R. Colt Hoare.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>From the outer vallum a stone avenue extended in a perfectly straight
-line for about 1430 yards, in a south-easterly direction. The centre
-was apparently drawn from the centre of the great 1200 feet circle,
-not from those of the smaller ones. This is called the Kennet
-Avenue, from its pointing towards the village of that name. I am
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
-
-extremely sceptical with regard to the existence of another, called
-the Beckhampton Avenue, on which Dr. Stukeley lays so much stress.
-Aubrey did not see it, though he saw the Long Stone Cove, the "Devil's
-Quoits," as he called them; and Stukeley is obliged to admit that in
-his day not one stone was standing.<a name="FNanchor_78" id="FNanchor_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a>
-It seems that here, as, indeed, everywhere over this country, a
-number of Sarsen stones were lying about, and his fertile imagination
-manufactured them into the body of a snake. None, however, are shown
-in Sir R. Colt Hoare's survey, and none exist now; and beyond the Cove
-even Stukeley admits that he drew the serpent's tail only because a
-serpent must have a termination of that sort. There were no stones to
-mark its form any more then than now. The first objection that appears
-against admitting the existence of the very hypothetical avenue is,
-that no curved avenue of any sort is known to exist anywhere, or
-attached to any monuments. All the curves of the Kennet avenue are
-the Doctor's own, introduced by him to connect the straight-lined
-avenues which were drawn from the circle at Avebury, and that on
-Hakpen Hill. There are none at Stanton Drew, or other places where
-he audaciously drew them. Near the church there are, or were, two
-stones placed in the opening like that called the Friar's Heel, and
-the prostrate stone at Stonehenge, but these are all that probably
-ever existed of the Beckhampton Avenue. The question is not, however,
-important. As there were two circles inside the Avebury vallum, there
-may have been two avenues. All that is here contended for is, that
-there is no proof of the existence of the second. A dolmen, called the
-Long Stone Cove, existed near where Stukeley draws its sinuous line,
-but there is nothing to show that it ever formed any part of such an
-alignment; and around it there were some standing stones, or rather,
-even in Stukeley's time, stones which apparently had stood, but there
-is nothing to show whether forming part of a circle, or as detached
-menhirs, or as parts of an avenue.</p>
-
-<p>The second member of the Avebury group is the double circle, or rather
-double oval, on Hakpen hill&mdash;Haca's Pen;<a name="FNanchor_79" id="FNanchor_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a>
-this was, according to Stukeley, 138 feet by 155 feet, and had an avenue
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
-
-45 feet wide, as compared with 51 feet which Sir R. C. Hoare gives for those of
-the Kennet avenue of Avebury. The avenue is supposed to have extended
-in a perfectly straight line for above a quarter of a mile, pointing
-directly towards Silbury Hill, which is about one mile and a quarter
-distant.</p>
-
-<p>The third member of the group is the famous Silbury Hill, about a mile
-distant due south from Avebury. That these two last named are of the
-same age, and part of one design, seems scarcely open to doubt; but it
-is quite an open question whether Haca's Pen belongs either to the same
-age or the same design. Its stones were very much smaller, its form
-different, and its avenue pointing towards Silbury looks as if that
-monument existed, and may have long existed before it was built; but of
-this hereafter.</p>
-
-<p>Besides these three there are numerous barrows, both long and round, in
-the neighbourhood, and British forts and villages; but these we propose
-to pass over at present, confining our attention in the first instance
-to the three monuments above enumerated.</p>
-
-<p>The first question that arises on looking at such a structure as
-Avebury, is whether it is a temple at all. It has already been
-attempted in the preceding pages to show what the temples of Britain
-were in the ages immediately succeeding the Roman occupation; but even
-if it is conceded that they were small basilicas, it will be contended
-that this is no answer to the question. If Avebury, it will be said,
-is a temple, it belonged to a mysterious, mythical, prehistoric people
-capable of executing such wonderful works before they came in contact
-with the Romans, but who, strange to say, were incapable of doing
-anything after the civilizing touch of that great people had left them
-feebler, and more ignorant than they were before!</p>
-
-<p>If this question, What is Avebury? is addressed to one&mdash;brought up in
-the Druidical faith as most Englishmen have been&mdash;he at once answers,
-It is a temple of the Druids. If pressed and reminded of the groves
-and the oaks these sectaries delighted in, he will perhaps admit
-that no soil is so little likely to grow oaks as the chalk downs of
-Wiltshire, and that there is no proof that any oaks ever grew in the
-neighbourhood. But this is not a complete answer, for it may be
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
-
-contended that for some reason we cannot comprehend, the Druids may
-have dispensed with trees on this occasion. The real difficulty is, as
-before mentioned, that no stones or stone structures are ever mentioned
-in connection with Druids.</p>
-
-<p>If an educated man whose mind is free from prejudice or pre-conceived
-ideas is asked the question, he runs over in his own mind what he knows
-of the temples of other peoples&mdash;Egypt, Assyria, Greece, Rome, in the
-ancient or the middle ages. They produced nothing of the sort. Persia,
-India, China, or the countries in the Eastern seas are all equally
-unsuggestive; nor will Mexico or Peru help him. The first conclusion,
-therefore, that he inevitably arrives at is, if these were the temples
-of the Britons, they must indeed have been a "Peculiar people," unlike
-any other race that lived at any time in any part of the world.</p>
-
-<p>If they were temples, to what god or gods were they dedicated? It
-could hardly have been Mercury, or Apollo, or Mars, Jove, or Minerva,
-mentioned by C&#230;sar,<a name="FNanchor_80" id="FNanchor_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a>
-as the gods worshipped by the Druids&mdash;and though perhaps these were
-only the nearest synonyms of Roman gods applied to Celtic divinities,
-still there must have been such resemblances as to have justified these
-appellations. We know of what form the temples of these gods were,
-and certainly they were not built after the fashion of the circles at
-Avebury. Some antiquaries have timidly suggested a dedication to the
-Sun. But there is certainly no passage in any author, classical or
-medi&#230;val, which would lead us to suppose that our forefathers were
-addicted to the worship of a deity so unlikely to be a favourite in
-such a climate as ours. But again, what is a sun temple? Does one exist
-anywhere? Had the Wiltshire shepherds attempted it, they probably would
-have found the same difficulty that beset the fire-worshipping Persians
-of old. It is not easy to get the sun into a temple fashioned by human
-hands, and his rays are far more available on high places or on the
-sea-shore than inside walls or enclosures of any sort.</p>
-
-<p>Even putting aside the question to what god it was dedicated, what
-kind of worship could be performed in such a place? It could not be
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
-
-for speaking in. Our largest cathedrals are 600 feet long, and no man
-would attempt from the altar of the lady chapel to address a crowd
-beyond the west door; still less would he in the open air attempt to
-address a crowd in a circle 1200 feet in diameter, and where from the
-nature of the arrangements one half of the audience must be behind him.
-Still less is it fitted for seeing. The floor of the area is perfectly
-flat, and though people talk loosely of the crowd that could stand on
-the vallum, or on the berm, or narrow ledge between the internal ditch
-and the foot of the rampart, they forget that only one row of persons
-could stand on a sharp-pointed mound, and that the berm is on the same
-level as the rest of the floor, and is the last place any one would
-choose, as 100 great stones were put up in front of it as if especially
-designed to obstruct the view. This was, in fact, the case with all the
-stones. Assuming the ceremony or action to take place in the centre
-of either of the two inner circles, the double row of stones which
-surround them is so placed as to obstruct the view in every direction
-to the utmost possible extent. It may be suggested that the priest
-might climb on to the cap-stone of the cove, in the northern circle,
-and there perform his sacrifice in sight of the assembled multitude. It
-would be difficult to conceive any place so ill suited for the purpose;
-and even then, how would he manage on the point of the obelisk in the
-centre of the southern circle? No place, in fact, can be so ill adapted
-for either seeing or hearing as Avebury; and those who erected it would
-have been below the capacity of ordinary idiots if they designed it for
-either purpose. Besides this, it has none of the ordinary adjuncts of a
-temple. There is no sanctuary, no altar, no ark, no procession path, no
-priests' house, nothing that is found more or less prominently forming
-a part of every temple in every part of the world.</p>
-
-<p>Why so hyp&#230;thral? Are we to understand that the climate of the
-Wiltshire downs is so perfect and equable that men can afford to
-dispense with roofs or the ordinary protection against weather? or are
-we to assume that the men who could move these masses of stone and
-raise these mounds were such utter savages that they could not erect an
-enclosed building of any sort?</p>
-
-<p>Egypt possesses the finest and most equable climate in the world;
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
-
-yet all her temples are roofed in a more careful manner and more
-stately than our medi&#230;val cathedrals, and so are all those of India
-and the Eastern climes where shelter is far less wanted than here.
-In all these countries and climes the temples of the gods are the
-dwellings or halls of men, enlarged and improved. What they did well
-for themselves, they did better for their deities. Are men therefore to
-assume that the Wiltshire shepherd slept on the snow in winter, with
-no other protection than a circle of widely spaced stones, and had no
-idea of a roof? Yet, if he were not hardened by some such process, it
-is difficult to see why he should build a temple so exposed to the
-inclemency of the weather that no ceremony could be properly performed
-in it for one half of the days of the year.</p>
-
-<p>Another objection to the temple theory that would strike most people,
-if they would think about it, is the enormous size of Avebury. Its area
-is at least five times that of St. Peter's at Rome; 250,000 people
-could easily be seated within its vallum, and half a million could
-stand. Men generally try to adapt the size of their buildings to the
-amount of accommodation required. But where should such a multitude
-as this come from? How could they be fed? How could they be lodged?
-There is no reason to suppose that in any ancient time before the
-introduction of agriculture, the pastoral population on these downs
-could ever have been greater than, or so great as, that which now
-exists there. When Doomsday Book was compiled, there were only two
-hides of arable land in the manor, and they seem to have belonged to
-the church. A fair inference from which seems to be that, but for the
-superior knowledge and influence of the priesthood, the inhabitants of
-these downs might, in the eleventh century, have remained in the same
-state of pastoral barbarity in which there is every reason to believe
-they were sunk in pagan times. How a few shepherds, sparsely scattered
-over these plains, could have erected or have required such a temple as
-this, is the mystery that requires to be explained. A very small parish
-church now suffices for their spiritual wants; and if 10,000 pilgrims,
-even at the present day, when agriculture has been extended to every
-available patch of ground, visited the place for a week, many of them
-would be starving before it was over.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>It would be easy to adduce fifty other arguments of this sort. Many
-more must indeed occur to any one who will give himself the trouble
-to think of the matter; but to those who are accustomed to such
-investigations the two most convincing probably are, first, that there
-is no evidence whatever of progress in the design of Avebury. It was
-built and finished as first designed. The second is, that in it there
-is a total absence of ornament. In India, we have temples as big as
-Avebury; but their history is written on their faces. The first step in
-the process is generally that a small shrine, with a narrow enclosure
-and small gateway, becomes from some cause or other, sacred or rich,
-and a second enclosure is added to contain halls for the reception of
-pilgrims or the ceremonial display on festal occasions. But no god in
-that pantheon can live alone. New shrines are added for other deities,
-with new halls, new residences for priests, and more accommodation for
-all the thousand and one requisites of a great idol establishment. This
-requires a third or fourth new enclosure, up even to a seventh, as at
-Seringham. But in all this there is progress: 200 or 300 years are
-required, and each century&mdash;sometimes each decade&mdash;leaves its easily
-recognised mark as the work progresses. In like manner, the great
-temple at Karnac, though covering only one-third the area of Avebury,
-took the Egyptians three centuries to build, and every step of its
-progress can be easily traced. The works of the earlier Thotmes differ
-essentially from those of Manepthah and Rameses, and theirs again from
-those of Seshonk; and these again differ essentially from the little
-shrine of Osortasen, which was the germ of the whole.</p>
-
-<p>So it was with all our cathedrals. The small Saxon church was
-superseded by the Norman nave with a small apsidal choir. This was
-enlarged into the Early English presbytery, and beyond this grew
-the lady chapel, and as the ill-built Norman work decayed, it was
-replaced by Tudor constructions. But there is nothing of the sort at
-Avebury. Had the temple been built or begun by the sparse inhabitants
-of these downs, we should have seen something to show where the work
-began. They must have brought one stone one year and another the
-next, and inevitably they would have employed their leisure hours,
-like the inhabitants of Easter Island, in carving these stones either
-with ornaments or symbols, or fashioning them into idols. There is
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
-
-absolutely no instance in the whole world where some evidence of care
-and of a desire after ornament of some sort is not to be traced in
-the temples of the people. Nothing, however, of the sort occurs here.
-Indeed, if there is one thing more evident than another about Avebury,
-it is that, as it was begun, so it was ended. There is no hesitation,
-no sign of change: the same men, to all appearance, who traced its plan
-saw its completion; and as they designed it, so they left it. There is
-no sign of any human hand having touched it from that hour henceforward
-till the sordid greed of modern farmers set to work to destroy it,
-to build with its materials the alehouse and the village which now
-occupies a small portion of the enclosure.</p>
-
-<p>So too with regard to ornament. This structure, we may fairly assume,
-if a temple, must have been in use for some centuries; but during that
-time, or any shorter time that may be assumed, no man had the skill
-or the inclination to adorn the greatest temple of his native land
-either with carving or emblems or ornament of any kind. The men who
-could conceive the great design&mdash;so great and noble&mdash;could do nothing
-more. Their hands drooped in listless idleness by their sides, and they
-were incapable of further exertion! Such a state of affairs, if not
-impossible, is certainly unparalleled. No such example exists anywhere
-else with reference to any temple, so far as we know, in any part of
-the world. Tombs do show these peculiarities at times, temples never.</p>
-
-<p>If these reasons are sufficient to prove that Avebury was not a temple,
-there are more than can be required, to show that it was not a place
-of meeting of ancient Britons. Whatever may be thought of the extent
-of prehistoric assemblies, it will hardly be contended that it was
-necessary to provide accommodation for the 250,000 men who could be
-seated in the great circle. Even supposing it were intended only to
-accommodate 12,000 or 13,000 lords and as many commons in the two
-subordinate rings, they would hardly have arranged an inner circle
-of great stones in the middle of each assembly, or placed a spiked
-obelisk for a woolsack in the one or a tall dolmen under or behind
-the Speaker's chair in the other. Nothing in fact could be conceived
-so utterly unsuited for the purpose as these rings, and unless these
-primeval men were very differently constituted from ourselves, any
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>
-
-assembly of elder-men who were likely to meet at Avebury would have
-preferred a room however rude, and of one-hundredth part of the extent,
-for their deliberations to the unsheltered and unsuitable magnificence
-of the Big Stones. Of course, among all rude people, and often also
-among those more civilized, open-air assemblies of the people will
-take place; but then these will always be near the great centres
-of population. Men will go into the desert for religious purposes,
-but they prefer talking politics nearer home. In some communities a
-Campus Martius or a Thing field may be set apart for the purpose;
-but the first requisite of such a place of assembly is that it shall
-be open and free from encumbrance of any sort. A Mote hill too, like
-the terraced Tynwald Mount in the Isle of Man, is an intelligible
-arrangement, not for a deliberative assembly, but as a rostrum from
-which to proclaim law. We can also understand why Shire courts should
-be held on barrows, as seems often to have been the case. For here
-the judge occupied a dignified position on the summit. His assessors
-stood behind him, and the pleaders and people in front. Instances
-are also known in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries where local
-courts were summoned to meet at the "standing stones," or in circles,
-in Scotland at least;<a name="FNanchor_81" id="FNanchor_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> but in all these instances it was apparently
-to settle territorial disputes on the spot, and the stones or mounds
-were merely indicated as well-known marks and, consequently, convenient
-trysting-places. Even if this were not so, it would not be at all to
-be wondered at that in the middle ages sepulchral circles or mounds
-were habitually used as meeting-places. They were then old enough
-to be venerable; and their antiquity must have conferred on them a
-dignity suitable to the purpose, whatever their original destination
-may have been. But all this is very different from erecting as a place
-of assembly so huge and inconvenient a place as Avebury is, and always
-must have been.</p>
-
-<p>It seems needless to follow this line of argument further, for unless
-it can be shown that the people who erected Avebury were so differently
-constituted from ourselves that no reasoning derived from our
-experience can be applied to them, the answer seems inevitable.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>That no such Temple, nor has any such meeting-place, been built or
-attempted by any set of men in any part of the world. But is there
-any reason for supposing that the inhabitants of these downs differed
-so essentially from ourselves? Dr. Thurnam has examined with care
-some hundreds of skulls gathered from the grave-mounds in this
-neighbourhood, and has published decades on decades of them.<a name="FNanchor_82" id="FNanchor_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a>
-Yet the most learned craniologists cannot detect&mdash;except perhaps in
-degree&mdash;any difference that would lead us to suppose that these ancient
-men were not actuated by the same motives and governed by the same
-moral influences as ourselves. If this is so, Avebury certainly was not
-erected either as a temple or a place of assembly, in any sense of the
-word which we can understand, and those who insist that it was either
-are bound to explain what the motives or objects could have been which
-induced the inhabitants of the Wiltshire downs to act in a manner so
-entirely opposed to all we know of the actions or feelings of all other
-nations in all other parts of the world.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>If, therefore, Avebury was neither a temple nor a place of assembly,
-what was it? The answer does not seem far to seek. It must have been
-a burying-place, but still not a cemetery in the ordinary sense of
-the term. The inhabitants of these downs could never have required a
-bigger and more magnificent burying-place than any other community in
-Great Britain, and must always have been quite unequal to raise such
-a monument. But what is more important than this, a cemetery implies
-succession in time and gradations in rank, and this is exactly what
-is most conspicuously wanting at Avebury. It may be the monument of
-one king or two kings, but it is not a collection of the monuments of
-individuals of various classes in life, or of a series of individuals
-of the same rank, erected at different intervals of time. As before
-remarked, it is in one design&mdash;"totus teres atque rotundus," erected
-with no hesitation and no shadow of change.</p>
-
-<p>If, however, we assume that Avebury was the burying-place of those who
-fell in a great battle fought on the spot, every difficulty seems
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
-
-at once to vanish. It is now admitted that men did bury in stone
-circles or under dolmens, and beside head-stones and within earthen
-enclosures, and what we find here differs only in degree from what we
-find elsewhere. It seems just such a monument as a victorious army of
-say 10,000 men could, with their prisoners, erect in a week. The earth
-is light, and could easily be thrown up into the form of the vallum,
-and the Sarsen stones lay all over the downs, and all on a higher
-level than Avebury, which perhaps for that very reason is placed on
-the lowest spot of ground in the neighbourhood. With a few rollers and
-ropes, 10,000 men would very soon collect all the stones that ever
-stood there, and stick them up on their ends. They probably would have
-no skilled labour in their ranks, and no leisure, if they had, to
-employ it in ornamentation of any sort. Without this, it is just such a
-monument as might and would be raised by an illiterate army wishing to
-bury with honour those who had fallen in the fight, and having at the
-same time no other means of leaving on the spot a record of their own
-victory.</p>
-
-<p>On theoretical grounds, there seems to be no argument that can be urged
-against this view; and during the ten years that it has been constantly
-before the public none have been brought forward that deserve notice.
-It is urged, however, that the evidence is not complete, and that
-nothing written serves to confirm this view. Those who make the
-objection forget that one of the first conditions of the problem is
-that those who erected such a monument should be illiterate. If they
-could have written to any primeval 'Times,' they would not have taken
-such pains to lithograph their victory on the spot. Had they been able
-either to read or write, an inscription would have done more than the
-200 or 300 stones of Avebury; but because they could not write, they
-raised them, and, for that reason also, left us the problem of finding
-out why they did so.</p>
-
-<p>We are not, however, wholly without evidence on this subject. Many
-years ago Mr. Kemble printed a charter of King Athelstan, dated in 939,
-which, describing the boundaries of the manor of Overton, in which
-Avebury is situated, makes use of the following expression:&mdash;"Then by
-Collas barrow, as far as the broad road to Hackpen, thence northward up
-along the Stone row, thence to the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
-
-burying-places."<a name="FNanchor_83" id="FNanchor_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a>
-It does not seem to be a matter of doubt that the stone row here
-mentioned is the Kennet Avenue, nor that the burying-places (byrgelsas)
-are the Avebury rings; but it may be urged that the Saxon surveyor did
-not know what he was talking about; and as, unfortunately, he does
-not say who were buried there, and gives no corroborative evidence,
-all we learn from this is that they were so considered in the tenth
-century.</p>
-
-<p>Something more tangible was nearly obtained shortly before Stukeley's
-time, when Lord Stawell levelled the vallum next the church, where
-the great barn now stands. The original surface of the ground was
-"easily distinguishable by a black stratum of mould on the chalk. Here
-they found large quantities of buck-horns, bones, oyster-shells, and
-wood-coals. An old man who was employed on the work says there was a
-quantity of a cartload of horns, that they were very rotten, and that
-there were very many burned bones among them."<a name="FNanchor_84" id="FNanchor_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a>
-On the same page, Dr. Stukeley adds: "Besides some Roman coins
-accidentally found in and about Abury, I was informed that a square
-bit of iron was taken up under one of the great stones upon pulling it
-down." Other Roman coins have, I understand, been found there since,
-but there is no authentic record of the fact which can be quoted. This
-is to be regretted; for the presence, if ascertained, of these coins
-would go far to prove that the erection of the monument was after their
-date, whatever that may be.</p>
-
-<p>Unfortunately no scientific man saw these bones, so no one was able
-to say whether they were human or not; but the presumption is that
-they were, for why should burned bones of animals be placed in such
-a situation? The answer to this is that the Wiltshire Arch&#230;ological
-Society have made some excavations at Avebury, and found nothing. In
-1865, they tapped the vallum in various places, and dug one trench to
-its centre, and, as they found nothing, concluded that nothing was
-to be found. But in a mound 4442 feet long, according to Sir R. Colt
-Hoare, there must be many vacant spots, especially if the bodies were
-burnt; and such negative evidence cannot be considered as conclusive,
-nor as sufficient to disprove the evidence acquired in Lord Stawell's
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
-
-diggings. Stukeley's honesty in recording facts of this sort is hardly
-to be suspected, though the inferences he draws from his facts are
-generally to be received with the extremest caution. The Society also
-dug in the centre of the northern circle, where the dolmen stood,
-and penetrated to the original chalk, but found nothing except the
-ruins of the stones which had been destroyed by fire, and express
-great disappointment at finding "no human bones whatever."<a name="FNanchor_85" id="FNanchor_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a>
-If the bodies were burnt&mdash;as we should be led to infer from what
-Lord Stawell found under the vallum&mdash;what they probably would have
-found, had the "Cove" been complete, would have been a vase or urn with
-ashes. The barbarians who destroyed the stones are scarcely likely to
-have spared so worthless a piece of crockery; and if it were broken at
-the time, it would be in vain a hundred years afterwards to look either
-for it or for bones that in all probability were never laid there. Nor
-need better results have been expected from their trench, 60 feet long.
-A man must know very exactly what he is looking for, and where to look
-for it, who expects to find an object like an urn, a foot in diameter,
-in a 28-acre field. Judging from the experience obtained at Crichie, in
-Scotland, where a funereal deposit was obtained at the foot of every
-one of a circle of stones that stood inside a ditch like the internal
-one at Avebury, it is there we should expect to find the deposit.<a name="FNanchor_86" id="FNanchor_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a>
-That is just where nobody has thought of looking at Avebury, though
-nothing would be easier. There are fifty or sixty empty holes, and any
-one might without difficulty be enlarged, and if there were a deposit
-at the foot of each, it would then inevitably be found.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>To this we shall return presently. Meanwhile let us see what evidence,
-if any, is to be obtained from the circle on Hakpen Hill.</p>
-
-<p>As before mentioned, this monument consists of two ovals, according to
-Dr. Stukeley the outer one was 138 by 155 feet and the inner 45 by 51
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>
-
-feet. He does not give the dimensions of the stones; but Aubrey calls
-them from 4 to 5 feet in height, which is confirmed by the Doctor's
-engraving; and, altogether, they do not seem to average one-quarter the
-size of those at Avebury. Of the avenue, only four stones are shown in
-the plan woodcut (No. 16), and the same number is shown in the view
-(plate xxi.). In both instances, the avenue is represented as perfectly
-straight, and as trending rather to the southward of Silbury Hill.<a name="FNanchor_87" id="FNanchor_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a>
-It extended, according to Aubrey, a quarter of a mile&mdash;say 440 yards.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration16"></a>
-<img src="images/i_016.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">16.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Circle on Hakpen Hill. From Stukeley.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The most curious circumstance, however, connected with this circle is
-that, at the distance of about 80 yards from the outer oval, there were
-found two rows of skeletons, laid side by side, with their feet towards
-the centre of the circles. In a curious letter, written by a Dr. Toope,
-of Oxford, dated 1st December, 1685, addressed to Mr. Aubrey, and
-published by Sir R. Colt Hoare,<a name="FNanchor_88" id="FNanchor_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a>
-it is said:&mdash;"I quickly perceived them to be human." "Next day
-dugg up many bushells, with which I made a noble medicine. The bones
-are large and nearly rotten, but the teeth extream and wonderfully
-white. About 80 yards from where the bones were found, is a temple
-40 yards diameter, with another 15 yards; round about bones layd so
-close that scul toucheth scul. Their feet all round turned towards the
-temple, 1 foot below the surface of the ground. At the feet of the
-first order lay the head of the next row, the feet always tending towards
-the temple." Further on Aubrey asserts that a
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
-
-ditch surrounded the temple, which Stukeley denies; but there seems no
-difficulty in reconciling the two statements. The destruction of the
-monument had commenced before Aubrey's time. For it is impossible to
-conceive bodies lying for even 1000 or 1200 years in so light a soil,
-at the depth of 1 foot or even 2 feet, exposed to the influence of rain
-and frost, without their being returned to earth. Most probably there
-was a ditch, and where there was a ditch there must have been a mound,
-and that, if heaped over the bodies, might have protected them. The
-vallum had disappeared in Aubrey's time; the ditch was filled up before
-Stukeley's, and stones and all had been smoothed over in Sir R. Colt
-Hoare's; so that now the site can hardly be defined with certainty. A
-trench, however, cut across it, if it can be traced, might lead to some
-curious revelations, for there can be no doubt whatever with regard
-to the facts stated in Dr. Toope's letter. He was a medical man of
-eminence, and knew human bones perfectly, and was too deeply interested
-in the diggings, from which he drew "his noble medicine," and to which
-he frequently returned, to be mistaken in what he stated.</p>
-
-<p>Meanwhile, however, what interests us more at this stage of the
-enquiry are the differences as well as the similarities of the two
-monuments. The circles at Hakpen are on a very much smaller scale both
-as to linear dimensions and the size of the stones than the circles
-at Avebury; and the difference between burning and burying, which, so
-far as the evidence goes, seems to have prevailed in the two places,
-is also remarkable. Do they belong to two different ages, and, if so,
-which is the elder? The evidence of the tumuli is uniform that the
-inhabitants of this island buried before they burnt. But can these
-bones be so old as this would force us to admit they were? So far as
-the evidence at present goes, it seems impossible to carry the burials
-on Hakpen Hill back to the earliest period of prehistoric interments;
-the condition of the bones is sufficient to render such an hypothesis
-untenable. Unless the phosphates and other component adjuncts remained
-in them, they would have been as useless for medicine as for manure,
-and the exposed position in which they lay would have reduced these to
-dust or mud in a very few centuries. From the descriptions we have, the
-bodies certainly were not in the contracted doubled-up position usual
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
-
-in the so-called bronze age, and there were no traces of the cremations
-apparently introduced by the Romans, and practised for some time after
-they left. All appear to have been laid out in the extended position
-afterwards adopted and continued to the present day. In fact everything
-would lead us to suppose that Camden was not far wrong in saying that
-these were the bones of the Saxons and Danes slain at the battle of
-Kennet in <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1006.<a name="FNanchor_89" id="FNanchor_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a>
-Even then, unless there was a mound over them, they could hardly have
-lasted 600 years in the state in which they were found. If we do not
-adopt this view, but insist that Hakpen and Avebury are contemporary
-monuments, and part of one great plan, the only hypothesis that occurs
-to me that will at all account for their peculiarities is that the
-victorious army burnt and buried their dead at Avebury, and that the
-defeated force got permission to bury their dead more modestly on
-Hakpen Hill.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration17"></a>
-<img src="images/i_017.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">17.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Section of Silbury Hill.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Silbury Hill, which forms the third member of our group, is situated
-nearly due south from Avebury, at a distance of 1200 yards from the
-outside of the ring, of the former, to the foot of the hill, or, as
-nearly as may be, one Roman mile from centre to centre. Mr. Rickman<a name="FNanchor_90" id="FNanchor_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a>
-based an argument on the latter fact, as if it proved the post-Roman
-origin of the group; and like the many recurring instances of 100 feet
-and 100 yards, which run through all the megalithic remains, it may
-have some value, but, as a single instance, it can only be looked upon
-as a coincidence.</p>
-
-<p>The dimensions of the hill, as ascertained by the Rev. Mr. Smith, of
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
-
-Yatesbury,<a name="FNanchor_91" id="FNanchor_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a>
-are that it is 130 feet in height, 552 feet in diameter,
-and 1657 feet in circumference; that the flat top is 104 feet or 102
-feet across,<a name="FNanchor_92" id="FNanchor_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a>
-according to the direction in which it is measured; this last being
-another Roman coincidence, as the top has no doubt both sunk and
-spread. The angle of the slope of the sides is 30 degrees to the
-horizon.</p>
-
-<p>In the year 1777 a shaft was sunk from the top of the mound to the
-base, by order of the then Duke of Northumberland and Colonel Drax,
-but no record has been preserved of what they found, or rather did
-not find, for had they made any discovery of the least importance,
-it certainly would have been communicated to some of the learned
-societies of the day. Subsequently, in 1849, a shaft was driven nearly
-horizontally from the southern face on the level of the original soil
-to the centre, where it met the Duke's shaft; and subsequently a
-circular gallery was carried round the centre, but in vain; nothing was
-found in these excavations that would show that the mound had ever been
-used for sepulchral purposes, or that threw any light whatever on its
-history or destination.<a name="FNanchor_93" id="FNanchor_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a></p>
-
-<p>Judging from the analogies gathered from our knowledge of the parallel
-Indian series, we ought not to be surprised if this really were the
-only result. From the accounts of the Chinese travellers who visited
-India in the fifth and seventh centuries, we learn that about one-half
-of the topes they saw and described were erected to commemorate
-events, and not to contain relics, or as simulated tombs. Wherever
-Buddha or any of his followers performed any miracles, or where any
-event happened of sufficient importance to make it desirable that the
-memory of the locality where it happened should be preserved, there
-a Tope was erected. To take an example as bearing more directly than
-usual on our present subject. When Dutthagamini, king of Ceylon (161
-<span class="smcap">B.C.</span>), defeated the usurper Ellala, and restored the true
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
-
-faith, "he erected near the capital a dagoba in commemoration of his
-victory. A stone pillar marks the spot where the action commenced,
-and another stone pillar exists there with an inscription to the
-effect that it marks the spot rendered sacred by the death and blood
-of Ellala."<a name="FNanchor_94" id="FNanchor_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a>
-The dagoba is a simple mound of earth, and, so far as
-known, has never been opened. In Afghanistan, many of the topes opened
-by Messrs. Masson and Honigberger were found to be what they call
-"blind topes," but they were not able to detect by any external sign
-whether their researches were likely to be rewarded with success or to
-end in disappointment.<a name="FNanchor_95" id="FNanchor_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a></p>
-
-<p>Whether these analogies are worth anything or not, nothing appears, at
-first sight at least, more probable than that, if the fallen chiefs
-of a victorious army are buried at Avebury, the survivors should
-have employed their prisoners as slaves to erect a mound on the spot
-probably where the chiefs were slain and the battle decided. The
-tradition, however, having been lost, the mound stands silent and
-uncommunicative, and it is not easy now to read its riddle.</p>
-
-<p>It is very premature, however, to speculate either on these analogies
-or on the negative results of the explorations made into the hill:
-these last were undertaken, like the diggings at Avebury, on the
-empirical assumption that the principal deposit would be found in the
-centre, and at Silbury on the ground level, which is exactly the place
-where almost certainly it was not. Supposing that there is a low-level
-sepulture at Silbury, it probably will be found within 30 or 40 yards
-of the outer face of the mound, on the side looking towards Avebury,
-if it is connected with that monument. But the knowledge we have
-acquired, as will be afterwards detailed, from the examination of the
-Minning Lowe, Arbor Lowe, Rose Hill tumuli, and other monuments of this
-class, would lead us to expect to find the principal deposit near the
-summit. The bit of a bridle (<a href="#Illustration18">woodcut No. 18</a>) and the traces of armour
-which were found in Stukeley's time, near the summit, mark in all
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
-
-probability the position of the principal graves, and nothing would
-surprise me less than if five or six entombments were found arranged
-around the upper plateau at a small depth below the surface. We shall
-be in a better position to judge how far this is probable when we have
-finished this chapter; but till the evidence is adduced, it is useless
-to speculate on its effect.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration18"></a>
-<img src="images/i_018.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">18.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Iron Bit of Bridle. Found in Silbury Hill.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>At one time I hoped that the Roman road might be found to have passed
-under the hill, and if this were the case, it would settle the question
-as to whether it were pre- or post-Roman. In order to ascertain this,
-some excavations were made into the hill in 1867, and simultaneously
-on the high ground to the southward of it. As traces which seemed
-undoubtedly to mark the existence of the road running past the hill,
-at about 50 to 100 yards to the southward, were found there, the
-excavations into the hill were discontinued, and the line of the road
-considered as established. Owing to various mishaps, no plan of these
-discoveries has yet been published, but the annexed woodcut, which is
-traced from the Ordnance Survey sheet, will suffice to explain its
-bearing on the question.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration19"></a>
-<img src="images/i_019.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">19.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan of Avebury, from Ordnance Survey. The line of<br />
-the Roman road is hatched throughout.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Standing on Silbury Hill and looking westward, the road coming from
-Bath over the downs seems to come direct at the hill. After passing the
-Devizes road, it trends to the southward, and shortly again resumes
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
-
-its original direction. About a mile before it reaches the hill, it
-again resumes its southward direction, and passes it at a distance
-of between 50 to 100 yards, making, apparently, for the spot where
-the bridge over the Kennet now exists, and may have existed in Roman
-times. Those who contend for the pre-Roman antiquity of the hill rest
-their case on the assumption that the Romans always made or wished to
-make their roads perfectly straight, and that this being deflected to
-the south, it was in consequence of the hill being there at the time
-the road was made. This, however, is singularly contradicted by the
-line of this very road westwards from the Devizes road. According to
-the Ordnance Survey, it is set out in a curve for 3&frac12; miles till it
-meets the Wandsdyke. Why this was done is not clearer than why the road
-should have been curved to the eastward of the Devizes road. But, on
-the other hand, supposing the hill to have been where it now stands,
-and the Romans wished the road to be straight, nothing in the world was
-so easy as for them to set out a line mathematically straight between
-the Devizes road and the point where it passes the hill. The country
-is and was perfectly open, and quite as flat as any Roman road-maker
-could desire, and signals could have been seen throughout with perfect
-facility. It is crediting the Roman surveyors with a degree of
-stupidity they certainly did not show elsewhere, to say, if they wanted
-a straight road, that seeing the hill before their eyes, they first
-set out their road towards it, when they knew that before they had
-advanced a mile, they must bend it so as to avoid that very obstacle.
-Even then they would have tried to make it as straight as possible,
-and would have adopted the line of the present coach-road, which runs
-inside their line and between it and the hill. At the same time, if
-any one will turn to Sir R. Colt Hoare's map of the Roman roads in
-this district&mdash;"Stations Calne and Swindon"&mdash;which includes Avebury,
-he will find that all are set out in lines more or less curvilinear,
-and sometimes violently so, when any object was to be gained by so
-doing. Though, therefore, as a general rule, it is safe to argue on the
-presumption of the straightness of Roman roads, it may lead to serious
-error to rely on such evidence in every instance.</p>
-
-<p>The inference drawn from the piece of the Roman road further eastward
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
-
-on Hakpen Hill is the same. It is perfectly distinct and quite straight
-for about a mile, but if it had been continued in that line, it would
-have passed the hill at a distance of at least 200 yards to the
-southward, and never have joined the other piece till long after it
-had passed the Devizes road. It was deflected northward in the village
-of Kennet, apparently to reach the bridge, and then to join the piece
-coming from Bath.</p>
-
-<p>The result of all this seems to be, that the evidence of the Roman
-road is inconclusive either way and must be withdrawn. Taking the
-point where it passes the Devizes road, and the piece which is found
-on Hakpen hill as fixed points, to join these it must have passed
-considerably to the southward of the hill; whether it did so in a
-mathematically straight line or in one slightly curved, was a matter
-for the judgment of the surveyor; but till we know his motives, it is
-not in our power to found any argument upon them.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration20"></a>
-<img src="images/i_020.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">20. Elevation of the Bartlow Hills. From the
-'Arch&#230;ologia,' xxx.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>If, however, the Roman road refuses to give evidence in this cause,
-the form of the hill offers some indications which are of value. As
-before mentioned, it is a truncated straight-lined cone, sloping at an
-angle of 30&#176; to the horizon, while all the British barrows known are
-domical or, at least, curvilinear in section. In all his experience,
-Sir R. Colt Hoare met with only one straight-lined monument of this
-class, which consequently he calls the Conical Barrow. Whether it
-was truncated or not is not quite clear. There are bushes, or weeds,
-growing out of the top, which conceal its form.<a name="FNanchor_96" id="FNanchor_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a>
-Nothing was found
-in the barrow to indicate its age except a brass (bronze?) spear-head,
-but it was attached to a British village, apparently of the Roman
-period, inasmuch as iron nails and Roman pottery were found in it.<a name="FNanchor_97" id="FNanchor_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a>
-Be this as it may, there are a range of tumuli at Bartlow, on the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
-
-boundary between Essex and Cambridgeshire, which are all truncated
-cones, and are undoubtedly of Roman origin. A coin of Hadrian was
-found in the chamber of one of them, and Mr. Gage, and the other
-arch&#230;ologists who were present at the opening, were all agreed that all
-the four opened were of about the same age.<a name="FNanchor_98" id="FNanchor_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a>
-We may therefore feel assured that they were not earlier than the
-time of Hadrian, though from the style of workmanship of the various
-articles found, I would feel inclined to consider them somewhat more
-modern, but that is of little consequence. The point that interests
-us most is, that the angle of the Conical Barrow quoted above is 45&#176;
-to the horizon, that of the principal tumuli at Bartlow 37&#189;&#176;, and
-that of Silbury Hill 30&#176;. Here we certainly have a sequence not long
-enough to be quite satisfactory, but still of considerable value, as an
-indication that Silbury hill was post-Roman.</p>
-
-<p>On the other hand, we have undoubted evidence that the truncated
-conical form was common in post-Roman times. We have one, for instance,
-at Marlborough, close by, and if that place was Merlin's bury, as Sir
-R. Colt Hoare would fain persuade us it was, it assists us considerably
-in our argument. Without insisting on this, however, Mr. George Clark,
-in his most valuable paper on Ancient English Castles,<a name="FNanchor_99" id="FNanchor_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a>
-enumerates ninety truncated cones erected in England, he considers, between the
-Roman times and the Norman conquest. "These earthworks," he says,
-"may be thus described: First was cast up a truncated cone of earth,
-standing at its natural slope from 50 feet to 100 feet in diameter at
-the top, and from 20 feet to 50 feet high."<a name="FNanchor_100" id="FNanchor_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a>
-Mr. Clark does not
-believe that these were ever sepulchral, nor does it occur to him that
-they might be memorial. I should, however, be disinclined to accept
-the first conclusion as absolute till excavations had been made into
-some of them, at least, where I fancy we may find indications rather
-tending the other way. Whether they were memorial or not must depend
-on traditions that have not hitherto been looked for. Mr. Clark's
-contention was that all had at some time or other been used for
-residential purposes, and as fortifications, and many are recorded as
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>
-
-having been erected as castles. All this is probably quite correct, but
-the point that interests us here is, that there are nearly one hundred
-examples of truncated cones of earth thrown up in England after the
-Roman times, and not one before. If this is so, the conclusion seems
-inevitable that Silbury Hill must belong to the latter age. Whether
-this conclusion can be sustained or not, must depend on what follows
-from the other monuments we are about to examine. The evidence of the
-monument itself, which is all we have hitherto had an opportunity of
-bringing forward, may be sufficient to render it probable, but not to
-prove the case. Unless other examples can be adduced whose evidence
-tends the same way, the case cannot be taken as proved, however strong
-a <i>prima facie</i> presumption may be established.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration21"></a>
-<img src="images/i_021.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">21.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Marden Circle. From Sir R. C. Hoare. No Scale.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Though a little distant, it may be convenient to include the Marden
-circle in the Avebury group. It is situated in a village of that name
-seven miles south of Silbury Hill. When Sir R. Colt Hoare surveyed it
-fifty years ago, the southern half of the vallum had been so completely
-destroyed, that it could not be traced, and he carried it across the
-brook, making the whole area about fifty-one acres.<a name="FNanchor_101" id="FNanchor_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a>
-My impression is that this is a mistake, and that the area of the
-circle was only about half that extent. The rampart was of about the
-same section as Avebury, and the ditch was inside as there. Within this
-enclosure were two mounds, situated unsymmetrically, like the circles
-at Avebury. The greater one was opened with great difficulty, owing
-to the friable nature of the earth of which it was composed; and Mr.
-Cunnington was convinced that it was sepulchral, and contained one or more burials
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
-
-by cremation; but Sir R. Colt Hoare was so imbued with the Druidical
-theory as to Avebury, that he could not give up the idea that so
-similar a monument must be also a Druidical altar, and the whole a
-temple. The second barrow was too much ruined to yield any results, and
-on revisiting the spot, it was found to have been cleared away. A great
-part of the vallum had also been removed, but in it was found at least
-one skeleton of a man who had been buried there.<a name="FNanchor_102" id="FNanchor_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a>
-How many more there may have been it is impossible to say. The
-destroyers of these antiquities were not likely to boast of the number
-of bodies they had disturbed.</p>
-
-<p>The great interest of this circle is that it contains in earth the
-counterpart of what was found at Avebury in stone; not that this
-necessarily betokens either an earlier or a later age. There are no
-stones to be found at Marden, which is on the edge of the chalk, while
-the country about Avebury was and is covered with Sarsens to this
-day. It may, however, be considered as very positive evidence of the
-sepulchral nature of that monument, if such were needed, and if it
-were thoroughly explored, might perhaps settle the question of the age
-of both. In this respect, the Marden monument affords a better field
-for the explorer than Avebury. The destruction or disfigurement of its
-mound, or vallum, would be no great loss to antiquaries, if a proper
-record were kept of their present appearance; while to do anything
-tending towards the further dilapidation of Avebury is a sacrilege from
-which every one would shrink.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>Before leaving the neighbourhood it now only remains to try and
-determine who the brave men were who were buried at Avebury, and who
-the victors who raised the mound at Silbury, assuming that the one is
-a burying place, and the other a trophy. Some years ago I suggested
-it was those who fell in Arthur's last and greatest battle of Badon
-Hill, fought somewhere in this neighbourhood in the year <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>
-520,<a name="FNanchor_103" id="FNanchor_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> and nothing that has since<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
-occurred has at all shaken my
-conviction in the correctness of this determination,<a name="FNanchor_104" id="FNanchor_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a>
-but a good deal has tended to confirm it.</p>
-
-<p>The authors of the 'Monumenta Britannica' fix the site of this battle
-at Banesdown, near Bath, which is the generally received opinion.<a name="FNanchor_105" id="FNanchor_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a>
-Carte, and others, have suggested Baydon Hill, about thirteen miles
-west by north from Avebury, while Dr. Guest carries it off to Badbury,
-in Dorset,<a name="FNanchor_106" id="FNanchor_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a>
-a distance of forty miles. Unfortunately, Gildas, who
-is our principal authority on this matter, only gives us in three
-words all he has to say of the locality in which it was fought&mdash;"Prope
-Sabrinum Ostium";<a name="FNanchor_107" id="FNanchor_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a>
-and it has been asserted that these words are an interpolation, because
-they are not found in all the ancient MSS. If they are, however, an
-insertion, they are still of very ancient date, and would not have
-been admitted and repeated if they had not been added by some one
-who knew or had authority for introducing them. As the words are
-generally translated, they are taken to mean near the mouth of the
-Severn, a construction at once fatal to the pretensions of Bath, which
-it is impossible any one should describe as near that river, even
-if any one could say where the mouth of that river is. It is most
-difficult to determine where the river ends and the estuary begins,
-and to a medi&#230;val geographer, especially, that point must have
-been much nearer Gloucester than even Bristol. This, however, is of
-little consequence, as the words in the text are not "Sabrin&#230;
-ostium," but "Sabrinum ostium"; and as the river is always spoken of
-as feminine, it is not referred to here, and the expression can only
-be translated as "near the Welsh gate." Nor does it seem difficult to
-determine where the Welsh gate must have been.</p>
-
-<p>The Wandsdyke always seems to have been regarded as a barrier erected
-to stop the incursions of the Welsh into the southern counties, and
-that part of it extending from Savernake forest westward, for ten or
-twelve miles, seems at some comparatively recent period to have been
-raised and strengthened<a name="FNanchor_108" id="FNanchor_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a>
-(either by the Belg&#230; or Saxons) to make
-it more effectual for that purpose. According as an army is advancing
-northward from Winchester, or Chichester to the Severn valley, or is
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
-
-marching from Gloucester or Cirencester towards the south, the rampart
-either protects or bars the way. In its centre, near the head-waters
-of the Kennet, the Saxons advanced in 557 to the siege of Barbury
-Castle, and having gained that vantage ground, they again advanced in
-577 to Deorham, and fought the battle that gave them possession of
-Glewanceaster, Cyrenceaster, and Bathanceaster.<a name="FNanchor_109" id="FNanchor_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a>
-What they then accomplished they seem to have attempted unsuccessfully
-thirty-seven years earlier, and to have been stopped in the attempt
-by Arthur at Badon Hill. If this is so, there can be very little
-difficulty in determining the site of the Welsh gate as that opening
-through which the road now passes 2&frac12; miles south of Silbury Hill,
-in the very centre of the strengthened part of the Wandsdyke. If this
-is so, the Saxons under Cerdic must have passed through the village
-of Avebury, supposing it then existed, on their way to Cirencester;
-and if we assume that they were attacked on Waden hill by Arthur, the
-whole history of the campaign is clear. If we may rely on a nominal
-similarity the case may be considered as proved. Waden is the name by
-which the hill between Avebury and Silbury is called at the present
-day by the people of the country, and it is so called on the Ordnance
-survey sheets, and etymologically Waden is more like Badon than Baydon,
-or Badbury, or any other name in the neighbourhood. The objection
-to this is that Waden Hill is not fortified, and that Gildas speaks
-of the "Obsessio Montis Badonici." It is true there is no trace of
-any earthworks on it now, but in Stukeley's time there were tumuli
-and earthen rings (apparently sepulchral) on its summit, which are
-represented in his plates; but no trace of these now remains. The hill
-was cultivated in his day, and in a century or so beyond his time all
-traces of ramparts may have been obliterated, supposing them to have
-existed. The true explanation of the difficulty, however, I believe to
-be found in Jeffrey of Monmouth's account of these transactions. He
-is a frail reed to rely upon; but occasionally he seems to have had
-access to authorities now lost, and their testimony at times throws
-considerable light on passages of our history otherwise obscure.
-According to him there was both a siege and a battle; and his account
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
-
-of the battle is so circumstantial and so probable, that it is
-difficult to believe it to be a pure invention. If it is not, every
-detail of his description would answer perfectly to an attack on an
-army posted on Waden Hill.<a name="FNanchor_110" id="FNanchor_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a>
-The siege would then probably be that of Barbury Hill, which Cerdic
-would be obliged to raise on Arthur's advance; and retreating towards
-the shelter of the Wandsdyke, he was overtaken at this spot and
-defeated, and so peace was established for many years between the Brits
-and the Saxons. It may be true that the written evidence is not either
-sufficiently detailed or sufficiently precise to establish the fact
-that the battle was fought on this spot. It must, however, be conceded
-that nothing in all that is written contradicts what is here advanced,
-and when to this we add such a burying place, Avebury at one end of
-Waden Hill, and such a monument as Silbury Hill at the other, the
-proofs that it was so seem to me to amount as nearly to certainty as we
-can now expect to arrive at in such matters.</p>
-
-<p>Those who believe, however, that all these monuments are absolutely
-prehistoric, will not, of course, be convinced by any argument derived
-from a single monument; but if it should turn out that even a more
-certain case can be made out for the equally modern age of others, that
-point must eventually be conceded. When it is, I feel no doubt that it
-will come eventually to be acknowledged that those who fell in Arthur's
-twelfth and greatest battle were buried in the ring at Avebury, and
-that those who survived raised these stones and the mound at Silbury
-in the vain hope that they would convey to their latest posterity the
-memory of their prowess.</p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Stonehenge.</span></h3>
-
-<p>Although from its exceptional character Stonehenge is not so valuable
-as some others for evidence of the age or uses of the rest of the
-monuments of this class, it is in some respects even more important
-for our argument, inasmuch as it possesses a more complete medi&#230;val
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
-
-history than almost any other of the series. It must be confessed that
-this history is neither so clear nor so complete as might be wished;
-but, with the other evidence that can be adduced, it makes up a case so
-strong as to leave little to be desired. Before, however, proceeding to
-this, it is necessary to ascertain what Stonehenge really is, or rather
-was, for strange to say, though numberless restorations of it have
-been published, not one is quite satisfactory. There is very little
-discrepancy of opinion with regard to the outer circle or the five
-great central trilithons, but there is the greatest possible variety of
-opinion as to the number and position of the smaller stones inside the
-central or between the two great circles.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration22"></a>
-<img src="images/i_022.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">22.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; General Plan of Stonehenge. From 'Knight's Old
-England.'</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>There seems to be no doubt that the outer stone circle originally
-consisted of thirty square piers, spaced tolerably equally in the
-circle. Though only twenty-six can now be identified, either standing
-or lying in fragments on the ground, it seems equally certain that
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
-
-they were all connected by a continuous stone impost or architrave,
-though only six of these are now in <i>situ</i>.<a name="FNanchor_111" id="FNanchor_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a>
-The diameter of the circle is generally stated to be about 100 feet,
-and as this has been suggested as a reason for its being considered as
-post-Roman, it is important to know what its exact dimensions are. It
-turns out that from the face of one pier to that of the opposite one,
-where both are perpendicular, the distance is 97&#183;6, or exactly 100
-Roman feet. The distance from the outer face of these piers to inside
-of the earthen vallum that surrounds the whole is again 100 feet,
-though that cannot now be ascertained within a foot or two, or even
-more; but as this makes up the 100 yards and the 100 feet which recur
-so often in these monuments, these dimensions can hardly be considered
-accidental, and "valeant quantum" are an indication of their post-Roman
-date.<a name="FNanchor_112" id="FNanchor_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a></p>
-
-<p>Inside these outer circles stand the five great trilithons. Since the
-publication of Sir R. Colt Hoare's plan, their position and plan may
-be considered as settled. According to him, the height of the outer
-pair is 16&#183;3, of the intermediate pair 17&#183;2, and of the great central
-trilithon as it now stands 21&#183;6. In their simple grandeur they are
-perhaps the most effective example of megalithic art that ever was
-executed by man. The Egyptians and Romans raised larger stones, but
-they destroyed their grandeur by ornament, or by their accompaniments;
-but these simple square masses on Salisbury plain are still unrivalled
-for magnificence in their own peculiar style.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>All the stones in these two great groups are Sarsens, as they are
-locally called, a peculiar class of silicious sandstone that is found
-as a local deposit in the bottoms of the valleys between Salisbury and
-Swindon. It is the same stone as is used at Avebury, the difference
-being that there the stones are used rough in their natural state,
-here they are hewn and fitted with very considerable nicety. Each of
-the uprights has a tenon on its surface, and the undersides of the
-architrave, or horizontal piece, have each a mortice, or rather two
-mortices, into which these tenons fit with considerable exactness.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration23"></a>
-<img src="images/i_023.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">23.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Stonehenge as at present existing, from Mr.
-Hawkshaw's plan.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Besides these there are even now eleven stones, some standing, others
-thrown down, but still existing, within the inner circle. These are
-of a different nature, being all cut from igneous rocks, such as are
-not to be found nearer than Cornwall or even Ireland. It has not been
-exactly ascertained whence they came; indeed, they seem to be of
-various kinds, and consequently must have been brought from different
-places. Locally they are called Blue stones, and it may be well to
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
-
-adopt that short title for the present, as involving no theory, and as
-sufficing to distinguish them from the local Sarsens.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration24"></a>
-<img src="images/i_024.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">24.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan of Stonehenge restored.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>None of the blue stones are large; one of the finest (23 in Sir R. Colt
-Hoare's plan) is 7 feet 6 inches high, 2 feet 3 inches wide at base,
-tapering to 1 foot on top. The others are generally smaller. One blue
-stone opposite 23 is grooved with a channel from top to bottom, though
-for what purpose it is not easy to guess. On the most cursory glance,
-it is evident that these stones generally stood in pairs, about 3 feet
-apart; but some are so completely overthrown and displaced, that it
-is not quite clear whether this can be predicated of all. Entering
-the choir on the left hand we find one that seems to stand alone. But
-we may infer that this was not always so, from the circumstance that
-there lies close by it an impost stone with two mortice holes in it,
-only 3 feet 6 inches apart, which must have belonged to a smaller order
-of trilithons, and is just such as would fit a pair of blue stones.
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
-
-The next pair on the left is very distinct, and stands between the two
-great trilithons. The next pair is also similarly situated. On the
-opposite side there are two pairs, but situated, as far as can be made
-out, in front of, and not between the trilithons; and again, there
-are two blue stones behind the stone called the Altar stone, but so
-displaced by the fall of the great trilithon behind them, that it is
-impossible to make out their original position with certainty.</p>
-
-<p>It will probably be impossible to determine whether all the pairs of
-the stones were miniature trilithons or not, till we are able to turn
-over all the stones that now strew the ground, and see if there is a
-second stone with two mortices 3 or 4 feet apart. In the meanwhile
-there is a passage in Henry of Huntingdon's work which may throw some
-light on the subject. He describes "Lapides mir&#230; magnitudinis in modum
-portarum elevati sunt, ita ut port&#230; portis superposit&#230; videantur."<a name="FNanchor_113" id="FNanchor_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a>
-With a very little latitude of translation, this might be taken as
-referring to the great trilithons towering over the smaller; but
-if we are to adhere to the literal meaning of the words, this is
-inadmissible. Another explanation has therefore been suggested. The
-impost stone of the great trilithon has apparently mortice holes on
-both sides. If those on one side are not mere wearings of the weather,
-this must indicate that something stood upon it. If we assume two
-cubical blocks, and raise on them the stone now called the Altar stone,
-which is of the exact dimensions required, we would have an arrangement
-very similar to that of the Sanchi gateway,<a name="FNanchor_114" id="FNanchor_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a>
-a cast of which is now exhibiting at South Kensington, and which would
-fully justify Huntingdon's words. If it is objected that it is a long
-way to go to Sanchi to look for a type, it may be answered that the
-Imperial coins of Cyprus show a very similar construction, and both
-may be derived from a common centre. On the whole, however, I am
-inclined to the first explanation. There certainly were large and small
-trilithons, and too great accuracy of description is not to be expected
-from a Latin writer in the middle ages.</p>
-
-<p>A good deal of astonishment has been expressed at the labour it must
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
-
-have required to transport these blue stones from Cornwall or Wales
-and to set them up here. If we refer them to the pre-Roman times of
-our naked blue painted ancestors, the difficulties are, of course,
-considerable. But after Roman times, the class of vessels they were in
-the habit of building in these islands must have made their transport
-by sea easy, even if they came from Ireland, as I believe they did. And
-any one who has seen with what facility Chinese coolies carry about
-monolithic pillars 10 feet and 12 feet long, and thick in proportion,
-will not wonder that twenty or thirty men should transport these from
-the head of Southampton water to Stonehenge.<a name="FNanchor_115" id="FNanchor_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a>
-With the works the Romans left, and the modicum of civilization the
-natives could not fail to have imbibed from them, the whole was simple,
-and must have been easy.</p>
-
-<p>Still more wonder has been expressed at the mass of the stones
-composing the great trilithons themselves, and speculations have been
-rife as to how our forefathers could, without machinery, drag these
-masses to the spot, and erect them as they now stand. A good deal of
-this wonder has been removed, since it was understood that the Sarsens
-of which they are composed are a natural deposit, found on the surface
-on all the bottoms in the Wiltshire downs. Owing to the progress of
-civilization, they have disappeared about Salisbury, but they are still
-to be seen in hundreds in Clatford bottom, and all about Avebury, and
-in the northern portion of the downs. The distance, therefore, that
-the stones of Stonehenge had to be dragged was probably very small;
-and over a hard, even surface of chalk down, with a few rollers and
-ropes, must have been a task of no great difficulty. Nor would the
-process of blocking them up with a temporary mound composed of wood
-and chalk be one that would frighten a rude people with whom time was
-no object. After all, Stonehenge is only child's play as compared
-with the monolithic masses the Egyptians quarried, and carved, and
-moved all over their country, long before Stonehenge was thought of,
-and without machinery in the sense in which we understand the term.
-In India, our grandfathers might have seen far more wonderful things
-done before we crushed all feeling and enterprise out of the people.
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
-
-The great gateway, for instance, at Seringham is 40 feet high, 21 feet
-wide, and 100 feet deep. The four door posts are each of a single block
-of granite, more, consequently, than 40 feet in length, for they are
-partially buried in the earth. The whole is roofed by slabs of granite,
-each more than 21 feet long, and raised to the height of 40 feet;
-and all of these, though of granite, are elaborately carved. Yet the
-building of the gateway was stopped by our quarrel with the French for
-the possession of Trichinopoly in the middle of the last century. The
-Indians in those days had no machinery, but with plenty of hands and
-plenty of leisure mountains may be raised; and it is on this principle
-that barbarous nations act and by which they achieve such wonders. The
-masses of Stonehenge are not, however, so very great after all, but
-they impose by their simplicity. To use an apparent paradox, it is one
-of the most artistic buildings in the world from its very want of art.
-The 40 feet monoliths of Seringham do not impress as much as the 20
-feet stones of Stonehenge, because the one is covered with sculpture,
-the other more nearly in a state of nature, and the effect on the mind
-is immensely enhanced by the monolithic simplicity of the whole.</p>
-
-<p>Strange to say, this very grandeur and apparent difficulty is one of
-the most common reasons adduced for its pre-Roman antiquity. Few can
-escape from an ill-defined impression that what is great and difficult
-must also be ancient, though the probability is, that if the feeling
-were analyzed it would be found to have arisen from the learning we
-imbibed in the nursery, and which told us of the giants that lived in
-the olden time. If, however, we turn from the teachings of nursery
-rhymes to the pages of sober history, what we learn is something very
-different. Without laying too much stress on the nakedness and blue
-paint of our ancestors, all history, and the testimony of the barrows,
-would lead us to suppose that the inhabitants of this island, before
-the Romans occupied it, were sparse, poor in <i>physique</i>, and in a very
-low state of civilization. Though their national spirit may have been
-knocked out of them, they must have increased in number, in physical
-comfort, and in civilization during the four centuries of peaceful
-prosperity of the Roman domination, and therefore in so far as that
-argument goes, became infinitely more capable of erecting such a
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
-
-monument as Stonehenge after the departure of the Romans than they had
-been before their advent.</p>
-
-<p>It certainly appears one of the strangest inversions of logic to assume
-that the same people erected Stonehenge who, during the hundreds, or
-it may be the thousands, of years of their occupation, could attempt
-nothing greater than the wretched mole-hills of barrows which they
-scraped up all over the Wiltshire downs. Not one of those has even a
-circle of stone round its base; nowhere is there a battle stone or a
-stone monument of any sort. Though the downs must have been covered
-with Sarsens, they had neither sense nor enterprise sufficient even to
-set one of those stones on end. Yet we are asked to believe that the
-same people, in the same state, erected Stonehenge and Avebury, and
-heaped up Silbury Hill. These monuments may be the expression of the
-feelings of the same race; but if I am not very much mistaken, in a
-very different and much more advanced state of civilization.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>We shall be in a better position to answer a question which has
-frequently been raised, whether or not the blue stones were a part
-of the original structure, or were added afterwards, when we have
-discussed the materials for the history of its erection; meanwhile
-we may pass from these, which are the really interesting part of the
-structure, to the circle which is generally supposed to have existed
-between the outer circle of Sarsens and the inner choir of great stones.</p>
-
-<p>With regard to this nothing is certain, except in respect to eight
-stones, which stretched across the entrance of the choir, and may
-consequently be called the choir screen. Of the four on the right hand
-side only one has fallen, but it is still there; on the left hand only
-two remain, and only one is standing, but the design is perfectly
-clear. The two central stones are 6 feet high, and the stones fall off
-by regular gradation right and left to 3 feet at the extremities. They
-are rude unhewn Sarsen stones, but there is nothing to indicate whether
-they were, or were not, a part of the original design.</p>
-
-<p>Beyond this, between the two great Sarsen circles, there exist some
-nine or ten stones, but whether they are in <i>situ</i> or not, or whether
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
-
-they were ever more numerous, it seems impossible to determine. On
-the left hand, near the centre, are a pair that may have been a
-trilithon, but the rest are scattered so unsymmetrically that it
-would be dangerous to hazard any conjecture with regard to their
-original arrangement. It seems, however, most improbable that while
-the choir screen is so nearly entire even now, that this circle, if it
-ever existed, should have been so completely destroyed. Had it been
-complete, it would probably have consisted of 40 stones (excluding, of
-course, the choir screen), and of these only 10, if so many, can be
-said to belong to it. These are rude unhewn stones, and of no great
-dimensions.</p>
-
-<p>In addition to these, there are two stones now overthrown lying inside
-the vallum, unsymmetrically with one another, or with anything else.
-Here again the question arises, were there more? There is nothing on
-the spot to guide us to our answer, and as nothing hinges upon it, I
-may perhaps be allowed to suggest that each of these marks a secondary
-interment. At the foot of each, I fancy urns or bones, or some evidence
-of a burial might be found, and if the place had continued for a
-century as a burying place, it might have been surrounded by its circle
-of stones, like Avebury, or Crichie, or Stanton moor. The place,
-however, may have become deserted shortly after these two were erected,
-and none have been added since.</p>
-
-<p>There are still two other stones, one standing, one lying in the short
-avenue that leads up to the temple. Their position is exactly that
-of the two stones, which are all that is visible of the so-called
-Beckhampton avenue, at Avebury. But what their use is it is difficult
-to guess. Were either of the places temples, they would have been
-placed opposite one another on each side of the avenue, so that the
-priests in procession and people might pass between, but being placed
-one behind the other in the centre of the roadway, they must have had
-some other meaning. What that may have been I am unable to suggest. The
-spade may tell us if judiciously applied, but except from the spade I
-do not know where to look for a solution of the riddle.</p>
-
-<p>Those who consider that Stonehenge was a temple have certainly much
-better grounds for such a theory than it would be possible to establish
-in respect to Avebury. Indeed, looking at the ground plan above, there
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
-
-is something singularly templar in its arrangement. In the centre is
-a choir, in which a dignified service could be performed, and a stone
-lies now just in such a position as to entitle it to the appellation it
-generally receives of the altar stone. Unfortunately for this theory,
-however, it lies flush with the ground, and even if we assume that
-the surface has been raised round it, its thickness is not sufficient
-to entitle it to be so called, judging from any analogous example we
-know of elsewhere. Around the choir is what may fairly be considered
-the procession path; and if its walls had only been solid, and there
-were any indications that the building had ever been roofed, it would
-be difficult to prove that it was not erected as a temple, and for
-worship. As, however, it has no walls, and it is impossible to believe
-that it was ever intended to be roofed, all the arguments that apply to
-Avebury in this respect are equally applicable here, with this one in
-addition. Unless its builders were much more pachydermatous, or woolly,
-than their degenerate descendants, when they chose this very drafty and
-hyp&#230;thral style of architecture, they would certainly have selected a
-sheltered spot on the banks of the Avon close by, where, with trees
-and other devices, they might have provided some shelter from the
-inclemency of the weather. They never would have erected their temples
-on the highest and most exposed part of an open chalk down, where no
-shelter was possible, and no service could be performed except at
-irregular intervals, dependent on the weather throughout the year. As,
-however, it differs not only in plan but in construction&mdash;being hewn
-and having imposts&mdash;from all the rude stone circles we are acquainted
-with elsewhere, no theory will be quite satisfactory that does not
-account for this difference. My belief is, that this difference arises
-from the fact that alone of all the monuments we know of its class,
-it was erected leisurely and in time of peace by a prince retaining a
-considerable admixture of Roman blood in his veins. All, or most of the
-others, seem to be records of battles erected in haste by soldiers and
-unskilled workmen: but of this hereafter.</p>
-
-<p>Owing to its exceptional character, the usual analogies apply less
-directly to Stonehenge than to almost any other monument.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration25"></a>
-<img src="images/i_025.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">25.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Tomb of Isidorus, at Khatoura.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>We shall be better able to judge how far those derived from India
-apply, when we have described the monuments of that country. In Europe
-the trilithon is certainly exceptional, and its origin not easily
-traced. My own impression is, that it is only an improved dolmen,
-standing on two legs instead of three, or four; but if that is so,
-the intermediate steps are wanting which would enable us to connect
-the two in a logical manner. They were not, however, quite unknown in
-the Roman world. Several exist in Syria, for instance; three of these
-are engraved in De Vog&#252;&#233;'s work. One (the tomb of Emilius Reginus,
-<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 195) consists of two Doric columns, with an impost;
-another (<a href="#Illustration25">woodcut No. 25</a>) is the tomb of a certain Isidorus, and is
-dated <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 222, and is more like our Salisbury example; both
-these last-named are situated near Khatoura.<a name="FNanchor_116" id="FNanchor_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a>
-The bearing of such an example as this on the question of the age
-of these monuments admits of a double interpretation. According to
-the usual and specious mode of reasoning, the ruder form must be the
-earliest, and the architectural one copied from it. But this theory I
-believe to be entirely at variance with the facts, as observed. The
-rudeness or elaboration of a monument will probably be found in all
-instances to be an index of the greater or less civilization of the
-people who erected it, but seldom or ever a trustworthy index of time.
-What interests us more at present
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
-
-is the knowledge that these Syrian examples are certainly sepulchral,
-and their form is thus another argument in favour of the sepulchral
-character of Stonehenge, if any were needed. More satisfactory than
-this, however, is the testimony of Olaus Magnus, archbishop of Upsala,
-quoted above.<a name="FNanchor_117" id="FNanchor_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a>
-He describes and figures "the most honourable monuments of the great of
-his country as erected with immense stones, and formed like great gates
-or trilithons" (in modum altissim&#230; et latissim&#230; janu&#230;
-sursum transversumque viribus gigantum erecta). There is no reason for
-supposing that this author ever saw or even heard of Stonehenge, yet
-it would be difficult to describe either the purpose or the mode of
-construction of that monument more correctly than he does; and in so
-far as such testimony is considered valuable, it is decisive as to both
-the age and use of the monument.</p>
-
-<p>Passing on from this branch of the enquiry to such local indications
-as the spot affords, we find nothing very relevant or very important
-either for or against our hypothesis. It has been argued, for instance,
-that the number of tumuli that stud the downs within a few miles of
-Stonehenge, is a proof that this temple stood there before the barrows
-were erected, and that they gathered round its sacred precincts. The
-first objection to this view is, that it is applying a Christian
-precedent to a Pagan people. Except the Jews, who seem to have buried
-their kings close to their temples,<a name="FNanchor_118" id="FNanchor_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a>
-I do not know of any people in ancient or modern times except
-Christians who did so, and we certainly have no hint that the ancient
-Britons were an exception to this universal rule.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration26"></a>
-<img src="images/i_026.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">26.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Country around Stonehenge. From Ordnance Survey
-maps. Scale 1 inch to 1 mile.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Assuming, however, for the sake of argument, that this were otherwise,
-we should then certainly find the barrows arranged with some reference
-to Stonehenge. Either they would have gathered closely around its
-precincts, or ranged in rows alongside the roads or avenues leading
-to it. Nothing of the sort, however, occurs, as will be seen from the
-woodcut in the following page. Within 700 yards of the monument there
-is only one very insignificant group, eight in number (15 to 23 of Sir
-R. Colt Hoare's plan). Beyond that they become frequent, crowning the
-tops of the hills, or clustering in the hollows, but nowhere with the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>
-
-least apparent reference to Stonehenge. If any one will take the
-Ordnance Survey maps, or Sir R. Colt Hoare's plans, he will find the
-barrows pretty evenly sown all over the surface of the plain, from
-two or three miles south of Stonehenge as far as Chidbury camp, eight
-miles north of it. Indeed, if Sir R. Colt Hoare's plans are to be
-trusted, they were thicker at the northern end of the plain than at
-the southern;<a name="FNanchor_119" id="FNanchor_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a>
-but as the Ordnance maps do not bear this out, it must not be relied
-upon. Nowhere over this large area (say 10 miles by 5 miles) is there
-any trace of system as to the mode of placing these barrows. Indeed,
-from Dorchester up to Swindon, over a distance of more than seventy
-miles, they are scattered either singly or in groups so completely
-without order, that the only feasible explanation seems to be, that
-each man was buried where he lived; it may possibly have been in his
-own garden, but more probably in his own house. The hut circles of
-British villages are in grouping and in form so like the barrows, that
-it is difficult not to suspect some connexion between them. It may have
-been that when the head of a family died, he was buried on his own
-hearth, and an earthen mound replaced the hut in which he lived. Be
-this as it may, there is one argument that those overlook who contend
-that the barrows came to Stonehenge. It is admitted that Stonehenge
-belongs to the so-called Bronze age,<a name="FNanchor_120" id="FNanchor_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a>
-but one half of the barrows
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
-
-contain only flint and stone, and consequently were there before
-Stonehenge was built. Nor is it by any means the case that the nearest
-it were those which contained bronze or iron, it is generally quite the
-contrary; with all his knowledge, even Sir R. Colt Hoare never could
-venture to predict from the locality whether the interment would be
-found to belong to one class or to another, nor can we now.</p>
-
-<p>One of the most direct proofs that this argument is untenable is found
-in the fact, that the builders of Stonehenge had so little respect for
-the graves of their predecessors, that they actually destroyed two
-barrows in making the vallum round the monument. Sir R. C. Hoare found
-an interment in one, and from this he adds, "we may fairly infer that
-this sepulchral barrow existed on the plain, I will not venture to say
-before the construction of Stonehenge, but probably before the ditch
-was thrown up."<a name="FNanchor_121" id="FNanchor_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a></p>
-
-<p>It seems needless, however, to pursue the argument further. Any one who
-studies carefully the Ordnance Survey sheet must, I think, perceive
-that there is no connexion between the earthen and the stone monuments.
-Or if this fail to convince him, if he will ride from Stonehenge over
-Westdown to Chidbury camp,<a name="FNanchor_122" id="FNanchor_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a>
-he can hardly fail to come to the conclusion that Stonehenge came to
-the barrows, not the barrows to Stonehenge.</p>
-
-<p>One other indication drawn from the barrows has been thought to throw
-some light on the subject. In one of those (No. 16) near Stonehenge,
-about 300 yards off, were found chippings of the same blue stones
-which form the inner circle of the monuments; but there was nothing
-else in this barrow to indicate its age except a spear-head of brass
-in fine preservation, and a pin of the same metal, which seemed to
-indicate that it belonged to the bronze age. In another (No. 22)
-a pair of ivory tweezers were found. From this discovery it was
-inferred, and not without some show of reason, that the barrows were
-more modern than Stonehenge; and if we are to believe that all barrows
-are pre-Christian, as some would try to persuade us, there is an end
-of the argument. But is this so? We have just seen that the Bartlow
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>
-
-hills were certainly Roman. We know that the Saxons buried in hows
-in the country, down at least to Hubba the Dane,<a name="FNanchor_123" id="FNanchor_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a>
-who was slain in 878, and in Denmark, as we shall presently see, to a
-much later period; and we do not know when the Ancient Britons ceased
-to use this mode of interment. Whoever they were that built Stonehenge,
-they were not Christians; or, at all events, it is certainly not a
-Christian building, and we have no reason to assume that those men
-who were employed on its erection, and who had for thousands of years
-been burying in barrows, changed their mode of sepulture before their
-conversion to Christianity. It is infinitely more probable that they
-continued the practice very long afterwards; and till we can fix
-some time when we feel sure that sepulture in barrows had ceased,
-no argument can be drawn from this evidence. That the chief mason
-of Stonehenge should be buried in his own house, or own workshop,
-appears to us the most natural thing in the world; and that a village
-of barrows, if I may use the expression, may be contemporary with the
-monument I regard also as probable; but unless from some external
-evidence we can fix their age, their existence does not seem to have
-any direct bearing on the points we are now discussing.</p>
-
-<p>The diggings inside the area of Stonehenge throw more light on the
-subject of our enquiry than anything found outside, but even they
-are not so distinct or satisfactory as might be desired. The first
-exploration was undertaken by the Duke of Buckingham, and an account of
-it is preserved by Aubrey. He says, "In 1620 the duke, when King James
-was at Wilton, did cause the middle of Stonehenge to be digged, and
-this underdigging was the cause of the falling down and recumbencie of
-the great stone there," meaning evidently the great central trilithon.
-In the process of digging they "found a great many bones of stagges
-and oxen, charcoal, batter dashes (whatever that may mean), heads of
-arrows, and some pieces of armour eaten out with rust. Bones rotten,
-but whether of stagges or of men they could not tell."<a name="FNanchor_124" id="FNanchor_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a>
-He further adds "that Philip Earl of Pembroke did say that an altar
-stone was found in the middle of the area here, and that it was carried away to
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
-
-St. James'." What this means it is not easy to discern, for Inigo Jones
-distinctly describes as the altar the stone now known by that name,
-which measures, as he says, 16 feet by 4. It seems impossible that any
-other could have existed without his knowing it, and if it existed it
-would have favoured his views too distinctly for him not to mention the
-fact.</p>
-
-<p>As the digging above referred to must have taken place between
-what is now called the altar stone and the great trilithon, it is
-of considerable interest to us. But strange to say it leaves us in
-ignorance whether the bones found there were human or not; one thing,
-however, seems tolerably certain, that the arrow-heads and armour were
-of iron, from the state of rust they are described as being in, and
-this so far is indicative of a post-Roman date.</p>
-
-<p>Another curious fact is mentioned by Camden. In his plate (page 122),
-half plan, half elevation&mdash;at a spot marked C outside the vallum, men
-are represented as making an excavation, and the reference is "Place
-where men's bones are dug up." This is of no great value in so far as
-Stonehenge itself is concerned, but it is curious from its analogy with
-the place where the bones were found on Hakpen Hill, and may serve as
-an indication to the spot where the bones may yet be found in Avebury.
-As we shall see further on, there are strong reasons for believing
-that the principal interment at least was not inside the circle, but
-situated externally on one side.</p>
-
-<p>In more modern times, Sir R. Colt Hoare adds&mdash;"We have found, in
-digging (within the circle), several fragments of Roman as well as
-coarse British pottery, parts of the head and horns of deer and other
-animals, and a large barbed arrow-head of iron," thus confirming what
-Aubrey tells us of the Duke of Buckingham's excavation to the fullest
-extent. Mr. Cunnington also dug near the altar to a depth of nearly 6
-feet, and found the chalk had been moved to that depth. At about the
-depth of 3 feet he found some Roman pottery. Soon after the fall of the
-great trilithon, in 1797, he dug out some of the earth that had fallen
-into the excavation, and "found fragments of fine black Roman pottery,
-and since then another piece on the same spot."<a name="FNanchor_125" id="FNanchor_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>No excavation in the area has been undertaken since Sir R. Colt Hoare's
-day, but as both he and Mr. Cunnington were experienced diggers, and
-perfectly faithful recorders of what they found, it seems impossible
-to doubt, from the finding of iron armour and Roman pottery in such
-places, and at such depths that the building must have been erected
-after the Romans settled in this island. As no one now will probably
-be found to adopt Inigo Jones' theory that it was built by the Romans
-themselves, we must look to some date after their departure to which we
-may assign its erection.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>For the written history of Stonehenge we are unfortunately forced
-to rely principally on Jeffrey of Monmouth, who, though a recorder
-of historical events, was also a fabulist of the most exuberant
-imagination. It is consequently easy to throw discredit on his
-testimony, and some consider themselves justified in putting it aside
-altogether. If, however, we are to reject every medi&#230;val author who
-records miracles, or adorns his tale with fables, we may as well shut
-up our books at once, and admit that, between the departure of the
-Romans and the arrival of the Normans, the history of England is a mere
-confused jumble, in which may be found the names of some persons and
-of the battles they fought with one another, but nothing more. It is
-an easy process, and may be satisfactory to some minds. The attempt
-to separate the wheat from the chaff is a more tedious and laborious
-task, surrounded by difficulties, and open to criticism, but it is one
-that must be undertaken if truth is to be arrived at. In the present
-instance the choice of difficulties seems to be clear. Either we must
-reject the history of Jeffrey as entirely fabulous and unworthy of
-credit, or admit his principal statement that Stonehenge was erected by
-Aurelius Ambrosius as a monument to the memory of the British chiefs
-treacherously slain by Hengist.</p>
-
-<p>The first account we have of the event which led to its erection is
-in Nennius, who lived much nearer to the time of the occurrence than
-Jeffrey, who copied his narrative. It is as follows:&mdash;The Saxons having
-been defeated in several actions on the coast of Kent by Vortimir,
-were shut up in Thanet and forced to wait till they could summon
-succour from home. When these arrived, Hengist, before attempting
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>
-
-open force, had recourse to stratagem, and at a feast held at the
-palace or monastery at Amesbury, to which it was agreed all should
-come unarmed, three hundred British nobles were treacherously slain by
-the followers of Hengist, who had concealed their weapons under their
-cloaks. War ensued on this, and lasted apparently for four years,
-when Ambrosius, who had succeeded to Vortigern, forced the Saxons to
-sue for peace.<a name="FNanchor_126" id="FNanchor_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a>
-That being established, Jeffrey represents him as erecting Stonehenge
-by the aid of Merlin as a monument to those who were so treacherously
-slain by Hengist. The massacre took place apparently in the year 462,
-and the erection of Stonehenge consequently may have been commenced
-about the year 466, and carried on during the following years, say down
-to 470 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> If he had been content to tell
-the story in as few words as are used here, it probably never would
-have been doubted; but Merlin, in the first place, has a bad character,
-for he is mixed up with the medi&#230;val romances which made the story
-of Arthur famous but fabulous, and the mode in which he is represented
-by Jeffrey as bringing the stones from Ireland is enough to induce incredulity
-in all sober minds.<a name="FNanchor_127" id="FNanchor_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a>
-As I understand the narrative, it is this&mdash;there existed on
-a mountain in Ireland a monument something like Stonehenge, which
-Merlin, when consulted, advised the King to copy. This certainly is
-the view taken of the matter by Geraldus Cambrensis in 1187, inasmuch
-as he tells us, that in the spot referred to "similar stones, erected
-in a similar manner, were to be seen in his day," though in the same
-sentence he tells us, that they, or others like them, were removed to
-Salisbury Plain by Merlin.<a name="FNanchor_128" id="FNanchor_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a>
-As he probably speaks of what he saw with his own eyes,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
-
-his words furnish tolerably clear evidence that Merlin had not removed
-what still remained at Kildare so many centuries after his death. It
-is also evidence, however, that the design of the monument was brought
-from Ireland, and even copied from a circle, the remains of which may
-probably still, if looked for, be found. So far as we know there was
-nothing like Stonehenge existing in England, nor in France, in the
-5th century. But, as we shall presently see, there probably may have
-been in Ireland. The only trilithons I know of elsewhere are three in
-a monument in the Deer Park near Sligo. They are small and simulate
-portals, but they are more like Stonehenge than any else now known.
-At the age we are now speaking of Ireland had contrived to nurse her
-old traditions uninfluenced by Roman or foreign examples, and had
-attained to that stage in art which would enable her to elaborate such
-a style of architecture. While in England it is most improbable that
-anything so purely original could have been elaborated during the Roman
-occupation of the island. Still a monument like this must have had a
-prototype, and unless we can prove its existence here before C&#230;sar's
-time, it is to Ireland or some foreign country that we must look
-for the model that suggested the design. But, after all, are we not
-fighting with a shadow? May it not be that the tradition of a monument
-being brought from Ireland applies only to the blue stones? I have been
-assured by competent geologists, though I have not seen the fact stated
-in any form I can quote, that these belong to rocks not found in Great
-Britain, but which are common in Ireland. If this is so, there would
-be no greater difficulty in bringing them from the Sister Island than
-from Wales or Cornwall. Once on board ship the difference of distance
-is nothing. If they did come from Ireland nothing is more likely than
-that, after a lapse of eight or ten centuries, the facts belonging
-really only to a part should be applied to the whole; and in that case
-the aid of</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Merlin or of some equally powerful magician would certainly have become
-indispensable. In that age, at least, I do not know any other agency
-that could have accomplished the transference, and I am not at all
-surprised, under the circumstances, that Jeffrey arrived at the same
-conclusion.</p>
-
-<p>The true explanation of the mystery seems to be, that the design of
-Stonehenge may have come from Ireland, the native style of art having
-been in abeyance in England during the Roman occupation, and that the
-blue stones most probably came from the Sister Island, which is quite
-enough to account for the Merlin myth; but of all this we shall be
-better able to judge when we have discussed the Irish antiquities of
-the same age.</p>
-
-<p>To return to our history, however, a little further on Jeffrey asserts
-that Aurelius himself was buried "near the convent of Ambrius within
-the Giant's Dance (chorea gigantum), which in his lifetime he had
-commanded to be made."<a name="FNanchor_129" id="FNanchor_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a>
-As far as it goes, this is a distinct assertion that the place was used
-for burial, otherwise from the context we would gather that the Britons
-slain by Hengist were buried in the cemetery attached to the monastery,
-and that Stonehenge was consequently a cenotaph and not a monument. But
-again, in recording the life of Constantine, the nephew and successor
-of Arthur, after relating how he defeated the Saxons and took vengeance
-on the nephews of Mordred, he goes on to say&mdash;"Three years after
-this he was killed by Conan, and buried close to Uther Pendragon,
-within the structure of stones which was set up with wonderful art, not
-far from Salisbury, and called in the English tongue Stonehenge."
-<a name="FNanchor_130" id="FNanchor_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a>
-This last event, though no date is given, must have occurred some time
-between 546, or four years after Arthur's death, and 552, the date
-of the battle of Banbury Hill, where Conan his successor commanded.
-Assuming for the moment that this may be the case, may it not suffice
-to explain one of the mysteries of Stonehenge, the presence of the
-pairs of blue stones inside the choir? Why may we not suppose that
-these were erected in memory of the kings or others who were buried in
-front of them? Why may not Aurelius and Constantine have been buried
-in front of the two small pairs at either end of the so-called altar
-stone? If this were
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
-
-so, and it appears to me extremely probable that it was, the last
-remains of the mist that hangs over the uses of this monument would be
-dispersed.</p>
-
-<p>From the time of Jeffrey (1147) all subsequent medi&#230;val historians
-adopt the account of these events given by him, with occasional but
-generally slight variations, and even modern critics are inclined to
-accept his account of Constantine and Conan, as his narrative can
-be checked by that of Gildas, who was cotemporary with these kings.
-Similar statements are also found in the triads of the Welsh bards,
-which some contend are original and independent authorities.<a name="FNanchor_131" id="FNanchor_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a>
-My own impression is that they may be so, but I do not think their
-independence has been so clearly established as to enable us to found
-any argument upon it. On the other hand, the incidental allusion of
-Jeffrey to the erection of Stonehenge as a cenotaph to the slain
-nobles, and the subsequent burial there of the two kings, seems so
-likely and natural that it is difficult to see why they should be
-considered as inventions. The two last-named events, at all events, do
-not add to the greatness or wonder of the kings, or of his narrative,
-and are not such things as would be inserted in the page of history,
-unless they were currently known, or were recorded somewhere in some
-writing to which the historian had access.</p>
-
-<p>Before quitting Stonehenge there is one other antiquity connected with
-it, regarding which it is necessary to say a few words. Both in Sir R.
-Colt Hoare's plan and the Ordnance Survey, there are marked two oblong
-enclosures called the greater and lesser "Cursus," and along which
-the antiquaries of the last century amused themselves by picturing
-the chariot races of the Ancient Britons, though as they ascribed the
-introduction of races to the Romans, they admitted that they must have
-been formed after the subjection of the island by that people.<a name="FNanchor_132" id="FNanchor_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a>
-The greater cursus is about a mile and three-quarters long, by 110 yards
-wide. The smaller is so indistinct that only its commencement can be
-identified; but even as concerns the larger, I walked twice across it
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
-
-without perceiving its existence, though I was looking for it, and no
-one I fancy would remark it if his attention were not turned to it.
-Its boundary mounds never could have been 3 feet high, and now in many
-places are very nearly obliterated.</p>
-
-<p>That these alignments were once race-courses, appears to me one of the
-most improbable of the various conjectures which have been hazarded
-with regard even to Stonehenge. No Roman race-course, that we know
-of, omitted to provide for the horses returning at least once past
-the place they started from, and no course was even a mile, much less
-a mile and three-quarters long. What sort of horse-races the British
-indulged in before the Conquest I don't know, nor will I hazard an
-opinion on the subject; but if they wanted the races to be seen, there
-are several beautiful and appropriate spots close at hand where they
-could have laid out a longer course along one of the bottoms, where
-tens of thousands might conveniently have witnessed the sport from
-the sloping banks on either hand, whereas here only the front rank
-could have seen the race at all, and that imperfectly. It may also be
-remarked that the east end of the cursus is closed by a mound which
-must have been a singularly awkward position for the judges, though
-that is the place assigned to them by Sir Richard; and the west end is
-cut off also by an embankment, behind which are several tumuli on the
-course, which seems a very unlikely racing arrangement.</p>
-
-<p>But if not race-courses, what were they? If any one will turn back
-to woodcut No. 12, p. 55, representing the alignments at Merivale
-bridge, and compare them with the cursus as shown in woodcut No. 26,
-p. 102, representing the ground about Stonehenge, I think he must
-perceive that the two cursus, if complete, would occupy exactly the
-same relative position with regard to Stonehenge&mdash;on a much larger
-scale of course&mdash;as those at Dartmoor do to the circle there. The
-arrangements are so similar that the purposes can hardly be different.
-At first sight this seems to tell against the battle theory. We know
-of no battle fought on Salisbury Plain. This, however, is the merest
-negative assumption possible. We know that the massacre at Amesbury was
-followed by a four years' war, between Ambrosius and the Saxons.<a name="FNanchor_133" id="FNanchor_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a>
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>
-
-Battles there must have been, and many, and what so likely as that the
-crowning victory should have been fought in the immediate proximity of
-the capital of one of the contending parties. If these cursus do mark
-the battle-field, it will at once account for the somewhat anomalous
-position of Stonehenge. What is so likely as that the victor should
-have chosen the field of his final victory to erect there a monument
-to the memory of those whose treacherous slaughter had been the cause
-of the war? Of course this is only an hypothesis, and it is only put
-forward as such, but it seems to me infinitely nearer the truth than
-that of the gratuitous suggestion of a race-course, and looks like one
-of the coincidences sure to occur when the investigation is on the
-right path towards the true solution.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>The first impression that the narrative of the preceding pages will
-convey to most readers, will probably be that there must be something
-more to be said on the subject, or that something important is left
-out. If, it may be argued, the case is so clear as here stated, it
-could never have been doubted, and must have been accepted long ago.
-All I can say in answer is, that if anything is omitted I am not aware
-of it. Everything I know of has been stated as fully and as fairly as
-seemed necessary for its being clearly understood. In this instance it
-must be remembered that the usual arguments drawn from the division
-into stone, bronze, and iron ages hardly come into play. Nothing has
-been found inside Stonehenge but iron and Roman pottery. Even admitting
-the barrows in the immediate proximity of Stonehenge to be coeval,
-before their testimony can be of any avail, it must be ascertained when
-men ceased to be buried in barrows, and when a man might not wish a
-bronze spear-head to be entombed with him as a relic, even if he did
-not fight with it in his lifetime. Even then, however, the evidence
-would be too indistinct to outweigh that of the finds inside the circle.</p>
-
-<p>If, after what has been said above, any one still maintains that
-Stonehenge is a temple, and not sepulchral, we have no common ground
-from which to reason, and need not attempt it. Or if any one as
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>
-
-familiar with the locality as I am personally, or who has studied the
-Ordnance maps with the same care, likes to argue that the barrows came
-to Stonehenge, and not Stonehenge to the barrows, we see things with
-such different eyes that we equally want a common basis for argument.</p>
-
-<p>In a case like the present, however, the great difficulty to be
-overcome is not so much cool argument and close reasoning, as a certain
-undefined feeling that a monument must be old because we know so little
-about it. "Omne ignotum pro antiquo" is a matter of faith with many
-who will listen to no argument to the contrary, and in the case of
-Stonehenge the false notion has been so fostered by nearly all those
-who have written about it since the time of James I., that it will be
-very difficult now to overthrow it. Those who adhere to it, however,
-hardly realize how dark the ages were between the departure of the
-Romans and the time of Alfred the Great, and how much may have been
-done in that time without any record of it coming down to our day. Even
-if we give them all the megalithic monuments we possess, it is very
-little indeed for so large a population in so long a time.</p>
-
-<p>Even at a much later period of English history than we are now occupied
-with, it is wonderful how little we should know of our monuments if we
-depended on the "litera scripta" for our information. Any one who is
-familiar with the guide-books of the last, or beginning of the present
-century, will see what dire confusion of dates existed with regard to
-the erection of our greatest cathedrals and medi&#230;val monuments. Saxon
-and Norman were confounded everywhere, and the distinction of any of
-the styles between Early English and Perpendicular was not appreciated,
-and frequently the dates were reversed. In fact, it was not till
-Rickman took the matter in hand that order emerged out of chaos, and he
-succeeded because his constructive knowledge enabled him to perceive
-progressive developments which formed true sequences, and he was thus
-able to supply the want of written information. Every tyro now can fix
-a date to every moulding in any of our medi&#230;val buildings, but if we
-had only written history to depend upon, in nine cases out of ten he
-could not prove that the building was not erected by the Romans or the
-Ph&oelig;nicians, or anybody else. If this is the case in an age when
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
-
-writing was so common as between the Conquest and the Reformation,
-should we be surprised if we find matters so much darker between the
-departure of the Romans and Alfred, when written history hardly helps
-us at all? But Rickman's method will, when applied to Stonehenge and
-similar monuments, if I am not very much mistaken, render their dates
-nearly as clear as those of our medi&#230;val monuments have been rendered
-by the same method.</p>
-
-<p>None but those who have had occasion specially to study the subject
-can be aware how devoid of all literary records the period is of
-which we are now treating. So meagre and so scarce are they, that
-many well-informed persons doubt whether such a person as King Arthur
-ever lived; and scarcely one of his great actions is established by
-anything like satisfactory contemporary testimony. Yet, in all ages,
-and in all countries where histories either written or oral exist, they
-are filled with the exploits of favourite national heroes&mdash;as Arthur
-was&mdash;which, even where they are fullest and most diffuse, it is the
-rarest possible thing to find in them a record of the building of any
-temple or tomb. From the building of the Parthenon to the completion
-of Henry VIII.'s Chapel, the notices of buildings in general histories
-are as few and meagre as may be, and are comprised in a few paragraphs
-scattered through many hundred volumes. No one, I am convinced, who
-has thought twice on the subject, would expect to find any notice of
-buildings in the few pages which are all we possess of history between
-the departure of the Romans and the time of the Venerable Bede; yet the
-absence of record is the argument which, if I am not mistaken, has had
-more influence on the popular mind than almost any other. Too generally
-it is assumed that, as we know nothing about them, they must be old. To
-me, on the contrary, nothing appears so extremely improbable as that
-the builders, while leaving no record of their exploits, should have
-left any written account of the erection of the Rude Stone Monuments.</p>
-
-<p>One other point seems worth alluding to before concluding this chapter,
-which is that nothing has been advanced, so far as I know, that would
-lead us to suppose that the people of this island were, before the time
-of the Romans, either more numerous or more powerful, and consequently
-more capable of erecting such monuments as Stonehenge and Avebury,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>
-
-than they were after that people had resided for four centuries among
-them. All our existing knowledge seems to tend to a diametrically
-opposite conclusion, and now that the day for vague declamation and <i>&#224;
-priori</i> reasoning is past, if any proof to the contrary can be brought
-forward, it would be well that it were now adduced, for otherwise
-judgment may go by default. If we mistake not, the case must be strong
-and clear that is to outweigh the evidence just brought forward in
-reference to the two monuments the use and age of which we have just
-been discussing.</p>
-
-<div class="topspace1"></div>
-<div class="footnotes">
-<blockquote>
-<p class="footnote"><span class="smcap"><b>Footnotes</b></span></p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_77" id="Footnote_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a>
-These particulars are taken from a careful survey made by Sir R. Colt Hoare, in
-1812, and published in his 'Ancient Wilts,' vol. ii. pl. xiii. p. 70 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_78" id="Footnote_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a>
-'Stonehenge and Avebury,' p. 34.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_79" id="Footnote_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a>
-Haca, or Haco, according to Kemble,
-was some mythical person with a very
-Danish name which is found in Hampshire
-and Berkshire, as well as here.
-Pen seems to mean merely enclosure, as
-it does now in English. See Kemble, in
-'Journal Arch. Inst.' xiv. p. 134.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80" id="Footnote_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a>
-'Bell. Gall.' vi. 17.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_81" id="Footnote_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a>
-'Sculptured Stones of Scotland,' ii. p. xli.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_82" id="Footnote_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a>
-Thurnam, 'Crania Britannica;' London, 1856 to 1865.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_83" id="Footnote_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a>
-'Codex diplomaticus &#198;vi Saxonici,' v. p. 238, No. 1120.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_84" id="Footnote_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a>
-Stukeley, 'Stonehenge and Abury,' p. 27.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_85" id="Footnote_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a>
-The particulars are taken from a
-pamphlet entitled 'Excavations at Avebury,
-under the direction of the Secretary
-of the Wiltshire Arch&#230;ol. and Nat.
-Hist. Society,' printed at Devizes, but,
-so far as I know, not yet published.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_86" id="Footnote_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a>
-'Sculptured Stones of Scotland,'
-vol. i. introd. p. xx.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_87" id="Footnote_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a>
-A plan of it was published about
-Stukeley's time by a Mr. Twining, in a
-pamphlet, which was written to prove
-that this group of monuments was
-erected by Agricola, to represent a map
-of England! A plan accompanies it,
-which shows all the avenues as straight;
-but what weight can possibly be attached
-to any evidence coming from a
-man with such a theory as this?</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_88" id="Footnote_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a>
-'Ancient Wiltshire,' ii. p. 63.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_89" id="Footnote_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a>
-Camden, 'Britannia,' 127.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_90" id="Footnote_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a>
-'Arch&#230;ologia,' xxviii. p. 399 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_91" id="Footnote_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a>
-'Journal Wiltshire Arch&#230;ol. and
-Nat. Hist. Society,' vii. p. 1861.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_92" id="Footnote_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a>
-Curiously enough these dimensions
-are almost identical with those of the
-mound erected by the Belgic-Dutch, to
-commemorate the part they did not take
-in the battle of Waterloo. Its dimensions
-are 130 feet high, 544 feet in
-diameter, and 1632 feet in circumference.
-The angle of the slope of the
-sides is lower, being 27&frac12; degrees, owing
-to the smaller diameter of the flat top,
-which is only 40 feet.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_93" id="Footnote_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a>
-Douglas, 'Nenia Brit.' p. 161. See
-also Salisbury volume of the Arch&#230;ological
-Institute, p. 74.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_94" id="Footnote_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a>
-'Journal Royal Asiatic Soc.' xiii. p. 164; and Major Skinner's plan of
-Anurajapura.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_95" id="Footnote_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a>
-Wilson, 'Ariana Antiqua,' p. 41; and Masson's 'Memoir,' <i>passim</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_96" id="Footnote_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a>
-Sir R. C. Hoare, 'Ancient Wiltshire,' i. pl. ii. fig. 8.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_97" id="Footnote_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a>
-Ibid. i. p. 191.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_98" id="Footnote_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a>
-'Arch&#230;ologia,' xxx. p. 300 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_99" id="Footnote_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a>
-'Arch. Journ.,' xxiv. pp. 92 and 319.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_100" id="Footnote_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a>
-Ibid. p. 100.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_101" id="Footnote_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a>
-'Ancient Wiltshire,' ii. 5. Unfortunately there is no scale attached to the plan
-of the Marden Circle, and no dimensions quoted in the text.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_102" id="Footnote_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a>
-'Ancient Wiltshire,' p. 7.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_103" id="Footnote_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a>
-I adopt Dr. Guest's dates for this
-part of the subject, not only because I
-think them most probable, but because I
-think, from his knowledge and the special
-attention he has bestowed on the subject,
-he is most likely to be right. See <i>Salisbury</i>
-<i>Volume Arch. Journal</i>, p. 62.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_104" id="Footnote_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a>
-'Athen&#230;um Journal,' Dec. 13, 1865.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_105" id="Footnote_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a>
-'Mon. Brit.' p. 15.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_106" id="Footnote_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a>
-'Salisbury Vol.' p. 63.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_107" id="Footnote_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a>
-'Mon. Brit.' p. 15.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_108" id="Footnote_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a>
-Colt Hoare, 'Ancient Wiltshire,' ii.
-p. 22.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_109" id="Footnote_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a>
-Saxon Chronicle, in 'Mon. Brit.' p. 304.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_110" id="Footnote_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a>
-'Jeffrey of Monmouth,' ix. p. 4.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_111" id="Footnote_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a>
-The history of the plan given on
-<a href="#Page_92">page 92</a>, and from which all the dimensions
-in the text are quoted, is this.
-When I was staying with my friend,
-Mr. Hawkshaw, the eminent engineer,
-at Eversley, I was complaining of the
-incorrectness of all the published plans,
-when he said, "I have a man in my office
-whose plans are the very essence of minute
-accuracy. I will send him down to make
-one for you." He did so, and his plan&mdash;to
-a scale of 10 feet to 1 inch, is before
-me. I afterwards took this plan to
-Stonehenge, and identified the position
-and character of every stone marked
-upon it.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_112" id="Footnote_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a>
-I am almost afraid to allude to it
-even in a note, lest some one should
-accuse me of founding any theory upon
-it, like Piazzi Smyth's British inches in
-the Pyramids, but it is a curious coincidence
-that nearly all the British circles
-are set out in two dimensions. The
-smaller class are 100 feet, the larger
-are 100 metres in diameter. They are
-all more than 100 yards. The latter
-measure is at all events certainly accidental,
-so far as we at present know,
-but as a nomenclature and "memoria
-technica," the employment of the terms
-may be useful, provided it is clearly understood
-that no theory is based upon it.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_113" id="Footnote_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a>
-'Historia,' in 'Mon. Brit.' 694.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_114" id="Footnote_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a>
-'Tree and Serpent Worship,' by the author,
-plates iii. <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_115" id="Footnote_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a>
-Twenty Chinese coolies would carry any one of them
-up in a week.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_116" id="Footnote_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a>
-'Serie Centrale' by Comte Melchior de Vog&#252;&#233;.
-Though this work was commenced some ten years ago, and subscriptions
-obtained, it is still incomplete. No text has yet been published, and
-no maps, which makes the identification of the places singularly
-difficult.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_117" id="Footnote_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a>
-Vide <i>ante</i>, footnote, <a href="#Page_15">p. 15.</a></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_118" id="Footnote_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a>
-'Topography of Jerusalem,' by the Author, p. 58.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_119" id="Footnote_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a>
-'Ancient Wiltshire,' i. p. 178, plan vi.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_120" id="Footnote_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a>
-Sir John Lubbock, 'Prehistoric Times,' p. 116.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_121" id="Footnote_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a>
-Sir R. Colt Hoare, 'Ancient Wiltshire,' i. p. 145.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_122" id="Footnote_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a>
-The name is written as Sidbury in the Ordnance maps.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_123" id="Footnote_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a>
-'Arch&#230;ologia,' vii. pp. 132-134.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_124" id="Footnote_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a>
-'Ancient Wiltshire,' i. p. 154.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_125" id="Footnote_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a>
-'Ancient Wiltshire,' i. p. 150.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_126" id="Footnote_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a>
-Nennius, in 'Mon. Brit.' p. 69.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_127" id="Footnote_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a>
-Jeffrey, viii. c. 9.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_128" id="Footnote_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a>
-"Fuit antiquis temporibus in Hiberni&#226;
-lapidum congeries admiranda,
-qu&#230; et Chorea gigantum dicta fuit,
-quia gigantes eam ab ultimis Afric&#230;
-partibus in Hiberniam attulerunt et in
-Kildarienes planicie non procul a Castro
-Nasensi, tam ingenii quam virium opere
-mirabiliter erexerunt. Unde et ibidem
-lapides quidam aliis simillimi similique
-modo erecti usque in hodiernum conspiciuntur.
-Mirum qualiter tanti lapides
-tot etiam et tam magni unquam in unum
-locum vel congesti fuerint vel erecti:
-quantoque artificiis lapidibus tam magnis
-et altis alii superpositi sint non minores;
-qui sic in pendulo et tanquam in inani
-suspendi videntur ut potius artificum
-studio quam suppositorum podio inniti
-videantur. Juxta Britannicam historiam
-lapides istos rex Britonum Aurelius
-Ambrosius divina Merlini diligentia
-de Hiberni&#226; in Britanniam advehi procuravit;
-et ut tanti facinoris egregium
-aliquod memoriale relinqueret eodem ordine
-et arte qua prius in loco constituit
-ubi occultis Saxonum cultris Britanni&#230;
-flos occidit et sub pacis obtentu nequiti&#230;
-telis male tecta regni juventus occubuit."&mdash;<i>Topogr.</i>
-<i>Hiberni&#230;</i>, vol. ii. ch. xviii.
-</p>
-<p>
-If we could trust Ware, they still
-existed in the beginning of the last
-century. He speaks of "Saxa ill&#230; in
-gentia et rudia qu&#230; in planitie non
-longe a Naasa in agro Kildariensi et
-alibi visuntur."&mdash;<i>Hist. Hib.</i>, xxiv. 103.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_129" id="Footnote_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a>
-'Hist. Brit.' viii. ch. xvi.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_130" id="Footnote_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a>
-'Hist. Brit.' xi. ch. iv.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_131" id="Footnote_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a>
-This is the principal argument of
-Herbert's 'Cyclops Christianus.'</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_132" id="Footnote_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a>
-'Ancient Wiltshire,' i. p. 158. See
-also woodcut <a href="#Illustration26">No. 26, p. 102</a>. The dotted
-part of the smaller cursus is a restoration
-of my own.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_133" id="Footnote_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a>
-<i>Vide ante</i>, <a href="#Page_107">p. 107.</a></p>
-</div>
-
-</blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a><br />
-<span class="smaller">MINOR ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Aylesford.</span></h3>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The</span> detailed examination of these groups at Avebury and Stonehenge
-will probably be deemed sufficient to establish at least a <i>prima
-facie</i> case in favour of the hypothesis that these monuments were
-sepulchral&mdash;that at least some of them marked battle-fields, and
-lastly, that their antiquity was not altogether prehistoric. If this is
-so, it will not be necessary to repeat the same evidence in treating of
-those monuments or groups we are about to describe. Incidentally the
-latter will, if I am not mistaken, afford many confirmations of those
-propositions, but it will not be necessary to insist or enlarge on them
-to the same extent as has been done in the previous pages.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration27"></a>
-<img src="images/i_027.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">27.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Countless Stones, Aylesford. From a drawing by
-Stukeley.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Among the remaining groups of stones in England, one of the most
-important is&mdash;or rather was&mdash;that in front of Aylesford in Kent. The
-best known member of this group is that known as Kit's Cotty&mdash;or
-Coity-house, which has, however, been so often drawn and described
-that it is hardly necessary to do much more than refer to it here.
-It is a dolmen, composed of four stones, three upright; the two
-side stones being about 8 feet square and 2 in thickness, the third
-somewhat smaller; these form three sides of a chamber, the fourth
-side being&mdash;and apparently always having been&mdash;left open. These
-three support a cap stone measuring 11 feet by 8 feet. If we can
-trust Stukeley's drawing,<a name="FNanchor_134" id="FNanchor_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a>
-it was an external dolmen standing on the end of a low long barrow.
-At the other end of the mound lay an obelisk, since removed, but in
-Stukeley's time it was said to mark "the general's grave." The mound
-has since been levelled by the plough, but the whole forms an
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>
-
-arrangement so common both in England and in Scandinavia, that I am
-inclined to place faith in the drawing. So little, however, hinges
-on it here that it is not worth while insisting on it, but a trench
-across the site of the barrow might lead to interesting results.
-Nearly due south of Kit's Cotty-house, at the distance of about 500
-yards, is another monument of the same class, popularly known as the
-Countless Stones, but so ruined&mdash;apparently by searchers after
-treasure&mdash;that its plan cannot now be made out. In Stukeley's
-time, however, it was more perfect, and as his pencil is always more
-to be trusted than his pen, it may be worth while to reproduce his
-drawings,<a name="FNanchor_135" id="FNanchor_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a>
-for the arrangement of the stones was peculiar, but
-may have analogies elsewhere. Between these two a third dolmen is said
-to have existed within the memory of man, but no trace of it is now
-to be found. In the rear of these groups, nearer the village, there
-exists, or existed, a line of great stones, extending from a place
-called Spring Farm, in a north-easterly direction, for a distance of
-three-quarters of a mile, to another spot known as
-Hale Farm,<a name="FNanchor_136" id="FNanchor_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a>
-passing through Tollington, where the greater number of the stones are
-now found. In front of the line near the centre at Tollington lie two
-obelisks, known to the country people as the coffin-stones&mdash;
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
-
-probably from their shape. They are 12 feet long by 4 to 6 broad, and
-about 2 or 3 feet thick.<a name="FNanchor_137" id="FNanchor_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a>
-They appear to be partially hewn, or at least shaped, so as to resemble
-one another.</p>
-
-<p>Besides these stones, which are all on the right bank of the river,
-there are several groups at or near Addington, about five miles to the
-westward of Aylesford. Two of these in the park at Addington have long
-been known to antiquaries, having been described and figured in the
-'Arch&#230;ologia' in 1773.<a name="FNanchor_138" id="FNanchor_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a>
-The first is a small circle, about 11 feet in diameter, the six stones
-comprising it being 19 feet high, 7 wide, and 2 in thickness. Near it
-is the larger one of oval form, measuring 50 paces by 42 paces. The
-stones are generally smaller than those of the other circle. The other
-groups or detached stones are described by Mr. Wright,<a name="FNanchor_139" id="FNanchor_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a>
-who went over the ground with that excellent and venerable antiquary
-the Rev. L. B. Larking. They seem to have adopted the common opinion
-that an avenue of such stones existed all the way from Addington to
-Aylesford, but it seems to me that there is no sufficient evidence to
-justify this conclusion. Many of the stones seem natural boulders, and
-in no place is any alignment distinctly perceptible.</p>
-
-<p>In addition to these, Mr. Wright found, and attempted to excavate some
-smaller monuments of a sepulchral character, near Kit's Cotty House,
-but situated on the brow of the hill immediately above it. These
-"consist generally of groups of stones buried partly on the ridge of
-the hill, but evidently forming, or having formed, small sepulchral
-chambers." "Each group," he adds, "is generally surrounded by a circle
-of stones."<a name="FNanchor_140" id="FNanchor_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a></p>
-
-<p>There only now remains the question, why were all these stones placed
-here, and by whom? Mr. Wright is far too sober and too well-informed
-an antiquary to repeat the usual nonsense about such monuments having
-been Druid temples or altars. The conclusion at which he arrives (p.
-183) is that Kit's Cotty-house, and the cemetery around it, with
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
-
-that in the parish of Addington, together formed the grand necropolis
-of the Belgian settlers in this part of the island. Against this
-it must be observed that the Belgians erected no such monuments in
-their own country, Gallia Belgica being exactly that part of France
-in which no stone monuments are found, and it is very unlikely that
-the Belgians should have done here what they did not do at home. But
-another objection is, that the theory is wholly gratuitous, no shadow
-of tradition, no analogy, and no reason being adduced to show why it
-should be so, and, to say the least of it, it is most unlikely. If a
-straight line were drawn from the mouth of the Humber to the head of
-Southampton Water, this is the only group of this class of monuments
-to the eastward of the line, and what possible reason can we have for
-supposing that the princes or people of that vast district chose this
-place, and this only, for their necropolis? Had it been some vast plain
-like Salisbury, or some gloomy valley, or the site of some ancient
-sacred city, the choice might have been intelligible, but a more
-unromantic, unlikely spot than the valley of the Medway could hardly
-have been chosen. It is neither central nor accessible, and neither
-history nor tradition lends any countenance to the suggestion.</p>
-
-<p>Suppose, on the other hand, we assume that these erections are a record
-of the battle which, according to the Saxon chronicle,<a name="FNanchor_141" id="FNanchor_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a>
-was fought on this spot between Vortigern and Hengist and Horsa, in the
-year 455, and in which Catigren was slain on the side of the British,
-and the redoubted Horsa fell on that of the Saxons. This at least
-has the merit of accounting for all we see&mdash;the line of stones
-at Tollington is just such a position as the British army would take
-up, to cover the ford at Aylesford against an enemy advancing from
-Thanet. The two obelisks in front would represent the position of the
-two chiefs; Kit's Cotty-house would become the tomb of Catigren, which
-tradition always represented it to be; the circles at Addington would
-become the graves of chiefs who were wounded in the battle, and taken
-to the rear and buried with due honours, at or near the spot where they
-died; and lastly the tumulus at Horstead would also in accordance
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
-
-with ancient tradition be the grave of Horsa.</p>
-
-<p>So much depends on this last determination, that last year through the
-kindness of Colonel Fisher, R.E., the assistance of a party of sappers
-was procured from Chatham, and the mound was thoroughly explored. It
-was found that a cremation (it is presumed of a human body) had taken
-place on the natural surface of the ground, and that a tumulus had
-been raised over it. The chalk was dug down to some depth and found
-quite undisturbed, but no ornament or implement was found anywhere. At
-first this seemed disappointing; but on Mr. Godfrey Faussett, who was
-present at the digging, referring to certain passages in 'Beowulf,' it
-appears to be exactly what should have been expected. The poem, in the
-first place, is about the best authority we could have, inasmuch as,
-according to Kemble, "it gave accounts of exploits not far removed, in
-point of time, from the crossing of Hengist and Horsa into Britain, and
-the poem was probably brought hither by some of those Anglo-Saxons,
-who, in 495, accompanied Cerdic and Cyneric."<a name="FNanchor_142" id="FNanchor_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a>
-After Hengist's conflict with Fin, the body was burnt (l. 2232-2251);
-but after Beowulf's death not only cremation is mentioned, but a
-splendid mound is raised over the spot where the funeral pile stood,
-"ad on Eorthen" (l. 6266), on the surface of the ground. At Beowulf's
-funeral, vases, and arms, and jewels of all kinds, were thrown upon the
-pile and burnt with him; and no wonder, considering the wealth just
-rescued from the guardianship of the "Wurm" by the victorious hero.
-Poor Horsa died defeated, and all his friends could expect would be to
-be allowed to bury him under a flag of truce, with such rites as would
-ensure his proper reception in the next world. Had they attempted to
-bury any treasures with him, they probably would have been appropriated
-by the victorious Brits.</p>
-
-<p>Bede's expression that Horsa's tomb was situated in "orientalibus
-partibus Canti&#230;,"<a name="FNanchor_143" id="FNanchor_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a>
-has more than once been quoted to disprove this identification. But
-what did Bede mean by "eastern parts"? May it not have been that in
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
-
-his day the Medway divided Kent into east and west? Or he may have
-spoken without sufficient local knowledge. But that Horsa fell at
-Aylesford, is as well authenticated as any fact in that age: he most
-probably was buried near the battle-field; and the village where the
-mound is situated has probably ever since been called Horstead, as it
-is at this day.</p>
-
-<p>All this, it appears to me, makes so strong a case, that I cannot
-help thinking it might be accepted till, at least, something is
-advanced against it. At present I am not aware of any argument to the
-contrary that seems to me entitled to any serious consideration. No
-flint, or bronze, or iron implement of any sort, so far as I know, have
-been found on the spot&mdash;this may be only because they have not
-been looked for; but as the case at present stands, the Danish system
-cannot be pleaded for or against this view.</p>
-
-<p>The real difficulty to be feared in obtaining acceptance of this
-explanation of the stone at Aylesford, is its extreme simplicity.
-After all that has been written about the unfathomable mystery and the
-prim&#230;val antiquity of this class of monuments, to be told that these
-are merely the memorials of a battle fought on the spot in the year
-455, is too terribly prosaic to be tolerated, nor ought it perhaps to
-be accepted if it stood alone. If, however, it proves to be only one of
-many instances, the ultimate admission of the above views can hardly be
-doubtful.</p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Ashdown.</span></h3>
-
-<p>In the neighbourhood of Uffington, in Berkshire, there are three
-monuments, two at least of which still merit a local habitation and a
-name in our history. One of these is the celebrated white horse, which
-gives its name to the vale, and the scouring of which is still used by
-the inhabitants of the neighbourhood on the occasion of a triennial
-festival and games, which have been so graphically described by Mr.
-Thomas Hughes.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration28"></a>
-<img src="images/i_028.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">28.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The Sarsen Stones at Ashdown. From a drawing by A.
-L. Lewis, Esq.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The second is a cromlech, known as Wayland Smith's Cave, and
-immortalized by the use made of it by Sir Walter Scott in the novel
-of 'Kenilworth.' The third is as remarkable as either, but still wants
-its poet. The annexed woodcut will give a fair idea of its nature and
-extent.<a name="FNanchor_144" id="FNanchor_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a>
-It does not pretend to be minutely accurate, and this in the present
-instance is fortunately of no great consequence. All the stones are
-overthrown: some lie flat on the ground, some on their edges, and it is
-only the smallest that can be said to be standing. The consequence is,
-that we cannot feel sure that we know exactly where any of them stood,
-nor whether they were arranged in lines, like those at Carnac; nor if so, in
-how many rows, or whether they always had
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
-
-the confused appearance they now present. They are spread over an area
-of about 1600 feet north and south, and of half that distance east
-and west. The gap in the centre was made purposely to clear the view
-in front of the house when it was built, and many of the stones it is
-feared were employed in the erection. They are the same Sarsens as are
-used at Avebury and Stonehenge, and the largest are about 10 feet long
-from 6 to 9 wide, and from 3 to 4 feet high (in their present recumbent
-position); but there are few so large as this, the majority being from
-2 to 4 feet in length and breadth, and from 1 to 3 high.<a name="FNanchor_145" id="FNanchor_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a></p>
-
-<p>No one has yet attempted to give any explanation of the monument
-beyond repeating the usual Druidical formul&#230;. To me it appears almost
-incontestable that it is a memorial of the battle fought here between
-the Saxons and the Danes in the year 871. From Asser we learn that
-the Pagans, advancing from Reading, occupied the higher ground. It is
-sometimes supposed that Uffington Castle was thrown up by them on the
-occasion, which is by no means impossible. Advancing eastward, they
-then attacked the Christians under Alfred, who occupied the lower
-ground. This, and the ill-timed fit of devotion on his brother's
-part, nearly lost the Christians the day; but Alfred's skill and
-intrepidity prevailed, and the victory was complete.<a name="FNanchor_146" id="FNanchor_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a>
-This being so, nothing appears more probable than that the victorious
-army, either by themselves or with the assistance of the peasantry,
-should have collected together the Sarsens in the neighbourhood, and
-have arranged them as Alfred and his army stood, when he first received
-the shock of the Pagans. It seems also probable that he would have
-engraved the emblem of the white horse on the side of the hill where
-the Pagans had encamped the night before the battle, and where probably
-the fight ended on the following day.</p>
-
-<p>The question whether Weyland Smith's Cave belongs to the same group, or
-to an earlier date, is not so easily settled. My impression is that it
-is older. It is a three-chambered dolmen almost identical in plan with
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
-
-Petrie's No. 27, Carrowmore, to be described in the next chapter, but
-with this difference, that whereas the circle of stones in the Irish
-example contained thirty-six or thirty-seven stones, and was 60 feet
-in diameter, this one contained probably only twenty-eight, and was
-only 50 feet in diameter. This and the fact of the one consisting of
-Sarsens&mdash;the other of granite blocks&mdash;account so completely
-for all the difference between them, that I cannot believe that so
-great a lapse of time as eight centuries could have taken place between
-the erection of the two. I fancy it must have been erected for the
-entombment of a local hero in the early centuries of the Christian
-era; but of this we will be better able to judge when we are further
-advanced in our survey of similar monuments.</p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Rollright.</span></h3>
-
-<p>At Rollright, between Chipping Norton and Long Compton, in Oxfordshire,
-there is a circle, which, from what has been written about it, has
-assumed an importance in the antiquarian world, which is certainly
-not due either to its dimensions or to any traditions that attach to
-it. Every antiquary, from Camden down to Bathurst Deane, has thought
-it necessary to say something about this splendid temple of the Druid
-priesthood, so that the traveller, when he visits it, is sure to
-be dreadfully disappointed. It is an ordinary 100-foot circle, the
-entrance to which is apparently from the south opposite to the five
-largest stones, which are placed in juxtaposition on the north, the
-tallest in the centre being about 5 feet in height. The others average
-about 3 or 4 feet, but are uneven in height and irregularly spaced,
-but with a tendency to form groups of threes, which is a peculiarity
-observable-in some similar circles on Dartmoor.</p>
-
-<p>Across the road, at a distance of about 50 yards, stands a single
-obeliscal stone, about 10 feet high, on a mound which appears to be
-artificial. If it is so, however, it was raised with the materials
-taken out of a pit, which still exists on one side, and not from a
-ditch surrounding it, as is usual in such cases. In another direction,
-about a quarter of a mile from the circle, stands a dolmen, which is
-the finest feature in the group. The cap stone, which has fallen,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>
-
-measures 8 feet by 9, and is of considerable thickness; and three of
-the supporting stones are 7, 8, and 10 feet in height respectively.</p>
-
-<p>This circle appears to have been examined by Ralph Sheldon, but without
-results.<a name="FNanchor_147" id="FNanchor_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a>
-The mound, so far as is known, is yet untouched, and the dolmen could
-not now be explored without causing its complete ruin; I presume no one
-will contest its being sepulchral. It would be difficult now to bring
-to the test of experiment the question whether the circle is so or not,
-as some forty or fifty years ago, it and the plot round it were planted
-with larch trees, whose roots have spread over the surface and could
-with difficulty be now got rid of. This is to be regretted, as from its
-isolated position the group affords an excellent opportunity of testing
-the usual theories regarding these monuments. If it was a temple, it
-gives us a very low idea of the religious state of our ancestors, that
-for a district of from twenty to thirty miles' radius they should
-have possessed only one single small enclosure, surrounded by a low
-imperfect wall, 3 or 4 feet high. If any other had ever existed, traces
-of it must have been found, or why has this one remained so complete,
-for not one stone apparently is missing. It is also strange that, as in
-other instances, it should be situated on the highest and bleakest part
-of the surrounding country. It is, in fact, not only the unlikeliest
-form, but the most inconvenient site for a temple. It also gives us
-a very low idea of their civilization. The circle at Rollright is a
-sort of monument that the boys of any of our larger schools could
-set up in a week, supposing the stones to be found lying about, at
-no great distance, which there is little doubt was the case when it
-was erected. The dolmen might require a little contrivance to get the
-cap stone hoisted; but there is nothing that the villagers in the
-neighbourhood could not now complete in a few days, if so inclined, and
-certainly nothing that a victorious army, of say even 1000 men, could
-not complete between sunrise and sunset in a summer's day. Even if the
-sepulchral character of the group is admitted, it can hardly be the
-burying-ground of a chief, or clan, or family. In that case, instead
-of one dolmen there must have been several, smaller
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
-
-it may be, but in succession. The chief must have had ancestors, or
-successors, or relations, and they would not be content that one, and
-one only, of their family should possess an honoured tomb, and that
-they themselves should rest in undistinguished graves. As in other
-cases, unless we are prepared to admit that it marks the site of a
-battle, I know of nothing that will explain the situation and the form
-of the group; nor do I see why we should reject Camden's explanation of
-the circumstances under which it was erected: "These would, I verily
-think, to have been the monument of some victory, and haply erected
-by Rollo the Dane, who afterwards conquered Normandy." "In what time
-he with the Danes troubled England with depredations we read that the
-Danes joined battle with the English thereby at Hock Norton, a place
-for no one thing more famous in old time than for the woeful slaughter
-of the English on that foughten field, under the reign of King Edward
-the Elder."<a name="FNanchor_148" id="FNanchor_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a>
-This last, however, is apparently a mistake, for it was Eadward
-(901-923) who was really the contemporary of Rollo. He was also the
-contemporary of Gorm the Old, of Denmark, of whose tumulus and Pagan
-habits we shall hear hereafter.</p>
-
-<p>This again will appear a very prosaic anti-climax to those who are
-nursed on ideas of the hoar antiquity and wondrous magnificence of such
-monuments as Ashdown and Rollright. A visit to them is sufficient to
-dispel one part of that illusion, and a little common-sense applied
-to the other will probably show that the more moderate view meets
-perfectly all the real exigencies of the case.</p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Penrith.</span></h3>
-
-<p>In the neighbourhood of Penrith in Cumberland there is a group, or
-perhaps it should be said there are three groups of monuments, of
-considerable importance from their form and size, but deficient in
-interest from the absence of any tradition to account for their being
-where we find them. They extend in a nearly straight line from Little
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>
-
-Salkeld on the north to Shap on the south, a distance of fourteen miles
-as the crow flies, Penrith lying a little to the westward of the line,
-and nearer to its northern than its southern extremity.</p>
-
-<p>About half a mile from the first named village is the circle known
-popularly as Long Meg and her Daughters, sixty-eight in number, if each
-stone represents one. It is about 330 feet (100 metres) in diameter,
-but does not form a perfect circle. The stones are unhewn boulders,
-and very few of them are now erect. Outside the circle stands Long
-Meg herself, of a different class of stone from the others, about
-12 feet high, and apparently hewn, or at all events shaped, to some
-extent.<a name="FNanchor_149" id="FNanchor_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a>
-Inside the circle, Camden reports "the existence of two
-cairns of stone, under which they say are dead bodies buried; and
-indeed it is probable enough," he adds, "that it has been a monument
-erected in honour of some victory."<a name="FNanchor_150" id="FNanchor_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a>
-No trace of these cairns now remains, nor am I aware that the centre
-has ever been dug into with a view of looking for interments. My
-impression, however, is that the principal interment was outside,
-and that Long Meg marks either the head or the foot of the chief's
-grave.</p>
-
-<p>Close to Penrith is another circle called Mayborough, of about the
-same dimensions&mdash;100 metres&mdash;as that at Little Salkeld, but of a very
-different construction. The vallum or enclosure is entirely composed
-of small water-worn stones taken from the beds of the Eamount or Eden
-rivers. The stones are wonderfully uniform in size, and just about
-what any man could carry without inconvenience. This enclosure mound
-is now so mined that it is extremely difficult to guess what were
-its dimensions. It may have been from 15 feet to 20 feet high, and
-twice that in breadth at its base. The same cause makes it difficult
-to determine the dimensions of the internal area. The floor of the
-circle I calculated as 290 feet from the foot of one slope to the foot
-of the opposite one, and consequently the whole as from 320 feet to
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
-
-340 feet<a name="FNanchor_151" id="FNanchor_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a>
-from crest to crest; but these dimensions must be taken
-as only approximative till a more careful survey is made than it was
-in my power to execute. Near, but not quite in the centre, stands a
-single splendid monolith; it may be 12 feet in height, but is more than
-twice the bulk of Long Meg. In Pennant's time there were four stones
-still standing in the centre, of which this was one, and probably
-there may originally have been several more forming a small circle
-in the centre.<a name="FNanchor_152" id="FNanchor_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a>
-In his day also he learned that there were four stones&mdash;two
-pairs&mdash;standing in a gap in the vallum looking like the
-commencement of an avenue. The place, however, is too near Penrith, and
-stone is there too valuable to allow of such things escaping, so that
-nothing now remains which would enable us to restore this monument with
-certainty.</p>
-
-<p>Close by this is a third circle known as Arthur's Round Table.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration29"></a>
-<img src="images/i_029.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">29.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Sketch Plan of King Arthur's Round Table, with the
-side, obliterated by the road, restored.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>It consists, or consisted, of a vallum of earth, as near as can be
-made out, 300 feet from crest to crest; but about one-third of the
-circle being cut away to form a road, it is not easy to speak with
-certainty. Inside the rampart is a broad berm, then a ditch, and in
-the centre a plateau about 170 feet in diameter, slightly raised in
-the centre. No stone is visible on the surface, though the rampart
-when broken into shows that it is principally composed of them. There
-is now only one entrance through the rampart and across the ditch, but
-as both entrances existed in Pennant's time (1772), and are figured in
-his plan of the monument, I have not hesitated to restore the second
-accordingly.<a name="FNanchor_153" id="FNanchor_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a>
-The distance between Mayborough and King Arthur's Round Table is about
-110 yards, and at about the same distance from the last-named monument,
-a third circle existed in Pennant's time. It seems, however, to have
-been in his day at least only a circular ditch, and has now entirely
-disappeared.</p>
-
-<p>Owing to their more ruined state, the remains at Shap are more
-difficult to describe. They were, however, visited by Stukeley in 1725,
-but he complains it rained all the time that he was there, and rain on
-a bleak exposed moor like Shap is singularly inimical to antiquarian
-pursuits.<a name="FNanchor_154" id="FNanchor_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a>
-The remains were also described by Camden,<a name="FNanchor_155" id="FNanchor_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a>
-but not apparently from personal observation, and others have described
-them since, but the destruction has been so rapid, the village being
-almost entirely built out of them, that it is now extremely difficult
-to ascertain what they really were. All, however, are agreed that the
-principal monument was an alignment, according to some of a double
-row of stones, of which others can only trace a single row. So far
-as I could make out on the spot, it commenced near a spot called
-the Thunder-stone, in the north, where there are seven large stones
-in a field; six are arranged as a double row; the seventh seems to
-commence a single line, from this all the way to a place at the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>
-
-southern extremity of the village, called Karl Lofts, single stones
-may be traced at intervals, in apparently a perfectly straight line
-and still beyond this, at a farmyard called Brackenbyr, Mr. Simpson
-fancied he could, in 1859, trace the remains of a circle 400 feet in
-diameter, with a large obelisk in the centre.<a name="FNanchor_156" id="FNanchor_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a>
-I confess I was not so fortunate in 1869, and I also differ from him
-as to the position of the stone row. He seems to fancy, from the
-description of Stukeley, that it was situated to the southward of Karl
-Lofts, though he could not detect any traces of it. My impression is
-that it commenced with the circle at Brackenbyr, immediately south of
-Karl Lofts, and proceeded in a north-westerly direction for nearly a
-mile and a half to the Thunder-stone, as before mentioned. Rather more
-than half a mile due south of Brackenbyr stands a portion of what was
-once a very fine circle. It was partially destroyed by the railway,
-but seems to have been a hundred-foot circle, and to have stood
-considerably in advance of the line of the avenue, in the same relative
-position to the stone row as the circle at Merivale Bridge
-(<a href="#Illustration12">woodcut No. 12</a>), or as Stonehenge to its
-cursus (<a href="#Illustration26">woodcut No. 26</a>), whether we
-assume that it was continued in this direction, or terminated as above
-indicated. In front of the circle is a noble tumulus, called Kemp How,
-in which the body of a man of gigantic stature is said to have been
-found.<a name="FNanchor_157" id="FNanchor_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a></p>
-
-<p>According to the popular tradition the stone avenue originally
-extended to Muir Divock, a distance of rather more than five miles,
-to which it certainly points. Though this is most improbable, it is
-not wholly without reason, as on Muir Divock there are five or six
-circles of stone and several tumuli. The circles have most of them
-been opened recently, and in all instances were found to contain
-cists or other evidence of interments.<a name="FNanchor_158" id="FNanchor_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a>
-Immediately over the Muir stands a commanding hill, 1747 feet high,
-marked on the Ordnance Survey as Arthur's Pike. Besides these, on the
-hill behind Shap, to the eastward, are several stone circles, some
-single, some double, but none are of any great size, or composed of
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>
-
-stones of very large dimensions. The whole aspect of the country is
-that of a district used as a burying-place to an extent far beyond
-anything that the usual inhabitants of the locality could have
-required, for a bleaker and more ungenial spot is not inhabited in any
-part of these islands.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>So far as I know, no credible tradition attaches to these monuments
-so as to connect them with any historical or local incident. We
-are, therefore, left almost wholly to their intrinsic forms, or to
-analogies, to determine either their history or their purposes.</p>
-
-<p>No one will now probably be found seriously to maintain that the long
-stone row at Shap was a temple either of the Druids or of any one else.
-At least if these ancient people thought a single or even a double
-row of widely-spaced stones, stretching to a mile and a half across
-a bleak moor, was a proper form for a place to worship in, they must
-have been differently constituted from ourselves. Unless they possessed
-the tails, or at least the long-pointed ears with which Darwin endows
-our ancestors, they would have adopted some form of temple more nearly
-similar to those used in all other countries of the world. Nor was it a
-tomb. Not only have no sepulchral remains been found here, but nowhere
-else has any trace of such a purpose been found connected with such
-alignments. Even, however, if it is contended that it is sepulchral,
-it certainly was not the burying-place of the hamlet of Shap, or of
-its neighbourhood, for a more miserable spot for habitation does not
-exist in England, and it cannot be that Shap, like Avebury, should
-require the most magnificent cemeteries in the island, while nothing of
-the sort exists near the great centres of population. Had the country
-been as thickly inhabited as China, we might fancy the people seeking
-waste uncultivable spots in which to bury their dead, but even at the
-present day Woking is the only cemetery that has been selected on this
-principle in England, and at any previous time to which we can look
-back, the idea appears too absurd to be entertained for a moment.</p>
-
-<p>If, therefore, the alignment at Shap was sepulchral, it must have
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
-
-been the burying-place of those that fell in some battle on the spot;
-this in fact brings us to the only suggestion I am aware of that seems
-at all tenable: that it marks a battle-field like those on Dartmoor
-(<i>ante</i>, p. 54), and others we shall meet with hereafter.</p>
-
-<p>Excavations have proved that all the smaller circles which abound in
-the neighbourhood are graves, and if those from 60 feet to 100 feet
-in diameter are so, all analogy must lead us to the inference that
-the 100-metre circles are so also. Direct proof has not, however, yet
-been obtained of this, but that may arise first from the difficulty of
-excavating so large an area; or it may be that the bodies were buried
-outside the circle, as at Hakpen (<i>ante</i>, p. 76), or at the foot of the
-stones, as at Crichie (<i>ante</i>, p. 75) or in those circles which have
-no erect stones in a similar position&mdash;at the toe of the inner slope
-of the rampart&mdash;and these are just the places where they have not been
-looked for. Meanwhile the cairns in the inside of the circle of Long
-Meg's Daughters seem to favour this view of their sepulchral purpose.
-But if sepulchres, certainly they were not family or princely tombs. If
-that was their destination they would not be found only in two or three
-groups in the wildest and most remote parts of the country, but in far
-greater numbers, and nearer those places where men most do congregate.
-We are in fact driven to Camden's suggestion, that they may have been
-made to celebrate some victory; but, if so, what victory? It looks like
-riding a hobby very hard to make the same suggestion as was made with
-regard to Avebury, but I confess I know no other that can be brought
-forward with so much plausibility as that of considering them to be
-memorials of Arthur's campaigns against the Saxon invaders.</p>
-
-<p>The first objection that will naturally be raised to this hypothesis
-is, that King Arthur was a myth, and never fought any battles at all.
-It was not necessary to examine this when speaking of Avebury. All that
-was then required was to know if Waden Hill was Badon Hill. If it was
-the site of that famous battle, there was no further enquiry necessary.
-Arthur, and he only, commanded there; and if we admit the fact of the
-battle being fought, we admit at the same time the existence of him who
-commanded there. But with regard to the other eleven battles mentioned
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>
-
-by Nennius<a name="FNanchor_159" id="FNanchor_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a>
-the case is not so clear, and according to the present fashionable
-school of historical criticism it is thought reasonable to reject
-the whole as a myth, because the evidence is not such as would stand
-examination in a court of law, and also because the story as it now
-stands is so mixed up with incredible fables as to throw discredit
-on the whole. It is very much easier to heap ridicule on the silly
-miracles which Merlin is said by medi&#230;val minstrels to have
-performed, and to laugh at the marvellous exploits of Arthur and the
-Knights of his Round Table, than to attempt to glean the few facts
-which their wild poetry has left unobscured. But if any one will
-attempt the same process with one of the many 'Lhystoires du noble
-et vaillant roy Alexandre le grand,' he will find exactly the same
-difficulties. Aristotle and his master have been rendered quite as
-fabulous persons as Merlin and Arthur, and the miracles of the one and
-the feats of the other are equally marvellous. In Alexander's case we
-fortunately have Arrian and Curtius, and others, who give us the truth
-with regard to him; but Arthur had no contemporary history, and instead
-of living in a highly civilized state that continued for ages after
-him, he was the last brilliant light of his age and race, and after him
-all was gloom for centuries. It was not till after a long eclipse that
-his name was seized upon in a poetical and an uncritical age as a peg
-for bards whereupon to hang their wild imaginings.</p>
-
-<p>This is not the place to examine so large a question. It will be
-sufficient to state what I believe to be the main facts. Those who
-do not admit them need not read further. Arthur, it seems to me, was
-born the prince of one of the smaller states in the West of England,
-probably Cornwall, and after the death of Ambrosius, in or about the
-year 508, took up the struggle the latter had carried on with varying
-success against the hordes of Saxons and others who were gradually
-pushing the Bryts out of England. My impression is, that even before
-the Romans left, Jutes, Angles, and Danes had not only traded with,
-but had settled, both on the Saxonicum littus of Kent, and on the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>
-
-coast of Yorkshire, Northumberland, and the Lothians; and that during
-the century that elapsed between the departure of the Romans and the
-time of Arthur, they were gradually pushing the British population
-behind the range of hills which extends from Carlisle to Derby and
-forms the back-bone of England. It was in the plains behind this range
-and further south that all Arthur's battles seem to have been fought.
-With Cumberland, Wales, and Cornwall behind him, he was not only sure
-of support from the native population in his rear, but had a secure
-retreat in case of adverse fortune overtaking him. In all this range
-of country I do not know any spot so favourable strategically for
-a defender of his country to take up as the high land about Shap,
-or the open country extending from thence to Salkeld. The ridges at
-Shap protected his right against an enemy advancing by Lancaster, the
-Caledonian Forest and a very rugged country covered his left, and in
-front there was only a wild inhospitable tract by which the invader
-from the opposite coast could advance against him, while by a single
-day's march to his rear he was among the inaccessible mountains and
-lakes of Cumberland.</p>
-
-<p>I am afraid to lay much stress on the fact of one of the circles at
-Penrith and the hill opposite Shap bearing Arthur's name, because in
-the last few years we have seen two hard-headed sober-minded Scotchmen
-proving, to their own satisfaction, that Arthur was born north of the
-Tweed&mdash;that all his battles were fought and all his exploits performed
-in the northern portion of the island. Even Ganora&mdash;the faithless
-Guinevere&mdash;if not a Scotchwoman, was at all events buried in Miegle
-churchyard under a stone, which some pious descendant sculptured some
-centuries later.<a name="FNanchor_160" id="FNanchor_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a>
-Even here, however, I fancy I can perceive a difference between the
-two cases. In the middle ages the Scotch had historians like Boece
-and Fordun, who recorded such fables for the edification of their
-countrymen, and with proper patriotism were willing that their country
-should have as large a share of the world's greatness or great men as
-they could well appropriate. They were followed by an educated class
-throughout the country, who were actuated by the same motives, and
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
-
-did exactly what Stukeley and his followers did with English monuments.
-They found Druids who had no temples, and remains which they supposed
-to be temples with no priests; so, putting the two together, they made
-what they fancied was a perfect whole out of two incongruous halves.
-So the Scotch, having a rich repertory of fables on the one hand, and
-on the other having hills without names and sculptured stones without
-owners, joined the two together, and went on repeating in the same
-manner their inventions till, from dire reiteration, they took the
-likeness of fact.</p>
-
-<p>The case was, if I mistake not, very different in Cumberland. The boors
-of that land had no literature&mdash;no learning, and none of that ardent
-patriotism which enabled the Scotch poets and pedants to manufacture
-a quasi history for themselves out of other people's doings. It is
-difficult to fancy the inhabitants of Cumberland troubling themselves
-with Arthur and his affairs, and wishing to apply his name to
-their hills or antiquities, unless some ancient tradition had made
-it probable, and, "valeat quantum," these names may therefore be
-considered as suggesting a real connexion between the place and the man.</p>
-
-<p>Owing to the extreme brevity of the record in Nennius,<a name="FNanchor_161" id="FNanchor_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a>
-there are few things about which greater discrepancy of opinion exists
-even among the believers in Arthur than the localities of his battles.
-Taking them in the order in which they are mentioned, the first is said
-to have been fought on the river Glem of Glein, which the editors of
-the 'Monumenta Historica Britannica' suggest may be a river of that
-name in Northumberland. The river indicated is so small a brook that it
-is difficult to fancy its name should be attached to so important an
-event.</p>
-
-<p>If we must go so far north, I would rather feel inclined to place it
-at Wood Castle, near Lochmaben, in Dumfriesshire, where there is a
-circular enclosure identical in plan and dimensions with King Arthur's
-Round Table at Penrith.<a name="FNanchor_162" id="FNanchor_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a>
-Strategically, it is a much more likely spot than the exposed east
-coast of Northumberland; but, except the plan of Wood Castle, I know
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>
-
-of no authority for placing this battle-field in Annandale.</p>
-
-<p>There is no indication where the second, third, or fourth battles were
-fought; but for the fifth we have this important designation that it
-was fought "super aliud flumen quod vocatur Duglas vel Dubglas quod est
-in regione Linuis," or in another MS. Linnuis. A marginal note suggests
-Lindesay, in Lincolnshire, but for no other reason apparently than from
-the first three letters being the same in both. There is a River Duglas
-flowing past Wigan, in Lancashire, which Whittaker, in his 'History
-of Manchester,' boldly adopts as the place indicated, and others have
-been inclined to accept his determination. After going carefully over
-the ground, I confess no spot appears to me more unlikely for a great
-battle than the banks of this river, nor does any local evidence of
-their having been so now remain. One cannot but feel that if Arthur
-ever allowed himself to be pushed into such a corner, with nothing but
-the sea behind him to retreat upon, he certainly was not the general
-that made so successful a stand against the Saxons. I am much more
-inclined to believe that Linnuis is only a barbarous latinization of
-Linn, which in Gaelic and Irish means sea or lake. In Welsh it is Lyn,
-and in Anglo-Saxon Lin, and if this is so, "In regione Linnuis" may
-mean "In the Lake Country."</p>
-
-<p>The name of the river does not appear to me at all an insuperable
-difficulty. All the rivers about Penrith, the Lowther, the Eamount,
-and the Eden, have names that were certainly given to them by the
-Saxons, but they must have had Celtic names before they came; and Dubh
-as an adjective is dark or black, and Glas, green or grey, is used
-as a substantive to denote the sea, in Irish. Such an epithet would
-apply admirably to the Lowther; and if it could be identified with the
-river mentioned by Nennius, our difficulties would be at an end. These
-speculations, however, must of course be taken for what they are worth.
-There is, so far as known, no authority for the name Duglas or Dubhglas
-being applied to the Lowther or Eden.</p>
-
-<p>The sixth battle was on a river called Bassas. It has been suggested
-that this means the Bass Rock in the Frith of Forth; but it need hardly
-be objected that a rock is not a river, and there is an extreme
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
-
-improbability that Arthur ever saw the Lothians. In Derbyshire there is
-a Bas Lowe<a name="FNanchor_163" id="FNanchor_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a>
-in a neighbourhood where, as we shall presently see, there is reason to
-believe Arthur fought one or more of his battles, but I am not aware of
-any river so called in that neighbourhood.</p>
-
-<p>The seventh war was in Silva Calidonis, "id est Cat Coit Celidon."
-The Cat in the last name is evidently Cat or Cath, "a battle," which
-we frequently meet with, and shall again in describing these matters.
-Coit, only so far as the dictionaries tell us, means coracle, and would
-seem to indicate a struggle in boats. The Caledonian Forest, is what
-will really determine the locality. Generally it is understood to be
-the forest that extended from Penrith to Carlisle; and, if so, any one
-of our Penrith circles might be assumed to mark the site of the seventh
-battle. Most probably in that case it would be the Salkeld circle, or
-it might be one known as the Grey Yawds, near Cumrew, about eight or
-nine miles further north.<a name="FNanchor_164" id="FNanchor_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a></p>
-
-<p>The eighth battle was in Castello Guinnion, or Guin, which, from the
-sound of the name, can hardly escape being in Wales or the Welsh
-border, unless indeed we assume that these Welsh appellations were
-common to the whole country before the Saxons re-named many of the
-places. In that case we have nothing to guide us as to where the battle
-was fought.</p>
-
-<p>The ninth battle was "in Urbe Legionis." This may be either Chester
-or Caerleon in South Wales. It most probably was the latter, as in
-another MS. it is added "qu&#230; Britannice Karlium dicitur," or Cair lin
-in another.</p>
-
-<p>The tenth war was on the shores of a river which was called Ribroit.
-Though this is spelt in various MSS. Tribruit, Trathreuroit, and
-Trattreuroit, it seems impossible to identify it. But it must have been
-a large river, or the expression "in littore" would hardly have been
-used.</p>
-
-<p>The eleventh battle "fuit in Monte quod dicitur Agned Cathregonnon;"
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>
-
-and in different MSS. this is spelt Cathregomion, Cabregonnon,
-Catbregonnion, and in one it is added, "in Somersetshire quem nos
-Cathbregion appellamus." No such name seems now to be known in that
-country; but as we shall presently, I hope, see reason for believing,
-the spot is probably that now known as Stanton Drew.</p>
-
-<p>The twelfth battle was that of Mount Badon, the position of which,
-as we have already pointed out, may almost certainly be fixed in the
-immediate neighbourhood of Avebury.</p>
-
-<p>All this is indistinct enough, it must be confessed, and much of it
-depends on nominal similarities, which are never very satisfactory;
-still the general impression it leaves seems worthy of acceptance. It
-would lead us to think that Arthur commenced his struggles with the
-invaders in the north of England, probably in the time of Ambrosius,
-and fought his way southwards, till after twelve campaigns, or twelve
-battles, he reached his crowning victory at Badon Hill, which gave
-him peace for the rest of his days. At all events, with respect to
-the first seven battles, there seems no reason why we should not
-appropriate any of them except perhaps the first&mdash;to our Cumberland
-circles. The proof of whether or not it is reasonable to do so will of
-course depend on the case we can make out for the other circles we have
-to examine, and on the general interdependence which the whole series
-can be shown to have on one another.</p>
-
-<p>At present it may be allowed to stand on an hypothesis, which certainly
-has the merit of explaining the facts as now known; but the probability
-or disproof of which must depend on the facts and arguments to be
-adduced hereafter.</p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Derbyshire.</span></h3>
-
-<p>The next group of monuments with which we have to deal is perhaps as
-interesting as any of those hitherto described. As before mentioned,
-when speaking of the labours of William and Thomas Bateman, the
-north-western portion of the county is crowded with barrows, but none
-apparently of so ancient a character as those excavated by Canon
-Greenwell in Yorkshire, and most of them containing objects of so
-miscellaneous a character as to defy systematic classification. As
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>
-
-these, however, hardly belong to the subject of which we are now
-treating, it is not necessary to say more about them at present; and
-the less so, that the group which falls directly in with our line of
-research is well defined as to locality, and probably also as to age.</p>
-
-<p>The principal monument of this group is well-known to antiquaries as
-Arbe or Arbor Low,<a name="FNanchor_165" id="FNanchor_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a>
-and is situated about nine miles south by east from Buxton, and by a
-curious coincidence is placed in the same relative position to the
-Roman Road as Avebury. So much is this the case, that in the Ordnance
-Survey&mdash;barring the scale&mdash;the one might be mistaken for the
-other if cut out from the neighbouring objects. Minning Low, however,
-which is the pendant of Silbury Hill in this group, is four miles off,
-though still in the line of the Roman road, instead of only one mile,
-as in the Wiltshire example. Besides, there is a most interesting Saxon
-Low at Benty Grange, about one mile from Arbor Low. Gib Hill, Kens Low,
-Ringham Low, End Low, Lean Low, and probably altogether ten or twelve
-important mounds covering a space five miles in one direction, by one
-and a half to two miles across.</p>
-
-<p>Arbor Low consists of a circular platform, 167 feet in diameter,
-surrounded by a ditch 18 feet broad at bottom, the earth taken from
-which has been used to form a rampart about 15 feet to 18 feet high,
-and measuring about 820 feet in circumference on the top.<a name="FNanchor_166" id="FNanchor_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a>
-The first thing that strikes us on looking at the plan (<a href="#Illustration30">woodcut No. 30</a>) is
-that, in design and general dimensions, the monument is identical with
-that called "Arthur's Round Table," at Penrith. The one difference is
-that, in this instance, the section of the ditch, and consequently that
-of the rampart, have been increased at the expense of the berm; but the
-arrangements of both are the same, and so are the internal and external
-dimensions. At Arbor Low there are two entrances across the ditch, as
-there was in the Cumberland and Dumfriesshire examples. As mentioned
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>
-
-above, only one is now visible there, the other having been obliterated
-by the road, but the two circles are in other respects so similar as to
-leave very little doubt as to their true features.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration30"></a>
-<img src="images/i_030.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">30.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Arbor Low. From a drawing by Sir Gardner Wilkinson.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Derbyshire example, however, possesses, in addition to its
-earthworks, a circle of stones on its inner platform, originally
-probably forty or fifty in number; but all now prostrate, except
-perhaps some of the smallest, which, being nearly cubical, may still be
-in <i>situ</i>. In the centre of the platform, also, are several very large
-stones, which evidently formed part of a central dolmen.</p>
-
-<p>There is another very interesting addition at Arbor Low, which is
-wanting at Penrith, this is a tumulus attached unsymmetrically to the
-outer vallum. This was, after repeated attempts, at last successfully
-excavated by the Messrs. Bateman, and found to contain a cist of rather
-irregular shape, in which were found among other things two vases<a name="FNanchor_167" id="FNanchor_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a>
-one of singularly elegant shape, the other less so. In themselves
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>
-
-these objects are not sufficient to determine the age of the barrow,
-but they suffice to show that it was not very early. One great point
-of interest in this discovery is its position with reference to the
-circle. It is identical with that of Long Meg with reference to her
-daughters, and perhaps some of the stones outside Avebury, supposed to
-be the commencement of the avenue, may mark the principal places of
-interment.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration31"></a>
-<img src="images/i_031.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">31.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Vases and Bronze Pin found in Arbor Low.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration32"></a>
-<img src="images/i_032.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">32.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Section of Gib Hill. No scale.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Attached to Arbor Low, at a distance of about 250 yards, is another
-tumulus, called Gib Hill, apparently about 70 to 80 feet in
-diameter.<a name="FNanchor_168" id="FNanchor_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a>
-It was carefully excavated by Mr. T. Bateman in 1848;
-but after tunnelling through and through it in every direction on
-the ground level and finding nothing, he was surprised at finding,
-on removing the timber which supported his galleries, that the side
-of the hill fell in, and disclosed the cist very near the summit.
-The whole fell down, and the stones composing the cist were removed
-and re-erected in the garden of Lumberdale House. It consisted of
-four massive blocks of limestone forming the sides of a chamber, 2
-feet by 2 feet 6 inches, and covered by one 4 feet square. The cap
-stone was not more than 18 inches below the turf. By the sudden fall
-of the side a very pretty vase was crushed, the fragments mingling
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>
-
-with the burnt bones it contained; but though restored, unfortunately
-no representation has been given. The only other articles found in
-this tumulus were "a battered celt of basaltic stone, a dart or
-javelin-point of flint, and a small iron fibula, which had been
-enriched with precious stones."<a name="FNanchor_169" id="FNanchor_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration33"></a>
-<img src="images/i_033.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">33.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Summit of Minning Low, as it appeared in 1786. From
-Douglas.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration34"></a>
-<img src="images/i_034.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">34.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan of Chambers in Minning Low.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Though Gib Hill is interesting as the first of the high-level dolmens
-which we have met with in this country, Minning Low is a still more
-striking example of that class which we hinted at before as common
-in Aveyron (<i>ante</i>, woodcut No. 8), and which we shall meet with
-frequently as we proceed. When it first attracted the attention of
-antiquaries in 1786, Minning Low seems to have been a straight-lined
-truncated cone, about 300 feet in diameter, and the platform on
-its summit measured 80 feet across.<a name="FNanchor_170" id="FNanchor_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a>
-Its height could not be ascertained.<a name="FNanchor_171" id="FNanchor_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a>
-It was even then planted over with trees, so that these dimensions,
-except the breadth of the platform, are hardly to be depended upon, and
-since then the whole mound has been so dug into and ruined, that they
-cannot now be verified. On the platform at the top in 1786 there stood
-live kistvaens, each capable of containing-one body; and, so far as
-can be made out from Douglas' plates and descriptions, the cap stone
-of these was flush with the surface, or possibly, as at Gib Hill, they
-may have been a few inches below the surface, and, becoming exposed,
-may have been rifled as they were found; but this is hardly probable,
-because unless always exposed, it is not likely they would have been
-either looked for in such a situation, or found by accident. Below
-them&mdash;at what depth we are not told&mdash;a stone chamber, or
-rather three chambers, were found by Mr. Bateman, apparently on the
-level of the ground on the south side of the Barrow.<a name="FNanchor_172" id="FNanchor_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a>
-To use Mr. Bateman's own words ('Vestiges,' &amp;c., p. 39): "On the
-summit of Minning Low Hill, as they now appear from the soil being
-removed from them, are two large cromlechs, exactly of the same
-construction as the well-known Kit's Cotty-house, near Maidstone,
-in Kent. In the cell near which the body lay were found fragments
-of five urns, some animal bones, and six brass Roman coins, viz.,
-one of Claudius Gothicus (270), two of Constantine the Great, two
-of Constantine, junior, and one of Valentinian. There is a striking
-analogy between this and the great Barrow at New Grange, described by
-Dr. Ledwich, of which a more complete investigation of Minning Low
-would probably furnish additional proofs." Mr. Bateman was not then
-aware that a coin of Valentinian had been found in the New Grange
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
-
-mound,<a name="FNanchor_173" id="FNanchor_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a>
-which is one similarity in addition.</p>
-
-<p>The fact of these coins being found here fixes a date beyond which
-it is impossible to carry back the age of this mound, but not the
-date below which it may have been erected. The coins found in British
-barrows seem almost always those of the last Emperors who held sway
-in Britain, and whose coins may have been preserved and to a certain
-extent kept in circulation after all direct connexion with Rome had
-ceased, and thus their rarity or antiquity may have made them suitable
-for sepulchral deposits. No coin of Augustus or any of the earlier
-Emperors was ever found in or on any of these rude tumuli, which must
-certainly have been the case had any of them been pre-Roman. This mound
-is consequently certainly subsequent to the first half of the fourth
-century, and how much more modern it may be remains to be determined.</p>
-
-<p>Be this as it may, if Mr. Bateman's suggestion that this monument is a
-counterpart of Kit's Cotty-house is correct&mdash;and no one who is familiar
-with the two monuments will probably dispute it&mdash;this at once removes
-any improbability from the argument that the last-named may be the
-grave of Catigren. The one striking difference between the two is, that
-Kit's Cotty-house is an external free-standing dolmen, while Minning
-Low is buried in a tumulus. This, according to the views adopted in
-these pages, from the experience of other monuments, would lead to the
-inference that the Kentish example was the more modern of the two. It
-is not, however, worth while arguing that point here; for our present
-purpose it is sufficient to know that both are post-Roman, and probably
-not far distant in date.</p>
-
-<p>Another barrow belonging to this group is at Benty Grange, about a
-mile from Arbor Low, which, though of a different character, may be
-connected with the others. One body only was buried in it, of which
-no trace, however, remained but the hair.<a name="FNanchor_174" id="FNanchor_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a>
-There was apparently little more than 2 feet of earth over it.
-The first thing found was a leather drinking-cup, ornamented in silver
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>
-
-with stars and crosses. Two circular enamels were also there, adorned
-with that interlacing pattern found in the earliest Anglo-Saxon or
-Irish MSS. of the sixth or seventh centuries, or it may be a little
-earlier; a helmet also was found, formed of iron bars, with bronze and
-silver ornaments, and surmounted by what Mr. Bateman assures us was a
-perfectly distinct representation of a hog. He then quotes from Beowulf
-several passages, in which the poet describes: "The boar an ornament to
-the head, the helmet lofty in wars" (l. 4299).... "They seemed a boar's
-form to bear over their cheeks" (l. 604).... "At the pile was easy to
-be seen, the mail-shirt covered with gore, the hog of gold, the boar
-hard as iron" (l. 2213). As Beowulf lived, as shown above, probably
-in the fifth century, the poem may be taken as describing perfectly
-the costume of the warriors of his day; and nothing could answer more
-completely his description than the contents of this tomb.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration35"></a>
-<img src="images/i_035.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">35.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Fragment of Drinking Cup from Benty Grange.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration36"></a>
-<img src="images/i_036.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">36.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Fragment of Helmet from Benty Grange.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In Kenslow Barrow, between Minning Low and Arbor Low, were found a few
-implements of flint and bone; but on clearing out the grave in the
-rock, which had been examined before in 1821, Mr. S. Bateman found some
-portions of the skeleton undisturbed, and with them a small neat bronze
-dagger, and a little above these an iron knife of the shape and size
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
-
-usually deposited in Anglo-Saxon interments.<a name="FNanchor_175" id="FNanchor_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a>
-Of course the theory of successive interments is called on to explain
-away these disturbing facts; but there seems nothing here to justify
-any other inference than that in this case all the deposits belonged
-to the same age. This, therefore, may be added to the examples quoted
-from the 'Vestiges,' to show how little the Danish system is really
-applicable to the class of monuments of which we are treating.</p>
-
-<p>On Stanton Moor, four miles east from Kenslow, and about five miles
-from Arbor Low and Minning Low respectively, there are many monuments,
-both of earth and stone, which, though on a smaller scale, seem to
-belong to the same age as those just described. They seem to have been
-very much overlooked by the Batemans, but a very detailed account of
-them is given by Mr. Rooke in the sixth volume of the 'Arch&#230;ologia,'
-in 1780. One of them, called the Nine Ladies, has been given already
-(<i>ante</i>, p. 49); but westward of it stands or stood a stone, called the
-King Stone, at a distance of 34 yards, thus suggesting a similarity to
-the Salkeld circle. Half a mile west from this, nearer Arbor Low, is
-another group of nine stones, the tallest 17 feet in height, and 75
-yards southward two stones of smaller dimensions; 200 yards from this
-an oval ring, the major axis of which measures 243 feet, the minor 156
-feet. It has what Mr. Rooke calls a double ditch, a rampart outside the
-ditch as well as one inside; it is, in fact, a less-developed example
-of that form of which Arbor Low and Arthur's Round Table are finished
-examples. On the east side of the Moor were three tall isolated stones,
-which in Rooke's time the natives still called Cat Stones, showing
-clearly that the tradition still remained of a battle fought there, but
-when or by whom no tradition lingers on the spot to enlighten us.</p>
-
-<p>All these monuments and many more which it would be tedious and
-uninteresting to particularize, are contained within a circle, which
-may be described with a radius of about three miles, the centre being
-half way between Henty Grange and Stanton Moor. It would perhaps be too
-much to assert that they are all of one age; but there is certainly a
-very strong family likeness among them, and they cannot differ much
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>
-
-either in age or purpose. It may also perhaps be conceded that they
-are not the tombs or temples of the inhabitants of the moors on which
-they stand. The country where they are situated is a bleak inhospitable
-tract, only not quite so bad as Shap, but hardly more able to support
-a large population, if left only to their own resources, than the
-Wiltshire Downs. These three localities could never consequently have
-been so much richer in this class of monuments than settlements in the
-more fertile parts of the island. Strangers must have erected them, and
-to determine who these strangers were, is the task to which antiquaries
-have now to apply themselves.</p>
-
-<p>Whatever may be determined on the point, one thing, I think, must and
-will be conceded, which is, that Arthur's Table at Penrith, Arbor Low,
-and Avebury, are monuments of the same age, and were dedicated to the
-same purposes. The first is a simple earthen monument, of a certain
-design and with certain dimensions; the second has the same design and
-dimensions, with the addition of a circle of stones and dolmen in the
-centre; the third has all the features that the other two possess, with
-the addition of increased dimensions, and the internal circles being
-doubled. But the internal ditch, the rampart, and the character of the
-circle and other features, are so like each other, and so unlike what
-are found elsewhere, that they must stand or fall together. If any one
-of these belonged to the age of Arthur, all three certainly did. If, on
-the other hand, any one of the three can be proved to belong to another
-age, the other two will hardly be able to maintain their position. The
-circles at Cumrew, Salkeld, and Mayborough, present so many points
-of similarity, that they, too, must probably be classed with these
-three, though there is not the same evidence to justify their being
-classed together. The stone avenue at Shap is also most probably the
-counterpart of that at Kennet; but the destruction of the circle at
-Brackenbyr, and the limited knowledge we have of it, prevent anything
-very definite being predicated regarding it.</p>
-
-<p>If we may consider Gib Hill as the analogue of Silbury Hill, its place
-and position may throw some light on the mystery attaching to the
-latter. The relative distances of these satellites to their primaries
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>
-
-is nearly proportional to the diameter of the circles, and they both
-present the peculiarity that they have no interment in their base.
-The Arch&#230;ological Institute in 1849 did exactly what the Batemans had
-done before them. They tunnelled and explored the base of Gib Hill,
-and gave it up in despair, when an accident revealed to them the grave
-over their heads, within 18 inches of the surface. The antiquaries were
-not so fortunate at Silbury; but judging from the analogy of Gib Hill,
-and still more from that of Minning Low, the graves may be expected
-to be found arranged around the plateau on the summit, probably six
-or seven in number, and as probably within a few feet of the surface.
-There was none in the centre of the platform at Minning Low, though
-there was in the smaller tumulus of Gib Hill; and this may account for
-the Duke of Northumberland's ill-success when he dug into the hill
-in 1776. Poor Stukeley was very much laughed at for prizing a very
-modern-looking iron bit, belonging to a bridle that was found on the
-top of the hill<a name="FNanchor_176" id="FNanchor_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a>
-(<a href="#Illustration18">woodcut No. 18</a>); yet it may turn out to be the only real fact he
-brought away from the place. Nothing but an iron sword was found in the
-kistvaen, on the top of Minning Low, but it was nearly perfect;<a name="FNanchor_177" id="FNanchor_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a>
-why should not the bridle be found, for we know that horses were
-frequently buried with the warriors they had borne in battle?</p>
-
-<p>Omitting Cornwall for the present, the circles at Stanton Drew form the
-only other group of any importance in England for which it remains to
-find a purpose and a name; and I confess I see no reason for separating
-them from those just named. There are so many points of similarity,
-that they can hardly be of an age far apart, and their purpose
-certainly is the same. If there is anything in the arguments adduced
-above, they must mark a battle-field. They are certainly not a family
-or a princely sepulchre, still less a local cemetery, nor need it now
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>
-
-be added, certainly not a temple.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration37"></a>
-<img src="images/i_037.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">37.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Circles at Stanton Drew. From a plan by Sir R. C.
-Hoare.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration38"></a>
-<img src="images/i_038.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">38.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; View of the Circles at Stanton Drew. From a sketch
-by Percy Shelton, Esq.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Their arrangement will be understood from the annexed woodcut (No.
-37). The group consists of one first-class circle or oval, 378 feet
-(?) by 345 feet&mdash;100 metres; and two of the second class, one 96 feet,
-the other 129; and a dolmen near the church, at a distance of 157
-yards from the last-named.<a name="FNanchor_178" id="FNanchor_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a>
-Attached to the two principal circles are short straight avenues,
-pointing apparently to two stones very near to one another&mdash;the
-one at a distance of 300 feet from the large circle, the other at the
-distance of about 100 from the smaller one, or at distances relative
-to their diameters. There is also a very large stone, called the King
-Stone, by the roadside, but beyond the limits of the plan. This, with
-the stones to which the avenues point, are probably the analogues of
-the detached stone, known as Long Meg, at Salkeld, or the Ring Stone,
-which stands 180 feet from one of the circles at Avebury; perhaps also
-of the two which are assumed to be the commencement of the Beckhampton
-avenue at that place, or of the Friar's heel at Stonehenge, or of the
-King Stone at Stanton Moor. In fact, all these circles seem to have
-detached stones standing at some little distance from them outside. It
-is there that I would look for the principal interments, rather than
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>
-
-in the circles themselves; but this is one of the questions that the
-spade, and the spade only, can decide. There is, however, also attached
-to the smaller of the two circles at Stanton Drew a heap of stones
-which is apparently the ruins of a dolmen, and these may mark the real
-place of interment, as does the tumulus attached to Arbor Low, which
-corresponds with them in position.</p>
-
-<p>The only recorded tradition with regard to this monument at Stanton
-Drew represents Keyna, a holy virgin in the fifth century, the daughter
-apparently of a Welsh prince, obtaining a grant of the land on which
-the village of Keynsham now stands from the prince of the country. She
-was warned, however, of the insecurity of the gift, in consequence of
-the serpents of a deadly species that infested the place. She accepted
-the gift notwithstanding, and by her prayers converted the serpents
-into the stones we now see there,<a name="FNanchor_179" id="FNanchor_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a>
-so at least Stukeley and Bathurst Dean assure us.</p>
-
-<p>Such a tradition is only valuable as indicating the date that is
-popularly ascribed to the monument. In this instance the fifth century
-is suggested, which may be 50 or even 100 years earlier than I would
-be inclined to assign it to, but such data are of little consequence.
-The date is also shadowed forth in the incident related; for not
-only in Ireland, but in France, and frequently also in England, the
-early struggles of the first Christian missionaries are represented
-as victories over the snakes or snake worshippers. St. Hilda, for
-instance, at Whitby signalized the establishment of Christianity in
-the seventh century by converting the Yorkshire snakes into Ammonites,
-which are still found there in quantities, which in the eyes of the
-peasantry are much more like stone snakes than the stones into which
-St. Keyna transformed her Somersetshire enemies.</p>
-
-<p>Whatever the value of these and such like traditions, one thing seems
-quite certain, that every local tradition which has yet been quoted
-represents these monuments as erected subsequently to Roman times,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>
-
-and generally as belonging to that transitional age when Christianity
-was struggling with Paganism for the mastery. The common people are
-generally willing enough to amuse themselves with fables about giants
-and demigods, and to wander back into prehistoric times; but with
-regard to these monuments they do not seem to have done so. I do not
-recollect a single tradition that ascribes any stone circle to the
-pre-Roman period.</p>
-
-<p>If, however, I am correct in assuming that these great groups of
-circles belong to the Arthurian age, we have no difficulty in assigning
-to this one its proper place in the series of his battles. The ninth,
-as we have seen above, was probably fought at Caerleon on the Usk;
-which would seem to indicate that, at a certain point in his career,
-Arthur was forced back quite out of England into South Wales; but
-his return on that hypothesis is easily traced. The tenth battle was
-on the shore of some large river, which ought in consequence to be
-the Severn, though the name given in the text lends no countenance
-to this supposition; the eleventh was "In monte quod dicitur Agned
-in Somersetshire," which would answer perfectly, except in name; for
-Stanton Drew, in that case, would be in the direct line of advance to
-Badon Hill, where the twelfth and crowning victory was fought.</p>
-
-<p>The name here, as throughout, creates the difficulty, but Stanton on
-the Stones, or Stone Town, is simply an epithet applied to all these
-groups by the Saxons at some period subsequent to that of which we are
-speaking, when the memory of their purpose was lost, or little cared
-for by those of a different race, and speaking a different language,
-who had succeeded to the Bryts, who had erected them. Unless we assume
-that Stonehenge, Stanton Drew, the circles on Stanton Moor, and the
-stones at Stennis, and others, were erected by the Saxons themselves,
-they must originally have borne Celtic names, and it would be these
-names that Nennius would quote, and which consequently could not be
-those by which they are now known.</p>
-
-<p>The expression "in monte" is singularly confirmatory of this
-determination, inasmuch as one of the remarkable features of the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>
-
-locality is the fortified hill known as Maes<a name="FNanchor_180" id="FNanchor_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a>
-Knoll, which literally looks into Stanton Drew, and is the most
-remarkable feature seen from it, and a fight on its ridge is as
-probable an operation as any likely to be undertaken in this
-quarter.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>If the above were all the evidence that could be produced in support
-of the hypothesis that all these great circles belonged to the
-Arthurian age, it might be admitted to be sufficient to establish not a
-conclusion but a fair <i>prima facie</i> case. The reasonableness, however,
-of what has been here advanced will, it is hoped, become more and more
-apparent as we proceed. Absolute mathematical or logical proof it is to
-be feared, in the present state of the evidence, is not available. Till
-attention is fairly turned to a certain definite line of argument, the
-experiments are not made, and the authorities are not read, which bear
-upon it, or if made or read are not understood; but when the arguments
-are examined with the earnest desire to prove or disprove them, new
-light springs up from every quarter, and before long there may be
-grounds for a positive answer.</p>
-
-<p>Meanwhile it may be well to point out, before going further, that this
-class of circles is peculiar to England. They do not exist in France
-or in Algeria. The Scandinavian circles are all very different, so too
-are the Irish. The one circle out of England that at all resembles them
-is that at Stennis, or rather Brogar, in the Orkneys, which will be
-described in detail further on. There we have a great 100-metre circle,
-with a ditch (but no rampart), a smaller 100-foot circle, with a ruined
-dolmen in its stone circle, as at Stanton Drew, and we have the Maes
-Knoll for the Maes How. The Stennis group has also the detached stones,
-though it wants the rudimentary avenues, and some minor peculiarities,
-and it may be more modern, but it is very similar; whereas those in
-Cornwall and elsewhere are small and irregular, and totally wanting
-in the dignity belonging to those which we have ventured to call
-Arthurian.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The arguments adduced in the preceding pages will probably be deemed
-sufficient to make out a strong case to show that these great circles
-were erected, at all events, after the departure of the Romans, and if
-this is so, it confines the field for discussion within very narrow
-limits. Either they must have been erected by the Romanized Britons
-before they were so completely Christianized as to be entirely weaned
-from their Pagan habits, or they were the works of the Saxons or
-Danes. We shall be in a better position to judge how far it is likely
-that the latter were the authors, when we have examined the rude
-stone monuments of Scandinavia or Friesland, from which countries
-the Northmen descended on our shores. When this is done, we shall
-probably come to the conclusion that, as they erected Dolmens as
-burying-places for their dead, and Menhirs or Bauta Stones and circles
-in their battle-fields, there is no improbability of their having done
-so also here. The question, however, is, did they erect these great
-100-metre circles? These are unique, so far as I know; a class quite by
-themselves, and so similar, whether found in Cumberland or Derbyshire,
-or in Wilts or Somersetshire, that, with the probable exception of the
-Orkney group, they must be the work of one people, and also nearly of
-the same age. If, in fact, they do not mark the battle-fields to which
-I have attempted to ascribe them, they must mark something nearly
-approximating to them in date, and as nearly analogous in intention and
-purpose.</p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Smaller Circles.</span></h3>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration39"></a>
-<img src="images/i_039.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">39.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Rose Hill Tumulus. From the 'Arch&#230;ologia,' vol. x.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>It would be as tedious as unprofitable to attempt to enumerate all
-the smaller circles existing in various parts of England; but there
-are two or three which are curious in themselves, and interesting as
-illustrating the large circles of which we have just been treating.
-The first to be mentioned is one situated in Englewood Forest, near
-Rose Hill, and therefore nearly equidistant from Cumrew, Salkeld, and
-Carlisle. Locally, therefore, it belongs to the Cumberland group,
-described above, and may do so in date also. It is a low platform,
-it can hardly be called a tumulus, as it is only 12 feet high. It is
-circular, and measures 63 feet across. On the platform stand, or at
-least stood in 1787, three bilithons, or groups of two tall stones
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>
-
-standing side by side, like those in the inner circle at Stonehenge.
-Mr. Rooke dug in front of one of these, with the intention of seeing
-how deep it was in the ground, but to his astonishment he found a cist
-formed of six perfectly well fitted hewn stones, but measuring little
-more than 2 feet each way. In front of the other outside group he
-found a similar cist, but a little larger, 2 feet 10 inches by 2 feet
-2 inches, and further removed from the central pair of upright stones,
-and nearer the centre of the circle, a third cist, formed equally of
-hewn and well fitted stones. In all three of these were found human
-bones, fragments of skulls, teeth, &amp;c., but no implements or ornaments
-of any sort, only under one head a metallic lump, with apparently
-particles of gold in it.<a name="FNanchor_181" id="FNanchor_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a>
-This was sent to the Society of Antiquaries for examination, but with
-what result
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>
-
-is not stated.<a name="FNanchor_182" id="FNanchor_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a>
-According to the plan, it would appear as if there were originally six
-interments in the mound. In fact, that it was the counterpart of the
-top of Minning Low, with the addition of the pairs of obelisks. Mr.
-Rooke was, however, so much puzzled at finding Druids buried six feet
-below the floor of their own temple, that he did not seek further.
-But if the mound still exists, it would be very interesting to know
-if any more cists exist in the mound, or any burial deeper down below
-them, as in the Derbyshire example. It might contain coins, and if so,
-would be interesting as another example of its date; but meanwhile its
-truncated conoidal form and arrangement of graves, and of trilithons,
-are sufficient to show that it was cotemporary with Minning Low and
-Stonehenge, or at all events not far from their date.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration40"></a>
-<img src="images/i_040.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">40.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Snaffle-Bit found at Aspatria.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the same paper in which Mr. Rooke describes the Rose Hill tumulus
-he gives an account of an excavation at a place called Aspatria, a
-little farther westward, and near St. Bees. They cleared away a barrow
-about 90 feet in diameter, and at 3 feet below the original surface
-of the ground found a cist in which lay the skeleton of a man of
-gigantic stature. As he lay extended, he measured 7 feet from the head
-to the ankle. His feet were decayed and rotted off. At his side, near
-the shoulder-blade, was an iron sword 4 feet in length, the handle
-elegantly ornamented with inlaid silver flowers; a gold fibula or
-buckle was also found, with portions of the shield and his battle-axe.
-One of the most curious things found was the bit of a snaffle-bridle,
-which is so modern-looking that it would not excite interest if seen
-on a stall in Seven Dials. The main interest resides in its similarity
-to that which Stukeley found at Silbury Hill (<a href="#Illustration18">woodcut No. 18</a>, p.
-81). He cleaned and polished his one carefully. Mr. Rooke had his
-engraved with all the rust upon it, so, at first sight, they are not so
-similar as they are in reality. The fact of this one being found in an
-undoubtedly ancient grave, takes away all <i>prima facie</i> improbability
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>
-
-from the suggested age of the other. From its form, Stukeley's appears
-to be the older of the two; but we have no chronometric scale for
-bridle-bits.</p>
-
-<p>All these things make this grave look as if it were very modern; but on
-the outside of the stones forming the cist were engraved a variety of
-figures which are of interest as a means of comparison with the Irish
-and Danish engravings we shall meet with hereafter. They are not very
-artistically drawn, and are probably worse engraved; but it is easy to
-recognize the cross in the circle. There are the concentric circles
-with dots in the centre and straight lines proceeding from them and
-other figures found on rocks and elsewhere, which antiquaries have
-hitherto been inclined to ascribe to a prim&#230;val antiquity, but which
-this tomb would bring down at least to the Viking age&mdash;of which more
-hereafter.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration41"></a>
-<img src="images/i_041.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">41.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Side Stone, Aspatria Cist.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration42"></a>
-<img src="images/i_042.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">42.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Mule Hill, View of Cists.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration43"></a>
-<img src="images/i_043.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">43.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Circle of Cists at Mule Hill, Isle of Man.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The circle of cists on Mule Hill, in the Isle of Man, are interesting
-from another cause; for unfortunately they all have been laid bare
-and rifled before any antiquary took cognisance of them, and we have
-consequently nothing by which their date can be even guessed at. Their
-interest lies in their arrangement, which is that of eight cists
-arranged in a circle, with, it would seem, others at right angles at
-certain intervals.<a name="FNanchor_183" id="FNanchor_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a>
-From simple inspection it is
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>
-
-evident that these cists must at one time have been covered with earth.
-They are not dolmens, or anything that would do for self-standing
-monuments. If covered with earth, they would form a circular mound
-45 feet in diameter internally, and 65 feet across to the foot of the outer
-slope, and, as far as one example can go, would tend to prove that the
-circular vallum at Avebury and many other places was a place for the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>
-
-deposit of bodies. Except in the instance spoken of in describing the
-circle at Marden, I am not aware of bodies having been found in England
-under these ramparts; but they have not been sought for. Of one thing
-we may feel certain, that nothing is unique in these matters, and that
-what occurred once, occurred frequently, and will no doubt be found
-when looked for.</p>
-
-<p>Another peculiarity of this circle is worth observing. There are two
-gaps or openings in the circle opposite one another, as at Arbor
-Low and Penrith. One must not rely too much on this, as the gaps
-here may arise from the removal of cists; but the coincidence is at
-least curious, and if we restored this monument in the sense just
-indicated, and could rely on that restoration, the secret of the
-vallum surrounding Avebury and other similar monuments would no longer
-be a mystery. To my mind it has not been so for many years past; but
-though I dare not yet ask others to follow at once, I trust sufficient
-evidence has been accumulated in the preceding pages to render it
-probable that they were only continuous tumuli.</p>
-
-<p>The circle or rather circles, on Burn Moor, near Wast Water,
-Cumberland, are described by Mr. Williams as consisting of a 100-foot
-circle, formed of forty-four stones, beyond which, at a distance of 25
-feet is an outer circle of fourteen large stones. A niche or square
-enclosure on one side of the inner circle contains a cairn 25 feet in
-diameter, and within the circle are four others, irregularly spaced,
-and measuring 21 to 25 feet in diameter; each like the circle itself,
-surrounded by fourteen stones. These, on being opened, were found to
-contain a rude chamber formed of five stones, in which were found
-remains of burnt bones, horns of stags, and other animals.<a name="FNanchor_184" id="FNanchor_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a></p>
-
-<p>One point of interest in this monument is, that it explains the
-existence of a similar square enclosure on one side of a well-known
-100-foot circle near Keswick. There is no sign of a cairn there now;
-it may have been removed, as those at Salkeld were, or it may be that
-the body was interred without this external indication; but that it
-lies, or lay, in this enclosure seems certain. The principal reason
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>
-
-for referring to it here is that it is undoubtedly sepulchral. We
-shall find many examples equally so further on, but it is well, in the
-meanwhile, to illustrate one which certainly was neither a temple nor
-place of assembly, and which contains, besides, several peculiarities
-to which we shall have occasion to advert hereafter.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration44"></a>
-<img src="images/i_044.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">44.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Circles on Burn Moor, Cumberland.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>It seems almost equally clear that the Boscawen circles, with which
-we close our illustrations of English circles for the present, were
-neither Temples nor Things. It is very difficult to see how any one
-could fancy that anything so confused as the centre of these circles
-is, could be a temple, still less a place of assembly. But Borlase,
-though generally admitting the sepulchral nature of the circles,
-maintains that this one was a temple, and describes the position
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>
-
-of the serving Druids and all the ceremonies down to the minutest
-particulars. The circles are small, the largest being only 75 feet in
-diameter, and the whole group only 200 feet across, neither are the
-stones by any means of imposing dimensions. Another circumstance worthy
-of being noticed, is that there are detached stones in front of the
-principal circles. Interesting results might be obtained by excavating
-at their bases, as, for reasons above stated, it seems as if the
-principal interment might be found at their feet.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration45"></a>
-<img src="images/i_045.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">45.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Boscawen Circles. From Borlase.</div>
-</div>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Dolmens.</span></h3>
-
-<p>As stated above, England seems to be the native country of the great
-circles, no 100-metre circles having yet been found anywhere out
-of England, excepting, of course, that at Stennis. France, on the
-contrary, seems to be the native country of the dolmens. They exist
-there in numbers far beyond anything we can show, and of dimensions
-exceeding anything we can boast of. In England proper, when we
-have enumerated Kit's Cotty-house, the dolmen in Clatford Bottom,
-Wayland Smith's Cave, that at Rollright, and one at Drewsteignton, in
-Devonshire, our list is nearly exhausted. There may be heaps of stones
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>
-
-which seem dolmens, or something like them; and chambered tumuli, whose
-internal kistvaens, if exposed, might be entitled to rank with dolmens;
-but, taking the word in its broad sense, it is difficult to carry our
-list beyond the half-dozen.</p>
-
-<p>In Cornwall the case is different. In the corner to the westward
-of Falmouth there are at least twice as many as in all England. In
-Wales, I think I could enumerate twice as many as in Cornwall; and
-in Anglesea<a name="FNanchor_185" id="FNanchor_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a>
-there are certainly as many as in Cornwall, perhaps more; and in the
-Isle of Man they are also numerous. It is difficult to be precise, as
-the same monument is, sometimes at least, recorded under two names; but
-it is not an exaggeration to say that from fifty to sixty have been
-described, and most of them figured, as found in the West country, and
-I should not be surprised if an industrious statistician carried the
-number to 100, including, of course, many that are now ruinous.</p>
-
-<p>There are two points of view from which this geographical distribution
-of English dolmens may be regarded. The first and most obvious would
-be to consider that they were erected by the Britons after they were
-driven into the mountain fastnesses of the West, first by the Romans,
-and more completely afterwards by the Saxons. The other view would
-be that they are the work of a different race, who, we have every
-reason to believe, occupied the western country in the time of the
-Romans. Tacitus is particularly explicit on this point. He divides
-the inhabitants of the country into three classes. The red-haired
-Caledonians, resembling the Germans and inhabiting the north; the
-Silures, of dark complexion and curling hair, and whom he describes
-as living in that part of the country which is opposite Spain, and
-he suggests that the ancient Iberians crossed over and occupied
-these regions; and he then adds: "Those nearest to Gaul are similar
-to the inhabitants of that country."<a name="FNanchor_186" id="FNanchor_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a>
-There is so much in the present aspect of the people of this country
-to confirm this general classification that there seems very little
-reason for doubting its general correctness; and as all these dolmens
-are found in the country
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>
-
-of the Silures it may be argued that they belong to them. If he had
-joined the Aquitanians to Iberians he would probably have expressed
-more completely the whole facts of the case as we now know them.</p>
-
-<p>Admitting, however, this ethnographic view of the case to the fullest
-possible extent&mdash;which I am prepared to do, it still leaves the
-question of date wholly unsettled. It would be answered if we dared
-to assume that the Silures were driven from the fertile parts of the
-valley of the Severn, which we have reason to suppose they occupied
-in Agricola's time, to the mountain fastnesses, and that it was then
-only that they began to repeat in stone what previously they had only
-erected in earth. If this could be established, we should get both an
-ethnographical and a chronological determination of no small value; but
-of this we shall be better able to form an opinion after discussing the
-monuments of France.</p>
-
-<p>Meanwhile there is one point bearing upon the subject to which it may
-be as well to draw attention. In Wales and Anglesea, which we may
-assume to have been the country of the Silures or that to which they
-were driven, there are no circles, but only dolmens. In Cornwall, where
-the blood was certainly more mixed, there are both circles and dolmens,
-and the same is the case at the other extremity of the western district
-in the Isle of Man.</p>
-
-<p>If it is contended that, being nearer to Spain or Aquitaine than Wales,
-Cornwall must have been earliest and most exclusively inhabited by
-the dark race, the answer is, that though it may originally have been
-so, the races in Cornwall had been mixed with Celtic and other blood
-before the age of the stone monuments; while in the Isle of Man we
-shall probably see reason for believing that northern blood was infused
-into the veins of the people, at a very early age, when few, if any,
-monuments of this class existed, and certainly before all had been
-completed.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration46"></a>
-<img src="images/i_046.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">46.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Park Cwn Tumulus. Scale 16 feet to 1 inch.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Even a cursory examination of these West Coast dolmens would, I think,
-be sufficient to prove to any one that the theory that all were
-originally covered with earthen mounds is utterly untenable. That such
-chambered graves as those at Uley in Gloucestershire,<a name="FNanchor_187" id="FNanchor_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a>
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>
-
-or Stoney Littleton in Somersetshire,<a name="FNanchor_188" id="FNanchor_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a>
-were always intended to be so covered up is clear enough. So was this one
-at Park Cwn, in the peninsula of Gower, recently opened and described by
-Sir John Lubbock.<a name="FNanchor_189" id="FNanchor_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a>
-It is of the same type as Uley and Stoney Littleton, but has only four
-chambers arranged on each side of the central passage. One of its most
-remarkable characteristics is the beautiful masonry of the retaining
-walls on each side of the funnel-shaped passage leading to the cells.
-These are so carefully built that it is evident that they were meant
-to be seen, and the entrance to be kept open. Indeed, unless we fancy
-it was the monument of some fight, which there seems no reason for
-supposing, it is evident it must have been kept open till forty
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>
-
-deaths had occurred in the family of the chief to which it served
-as sepulchre, as at least that number of bodies were found in the
-chambers, but in a dreadfully confused condition, as if the grave had
-been rifled before, but no implements or trace of metal were left to
-indicate even approximately its age.</p>
-
-<p>At Uley, in Gloucestershire, half way between Berkeley and Tetbury,
-there is a tumulus which, in its internal arrangement, is very similar
-to that last described. The entrance is of the same form, and there are
-four side-chambers; but those at Uley are grouped more artistically
-in the centre, instead of being separated by a passage, as at Park
-Cwn. Externally the differences are more apparent; the Gloucestershire
-example being oblong, or rather heart-shaped, while that in Gower is
-more circular in form. The Uley tumulus was first opened by a Mr.
-Baker, in 1821, but subsequently examined with great care by Dr.
-Thurnam; and a very careful account, resulting from his own observation
-compared with the records of Mr. Baker's, published by him in the
-'Arch&#230;ological Journal.'<a name="FNanchor_190" id="FNanchor_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a>
-The bodies in the chambers, which were numerous, had been disturbed
-and were lying in disorder, as at Park Cwn; but among them was found
-a vessel resembling a Roman lachrymatory, and some pottery which may
-have been either Romano-British or Medi&#230;val. There were also found
-some fragments of flint implements, apparently arrow-heads, and outside
-two stone axes&mdash;one of flint. Near the summit of the mound,
-exactly over the easternmost chamber, there had been another interment,
-and beside the skeleton were found three brass coins of the sons of
-Constantine the Great.</p>
-
-<p>On this evidence, Dr. Thurnam, with the approval probably of every
-antiquary in England, comes to the conclusion that the original
-erection of the chambered tumulus belongs to the long prehistoric past;
-that the pottery, &amp;c., were accidentally introduced; and that the coins
-belong to a secondary post-Roman interment. The only evidence for this
-being the presence of the flints above mentioned, and the assumptions
-based on them; they having become articles of faith with antiquaries
-which it is rank heresy to dispute. As I have already stated, till
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>
-
-some one can show at what period flint ceased to be used in any
-particular locality, this evidence is worthless. With regard to the
-secondary interments, it appears to be inconceivable that, after the
-lapse of 500 or 600 years at least, and the civilizing influence of the
-Roman occupation, any one should choose the top of one of the mounds
-of the long-forgotten pagan savages for a burying-place. If burying
-in barrows had been the fashion in Gloucestershire, as it was on the
-wolds of Yorkshire or the downs of Wiltshire, something might be said
-in favour of such an hypothesis if we could also assume that the races
-had been undisturbed in the interval. But there are hardly half-a-dozen
-tumuli in the whole county. They, like Uley, Rodmarton,<a name="FNanchor_191" id="FNanchor_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a>
-Stoney Littleton,<a name="FNanchor_192" id="FNanchor_192"></a><a href="#Footnote_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a>
-are all chambered tumuli of one class and apparently of one age. All
-too, it may be remarked, are close to Roman stations and surrounded by
-evidences of Roman occupation.</p>
-
-<p>In the previous pages we have already met with several instances
-of summit interments, as at Gib Hill, Minning Low, &amp;c., which are
-certainly not secondary, and we have reason to suspect that more will
-be found when looked for; and the finding of Roman coins on or near
-the top of tumuli is too frequent to be accidental, and occurs even in
-Ireland, where the Romans never went.</p>
-
-<p>We shall have occasion to recur to this subject when speaking of the
-tomb of King Harald Hildetand at Lethra, and then propose to treat
-it more in detail; but meanwhile it seems clear that the evidence of
-the coins and the pottery must be allowed to outweigh that of the
-flints; and if this is so, not only Uley but all the chamber-tumuli in
-Gloucestershire or Somerset belong either to the Romano-British, or
-rather to the post-Roman period of British history.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration47"></a>
-<img src="images/i_047.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">47.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Tumulus, Plas Newydd.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration48"></a>
-<img src="images/i_048.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">48.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Entrance to Dolmen, in Tumulus, Plas Newydd.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Another and even more interesting example of this class has recently
-been brought to light by the Hon. W. O. Stanley, at Plas Newydd, not
-far from the great dolmen represented on woodcut No. 50.<a name="FNanchor_193" id="FNanchor_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a>
-It is a chamber or cist, 3 feet 3 inches wide by about 7 feet long, and
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>
-
-covered by two slabs. Before being disturbed, the supporting slabs
-must have formed nearly perfect walls, thus distinguishing the cist
-from those standing on widely-spaced legs. Its principal point of
-interest, however, is the widely-splayed avenue of stones leading up to
-it, showing that it was always intended to be visited; and still more
-curious are the two holes that were pierced in the slab that closed
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>
-
-the entrance. The upper part of this slab is now broken off, but so
-much remains that it is easy to see that they were originally circular
-and about 10 inches in diameter. Such holed stones are very frequent in
-Eastern dolmens, and are also common in Cornwall and elsewhere;<a name="FNanchor_194" id="FNanchor_194"></a><a href="#Footnote_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a>
-but what their purpose may have been has not yet been explained.
-Further on it may be attempted. At present it is the relation of this
-form of chambered tumuli to external dolmens that principally interests
-us.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration49"></a>
-<img src="images/i_049.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">49.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen at Pentre Ifan. From 'Arch&#230;ologia
-Cambrensis.'</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Almost all the so-called dolmens in the Channel Islands are of this
-class. One has already been given (<a href="#Illustration11">woodcut No. 11</a>), and it may safely
-be asserted that all chambers which were wainscoted with slabs,
-so as to form nearly perfect walls, and all that had complicated
-quasi-vaulted roofs were, or were intended to be, covered with
-mounds&mdash;more especially those that had covered passages leading
-to them. There is, however, a very wide distinction between these
-sepulchral chambers and such a monument as this at Pentre Ifan, in
-Pembrokeshire.<a name="FNanchor_195" id="FNanchor_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a>
-The top stone is so large that it is said five
-persons on horseback have found shelter under it from a shower of
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>
-
-rain. Even allowing that the horses were only Welsh ponies, men do
-not raise such masses and poise them on their points for the sake of
-hiding them again. Besides that, the supports do not and could not
-form a chamber. The earth would have fallen in on all sides, and the
-connexion between the roof and the floor been cut off entirely, even
-before the whole was completed. Or, to take another example, that at
-Plas Newydd, on the shore of the Menai Strait. Here the cap stone is an
-enormous block, squared by art, supported on four stone legs, but with
-no pretence of forming a chamber. If the cap stone were merely intended
-as a roofing stone, one a third or fourth of its weight would have been
-equally serviceable and equally effective in an architectural point of
-view, if buried. The mode of architectural expression which these Stone
-men best understood was the power of mass. At Stonehenge, at Avebury,
-and everywhere, as here, they sought to give dignity and expression by
-using the largest blocks they could transport or raise&mdash;and they were
-right; for, in spite of their rudeness, they impress us now; but had
-they buried them in mounds, they neither would have impressed us nor
-their contemporaries.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration50"></a>
-<img src="images/i_050.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">50.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen at Plas Newydd. From 'Arch&#230;ologia
-Cambrensis.'</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>As before mentioned, however, the great argument against the theory of
-their having been always covered up is the impossibility of accounting
-for the disappearance of the tumuli. If they had been situated on
-fertile plains where the land was valuable for agricultural purposes,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>
-
-it might be assumed that a civilized people with highly cultivated
-antiquarian tastes might have been at the trouble and expense of
-removing the tumuli for the sake of the land, and of preserving the
-dolmens for their historical value. But that the rude peasantry of
-Cornwall and Wales should have done this is inconceivable, more
-especially as by far the greater number of these monuments are situated
-on bleak moorlands of no agricultural value whatever. Still more
-inconceivable is it that they should have done it so neatly and so
-carefully that no trace of the mound can now be found either around the
-stones or in the neighbourhood.</p>
-
-<p>If any history were attached to these Western dolmens, or any remains
-had been found under them which would enable us to fix their dates,
-even approximately, or to arrange them in any intelligible sequence,
-it might be worth while recapitulating their names or illustrating
-their forms. Nothing of the sort, however, has yet been attempted;
-and apparently no materials exist from which any such series could be
-elaborated.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration51"></a>
-<img src="images/i_051.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">51.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Arthur's Quoit, Gower. From a drawing by Sir Gardner
-Wilkinson.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration52"></a>
-<img src="images/i_052.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">52.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan of Arthur's Quoit.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Only one dolmen in Wales, so far as I know, bears a name; but it is the
-illustrious one of King Arthur. The dolmen bearing his name is situated
-in the peninsula of Gower, on the northern slopes of the bleak Bryn
-Cefn, about ten miles west from Swansea.<a name="FNanchor_196" id="FNanchor_196"></a><a href="#Footnote_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a>
-It forms the centre of a very extensive group of monuments&mdash;eighty
-cairns, at least, are still to be counted in an area less than half
-a mile in length, by a quarter of a mile in width. These are mostly
-small, 12 to 15 feet in diameter; one, 20 feet across, was opened by
-Sir Gardner Wilkinson, but proved to contain no interment. The largest
-is 68 feet in diameter, but has not been opened. About 350 feet from
-this is the dolmen. The cap stone is 14 feet 6 inches in length, 7 feet
-5 inches in height, and 6 feet 8 inches in breadth even now, but a very
-large piece has been broken off, and now lies beside it, measuring
-upwards of 3 feet in thickness; and another piece seems to have been
-broken off on the other end, so that when complete it must have weighed
-between 35 and 40 tons. It rested originally on ten or eleven upright
-stones, two of which, however, have fallen, and only four now touch the
-cap stone. Sir Gardner is of opinion that it once was covered with a
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>
-
-tumulus; but this appears very doubtful. The slight mound, backed up
-with large stones, that now surrounds it, with a diameter of 73 to 74
-feet, seems an enclosure more like that of Hob Hurst's House
-(<a href="#Illustration53">woodcut No. 53</a>) than the remains of a tumulus, and till some further
-evidence is adduced, we must be allowed to doubt whether any cap stone
-on legs was ever so treated. Sir Gardner traced, doubtfully, an avenue,
-of which, however, only five stones now remain, extending to about 500
-feet in a direction that would have passed the dolmen on the north,
-as that at Shap did the circle at its front, or the lines at Merivale
-Bridge, the circle still found there; Sir Gardner also points out some
-small circular enclosures, which, from the analogy of those found on
-Dartmoor, he assumes to be hut-circles.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration53"></a>
-<img src="images/i_053.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">53.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Hob Hurst's House, on Baslow Moor, Derbyshire. From
-a drawing by Thomas Bateman.<a name="FNanchor_197" id="FNanchor_197"></a><a href="#Footnote_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>What, then, is this group of monuments? Sir Gardner assumes that it
-is a cemetery of the ancient Britons; but, if so, why are not other
-cemeteries found in the fertile valleys and plains in South Wales?
-Why did they choose one of the barest and bleakest hillsides, and one
-farthest removed from their habitations as a place in which to bury
-their dead? Why did they not, like the inhabitants of Salisbury Plain,
-disperse their graves pretty equally over an area of 30 miles by 10?
-Why crowd them into less than half-a-mile? Without reverting to my
-previous suggestion of a battle-field, I do not see how these questions
-can be answered; and if so, I do not think we have far to go to look
-for its name? As hinted above, Arthur's eighth battle must have been
-fought in Wales. The name of the place is written Guin (Gwyn), Guinon,
-Guinnon, Gunnion,<a name="FNanchor_198" id="FNanchor_198"></a><a href="#Footnote_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a>
-which certainly is Welsh; and when we find it immediately preceding
-the battle of Caerleon on the Usk, and the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>
-
-principal monument still bearing Arthur's name, we may fairly, I think,
-adopt the suggestion till, at least, a better is offered.</p>
-
-<p>Be this as it may, I think all antiquaries will agree with Sir Gardner
-Wilkinson in assuming that this is the stone of Cetti<a name="FNanchor_199" id="FNanchor_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a>
-mentioned in the Welsh triads. 'The 84th Triad' speaks of the Cor of Emmrys in
-Caer Caradawg (another name for Salisbury), and the 88th of the three
-mighty achievements of the Isle of Britain, the raising of the stone
-of Cetti, the building of the work of Emmrys, and the heaping of the
-pile of Cyvragnon.<a name="FNanchor_200" id="FNanchor_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a>
-The work of Emmrys (Ambrosius) is generally admitted to be Stonehenge.
-If this is the stone of Cetti, which I see no reason for doubting, it
-only remains to identify the third. Most antiquaries suggest Silbury
-Hill; and, if I am correct in placing these three monuments so near one
-another in date, this seems also extremely probable, and so far as it
-goes, is a satisfactory confirmation of what has been advanced above
-from other sources.</p>
-
-<p>From my ignorance of the Welsh language I am not in a position to say
-what amount of reliance should be placed in the evidence of these
-triads. But Herbert and other competent scholars consider it undoubted
-that Emmrys is Ambrosius, and the 'Work' referred to certainly
-Stonehenge. If this is so, it fixes its date beyond question, and as
-the other two are mentioned in the same breath it is probable they
-were not distant in date. All this may be, I believe certainly is so,
-but the circumstantial evidence adduced above seems to me so much
-clearer and so much more to be relied upon, that it derives very little
-additional force from the utterance of the Welsh bards. It is, however,
-no doubt satisfactory that their evidence coincides with everything
-that has been brought forward above, as bearing directly or indirectly
-on their age or use.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>Before proceeding, it may be as well to revert for one moment to Hob
-Hurst's House. It is quoted here to show how a tumulus, with a dolmen
-on the top of it, may be connected with a low rampart so as not to
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>
-
-conceal it, exactly, I believe, as is the case with Arthur's Quoit.
-But the name of the place where it is situated may afford a hint which
-may lead to something hereafter. It will be recollected that Arthur's
-sixth battle was fought "super flumen quod vocatur Bassas." This mound
-is situated on "Bas" Moor, the Low being merely the name of the mound
-itself. These nominal similarities are too treacherous to be relied
-upon; but the more the whole group is looked at the more does it appear
-that there are coincidences of name, or form, or purpose, between
-those monuments here called Arthurian, which cannot all be accidental.
-Individually they may not be able to resist hostile criticism, but in
-their cumulative form they appear to me to make up a very strong case
-indeed.</p>
-
-<p>If any of the other dolmens in the West had even so good a title to
-a date as Arthur's Quoit, it might be possible to arrange them in a
-series; but as none have even traditional dates, all we can now do is
-to suggest that the dolmen at Plas Newydd (<a href="#Illustration50">woodcut No. 50</a>) is of about
-the same age as Arthur's Stone: perhaps something more modern, as it
-is more carefully squared; but this may arise from the one being a
-battle-stone, the other a peaceful sepulchre. In like manner it would
-seem that such an exaggerated form as Pentre Ifan (<a href="#Illustration49">woodcut No. 49</a>) is
-a "tour de force" of a still more modern date; and if we could get
-one certainly older than any of these, a tentative scheme could be
-constructed which might lead us to satisfactory results.</p>
-
-<p>I by no means despair of being able eventually to construct such a
-scheme of classification, and, even before this Work is concluded, to
-make it tolerably clear that the thing is possible, and then it will
-only remain, if one or two fixed or probable dates can be ascertained,
-to bring the whole within the range of historical investigation.</p>
-
-<div class="topspace1"></div>
-<div class="footnotes">
-<blockquote>
-<p class="footnote"><span class="smcap"><b>Footnotes</b></span></p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_134" id="Footnote_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a>
-'Iter Curiosum,' pl. xxxiii.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_135" id="Footnote_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a>
-'Iter Curiosum,' p. xxxii.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_136" id="Footnote_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a>
-When I was there four years ago I
-was fortunate enough to find an old man,
-a stonemason, who had been employed
-in his youth in utilizing these stones.
-He went over the ground with me, and
-pointed out the position of those he
-remembered.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_137" id="Footnote_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a>
-It is extremely difficult to be precise
-about the dimensions. One is almost
-wholly buried in the earth, and its
-dimensions can only be obtained by
-probing; the other is half buried.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_138" id="Footnote_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a>
-'Arch&#230;ologia,' ii. 1773, p. 107.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_139" id="Footnote_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a>
-'Wanderings of an Antiquary;' London, 1854, p. 175 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_140" id="Footnote_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a>
-<i>loc. cit.</i> 175.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_141" id="Footnote_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a>
-'Mon. Hist. Brit.' p. 299.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_142" id="Footnote_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a>
-'Beowulf: an Anglo-Saxon Poem,' translated by J. W. Kemble, 1835, preface, p. xix.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_143" id="Footnote_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a>
-'Mon. Hist. Brit.' p. 121.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_144" id="Footnote_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a>
-This woodcut is copied literally from
-one by Mr. Lewis published in the
-'Norwich Volume of the International
-Prehistoric Congress,' and the figures
-and facts I am about to quote are mostly
-taken from the paper that accompanied
-it. The inferences, however, are widely
-different.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_145" id="Footnote_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a>
-'Norwich Volume of the International Prehistoric Congress,' p. 37.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_146" id="Footnote_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a>
-Asser, in 'Mon. Hist. Brit.' p. 476.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_147" id="Footnote_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a>
-Stukeley, 'Avebury,' p. 12; Borlase, p. 210.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_148" id="Footnote_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a>
-Camden, 'Britannia,' i. p. 285. See also Charleton's 'Stonehenge restored to the Danes,' p. 36.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_149" id="Footnote_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a>
-On this stone Sir Gardiner Wilkinson
-traced one of those circles of concentric
-rings which are so common on
-stones in the north of England. I did
-not see it myself, but assuming it to be
-true&mdash;which I have no doubt it is&mdash;it
-will not help us much till we know
-when and by whom these circles were
-engraved.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_150" id="Footnote_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a>
-'Brit.' p. 1021.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_151" id="Footnote_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a>
-Pennant in his text calls the diameter 88 yards, but the scale attached to his plan
-makes it 110 yards nearly.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_152" id="Footnote_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a>
-'Tour in Scotland, 1772,' pl. xxxvii. p. 276.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_153" id="Footnote_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a>
-Near Lochmaben, in Annandale, a
-circle exists, or existed, called Wood
-Castle, which, in so far as the plan and
-dimensions are concerned, is identical
-with this. It is figured in General
-Roy's 'Military Antiquities of the
-Romans,' pl. viii. I would not hesitate
-in quoting it as a monument of this
-class, but for the view which I distrust
-excessively, but which makes it look like
-a fortification. As I have no means of
-verifying the facts, I can only draw
-attention to them.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_154" id="Footnote_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a>
-'Iter Boreale,' p. 42.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_155" id="Footnote_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a>
-'Brit.,' Gough edit. iii. p. 401.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_156" id="Footnote_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a>
-'Arch&#230;ological Journal,' xviii. p. 29.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_157" id="Footnote_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a>
-<i>Ibid.</i>, xviii. p. 37.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_158" id="Footnote_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a>
-I am not aware that any account of these diggings has been published. The facts I ascertained on the spot.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_159" id="Footnote_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a>
-Here, again, I quote from the copy in the 'Mon. Hist. Brit.' p. 47 <i>et seq.</i>, to
-which it will not be necessary to refer every time the name is mentioned.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_160" id="Footnote_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a>
-Stuart Glennie, 'King Arthur.' 1867. L. W. Skene. 'Ancient Books of
-Wales,' i. 52 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_161" id="Footnote_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a>
-'Mon. Hist. Brit.' p. 73.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_162" id="Footnote_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a>
-General Roy's 'Mil. Ant. of the Romans,' pl. viii.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_163" id="Footnote_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a>
-Bateman, 'Ten Years' Diggings,' p. 87.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_164" id="Footnote_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a>
-I have not seen this circle myself,
-though I made a long journey on purpose.
-It is said to consist of eighty-eight
-stones, and one larger than the
-rest, standing outside the circle, at a
-distance of about five yards, or exactly
-as Long Meg stands with reference to
-her daughters.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_165" id="Footnote_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a>
-First described in the 'Arch&#230;ologia,' vol. viii. p. 131 <i>et seq.</i>, by the
-Rev. S. Pegge, in 1783.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_166" id="Footnote_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a>
-These dimensions, as well as the
-plan, are taken from Sir Gardner Wilkinson's
-paper in the 'Journal of the
-Arch&#230;ological Association,' xvi. p. 116,
-and may consequently be thoroughly
-depended upon.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_167" id="Footnote_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a>
-Bateman, 'Vestiges,' p. 65.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_168" id="Footnote_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a>
-These dimensions are taken from Sir Gardner Wilkinson's plan. The Batemans,
-with all their merits, are singularly careless in quoting dimensions.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_169" id="Footnote_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a>
-<i>Ante</i>, p. 11.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_170" id="Footnote_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a>
-Douglas, 'Nenia Brittanica,' p. 168, pl. xxxv.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_171" id="Footnote_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a>
-If we knew its height we might
-guess its age. If it was 65 feet high, its
-angle must be 30 degrees, and its age
-probably the same as that of Silbury
-Hill. If 100 feet, and its angle above
-40 degrees, it must have been older.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_172" id="Footnote_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a>
-'Ten Years' Diggings,' p. 82.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_173" id="Footnote_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a>
-'Petrie's Life,' by Stokes, p. 234.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_174" id="Footnote_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a>
-The complete disappearance of the
-body of this undoubted Saxon chief
-ought to make us cautious in ascribing
-remote antiquity to many comparatively
-fresh bodies we find elsewhere.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_175" id="Footnote_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a>
-Bateman, 'Ten Years' Diggings,' p. 21.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_176" id="Footnote_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a>
-"In 1723 the workmen dug up the
-body of a great king buried there
-in the centre, a very little below the
-surface. The bones were extremely
-rotten, and, six weeks after, I came
-luckily to rescue a great curiosity which
-they took out there&mdash;an iron chain, as
-they called it. It was the bridle buried
-along with the monarch. There were
-deer horns and an iron knife, with a
-bone handle, too, all excessively rotten,
-taken up along with it."&mdash;Stukeley's
-'Stonehenge and Avebury,' pp. 41-12.
-The bridle is figured, pl. xxxvi.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_177" id="Footnote_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a>
-Douglas, 'Nenia Brit.' p. 168.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_178" id="Footnote_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a>
-Nothing can exceed the effrontery
-with which Stukeley inserted curved
-avenues between these circles, so as to
-make the whole into a serpent form.
-Nothing of the kind exists, nor existed
-in 1826, when Mr. Croker made, for Sir
-R. C. Hoare, the survey from which the
-woodcut is copied, with Sir Gardner
-Wilkinson's corrections.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_179" id="Footnote_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a>
-'Arch&#230;ologia,' xxv. p. 189.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_180" id="Footnote_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a>
-What is the meaning of the word
-"Maes"? It is singular that the Maes
-How, in Orkney, should bear the same
-relative position to the Standing Stones
-of Stennis, in Orkney, that Maes Knoll
-does to the group of circles. I do not
-know of the name occurring anywhere
-else. According to the dictionaries, it
-merely means "plain" or "field." In
-Irish "Magh" pronounced "Moy;" but
-that can hardly be the meaning here.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_181" id="Footnote_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a>
-'Arch&#230;ologia,' x. pl. xi. p. 106.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_182" id="Footnote_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182"><span class="label">[182]</span></a>
-It probably may have been a piece of iron pyrites, and may have been used for
-striking a light.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_183" id="Footnote_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183"><span class="label">[183]</span></a>
-'Arch&#230;ologia Cambriensis,' third
-series, vol. xii. p. 54. A fancy plan of
-the same circle appears in the same
-volume, but is utterly untrustworthy.
-It is reproduced by Waring, 'Mon.' &amp;c. pl. xli.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_184" id="Footnote_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_184"><span class="label">[184]</span></a>
-'Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries,' iii. p. 225.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_185" id="Footnote_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185"><span class="label">[185]</span></a>
-The Hon. W. C. Stanley enumerates by name twenty-four in Anglesea.&mdash;'Arch&#230;ologia
-Cambrensis,' fourth series, vol. i. p. 58.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_186" id="Footnote_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186"><span class="label">[186]</span></a>
-Tacitus, 'Vita Agricol&#230;,' chap. v.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_187" id="Footnote_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187"><span class="label">[187]</span></a>
-'Somerset Arch&#230;o. Soc. Proceedings,' viii. p. 51.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_188" id="Footnote_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188"><span class="label">[188]</span></a>
-'Arch&#230;ologia,' xix. p. 43 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_189" id="Footnote_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a>
-'Journal of the Ethnological Society,' January, 1871, p. 416.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_190" id="Footnote_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a>
-Vol. xi. p. 315 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_191" id="Footnote_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a>
-'Pro. Soc. Ant.,' second series, ii.
-275. Thurnam, 'Arch&#230;ologia,' xlii. 217.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_192" id="Footnote_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192"><span class="label">[192]</span></a>
-'Arch&#230;ologia,' xix. p. 43.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_193" id="Footnote_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193"><span class="label">[193]</span></a>
-'Arch&#230;ologia Cambrensis,' fourth
-series vol. i. p. 51 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_194" id="Footnote_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_194"><span class="label">[194]</span></a>
-For Rodmarton, see 'Proceedings Soc. Ant.' <i>l. s. c.</i>; for Cornish, see paper by
-M. Brash, 'Gent. Mag.,' 1864.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_195" id="Footnote_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195"><span class="label">[195]</span></a>
-'Arch&#230;ologia Cambrensis,' third series, xi. p. 284.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_196" id="Footnote_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_196"><span class="label">[196]</span></a>
-The following particulars are taken
-from a paper by Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson,
-in the first volume, fourth series, of
-the 'Arch&#230;ologia Cambrensis,' 1870. It
-is not only the last, but the best description
-which I know, and, being from the
-pen of so accurate an observer, I have
-relied on it exclusively.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_197" id="Footnote_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_197"><span class="label">[197]</span></a>
-'Ten Years' Diggings,' p. 87.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_198" id="Footnote_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198"><span class="label">[198]</span></a>
-Dare one suggest Gower?</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_199" id="Footnote_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199"><span class="label">[199]</span></a>
-Is this the same word as "Cotty," as applied to Kit's Cotty-house, in Kent?
-It looks very like it.&mdash;Coity?</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_200" id="Footnote_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200"><span class="label">[200]</span></a>
-Herbert, 'Cyclops Christianus,' p. 35.</p>
-</div>
-
-</blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a><br />
-<span class="smaller">IRELAND.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Moytura.</span></h3>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">It</span> is probable, after all, that it is from the Irish annals that the
-greatest amount of light will be thrown on the history and uses of
-the Megalithic monuments. Indeed, had not Lord Melbourne's Ministry
-in 1839, in a fit of ill-timed parsimony, abolished the Historical
-Commission attached to the Irish Ordnance Survey, we should not now
-be groping in the dark. Had they even retained the services of Dr.
-Petrie till the time of his death, he would have left very little to
-be desired in this respect. But nothing of the sort was done. The
-fiat went forth. All the documents and information collected during
-fourteen years' labour by a most competent staff of explorers were cast
-aside&mdash;all the members dismissed on the shortest possible notice, and
-our knowledge of the ancient history and antiquities of Ireland thrown
-back half a century, at least.<a name="FNanchor_201" id="FNanchor_201"></a><a href="#Footnote_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a></p>
-
-<p>Meanwhile, however, a certain number of the best works of the Irish
-annalists have been carefully translated and edited by John O'Donovan
-and others, and are sufficient to enable any one not acquainted with
-Irish to check the wild speculations of antiquaries of the Vallancy
-and O'Brien class, and also to form an opinion on the value of the
-annals themselves, though hardly yet sufficient to enable a stranger
-to construct a reliable scheme of chronology or history out of the
-heterogeneous materials presented to him. We must wait till some second
-Petrie shall arise, who shall possess a sufficient knowledge of the
-Irish language and literature, without losing his Saxon coolness of
-judgment, before we can hope to possess a reliable and consecutive
-account of ancient Ireland.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>When this is done, it will probably be found that the Irish possess a
-more copious literature, illustrative of the eocene period of their
-early history, than almost any other country of Europe. Ireland may
-also boast that, never having been conquered by the Romans, she
-retained her native forms, and the people their native customs and
-fashions, uninterrupted and uninfluenced by Roman civilization, for a
-longer time than the other countries of Europe which were subjected to
-its sway.</p>
-
-<p>As most important and instructive parts of the Irish annals, it is
-proposed first to treat of those passages descriptive of the two
-battles of Moytura<a name="FNanchor_202" id="FNanchor_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a>
-(Magh Tuireadh), both of which occurred within a period of a very few
-years. A description of the fields on which they were fought will
-probably be sufficient to set at rest the question as to the uses of
-cairns and circles; and if we can arrive at an approximative date, it
-will go far to clear up the difficulties in understanding the age of
-the most important Irish antiquities.</p>
-
-<p>The narrative which contains an account of the battle of Southern
-Moytura, or Moytura Cong, is well known to Irish antiquaries. It
-has not yet been published, but a translation from a MS. in Trinity
-College, Dublin, was made by John O'Donovan for the Ordnance Survey,
-and was obtained from their records above alluded to by Sir William
-Wilde. He went over the battle-field repeatedly with the MS. in his
-hand, and has published a detailed account of it, with sufficient
-extracts to make the whole intelligible.<a name="FNanchor_203" id="FNanchor_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a>
-The story is briefly this:&mdash;At a certain period of Irish history a
-colony of Firbolgs, or Belg&#230;, as they are usually called by Irish
-antiquaries, settled in Ireland, dispossessing the Fomorians, who are
-said to have come from Africa. After possessing the country for thirty-seven
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>
-
-years, they were in their turn attacked by a colony of Tuatha de Dananns coming
-from the north, said to be of the same race and speaking a tongue
-mutually intelligible. On hearing of the arrival of these strangers,
-the Firbolgs advanced from the plains of Meath as far as Cong, situated
-between Lough Corrib and Lough Mask, where the first battle was fought,
-and, after being fiercely contested for four days, was decided in
-favour of the invaders.<a name="FNanchor_204" id="FNanchor_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a></p>
-
-<p>The second battle was fought seven years afterwards, near Sligo, under
-circumstances which will be detailed more fully below, and resulted
-equally in favour of the Tuatha de Dananns, and they in consequence
-obtained possession of the country, which, according to the Four
-Masters, they held for 197 years.<a name="FNanchor_205" id="FNanchor_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration54"></a>
-<img src="images/i_054.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">54.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Circle on Battle-field of Southern Moytura. From Sir
-W. Wilde.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration55"></a>
-<img src="images/i_055.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">55.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Cairn on Battle-field of Southern Moytura.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The field on which the four-days' battle of Southern Moytura was fought
-extends from five to six miles north and south. Near the centre of the
-space, and nearly opposite the village of Cong, is a group of five
-stone circles, one of which, 54 feet in diameter, is represented in
-the annexed woodcut (No. 54). Another, very similar, is close by; and
-a third, larger but partially ruined, is within a few yards of the
-first. The other two can only now be traced, and two more are said to
-have existed close by, but have entirely disappeared. On other parts of
-the battle-field there are six or seven large cairns of stone, all of
-them more or less ruined, the stones having been used to build dykes,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>
-
-with which every field is surrounded in this country; but none of them
-have been scientifically explored. One is represented (<a href="#Illustration55">woodcut No. 55</a>).
-Sir W. Wilde has identified all of these as connected with incidents
-in the battle, and there seems no reason to doubt his conclusions. The
-most interesting, however, is one connected with an incident in the
-battle, which is worth relating, as illustrating the manner in which
-the monuments corroborate the history. On the morning of the second day
-of the battle, King Eochy retired to a well to refresh himself with
-a bath, when three of his enemies looking down, recognised him and
-demanded his surrender. While he was parleying with them, they were
-attacked by his servant and killed; but the servant died immediately
-afterwards of his wounds, and, as the story goes, was interred with
-all honours in a cairn close by. In the narrative it is said that the
-well where the king had so narrow an escape is the only open one in
-the neighbourhood. It is so to the present day; for the peculiarity of
-the country is, that the waters from Lough Mask do not flow into Lough
-Corrib by channels on the surface, but entirely through chasms in the
-rock underground, and it is only when a crack in the rock opens into
-one of these that the water is accessible. The well in question is the
-only one of these for some distance in which the water is approached
-by steps partly cut in the rock, partly constructed. Close by is a
-cairn (<a href="#Illustration56">woodcut No. 56</a>), called to this day the "Cairn of the One Man."
-It was opened by Sir W. Wilde, and in its chamber was found one urn,
-which is now deposited in the Museum of the Royal Academy at Dublin,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>
-
-the excavation thus confirming the narrative in the most satisfactory
-manner.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration56"></a>
-<img src="images/i_056.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">56.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The Cairn of the "One Man," Moytura.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration57"></a>
-<img src="images/i_057.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">57.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Urn in the Cairn of the "One Man," Moytura.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>"The battle took place on Midsummer day. The Firbolgs were defeated
-with great slaughter, and their king, who left the battle-field
-with a body-guard of 100 brave men in search of water to allay his
-burning thirst, was followed by a party of 150 men, led by the three
-sons of Nemedh, who pursued him all the way to the strand, called
-Traigh Eothaile, near Ballysadare, in the county of Sligo. Here a
-fierce combat ensued, and King Eochy (Eochaidh) fell, as well as the
-leaders on the other side, the three sons of Nemedh."<a name="FNanchor_206" id="FNanchor_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a>
-A cairn is still pointed out on a promontory jutting into the bay, about a mile
-north-west of the village of Ballysadare, which is said to have been
-erected over the remains of the king, and bones are also said to have
-been found between high and low water on the strand beneath, supposed
-to be those of the combatants who fell in the final struggle. It may
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>
-
-be otherwise, but there is a consistency between the narrative and the
-monuments on the spot which can hardly be accidental, and which it will
-be very difficult to explain except in the assumption that they refer
-to the same events.</p>
-
-<p>In fact, it would be difficult to conceive anything more satisfactory
-and confirmatory of the record than the monuments on the plain; and no
-one, I fancy, could go over the field with Sir William's book in his
-hand, without feeling the importance of his identifications. Of course
-it may be suggested that the book was written by some one familiar with
-the spot, to suit the localities. The probability, however, of this
-having been done before the ninth century, and done so soberly and so
-well, is very remote, and the guess that but one urn would be found
-in the cairn of the "One Man," is a greater piece of luck than could
-reasonably be expected. Even, however, if the book was written to suit
-the localities, it will not invalidate the fact that a great battle was
-fought on this spot, and that these cairns and these circles mark the
-graves of those who fell in the fight.</p>
-
-<p>The collection of monuments on the battle-field of Northern Moytura is
-even more interesting than that on Moytura Cong, and almost justified
-the assertion of Petrie "that, excepting the monuments at Carnac,
-in Brittany, it is, even in its present state of ruin, the largest
-assemblage of the kind hitherto discovered in the world."<a name="FNanchor_207" id="FNanchor_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a>
-They have also this advantage, that the principal group, consisting of some
-sixty or seventy monuments, are situated on an elevated table-land, and
-in an area extending not more than a mile in one direction, and about
-half a mile in another. The country, too, is much less stony than about
-Cong, so that the monuments stand out better and have a more imposing
-look. Petrie examined and described sixty-four monuments as situated in
-or around this space, and came to the conclusion that originally there
-could not have been less than 200.<a name="FNanchor_208" id="FNanchor_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a>
-My impression is that there may have been 100, but hardly more, though,
-of course, this is only a guess, and the destruction of them is going
-on so rapidly that he may be right after all.</p>
-
-<p>In the space above described almost every variety of Megalithic
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>
-
-art is to be found. There are stone cairns, with dolmens in their
-interiors&mdash;dolmens standing alone, but which have been evidently always
-exposed; dolmens with single circles; others with two or three circles
-of stones around them; and circles without dolmens or anything else in
-the centres. The only form we miss is the avenue. Nothing of the sort
-can now, at least, be traced, nor does it seem that any of the circles
-possessed such appendages.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration58"></a>
-<img src="images/i_058.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">58.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Battle-field of Northern Moytura.<br />
-<span style="font-weight: normal;">Scale 6 inches to 1 mile.</span>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The annexed woodcut (No. 58) will explain the disposition of the
-principal group. It is taken from the Ordnance Survey, and is perfectly
-correct as far as it goes, but being only on the 6-inch scale, is
-too small to show the form of the monuments.<a name="FNanchor_209" id="FNanchor_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a>
-In the centre is, or rather was, a great cairn, called Listoghil. It is marked by
-Petrie as No. 51, but having for years been used as a quarry for the
-neighbourhood, it is now so mined that it is difficult to make out
-either its plan or dimensions. Petrie says it is 150 feet in diameter;
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>
-
-I made it 120. It was surrounded by a circle of great stones, within
-which was the cairn, originally, probably, 40 or 50 feet high. All this
-has been removed to such an extent as to expose the kistvaen or dolmen
-in its centre. Its cap stone is 10 feet square and 2 feet thick, and is
-of limestone, as are its supports. All the other monuments are composed
-of granite boulders. "Those who first opened it assert that they found
-nothing within but burnt wood and human bones. The half-calcined bones
-of horses and other animals were and are still found in this cairn in
-great quantities" (Petrie, p. 250). In a note it is said that a large
-spear-head of stone (flint?) was also found in this cairn.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration59"></a>
-<img src="images/i_059.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">59.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Sketch-plan of Circle 27, Northern Moytura.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The annexed woodcut (No. 59) will give an idea of the general
-disposition of a circle numbered 27 by Petrie.<a name="FNanchor_210" id="FNanchor_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a>
-It is of about the medium size, being 60 feet in diameter. The general
-dimensions of the circles are 40, 60, 80, and one (No. 46) is 120 feet
-in diameter. The outer circle of No. 27 is composed of large stones,
-averaging 6 feet in height, and some 20 feet in circumference. Inside
-this is a circle of smaller stones, nearly obliterated by the turf,
-and in the centre is a three-chambered dolmen, of which fifteen stones
-still remain; but all the cap stones, except that of the central inner
-chamber, are gone, and that now stands on its edge in front of its
-support.</p>
-
-<p>The general appearance of this circle will be understood from the
-annexed view (<a href="#Illustration60">woodcut No. 60</a>), taken from a photograph. It does not,
-however, do justice to its appearance, as the camera was placed too low
-and does not look into the circle, as the eye does. In the distance is
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>
-
-seen the hill, called Knock na Rea, surmounted by the so-called Cairn
-of Queen Meave, of which more hereafter.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration60"></a>
-<img src="images/i_060.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">60.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; View of Circle 27, Northern Moytura. From a
-photograph.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Another of these circles, No. 7, is thus described by Petrie:&mdash;"This
-circle, with its cromlech, are perfect. Its diameter is 37 feet, and
-the number of stones thirty-two. The cromlech is about 8 feet high, the
-table-stone resting on six stones of great magnitude: it is 9 feet long
-and 23 feet in circumference." Its general appearance will be seen in
-the annexed view from a photograph (<a href="#Illustration61">woodcut No. 61</a>); though this, as in
-the last instance, is far from doing justice to its appearance.<a name="FNanchor_211" id="FNanchor_211"></a><a href="#Footnote_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration61"></a>
-<img src="images/i_061.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">61.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen, with Circle, No. 7, Northern Moytura. From a
-photograph.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>No. 37 is described by Dr. Petrie (p. 248) as a triple circle. The
-inner one 40 feet in diameter. The second of twelve large stones,
-and of 80 feet, the third as a circle of 120 feet in diameter. "The
-cromlech is of the smallest size, not more than 4 feet in height. The
-circumference of the stone table is 16 feet, and it rests on five
-supporters."</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Excavations were made into almost all these monuments either by Mr.
-Walker, the proprietor of the ground, or by Dr. Petrie, and, with
-scarcely one exception, they yielded evidence of sepulchral uses.
-Either human bones were found or urns containing ashes. No iron,
-apparently, was found in any. A bronze sword is said to have been
-found, forty years ago, in 63; but generally there was nothing but
-implements of bone or stone. At the time Petrie wrote (1837) these
-were not valued, or classified, as they have since been; so we cannot
-draw any inference from them as to the age of the monuments, and no
-collection, that I am aware of, exists in which these "finds" are now
-accessible. Indeed, I am afraid that Petrie and those who worked with
-him were too little aware of the importance of these material points of
-evidence, to be careful either to collect or to describe the contents
-of these graves; and as all or nearly all have been opened, that source
-of information may be cut off for ever.</p>
-
-<p>Besides these monuments on the battle-field, there are two others,
-situated nearly equidistant from it, and which seem to belong to the
-same group; one known as the Tomb of Misgan Meave, the celebrated
-Queen of Connaught, who lived apparently contemporaneously with C&#230;sar
-Augustus, or rather, as the annalists insist, with Jesus Christ;<a name="FNanchor_212" id="FNanchor_212"></a><a href="#Footnote_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a>
-though, according to the more accurate Tighernach, her death occurred
-in the 7th year of Vespasian, in <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 75.<a name="FNanchor_213" id="FNanchor_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a>
-It is situated on the top of a high hill known as Knock na Rea (<a href="#Illustration60">woodcut No. 60</a>), at a distance of two miles westward from the battle-field.
-It was described by the Rt. Hon. William Burton, in 1779, as an
-enormous heap of small stones, and is of an oval figure, 650 feet in
-circumference at the base, 79 feet slope on one side and 67 feet on
-the other. The area on the top is 100 feet in its longest diameter and
-85 feet in its shortest. When Petrie visited it in 1837, it was only
-590 feet in circumference, and the longest diameter on the top only 80
-feet. It had in the interval, in fact, been used as a quarry; and I
-have no doubt but that the flat top originally measured the usual 100
-feet, and was circular. "Around its base," says Petrie, "are the remains
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>
-
-of many sepulchral monuments of lesser importance, consisting of
-groups of large stones forming circular or oval enclosures. A careful
-excavation within these tombs by Mr. Walker resulted in the discovery
-not only of human interments, but also of several rude ornaments and
-implements of stone of a similar character to those usually found in
-sepulchres of this class in Ireland, and which, being unaccompanied by
-any others of a metallic nature, identify this group of monuments as
-of contemporaneous age with those of Carrowmore, among which no iron
-remains are known to have been discovered, and mark them as belonging
-to any period of semi-civilized society in Ireland."<a name="FNanchor_214" id="FNanchor_214"></a><a href="#Footnote_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a></p>
-
-<p>From their situation, it seems hardly possible to doubt that these
-smaller tombs are contemporaneous with or subsequent to the Great
-Cairn; and if this really were the tomb of Queen Meave, it would throw
-some light on our subject. The great cairn has not, however, been dug
-into yet; and till that is done the ownership of the tomb cannot be
-definitely fixed. There are several reasons, however, for doubting
-the tradition. In the first place, we have the direct testimony of a
-commentary written by Moelmuiri, that Meave (Meahbh) was buried at
-Rathcroghan, which was the proper burying-place of her race; "her body
-having been removed by her people from Fert Medhbha; for they deemed it
-more honourable to have her interred at Cruachan."<a name="FNanchor_215" id="FNanchor_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a>
-As the Book of the Cemeteries confirms this, there seems no good reason
-for doubting the fact, though she may have first been laid in this
-neighbourhood, which may have given rise to the tradition.</p>
-
-<p>If, on the other hand, we may trust Beowulf's description of a
-warrior's grave, as it was understood in the 5th century, no tomb in
-these islands would answer more perfectly to his ideal than the Cairn
-on Knock na Rea:&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
- <div class="poetry">
-   <div class="stanza">
-    <div class="verse indent-1">"Then wrought</div>
-    <div class="verse">The people of the Westerns</div>
-    <div class="verse">A mound over the sea.</div>
-    <div class="verse">It was high and broad,</div>
-    <div class="verse">By the sea-faring man</div>
-    <div class="verse">To be seen afar."</div>
-</div></div></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>That an Irish queen should be buried on a mountain-top overlooking the
-Western Ocean seems most improbable, and is opposed to the evidence we
-have; but that a Viking warrior should be so buried, overlooking the
-sea and a battle-field, seems natural; but who he may have been is for
-future investigators to discover.</p>
-
-<p>The other cairn is situated just two miles eastward from the
-battle-field, on an eminence overlooking Loch Gill. It is less in
-height than the so-called Queen's Tomb, but the top is nearly perfect,
-and has a curious saucer-like depression, as nearly as can be measured,
-100 feet in diameter. It has never been dug into, nor, so far as I
-could learn, does any tradition attach to it.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>The history of the Battle of Northern Moytura, as told in the Irish
-Annals, is briefly as follows:<a name="FNanchor_216" id="FNanchor_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a>
-&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>Nuada, who was king of the Tuatha de Dananns when the battle of
-Southern Moytura was fought, lost his arm in the fight. This, however,
-some skilled artificers whom he had with him skilfully replaced by one
-made of silver; so that he was always afterwards known as Nuada of
-the Silver Hand. Whether from this cause or some other not explained,
-he resigned the chief sovereignty to Breas, who, though a Fomorian by
-birth, held a chief command in the Tuatha de Danann army. Owing to
-his penurious habits and domineering disposition, Breas soon rendered
-himself very unpopular with the nobles of his Court; and, at a time
-when the discontent was at its height, a certain poet and satirist,
-Cairbr&#233;, the son of the poetess Etan, arrived at his Court. He was
-treated by the king in so shabby a manner and with such disrespect,
-that he left it in disgust; but, before doing so, he wrote and
-published so stinging a satire against the king, as to set the blood
-of the nobles boiling with indignation, and they insisted on his
-resigning the power he had held for seven years. "To this call the
-regent reluctantly acceded; and, having held a council with his mother,
-they both determined to retire to the Court of his father Elatha,
-at this time the great chief of Fomorian pirates, or Sea Kings, who
-then swarmed through all the German Ocean and ruled over the Shetland
-Islands and the Hebrides."</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Elatha agreed to provide his son with a fleet to conquer Ireland for
-himself from the Tuatha de Danann, if he could; and for this purpose
-collected all the men and ships lying from Scandinavia westwards for
-the intended invasion, the chief command being entrusted to Balor of
-the Evil Eye, conjointly with Breas. Having landed near Sligo, they
-pitched their tents on the spot&mdash;Carrowmore&mdash;where the battle was
-afterwards fought.</p>
-
-<p>Here they were attacked by Nuada of the Silver Hand, accompanied by the
-great Daghda, who had taken a prominent part in the previous battle,
-and other chiefs of note. The battle took place on the last day of
-October, and is eloquently described. The Fomorians were defeated, and
-their chief men killed. King Nuada was slain by Balor of the Evil Eye,
-but Balor himself fell soon after by a stone flung at him by Lug his
-grandson by his daughter Eithlenn.</p>
-
-<p>After an interval of forty years, according to the 'Annals of the Four
-Masters,' the Daghda succeeded to the vacant throne, and reigned eighty
-years.<a name="FNanchor_217" id="FNanchor_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a></p>
-
-<p>From the above abstract&mdash;all the important passages of which are in the
-exact words of the translation&mdash;it is evident that the author of the
-tract considered the Fomorians and the Tuatha de Danann as the same
-people, or at least as two tribes of the same race, the chiefs of which
-were closely united to one another by intermarriage. He also identifies
-them with the Scandinavian Vikings, who played so important a part in
-Irish history down to the Battle of Clontarf, which happened in 1014.</p>
-
-<p>This may at first sight seem very improbable. We must not, however,
-forget the celebrated lines of Claudian:<a name="FNanchor_218" id="FNanchor_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a>
-"Maduerunt
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>
-
-Saxone fuso Orcades: incaluit Pictorum sanguine Thule: Scotorum cumulos
-flevit glacialis Ierne." This, it may be said, was written three or
-even four centuries after the events of which we are now speaking; but
-it was also written five centuries before the Northmen are generally
-supposed to have occupied the Orkneys or to have interfered in the
-affairs of Ireland, and does point to an earlier state of affairs,
-though how much anterior to the poet's time there is nothing to
-show.</p>
-
-<p>It has been frequently proposed to identify the Dananns with the Danes,
-from the similarity of their names. Till I visited Sligo, I confess
-I always looked on this as one of those random guesses from identity
-of mere sound which are generally very deceptive in investigations of
-this sort. The monuments, however, on the battle-field correspond so
-nearly to those figured by Madsen in his 'Antiquit&#233;s pr&#233;historiques
-du Danemark,'<a name="FNanchor_219" id="FNanchor_219"></a><a href="#Footnote_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a>
-and their disposition is so similar to that of the Braavalla feld<a name="FNanchor_220" id="FNanchor_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a>
-and other battle-fields in Scandinavia, that it will now require very
-strong evidence to the contrary to disprove an obvious and intimate
-connection between them.</p>
-
-<p>In concluding his account of the battle, Mr. O'Curry adds: "Cormac Mac
-Cullinan, in his celebrated Glossary, quotes this tract in illustration
-of the word <i>Nes</i>; so that so early as the ninth century it was looked
-upon by him as a very ancient historic composition of authority."<a name="FNanchor_221" id="FNanchor_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a>
-If this is so, there seems no good reason for doubting his having
-spoken of events and things perfectly within his competence, and so we
-may consider the account above given as historical till at least some
-good cause is shown to the contrary.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>It now only remains to try and find out if any means exist by which the
-dates of these two battles of Moytura can be fixed with anything like
-certainty. If we turn to the 'Annals of the Four Masters,' which is the
-favourite authority with Irish antiquaries, we get a startling answer
-at once. The battle of Moytura Cong, according to them, took place in
-the year of the world 3303, and the second battle twenty-seven years
-afterwards.<a name="FNanchor_222" id="FNanchor_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a>
-The twenty is a gratuitous interpolation. This is
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>
-
-equivalent to 1896 and 1869 years before Christ. Alphabetical writing
-was not, as we shall presently see, introduced into Ireland till after
-the Christian Era, the idea therefore that the details of these two
-battles should have been preserved orally during 2000 years, and all
-the intermediate events forgotten, is simply ridiculous. The truth of
-the matter seems to be that the 'Four Masters,' like truly patriotic
-Irishmen in the middle of the seventeenth century, thought it necessary
-for the honour of their country to carry back its history to the Flood
-at least. As the country at the time of the Tuatha de Dananns was
-divided into five kingdoms,<a name="FNanchor_223" id="FNanchor_223"></a><a href="#Footnote_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a>
-and at other times into twenty-five, they had an abundance of
-names of chiefs at their disposal, and instead of treating them as
-cotemporary, they wrote them out consecutively, till they reached back
-to Ceasair&mdash;not Julius&mdash;but a granddaughter of Noah, who came
-to Ireland forty days before the Flood, with fifty girls and three men,
-who consequently escaped the fate of the rest of mankind, and peopled
-the western isle. This is silly enough, but their treatment of the hero
-of Moytura is almost as much so. Allowing that he was thirty years of
-age when he took so prominent a part in the second battle, in 3330,
-he must have been seventy-one when he ascended the Irish throne, and,
-after a reign of seventy-nine years, have died at the ripe old age of
-150, from the effects of a poisoned wound he had received 120 years
-previously. The 'Four Masters' say eighty years earlier, but this is
-only another of their thousand and one inaccuracies.</p>
-
-<p>When we turn from these to the far more authentic annals of
-Tighernach, who died 1088 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, we are met
-at once by his often quoted dictum to the effect that "omnia Monumenta
-Scotorum usque Cimboeth incerta erant."<a name="FNanchor_224"
-id="FNanchor_224"></a><a href="#Footnote_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a>
-It would have been more satisfactory if
-he could have added that after that time they could be depended
-upon, but this seems by no means to have been the case. As, however,
-Cimboeth is reported to have founded Armagh, in the year 289 <span
-class="smcap">B.C.</span>, it gives us a limit beyond which we cannot
-certainly proceed without danger and difficulty. We get on surer ground
-when we reach the reign of Crimthann, who, according to Tighernach, died in the year of our
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>
-
-era 85, after a reign of 16 years.<a name="FNanchor_225" id="FNanchor_225"></a><a href="#Footnote_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a>
-The 'Four Masters,' it is true, make him contemporary with Christ;
-but even Dr. O'Donovan is obliged to confess that all these earlier
-reigns, after the Christian era, are antedated to about the same extent.<a name="FNanchor_226" id="FNanchor_226"></a><a href="#Footnote_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a>
-Unfortunately for our purpose, however, Tighernach's early annals are
-almost wholly devoted to the chronicles of the kings of Emania or
-Armagh, and it is only incidentally that he names the kings of Tara,
-which was the capital both of the Firbolgs and Tuatha de Dananns, and
-he makes no allusion to the battles of Moytura. Though our annalist,
-therefore, to a certain extent deserts us here, there are incidental
-notices of the Daghda and his friends in Irish manuscripts referring to
-other subjects, which seem sufficient to settle the question. The best
-of these were collected together for another purpose by Petrie, in his
-celebrated work on the Round Towers, and, as they are easily accessible
-there, it will not be necessary to quote them in extenso, but merely
-the passages bearing directly on our subject.<a name="FNanchor_227" id="FNanchor_227"></a><a href="#Footnote_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a></p>
-
-<p>The first extract is from a very celebrated work known as the 'Leabhar
-na l'Uidhre,' written apparently before 1106, which is given by the
-'Four Masters' as the date of the author's death. Speaking of Cormac,
-the son of Art and grandson of Conn of a Hundred Battles:&mdash;"Before his
-death, which happened in 267, he told his people not to bury him at
-Brugh, on the Boyne, where the kings of Tara, his predecessors, were
-buried, because he did not adore stones and trees, and did not worship
-the same god as those interred at Brugh, for he had faith," adds the
-monkish chronicler, "in the one true God according to the law."</p>
-
-<p>The tract then goes on to say that "the kings of the race of Heremon
-were buried at Cruachan until the times of Crimthann, who was the first
-king of them that was buried in Brugh." The others, including Queen
-Meave, were buried at Cruachan, because they possessed Connaught.
-"But they were interred at Brugh from the time of Crimthann to the
-time of Leoghaire, the son of Niall (<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 428), except three
-persons, namely Art the son of Conn, and Cormac the son of Art, and
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>
-
-Niall of the Nine Hostages." A little further on we have the following
-paragraph:&mdash;"(101.) The nobles of the Tuatha de Danann were used
-to bury at Brugh, <i>i.e.</i>, the Dagdha with his three sons, and also
-Lughaidh and Oe, and Ollam and Ogma, and Etan the poetess, and Corpre
-the son of Etan, and Crimthann followed them because his wife was one
-of the Tuatha Dea, and it was she that solicited him that he should
-adopt Brugh as a burying-place for himself and his descendants."</p>
-
-<p>In the 'Book of Ballymote' (p. 102) it is said, "Of the monument of
-Brugh here, viz., The Bed of daughter of Forann. The monument of the
-Daghda. The mound of the Morrigan. The Barc of Crimthann in which he
-was interred. The Carnail (stone cairn) of Conn of a Hundred Battles,"
-&amp;c. In a second passage we recognise the following names rather
-more in detail: "The Bed of the Dagdha first, the two paps of the
-Morrigan, at the place where Cermud Milbhel, the son of the Dagdha
-was born<a name="FNanchor_228" id="FNanchor_228"></a><a href="#Footnote_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a>&mdash;(the monuments of)
-Cirr and Cuirrell wives of the Dagdha&mdash;there are two hillocks;
-the grave of Aedh Luirgnech, son of the Dagdha." Again, in a prose
-commentary on a poem which Petrie quotes, we have the following
-apparently by Moelmuori. "The chiefs of Ulster before Conchobar (he is
-said to have died 33<a name="FNanchor_229" id="FNanchor_229"></a><a href="#Footnote_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a>)
-were buried at Talten.... The nobles of the Tuatha de Dananns, with
-the exception of seven who were interred at Talten, were buried in
-Brugh, <i>i.e.</i>, Lugh and Oe, son of Ollamh and Ogma, and Carpre the
-son of Etan, and Etan (the poetess herself), and the Daghda and her
-three sons, and a great many others besides of the Tuatha de Danann,
-Firbolgs, and others."</p>
-
-<p>There is no doubt but that many similar passages to these might be
-found in Irish MSS., if looked for by competent scholars, but these
-extracts probably are sufficient to prove two things. First, that
-the celebrated cemetery at Brugh, on the Boyne, six miles west from
-Drogheda, was the burying-place of the kings of Tara from Crimthann
-(<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 84) till the time of St. Patrick
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>
-
-(<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 432), and that it was also the burying-place
-of all those who were concerned&mdash;without being killed&mdash;in the
-battles of Moytura. We are not, unfortunately, able to identify the grave
-of each of these heroes, though it may be because only one has been properly
-explored, that called New Grange, and that had been rifled before the first modern
-explorers in the seventeenth century found out the entrance. The Hill
-of Dowth has only partially been opened. The great cairn of Knowth
-is untouched, so is the great cairn known as the Tomb of the Dagdha.
-Excavations alone can prove their absolute identity; but this at least
-is certain, we have on the banks of the Boyne a group of monuments
-similar in external appearance at least with those on the two Moytura
-battle-fields, and the date of the greater number of those at Brugh is
-certainly subsequent to the Christian era.<a name="FNanchor_230" id="FNanchor_230"></a><a href="#Footnote_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a></p>
-
-<p>The second point is not capable of such direct proof, but seems equally
-clear. It is that the kings of the race of Crimthann immediately
-succeeded to the kings of the Tuatha de Danann, who fought at Moytura.
-If, indeed, we could trust the assertion that Crimthann was the first
-king that was buried at Brugh, we should be obliged to find a place for
-the Daghda under some pseudonym afterwards, and it is possible that
-may be the case,<a name="FNanchor_231" id="FNanchor_231"></a><a href="#Footnote_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a>
-but for the present it seems more reasonable to assume that he preceded
-him at a very short interval.</p>
-
-<p>According to the 'Four Masters,' the Tuatha de Danann had been extinct
-for nearly 2000 years when we find Crimthann marrying a princess of
-that race, and one of sufficient influence to induce him to adopt what
-appears literally to have been the family burying-place of the Dagdha
-for that of himself and his race; and it seems impossible to believe
-that when this took place it could have been old, or neglected, or
-deserted.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>According to the 'Four Masters,' the Firbolgs reigned thirty-seven
-years only, so that they do not in this case seem to err on the side of
-exaggeration, and the Tuatha de Danann 196 years. From this, however,
-we must deduct the twenty years they unnecessarily interpolated between
-the two battles, and we must take something from the eighty years the
-Dagdha reigned after he was ninety-one years of age. If we allow, then,
-a century, it will place the battles of Moytura 20 to 30 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>,
-and the arrival of the Firbolgs about the middle of the first century
-<span class="smcap">B.C.</span> This, with a small limit of error either way is, I am
-convinced, pretty nearly the true date of these events.<a name="FNanchor_232" id="FNanchor_232"></a><a href="#Footnote_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a></p>
-
-<p>If we turn to the celebrated Hill of Tara, about ten miles off, where
-those resided who were buried at Brugh-na-Boinne, we find a great deal
-to confirm the views expressed above. When Petrie was attached to the
-Ordnance Survey, he had a very careful plan made of the remains on that
-hill, and compiled a most elaborate memoir regarding them, which was
-published in the eighteenth volume of the 'Transactions of the Royal
-Irish Academy.' It concludes with these words (p. 231): "From the
-historical allusions deduced it will be seen that, with the exception
-of the few last described,<a name="FNanchor_233" id="FNanchor_233"></a><a href="#Footnote_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a> they are all nearly contemporaneous
-and belong to the third century of the Christian era. The era of the
-original Tuatha de Danann Cathair belongs to the remote period of
-uncertain tradition. The only other monuments of ascertained date are
-those of Conor Mac Nessa and Cuchullim, both of whom flourished in the
-first century. These facts are sufficient to prove that before the
-time of Cormac Mac Art,<a name="FNanchor_234" id="FNanchor_234"></a><a href="#Footnote_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a> Tara had attained to no distinguished
-celebrity."</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration62"></a>
-<img src="images/i_062.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">62.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Rath na Riogh, or, Cathair of Cormac, at Tara.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The only difficulty in this passage is the allusion to the Tuatha de
-Danann. At the time Petrie wrote it he, like most Irish antiquaries,
-had been unable to emancipate himself from the spell of the 'Four
-Masters,' and, struck by the pains they had taken, and the general
-correctness of their annals after the Christian era, had adopted their
-pre-Christian chronology almost without question. The Cathair here
-alluded to is only an undistinguishable part of the Rath of Cormac,
-to which tradition attaches that name, but neither in plan, nor
-materials, nor construction can be separated from it. That the Dananns
-had a Cathair on this hill is more than probable if, as I suppose,
-they immediately preceded the Crimthann dynasty, who certainly resided
-here. It may also well be that they occupied this site, which is the
-highest on the hill, and that their palace was afterwards enlarged by
-Cormac. The plan of it is worth referring to (<a href="#Illustration62">woodcut No. 62</a>),
-from its curious resemblance to that of Avebury; what was here done in
-earth was afterwards done in stone in Wiltshire, and it seems as if,
-as is so
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>
-
-often the case, the house of the dead was copied from the dwelling of
-the living.</p>
-
-<p>The Dagdha had apparently no residence here. From the context I would
-infer that he resided in the great Rath, about 300 feet diameter, at
-Dowth, where his son, apparently, was born, and near to which, as above
-shown, he also was buried. If, however, he had no residence on the
-Royal hill, his so-called spit was one of the most celebrated pieces of
-furniture of the palace. It was a most elaborate piece of ironmongery,
-and performed a variety of cooking operations in a very astonishing
-manner, and shows, at all events, that the smith who made it had no
-little skill in the working of iron, of which metal it was principally
-composed.<a name="FNanchor_235" id="FNanchor_235"></a><a href="#Footnote_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a></p>
-
-<p>The Rath of Leoghaire (429-458 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>) is interesting to us,
-not only as the last erected here, but from the circumstances of its
-builder being buried in its ramparts. It seems that, in spite of all
-the preaching and persuasions of St. Patrick, who was his contemporary,
-Leoghaire refused to be converted to the Christian religion; but like
-a grand old Pagan, he ordered that he should be buried standing in his
-armour in the rampart of his Rath, and facing the country of the foes
-with whom he had contended during life. That this was done is as well
-authenticated as any incident of the time, perhaps even better;<a name="FNanchor_236" id="FNanchor_236"></a><a href="#Footnote_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a>
-and I cannot help fancying from the appearance of the Raths, that some
-others of the kings were interred here also. Be that as it may, this
-circumstance ought to prevent our feeling any surprise at the actual
-discovery of the skeleton of a man under the rampart at Marden (<i>ante</i>
-p. 86), or if human bones were still found under the vallum at Avebury,
-in spite of the negative evidence of the partial explorations of the
-Wiltshire Arch&#230;ological Society.</p>
-
-<p>There is still another point of view from which this question may be
-regarded, so as to throw some light on the main issue of the age of
-the monuments in question. If we can ascertain when the art of writing
-was first practised in Ireland, we may obtain an approximate date
-before which no detailed history of any events could be expected to
-exist. Now all the best antiquaries of Ireland are agreed that no
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>
-
-alphabetic writing was used in Ireland before the reign of Cormac Mac
-Art, <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 218-266. There seems to be evidence that, as above
-mentioned, he was converted to Christianity by some Romish priest; and
-though it is unlikely that he himself acquired the art of writing, he
-seems to have caused certain tracts to be compiled. None of these, it
-is true, now exist, but they are referred to and quoted from an ancient
-Irish MS. in a manner that leaves little doubt that some books were
-written in Ireland in the third century, but almost certainly there
-were none before that time. It is true, however, that Eugene O'Curry
-pleads hard for some kind of Ogham writing having existed in Ireland
-before that time, and even before the Christian era.<a name="FNanchor_237" id="FNanchor_237"></a><a href="#Footnote_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a>
-But though we may admit the former proposition, the evidence of the
-latter is of the most unsatisfactory description. Even, however, if
-it could be established it would prove very little. It would be as
-difficult to write a connected history in Ogham as it would be in
-Exchequer tallies, and so far as is known, it never was attempted.
-The utmost Ogham ever did, or could do, was to record genealogies;
-and such detailed histories as we possess of the Moytura battles are
-quite beyond its powers. On the other hand, Mr. O'Curry's own account
-of Senchan's difficulties in obtaining copies of the celebrated 'T&#225;in
-B&#243; Chuailgne,' or 'Cattle Spoil of Cooley,' after the year 598, shows
-how little the art was then practised. No copy of this poem, which
-contains the life and adventures of Queen Meave, in the first century,
-then existed in Ireland. A mission was consequently sent to Italy to
-copy one said to have existed there, and though the missionaries were
-miraculously spared the journey,<a name="FNanchor_238" id="FNanchor_238"></a><a href="#Footnote_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a>
-the inference is the same, that no written copy of their most celebrated
-work existed in Ireland in the year 600.</p>
-
-<p>Petrie is equally clear on the subject. In his history of Tara
-he states that the Irish were unacquainted with letters till the
-introduction of Christianity in the fifth century, with the doubtful
-exception of the writings ascribed to Cormac Mac Art. He consequently
-believes that the authentic history of Ireland commences only with
-Tuathal, <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 130, 160, in which he is probably
-correct.<a name="FNanchor_239" id="FNanchor_239"></a><a href="#Footnote_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>But here the question arises&mdash;Before the introduction of writing into
-a country, how long could so detailed a narrative as that which we
-possess of the Battles of Moytura, and one so capable of being verified
-by material evidences on the spot, be handed down orally as a plain
-prose narrative? Among so rude a people as the Irish avowedly then
-were, would this period be one century or two, or how many? Every
-one must decide for himself. I do not know an instance of any rude
-people preserving orally any such detailed history for a couple of
-centuries. With me the great difficulty is to understand how the memory
-of the battles was so perfectly preserved, assuming them to have taken
-place so long ago as the first century <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> As it is not
-pretended that the narratives were reduced to writing so early as the
-time of Cormac, I should, from their internal evidence, be much more
-inclined to assume that the battles must have taken place one or two
-centuries after the birth of Christ. At all events, it seems absolutely
-impossible that the date of these battles can be so remote as the Four
-Masters place them, or even as some Irish antiquaries seem inclined to
-admit.</p>
-
-<p>The truth of the matter appears to be that, in the Eocene period
-of Irish history or in the one or two centuries that preceded the
-introduction of writing, we have a whole group of names so inextricably
-mixed together that it is impossible to separate them. We have the
-Dagdha and his wives and their sons. We have Etan the poetess and her
-ill-conditioned son. There is Queen Meave of the Cattle Raid, and her
-husband Conchobhar McNessa. There is Cumbhail, the Fingal of Macpherson
-and Cuchullin; and then such semi-historical persons as Tuathal the
-Accepted, and Conn of a Hundred Battles. All these lived almost
-together in one capital, and were buried in one cemetery, and form a
-half-historic, half-mythic group, such as generally precedes written
-history in most parts of the world. Many of their dates are known
-with fairly approximate certainty, whilst that of others cannot be
-fixed. There seems, however, enough to justify us in almost positively
-affirming that the Battle of Moytura, which raised the Dagdha to
-fame, happened within the fifty years that preceded or the fifty that
-followed the birth of Christ. My own impression is in favour of the
-former as the more probable date.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>To some this may appear an over-laboured disquisition to prove an
-insignificant point. It is not, however, one-tenth part of what might
-be advanced on the subject from translated and printed documents, and,
-certainly, it would be difficult to exaggerate its importance with
-reference to the subject matter of this work. If the two groups of
-monuments at Cong and Carrowmore can be proved to be the monuments of
-those who fell in the two battles of Southern and Northern Moytura,
-we have made an immense step towards a knowledge of the use of these
-monuments; and if it can be shown that they date from about the
-Christian Era, we gain not only a standpoint for settling the age
-of all other Irish antiquities, but a base for our reasoning with
-reference to similar remains in other countries.</p>
-
-<p>No Irish antiquary, nor indeed of any other country, so far as I know,
-has ventured to hint a doubt that they mark the battle-fields. Nor, in
-the present state of the evidence, do I see any reason for questioning
-the fact; and, for the present at least, we may assume it as granted.
-The second proposition is more open to question. Irish antiquaries
-generally will dissent from so serious a reduction in the antiquity of
-these two great battles. But, after the most earnest attention I have
-been able to give to all that has been written and said on the subject
-and a careful comparison of the monuments on these fields with those
-of other countries, I would, on the whole, be inclined to bring them
-forward a century or two, if I could find a gap to throw them into,
-rather than date them earlier. They look older and more tentative than
-the English circles described in the last chapter, but not so much
-so as to lead us to expect a difference of four or five centuries.
-On the other hand, they are so like those on the Bravalla field, and
-other monuments in Scandinavia, to be described hereafter, that it is
-puzzling to think that seven or ten centuries elapsed between them.
-But, taking all the circumstances of the case into consideration,
-the conclusions above arrived at appear fair and reasonable, and in
-conformity, not only to what was said in the last chapter, but to the
-facts about to be adduced in the following pages.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Cemeteries.</span></h3>
-
-<p>Although Irish antiquaries have succeeded in identifying the localities
-of a considerable number of the thousand and one battles which, as
-might be expected, adorn at every page the annals of a Celtic race;
-yet, as none of these are described as marked with circles or cairns,
-like those found on the two battle-fields of Moytura, they are of
-no use for our present purpose, and our further illustrations must
-be drawn from the peaceful burying-places of the Irish, which are,
-however, of singular interest.</p>
-
-<p>In the history of the Cemeteries, eight are enumerated;<a name="FNanchor_240" id="FNanchor_240"></a><a href="#Footnote_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a>
-but of these only the first three can be identified with anything like
-certainty at the present day. But as the antiquities of Ireland have
-never yet been systematically explored, others may yet be found, and so
-also may many more stone-marked battle-fields. Meanwhile our business
-is with</p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
- <div class="poetry">
-   <div class="stanza">
-    <div class="verse indent-1">"The three cemeteries of the idolaters:</div>
-    <div class="verse">The Cemetery of Tailten the select,</div>
-    <div class="verse">The Cemetery of the ever fair Cruachan,</div>
-    <div class="verse">And the Cemetery of Brugh."<a name="FNanchor_241" id="FNanchor_241"></a><a href="#Footnote_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a></div>
-</div></div></div>
-
-<p>The two last are known with certainty. The first is most probably the
-range of mounds at Lough Crew, recently explored by Mr. Conwell; but,
-as some doubt this identification, we shall take it last, and speak
-first of those regarding which there is more certainty.</p>
-
-<p>Cruachan, or Rathcrogan, is situated five miles west from
-Carrick-on-Shannon, and consists, according to Petrie, of a circular
-stone ditch,<a name="FNanchor_242" id="FNanchor_242"></a><a href="#Footnote_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a>
-now nearly obliterated, 300 feet in diameter. Within
-this "are small circular mounds, which, when examined, are found to
-cover rude sepulchral chambers, formed of stone, without cement of
-any kind, and containing unburnt bones." The monument of Dathi (428
-<span class="smcap">A.D.</span>), which is a small circular mound with a pillar-stone of
-Red Sandstone, is situated outside the enclosure, at a short distance
-to the east, and may be identified from the following notice of it
-by the celebrated antiquary Duald Mac Firbis. "The body of Dathi was
-brought to Cruachan, and was interred at Relig na Riogh, where most of
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>
-
-the kings of the race of Heremon were buried, and where to this date
-the Red Stone pillar remains on a stone monument over his grave, near
-Rath Cruachan, to this time (1666)."<a name="FNanchor_243" id="FNanchor_243"></a><a href="#Footnote_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a></p>
-
-<p>Here, therefore, we have the familiar 300-foot circle, with the
-external burial, as at Arbor Low, and external stone monument as
-at Salkeld and elsewhere. The chief distinction between this and
-our English battle-circles seems to be the number of cairns, each
-containing a chamber, which crowd the circle at Rath Crogan, and it is
-possible that if these were opened with great care, a succession might
-be discovered among them; but at present we know little or nothing of
-their contents.</p>
-
-<p>At present there are only two names that we can identify with
-certainty as those of persons buried here. Queen Meave, who, as before
-mentioned, was transferred from Fert Meave&mdash;or Meave's Grave, her first
-burying-place, to this Rath, about the end of the first century, and
-Dathi, at the beginning of the fifth. Whether any other persons were
-interred here before the first-named queen seems doubtful. From the
-context, it seems as if her being buried in her own Rath had led to its
-being consecrated to funereal rites, and continuing to be so used till
-Christianity induced men to seek burying-places elsewhere than in the
-cemeteries of the idolaters.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>By far the best known, as well as the most interesting, of Irish
-cemeteries is that which extends for about two miles east and west on
-the northern bank of the Boyne, about five miles from Drogheda. Within
-this space there remain even now some seventeen sepulchral barrows,
-three of which are pre-eminent.<a name="FNanchor_244" id="FNanchor_244"></a><a href="#Footnote_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a>
-They are now known by the names of Knowth for the most westward one,
-Dowth for that to the east, and about halfway between these two, that
-known as New Grange. In front of the latter, but lower down nearer the
-river, is a smaller one, still popularly known as that of the Dagdha,
-and others bear names with more or less certainty; but no systematic
-exploration of the group has yet been made, so that we are very much in
-the dark as to their succession, or who the kings or nobles may be that
-lie buried within their masses.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>That at Knowth has never been carefully measured, nor, so far as I
-know, even described in modern times. At a guess, it is a mound 200
-feet in diameter, and 50 to 60 feet in height, with a flat top not
-less than 100 feet across. It is entirely composed of small loose
-stones, which have been extensively utilized for road making and farm
-buildings, so that the mound has now a very dilapidated appearance,
-which makes it difficult to ascertain its original form; and so far as
-is known, its interior has not been accessible in modern times. Petrie
-identifies it (p. 103) with "the cave of Cnodhba, which was searched
-by the Danes on an occasion (<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 862), when the three kings,
-Amlaff, Imar, and Auisle, were plundering the territories of Flann, the
-son of Conaing. If this is so, its entrance ought not to be difficult
-to find, but the prospect of the explorers being rewarded by any
-treasure or object of value is very small indeed.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration63"></a>
-<img src="images/i_063.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">63.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; View of Mound at New Grange. From a drawing by
-Colonel Forbes Leslie.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Less than a mile from this one is the larger and more celebrated mound
-of New Grange. It is almost certainly one of the three plundered by
-the Danes 1009 years ago. No description of it has anywhere been
-discovered, prior to the time when Mr. Llwyd, the keeper of the
-Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, mentioned it in a letter dated Sligo,
-1699.<a name="FNanchor_245" id="FNanchor_245"></a><a href="#Footnote_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a>
-He describes the entrance, the passage, and the side
-chapels, and the three basins as existing then exactly as they do now,
-and does not allude to the discovery of the entrance as being at all
-of recent occurrence, though Sir Thomas Molyneux, in 1725, says it
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span>
-
-was found apparently not long before he wrote, in accidently removing
-some stones.<a name="FNanchor_246" id="FNanchor_246"></a><a href="#Footnote_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a>
-The first really detailed account, however, is that
-of Governor Pownall, in the second volume of the 'Arch&#230;ologia' (1770).
-He employed a local surveyor of the name of Bouie to measure it for
-him, but either he must have been a bungler, or the engraver has
-misunderstood his drawings, for it is almost impossible to make out
-the form and dimensions of the mound from the plates published. In the
-100 years that have elapsed since his survey was made, the process of
-destruction has been going on rapidly, and it would now require both
-skill and patience to restore the monument to its previous dimensions.
-Meanwhile the accompanying cuts, partly from Mr. Bouie's plates,
-partly from personal observations, may be sufficient for purposes
-of illustration, but they are far from pretending to be perfectly
-accurate, or such as one would like to see of so important a monument.</p>
-
-<p>Its dimensions, so far as I can make out, are as follows: it has a
-diameter of 310 to 315 feet for the whole mound, at its junction with
-the natural hill, on which it stands. The height is about 70 feet, made
-up of 14 feet for the slope of the hill to the floor of the central
-chamber, and 56 feet above it. The angle of external slope appears to
-be 35 degrees, or 5 degrees steeper than Silbury Hill, and consequently
-if there is anything in that argument, it may, at least, be a century
-or two older. The platform on the top is about 120 feet across,
-the whole being formed of loose stones, with the smallest possible
-admixture of earth and rubbish.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration64"></a>
-<img src="images/i_064.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">64.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; New Grange, near Drogheda.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Around its base was a circle of large stone monoliths (<a href="#Illustration63">woodcut No. 63</a>).
-They stand, according to Sir W. Wilde, 10 yards apart, on a
-circumference of 400 paces, or 1000 feet. If this were so, they were
-as nearly as may be 33 feet from centre to centre, and their number
-consequently must originally have been thirty, or the same number as
-at Stonehenge. From Bouie's plan I make the number thirty-two, but
-this is hardly to be depended upon. From this disposition it will be
-observed that if the tumulus were removed, or had never been erected,
-we should have here exactly such a circle&mdash;333 feet in diameter&mdash;as we
-find at Salkeld or at Stanton Drew, and it seems hardly doubtful but
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span>
-
-that such an arrangement as this on the banks of the Boyne gave rise
-to those circles which we find on the battle-fields of England two or
-three centuries later. Llwyd, in his letter to Rowland, mentions one
-smaller stone standing on the summit, but that had disappeared, as well
-as twenty of the outer circle, when Mr. Bouie's survey was made.</p>
-
-<p>At a distance of about 75 feet from the outer edge of the mound, and
-at a height of 14 or 15 feet above the level of the stone ring, is the
-entrance to the crypt. The threshold stone is 10 feet long by about
-18 inches thick, and is richly ornamented by double spirals of a most
-elaborate and elegant character;<a name="FNanchor_247" id="FNanchor_247"></a><a href="#Footnote_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a>
-and at a short distance above it is seen a fragment of a string-course,
-even more elaborately ornamented with a pattern more like modern
-architecture than anything else on these mounds. The passage into the
-central chamber is, for about 40 feet, 6 feet high, by 3 feet in width,
-though both these dimensions have been considerably diminished, the
-first by the accumulation of earth on the floor, the second by the mass
-of the mound pressing in the side walls of the passage, so that it is
-with difficulty that any one can crawl through. Advancing inwards, the
-roof, which is formed of very large slabs of stone, rapidly becomes
-higher; and at a distance of 70 feet from the entrance, rises into a
-conical dome 20 feet in height, formed of large masses of stone laid
-horizontally. The crypt extends still 20 feet beyond the centre of the
-dome; and on the east and west sides are two other recesses, that in
-the east being considerably deeper than the one opposite to it.</p>
-
-<p>In each of these recesses stands a shallow stone basin of oval form 3
-feet by 3 feet 6 or 7 inches across, and 6 to 9 inches deep. They seem
-to form an indispensable part of these Irish sepulchres, though what
-their use was has not yet been ascertained.</p>
-
-<p>On one stone in the passage, and on most of those in the inner chamber,
-are sculptured ornaments, mostly of the same spiral character as that
-on the stone at the threshold, but hardly so elaborately or carefully
-executed. One stone on the right hand angle of the inmost chamber
-has fallen forward (see plan), so that by creeping behind it, it is
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span>
-
-possible to see the reverse of some of the neighbouring stones, and it
-is found that several of these are elaborately carved with the same
-spiral ornaments as their fronts, though it is quite impossible that,
-situated as they are, they could have been seen after the mound was
-raised. To account for this, some have asserted that they belonged to
-an older building before having been used in this; but it hardly seems
-necessary to adopt so violent an hypothesis. It may have been that
-the stones were carved before being used, and at a time when no plans
-or drawings existed, may have been found unsuited in size or form for
-the places for which they were first intended, and consequently either
-turned round or used elsewhere. Or it may be that as the crypt must
-have been built and tolerably complete before the mound was raised
-over it, the king may have had it ornamented externally while in that
-state. Labour was of little value in those days, and it is dangerous to
-attempt to account for the caprices of kings in such a state of society
-as must then have existed. The identity of the style and character
-of the ornaments both on the hidden and the visible parts of these
-stones excludes the idea that they were the work of different epochs. A
-removal from an older building implies a desecration and neglect which
-must have been the work of time; and, having regard to their identity,
-it is improbable that a time considerable enough would have elapsed
-to admit of a building being so desecrated and neglected as that its
-stones should be carried away and used elsewhere.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration65"></a>
-<img src="images/i_065.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">65.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Ornament at New Grange. From a rubbing.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration66"></a>
-<img src="images/i_066.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">66.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Ornament at New Grange. From a rubbing.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The position of the entrance so much within the outline of the Tumulus,
-is a peculiarity at first sight much more difficult to account for.
-As it now stands, it is situated at a distance of about 50 feet
-horizontally within what we have every reason to believe was the
-original outline of the mound. Not only is there no reason to believe
-that the passage ever extended further, but the ornamented threshold,
-and the carved string-course above, and other indications, seem to
-point out that the tumulus had what may be called an architectural
-fa&#231;ade at this depth. One mode of accounting for this would be to
-assume that the original mound was only about 200 feet in diameter at
-the floor level, and that the interior was then accessible, but that
-after the death of the king who erected it, an envelope 50 feet thick
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>
-
-was added by his successors, forming the broad platform at the top,
-and effectually closing and hiding the entrance to the sepulchre. If
-this were so, we may easily fancy that many of his family, or of his
-followers, were buried in this envelope, and formed the secondary but
-nearly contemporary interments which are so frequently found in English
-mounds. The experience of Minning Lowe (<a href="#Illustration33">woodcut No. 33</a>), Rose Hill
-(<a href="#Illustration39">woodcut No. 39</a>), and other English tumuli, goes far to countenance
-such an hypothesis; and there is much besides to be said in its
-favour, but it is one of those questions which can only be answered
-satisfactorily by a careful examination of the mound itself. Meanwhile,
-however, I am rather inclined to adopt the hypothesis that the mound
-had a funnel-shaped entrance like Park Cwn tumulus (<a href="#Illustration46">woodcut No. 46</a>),
-and that at Plas Newydd (<a href="#Illustration47">woodcut No. 47</a>), and shown in dotted lines
-in the <a href="#Illustration64">woodcut No. 64</a>. The reason for this will be more apparent when
-we come to examine the Lough Crew tumuli, but the apparent ease with
-which Amlaff and his brother Danes seem to have robbed these tombs in
-the ninth century, seems to indicate that the entrances were not then
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span>
-
-difficult to find.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration67"></a>
-<img src="images/i_067.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">67.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Branch at New Grange. From a rubbing.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration68"></a>
-<img src="images/i_068.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">68.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Sculptured mark at New Grange, of undecided
-character.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The ornaments which cover the walls of the chambers at New Grange are
-very varied, both in their form and character. The most prevalent
-design is that of spirals variously combined, and often of great
-beauty. They seem always to have been drawn by the hand, never outlined
-with an instrument, and never quite regular either in their form or
-combination. The preceding woodcuts from rubbings give a fair idea
-of their general appearance, though many are much more complex, and
-some more carefully cut. The most extensive, and perhaps also the
-most beautiful, is that on the external doorstep.<a name="FNanchor_248" id="FNanchor_248"></a><a href="#Footnote_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a>
-These spirals are, however, seldom alone, but more frequently are
-found combined with zigzag ornaments, as in (<a href="#Illustration66">woodcut No. 66</a>), and in
-lozenge-shaped patterns; in fact, in every conceivable variety that
-seemed to suit the fancy of the artist, or the shape of the stone he
-was employed upon. In one instance a vegetable form certainly was
-intended. There may be others, but this one most undoubtedly represents
-either a palm branch or a fern; my impression is that it is the former,
-though how a knowledge of the Eastern plant reached New Grange is by
-no means clear. One other example of the sculptures is worth quoting,
-if not for its beauty, at least for its interest (<a href="#Illustration68">woodcut No. 68</a>).
-It is drawn full size in the second volume of the 'Arch&#230;ologia,' p.
-238, and Governor Pownall, after a learned disquisition, concludes that
-the characters are Ph&oelig;nician but only numerals (<a href="#Page_259">p. 259</a>). General
-Vallancey and others have not been so modest; but one thing seems quite
-clear, that it is not a character in any alphabet now known. Still it
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span>
-
-can hardly be a mere ornament. It must be either a mason's mark, or a
-recognizable symbol of some sort, something to mark the position of
-the stone on which it is engraved, or its ownership by some person.
-Similar marks are found in France, but seem there equally devoid of any
-recognizable meaning.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration69"></a>
-<img src="images/i_069.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">69.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Chambers in Mound at Dowth. From a MS. plan.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The third of these great tumuli on the Boyne is known as that of Dowth.
-Dubhad if Petrie is right in identifying it with the third sepulchre
-plundered by the Danes in 862. It was dug into by a Committee of the
-Royal Irish Academy in 1847, but without any satisfactory results. A
-great gash was made in its side to its centre, which has fearfully
-disfigured its form,<a name="FNanchor_249" id="FNanchor_249"></a><a href="#Footnote_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a>
-but without any central chamber being reached; but on the western side
-a small entrance was discovered leading to a passage which extended 40
-feet 6 inches (from A to D) towards the interior. At the distance of 28
-feet from the entrance it formed a small domical chamber, with three
-branches, very like that at New Grange, but on a smaller scale. In the
-centre of this apartment was one large flat basin (L), similar in form,
-and, no doubt, in purpose, to the three at New Grange, but far larger,
-being 5 feet by 3 feet. The southern branch of the chamber extends to
-K in a curvilinear form for about 28 feet, where it is stopped for the
-present by a large stone, and another partially obstructs the passage
-at 8 feet in front of the terminal stone.</p>
-
-<p>The Academy have not yet published any account of their diggings, nor
-does any plan of the mound exist, so far as I know, anywhere. Even its
-dimensions are unknown. Pending these being ascertained, it does look
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span>
-
-as if this chamber was in an envelope similar to that just suggested
-as having existed at New Grange. In that case the original tumulus was
-probably 120 feet in diameter, and with its envelope 200 feet.</p>
-
-<p>The walls of the chambers of this tomb are even more richly and
-elaborately ornamented than those of the chambers at New Grange, and
-are in a more delicate style of workmanship. Altogether I should be
-inclined to consider it as more modern than its more imposing rival.</p>
-
-<p>One other small tumulus of the cemetery is open. It is situated in
-the grounds of Netterville House. It is, however, only a miniature
-repetition of the central chambers of its larger compeers, but without
-sculptures or any other marked peculiarity.</p>
-
-<p>The mound called the Tomb of the Dagdha and the ten or twelve others
-which still exist in this cemetery, are all, so far as is known,
-untouched, and still remain to reward the industry of the first
-explorer. If the three large mounds are those plundered by the Danes,
-which seems probable, this is sufficient to account for the absence of
-the usual sepulchral treasures, but it by no means follows that the
-others would be equally barren of results. On the contrary, there being
-no tradition of their having been opened, and no trace of wounds in
-their sides, we are led to expect that they may be intact, and that the
-bones and armour of the great Dagdha may still be found in his honoured
-grave.</p>
-
-<p>Nothing was found in the great mounds at New Grange and Dowth which
-throws much additional light either on their age or the persons to
-whom they should be appropriated. Two skeletons are said to have been
-discovered at New Grange, but under what circumstances we are not told,
-and we do not consequently know whether to consider them as original
-or secondary interments. The finding of the coin of Valentinian is
-mentioned by Llwyd in 1699, but he merely says that they were found
-on the top, or rather, as might be inferred, near the top, when it
-was uncovered by the removal of the stones for road-making and such
-purposes. Had it been found in the cell, as at Minning Low, it would
-have given us a date, beyond which we could not ascend, but when and
-under what circumstances the coin of Theodosius was found, does not
-appear, nor what has become of either. A more important find was made
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span>
-
-by Lord Albert Cunyngham in 1842. Some workmen who were employed to dig
-on the mound near the entrance discovered two splendid gold torques,
-a brooch, and a gold ring, and with them a gold coin of Geta<a name="FNanchor_250" id="FNanchor_250"></a><a href="#Footnote_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a>
-(205-212 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>). A similar gold ring was found about the same
-time in the cell, and is in the possession of Mrs. Caldwell, the wife
-of the proprietor. Although we might feel inclined to hesitate about
-the value of the conclusions to be drawn from the first discovery of
-coins, this additional evidence seems to be conclusive. Three Roman
-coins found in different parts, at different times, and with the
-torques and rings, are, it seems, quite sufficient to prove that it
-cannot have been erected before 380, while the probable date for its
-completion may be about 400 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> It may, however, have been
-begun fifty or sixty years earlier. It is most likely that such a tomb
-as this was commenced by the king whose remains it was destined to
-contain; but the mound would not be heaped over the chamber till the
-king himself, and probably his wives and sons, were laid there, and a
-considerable period may consequently have elapsed between the inception
-and the completion of such a monument.</p>
-
-<p>At Dowth there was the usual miscellaneous assortment of things. A
-great quantity of globular stone-shot, probably sling-stones; and
-in the chamber fragments of burned bones, many of which proved to
-be human; glass and amber beads of unique shape, portions of jet
-bracelets, a curious stone button, a fibula, bone bodkins, copper pins,
-and iron knives and rings. Some years ago a gentleman residing in the
-neighbourhood cleared out a portion of the passage, and found a few
-iron antiquities, some bones of mammals, and a small stone urn, which
-he presented to the Irish Academy.<a name="FNanchor_251" id="FNanchor_251"></a><a href="#Footnote_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a>
-In so far as negative evidence is of value, it may be remarked that no
-flint implements and nothing of bronze&mdash;unless the copper pins are
-so classed&mdash;was found in any of these tumuli.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration70"></a>
-<img src="images/i_070.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">70.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Ornament in Dowth. From a rubbing.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration71"></a>
-<img src="images/i_071.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">71.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Ornament in Dowth. From a rubbing.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The ornaments found inside the chambers at Dowth are similar in general
-character to those at New Grange, but, on the whole, more delicate and
-refined. Assuming the progressive nature of
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span>
-
-Irish art, which I see no reason for doubting, they would indicate a
-more modern age, and this, from other circumstances, seems more than
-probable. Though spirals are frequent, the Dowth ornaments assume
-more of free-traced vegetable forms. It is not so easy to identify
-the figures in the annexed woodcut (No. 70), as in the palm-branch in
-New Grange (<a href="#Illustration67">woodcut No. 67</a>), but there can be little doubt that the
-intention was to simulate vegetable nature. At other times forms are
-introduced which a fanciful antiquary might suppose were intended for
-serpents, or writing, or, at all events, as having some occult meaning.
-The annexed from a rubbing is curious, as something very similar occurs
-on a stone at Coilsfield, in Ayrshire, and may really be intended to
-suggest an idea, but of what nature we are not yet in a position to
-guess. It is not so like an alphabetical character as those at New Grange
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>
-
-(<a href="#Illustration68">woodcut No. 68</a>), and till that is shown to have a meaning, it is
-hardly worth while speculating with regard to this one. We shall be
-in a better position to judge of the value or importance of these
-ornaments, in an artistic or chronometric point of view, when we have
-examined those at Lough Crew and elsewhere; but even irrespectively of
-such considerations, no one can examine the monuments on the banks of
-the Boyne without being struck with the elegance as well as the endless
-variety of the ornaments which cover their walls.</p>
-
-<p>If, however, the material proofs are deficient, the written evidence is
-clearer and more satisfactory than with regard to any group of tombs
-in the three kingdoms. In the passage above quoted, it is said "that
-they"&mdash;the kings of Ireland&mdash;"were interred at Brugh from the time
-of Crimthann (<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 76) to the time of Leoghaire, the son of
-Niall (<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 458), except three persons, namely, Art the son of
-Conn, and Cormac the son of Art, and Niall of the nine hostages,"&mdash;the
-father of Leoghaire. The reason given why Art and Cormac were not
-buried here was that they had embraced Christianity. Art was buried at
-a place called Treoit; Cormac on the right bank of the Boyne at a place
-called Ros-na-righ, opposite Brugh; and Niall at Ochaim. But having
-disposed of these three, we have still some twenty-seven kings to find
-graves for, and only seventeen mounds can now be traced at Brugh; and,
-besides these, we have to find the tombs of the Dagdha, and his three
-sons, and Etan the poetess and her son Corpre, and Boinn, the wife of
-Nechtan, "who took with her to the tomb her small hound Dabilla," and a
-vast number of nobles of Tuatha de Danann and others. It is impossible
-to find places for all these persons in the graves now visible, if
-each was buried separately. It may be, however, that the great mounds
-contained several sepulchres. The form and position of the chambers at
-Dowth (<a href="#Illustration69">woodcut No. 69</a>) perhaps countenances such a supposition; but
-many may have been buried under smaller cairns, long since removed to
-make way for agricultural improvements, and many may yet be discovered
-if the place be carefully and systematically explored, which does not
-yet seem to have been done. Before, however, anything like certainty
-could be arrived at as to the distribution of these graves, it would
-be necessary that the great mounds should be thoroughly explored, and
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span>
-
-this, from the nature of their material, will practically involve their
-destruction, which would be very much to be regretted. Meanwhile, if
-I may be allowed to offer a conjecture, I would say that New Grange
-might be the "Cumot or Commensurate grave of Cairbre Lifeachair." He,
-according to the Four Masters, reigned from 271 to 288&mdash;but probably
-fifty or sixty years later&mdash;and seems to have been a king deserving of
-a right royal sepulchre; and I feel great confidence that the unopened
-tumulus near the river may be what tradition says it is&mdash;the grave of
-the Great Dagdha, the hero of Moytura. With regard to the others, it
-would not be safe to hazard any opinion in the present state of our
-knowledge. For the present it is sufficient to feel sure that we have a
-group of monuments all, or very nearly all of which were erected in the
-first four centuries of the Christian era, and from this basis we may
-reason with tolerable certainty regarding the other groups which we may
-meet with in the course of this enquiry.</p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Lough Crew.</span></h3>
-
-<p>At a distance of twenty-five miles nearly due west from Brugh na
-Boinn, and two miles south-east from Oldcastle, is a range of hills,
-called on the Ordnance map Slieve na Calliagh&mdash;the hags' or witches'
-hill. It is upwards of 200 feet above the level of the sea, and the
-most conspicuous elevation in that part of the country. On the ridge
-of this range, which is about two miles in extent, are situated from
-twenty-five to thirty cairns, some of considerable size, being 120
-to 180 feet in diameter; others are much smaller, and some so nearly
-obliterated that their dimensions can hardly be now ascertained. Till
-seven or eight years ago this cemetery was entirely unknown to Irish
-antiquaries, and the positions of the cairns were hardly even indicated
-in the Ordnance Survey; but in 1863 they attracted the attention of
-Mr. Eugene Conwell, of Trim. In the years 1867-8 he was enabled, with
-the assistance and co-operation of the late Mr. Naper, of Lough Crew,
-the proprietor of the soil, to excavate and explore the whole of them.
-A brief account of the results which he obtained was submitted to the
-Royal Irish Academy in 1868, and afterwards printed by him for private
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span>
-
-circulation in 1868; but the greater work, with plans and drawings, in
-which he intends fully to illustrate the whole, is still in abeyance,
-owing to want of encouragement. When completed it will be one of the
-most valuable contributions to our arch&#230;ological knowledge that we have
-received of late years. Meanwhile the following meagre particulars are
-derived from Mr Conwell's pamphlet and the information I picked up
-during a personal visit which I made to the spot in his company in the
-Autumn of last year. The illustrations are all from his drawings.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration72"></a>
-<img src="images/i_072.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">72.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Cairn T, at Lough Crew.&mdash;From a plan by E. Conwell.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>One of the most perfect of these tumuli is that distinguished by Mr.
-Conwell as Cairn T (<a href="#Illustration72">woodcut No. 72</a>). It stands on the highest point of
-the hill, and is consequently the most conspicuous. It is a truncated
-cone, 116 feet in diameter at base, and with a sloping side, between 60
-and 70 feet in length. Around its base are thirty-seven stones, laid on
-edge, and varying from 6 to 12 feet in length. They are not detached,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span>
-
-as at New Grange, but form a retaining wall to the mound. On the north,
-and set about 4 feet back from the circle, is a large stone, 10 feet
-long by 6 high, and 2 feet thick, weighing consequently above 10 tons.
-The upper part is fashioned as a rude seat, from which it derives its
-name of the Hag's Chair (<a href="#Illustration73">woodcut No. 73</a>),
-and there can be little doubt but that it was intended as a seat or
-throne; but whether by the king who erected the sepulchre, or for what
-purpose, it is difficult now to say.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration73"></a>
-<img src="images/i_073.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">73.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The Hag's Chair, Lough Crew.&mdash;From a drawing by E.
-Conwell.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>On the eastern side of the mound the stones forming the periphery of
-the cairn curve inwards for eight or nine yards on each side of the
-spot where the entrance to the chamber commences. It is of the usual
-cruciform plan, and 28 feet long from the entrance to the flat stone
-closing the innermost cell; the dome, consequently, is not nearly
-under the centre of the tumulus, as at New Grange, and lends something
-like probability to the notion that the cell at Dowth (<a href="#Illustration69">woodcut No. 69</a>), was really the principal sepulchre. Twenty-eight of the stones
-in the chamber were ornamented with devices of various sorts. Two of
-them are represented on the accompanying woodcut (No. 74), which, with
-the drawings on the Hag's Chair give a fair idea of their general
-character. They are certainly ruder and less artistic than those on
-the Boyne, and so far would indicate an earlier age. Nothing was found
-in the chambers of this tomb but a quantity of charred human bones,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span>
-
-perfect human teeth, mixed with the bones of animals, apparently stags,
-and one bronze pin, 2&frac12; inches long, with a head ornamented and stem
-slightly so, and still preserving a beautiful green polish.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration74"></a>
-<img src="images/i_074.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">74.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Two Stones in Cairn T, Lough Crew.&mdash;E. Conwell.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Cairn L (<a href="#Illustration75">woodcut No. 75</a>), a little further west, is 135 feet in
-diameter, and surrounded by forty-two stones, similar to those in
-Cairn T. The same curve inwards of these stones marks the entrance
-here, which is placed 18 feet from the outward line of the circle. The
-chamber here is nearly of the same dimensions as that last described,
-being 29 feet deep and 13 across its greatest width. In one of the side
-chambers lies the largest of the mysterious flat basins that have yet
-been discovered, 5 feet 9 inches long by 3 feet 1 inch broad, the whole
-being tooled and picked with as much care and skill as if executed
-by a modern mason. This one has a curious nick in its rim, but as it
-does not go through, it could hardly be intended as a spout. Till some
-unrifled tomb is found, or something analogous in other countries, it
-is extremely difficult to say what the exact use of these great stone
-saucers may have been. That the body or ashes were laid on them is more
-than probable, and they may then have been covered over with a lid like
-a dish-cover, such as are found on tombs in Southern Babylonia.<a name="FNanchor_252" id="FNanchor_252"></a><a href="#Footnote_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a>
-Under this basin were found great quantities of charred human bones
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span>
-
-and forty-eight human teeth, besides a perfectly rounded syenite
-ball, still preserving its original polish, also some jet and other
-ornaments. In other parts were found quantities of charred bones, some
-rude pottery and bone implements, but no objects in metal. The woodcut
-representing the cell, with large basin, gives a fair idea of the
-general style of sculpture in this and the neighbouring cairns. The
-parts cross-hatched seem to have been engraved with a sharp metal tool.
-The ordinary forms, however, both here and on the Boyne are picked;
-but whether they were executed with a hammer, or pick direct, or by a
-chisel driven by a hammer, is by no means clear. My own impression is,
-that it would be very difficult indeed to execute these patterns with a
-hammer of any sort, and that a chisel must have been used, but whether
-of flint, bronze, or iron, there is no evidence to show.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration75"></a>
-<img src="images/i_075.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">75.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Cell in Cairn L, at Lough Crew.&mdash;E. Conwell.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Cairn H, though only between 5 and 6 feet in height and 54 feet in
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span>
-
-diameter, seems to have been the only one on the hill not previously
-rifled, and yielded a most astonishing collection of objects to its
-explorer. The cell was of the usual cruciform plan, 24 feet from the
-entrance to the rear, and 16 feet across the lateral chambers. In
-the passage and crypts of this cairn Mr. Conwell collected some 300
-fragments of human bones, which must have belonged to a considerable
-number of separate individuals; 14 fragments of rude pottery, 10 pieces
-of flint, 155 sea-shells in a perfect condition, besides pebbles and
-small polished stones, in quantities.</p>
-
-<p>The most remarkable part of the collection consisted of 4884 fragments,
-more or less perfect, of bone implements. These are now in the
-Dublin Museum, and look like the remains of a paper-knife-maker's
-stock-in-trade. Most of them are of a knife shape, and almost all more
-or less polished, but without further ornamentation; but 27 fragments
-appear to have been stained, 11 perforated, 501 engraved with rows of
-fine lines; 13 combs were engraved on both sides, and 91 engraved by
-compass with circles and curves of a high order of art. On one, in
-cross-hatch lines, is the representation of an antlered stag, the only
-attempt to depict a living thing in the collection.</p>
-
-<p>Besides these, there were found in this cairn seven beads of amber,
-three small beads of glass of different colours, two fragments, and
-a curious molten drop of glass, 1 inch long, trumpet-shaped at one
-end, and tapering towards the other extremity; six perfect and eight
-fragments of bronze rings, and seven specimens of iron implements, but
-all, as might be expected, very much corroded by rust. One of these
-presents all the appearance of being the leg of a compass, with which
-the bone implements may have been engraved, and one was an iron punch,
-5 inches long, with a chisel-shaped point, bearing evidence of the use
-of the mallet at the opposite end.</p>
-
-<p>Cairn D is the largest and most important monument of the group, being
-180 feet in diameter, and though it is very much dilapidated, the
-circle of fifty-four stones which originally surrounded it can still
-be traced. On its eastern side the stones curve inwards for about
-twelve paces, in the form universal in these cairns; but though the
-explorers set to work industriously to follow out what they considered
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>
-
-a sure "find," they could not penetrate the mound. The stones fell
-in upon them so fast, and the risk they ran was so great, that they
-were forced to abandon the idea of tunnelling, and though a large body
-of men worked assiduously for a fortnight trying to work down from
-above, they failed to penetrate to the central or any other chambers.
-It still, therefore, remains a mystery if there is a blind tope, like
-many in India, or whether its secret still remains to reward some
-more fortunate set of explorers. If it has no central chamber, the
-curving inwards of its outer circle of stones is a curious instance of
-adherence to a sacred form.</p>
-
-<p>The other monuments on the hill do not present any features worth
-enumerating in a general summary like the present, though they would
-be most interesting in a monograph. Though differing greatly in size
-and in richness of ornamentation, they all belong to one class,
-and apparently to one age. For our present purpose one of the most
-interesting peculiarities is that, like the group on the banks of
-the Boyne, this is essentially a cemetery. There are no circles, no
-alignments, no dolmens, no rude stone monuments, in fact. All are
-carefully built, and all more or less ornamented; and there is a
-gradation and progression throughout the whole series widely different
-in this respect from the simplicity and rudeness of the English
-monuments described in the last chapter.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>It now only remains to try to ascertain who those were who were buried
-in these tumuli, and when they were laid there to their rest. So far as
-the evidence at present stands it hardly seems to me to admit of doubt
-but that this is the cemetery of Talten, so celebrated in Irish legend
-and poetry:&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
- <div class="poetry">
-   <div class="stanza">
-    <div class="verse indent-1">"The host of Great Meath are buried</div>
-    <div class="verse">In the middle of the Lordly Brugh;</div>
-    <div class="verse">The Great Ultonians used to bury</div>
-    <div class="verse">At Talten with pomp.</div>
-</div><div class="stanza">
-    <div class="verse indent-1">"The true Ultonians, before Conchobar,</div>
-    <div class="verse">Were ever buried at Talten,</div>
-    <div class="verse">Until the death of that triumphant man,</div>
-    <div class="verse">Through which they lost their glory."<a name="FNanchor_253" id="FNanchor_253"></a><a href="#Footnote_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a></div>
-</div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The distance of the spot from Telltown, the modern representative of
-Talten, is twelve miles, which to some might appear an objection, but
-it must be remembered that Brugh is ten miles from Tara, where all
-the kings resided, who were buried there; and as Dathi and others of
-them were buried at Rath Croghan, sixty-five miles off, distance seems
-hardly to be an objection. Indeed, among a people who, as evidenced
-by their monuments, paid so much attention to funeral rites and
-ceremonious honours to their dead, as the Pagan Irish evidently did,
-it must have mattered little whether the last resting-place of one of
-their kings was a few miles nearer or further from his residence.</p>
-
-<p>It must not, however, be forgotten, that the proper residence of the
-Ultonians, who are said to have been buried at Talten, was Emania or
-Armagh, forty-five miles distant as the crow flies. Why they should
-choose to be buried in Meath, so near the rival capital of Tara, if
-that famed city then existed, is a mystery which it is not easy to
-solve; but that it was so, there seems no doubt, if the traditions
-or Books of the Irish are at all to be depended upon. If their real
-residence was so distant, it seems of trifling consequence whether it
-was ten or twelve miles from the place we now know as Telltown. There
-must have been some very strong reason for inducing the Ultonians to
-bury so far from their homes; but as that reason has not been recorded,
-it is idle to attempt to guess what form it took. What would appear
-a most reasonable suggestion to a civilized Saxon in the nineteenth
-century would in all probability be the direct antithesis of the motive
-that would guide an uncivilized Celt in the first century before
-Christ, and we may therefore as well give up the attempt. Some other
-reason than that of mere proximity to the place of residence governed
-the Irish in the choice of the situation of their cemeteries; what that
-was we may hereafter be able to find out,&mdash;at present, so far as I
-know, the materials do not exist for forming an opinion. If, however,
-this is not Talten, no graves have been found nearer Telltown, which
-would at all answer to the descriptions that remains to us of this
-celebrated cemetery; and, till they are found, these Lough Crew mounds
-seem certainly entitled to the distinction. I cannot see that the
-matter is doubtful.</p>
-
-<p>If this is so, there is little difficulty in determining who were
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span>
-
-buried here. Besides the testimony of the poem just quoted, it is
-stated in the Book of the 'Cemeteries'&mdash;"At Tailten the kings of Ulster
-were used to bury vig<sup>t</sup>. Ollamh Fodhla with his descendants down to
-Conchobhar, who wished to be carried to a place between Slea and the
-sea, with his face to the east, on account of the faith which he had
-embraced." This conversion of Conchobhar is one of the most famous
-legends in Irish ancient history. He was wounded in the head by a ball
-that remained there, and was ordered by his physician to remain quiet
-and avoid all excitement as his only chance of surviving. For seven
-years he followed this advice; but when he saw the eclipse of the sun,
-and felt the great convulsion that came over nature, the day that
-Christ was crucified, he turned to his Druid and asked, "What is this?"
-To which Bacrach, the Druid, replied: "It is true, indeed, Christ, the
-Son of God, is this day crucified by the Jews." "At the recital of
-this enormity, Conchobhar felt so indignant that he went nearly mad:
-his excitement was so great that the ball burst from his head, and he
-died on the very Friday on which the crucifixion took place."<a name="FNanchor_254" id="FNanchor_254"></a><a href="#Footnote_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a>
-All this may be silly enough, as the electric telegraph was not then in
-use, but it is worth quoting here, as it seems that it was to establish
-this synchronism that the chronology of the period was falsified to
-the extent of half a century at least. Conchobhar and Crimthann were
-the two kings of the two great dynasties then reigning in Ireland
-whom the annalists strive to synchronize with Christ, and though they
-fail in that, they establish beyond much doubt that those kings were
-contemporaries. If to this we add the fact so often repeated by the
-authorities quoted above, that Conchobhar was the last of his race
-buried at Talten, and that Crimthann was the first of his line buried
-at Brugh, we obtain a tolerably clear idea of the history of these
-cemeteries. Brugh, in fact, succeeded to Talten on the decline of the
-Ultonian dynasty and the rise of Tuatha de Danann after the victories
-at Moytura had established their supremacy and they had settled
-themselves at Tara.</p>
-
-<p>The character of the sculptures in the two groups of monuments fully
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span>
-
-bears out this view. The carvings at Lough Crew are ruder and less
-artistic than those at Brugh. They are more disconnected, and oftener
-mere cup markings. The three stones represented in the preceding and
-following woodcuts (Nos. 75 and 76), are selected from a great many
-in the Conwell portfolios as fair average specimens of the style
-of sculpture common at Lough Crew, and with the woodcut No. 73,
-representing the Hag's Chair, and No. 75, the chamber in cairn L,
-will convey a fair notion of the whole. In no one instance does it
-seem possible to guess what these figures were meant to represent.
-No animal or vegetable form can be recognized, even after allowing
-the utmost latitude to the imagination; nor do the circles or waving
-lines seem intended to convey any pictorial ideas. Beauty of form, as
-a decoration, seems to have been all the old Celt aimed at, and he may
-have been thought successful at the time, though it hardly conveys the
-same impression to modern minds. The graceful scrolls and spirals and
-the foliage of New Grange and Dowth do not occur there, nor anything
-in the least approaching to them. Indeed, when Mr. Conwell's book is
-published, in which they will all be drawn in more or less detail, I
-believe it will be easy to arrange the whole into a progressive series
-illustrative of the artistic history of Ireland for five centuries
-before the advent of St. Patrick.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration76"></a>
-<img src="images/i_076.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">76.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Stone in Cairn T. Lough Crew.&mdash;E. Conwell.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>It would be an extremely dangerous line of argument to apply this law
-of progressive development to all countries. In India, especially, it
-is very frequently reversed. The rudest art is often much more modern
-than the most refined, but in Ireland this apparently never was the
-case. From the earliest scratchings on pillar stones, down to the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span>
-
-English conquest, her art seems to have been unfalteringly progressive;
-and, beginning with these two cemeteries, which are probably the oldest
-incunabula of her art, its history might be written without a gap, or
-halt, till it bloomed in those exquisite manuscripts and crosses and
-works of gold and metal which still excite such unqualified admiration.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration77"></a>
-<img src="images/i_077.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">77.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Stones in Sculptured Graves, Clover Hill. From a
-sketch by the Author.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>There may be, and no doubt are, many other sculptured graves
-in Ireland, but they have not yet been explored, or, at least,
-published. One, however, deserves notice; not, certainly, on account
-of its magnificence, but for several points of interest which its
-peculiarities bring out. It is situated in a field near Clover Hill,
-not far from Carrowmore, the battle-field of northern Moytura.<a name="FNanchor_255" id="FNanchor_255"></a><a href="#Footnote_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a>
-It measures only 7 feet by 5, and is 4&frac12; feet deep. Its cap-stone
-was originally flush with the earth, and no cairn or circle of stones
-marks it externally, nor is there any tradition of any such ever
-having existed. The carvings on the stones forming the chamber are
-shallow, and now very indistinct, from being overgrown with lichens
-and moss, but their general character will be understood from the
-annexed woodcut. Its character is something between the sculptures
-of Talten and Brugh, which would agree very well with its date if we
-suppose it connected with the battle-field. This, however, is very
-doubtful, for there are few things that come out more prominently in
-the investigation than the fact that all those monuments which are
-directly or indirectly connected with battle-fields are literally rude
-and untouched by the chisel, but that all, or nearly all those which
-are in cemeteries, or have been erected leisurely by, or for, those who
-occupy them, are more or less ornamented. It may, however, be that some
-one connected with the battle wished to be buried near his companions
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span>
-
-who fell there, and prepared this last resting-place for himself, but
-we must know more before such speculations can be of much value.</p>
-
-<p>One other point is of interest regarding this tomb. If the minor
-sepulchres at Brugh were like the one flush with the surface, we cannot
-guess how many may yet be there undiscovered, and equally difficult to
-say how they are to be disinterred.</p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Dolmens.</span></h3>
-
-<p>It is extremely difficult to write anything that will be at all
-satisfactory regarding the few standing solitary dolmens of Ireland.
-Not that their history could not be, perhaps, easily ascertained, but
-simply because every one has hitherto been content to consider them as
-prehistoric, and no one has consequently given himself the trouble to
-investigate the matter. The first point would be to ascertain whether
-any of them exist on any of the battle-fields mentioned in the Irish
-annals. My impression is that they do not: but this question can only
-be answered satisfactorily by some one more intimately acquainted with
-the ancient political geography of Ireland than I can pretend to be.
-No connexion has, however, yet been shown to exist between them and
-any known battle-fields, and till this is done, we must be content to
-consider them as the graves of chiefs or distinguished individuals
-whose ashes are contained in the urns which are generally found under
-them.</p>
-
-<p>A still more important question hinges on their geographical
-distribution. Nothing can be more unsafe than to found any important
-deductions on what is known on this subject at present. If all those
-which are described in books and in journals of learned societies
-were marked on a map, the conclusion would be that the most of them
-are found on the east coast of Ireland; a dozen or so in Waterford
-and Wexford; as many in Dublin and Meath, and an equal number in
-County Down. But this knowledge may merely mean that the east coast,
-possessing roads and towns, has consequently been more frequented by
-tourists and antiquaries than the remote or inaccessible west.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Among the records, however, of the Ordnance survey, and in the Du Noyer
-drawings, there are probably sufficient materials for the purpose. Both
-are deposited in the Library of the Royal Irish Academy at Dublin;
-but any person who would attempt to use these materials for the
-purpose of such an investigation, must be not only an enthusiast, but
-have his whole time at his disposal. The disarray in which they now
-exist renders them utterly useless to any ordinary student of Irish
-antiquities.</p>
-
-<p>The Irish themselves seem to have only one tradition regarding their
-dolmens. They call them all "Beds of Diarmid and Graine," and that is
-the name applied to them in the sheets of the Ordnance Survey. The
-elopement of Diarmid with Graine, the daughter of Cormac Mac Art,
-whose date, according to the Four Masters, was <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 286, is
-one of the most celebrated of Irish legends.<a name="FNanchor_256" id="FNanchor_256"></a><a href="#Footnote_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a>
-The story is, that being pursued all over Ireland by Finn, the
-disappointed suitor, they erected these as places of shelter, or for
-hiding in. This is, of course, absurd enough; but it shows that, in
-the opinion of the Irish themselves, they belong to the period which
-elapsed between the birth of Christ and the conversion of the people to
-Christianity. There is no hint in any Irish book that any of them were
-erected before the Christian era, nor anything that would lead us to
-suppose that any are more modern than the time of St. Columba.</p>
-
-<p>The most extensive group of free standing dolmens known to exist in
-Ireland, is that in or near Glen Columbkille, at the extreme western
-point of Donegal. No account of these has been published&mdash;so far as I
-know&mdash;in any book or journal, and I am indebted for all I know about
-them to my friend, Mr. Norman Moore, who paid a visit to the spot
-this autumn to obtain the information I wanted, and it is from his
-descriptions that the following is abstracted.<a name="FNanchor_257" id="FNanchor_257"></a><a href="#Footnote_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a></p>
-
-<p>The principal groups are situated in Glen Malin More, a small valley
-running parallel to that of Columbkille, about two miles to the
-southward of it. There are three groups on the north side of this
-valley and two on the south, extending from about half a mile from
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span>
-
-the sea-shore to about three miles inward. The finest group is that
-next the sea on the south side, and consists of six dolmens, situated
-nearly in a row, about 50 or 100 feet apart, and is accompanied by
-some cairns, but so small as hardly to deserve the name of Tumuli. The
-stones of the dolmens range from 6 to 12 feet in height, and their
-cap-stones are still there, though some have been displaced.</p>
-
-<p>The second group, a little way up the glen, consists of ten dolmens
-arranged in two parallel rows, but they are neither so large nor so
-perfect as those nearer to the sea.</p>
-
-<p>Nearly opposite the first-named group on the shore, but on the north
-side of the stream, are two dolmens so nearly contiguous to each
-other that they may almost be considered as one structure. About half
-a mile to the east of this is a fourth group, consisting of four
-dolmens, accompanied by cairns, and two at least of the former are of
-considerable magnificence. The group farthest up the glen consists of
-five or six dolmens, but all except one in a ruinous state.</p>
-
-<p>The number of dolmens in Glen Columbkille is not given by Mr. Moore;
-but, from the context, there must be five or six, making up twenty
-to thirty for the whole group. So far as can be judged from the
-description, the group in Glen Columbkille seems to have better fitted
-and more complete chambers; consequently, I should infer it to be more
-modern than the others. It would, however, require careful personal
-inspection to classify them; though I have no doubt it could be done,
-and that, with a little care, these six groups could be arranged into a
-consecutive series, whatever the initial or final date may turn out to
-be.</p>
-
-<p>The general construction and appearance of these tombs is that of
-the so-called Calliagh Birra's house in Meath, described further on
-(<a href="#Illustration80">woodcut No. 80</a>). From its situation and appearance, there seems little
-reason for doubt that the Meath example belongs to the fifth or the
-sixth century; and if this is so, as little for doubting that these
-dolmens in Donegal are of about the same age, or, in other words, that
-this mode of interment continued to be practised in certain parts of
-Ireland, especially near the coasts, down to the entire conversion of
-the inhabitants to Christianity.</p>
-
-<p>There are no other traditions, so far as I know, attached to anything
-in this glen, except those that relate to St. Columba, who, it is
-understood, long resided here, attempting to convert the inhabitants
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span>
-
-to Christianity. Whether he was successful or not is not clear. He
-certainly left Ireland in disgust, and settled in the first island
-whence the shores of his detested native land could not be seen. The
-only other tradition that seems to bear on the subject relates to
-St. Patrick, who, being unable to convert the "Demons" about Croagh
-Patrick, in Mayo, drove them into the sea; but, instead of perishing,
-as they ought to have done, when he threw his bell after them, they
-reappeared, and settled on this promontory.<a name="FNanchor_258" id="FNanchor_258"></a><a href="#Footnote_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a>
-The meaning of this fable seems to be, that some tribe&mdash;not
-Celtic, for the Celts accepted Christianity whenever and wherever it
-was preached to them, but, it may be of Iberian origin&mdash;refusing
-to accept the doctrine, was expelled by force from their seats in
-Mayo, and sought refuge with kindred tribes in this remote corner
-of the island, and here remained till St. Columba took up his abode
-among them. If we might assume that the Columbkille group belongs to a
-time immediately preceding their conversion, and that the other five
-groups in Malin More extended back to a date two, three, it may be
-four centuries before St. Columba's time, and that they belonged to
-an Iberian or Celtiberian race, we should have an hypothesis which at
-least would account for all their peculiarities. Though in sight of
-Carrowmore, on the southern side of Sligo Bay, it is certain that these
-monuments have no affinity with them or with the works of any of the
-Northern circle-building nations. Spanish or French they must be; and
-we can hardly hesitate between the two. In Elizabeth's time, and as far
-back as history reaches, we have Spaniards settled in Galway, and on
-the western coast of Ireland. Such colonisation, if lasting, is not the
-work of any sudden impulse or of a long past time; and the probability
-is that Iberians, before they learned to talk Latin, were settled here
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span>
-
-from a very early age. It is also probable from what we know of them
-and their monuments in the Peninsula, that they would refuse for a
-longer period than the Celts to be converted, and that they should
-use dolmens for their sepulchres in preference either to tumuli or
-circles.</p>
-
-<p>Be this as it may, there are at least two points which we may assume
-negatively with regard to these dolmens. The first is, that they do not
-mark battle-fields: they have none of the appearance of such monuments.
-The second is, that as there is no capital or fertile country in their
-neighbourhood, they are not a royal cemetery; they are not, indeed,
-claimed, even in the remotest manner, by any of the royal races of
-Ireland. They are, so far as we can see, the sepulchres of a foreign
-colony settled on this spot. Whether this is probable or not must,
-of course, depend on a comparison of these monuments with those in
-the countries from which they are supposed to have come. But, in the
-meanwhile, it may be assumed, as an hypothesis which at least accounts
-for the phenomena as we find them in Ireland, even when judged of by
-their own internal evidence alone.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>One of the most interesting of the Irish dolmens is that known as the
-Giant's Grave, near Drumbo, about four miles south from Belfast. The
-interest attached to this monument does not, however, arise so much
-from the grandeur of the structure itself, though it may be considered
-a first-class example and very tolerably perfect, but from its standing
-solitary in the centre of the largest circle in these islands,
-Avebury only excepted. The circle is about 580 feet in diameter, and
-consequently more than six acres in extent, and is formed, not as at
-Avebury or Arbor Low, by a ditch dug inside, and the earth so gained
-being used to form a rampart, but by the top of a hill being levelled
-and the earth removed in so doing being thrown up so as to form a
-circular amphitheatre. Although, consequently, the rampart is not so
-high outside as at Avebury, the whole surface internally having been
-lowered, the internal effect is very much grander.<a name="FNanchor_259" id="FNanchor_259"></a><a href="#Footnote_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>What, then, was the object of this great earthwork with one solitary
-dolmen in the centre? Was it simply the converse of such a mound as
-that at New Grange? Was it that, instead of heaping the earth over the
-sepulchral chamber, they cleared it away and arranged it round it, so
-as to give it dignity? Or was it that funereal games or ceremonies were
-celebrated round the tomb, and that the amphitheatre was prepared to
-give dignity to their performance? These are questions that can only
-be answered when more of these circles are known and compared with one
-another, and the whole subject submitted to a more careful examination
-than has yet been the case. My impression is that it is the grave of
-a chief, and of him only, and that it is among the most modern of its
-class.</p>
-
-<p>At about the same distance west from Belfast is another dolmen, which,
-in itself, is a much finer example than this Grave of the Giant. Its
-cap-stone is said to weigh 40 tons, and is supported by five upright
-stones of considerable dimensions. It has, however, no circle or
-accompaniments. The Celtic name of the district in which it stands was
-'Baille clough togal,' <i>i.e.</i> the Town of the Stone of the Strangers,
-which would seem to indicate that it was not very old, nor its origin
-quite forgotten.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration78"></a>
-<img src="images/i_078.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">78.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen at Knockeen.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>At Knockeen, county Waterford, there is a remarkable dolmen (<a href="#Illustration78">woodcut No. 78</a>), though it neither has any surroundings nor any tradition
-attached to it.<a name="FNanchor_260" id="FNanchor_260"></a><a href="#Footnote_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a>
-It is interesting, however, as it looks as if
-we were approaching the form out of which Stonehenge grew, which, I
-have not a doubt, could be found in Ireland if looked for. It is also
-interesting as showing in plan (<a href="#Illustration79">woodcut No. 79</a>), an arrangement which
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span>
-
-is peculiar, I believe, to Irish dolmens. The cell is well formed, but
-in front of it is a demicell, or ante-chamber, which looks as if it
-might have been used for making offerings to the dead after the cell
-was closed.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration79"></a>
-<img src="images/i_079.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">79.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan of Dolmen at Knockeen.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration80"></a>
-<img src="images/i_080.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">80.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Calliagh Birra's House, north end of Parish of
-Monasterboice.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>One other dolmen deserves being illustrated before going further, as it
-belongs to a class of monuments common in Brittany, hitherto unknown in
-Great Britain. It consists of a cell 12 feet 8 inches long internally,
-with a width of 4 feet at the entrance, but diminishing to 3 feet at
-its inner end. It is situated near Monasterboice, at the northern limit
-of the parish, and not far, consequently, from New Grange, and close
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span>
-
-to Greenmount. Locally it is known as the house or tomb of Calliagh
-Vera, or Birra,<a name="FNanchor_261" id="FNanchor_261"></a><a href="#Footnote_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a>
-the hag whose chair is illustrated in woodcut No. 73, and whose name is
-indissolubly connected with the Lough Crew tombs.
-According to the traditions collected by Dr. O'Donovan and Mr. Conwell,
-she broke her neck before completing the last tumulus, and was buried,
-close to where she died,<a name="FNanchor_262" id="FNanchor_262"></a><a href="#Footnote_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a>
-in the parish of Diarmor, where, however, nothing remains to mark the spot.</p>
-
-<p>From the mode in which it is constructed, it seems hardly doubtful that
-the original intention was to cover it with a tumulus; but probably it
-never was occupied. If I am correct in my surmise as to its age, its
-builder may have been converted to Christianity before he had occasion
-for it. But, be that as it may, its exposed position may serve to
-explain how a king or chief who had erected such a structure for his
-burying-place might very well have amused himself, if his life were
-prolonged, in adorning both the interior and exterior with carvings.
-I cannot believe that the internal ornaments were ever executed by
-artificial light, and both, therefore, must have been completed before
-the chamber was buried.</p>
-
-<p>Last year, General Lefroy excavated a tumulus at Greenmount, Castle
-Bellingham, about five miles north of Calliagh Birra's so-called
-house.<a name="FNanchor_263" id="FNanchor_263"></a><a href="#Footnote_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a>
-In it he found a chamber, 21 feet long by about 4 feet wide
-and 5 feet high, enclosed by two parallel walls built of small stones,
-and closed at each end by similar masonry.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The roof was formed of slabs in two rows, the lower projecting as
-brackets and the upper stretching across beyond the walls on each side.
-In plan, therefore, it was identical with the Birra's house, though
-longer and larger. But, from the mode in which it was constructed,
-it was evidently more modern,&mdash;the most modern, in fact, of all the
-chambered sepulchral tumuli yet discovered in Ireland.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration81"></a>
-<img src="images/i_081.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">81.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan and Section of Chamber in Greenmount Tumulus.
-From a drawing by General Lefroy.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Nothing was found in the chamber: it had been rifled before, but by
-whom and at what period there was nothing to show. At 9 or 10 feet
-below the summit, but still 6 or 7 feet above the floor of the chamber,
-a bronze monument was found with a Runic inscription on it, which, with
-the assistance of the Danish antiquaries, the General decides to belong
-to the ninth century (852?). The one question is, is it coeval with the
-building of the tomb or its destruction? The name Domnal, or Domhnall,
-being Irish, and the position in which it was found seem to prove that
-it belongs to the period of the raising of the mound, not to that of
-its being rifled; and if so, this grave approaches the age to which
-Maeshowe in the Orkneys may belong.</p>
-
-<p>The circumstance, however, which interests us most at present is the
-similarity of the Greenmount Chamber to the Lady Birra's tomb. Being
-locally so close to one another, and so like in plan, they cannot be
-very distant in date, though the more southern is, from its megalithic
-character, undoubtedly the more ancient of the two. If we allow two or
-three centuries it is a long stretch, though even that takes us far
-away from any connexion with the monuments at Lough Crew, and barely
-allows of it following very close on those at Brugh na Boinne.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The similarity of this tomb with those at Glen Columbkille has already
-been pointed out, and no doubt others exist in Ireland, and will be
-brought to light as soon as attention is directed to the subject. But
-meanwhile they seem, so far as we can at present judge, to make up an
-extensive group of pagan or semi-pagan monuments, extending from the
-time of St. Patrick to that of St. Columba, and, as such, are among
-the latest, and certainly among the most interesting, monuments of the
-class in Ireland.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration82"></a>
-<img src="images/i_082.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">82.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen of the Four Maols, Ballina.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Vague as all this may probably appear, there is one dolmen in Ireland
-which seems to have a date. The great grandson of Dathi, whose red
-pillar-stone at Rath Croghan, erected <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 428, we have
-already pointed out, was named Ceallach. He was murdered by his four
-foster-brothers through envy about the sovereignty. They were hanged
-for their crime at a spot known as Ard-na-Riagh, near Ballina, and were
-buried on a hill on the opposite side of the river, where a dolmen
-still stands, and is pointed out as the grave of the four Maols, the
-murderers. These particulars are related in the Dinnsenchus, in the
-Book of Lecan, and in the Annals of the Hy Fiachrach, translated by Dr.
-O'Donovan (p. 35), who, in a note, adds that "this evidence, coupled
-with the description of the situation on the other side of the Moy,
-opposite Ard-na-Riagh, leaves no doubt of its identity."</p>
-
-<p>The dolmen in question has nothing very remarkable about it. The
-cap-stone, which measures 9 feet by 7 feet, is hexagonal in form, and
-is supported on three uprights, arranged similarly to those of Kit's
-Cotty House. It is perfectly level, and stands about 4 feet above
-the level of the soil. The cap-stone may have been fashioned into
-its present form by art; but there is no sign of chiselling, and,
-altogether there is nothing that would attract especial attention.<a name="FNanchor_264" id="FNanchor_264"></a><a href="#Footnote_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a>
-The interest rests with its date. If it can be established that it
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span>
-
-belongs to the beginning of the sixth century, which I see no more
-reason for doubting than Dr. O'Donovan does, it is a point gained in
-our investigation, in so far at least as dates are concerned.</p>
-
-<p>It would be tedious to enumerate the other dolmens in Ireland which
-have neither dates nor peculiarities to distinguish them from others
-of this class, but there is one monument of a megalithic character in
-Ireland which must be described before leaving the country, though it
-certainly is not a dolmen, and its date and use are both mysterious at
-present.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration83"></a>
-<img src="images/i_083.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">83.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Sketch-Plan of Monument in the Deer Park, Sligo.
-Scale 40 feet to 1 inch.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>It stands in the deer park of the Hazlewood domain, about four miles
-east of Sligo. It is entered from the south, and consists first
-of an enclosure 54 feet by 24 feet. To the westward of this is a
-smaller apartment, about 30 feet by 12 feet, divided into two by two
-projecting stones. At the east end are two similar apartments side
-by side, but smaller, the whole length of the structure measuring
-about 115 feet.<a name="FNanchor_265" id="FNanchor_265"></a><a href="#Footnote_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a>
-The three entrances from the central to the side
-apartments are trilithons of squared and partially dressed stones, and
-would remind us of Stonehenge, were they not so small. They are only
-3 feet under the lintel, and you must bow low indeed to pass under
-them. Indeed, when speaking of these enclosures as apartments, it
-must be borne in mind that one can enter anywhere by passing between
-the stones, and stepping over the walls, which are composed of stones
-hardly ever touching each other, the highest being only 3 or 4 feet
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span>
-
-high. Many of them, though massive, have only half that height.</p>
-
-<p>What, then, is this curious edifice? It can hardly be a tomb, it is
-so unlike any other tomb which we know of. In plan it looks more like
-a temple; indeed, it is not unlike the arrangement of some Christian
-churches: but a church or temple with walls pervious, as these are, and
-so low that the congregation outside can see all that passes inside,
-is so anomalous an arrangement, that it does not seem admissible. At
-present it is unique; if some similar example could be discovered,
-perhaps we might guess its riddle.</p>
-
-<p>It is situated on the highest plateau of the hill. A little lower
-down is a very fine stone Cathair, or circular fort, with an L-shaped
-underground apartment of some extent in its centre; and on a
-neighbouring eminence are several round tumuli, which, looking like the
-burying-places of the "Castellani," increase the improbability of the
-upper building being a sepulchre.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>Before leaving this branch of the subject, it may be as well to allude
-to a point which, though not very distinct in itself, may have some
-influence with those who are shocked at being told that the rude
-stone monuments of Ireland are so modern as from the preceding pages
-we should infer they were. It is that every allusion to Ireland, in
-any classical author, and every inference from its own annals, lead
-us to assume that Ireland, during the centuries that elapsed between
-the Christian era and St. Patrick, was in a state of utter and
-hopeless barbarism. The testimony of Diodorus<a name="FNanchor_266" id="FNanchor_266"></a><a href="#Footnote_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a>
-and Strabo<a name="FNanchor_267" id="FNanchor_267"></a><a href="#Footnote_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a>
-that its inhabitants were cannibals is too distinct to be disputed,
-and according to the last named authority, they added to this an
-ugly habit of eating their fathers and mothers. These accusations
-are repeated by St. Jerome<a name="FNanchor_268" id="FNanchor_268"></a><a href="#Footnote_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a>
-in the fourth century with more than
-necessary emphasis. All represent the Irish as having all their women
-in common, and as more barbarous than the inhabitants of Britain,<a name="FNanchor_269" id="FNanchor_269"></a><a href="#Footnote_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a>
-indeed, than any other people of Europe. Nor can it be pleaded that
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span>
-
-these authors wrote in ignorance of the state of the country, for
-Ptolemy's description of the coasts and of the interior, of the cities
-and tribes shows an intimate acquaintance with the island which could
-only be derived from observation.<a name="FNanchor_270" id="FNanchor_270"></a><a href="#Footnote_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a>
-Their own annals do not, it is true, repeat these scandals; but nothing
-we now have can be said to have been reduced to writing in anything
-like the form in which we now possess it before the time of St.
-Patrick; and even that has passed through edition after edition at the
-hands of patriotic Irishmen before it assumed the form in which we now
-find it. Even these tell of nothing but fighting and assassination,
-and of crimes of every sort and kind. Even the highest title of one
-of their greatest kings, Conn "of a hundred battles," is sufficiently
-indicative of the life which he led, and the state of the country
-he governed. As we have every reason to believe that the progress
-of Ireland was steadily and equably progressive, it is evident that
-if it was so, a very short time prior to what we find in the early
-centuries of Christianity would take us back to the present state of
-the natives of Australia, and we should find a condition of society
-when any combined effort was impossible. So evident is this, not only
-from history, but from every inference that can be gathered from the
-state of Ireland in subsequent ages, that the wonder really is how
-such a people could have erected such monuments as those we find on
-the banks of the Boyne in the early centuries of our epoch. The answer
-is, of course, that the idleness of savages is capable of wonderful
-efforts. A nation of men who have no higher ambition than to provide
-for their daily wants, and who are willing to submit to any tyrant who
-will undertake to supply these in order to gratify his own pride or
-ambition, may effect wonders. The pyramids of Egypt and the temples of
-southern India are examples of what may be done by similar means. But
-to effect such things, the people must be sufficiently organised to
-combine, and sufficiently disciplined to submit; and we have no reason
-to suppose that in Ireland they were either before the Christian era,
-and it is even very difficult to understand how they came to be so far
-advanced even in the time of St. Patrick. That they were so their works
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span>
-
-attest; but if we had to trust to indications derived from history
-alone, the inference certainly would be that the monuments are
-considerably more modern than the dates above assigned to them; while
-it seems barely possible they should be carried back to any earlier
-period.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>There may be other rude stone monuments in Ireland besides those
-described or alluded to in the preceding pages, but they can scarcely
-be very numerous or very important, or they could hardly have escaped
-notice. They are not, consequently, likely to disturb any conclusion
-that may be arrived at from the examination of those which are known.
-From these, we may safely conclude that all, with perhaps the exception
-of the Hazlewood monument, are certainly sepulchral; and all, unless
-I am very much mistaken, were erected subsequently to the building of
-Emania by Eochaidh Ollamb Fodlha in the third century <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>
-There may be cairns, and even dolmens, belonging to the earlier
-Hiberni before the Scoti were driven from the Continent, by the Punic
-or Roman wars, to seek refuge and repose in the green island of the
-West, but they must be insignificant, and probably must remain for ever
-unrecognizable.</p>
-
-<p>From the date, however, of the founding of Emania we seem to have a
-perfectly consecutive and intelligible series commencing with the
-smaller and ruder cairns of Lough Crew, and rising at last to the
-lordly sepulchres of Brugh na Boinne. Between these two stand the
-monuments on the battle-fields of Moytura, and contemporary with the
-last are the Raths on the far-famed hill of Tara. Beyond these we seem
-to have the tomb of the four Moels, the so-called house of Calliagh
-Birra, and the dolmens of Glencolumbkille, all apparently belonging
-to the sixth century. The tumulus at Greenmount is later than any of
-these, but hardly belongs to our Irish series.</p>
-
-<p>From these we pass by easy gradations to the beehive cells and
-oratories of the early Christians. No such stone dwellings probably
-existed before the time of St. Patrick, or we should have found traces
-of them at Tara, or Armagh, or Telltown; but as none such existed
-in these royal seats of the Scots, we may fairly assume that for
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span>
-
-domestic purposes wood and turf alone were used. But as soon as the
-use of stone became prevalent for such purposes, as was the case with
-the introduction of Christianity, we soon find the round towers, with
-their accompanying churches, springing up in every corner of the land,
-and Irish architecture progressing steadily in a groove of its own,
-till its forms were modified, but not obliterated, by the changes
-introduced by the English conquerors. The history of their style from
-St. Patrick to the English conquerers has been so well written by
-Petrie, that little now remains to be said about that division. But the
-history of the preceding seven centuries still remains for some one
-with the leisure requisite to explore the country, and with patience
-and judgment sufficient to read aright the many enigmas which are
-still involved in it, although the main outlines of the story seem
-sufficiently clear and intelligible. If it were written out in detail
-and fully illustrated, it would prove a most valuable commentary on
-the dark period of the history of Ireland before the introduction of
-Christianity, and when the concomitant introduction of alphabetic
-writing first rendered her annals intelligible and trustworthy.</p>
-
-<p>In one other respect the study of these early monuments of Ireland
-seems to afford a subject of most engrossing interest. It is in Ireland
-that we first begin to perceive the threefold division, which, if it
-can be established, will lead to the most important ethnographical
-determinations. It appears that in this island the stone circles of
-the Scandinavians were introduced simultaneously with the dolmens of
-the Iberians or Aquitanians, and we can trace the rude barrows of
-the Celts growing up between them till they expanded into the great
-mounds of the Boyne. That these three forms ever were at any one time
-absolutely distinct is most unlikely, and equally so that they should
-have long remained so in the same country, even if it could be shown
-that at any one time they belonged to three separate races. Generally,
-however, it seems hardly doubtful that they do point to ethnographic
-peculiarities, which may become most important. Combined with their
-history and a knowledge of their uses, these monuments promise to
-rescue from oblivion one of the most curious chapters of Irish history,
-which without them might remain for ever unwritten.</p>
-
-
-<div class="topspace1"></div>
-<div class="footnotes">
-<blockquote>
-<p class="footnote"><span class="smcap"><b>Footnotes</b></span></p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_201" id="Footnote_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_201"><span class="label">[201]</span></a>
-Stokes, 'Life of Petrie;' London, 1868, p. 99 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_202" id="Footnote_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_202"><span class="label">[202]</span></a>
-In the following pages it is proposed
-to follow the popular and pronounceable
-spelling of Irish proper names. One
-half of the difficulty of following the
-Irish annals is the unfamiliar and uncouth
-mode in which proper names are
-spelt, and which we learn, from Eugene
-O'Curry's lectures, never represents the
-mode in which they are pronounced.
-In a learned work intended for Irish
-scholars, like the 'Annals of the Four
-Masters,' the scientific mode of spelling
-is, of course, the only one that could be
-adopted, but in such a work as this it
-would be only useless and prejudicial
-pedantry.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_203" id="Footnote_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_203"><span class="label">[203]</span></a>
-'Lough Corrib, its Shores and
-Islands.' Dublin, 1867. Sir William
-possesses a residence on the battle-field,
-where I was hospitably entertained for
-some days when I visited that neighbourhood
-last year.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_204" id="Footnote_204"></a><a href="#FNanchor_204"><span class="label">[204]</span></a>
-These, and all the particulars of the
-battle of South Moytura, are taken from
-the eighth chapter of Sir W. Wilde's
-book, pp. 211-248, and need not, therefore,
-be specially referred to.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_205" id="Footnote_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205"><span class="label">[205]</span></a>
-'Annals of the Four Masters,' translated
-by J. O'Donovan, i. p. 23.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_206" id="Footnote_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_206"><span class="label">[206]</span></a>
-Eugene O'Curry's 'Materials for Ancient Irish History,' p. 246.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_207" id="Footnote_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_207"><span class="label">[207]</span></a>
-Stokes, 'Life of Petrie,' p. 253.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_208" id="Footnote_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_208"><span class="label">[208]</span></a>
-<i>l. c.</i> p. 242.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_209" id="Footnote_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_209"><span class="label">[209]</span></a>
-I regret very much that the state of
-my health, and other circumstances, prevented
-my mapping and drawing these
-remains, but I hope some competent
-person will undertake the task before
-long. Carrowmore is more easily accessible
-than Carnac. The inns at Sligo
-are better than those at Auray, the
-remains are within three miles of the
-town, and the scenery near Sligo is
-far more beautiful than that of the
-Morbihan; yet hundreds of our countrymen
-rush annually to the French megaliths,
-and bring home sketch-books full
-of views and measurements, but no one
-thinks of the Irish monuments, and no
-views of them exist that are in any way
-accessible to the public.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_210" id="Footnote_210"></a><a href="#FNanchor_210"><span class="label">[210]</span></a>
-It is unfortunately only an eye-sketch,
-hurriedly taken, and thus not to
-be implicitly depended upon. The two
-stones outside, that look like the rudiments
-of the avenue, I take to mark
-only an external interment.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_211" id="Footnote_211"></a><a href="#FNanchor_211"><span class="label">[211]</span></a>
-These, and several other photographs
-of the field and localities near it,
-were specially made for me by Mr. A.
-Sleater, 26, Castle-street, Sligo, who
-executed my commission both cheaply
-and intelligently.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_212" id="Footnote_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_212"><span class="label">[212]</span></a>
-O'Curry's 'Materials for Ancient Irish History,' Appendix xxv. p. 41.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_213" id="Footnote_213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_213"><span class="label">[213]</span></a>
-"Meaba Regina occisa est a Furba dio filio Concobari 7 Vespasiano," ii. p. 23.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_214" id="Footnote_214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_214"><span class="label">[214]</span></a>
-Stokes, 'Life of Petrie,' p. 256.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_215" id="Footnote_215"></a><a href="#FNanchor_215"><span class="label">[215]</span></a>
-Petrie's 'Round Towers,' p. 107.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_216" id="Footnote_216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216"><span class="label">[216]</span></a>
-It will be found at more length in E. O'Curry's 'Materials for Ancient Irish
-History,' pp. 247-250.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_217" id="Footnote_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_217"><span class="label">[217]</span></a>
-It was, according to the same authorities,
-"during this interval that Lugh,
-the then reigning king, established the
-fair at Tailtean, in commemoration of
-his foster-mother, the daughter of Magh
-Mor, king of Spain," "This fair," adds
-Dr. O'Donovan, "continued famous down
-to the time of Roderic O'Conor, last
-monarch of Ireland; and the traditions
-of it are still so vivid, that Telltown was
-till recently resorted to by the men of
-Meath for hurling, wrestling, and manly
-sports." It would be a wonderful instance
-of the stability of Irish institutions
-if a fair, established in a miserable
-inland village eighteen centuries before
-Christ, should flourish through the
-middle ages, and hardly now be extinct!
-It may have been established about the
-Christian era, but certainly not before,
-and thus becomes another piece of evidence
-as to the date of the events we
-are describing.&mdash;'Annals of the Four
-Masters,' p. 23.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_218" id="Footnote_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218"><span class="label">[218]</span></a>
-'Mon. Hist. Brit.' xcviii.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_219" id="Footnote_219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_219"><span class="label">[219]</span></a>
-Madsen, 'Antiquit&#233;s pr&#233;historiques
-du Danemark.' Copenhagen, 1869.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_220" id="Footnote_220"></a><a href="#FNanchor_220"><span class="label">[220]</span></a>
-Sj&#246;borg Samlingar f&#246;r Nordens Forn&#228;lskare,'
-i. p. 12.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_221" id="Footnote_221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_221"><span class="label">[221]</span></a>
-'Materials for Ancient Irish History,'
-p. 250.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_222" id="Footnote_222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_222"><span class="label">[222]</span></a>
-'Annals of the Four Masters,' translated
-by J. O'Donovan, i. p. 21.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_223" id="Footnote_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_223"><span class="label">[223]</span></a>
-O'Curry, 'Materials for Ancient Irish History,' p. 246.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_224" id="Footnote_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_224"><span class="label">[224]</span></a>
-O'Connor, ii. p. 1. O'Curry, 'Materials for Ancient Irish History,' p. 63.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_225" id="Footnote_225"></a><a href="#FNanchor_225"><span class="label">[225]</span></a>
-'Tighernachi Ann.' O'Connor, p. 11-23.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_226" id="Footnote_226"></a><a href="#FNanchor_226"><span class="label">[226]</span></a>
-'Annals of the Four Masters,' i. p. 99.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_227" id="Footnote_227"></a><a href="#FNanchor_227"><span class="label">[227]</span></a>
-'Essay on the Ancient Architecture of Ireland,' by G. Petrie, pp. 97-109.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_228" id="Footnote_228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_228"><span class="label">[228]</span></a>
-Could this be the great Rath close
-to the Netterville domain? See Sir W.
-Wilde, 'The Boyne and the Blackwater,'
-p. 211.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_229" id="Footnote_229"></a><a href="#FNanchor_229"><span class="label">[229]</span></a>
-Tighernach, O'Connor, ii. p. 23,
-"Carcobarus filius Ness&#230; obiit hoc anno&mdash;33."</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_230" id="Footnote_230"></a><a href="#FNanchor_230"><span class="label">[230]</span></a>
-In the 'Annals of the Four Masters'
-(i. p. 89) there is a king called Eochaid
-Aireamb. "Ideo dictus," says Lynch,
-translating Keating, "quod tumulos
-effodi primus in Hiberni&#226; curavit." I
-have no doubt the etymology is correct,
-and the fact also; but it would hardly do
-to base our argument upon it, though it
-accords perfectly with the conclusion
-I have arrived at from other circumstances.
-He lived, according to the
-'Four Masters,' 118 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> According to
-the more correct Tighernach, 45 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_231" id="Footnote_231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_231"><span class="label">[231]</span></a>
-The real name of the Daghda was,
-according to the 'Four Masters,' Eochaidh
-Ollathair; and Eochaid, or Eochy, is one
-of the most common names in Irish history,
-and constantly recurring.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_232" id="Footnote_232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_232"><span class="label">[232]</span></a>
-Since the above was written I have
-been gratified to find so eminent an
-authority as Dr. Henthorn Todd, late
-President of the Royal Irish Academy,
-arriving, by a very different road, at
-very nearly the same conclusion:&mdash;"The
-Firbolgs, or Belg&#230;," he says, "invaded
-Ireland, not from France, but from
-Britain&mdash;Dumnonii, or Devon." "The
-conquest of Ireland was not much older
-than C&#230;sar's time, if it were not a good
-bit later, and was the first influx of
-civilization rude, indeed, but much superior
-to that of the Hiberni."&mdash;<i>Irish</i>
-<i>Nennius</i>, translated by J. H. Todd, D.D.,
-Appendix C.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_233" id="Footnote_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a>
-The principal one of these is the
-rath of Queen Meave, at some distance
-off. She, according to Tighernach, was
-slain by her stepson, in the seventh
-year of Vespasian, <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 75.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_234" id="Footnote_234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_234"><span class="label">[234]</span></a>
-According to Tighernach, Cormac,
-the grandson of Conn of a Hundred
-Battles, commonly called Cormac Mac
-Art, reigned 218-266 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_235" id="Footnote_235"></a><a href="#FNanchor_235"><span class="label">[235]</span></a>
-'Hist. and Ant. of Tara Hill.'&mdash;'Trans. R. I. A.' xviii. p. 212.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_236" id="Footnote_236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_236"><span class="label">[236]</span></a>
-<i>Ibid.</i>
-xviii. pp. 81, 137, 170, &amp;c.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_237" id="Footnote_237"></a><a href="#FNanchor_237"><span class="label">[237]</span></a>
-'Materials for Ancient Irish History,' Appendix ii. p. 463 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_238" id="Footnote_238"></a><a href="#FNanchor_238"><span class="label">[238]</span></a>
-<i>Ibid.</i> p. 29 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_239" id="Footnote_239"></a><a href="#FNanchor_239"><span class="label">[239]</span></a>
-'Hist, and Ant. of Tara.'&mdash;'Trans. R. I. S.' xviii. p. 46.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_240" id="Footnote_240"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240"><span class="label">[240]</span></a>
-Petrie, 'Round Towers,' 100 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_241" id="Footnote_241"></a><a href="#FNanchor_241"><span class="label">[241]</span></a>
-L. c. 105.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_242" id="Footnote_242"></a><a href="#FNanchor_242"><span class="label">[242]</span></a>
-The Irish use ditch, as the Romans
-used vallum, or the Scotch dyke, to designate
-either a rampart or the hollow
-from which it was taken.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_243" id="Footnote_243"></a><a href="#FNanchor_243"><span class="label">[243]</span></a>
-Quotation from 'Book of Geneal,' p. 251. Petrie, 'Round Towers,' p. 107.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_244" id="Footnote_244"></a><a href="#FNanchor_244"><span class="label">[244]</span></a>
-Sir W. Wilde, 'The Boyne and the Blackwater,' 1849, p. 188.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_245" id="Footnote_245"></a><a href="#FNanchor_245"><span class="label">[245]</span></a>
-Rowland's 'Mona Antiqua,' p. 314.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_246" id="Footnote_246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_246"><span class="label">[246]</span></a>
-'Philosophical Transactions,' Nos. 335-336.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_247" id="Footnote_247"></a><a href="#FNanchor_247"><span class="label">[247]</span></a>
-This is well illustrated in Sir W. Wilde's book, p. 192, by a woodcut by Wakeman.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_248" id="Footnote_248"></a><a href="#FNanchor_248"><span class="label">[248]</span></a>
-Wakeman, 'Handbook of Irish Antiquities,' p. 25.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_249" id="Footnote_249"></a><a href="#FNanchor_249"><span class="label">[249]</span></a>
-In extenuation of this disfigurement,
-it must be explained that these Irish
-cairns are extremely difficult to explore
-without destroying them. Being wholly
-composed of loose stones, it is almost
-impossible to tunnel into them, and
-almost as difficult to sink shafts through
-them. The only plan seems to be to cut
-into them, and, when this is done, disfigurement
-is inevitable.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_250" id="Footnote_250"></a><a href="#FNanchor_250"><span class="label">[250]</span></a>
-'Arch&#230;ologia,' xxx. pl. xii. p. 137.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_251" id="Footnote_251"></a><a href="#FNanchor_251"><span class="label">[251]</span></a>
-Sir W. Wilde, 'The Boyne and the Blackwater,' p. 209.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_252" id="Footnote_252"></a><a href="#FNanchor_252"><span class="label">[252]</span></a>
-'Journal Royal Arch&#230;ological Society,' xv. p. 270.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_253" id="Footnote_253"></a><a href="#FNanchor_253"><span class="label">[253]</span></a>
-Petrie's 'Round Towers,' p. 105.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_254" id="Footnote_254"></a><a href="#FNanchor_254"><span class="label">[254]</span></a>
-O'Curry's 'Materials for Irish History,' p. 636 <i>et seq.</i> So, too, even Tighernach
-adds, in the year 33:&mdash;"Concobares filius Ness&#230; obiit hoc anno."&mdash;<i>Ann.</i> p. 18.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_255" id="Footnote_255"></a><a href="#FNanchor_255"><span class="label">[255]</span></a>
-'Petrie's Life,' by Stokes, p. 256.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_256" id="Footnote_256"></a><a href="#FNanchor_256"><span class="label">[256]</span></a>
-Eugene O'Curry, 'Materials,' &amp;c., 314, 597.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_257" id="Footnote_257"></a><a href="#FNanchor_257"><span class="label">[257]</span></a>
-This most valuable contribution, with his permission, is printed <i>in extenso</i> in
-Appendix A.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_258" id="Footnote_258"></a><a href="#FNanchor_258"><span class="label">[258]</span></a>
-"Croagh Patrick, a mountain in
-Mayo, is famous in legendary records as
-the scene of St. Patrick's final conflicts
-with the demons of Ireland. From its
-summit he drove them into the ocean,
-and completed their discomfiture by
-flinging his bell among their retreating
-ranks. Passing northward they emerged
-from the deep, and took up their abode
-in the savage wilds of Seang Cean, on
-the south-west of Donegal. Here they
-remained unmolested till our Tirconellian
-saint (Columba) was directed by an
-angel to rid the place of its foul inhabitants.
-After a violent struggle he
-completely routed them. His name was
-thenceforth associated with the tract,
-and the wild parish of Glen Columbkille
-preserves, in its topography and traditions,
-a living commentary on the legend
-of St. Columba," &amp;c.&mdash;Reeves, <i>Vita</i>
-<i>St. Adam.</i>, p. 206.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_259" id="Footnote_259"></a><a href="#FNanchor_259"><span class="label">[259]</span></a>
-I cannot help thinking that the
-great rath at Dowth was formed by a
-similar process. It may not, therefore,
-after all, be a residential rath, as suggested
-above, but we are not yet in a
-position to speak positively on such
-matters.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_260" id="Footnote_260"></a><a href="#FNanchor_260"><span class="label">[260]</span></a>
-'Journal Kilkenny Arch&#230;o. Soc.' v. N. S. p. 479.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_261" id="Footnote_261"></a><a href="#FNanchor_261"><span class="label">[261]</span></a>
-If, instead of this silly legend, we
-could connect this tomb with Brendanus
-Biorro, the founder of the monastery of
-Birra, now Parsonstown, it would be a
-step in the right direction. His date
-would accord perfectly with the architectural
-inferences; for, according to
-Tighernach, he died 573.[*] The difficulty
-is to believe that a Christian "propheta,"
-as he is called, could have thought of so
-pagan a form of sepulchre. It is not
-easy, however to eradicate long-established
-habits, and his countrymen may
-not, within a century of St. Patrick's
-time, have invented and become reconciled
-to a new mode of burial. The
-Danes certainly buried in howes for centuries
-after their conversion, and the
-Irish may have been equally conservative.
-It is, however, hardly worth while
-arguing the question here, as we have
-nothing but a nominal similarity to go
-upon, which is never much to be relied
-upon.</p>
-
-<p>* Reeves, 'Vita Adamnani,' p. 210.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_262" id="Footnote_262"></a><a href="#FNanchor_262"><span class="label">[262]</span></a>
-Eugene Conwell's pamphlet descriptive
-of the Lough Crew Tumuli, p. 2.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_263" id="Footnote_263"></a><a href="#FNanchor_263"><span class="label">[263]</span></a>
-The following particulars are taken from a paper by General Lefroy, in the
-'Arch&#230;ological Journal,' No. 180, 1870, pp. 281 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_264" id="Footnote_264"></a><a href="#FNanchor_264"><span class="label">[264]</span></a>
-My attention was first directed to
-this monument by Mr. Samuel Ferguson,
-Keeper of the Records, Dublin. He considered
-it then as the only cromlech in
-Ireland with an authenticated date; but,
-as he has not published this, I must not be considered as committing him to anything
-except beyond the desire of putting
-me on the scent of an interesting investigation.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_265" id="Footnote_265"></a><a href="#FNanchor_265"><span class="label">[265]</span></a>
-There is a model of this curious
-structure in the Royal Academy Museum,
-Dublin, but not a correct one; and the
-woodcut in their catalogue, taken from
-the model, has still less pretensions to
-accuracy.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_266" id="Footnote_266"></a><a href="#FNanchor_266"><span class="label">[266]</span></a>
-Diodorus, v. p. 32.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_267" id="Footnote_267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_267"><span class="label">[267]</span></a>
-'Geo.' iv. p. 201.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_268" id="Footnote_268"></a><a href="#FNanchor_268"><span class="label">[268]</span></a>
-Ed. Valersii, i. p. 413; ii. p. 335.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_269" id="Footnote_269"></a><a href="#FNanchor_269"><span class="label">[269]</span></a>
-Tacitus, 'Agricola,' p. 24.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_270" id="Footnote_270"></a><a href="#FNanchor_270"><span class="label">[270]</span></a>
-Mercator, 'Geogra.' p. 31.</p>
-</div>
-
-</blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a><br />
-<span class="small">SCOTLAND.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Whatever</span> may be the case as regards Ireland, it is probable that the
-megalithic remains of Scotland are all known and have been described
-more or less in detail. Such descriptions, however, as exist are
-scattered through the pages of ponderous statistical compilations,
-or in the transactions of learned societies in England and Scotland,
-or in local journals, so that it is extremely difficult to acquire a
-connected grasp of the whole subject, or to feel sure you do know all
-that is required, and still more difficult to convey to others a clear
-view of its outlines. Had any one done for the unsculptured stones
-of Scotland what John Stuart has done for those that have devices
-in them, the case would be widely different. Except Daniel Wilson's
-'Prehistoric Annals of Scotland'&mdash;whatever that may mean&mdash;no general
-account is available, and that work is too brief and too sparsely
-illustrated to be of much use. The introductory matter, however, in
-Mr. Stuart's two volumes,<a name="FNanchor_271" id="FNanchor_271"></a><a href="#Footnote_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a>
-with Mr. Wilson's book, may suffice for most purposes; but a complete
-knowledge can only be obtained by wading through the volumes of
-the Scotch and English Arch&#230;ologias, and the transactions and
-proceedings of the various antiquarian societies of both countries.<a name="FNanchor_272" id="FNanchor_272"></a><a href="#Footnote_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Putting aside for the present the sculptured stones as hardly belonging
-to our subject, and the "cat" or battle stones, their predecessors,
-though they are numerous, as might be expected among the pugnacious
-Celtic races who inhabited the country, the remaining rude stone
-monuments are not numerous. The free-standing dolmens are few and far
-between, some half-dozen for the whole country, and none of them with
-histories or traditions attached to them. The circles, however, are
-numerous and important, and to some extent are calculated to throw
-light on our investigations. If we exclude the two battle-fields of
-Moytura, they are infinitely more numerous than those found in all
-Ireland and Wales put together, although there is only one group, that
-at Stennis in the Orkneys, that can compare with the great English
-examples.</p>
-
-<p>Their distribution too is interesting. No stone circles exist in
-the lowlands or south of the Frith of Forth and Clyde; and dolmens
-are rare in these regions, though this may arise from the extent to
-which cultivation is carried on there. Until, however, a statistical
-account is compiled, accompanied with a map, it is difficult to speak
-confidently on such a subject, but the general impression is that the
-lowlands are not, and never were, a region of megalithic remains;
-and if this is so, it is one of the many proofs that the dolmens are
-neither pre-Roman nor Celtic. At least we have no reason to believe
-that the Teutonic races who now occupy that country were settled there
-in the time of Agricola. But if the Celts or Picts who then inhabited
-that land had been in the habit of raising megalithic structures, we
-would have been more likely to find traces of them in that densely
-inhabited country than in the bleak uplands of Aberdeenshire, or the
-bare pastures of the Orkney Islands.</p>
-
-<p>The district of Scotland where these circles and rude stone monuments
-most abound is on either side of a straight line drawn direct from
-Inverness to Aberdeen, which is a locality where sculptured stones are
-also found in considerable numbers, but the rude stone monuments are
-not found in Angus or Fife, where their sculptured successors are most
-numerous. The district of the circles <i>par excellence</i> in Scotland,
-however, is not on the mainland at all, but in the northern and western
-isles. The principal group is in the Orkneys; next in importance are
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span>
-
-those in Lewes. They are found in Skye and Kantyre. There are several
-in Arran, and thence the transition is easy to the Isle of Man, where
-they meet the English group in Cumberland.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>The larger circles in the Orkneys are four in number; three of these
-stand on a long slip of land that divides the loch of Harra from that
-of Stennis. The fourth is at some little distance from the others,
-and separated from them by a narrow strait connecting the two lochs.
-Besides these there are several smaller earthen circles and numerous
-tumuli. The largest circle, known as the Ring of Brogar,<a name="FNanchor_273" id="FNanchor_273"></a><a href="#Footnote_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a>
-is 340 feet (100 metres) in diameter between the stones. These originally were
-sixty in number, ranging from 6 and 7 to 15 feet in height; outside the
-stones runs a ditch about 30 feet in width, and 6 in depth, but with
-no perceptible rampart on either side. Two causeways cross the ditch
-as at Penrith or Arbor Low (woodcuts <a href="#Illustration29">No. 29</a> and <a href="#Illustration30">30</a>) opposite to one
-another, but neither square with the axis of the spit of land on which
-the circle is situated, nor facing any of the four cardinal points of
-the heavens.</p>
-
-<p>Next in importance to this is the circle at Stennis, about
-three-quarters of a mile distant. It consisted originally of twelve
-stones 15 to 18 feet in height. Only two are now erect, but a third was
-so not many years ago; and the fourth, of which now only a fragment
-remains, is represented as standing when the drawing, which forms the
-frontispiece to this work, was made.<a name="FNanchor_274" id="FNanchor_274"></a><a href="#Footnote_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a>
-The remains of a dolmen still exist within the circle, not however in
-the centre, but close to its side, one of the stones of the circle
-apparently acting as head-stone to it. Beyond the stone circle which
-measures 104 feet in diameter is a ditch 50 feet wide, making
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span>
-
-the whole diameter of the monument to the outward edge of the
-surrounding mound about 240 feet. Not far from this circle, and
-close to the bridge of Brogar, stands a single monolith 18 feet in
-height, which is the finest and highest stone of the group; and in
-another direction a lesser one, with a hole through it. Though only
-8 feet high, 3 feet broad, and 9 inches thick, this stone has become
-more famous than the others, from the use Sir Walter Scott makes of
-it in the 'Pirate,' and because, till a very recent period, an oath
-taken with hands joined through the hole in the Stone of Woden, was
-considered even by the courts in Orkney as more than usually solemn and
-binding.<a name="FNanchor_275" id="FNanchor_275"></a><a href="#Footnote_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration84"></a>
-<img src="images/i_084.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">84.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Circle at Stennis. From Lieutenant Thomas's plan.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>No excavations, so far as I know, have been attempted in the circle
-of Stennis, but its ruined dolmen is probably sufficient to attest
-its sepulchral character. Some attempts at exploration were made in
-the larger Ring at Brogar, but without success. This is hardly to be
-wondered at, for a man must feel very sure where to look, who expects
-to find a small deposit in an area of two acres. The diggings are
-understood to have been made in the centre. There, however, the ground
-looks very like the undisturbed surface of the original moor, and as
-if it had never been levelled or used either for interment or any
-other human purpose, and slopes away irregularly some 6 feet towards
-the loch. My impression is that the deposits, if any exist, will be
-found near the outer circumference of the circle, either at the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span>
-
-foot of the stones as at Crichie, or outside the ditch as at Hakpen
-or Stonehenge. In the smaller circles the diameter of which does not
-exceed 100 feet, the deposit seems either to have been in the centre;
-or, if at the sides, the stones were so arranged as to mark its place.
-In the larger, or 100-metre circles, we have not yet ascertained where
-to look. Accident may some day reveal the proper spot, but till it is
-ascertained either scientifically or fortuitously, no argument can be
-based on the negative evidence which our ignorance affords.</p>
-
-<p>In the neighbourhood of these stone circles are several bowl-shaped
-barrows similar to those in the neighbourhood of Stonehenge, not only
-externally but internally. When opened they were almost all found to
-contain interments by cremation and rude half-burnt pottery. It is not
-here, however, that these barrows are found in the greatest numbers.
-In the neighbouring parish of Sandwick they exist in hundreds, and
-scattered exactly as on the Wiltshire downs, here and there, singly or
-in pairs, without any apparent arrangement or grouping. It is said that
-there are at least 2000 of these mole-hill barrows in the islands.<a name="FNanchor_276" id="FNanchor_276"></a><a href="#Footnote_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a>
-Here, as there, it would seem, that where a man lived and died there
-he was buried, without any reference to anything existing, or that had
-existed. None of these barrows have stone circles of any sort attached
-to them. Indeed, the only rude stone monuments in Orkney of the class
-we are discussing are those just described, and they are all confined
-to one remote inhospitable-looking spot. Close to these, however,
-Lieutenant Thomas enumerates six or seven conoid barrows, whose form
-and contents are of a very different nature. The bodies in them had
-been buried entire without cremation, and with their remains were found
-silver torques and other ornaments, similar as far as can be made
-out&mdash;none are engraved&mdash;to those found in Skail Bay, along with coins
-of Athelstane, 925, and of the Caliphs of Bagdad, of dates from 887 to
-945.<a name="FNanchor_277" id="FNanchor_277"></a><a href="#Footnote_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a>
-That these conoid graves here, as well as others found in the
-islands, are of Scandinavian origin, can hardly be doubted, and their
-juxtaposition to the circles is at least suggestive. If the circles
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span>
-
-were monuments of the Celts, whom they despised, and in fact had even
-then exterminated, they would hardly choose a burying-place so close to
-them.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>The most important, however, of all the tumuli, not only in this
-neighbourhood, but in the islands, is known as the Maes-Howe. It was
-opened in 1861, in the presence of a select party of antiquaries from
-Edinburgh, who had hoped from its external appearance to find it
-intact: in this, however, they were disappointed. It would seem that
-men of the same race as those who erected it, but who in the meanwhile
-had been converted to Christianity, had apparently in the middle of the
-twelfth century broken into this sepulchre of their Pagan forefathers,
-and despoiled it of its contents. As some compensation for this, they
-have written their names in very legible Runes on the walls of the
-tomb, and recorded, in short sentences, what they knew and believed of
-its origin.<a name="FNanchor_278" id="FNanchor_278"></a><a href="#Footnote_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a></p>
-
-<p>From these Runes we learn, in the first place, that the robbers were
-Christian pilgrims on their way to the Holy Land&mdash;Iorsala Farer&mdash;from
-which Professor Munch infers that they must have formed part of the
-expedition organized for that purpose by Jarl Ragnvald, 1152. Beyond
-this it is not possible to lay much stress on what these Runes tell
-us. In the first place, because the learned men to whom they have been
-submitted differ considerably in their interpretation,<a name="FNanchor_279" id="FNanchor_279"></a><a href="#Footnote_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a>
-and the record, even in the best of them, is indistinct. In one or two respects
-the evidence of the inscriptions may be considered satisfactory. Their
-writers all seem to have known so perfectly what the tomb was, and
-to whom it belonged, that no one cared to record, except in the most
-poetic fashion, what every one on the spot probably knew perfectly
-well. At all events, there is no allusion in these inscriptions to any
-other or earlier race. Every expression, whether intelligible or not,
-bears a northern stamp. Lothbrok, Ingeborg, and all the other names
-introduced are Scandinavian, and all the allusions have a Northern
-twang. Though this is merely negative evidence, it certainly goes some
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span>
-
-way to show that the robbers were aware that the Howe was originally
-erected by people of their own race. If, however, the direct evidence
-of these inscriptions is inconclusive, there is one engraving on a
-pillar facing the entrance which looks as if it were original, both
-from its position and character. It represents a dragon (<a href="#Illustration85">woodcut No. 85</a>) of a peculiar Scandinavian type. A similar one is found on a stone
-attached to the tumulus under which King Gorm was buried, at Jellinge,
-in Denmark, in the middle of the tenth century. Making allowance for
-the difference in drawing, they are so like that they cannot be very
-distinct in date. A third animal of this species is found at Hunestadt,
-in Scania,<a name="FNanchor_280" id="FNanchor_280"></a><a href="#Footnote_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a>
-and dating about the year 1150, but very different, and very much
-more modern-looking than this one. Had the Jerusalem pilgrims drawn
-this dragon, it would probably have been much more like the Hunestadt
-example. On the other hand, if the one at Maes-Howe is original, the
-age of the tomb can hardly be half a century distant from that of King
-Gorm's Howe, which in other respects it very much resembles. It is,
-however, very unlikely that Christian pilgrims would draw a dragon
-like this, and still less that they would accompany it with a Wurm, or
-Serpent-Knot, like that found on the same pillar; both look like Pagan
-emblems, and seem to belong to the original decorations of the tomb.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration85"></a>
-<img src="images/i_085.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">85.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dragon in Maes-Howe.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration86"></a>
-<img src="images/i_086.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">86.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Wurm-Knot, Maes-Howe.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration87"></a>
-<img src="images/i_087.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">87.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan and Section of Maes-Howe. From Mr. Farrer's
-work.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Among the inscriptions in Maes-Howe is one which, from its apparent
-insignificance, none of the interpreters have condescended to notice.
-It will be observed on one of the loose stones lying in the foreground
-on woodcut No. 88, it consists of only four letters, and reads either
-HIAI or IKIH, according as it is turned one way or another. As it is
-impossible to make a recognisable word, much less sense out of such
-a combination, it is no wonder it was thrown aside; but it is just
-because it is unintelligible that it may turn out to be valuable as an
-index to the age of the monument. Nothing is more unlikely than that a
-Iorsala Farer would have idly engraved these Runes on a loose stone,
-but nothing more likely than that a mason who hewed the stone and
-fitted it to close the "loculus" exactly, would have put a mark upon
-it to show that it belonged to the right-hand chamber in which A or B
-was to be buried. The inscription is on the inner edge of the stone,
-where it would be hid when the stone was <i>in situ</i>, and most probably
-was engraved on the stone before it was originally used to close the
-opening.</p>
-
-<p>This, at least, is an explanation of its meaning better than any other
-which has yet been suggested, and if it is the correct one, this
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span>
-
-inscription with the Dragon and the Wurm-Knot are among the original
-sculptures of the tomb; and, if so, it will be difficult to assign it
-to an earlier age than the tenth century, which, from the circumstances
-to be mentioned hereafter, seems on the whole the most probable date.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration88"></a>
-<img src="images/i_088.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">88.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; View of Chamber in Maes-Howe. From a drawing by Mr.
-Farrer.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The architecture of the tumulus, though offering some indications of
-great value, hardly possesses any features sufficiently marked to fix
-its date with certainty. Externally it is a truncated cone (<a href="#Illustration87">woodcut No. 87</a>), about 92 feet in diameter, by 36 feet in height, and is
-surrounded at a distance of about 90 feet by a ditch 40 feet wide, and
-6 feet deep, out of which the earth seems to have been taken which was
-required to form the mound. Internally it contains a chamber slightly
-cruciform in plan, measuring 15 feet 4 inches, by 14 feet 10 inches,
-and, when complete, probably 17 feet in height. On each of three sides
-of the chamber is a sepulchral loculus, entered by a small opening 3
-feet from the ground. The largest of these, that on the right as you
-enter, is 7 feet by 4 feet 6 inches, and the central one 5 feet 6
-inches by 4 feet 6 inches. Each of these was closed by a single stone
-carefully squared, so as to fit the opening. The passage leading into
-the central chamber was 3 feet wide by 4 feet 6 inches in height, and
-originally closed, apparently by a doorway at 2 feet 6 inches from the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span>
-
-chamber. Beyond this it is lined by two slabs 18 feet long, reaching
-nearly to a recess, which seems arranged as if to receive the real door
-which closed the sepulchre, probably a large stone. Beyond this the
-passage still extends some 20 feet to the present entrance, but is of
-very inferior class of masonry, and how much of it is modern is not
-clear.</p>
-
-<p>The first thing that strikes any one on examining this mound is that
-it certainly is the lineal descendant of the great cairns on the
-banks of the Boyne, but separated from them by a very long interval
-of time. It is not easy to determine what interval must have elapsed
-before the side chambers of those tombs merged into the "loculi" of
-this, or how long it must have been before their rude unhewn masses
-were refined into the perfectly well-fitted masonry of this one. Some
-allowance must, however, be made for the difference of material. The
-old red sandstone of the Orkneys splitting easily into self-faced
-slabs, offers wonderful facilities for its use, but still the way in
-which the angle-buttresses of the chamber were fitted, and the cells
-finished, and the great slabs line the entrance, all show a progress in
-masonic science that must have required centuries, assuming, of course,
-that they were built by the same people. But was this so? So far as
-we at present know, these islands, when conquered by Harold Harfagar
-in 875, were inhabited by two races called Pape and Peti. The former
-were generally assumed to have been colonies of Irish missionaries and
-their followers, who settled here after the conversion of the Picts
-by St. Columba in the middle of the sixth century. The Peti, it is
-also generally assumed, were the Pechts, or Picts.<a name="FNanchor_281" id="FNanchor_281"></a><a href="#Footnote_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a>
-It will not be easy to ascertain now whether they were so or not, as,
-according to Bishop Tulloch, they were so entirely exterminated by
-the Northmen, that of their "posteritie there remained nocht." But
-if the Pape, or Papas were Irish missionaries, they were Christians,
-and whatever else Maes-Howe may be, it certainly is not a place of
-Christian burial. Nor is it Pictish. If it were, we certainly should
-find something like it in Pictland proper; but nothing that can be at
-all compared with it is found in Fife or Forfar, or in any of
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span>
-
-those countries which were occupied by the Picts in the days of their
-greatness; and it is most improbable that a people who could not, or
-at least did not, erect any such sepulchre in the fertile and populous
-lands which they occupied on the mainland, would erect such a one
-as this on a comparatively barren and sparsely inhabited island.
-On the other hand, there seems every reason for believing that the
-2000 little barrows above alluded to are the graves of the Picts, or
-original inhabitants of the island before they were exterminated by
-the Northmen. These barrows, however, have absolutely no affinity with
-Maes-Howe. None of them have chambers, none have circles of stone
-round them; all are curvilinear, and none, indeed, show anything to
-induce the belief that in any length of time they would be developed
-into such a sepulchre as that which we have been describing. It is in
-fact the story of Stonehenge and its barrows over again. A race of
-Giants superseding a nation of Pigmies with which they certainly had no
-blood affinities, and erecting among their puny sepulchres monuments
-dedicated, it may be, to similar purposes, but as little like them in
-reality as the great cathedrals of the middle ages are to the timber
-churches of the early Saxons.</p>
-
-<p>Only one hypothesis seems to remain, which is that it is a tomb of
-the northern men who conquered these islands in the ninth century.
-This may seem a very prosaic descent from the prim&#230;val antiquity some
-are inclined to ascribe to these monuments, but it certainly is not
-improbable; in the first place, because we have what seems undoubted
-testimony that Thorfin, one of the Jarls (940 to 970 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>)
-"was buried on Ronaldshay under a tumulus, which was then known by
-the name of Haugagerdium, and is perhaps the same as that we now call
-the How of Hoogsay," or Hoxay.<a name="FNanchor_282" id="FNanchor_282"></a><a href="#Footnote_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a>
-I have not been able to ascertain whether this is literally true or
-not, but have reason to believe that it was not in the How of Hoxay
-that Thorfin was buried, but in a mound close by.<a name="FNanchor_283" id="FNanchor_283"></a><a href="#Footnote_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a>
-The fact of his being buried in a Howe is, however, all
-that is at present demanded. Another important barrow is mentioned by
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span>
-
-Professor Munch,<a name="FNanchor_284" id="FNanchor_284"></a><a href="#Footnote_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a>
-known as Halfdan's Barrow, in Sandy, and raised by Torf Einar (925 to
-936). So that we know of at least two important barrows belonging to
-the Norwegian Jarls in the tenth century, though only one has been
-identified with absolute certainty. As before mentioned, it is quite
-certain that King Gorm (died 950) and Thyra of Denmark were buried
-in tumuli in outward appearance very similar to Maes-Howe. That of
-Queen Thyra has alone been opened. It is a chamber tomb, similar to
-Maes-Howe, except in this, that the chamber in Denmark is formed with
-logs of wood, in the Orkneys with slabs of stone, but the difference
-is easily accounted for. At Jellinge stone is rare, and the country
-was covered with forests. At Stennis self-faced slabs of stone were to
-be had for the lifting, and trees were unknown. The consequence was,
-that workmen employed the best material available to carry out their
-purpose. Be that as it may, the fact that kings of Denmark and Jarls
-of Orkney were buried in Howes in the tenth century, takes away all
-<i>&#224; priori</i> improbability from the hypothesis that Maes-Howe may be
-a sepulchre of one of those Northmen.</p>
-
-<p>If this is so, our choice of an occupant lies within very narrow
-limits. We cannot well go back beyond the time of Harold Harfagar
-(876 to 920), who first really took possession of these islands, as
-a dependency of Norway, and created Sigurd the elder first Jarl of
-Orkney in 920. Nor can we descend below the age of the second Sigurd,
-who became Earl in 996, as we know he was converted by Olaus to
-Christianity, and was killed at Clontarf in 1014.<a name="FNanchor_285" id="FNanchor_285"></a><a href="#Footnote_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a>
-Within these seventy-six years that elapsed between 920 and 996 there
-is only one name that seems to meet all the exigencies of the case, and
-in a manner that can hardly be accidental. Havard "the happy," one of
-the sons of Thorfin, who was buried at Hoxay, was slain at Stennis in
-970. Havard had married Raguhilda, the daughter of Eric Blodoxe, prince
-of Norway, and widow of his brother Arfin, but she, tired of her second
-husband, stirred up one of his nephews against him, and a battle was
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span>
-
-fought at Stennis, on a spot, says Barry, "which afterwards bore the name of
-Havardztugar, from the event or the slaughter."<a name="FNanchor_286" id="FNanchor_286"></a><a href="#Footnote_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a>
-The same story is repeated by Professor Wilson as follows, "Olaf Tryguesson,
-says Havard, was then at Steinsnes in Rossey. There was meeting and
-battle about Havard, and it was not long before the Jarl fell. The
-place is now called Havardsteiger. So it was called, and so M. Petrie
-writes me, it is still called by the peasantry to the present day."<a name="FNanchor_287" id="FNanchor_287"></a><a href="#Footnote_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a>
-Professor Munch, of Christiania, who visited the place in 1849, arrived at the
-conclusion "that most of the grave mounds grouped around the Brogar
-circle are, probably, memorials of this battle, and perhaps one of the
-larger that of Havard Earl."<a name="FNanchor_288" id="FNanchor_288"></a><a href="#Footnote_288" class="fnanchor">[288]</a>
-In this I have no doubt he is right, but that larger one I take to be
-Maes-Howe, which is in sight of the circle, though not so close to it
-as those he was speaking of.</p>
-
-<p>One circumstance which at first sight renders this view of the case
-more than probable is, that Maes-Howe is, so far as we at present know,
-unique. Thorfin's grave, when found, may be a chambered tumulus, so may
-Halfdan's Barrow, when opened, but no others are known in Orkney. If
-it had been the tomb of a king or chief of any native dynasty, similar
-sepulchres must have been as numerous as they were on the banks of the
-Boyne or Blackwater. There must have been a succession of them, some
-of greater, some of less magnificence. Nothing of the sort, however,
-occurs, and till more are found, the Stennis group cannot be ascribed
-to a dynasty that lasted longer than the seventy-six years just quoted.
-That brief dynasty must also have been the most splendid and the
-most powerful of all that reigned in these islands, as no tomb there
-approaches Maes-Howe in magnificence. If such a description suits any
-other race than that of the Norwegian Jarls, I do not know where to
-look for an account of it.</p>
-
-<p>Assuming for the present that this is so, we naturally turn to the
-Runic inscriptions on the walls of the tomb to see how far they
-confirm or refute this view. Unfortunately there is nothing in them
-very distinct either one way or the other. The only recognizable names
-are those of Lothbrok and Ingiborg. The former, if the Lothbrok of
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span>
-
-Northumbrian notoriety, is too early; the Ingiborg, if the wife of
-Sigurd the Second, is too late, though, as the first Christian countess
-of Orkney, her name may have got mixed up in some way with the tomb
-of the last Pagan Jarl. But should we expect to find any sober record
-of the date and purposes of the Howe in any of the scribblings on the
-walls? The English barbarians who write their names and rhymes on the
-walls of the tombs around Delhi and Agra do not say this is the tomb
-of Humayoon, or Akbar, or of Etimad Doulah, or Seyed Ahmed. They write
-some doggerel about Timour the Tartar, or the Great Mogul, or some
-wretched jokes about their own people. The same feeling seems to have
-guided the Christian Northmen in their treatment of the tomb of their
-Pagan predecessor, and though, consequently, we find nothing that can
-fairly be quoted as confirming the view that it is the tomb of Havard,
-there is nothing that can be assumed as contradicting it.</p>
-
-<p>One inscription may, however, be considered as throwing some light on
-the subject. In XIX.XX. it is related, though in words so differently
-translated by the various experts to whom it was submitted, that it
-is difficult to quote them, that "much fee was found in the Orkhow,
-and that this treasure was buried to the north west," adding, "happy
-is he who may discover this great wealth."<a name="FNanchor_289" id="FNanchor_289"></a><a href="#Footnote_289" class="fnanchor">[289]</a>
-A few years ago a great treasure was found to the north-west of
-Maes-Howe, in Skail Bay, just in such a position as a pirate on his
-way to the Holy Land would hide it, in the hope, on his return, to dig
-it up and take it home; but shipwreck or fever may have prevented his
-doing this. With this treasure were found, as mentioned above, coins of
-Athelstane of the date of 925, and of the Caliphs of Bagdad, extending
-to 945, just such dates as we should expect in a tomb of 970, recent,
-but not the most recent coins. Connecting these with the silver torques
-found in the conoid barrows around the Ring of Brogar, we seem to
-have exactly such a group of monuments as the histories above quoted
-would lead us to expect, and which with their contents belong almost
-certainly to the age above assigned to them.</p>
-
-<p>Had Maes-Howe been an old sepulchre of an earlier race, when the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span>
-
-Northmen ravaged the western islands in the early part of the ninth
-century, it is most improbable that they would have neglected to break
-into the "Orkhow." The treasures which Amlaff and his Danes found in
-the mounds on the banks of the Boyne would certainly have stimulated
-these explorers to see what was contained in the Orcadian tumulus.
-Had they done this, the Jerusalem pilgrims would not, three centuries
-later, have been able to record that "much fee" was found in the tomb,
-and was buried to the north-west, apparently in Skail Bay. The whole
-evidence of the inscriptions, in so far as it goes, tends to prove that
-the tomb was intact when broken into in the twelfth century. If this is
-so, nothing is so unlikely as that it could have remained unrifled if
-existing before the year 861, as a Celtic sepulchre. On the other hand,
-nothing seems more probable than that Christian Northmen would have
-plundered the grave of one of their Pagan ancestors, whom they knew had
-been buried "with much fee" in this tumulus two centuries before their
-time. Two hundred years, it must be recollected, is a very long time
-among an illiterate people. A long time, indeed, among ourselves, with
-all our literary aids; and when we add to this the change of religion
-that had taken place among the Northmen in the interval, we need not
-be surprised at any amount of ignorance of history or contempt for
-the customs of their Pagan forefathers on the part of the Jerusalem
-pilgrims. The time, at all events, was sufficiently long fully to
-justify Christian robbers in helping themselves to the treasures of
-their Pagan forefathers.</p>
-
-<p>Even assuming, however, that Maes-Howe is the tomb of Havard, or of
-some other of the Pagan Norwegian Jarls of Orkney, the question still
-remains whether it has any, and, if any, what connexion with the two
-circles in the immediate neighbourhood?<a name="FNanchor_290" id="FNanchor_290"></a><a href="#Footnote_290" class="fnanchor">[290]</a></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Locally, the Howe and the circles certainly form one group. No such
-tumuli, and no such circles exist in other parts of the islands,
-and the spot is so inhospitable, so far from any of the centres of
-population in the island, that it is difficult to conceive why it
-should have been chosen, unless from the accident of being the scene
-of some important events. If Havard was slain here, which there seems
-no reason for doubting, nothing seems more probable than that one of
-his surviving brothers, Liotr or Laudver, should have erected a tumulus
-over his grave, meaning it also to be a sepulchre for themselves. On
-the other hand, it is extremely unlikely that the six or seven other
-tumuli which are admitted to be of Scandinavian origin should have
-gathered round the Ring of Brogar if it had been a Pagan fane of the
-despised Celts, who preceded them in the possession of the island. It
-cannot be necessary here to go over the questions again, whether a
-few widely spaced stones stuck up around a circle one hundred metres
-in diameter was or was not a temple. It is just such a monument as
-1000 victorious soldiers could set up in a week. It is such as the
-inhabitants of the district could not set up in years, and would not
-attempt, because, when done, it would have been absolutely useless to
-them for any purpose either civil or religious; and if it is not, as
-before said, a ring in which those who fell in battle were buried, I
-know not what it is. The chiefs, in this case, would be buried in the
-conoid barrows close around, the Jarl in the neighbouring howe.</p>
-
-<p>As Stennis is mentioned in the Sagas that give an account of Havard's
-death, it probably existed there, and was called by the simple
-Scandinavian name which the Northmen gave to all this class of stone
-monuments. None, so far as I know, have retained a Celtic denomination.
-Assuming it to be earlier, it still can hardly be carried back beyond
-the year 800. The earliest date of the appearance of the Northmen in
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span>
-
-modern times is in the year 793 in the 'Irish Annals,' where mention
-is made of a "vastatio omnium insularum a Gentibus."<a name="FNanchor_291" id="FNanchor_291"></a><a href="#Footnote_291" class="fnanchor">[291]</a>
-In 802, and again in 818, they harried Iona,<a name="FNanchor_292" id="FNanchor_292"></a><a href="#Footnote_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a>
-and from that time forward seem constantly to have conducted piratical
-expeditions along these coasts, until they ended by formally occupying
-the Orkneys under Harold Harfagar. Though smaller in diameter, Stennis
-has a grander and a more ancient look than Brogar, and may even be a
-century or two older, and be a monument of some chief who fell here in
-some earlier fight. That it is sepulchral can hardly be a matter of
-doubt from the dolmen inside its ring.</p>
-
-<p>Connected with the circle at Stennis is the holed stone<a name="FNanchor_293" id="FNanchor_293"></a><a href="#Footnote_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a>
-alluded to above, which seems to be a most distinct and positive
-testimony to the nationality of this group of monuments.</p>
-
-<p>It is quite certain that the oath to Woden or Odin was sworn by persons
-joining their hands through the hole in this ring stone, and that an
-oath so taken, although by Christians, was deemed solemn and binding.
-This ceremony was held so very sacred in those times, that the person
-who dared to break the engagement made there was accounted infamous and
-excluded from society.<a name="FNanchor_294" id="FNanchor_294"></a><a href="#Footnote_294" class="fnanchor">[294]</a>
-Principal Gordon, in his 'Journey to the Orkney Islands' in 1781,
-relates the following anecdote:&mdash;"The young man was called before
-the session, and the elders were particularly severe. Being asked by
-the minister the cause of so much severity, they answered, 'You do not
-know what a bad man this is; he has broken the promise of Odin,' and
-further explained that the contracting parties had joined hands through
-the hole in the stone."<a name="FNanchor_295" id="FNanchor_295"></a><a href="#Footnote_295" class="fnanchor">[295]</a></p>
-
-<p>Such a dedication of a stone to Woden seems impossible after their
-conversion of the Northmen to Christianity about the year 1000, and
-most improbable if the monument was of Celtic origin, and existed
-before the conquest of the country 123 years earlier. If the Northmen
-had not hated and despised their predecessors they would never have
-exterminated them; but while engaged in this work is it likely they
-would have adopted one of their monuments as especially sacred, and
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span>
-
-followed up one of their customs, supposing this to have been one,
-though there is absolutely no proof in a holed stone being used in any
-Celtic cemetery for any such purpose? The only solution seems to be
-that the monument, with this accompaniment, was erected between the
-conquest of the country and the conversion of the conquerors, and, like
-many ancient rites, remained unchanged through ages, not as adopted
-from the conquered races, but because their forefathers had practised
-it from time immemorial in their native land. On any other hypothesis
-it seems impossible that so purely Pagan a rite could have survived
-through eight centuries of Christianity, and still be considered sacred
-by those whose ancestors had worshipped Wodin in the old times many
-centuries before these stones were erected in the islands.</p>
-
-<p>All this seems so clear and consistent, that it may be assumed that
-this group of monuments were erected between the year 800 and 1000
-<span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, till, at least, some argument is brought forward leading
-to a certain conclusion. At present I know of only one which tends
-to make me pause: it is a curious one, and arises from the wonderful
-similarity that exists between this and some of the greater English
-groups. Take, for instance, Stanton Drew (ante, p. 149). It consists of
-a great circle 340 feet in diameter, the same as the Ring of Brogar,
-and of a smaller circle within three feet of the dimensions of that
-of Stennis (101 against 104), both the latter possess a dolmen, not
-in the centre, but on its edge, the only essential difference being
-that the great ring at Stanton had twenty-four stones, and the smaller
-one eight, as against sixty and twelve in the northern example; this,
-however, may arise from the one being in a locality so much more stony
-than the other, and it must be confessed the Stanton stones look older,
-but this also may arise from the different nature of the rocks from
-which they were taken.</p>
-
-<p>The Ring of Bookan answers to the circle in the orchard; the Watch
-or King Stone at Stennis to Hautville's Quoit. Even the names are
-the same, "ton" and "ness" being merely descriptive of the townland,
-and the long slip of land on which they are respectively situated,
-and Maes-Knoll looks down on the one, and Maes-Howe into the other.
-The only thing wanted is a ring stone in the Somersetshire example,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span>
-
-but that might easily have disappeared, and there is one at Avebury.
-Some of these coincidences may, of course, be accidental, but they
-are too numerous and too exact to be wholly so. If at all admitted,
-they seem to force us to one of two conclusions: either the time which
-elapsed between the ages of the two monuments is less than the previous
-reasoning would lead us to suppose, or the persistence in these forms,
-when once adopted, was greater than, on other grounds, it seems
-reasonable to expect. Three or four centuries seem a long time to have
-elapsed between buildings, the style of which is so nearly identical.
-If, however, their dates are to be brought nearer to one another, it
-seems much more reasonable to bring Stanton Drew down, than to carry
-Stennis back. It is much more consistent with what we know, to believe
-that Stanton Drew was erected by Hubba and his Danes, than that the
-Orkney circles and Maes-Howe could have been the work of the wretched
-Pape and Peti, who inhabited the island before the invasion of the
-Northmen.</p>
-
-<p>As this is the last of the great groups containing first-class circles,
-which we shall have to deal with in the following pages, it may be
-well to try and sum up, in as few words as possible, the points of the
-evidence from which we arrive at the conclusion that it may be of the
-date above assigned to it:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p class="p2">1. History is absolutely silent either for or against this theory. In
-so far as the <i>litera scripta</i> is concerned, it may either have been
-erected by the Ph&oelig;nicians or in the time of the Stuarts.</p>
-
-<p class="p2">2. The Danish theory is of no avail. No flint, bone, or bronze or iron
-implements have been found in a position to throw any light on its age.</p>
-
-<p class="p2">3. There are in the islands some thousands of small mole-hill
-barrows&mdash;insignificant, stoneless, unadorned.</p>
-
-<p class="p2">4. All parts of the Stennis group show design and power, and produce an
-effect of magnificence.</p>
-
-<p class="p2">5. It seems evident that the circles and the barrows belong to two
-different peoples.</p>
-
-<p class="p2">6. If so, the barrows belong to the Peti and Pape; the large howes and
-the stone monuments to the Northmen.</p>
-
-<p class="p2">7. If this is so, the latter belong to the two centuries comprised
-between 800 and 1000 <span class="smcap">A.D.
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span></span></p>
-
-<p class="p2">8. Maes-Howe, being unique, must have belonged to the shortest, but
-most magnificent dynasty in the Island.</p>
-
-<p class="p2">9. With regard to Havard. He was killed on, or close to the spot where
-Maes-Howe now stands.</p>
-
-<p class="p2">10. His father, Thorfin, was buried in a howe in Ronaldshay. His
-contemporary, Gorm, was buried in a howe at Jellinge.</p>
-
-<p class="p2">11. A dragon and serpent were carved in Gorm's tomb. Similar
-representations were found in Maes-Howe.</p>
-
-<p class="p2">12. The four Runic letters on the closing stone of the right-hand
-loculus, date probably from its first erection.</p>
-
-<p class="p2">13. All the subsequent inscriptions on the tomb acknowledge it as a
-Scandinavian monument.</p>
-
-<p class="p2">14. The mention of treasure being found in it in 1152 goes far to show
-that it did not exist in 861, or it would then have been robbed by the
-Northmen, as the Irish tombs were.</p>
-
-<p class="p2">15. It is extremely probable that the Skail Bay "find" is part of this
-treasure, which is not earlier than 945, and may be twenty or forty
-years later.</p>
-
-<p class="p2">16. The torques found in the six large tumuli at Brogar belong to the
-same age.</p>
-
-<p class="p2">17. The Holed Stone at Stennis was certainly set up by Northmen and by
-them dedicated to Woden, and it certainly forms part of the group.</p>
-
-<p class="p2">18. The name Havard's Steigr, attaching to the place at the present
-day, is important.</p>
-
-<p>Against this, I know of only one argument: <i>Omne ignotum pro antiquo</i>;
-which, for reasons, given above, I reject.</p>
-
-<p>If such a case were submitted to anyone, regarding a monument of
-which we had never heard before, no one would probably hesitate in
-considering the case as proved, till, at least, something more to the
-point could be brought forward on the other side. Such, however, is
-the effect of education, and so strong the impression on the minds of
-most Englishmen with regard to Ph&oelig;nicians and Druids, that nine
-people out of ten will probably reject it; some alleging that it must
-be an unfair, others that it is an inconclusive statement. Let them try
-and state their view in as few words, and I do not believe it will be
-difficult to judge between the two cases.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Callernish.</span></h3>
-
-<p>The next in importance after those of Stennis among the Scottish group
-of circles is that at Callernish, in the Isle of Lewis. They are
-situated at the inner end of Loch Roag, on the western coast of the
-island, and consequently more remote from the routes of traffic or
-the centres of Pictish or Celtic civilization than even the Orcadian
-groups. The country, too, in their neighbourhood is of the wildest
-and most barren description, and never could have been more densely
-inhabited than now, which is by a sparse population totally unequal to
-such monuments as these.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration89"></a>
-<img src="images/i_089.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">89.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Monument at Callernish. From a plan by Sir Henry
-James.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The group consists of three or four circles, situated near to one
-another, at the head of the bay. They are of the ordinary form, 60
-to 100 feet in diameter, and consequently not remarkable for their
-dimensions, nor are they for the size of the stones of which they are
-composed. One of them, which had been covered up with peat-moss, was
-excavated some years ago, and a number of holes were found, filled,
-it is said, with charcoal of wood;<a name="FNanchor_296" id="FNanchor_296"></a><a href="#Footnote_296" class="fnanchor">[296]</a>
-but the account is by no means satisfactory. About a mile to the
-westward of the three, on the northern shore of Loch Roag, stands the
-principal monument. This consists of a circle<a name="FNanchor_297" id="FNanchor_297"></a><a href="#Footnote_297" class="fnanchor">[297]</a>
-42 feet in diameter. In the centre of this is a tall stone, about
-17 feet high, which forms the head-stone of a grave of a somewhat
-cruciform plan; but it is in fact only the tricameral arrangement common
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span>
-
-in tumuli in Caithness and other parts of the north of Scotland.<a name="FNanchor_298" id="FNanchor_298"></a><a href="#Footnote_298" class="fnanchor">[298]</a>
-It apparently was covered originally by a little cairn of its own; but
-this had disappeared, and the tomb emptied of its contents at some
-period anterior to the formation of the peat which had accumulated
-round the stones, and which was removed a few years ago by Sir James
-Matheson when this grave was first discovered. From the central stone
-a double avenue extends 294 feet, and from the same point southward,
-a single row for 114 feet; making the whole length of the avenues 408
-feet; while two arms extend east and west, measuring 130 feet across
-the whole.</p>
-
-<p>I believe it was John Stuart that first made the remark:&mdash;"Remove
-the cairn from New Grange, and the pillars would form another
-Callernish;"<a name="FNanchor_299" id="FNanchor_299"></a><a href="#Footnote_299" class="fnanchor">[299]</a>
-and there seems little doubt but that this is the true explanation
-of the peculiar form of the monument. Nor is it difficult to see why
-this should be the case; for it must be borne in mind that the whole
-of the chambers and the access to them must have been constructed,
-and probably stood, naked for some time before they began to heap
-the cairn over them. Calliagh Birra's tomb (<a href="#Illustration80">woodcut No. 80</a>), and the
-numerous "Grottes des f&#233;es" we meet with in France and elsewhere
-I look on as chambers, some of which it was intended should be buried
-in tumuli, which, however, never were erected: others, when men had
-become familiar with the naked forms, were like many dolmens, never
-intended to be hidden. It may be a mere fancy; but I cannot escape
-from an impression that, in many instances at least, the chambers were
-constructed during their lifetime by kings or chiefs as their own
-tombs, and that the cairn was not raised over them till the bodies were
-deposited in their recesses. This, at least, is the case in the East,
-where most of the great tombs were erected by those who were to lie
-in them. During their lifetime they used them as pleasure-houses, and
-only after their death were the entrances walled up and the windows
-obscured, so as to produce the gloom supposed to be appropriate to the
-residences of the dead. Another point is worth observing. It seems most
-improbable that sculptures, such as are found in the Irish and French
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span>
-
-chambered tumuli, could have been executed by artificial light.
-Either the stones were sculptured before being put into their
-places&mdash;which, to say the least of it, is very unlikely; or they
-were sculptured while the light could still penetrate through the
-interstices of the stones forming the walls. In any case, however, the
-naked forms of these chambers must have been perfectly familiar with
-those who used them; and there is no difficulty in understanding why,
-as at Carrowmore or Callernish, they should have repeated the same
-forms which were certainly never intended to be covered up.</p>
-
-<p>From the occurrence of a similar form at Northern Moytura (<a href="#Illustration59">woodcut No. 59</a>), used externally also, it may be argued that this may be of the
-same age. The Irish example, as explained above, is probably of the
-same age as the great chambered tumuli of Meath; but there seems to be
-a difference between the two, which would indicate a very different
-state of affairs.</p>
-
-<p>At Moytura, the covering stones, though thrown down, still exist, and
-there is every appearance of direct imitation. At Callernish, the
-size, the wide spacing, the pointed form of the stones, and the whole
-structure exhibit so marked a difference from anything that could be
-intended to be covered up, that it certainly appears as if a long time
-had passed before the original use of the form could have been so
-completely overlooked as it has been in this instance. Everyone must
-determine for himself how many centuries he would interpose between
-New Grange and Callernish. To me it appears that an interval of very
-considerable duration must have elapsed between them.</p>
-
-<p>At Tormore, on the west coast of the Isle of Arran, there is a third
-group of these monuments, more numerous, but not on so large a scale
-as those of Stennis or Callernish. These were all carefully examined
-by Dr. Bryce, of Glasgow, assisted by a party of arch&#230;ologists, in
-1864, and the results recorded in the 'Proceedings of the Scottish
-Antiquaries,'<a name="FNanchor_300" id="FNanchor_300"></a><a href="#Footnote_300" class="fnanchor">[300]</a>
-and also in a small work on the Geology of Arran.<a name="FNanchor_301" id="FNanchor_301"></a><a href="#Footnote_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a>
-All were found to contain sepulchral remains, except one which had been
-rifled, but there the cist still remained. The principal circle is now
-represented by only three upright stones, from 18 to 20
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span>
-
-feet in height; but they originally formed parts of a circle 60 feet
-in diameter. Two other circles can be traced, and two kistvaens of
-considerable dimensions, and two obelisks on the high ground, which
-apparently formed parts either of circles or of some other groups of
-stones.</p>
-
-<p>Though not so large as the other two groups named above, this one at
-Tormore is interesting because it affords fair means of testing whether
-these groups were cemeteries, or marked battle-fields. Here the two
-principal circles are situated on a peat moss which extends to some
-feet, at least, below the bottom of the pillars, and the sepulchral
-deposits were found in the peat. Others of these Tormore monuments are
-situated where the peat joins the sandy soil, and others are situated
-on the summit of the sandy hills, which here extend some way in from
-the shore. Now it seems hardly probable that such a diversity of taste
-should have existed in any line of princes. If the peat was chosen
-as a resting-place for some, it probably would have been for all.
-If elevated sandy hillocks were more eligible for that purpose, why
-should some have chosen the bog? and if a cemetery, why not all close
-together? They extend for about half a mile east and west at a distance
-of about a mile from the shore, and on about as desolate a plain as one
-could find anywhere. If a battle was fought here against some enemy who
-had landed in the bay, and those who were killed in it were interred
-where they fell, all the appearances would be easily explained; but
-it is difficult to guess who the chiefs or princes could be who were
-buried here, if they had leisure to select their last resting-place, or
-why they should have been buried in this scrambling fashion.</p>
-
-<p>There are the remains of two other circles and one obelisk in Brodick
-Bay, on the other side of the island, but widely scattered, and with
-nothing to indicate their purpose. There are also other circles and
-detached standing stones in the Mull of Cantyre, up to the Crinan
-Canal; but the published maps of the Ordnance Survey do not extend so
-far, and such accounts as have been published are too vague to admit of
-any conclusions being drawn from them either as to their age or uses.</p>
-
-<p>The Aberdeenshire circles, above alluded to, differ in some respects
-from those found in other parts of the country, and are thus described
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span>
-
-by Colonel Forbes Leslie, in a Paper read to the British Association
-this year:&mdash;"The principal group of stones in these circles always
-contains one stone, larger than the rest, which in different monuments
-varies from 11 to 16 feet in length, and from 2 to 6 in breadth. It is
-never placed upright; but close at each end of this recumbent monolith
-stand two columnar stones; these vary in height from 7 to 10 feet, and
-have generally been selected of a pyramidal form. From the face, and
-near the ends of the recumbent stone, two stones project about 4 feet
-into the circle, and the recess thus formed is occupied by a stone laid
-flat on the ground.</p>
-
-<p>"In several of these circles a raised platform, 5 or 6 feet broad, and
-18 or 24 inches high, can be traced. This has been supported on the
-outer side by a low wall connecting the columnar stones, which are
-disposed at equal distances on the circumference. The inner side of
-the platform has been supported by stones little more than its height,
-placed near each other.</p>
-
-<p>"Circles of this sort are found at Aquhorties, Tyrebagger, Balquhain,
-Rothiemay, Parkhouse, near Deer, Daviot, New Craig, Dunadeer, &amp;c.,
-in Aberdeenshire. There is also a circle on the "Candle Hill of Old
-Rayne,"<a name="FNanchor_302" id="FNanchor_302"></a><a href="#Footnote_302" class="fnanchor">[302]</a>
-within sight of which, on the slope of a ridge about a mile distant,
-stood the two sculptured stones now at Newton,&mdash;on one of which is
-the unique alphabetical inscription; and on the other a serpent, with
-the broken sceptre, surmounted by the double disk, usually called the
-Spectacle Ornament."</p>
-
-<p>Their general arrangement will be understood from the woodcut overleaf,
-representing one at Fiddes Hill, figured in the fifth volume of
-'Arch&#230;ologia,' which may be taken as a type of the rest. The sepulchral
-deposit here, is no doubt, in the raised part, in front of the great
-stone, and not in the centre,&mdash;a peculiarity we have already had
-occasion to remark upon in the smaller circles at Stanton Drew and
-Stennis. This, however, does not seem to have been always the case. The
-circle, for instance, at Rayne, above alluded to, was excavated under
-the superintendence of Mr. Stuart,<a name="FNanchor_303" id="FNanchor_303"></a><a href="#Footnote_303" class="fnanchor">[303]</a>
-and found to contain in its centre a pit, in which were "a quantity
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span>
-
-of black mould, incinerated bones, and some bits of charcoal. Fragments
-of small urns were also found, and all the usual accompaniments of
-a sepulchral deposit." In concluding his account of it, Mr. Stuart
-says:&mdash;"It is worthy of remark, that on the 2nd of May, 1349,
-William, Bishop of Aberdeen, held a court at the Standing Stones of
-Rayne, at which the King's Justiciar was present" ('Regst. Episc.
-Aberd.' vol. i. p. 79, Spald. Club). Thus clearly proving not only the
-sepulchral nature of the circles, but the use that was subsequently
-made of them.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration90"></a>
-<img src="images/i_090.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">90.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Circle at Fiddes Hill, 46 feet in diameter.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>If we may connect these stones at Rayne with the Newton stones, as
-Colonel Forbes Leslie is inclined to do, we obtain a proof of a
-post-Christian date for this sepulchral circle, as well as a medi&#230;val
-use; and though I have no doubt that all this is correct, the mere
-juxtaposition of the sculptured stones and the circle hardly seems
-sufficient to rely upon.</p>
-
-<p>In the Appendix to the Preface of the first volume of the 'Sculptured
-Stones,' Mr. Stuart records excavations made in some fourteen circles,
-similar, or nearly so, to this one at Rayne; and in all sepulchral
-deposits, more or less distinct, were found. In some, as in that of
-Crichie, before alluded to, a sepulchral deposit was found at the
-foot of each of the six stones which surrounded it. Like many of our
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span>
-
-English circles, this last was surrounded by a moat, in this instance
-20 feet wide and 6 feet deep, crossed by two entrances, as is Arbor
-Low and the Penrith circle, and within the moat stood the stones. As a
-general rule, it may be asserted that all the Scotch circles, having
-a diameter not exceeding 100 feet, when scientifically explored, have
-yielded evidences of sepulchral uses. Such, certainly, is the result
-of Mr. Stuart's experience, as detailed above; of Dr. Bryce's, in
-Arran; of Mr. Dyce Nicol<a name="FNanchor_304" id="FNanchor_304"></a><a href="#Footnote_304" class="fnanchor">[304]</a>
-and others, in Kincardine; and elsewhere. Colonel Forbes Leslie informs
-me that he has not been so fortunate in some of those he mentioned in
-his lecture, which he either opened himself or learnt the details of
-on the spot. Some of these he admits, however, had been opened before,
-others disturbed by cultivation; and altogether his experiences seem to
-be exceptional, and far from conclusive. The preponderance of evidence
-is so overwhelming on the one side, that we may be perfectly content to
-wait the explanation of such exceptional cases as these.</p>
-
-<p>The Aberdeenshire circles are all found scattered singly, or at most in
-pairs, in remote and generally in barren parts of the country; so that
-it is evident they neither marked battle-fields nor even cemeteries,
-but can only be regarded as the graves of chiefs, or sometimes, it may
-be, family sepulchres. There is one group, however, at Clava, about
-five miles east from Inverness, which is of more than usual interest,
-but regarding which the published accounts are neither so full nor so
-satisfactory as could be wished.<a name="FNanchor_305" id="FNanchor_305"></a><a href="#Footnote_305" class="fnanchor">[305]</a></p>
-
-<p>According to Mr. Innes, the ruins of eight or nine cairns can still
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span>
-
-be distinguished, though the whole of the little valley or depression
-in which they are situated seems strewn with blocks which may have
-belonged to others, but which the advancing tide of cultivation has
-swept away. The most perfect of those now remaining are three at the
-western end of the valley, the two outer and larger cairns stand
-about 100 yards apart. They are of stone, about 70 feet in diameter,
-surrounded by a circle of upright stones measuring 100 feet across.
-The intermediate one is smaller, being only 50 feet, with a circle
-80 feet in diameter.<a name="FNanchor_306" id="FNanchor_306"></a><a href="#Footnote_306" class="fnanchor">[306]</a>
-The two extreme ones have been opened, and found to contain circular
-chambers about 12 feet in diameter, and 9 in height, with passages
-leading to them about 15 feet long and 2 feet wide; and in two or three
-instances the stones in them were adorned with cup-marking, though it
-does not appear that they were otherwise sculptured.<a name="FNanchor_307" id="FNanchor_307"></a><a href="#Footnote_307" class="fnanchor">[307]</a>
-In that to the west two sepulchral urns were found, just below the
-level of the original soil. They were broken, however, in extracting
-them; and they do not appear to have been put together again or drawn,
-so that no conclusions can be deduced from them as to the age of the
-cairns.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration91"></a>
-<img src="images/i_091.jpg" alt="CAPTION" />
-<div class="caption">91.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan of Clava Mounds. From Ordnance Survey. 25 inch
-scale.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration92"></a>
-<img src="images/i_092.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">92.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; View of Clava Mounds. From a drawing by Mr. Innes.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Meagre as this information is, it is sufficient to show that Clava
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span>
-
-does not mark a battle-field. Carefully-constructed chambers with
-horizontally-vaulted roofs are not such monuments as soldiers erect
-in haste over the graves of their fallen chiefs. It evidently is a
-cemetery; and, with the knowledge we have acquired from the examination
-of those in Ireland, there cannot be much hesitation in ascribing it
-to that dynasty which was represented by King Brude, when St. Columba,
-in the sixth century, visited him in his "Munitio," on the banks of
-the Ness.<a name="FNanchor_308" id="FNanchor_308"></a><a href="#Footnote_308" class="fnanchor">[308]</a>
-If King Brude were really converted to Christianity by Columba, it
-is by no means improbable that the small square enclosure at the
-west end of the "heugh," which is still used as the burying-place of
-Pagan, or at least unbaptized babies, marked the spot where he and his
-successors were laid after the race had been weaned from the more noble
-burial-rites of their forefathers.</p>
-
-<p>It would be extremely interesting to follow out this inquiry further,
-if the materials existed for so doing; as few problems are more
-perplexed, and at the same time, of their kind, more important, than
-the origin of the Picts, and their relations with the Irish and the
-Gaels. Language will not help us here: we know too little of that
-spoken by the Picts; but these monuments certainly would, if any
-one would take the trouble to investigate the question by a careful
-comparison of all those existing in Scotland and Ireland.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration93"></a>
-<img src="images/i_093.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">93.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Stone at Coilsfield.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the south of Scotland, for instance, we find such a stone as this
-at Coilsfield, on the Ayr,<a name="FNanchor_309" id="FNanchor_309"></a><a href="#Footnote_309" class="fnanchor">[309]</a>
-which, taking the difference of drawing into account, is identical with
-that represented in woodcut No. 71. There is the same circle, the same
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span>
-
-uncertain, wavy line, and generally the same character. Another was found at Annan-street,
-in Roxburghshire, and is so similar in pattern and drawing that if
-placed in the chamber in the tumuli of New Grange, or Dowth, no one
-would suspect that it was not in the place it was originally designed
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span>
-
-for.<a name="FNanchor_310" id="FNanchor_310"></a><a href="#Footnote_310" class="fnanchor">[310]</a>
-But no sculptures of that class have yet, at least, been brought to
-light in Pictland, or, in other words, north of the Forth, on the east
-side of Scotland.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration94"></a>
-<img src="images/i_094.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">94.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Front of Stone at Aberlemmo, with Cross.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration95"></a>
-<img src="images/i_095.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">95.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Back of Stone at Aberlemmo.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The sculptured stones of the Picts are, however, quite sufficient to
-prove a close affinity of race between the two peoples, but always
-with a difference, which is evident on even a cursory examination.
-To take one instance. There is a very beautiful stone at Aberlemmo,
-near Brechin, which is said to have been put up to record the victory
-gained over the Danes at Loncarty, in the last years of the tenth
-century.<a name="FNanchor_311" id="FNanchor_311"></a><a href="#Footnote_311" class="fnanchor">[311]</a>
-Be this as it may, there seems no reason for doubting
-that it is a battle-stone, and does belong to the century in which
-popular tradition places it. On the front is a cross, but, like all
-in Scotland, without breaking the outline of the stone, which still
-retains a reminiscence of its Rude form. In Ireland, the arms of the
-cross as invariably extend beyond the line of the stone, like those at
-Iona, which are Irish, and these are generally joined by a circular
-Glory. The ornaments on the cross are the same in both countries, and
-generally consist of that curious interlacing basket-work pattern so
-common also in the MSS. of that age in both countries, but which exist
-nowhere else, that I am aware of, except in Armenia.<a name="FNanchor_312" id="FNanchor_312"></a><a href="#Footnote_312" class="fnanchor">[312]</a>
-The so-called "key" ornament on the horizontal arms of the cross at
-Aberlemmo seems also of Eastern origin, as it is found in the Sarnath
-Tope, near Benares, and elsewhere, but is common to both countries;
-as is also the dragon ornament on the side of the cross, though this
-looks more like a Scandinavian ornament than anything that can claim an
-origin further east.</p>
-
-<p>Among the differences it may be remarked that the figure-subjects on
-Irish crosses almost invariably refer to the scenes of the Passion,
-or are taken from the Bible. On the Scotch stones, they as constantly
-refer to battle or hunting incidents, or to what may be considered as
-events in civil life. The essential difference, however, is, that, with
-scarcely an exception, the Pictish stones bear some of those emblems
-which have proved such a puzzle to antiquaries. The so-called broken
-sceptre, the brooch, and the altar, are seen in the Aberlemmo stone;
-but in earlier examples they are far more important and infinitely
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span>
-
-various.<a name="FNanchor_313" id="FNanchor_313"></a><a href="#Footnote_313" class="fnanchor">[313]</a>
-It may also be worthy of remark that the only two real
-round towers out of Ireland adorn the two Pictish capitals of Brechin
-and Abernethy. All this points to a difference that can well make
-us understand why St. Columba should have required an interpreter
-in speaking to the Picts;<a name="FNanchor_314" id="FNanchor_314"></a><a href="#Footnote_314" class="fnanchor">[314]</a>
-but also to a resemblance that would lead us to understand that the
-cemetery at Clava was the counterpart of that on the banks of the
-Boyne, with the same relative degree of magnificence as the Kings
-of Inverness bore to those of Tara; and if we do not find similar
-tumuli at Brechin or Abernethy, it must be that the kings of these
-provinces&mdash;if there were any&mdash;were converted to Christianity
-before they adopted this mode of burial. It may be suggested that,
-as Maes-Howe is certainly the lineal descendant of the monuments on
-the Boyne, it too must be a Celtic or Pictish tomb. For the reasons,
-however, given above, such a theory seems wholly untenable; but thus
-much may be granted, that such a tomb would probably not have been
-erected, even by a Northman, in a country where there was not an
-underlying Celtic or Pictish population.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration96"></a>
-<img src="images/i_096.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">96.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Cat Stone, Kirkliston.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Before leaving these sculptured stones, it may be as well to point
-out one of those anomalies which meet us so frequently in these
-enquiries, and show how little ordinary probabilities suffice to guide
-to the true conclusion. Among the sculptured stones of Scotland,
-one of the oldest is probably the Newton stone. It has at least an
-Oghan inscription on its edge; and most antiquaries will admit that
-Oghan engravings on stone were discontinued when alphabetic writing
-was introduced and generally understood. It also has an alphabetic
-inscription on its face, but the letters are not Roman. They may be
-bad Greek, but certainly they appear to be pre-Roman, and therefore
-probably the earliest Scotch inscription known. There is another stone
-at Kirkliston, near Edinburgh, which has a Latin inscription on it.
-It is a "cat" or battle-stone, and records the name of Vetta, the
-son of Victis, in good Latin. Whether this Vetta is, or is not, the
-grandfather of Hengist and Horsa, as Sir James Simpson
-contended,<a name="FNanchor_315" id="FNanchor_315"></a><a href="#Footnote_315" class="fnanchor">[315]</a>
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span>
-
-is of no great consequence to our present argument. It is of about
-their age, and therefore as old as any of the other stones in Scotland;
-and there is also a third at Yarrow,<a name="FNanchor_316" id="FNanchor_316"></a><a href="#Footnote_316" class="fnanchor">[316]</a>
-with a later inscription, which seems about the same age as the Lothian
-example. Now the curious part of this matter is, that having begun
-with alphabetic writing, they entirely discontinued it, and during the
-six or seven centuries through which these sculptured stones certainly
-extend, it is the rarest possible thing to find one with an alphabetic
-inscription; and why this should be so is by no means clear. Take,
-for instance, the Aberlemmo stone just quoted. The people who erected
-it were Christians,&mdash;witness the cross: the ornaments on it are
-almost identical with those found in Irish MSS. of the seventh and
-eighth centuries.<a name="FNanchor_317" id="FNanchor_317"></a><a href="#Footnote_317" class="fnanchor">[317]</a>
-It is thus evident that the persons who drew these ornaments could
-write, and being able to write and carve with such exquisite precision,
-it seems strange they never thought of even putting the name of the
-persons who erected the stone or some word expressive of its purpose.
-The Irish probably would have done so; and the Scandinavians would
-have covered them with Runes, as they did those they erected in the
-Isle of Man, though probably at a somewhat later date. In the instance
-of the two crosses illustrated in the woodcuts, Nos. 97 and 98, the
-first bears an inscription to the effect that "Sandulf the Swarthy
-erected this cross to his wife, Arnbj&#246;rg." From their names, both
-evidently of Scandinavian origin. The inscription on the side of the
-second runs thus: "Mal Lumkun erected this cross to his foster-father
-Malmor, or Mal Muru."<a name="FNanchor_318" id="FNanchor_318"></a><a href="#Footnote_318" class="fnanchor">[318]</a>
-Both names of undoubted Gaelic derivation, thus showing that at that age at least
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span>
-
-any ethnographic theory that would give these stones exclusively to
-either race can hardly be maintained. The two races seem then to have
-followed the fashion of the day as they did in ruder times. Except
-in the instance of the St. Vigean's stone on which Sir James Simpson
-read the name of Drosten,<a name="FNanchor_319" id="FNanchor_319"></a><a href="#Footnote_319" class="fnanchor">[319]</a>
-ascribing it with very fair certainty to the year 729 <span
-class="smcap">A.D.</span>, none of the 101 stones illustrated in
-the splendid volumes of the Spalding Club contains hardly a scrap
-of alphabetic writing. Throughout they preferred a strange sort of
-Heraldic symbolism, which still defies the ingenuity of our best
-antiquaries to interpret. It was a very perverse course to pursue, but
-while men did so, probably as late as Sueno's time,
- <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1008,<a name="FNanchor_320" id="FNanchor_320"></a><a href="#Footnote_320" class="fnanchor">[320]</a>
-it is needless to ask why men set up rude stones to commemorate events
-or persons when they could have carved or inscribed them; or why, in
-fact, as we would insist on doing, they did not avail themselves of all
-the resources of the art or the learning which they possessed?</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration97"></a>
-<img src="images/i_097.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">97.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Cross in Isle of Man, bearing Runic Inscription.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration98"></a>
-<img src="images/i_098.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">98.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Cross in Isle of Man, bearing Runic Inscription.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The other rude-stone monuments of Scotland are neither numerous nor
-important. Daniel Wilson enumerates some half-dozen of dolmens as still
-existing in the lowlands and in parts of Argyllshire, but none of them
-are important from their size, nor do they present any peculiarities
-to distinguish them from those of Wales or Ireland; while no tradition
-has attached itself to any of them in such a manner as to give a
-hint of their age or purpose. Besides these, there are a number of
-single stones scattered here and there over the country, but there is
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span>
-
-nothing to indicate whether they are cat stones or mark boundaries,
-or merely graves, so that to enumerate them would be as tedious as it
-would be uninstructive. What little interest may attach to them will
-be better appreciated when we have examined those of Scandinavia and
-France, which are more numerous, as well as more easily understood.
-When, too, we have mastered them in so far as the materials available
-enable us to do, we shall be able to appreciate the significance of
-much that has just been enunciated. Meanwhile it may be as well to
-remark that what we already seem to have gained is a knowledge that
-a circle-building race came from the north, touching first at the
-Orkneys, and, passing down through the Hebrides, divided themselves on
-the north of Ireland&mdash;one branch settling on the west coast of that
-island, the other landing in Cumberland, and penetrating into England
-in a south-easterly direction.</p>
-
-<p>In like manner we seem to have a dolmen-building race who from the
-south first touched in Cornwall, and thence spread northwards, settling
-on both sides of St. George's Channel, and leaving traces of their
-existence on the south and both coasts of Ireland, as well as in Wales
-and the west of England generally. Whether these two opposite currents
-were or were not synchronous is a question that must be determined
-hereafter. We shall also be in a better position to ascertain what the
-races were who thus spread themselves along our coasts, when we have
-examined the only countries from which it is probable they could have
-issued.</p>
-
-
-<div class="topspace1"></div>
-<div class="footnotes">
-<blockquote>
-<p class="footnote"><span class="smcap"><b>Footnotes</b></span></p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_271" id="Footnote_271"></a><a href="#FNanchor_271"><span class="label">[271]</span></a>
-'The Sculptured Stones of Scotland.' Two vols. quarto.
-Published by the Spalding Club. 1856 and 1867.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_272" id="Footnote_272"></a><a href="#FNanchor_272"><span class="label">[272]</span></a>
-A few years ago the late Mr. Rhind,
-of Sibster, left an estate worth more than
-400<i>l.</i> per annum, to endow a Professorship
-of Arch&#230;ology in Scotland, who was
-also to act as curator of the monuments
-themselves, but unfortunately left it encumbered
-by a life interest to a relative.
-Two years ago an attempt was made to
-get the Government to anticipate the
-falling in of the life interest, and appointing
-Mr. Stuart to the office at once.
-It was, perhaps, too much to expect so
-enlightened an act of liberality from a
-Government like ours. But their decision
-is to be regretted; not only because
-we may thereby lose altogether the services
-of the best qualified man in Scotland
-for the purpose, but more so because
-the monuments are themselves fast disappearing
-without any record of them
-being preserved. Agriculture is very
-merciless towards a big stone or a howe
-that stands in the way of the plough,
-and in so improving a country as Scotland,
-very little may remain for the next
-generation to record.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_273" id="Footnote_273"></a><a href="#FNanchor_273"><span class="label">[273]</span></a>
-The account of these monuments is
-abstracted from a paper by Lieutenant
-Thomas, of H. M.'s surveying vessel
-<i>Woodlark</i>. It is the most detailed and
-most correct survey we have of any
-British group. It was published in the
-'Arch&#230;ologia,' xxxiv. p. 88 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_274" id="Footnote_274"></a><a href="#FNanchor_274"><span class="label">[274]</span></a>
-Four stones are represented as standing
-when Barry's view of the monument
-was published in 1807, and four are
-represented as standing in a series of
-etchings made by the Duchess-Countess
-of Sutherland from her own drawings, in
-1805. If the elbow in the bridge shown
-in the drawing in the frontispiece is not
-a licence permitted to himself by the
-artist, my drawing is earlier than either
-of these. When I first purchased it I
-believed it to be by Daniel. His tour,
-however, took place in 1815. From the
-internal evidence this drawing must be
-anterior to 1805.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_275" id="Footnote_275"></a><a href="#FNanchor_275"><span class="label">[275]</span></a>
-'Arch&#230;ologia,' xxxiv. p. 89.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_276" id="Footnote_276"></a><a href="#FNanchor_276"><span class="label">[276]</span></a>
-'Arch&#230;ologia,' xxxiv. p. 90.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_277" id="Footnote_277"></a><a href="#FNanchor_277"><span class="label">[277]</span></a>
-The greater part of this find, with
-all the coins, is in the Museum of the
-Society of Antiquaries, Edinburgh. The
-dates on the coins were kindly copied for
-me by Mr. Stuart.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_278" id="Footnote_278"></a><a href="#FNanchor_278"><span class="label">[278]</span></a>
-'Notice on the Runic Inscriptions discovered during Recent Excavations in the
-Orkneys.' By James Farrer, M.P. 1862.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_279" id="Footnote_279"></a><a href="#FNanchor_279"><span class="label">[279]</span></a>
-'Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot.' v. p. 70.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_280" id="Footnote_280"></a><a href="#FNanchor_280"><span class="label">[280]</span></a>
-Olaus Wormius, 'Monumenta Danica,' p. 188, fig. 6.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_281" id="Footnote_281"></a><a href="#FNanchor_281"><span class="label">[281]</span></a>
-Barry's 'History of Orkney,' p. 399. See also 'Arch&#230;ologia,' xxxiv. p. 89.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_282" id="Footnote_282"></a><a href="#FNanchor_282"><span class="label">[282]</span></a>
-Barry, 'History of the Orkneys,' p. 124.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_283" id="Footnote_283"></a><a href="#FNanchor_283"><span class="label">[283]</span></a>
-Mr. George Petrie has recently at
-my request made some excavations in
-these mounds, but the results have not
-been conclusive. He is of opinion that
-one of the mounds he explored may be
-the grave of Thorfin, but it is too much
-ruined to afford any certain indication.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_284" id="Footnote_284"></a><a href="#FNanchor_284"><span class="label">[284]</span></a>
-'M&#233;moires des Ant. du Nord,' iii. p. 236.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_285" id="Footnote_285"></a><a href="#FNanchor_285"><span class="label">[285]</span></a>
-These dates are taken from Barry, p. 112 <i>et seq.</i>, but they seem undisputed, and
-are found in all histories.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_286" id="Footnote_286"></a><a href="#FNanchor_286"><span class="label">[286]</span></a>
-'History of Orkney.' p. 125.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_287" id="Footnote_287"></a><a href="#FNanchor_287"><span class="label">[287]</span></a>
-'Prehistoric Annals of Scotland,' p. 112. 'Arch&#230;ologia,' xxxiv. p. 89.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_288" id="Footnote_288"></a><a href="#FNanchor_288"><span class="label">[288]</span></a>
-'M&#233;moires des Antiquaires du Nord,' iii. p. 250.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_289" id="Footnote_289"></a><a href="#FNanchor_289"><span class="label">[289]</span></a>
-Farrer, 'Inscriptions in the Orkneys,' p. 37.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_290" id="Footnote_290"></a><a href="#FNanchor_290"><span class="label">[290]</span></a>
-A few years ago such a question
-would have been considered answered
-as soon as stated; but, as Daniel Wilson
-writes in a despairing passage in his Introduction,*
-"This theory of the Danish
-origin of nearly all our native arts,
-though adopted without investigation,
-and fostered in defiance of evidence, has
-long ceased to be a mere popular error.
-It is, moreover," he adds, "a cumulative
-error; Pennant, Chambers, Barry, Mac
-Culloch, Scott, Hibbert, and a host of
-other writers might be quoted to show
-that theory, like a snow-ball, gathers as
-it rolls, taking up indiscriminately whatever
-chances to be in its erratic course." In spite
-of his indignation, however, I
-suspect it will be found to have gathered
-such force, that it will be found very
-difficult to discredit it. Since, too, Alexander
-Bertrand made his onslaught on
-the theory, that the Celts had anything
-to do with the megalithic monuments,
-the ground is fast being cut away from
-under their feet; and though the proofs
-are still far from complete, yet according
-to present appearances the Celts must
-resign their claims to any of the stone
-circles certainly, and to most of the other
-stone monuments we are acquainted with,
-if not to all.</p>
-
-<p>*'Prehistoric Annals of Scotland,' p. xv.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_291" id="Footnote_291"></a><a href="#FNanchor_291"><span class="label">[291]</span></a>
-'Annales Innisfal.' in O'Connor,
-'Rerum. Hib. Scrip.' ii. p. 24. 'Annales
-Ulton.' <i>Ibid.</i> iv. p. 117.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_292" id="Footnote_292"></a><a href="#FNanchor_292"><span class="label">[292]</span></a>
-Duke of Argyll's 'Iona,' p. 100.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_293" id="Footnote_293"></a><a href="#FNanchor_293"><span class="label">[293]</span></a>
-On the left of the view in the Frontispiece.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_294" id="Footnote_294"></a><a href="#FNanchor_294"><span class="label">[294]</span></a>
-'Arch&#230;ologia Scot.' iii. p. 119.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_295" id="Footnote_295"></a><a href="#FNanchor_295"><span class="label">[295]</span></a>
-'Arch&#230;ologia,' xxxiv. p. 113.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_296" id="Footnote_296"></a><a href="#FNanchor_296"><span class="label">[296]</span></a>
-'Proceedings Soc. Ant. of Scotland,' iii. p. 213.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_297" id="Footnote_297"></a><a href="#FNanchor_297"><span class="label">[297]</span></a>
-These dimensions and the plan are taken from Sir Henry James's work on
-'Stonehenge, Turuschan,' &amp;c.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_298" id="Footnote_298"></a><a href="#FNanchor_298"><span class="label">[298]</span></a>
-Anderson, on horned Tumuli in Caithness, 'Proc. Soc. Ant. of Scotland,' vi. p.
-442 <i>et seq.</i>, and vii. p. 480 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_299" id="Footnote_299"></a><a href="#FNanchor_299"><span class="label">[299]</span></a>
-'Sculptured Stones of Scotland,' ii. p. xxv.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_300" id="Footnote_300"></a><a href="#FNanchor_300"><span class="label">[300]</span></a>
-Vol. iv. p. 499.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_301" id="Footnote_301"></a><a href="#FNanchor_301"><span class="label">[301]</span></a>
-Glasgow, 1865, p. 186 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_302" id="Footnote_302"></a><a href="#FNanchor_302"><span class="label">[302]</span></a>
-In the 'Arch&#230;ologia,' vol. xxii. pp. 200 and 202, are plans and views of six
-Aberdeenshire circles, and two more are given in the same volume further on.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_303" id="Footnote_303"></a><a href="#FNanchor_303"><span class="label">[303]</span></a>
-'Sculptured Stones of Scotland,' vol. i. p. xxi.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_304" id="Footnote_304"></a><a href="#FNanchor_304"><span class="label">[304]</span></a>
-In September, 1858, Mr. Dyce Nicol,
-with a party of experienced arch&#230;ologists,
-excavated four circles situated in
-a row, and extending for nearly a mile,
-on the road from Aberdeen to Stonehaven,
-and about 1&frac12; mile from the sea.
-The first and last had been disturbed
-before, but the second, at King Caussie,
-and the third, at Aquhorties, yielded
-undoubted evidences of their sepulchral
-origin. The conclusion these gentlemen
-arrived at was, that "whatever other
-purposes these circles may have served,
-one use of them was as a place of burial."&mdash;<i>Proceedings</i>
-<i>Soc. Ant. Scot.</i> v. p. 134.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_305" id="Footnote_305"></a><a href="#FNanchor_305"><span class="label">[305]</span></a>
-I regret much that I have been
-unable to visit this place myself. It
-was, however, carefully surveyed by
-Captain Charles Wilson, when he was
-attached to the Ordnance Survey at
-Inverness. He also made detailed plans
-and sketches of all the monuments, but,
-unfortunately, sent them to the Ordnance
-Office at Southampton, and they
-consequently are not accessible nor available
-for our present purposes.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_306" id="Footnote_306"></a><a href="#FNanchor_306"><span class="label">[306]</span></a>
-These dimensions are taken partly
-from the Ordnance Survey Sheet, 25-inch
-scale, and partly from Mr. Innes's paper
-in 'Proceedings Soc. Ant.' iii. p. 49
-<i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_307" id="Footnote_307"></a><a href="#FNanchor_307"><span class="label">[307]</span></a>
-<i>Ibid.</i> Appendix, vi. pl. x.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_308" id="Footnote_308"></a><a href="#FNanchor_308"><span class="label">[308]</span></a>
-Reeves, 'Adamnan. Vita St. Columb.' p. 150.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_309" id="Footnote_309"></a><a href="#FNanchor_309"><span class="label">[309]</span></a>
-Wilson's 'Prehistoric Annals,' p. 332.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_310" id="Footnote_310"></a><a href="#FNanchor_310"><span class="label">[310]</span></a>
-An amusing controversy regarding
-the existence of this stone will be found
-in the 'Proceedings Scot. Ant.' iv. p. 524
-<i>et seq.</i> It seems absolutely impossible
-that any man, even under the inspiration
-of some primordial whisky, to have drawn
-by accident a sculpture so like what his
-ancestors did fifteen centuries before his
-time.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_311" id="Footnote_311"></a><a href="#FNanchor_311"><span class="label">[311]</span></a>
-Gordon, 'Iter Septemtrionale,' p. 151.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_312" id="Footnote_312"></a><a href="#FNanchor_312"><span class="label">[312]</span></a>
-In my 'History of Architecture,'
-ii. p. 345, I ventured timidly to hint
-that this Armenian ornament would be
-found identical with that in the Irish
-and Pictish crosses. Since then I have
-seen a series of photographs of Armenian
-churches, which leave no doubt in my
-mind that this similarity is not accidental,
-but that the one country borrowed
-it from the other.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_313" id="Footnote_313"></a><a href="#FNanchor_313"><span class="label">[313]</span></a>
-See Stuart's 'Sculptured Stones,' and Colonel Forbes Leslie's 'Early Races of
-Scotland,' <i>passim</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_314" id="Footnote_314"></a><a href="#FNanchor_314"><span class="label">[314]</span></a>
-Reeves, 'Adamnan. Vita St. Columb.' pp. 65 and 145.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_315" id="Footnote_315"></a><a href="#FNanchor_315"><span class="label">[315]</span></a>
-'Proceedings Soc. Ant. Scot.' iv. p.
-119 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_316" id="Footnote_316"></a><a href="#FNanchor_316"><span class="label">[316]</span></a>
-<i>Ibid.</i> iv. p. 524.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_317" id="Footnote_317"></a><a href="#FNanchor_317"><span class="label">[317]</span></a>
-Westwood, 'Facsimiles of Irish MSS.' plates 4-28.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_318" id="Footnote_318"></a><a href="#FNanchor_318"><span class="label">[318]</span></a>
-These two woodcuts are borrowed from Worsaae, 'The Danes and Northmen.' London, 1852.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_319" id="Footnote_319"></a><a href="#FNanchor_319"><span class="label">[319]</span></a>
-'Sculptured Stones of Scotland,' ii. p. 70.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_320" id="Footnote_320"></a><a href="#FNanchor_320"><span class="label">[320]</span></a>
-Camden, 'Brit.' 1268.</p>
-</div>
-
-</blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a><br />
-<span class="small">SCANDINAVIA AND NORTH GERMANY.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Introductory.</span></h3>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">So</span> much has been said by the Danes and their admirers of the services
-that they have rendered to the study of prehistoric arch&#230;ology that it
-is rather disappointing to find that, when looked into, almost less is
-known regarding their megalithic monuments than regarding those of any
-other country in Europe. No work has yet been published giving anything
-like a statistical account of them, and no map exists showing their
-distribution. What little information can be obtained regarding the
-Danish dolmens, and other similar monuments, is scattered through so
-many volumes of transactions and detached essays that it is extremely
-difficult to arrive at any connected view of them&mdash;almost, indeed,
-impossible for any one who is not locally familiar with the provinces
-in which they are found. The truth seems to be that the Danish
-antiquaries have been so busy in arranging their microlithic treasures
-in glass cases that they have totally neglected their larger monuments
-outside. They have thus collected riches which no other nation
-possesses, and have constructed a very perfect grammar and vocabulary
-of the science. But a grammar and a dictionary are neither a history
-nor a philosophy; and though their labours may eventually be most
-useful to future enquirers, they are of very little use for our present
-purposes. They have indeed up to this time been rather prejudicial than
-otherwise, by leading people to believe that when they can distinguish
-between a flint or bronze or iron implement they know the alpha and
-omega of the science, and that nothing further is required to determine
-the relative date of any given monument. It is as if we were to adopt
-the simple chemistry of the ancients, and divide all known substances
-into earth, water, fire, and air: a division not only convenient but
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span>
-
-practically so true that there is very little to be said against it. It
-is not, however, up to the mark of the knowledge of the day, and omits
-to take notice of the fact that earths can occasionally be converted
-into gases, and airs converted into liquids or solidified. Instead of
-their simple system, what is now wanted is something that will take
-into account the different races of mankind&mdash;some progressive, some
-the reverse&mdash;and the different accidents of success and prosperity, or
-disaster and poverty: the one leading to the aggregation of detached
-communities into great centres, and consequent progress; the other
-leading to dispersion and stagnation, if not retrocession, in the
-arts of life which tend towards what we call civilization. At the
-International Congress of Prehistoric Arch&#230;ology, held at Copenhagen in
-the autumn of 1869, it was understood that many of the best Northern
-antiquaries were inclined to abandon, to a very considerable extent,
-the hard and fast lines of their first system, and to admit not
-only that there may be considerable overlapping, but even, in some
-instances, that its indications were not in accordance with the facts.
-More than two years have elapsed since the Congress was held, but the
-volume containing the account of its proceedings is not yet published;
-when it is, we may probably be in a position to speak much more
-favourably not only of their views but of the extent of their knowledge
-of the antiquities in question.</p>
-
-<p>Under these circumstances, we may congratulate ourselves in possessing
-such a work as that of Sj&#246;borg.<a name="FNanchor_321" id="FNanchor_321"></a><a href="#Footnote_321" class="fnanchor">[321]</a>
-He wrote, fortunately, before the Danish system was invented, but,
-unfortunately, before drawing and engraving had reached the precision
-and clearness which now characterize them. In consequence of the last
-defect, we cannot always feel sure of our ground in basing an argument
-on his drawings; but, generally speaking, he is so honest, so free from
-system, that there is very little danger in this respect. The work has
-also the merit of being as free from the speculations about Druids and
-Serpents which disfigure the contemporary works of English antiquaries,
-as it is from the three ages of the Danes; though, on the other hand,
-he relegates all the dolmens and such like monuments to a prehistoric "Joter," or
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span>
-
-giant race, who preceded, according to his views, Odin and his true
-Scandinavians, to whom he ascribes all the truly historic monuments.</p>
-
-<p>In addition to the difficulties arising from the paucity of information
-regarding the monuments, the Scandinavians have not yet made up
-their minds with regard to their early chronology. Even the vast
-collections contained in the ponderous tomes of Langebeck and Suhm<a name="FNanchor_322" id="FNanchor_322"></a><a href="#Footnote_322" class="fnanchor">[322]</a>
-are far from sufficing for the purpose; and such authors as Saxo
-Grammaticus<a name="FNanchor_323" id="FNanchor_323"></a><a href="#Footnote_323" class="fnanchor">[323]</a>
-write with an easy fluency too characteristic of our own Jeffrey of
-Monmouth, and others who bury true history under such a mass of fables
-as makes it extremely difficult to recover what we are really seeking
-for. Patient industry, combined with judicious criticism, would, no
-doubt, clear away most of the obscurities which now disfigure this
-page of medi&#230;val history; but, meanwhile, the Scandinavian annals
-are as obscure as the Irish, and more uncertain than the contemporary
-annals of England.</p>
-
-<p>Of the history of Scandinavia anterior to the Christian era, absolutely
-nothing is known. It is now no longer admissible to believe in a
-historic Odin, whom all the medi&#230;val historians represent as living in
-the first century <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, and as the founder of those families
-who play so important a part in the subsequent histories of our own
-as well as of the whole group of Northern nations. The modern school
-of Germans has discovered that Odin was a god who lived in the sky
-in pre-Adamite times, and never condescended to visit our sublunary
-sphere. It is now rank heresy to assume that during the thousand years
-which elapsed between his pretended date and that of our earliest MSS.
-the wild imaginings of barbarous tribes may not have gathered round the
-indistinct form of a national hero, transferred him back to a mythic
-age, and endowed him with the attributes and surroundings of a god. As
-the Germans have decreed this, it is in vain to dispute it, and not
-worth while to attempt it here, as for our present purposes it is of
-the least possible consequence.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>About the Christian era there is said to have been a king, called
-Frode I., who, as he never was deified, may have had a tomb on earth,
-and might, if that could be identified, be allowed to head our list.
-Between him and Harald Harfagar, who, in 880, conquered Norway and came
-into distinct contact with British history in the Orkneys, we have
-several lists of kings, more or less complete, and with dates more or
-less certain.<a name="FNanchor_324" id="FNanchor_324"></a><a href="#Footnote_324" class="fnanchor">[324]</a>
-That there were kings in those days, no one will probably dispute, nor
-perhaps is the succession of the names doubtful; and if the dates err
-to the extent of even fifty years or so, it is of little consequence
-to our argument. The monuments extend so far down, and to kings whose
-dates are so perfectly ascertained, that it is of no importance whether
-the earlier ones are assigned to dates forty or fifty years too early
-or too late. Their fixation may be left to future research, as it has
-no direct bearing on the theory we are now trying to investigate.</p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Battle-fields.</span></h3>
-
-<p>The chief of the Scandinavian monuments, and the most interesting
-for our present object, comprise those groups of stones which mark
-battle-fields. Not only are their dates generally known with sufficient
-precision to throw considerable light on the question of the antiquity
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span>
-
-of such monuments in general, but they also illustrate, if they do
-not determine, the use of many of the groups of stones we meet with
-in other countries. Sj&#246;borg devotes ten plates in his first volume to
-these battle-fields, illustrating twice that number of battles which
-occurred between the fifth and the twelfth centuries after Christ.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration99"></a>
-<img src="images/i_099.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">99.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; View of Battle-field at Kongsbacka. From Sj&#246;borg.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The first of these, at Kongsbacka, near the coast in Halland, though
-of somewhat uncertain date, is worth quoting from its similarity to
-the alignments on Dartmoor, Ashdown, Karnac, and elsewhere, though,
-unfortunately, no plan or dimensions are given. On the hills beyond is
-a tumulus called the grave of Frode, and on the plain a conspicuous
-stone bears his name; but whether this was Frode V. (400) or some
-other Frode is not clear. Sj&#246;borg assigns it to a date about 500, and
-there seems very little reason to doubt he is at least approximatively
-correct.<a name="FNanchor_325" id="FNanchor_325"></a><a href="#Footnote_325" class="fnanchor">[325]</a></p>
-
-<p>The second battle-field illustrated is similar to the last, except
-in the form of the stones, which seem to belong to a different
-mineralogical formation.<a name="FNanchor_326" id="FNanchor_326"></a><a href="#Footnote_326" class="fnanchor">[326]</a>
-They are plainly, however, seen to be arranged in circles and lines,
-and are even more like forms with which we are familiar elsewhere.
-It is said to represent a battle-field in which the Swedish king
-Adil fought the Danish Snio, and in which the latter with the chiefs
-Eskil and Alkil were slain. As all these names are familiarly known
-in the medi&#230;val history of these countries there can be no great
-difficulty in ascribing this battle also to about the same age as that
-at Kongsbacka.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>With the third we tread on surer ground. No event in the history of
-these lands is better known than the fight on the Braavalla Heath, in
-Östergothland, where the blind old king, Harald Hildetand, met his
-fate in the year 736, or 750 according to others. As the Saga tells
-us, Odin had, when the king was young, taught him a form of tactics
-which gave him a superiority in battle over all his enemies; but the
-god having withdrawn his favour from him, he fell before the prowess of
-his nephew, Sigurd Ring, to whom the god had communicated the secret of
-the battle array. It does not appear to admit of doubt that the circles
-shown in the cut in the opposite page were erected to commemorate
-this event, and that they contain the bodies of those who were slain
-in this action; and if this is so, it throws considerable light on
-the battle-fields of Moytura, illustrated woodcuts Nos. 54 to 61. The
-circles on Braavalla are generally from 20 to 40 feet in diameter,
-and consequently are, on the average, smaller than those at Moytura;
-they are also more numerous, unless we adopt Petrie's suggestion,<a name="FNanchor_327" id="FNanchor_327"></a><a href="#Footnote_327" class="fnanchor">[327]</a>
-that there must originally have been at least two hundred in the Irish
-field; and if so, it is the smaller ones that would certainly be
-the first to be cleared away, so that the similarity may originally
-have been greater than it now is&mdash;so great, indeed, as to render it
-difficult to account for the fact that two battle-fields should have
-been marked out in a manner so similar when so long a time as seven
-centuries had elapsed between them. As it does not appear possible
-that the date of the Braavalla fight can be shifted to the extent of
-fifty years either way, are we deceiving ourselves about Moytura? Is it
-possible that it represents some later descent of Scandinavian Vikings
-on the west coast of Ireland, and that the cairn on Knocknarea&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
- <div class="poetry">
-   <div class="stanza">
-    <div class="verse indent-1">"High and broad,</div>
-    <div class="verse">By the sailors over the waves</div>
-    <div class="verse">To be seen afar,</div>
-    <div class="verse">The beacon of the war renowned"<a name="FNanchor_328" id="FNanchor_328"></a><a href="#Footnote_328" class="fnanchor">[328]</a>&mdash;</div>
-</div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>which they built up during ten days&mdash;is really the grave of some
-Northern hero who fell in some subsequent fight at Carrowmore? That
-all these are monuments of the same class, and belong, if not to the
-same people, at least to peoples in close contact with one another,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span>
-
-and having similar faiths and feelings, does not appear to admit of
-doubt. When, however, we come to look more closely at them, there are
-peculiarities about them which may account for even so great a lapse
-of time. The Braavalla circles are smaller, and on the whole perhaps,
-we may assume, degenerate. There are square and triangular graves,
-and other forms, which, so far as we know, are comparatively modern
-inventions, and, altogether, there are changes which may account for
-that lapse of time; but that more than seven centuries elapsed between
-the two seems to be most improbable.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration100"></a>
-<img src="images/i_100.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">100.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Part of the Battle-field of Braavalla Heath. From
-Sj&#246;borg.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration101"></a>
-<img src="images/i_101.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">101.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Harald Hildetand's Tomb at
-Lethra.<a name="FNanchor_329" id="FNanchor_329"></a><a href="#Footnote_329" class="fnanchor">[329]</a></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>To return, however, to King Hildetand. According to the saga, "After
-the battle the conqueror, Sigurd Ring, caused a search to be made for
-the body of his uncle. The body when found was washed and placed in the
-chariot in which Harald had fought, and transported into the interior
-of a tumulus which Sigurd had caused to be raised. Harald's horse was
-then killed and buried in the mound with the saddle of Ring, so that
-the king might at pleasure proceed to Walhalla either in his chariot
-or on horseback. Ring then gave a great funeral feast, and invited all
-the nobles and warriors present to throw into the mound great rings
-and noble armour, in honour of the king Harald. They then closed up
-the mound with care."<a name="FNanchor_330" id="FNanchor_330"></a><a href="#Footnote_330" class="fnanchor">[330]</a>
-This mound still exists at Lethra's Harald, capital in Seeland.
-It was mentioned by Saxo Grammaticus in 1236,<a name="FNanchor_331" id="FNanchor_331"></a><a href="#Footnote_331" class="fnanchor">[331]</a>
-and described and drawn by Olaus Wormius in 1643;<a name="FNanchor_332" id="FNanchor_332"></a><a href="#Footnote_332" class="fnanchor">[332]</a>
-and no one ever doubted its identity, till recently the Museum
-authorities caused excavations to be made. Unfortunately some "wedges of flint" have
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span>
-
-been found in the earth which was extracted from the chamber, from
-which Worsaae and his brother antiquaries at once concluded that "it is
-beyond all doubt merely a common cromlech of the stone period"<a name="FNanchor_333" id="FNanchor_333"></a><a href="#Footnote_333" class="fnanchor">[333]</a>
-&mdash;a conclusion that seems to me the reverse of logical. No one, I
-presume, doubts that King Hildetand was buried in a tumulus with rings
-and arms; and if this tumulus was regarded historically as his, for the
-last 600 years, and traditionally so from the time of his death, it is
-incumbent upon the antiquaries to show how worthless these traditions
-and histories are, and to point out where he really rests. To form an
-empirical system and to assert&mdash;which they cannot prove&mdash;that
-no flint implements were used after a certain prehistoric date, and
-that consequently all mounds in which flint implements are found are
-prehistoric, seems most unreasonable, to say the least of it. It would
-be surely far more philosophical to admit that flint may have been
-used down to any time till we can find some reason for fixing a date
-for its discontinuance. In this instance an "instantia crucis" would
-be to dig into some of the circles at Braavalla, and see if any flints
-are to be found there. No metal was found at Moytura, though metal
-was, if history is to be depended upon, then commonly used, and flint
-implements were probably not found because those who opened the tombs
-were not aware of its importance. Pending this test, the form of the
-grave may give us some indication of its age. It is an oblong barrow,
-with an external dolmen at one end, and with a row of ten stones on
-each side, the two end ones being taller than the rest. A similar
-mound, known as the Kennet long barrow, exists at Avebury,<a name="FNanchor_334" id="FNanchor_334"></a><a href="#Footnote_334" class="fnanchor">[334]</a>
-so similar indeed that if this tomb at Lethra is historical so certainly
-is the English example. If, on the other hand, either can be proved to
-belong to the long forgotten past, the other must also he consigned to
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span>
-
-the same unsatisfactory limbo.</p>
-
-<p>The barrow at West Kennet was carefully explored in 1859 by Dr.
-Thurnam, and the results of his investigation fully detailed in a
-paper in the 'Arch&#230;ologia,' vol. xxxviii., from which the following
-particulars are abstracted, together with some others from a second
-paper, "On Long Barrows," by the same author, in vol. xlii. of the same
-publication.</p>
-
-<p>Externally it is a mound measuring 336 feet in length by 75 feet at
-its broadest part. Originally it was surrounded by what is called a
-peristalith of tall stones, between which, it is said, a walling of
-smaller stones can still be detected. On its summit, as at Lethra, was
-an external dolmen over the principal chamber of the tomb. The chamber
-was nearly square in form, measuring 8 feet by 9, and approached by
-a passage measuring 15 feet by 3 feet 6 inches in width; and its
-arrangement is in fact the same as that of the Jersey tumulus (<a href="#Illustration11">woodcut No. 11</a>),
-and, as Sir John Lubbock remarks, "very closely resembles
-that of a tumulus" he had just been describing, of the Stone age,
-in the island of M&#246;en, "and, in fact, the plan of passage graves
-generally."<a name="FNanchor_335" id="FNanchor_335"></a><a href="#Footnote_335" class="fnanchor">[335]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration102"></a>
-<img src="images/i_102.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">102.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Long Barrow, Kennet, restored by Dr. Thurnam.
-'Arch&#230;ologia,' xlii.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>When opened, six original interments were found in the chamber, under
-a stratum of black, sooty, greasy matter, 3 to 9 inches in thickness,
-and which, Dr. Thurnam remarks, "could never have been disturbed since
-the original formation of the deposit" (p. 413). Two of these had
-their skulls fractured during lifetime; the others were entire. To
-account for this, Dr. Thurnam takes considerable pains to prove that
-slaves were sometimes sacrificed at the funeral of their masters, but
-he fails to find any instance in which they were killed by breaking
-their heads; and if they were to serve their master in the next
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span>
-
-world, even a savage would be shrewd enough to know that cracking his
-skull was not the way to render him useful for service either in this
-world or the next. No such mode of sacrifice was ever adopted, so far
-as I know.<a name="FNanchor_336" id="FNanchor_336"></a><a href="#Footnote_336" class="fnanchor">[336]</a>
-But supposing it was so, all the six burials in this
-tomb seem to have been nearly equal, and equally honourable, and why,
-therefore, all their skulls were not broken is not clear. If on the
-other hand we assume that it is the grave of six persons who were
-slain in battle, two by blows on the head, and four by wounds in the
-body, this surely would be a simpler way of accounting for the facts
-observed. Even, however, if we were to admit that these men with the
-broken heads were sacrificed, this would by no means prove the grave to
-be prehistoric. Quite the contrary, for we know from the indisputable
-authority of a decree of Charlemagne that human sacrifices were
-practised by the pagan Saxons as late, certainly, as 789,<a name="FNanchor_337" id="FNanchor_337"></a><a href="#Footnote_337" class="fnanchor">[337]</a>
-and were sufficiently frequent to constitute one of the first crimes
-against which he fulminated his edicts. The fact is that neither
-historians nor antiquaries seem quite to realise the state of utter
-barbarism into which the greater part of Europe was plunged between
-the collapse of the Roman Empire and the revival of order under
-Charlemagne. Christianity no doubt had taken root in some favoured
-spots, and some bright lights shone out of the general darkness, but
-over the greater part of Europe pagan rites were still practised to
-such an extent as easily to account for any heathen practice or any
-ancient form of sepulture which may be found anywhere existing.</p>
-
-<p>To return, however, to our long barrow. Under a piece of Sarsen stone,
-but on the skull of one of the principal persons interred here (No.
-4), were found two pieces of black pottery (fig. 8, page 415), which
-Dr. Thurnam admits may be of the Roman age. Other fragments of the
-same vessel were found in other parts of the tomb, and also fragments
-of pottery (figs. 14 to 17), not British, but to which he hesitates to
-assign an age. So far as I can judge, it seems just such pottery as the
-less experienced British potters would form, on Roman models, after
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span>
-
-the departure of that people. But this is immaterial; for beyond the
-chamber, and deeper consequently into the tumulus, were found fragments
-of undoubted Roman pottery. So far, therefore, everything favours
-the view that it was the sepulchre of persons slain in battle, after
-the departure of the Romans; for we can hardly believe that a battle
-would be fought, and such a tomb raised over the slain, during their
-occupation; and if so, as the pottery proves it could not be before, a
-choice of a date is fixed within very narrow limits. It may either have
-been in 450, immediately after the departure of the Romans, or in 520,
-the date of the battle of Badon Hill, which is the time at which, I
-believe, it was reared. So far as the general argument is concerned, it
-is of no consequence which date is chosen. Against this conclusion we
-have to place the following facts. First, no trace of iron or bronze,
-or of metal of any sort, was found in the tomb. Secondly, at least 300
-flint fragments were found in it. Some of these were mere chippings,
-some cones, but many were fairly formed flint implements (figs. 10 to
-13),<a name="FNanchor_338" id="FNanchor_338"></a><a href="#Footnote_338" class="fnanchor">[338]</a>
-not belonging to the oldest type, but such as antiquaries are
-in the habit of ascribing to the pre-metal Stone age. In addition to
-these, the quantity of coarse native pottery was very remarkable. No
-whole vessels were found, but broken fragments that would form fifty
-vessels were heaped in a corner; and there were corresponding fragments
-in another corner. Dr. Thurnam tries to explain this by referring to
-the passage in the grave scene in 'Hamlet,' where our great dramatist
-speaks of "shards, flints, and pebbles," which should be thrown into
-the graves of suicides; the use of which, he adds, "in medi&#230;val times
-may be a relic of paganism." It does not, however, seem to occur to him
-that, if such a custom was known in the sixteenth century, it would be
-likely to have been in full force in the sixth. It is strange enough
-that such a custom, even if only referred to suicides, should have
-survived a thousand years of such revolutions and changes of religion
-as England was subjected to in those days; but that it should be known
-to Christians, after 3000 or 4000 years' disuse, seems hardly possible.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>No argument, it appears to me, can be drawn from the different kinds of
-pottery found in the tomb. If any one will take the trouble of digging
-up the kitchen midden of a villa built within the last ten years, in
-a previously uninhabited spot, he will probably find fragments of an
-exquisite porcelain vase which the housemaid broke in dusting the
-drawing-room chimney-piece. He will certainly find many fragments of
-the stoneware used in the dining-room, and with them, probably, some of
-the coarser ware used in the dairy, and mixed with these innumerable
-"shards" of the flower-pots used in the conservatory. According to
-the reasoning customary among antiquaries, this midden must have been
-accumulating during 2000 or 3000 years at least, because it would
-have taken all that time, or more, before the rude pottery of the
-flower-pots could have been developed into the exquisite porcelain
-of the drawing-room vase. The argument is, in fact, the same as that
-with respect to the flints. It may be taken for granted that men used
-implements of bone and stone before they were acquainted with the
-use of metal; but what is disputed is that they ceased to use them
-immediately after becoming familiar with either bronze or iron. So with
-earthenware: men no doubt used coarse, badly formed, and badly burnt
-pottery before they could manufacture better; but, even when they could
-do so, it is certain that they did not cease the employment of pottery
-of a very inferior class; and we have not done so to the present day.
-To take one instance among many. There are in the Museum of the Society
-of Antiquaries at Edinburgh a series of vessels, hand-made and badly
-burnt, and which might easily be mistaken&mdash;and often are&mdash;for those
-found in prehistoric tombs. Yet they were made and used in the Shetland
-Islands in the last and even in the present century.</p>
-
-<p>The truth of the matter seems to be that, as in the case of a find of
-coins, it is the date of the last piece that fixes the time of the
-deposit. There may be coins in it a hundred or a thousand years older,
-but this hoard cannot have been buried before the last piece which it
-contains was coined. So it is with this barrow. The presence of Roman
-or post-Roman pottery in an avowedly undisturbed sepulchre fixes,
-beyond doubt, the age before which the skeletons could not have been
-deposited where they were found by Dr. Thurnam. The presence of flints
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span>
-
-and coarse pottery only shows, but it does so most convincingly, how
-utterly groundless the data are on which antiquaries have hitherto
-fixed the age of these monuments. It proves certainly that flints and
-shards were deposited in tombs in Roman or post-Roman times; and if
-there is no mistake in Dr. Thurnam's data, this one excavation is, by
-itself, sufficient to prove that the Danish theory of the three ages
-is little better than the "baseless fabric" of&mdash;if not "a vision"&mdash;at
-least of an illusion, which, unless Dr. Thurnam's facts can be
-explained away, has no solid foundation to rest upon.</p>
-
-<p>If any systematic excavations had been undertaken in the Scandinavian
-long barrows, it would not, perhaps, be necessary to adduce English
-examples to illustrate their age or peculiarities. Several are adduced
-by Sj&#246;borg, but none are reported as opened. This one, for instance,
-is externally like the long barrow at West Kennet, and, if Sj&#246;borg's
-information is to be depended upon, is one of several which mark the
-spot where Frode V. (460-494) landed in Sweden, where a battle was
-fought, and those who fell in it were buried in these mounds, or where
-the Bauta stones mark their graves. If this is so, the form of the
-long barrow with its peristalith was certainly not unknown in the
-fifth century; and there is no improbability of its being employed in
-England also in that age. In settling these questions, however, the
-Scandinavians have an immense advantage over us. All their mounds have
-names and dates; they may be true or they may be false, but they give a
-starting-point and an interest to the enquiry which are wanting in this
-country, but which, it is hoped, will one day enable the Northmen to
-reconstruct their monumental history on a satisfactory basis.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration103"></a>
-<img src="images/i_103.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">103.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Long Barrow at Wiskeh&#228;rad, in Halland. From a
-drawing by Sj&#246;borg.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In most cases antiquaries in this country have been content to appeal
-to the convenient fiction of secondary interments to account for the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span>
-
-perplexing contradictions in which their system everywhere involves
-them. In the instance of the Kennet long barrow there is no excuse
-for such a suggestion. All the interments were of one age, and that
-undoubtedly the age of the chamber in which they were found, and the
-pottery and flints could not have been there before nor introduced
-afterwards. Indeed, I do not know a single instance of an undoubtedly
-secondary interment, unless it is in the age of Canon Greenwell's
-really prehistoric tumuli. When he publishes his researches, we shall
-be in a condition to ascertain how far they bear on the theory.<a name="FNanchor_339" id="FNanchor_339"></a><a href="#Footnote_339" class="fnanchor">[339]</a>
-In the chambered tumuli secondary interments seem never to occur; and
-nothing is more unlikely than that they should. As Dr. Thurnam himself
-states: "In three instances at least Mr. Cunnington and Sir R. C. Hoare
-found in long barrows skeletons which, from their extended position and
-the character of the iron weapons accompanying them, were evidently
-Anglo-Saxon."<a name="FNanchor_340" id="FNanchor_340"></a><a href="#Footnote_340" class="fnanchor">[340]</a>
-A simple-minded man would consequently fancy that they were Anglo-Saxon
-graves, for what can be more improbable than that the proud conquering
-Saxons would be content to bury their dead in the graves of the hated
-and despised Celts whom they were busy in exterminating.<a name="FNanchor_341" id="FNanchor_341"></a><a href="#Footnote_341" class="fnanchor">[341]</a></p>
-
-<p>If the above reasoning is satisfactory and sufficient to prove that
-the long barrow at West Kennet is of post-Roman times, it applies also
-to Rodmarton, Uley, Stoney Littleton, and all the Gloucestershire long
-barrows which, for reasons above given (<i>ante</i>, <a href="#Page_164">page 164</a>), we ventured
-to assign to a post-Roman period; and <i>&#224; fortiori</i> it carries with
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span>
-
-it King Hildetand's tomb at Lethra. It is true we have not the same
-direct means of judging of its date as we have of our own monuments.
-The Danes treat with such supreme contempt any monument that does not
-at once fall in with their system, that they will not even condescend
-to explore it. So soon as Worsaae found some "flint wedges" in the
-tomb, he at once decreed that it was prehistoric, and that it was
-no use searching farther; and we are consequently left to this fact
-and its external similarities for our identification. Here, again,
-is a difficulty. The two drawings above given (woodcuts <a href="#Illustration101">Nos. 101</a>
-and <a href="#Illustration102">102</a>) may show them too much
-alike or exaggerate differences. The one is an old drawing from
-nature, the other a modern restoration; still the essential facts are
-undoubted. Both are chambered long barrows, ornamented by rows of
-tall stones, either partially or wholly surrounding their base, and
-both have external dolmens on their summit, and both contain flint
-implements. If this is so, the difficulty is rather to account for so
-little change having taken place in 230 years than to feel any surprise
-at their not being identical. The point upon which we wish to insist
-here is that they are both post-Roman, and may consequently belong to
-any age between Arthur and Charlemagne.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>The remaining battle-fields of which representations are given in
-Sj&#246;borg are scarcely so interesting as that at Braavalla, which with
-the tomb of the king slain there are landmarks in our enquiry. If those
-circles on Braavalla Heath do mark the battle-field, and that tomb at
-Lethra is the one in which the blind old king was laid&mdash;neither of
-which facts I see any reason for doubting&mdash;all difficulties based on
-the assumed improbability of the monuments being so modern as I am
-inclined to make them are removed, and each case must stand or fall
-according to the evidence that can be adduced for or against its age.
-To return, however, to the battle-fields given by Sj&#246;borg. Figures 43
-and 44 represent two groups of circles and Bauta stones near Hwitaby,
-in Malm&#246;. These are said to mark two battle-fields, in which Ragnar
-Lothbrok gained victories over his rebellious subjects in Scania:
-Sj&#246;borg says in 750 and 762, as he adopts a chronology fifty years
-earlier than Suhm. But be this as it may, there does not seem any
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span>
-
-reason for doubting but that these stones do mark fields where battles
-were fought in the eighth century, and that Ragnar Lothbrok took part
-in them. These groups are much less extensive than those at Braavalla,
-but are so similar that they cannot be distant from them in age.</p>
-
-<p>At Stiklastad, in Norway, in the province of Drontheim, a battle was
-fought, in 1030, between Knut the Great and Olof the Holy; and close
-to this is a group of forty-four circles of stones, which Sj&#246;borg
-seems, but somewhat doubtfully, to connect with this battle. But about
-the next one (fig. 49) there seems no doubt. The Danish prince Magnus
-Henricksson killed Erik the Holy, and was slain by Carl Sverkersson,
-in the year 1161, at Uppland, in Denmark; and the place is marked
-by twenty stone circles and ovals, most of them enclosing mounds
-and two square enclosures, 30 to 40 feet in diameter. They are not,
-consequently, in themselves very important, but are interesting, if
-the adscription is correct, as showing how this heathenish custom
-lasted even after Christianity must have been fairly established in the
-country. Another group (fig. 51) is said to mark the spot where, in
-1150, a Swedish heroine, Blenda, overcame the Danish king Swen Grate,
-and the spot is marked by circles and Bauta stones; one, in front of a
-tumulus, bears a Runic inscription, though it merely says that Dedrik
-and Tunne raised the stone to Rumar the Good.</p>
-
-<p>Only one other group need be mentioned here. On a spot of land, in the
-island of Freyrs&#246;, off the entrance of the Drontheim Fiord, in the year
-958, Hakon, the son of Harald Harfagar, overthrew his nephews, the sons
-of Erik Blodoxe, in three battles. The first and second of these, as
-shown in the plan (<a href="#Illustration104">woodcut No. 104</a>), are marked by cairns and mounds;
-and the third by eight large barrows, three of which are of that shape
-known in Scandinavia as ship barrows, and measure from 100 to 140 feet
-in length. There are also three tumuli at 4 in the woodcut, in one
-of which one of Erik Blodoxe's sons is said to be buried. It is not
-clear whether the five large mounds that stud the plain do not cover
-the remains of those also who fell in this fight. It does not appear
-that any excavations have been made in them. The interest of this
-battle-field to us is not so much because it shows the persistence
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span>
-
-of this plan of marking battle-fields at so late a date&mdash;later ones
-have just been quoted&mdash;but because all the actors in the scene are
-familiar to us from the part they took in the transactions in the
-Orkneys in the tenth century. If they, in their own country, adhered
-to these old-world practices, we should not be astonished at their
-having erected circles or buried in mounds in their new possessions. It
-is true that none of these Scandinavian circles can compare in extent
-with the Standing Stones of Stennis or the Ring of Brogar, but this
-would not be the first time that such a thing has happened. The Greeks
-erected larger and, in proportion to the population, more numerous
-Doric temples in Sicily than they possessed in their own country;
-and the Northmen may have done the same thing in Orcadia, where they
-possessed a conquered, probably an enslaved, race to execute these
-works.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration104"></a>
-<img src="images/i_104.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">104.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Battle-field at Freyrs&#246;. From Sj&#246;borg, vol. i. pl.
-16.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Tumuli.</span></h3>
-
-<p>The number of sepulchral mounds in Scandinavia is very great, and
-some of them are very important; but, so far as I can ascertain, very
-few have been explored, and, until interrogated by the spade, nothing
-can well be less communicative than a simple mound of earth. A map of
-their distribution might, no doubt, throw considerable light on the
-ethnography of the country, and tell us whether the Finns or Lapps
-were their original authors, or whether the Slaves or Wends were their
-introducers; and, lastly, whether the true Scandinavians brought them
-with them from other lands, or merely adopted them from the original
-inhabitants, in which case they can only be treated as survivals.
-Funereal pomp, or tomb-building of any sort, is so antagonistic to
-the habits of any people so essentially Teutonic as the Scandinavians
-were and are, that we cannot understand their adopting these forms, or
-indeed stone circles or monuments of any class, in a country where they
-had not previously existed. If we assume that the modern Scandinavians
-were German tribes who conquered the country from the Cimbri or the
-earlier Lapps and Finns, and did so as warriors, bringing no women
-with them, the case is intelligible enough. Under these circumstances,
-they must have intermarried with the natives of the country, and would
-eventually, after a few generations, lose much of their individual
-nationality, and adopt many of the customs of the people among whom
-they settled, using them only in a more vigorous manner and on a larger
-scale than their more puny predecessors had been able to adopt.<a name="FNanchor_342" id="FNanchor_342"></a><a href="#Footnote_342" class="fnanchor">[342]</a>
-It is most improbable that the "Northmen," if Germans&mdash;as indeed their
-language proves them to be&mdash;should ever have invented such things as
-tumuli, dolmens, circles, or any other such un-Aryan forms, in any
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span>
-
-country where they had not existed previously to their occupying it;
-but that as immigrants they should adopt the customs of the previous
-occupants of the land is only what we find happening everywhere. The
-settlement of these points will be extremely interesting for the
-ethnography of Northern Europe, and ought not to be difficult whenever
-the problem is fairly grappled with. In the meanwhile, all that the
-information at present available will enable us to do here is to
-refer to some tumuli whose contents bear more or less directly on the
-argument which is the principal object of this work.</p>
-
-<p>The first of these is the triple group at Upsala, now popularly
-known as the graves of Thor, Wodin, and Freya. It may illustrate the
-difficulty of obtaining correct information regarding these monuments
-to state that, even so late as 1869, Sir John Lubbock, who is generally
-so well informed, and had such means of obtaining information, did
-not know that they had been opened.<a name="FNanchor_343" id="FNanchor_343"></a><a href="#Footnote_343" class="fnanchor">[343]</a>
-I was aware of a passage in Marryatt's travels in Sweden in which,
-writing on the spot, he asserts that one of them had been opened,
-and that "in its 'giant's chamber' were found the bones of a woman,
-and, among other things, a piece of a gold filagree bracelet, richly
-ornamented in spiral decoration, some dice, and a chessman, either the
-king or a knight."<a name="FNanchor_344" id="FNanchor_344"></a><a href="#Footnote_344" class="fnanchor">[344]</a>
-Wishing, however, for further information, I obtained an introduction to Mr.
-Hans Hildebrand, who gave me the following information. Subsequently
-I received a letter from Professor Carl S&#228;ve, of Upsala, who kindly
-abstracted for me the only published accounts of the excavations as
-they appeared in a local paper at the time. These were forwarded to me
-by Professor Geo. Stephens, of Copenhagen, who also was so obliging as
-to translate them. They are so interesting that I have printed them,
-as they stand, as Appendix B. From these two documents the following
-account is compiled, and may be thoroughly depended upon.</p>
-
-<p>One of the mounds, known as that of Wodin, was opened, in 1846, under
-the superintendence of Herr Hildebrand, the royal antiquary of Sweden.
-It was soon found that the mounds were situated on a ridge of gravel,
-so that the tunnel had to take an upward, direction. At the junction
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span>
-
-of the natural with the artificial soil, a cairn was found of closely
-compacted stones, each about as large as a man could lift. In the
-centre of the cairn the burial urn was found in the grave-chamber,
-containing calcined bones, ashes, fragments of bronze ornaments
-destroyed by fire, and a fragment of a gold ornament delicately
-wrought. Within the cairn, but a little away from the urn, were found
-a heap of dogs' bones, equally calcined by fire, and fragments of
-two golden bracteates. "The workmanship of the gold ornaments," Herr
-Hildebrand adds, "closely resembles that of the gold bracteates of the
-fifth or sixth centuries, and, with the fragments of these peculiar
-ornaments themselves, settles a date before which these mounds could
-not have been raised." How much later they may be, it is not easy
-to conjecture, without at least seeing the bracteates, which do not
-seem to have been published. With a little local industry, I have
-very little doubt, not only that the date of these tombs could be
-ascertained, but the names of the royal personages who were therein
-buried, probably in the sixth or seventh century of our era.</p>
-
-<p>"The tombs of Central Sweden," Herr Hildebrand adds, "are generally
-constructed in the same way, the urn containing the bones being placed
-on the surface of the soil, at the place of cremation or elsewhere,
-as the case may be. Generally, nothing is found with them but an
-iron nail, or some such trifling object"&mdash;a curious and economical
-reminiscence of the extravagant customs of their predecessors.
-According to him, "almost every village in Sweden, with the exception
-of those in some mountain-districts and the most northern provinces,
-has a tomb-field quite close to the side of the houses. The antiquities
-found in the mounds of these tomb-fields all belong to the Iron age.
-The tombs of the earlier ages have no connection with the homesteads of
-the present people."</p>
-
-<p>How far these tombs extend downwards in date cannot be ascertained
-without a much more careful examination than they have yet been
-subjected to. It may safely, however, be assumed that they continued
-to be used till the conversion of the inhabitants to Christianity, and
-probably even for some considerable time afterwards, for such a custom
-is not easily eradicated.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>It would be as tedious as unprofitable to attempt to enumerate the
-various mounds which have been opened, for their contents throw little
-or no light on our enquiry; and being distributed in cases in the
-museum, not according to their localities or traditions, but according
-to their systematic classes, it is almost impossible to restore them
-now to their places in history.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration105"></a>
-<img src="images/i_105.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">105.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dragon on King Gorm's Stone, Jellinge. From 'An.
-Nord. Oldkund.' xii. 1852.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>At Jellinge, however, on the east coast of Jutland, there are two
-mounds, always known traditionally as those of Gorm the Old and his
-queen Thyra Danebod&mdash;the Beloved. The date of Gorm's death seems now
-to be accepted as 950 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>;<a name="FNanchor_345" id="FNanchor_345"></a><a href="#Footnote_345" class="fnanchor">[345]</a>
-but it is not clear whether he erected the tomb himself, or whether it
-is due to the filial piety of his son Harald Blaatand, or Blue-Tooth,
-and in which case its date would be 968.<a name="FNanchor_346" id="FNanchor_346"></a><a href="#Footnote_346" class="fnanchor">[346]</a>
-Saxo Grammaticus at least tells us that he buried his mother in the
-tumulus, and then set a whole army of men and oxen at work to remove
-from the Jutland shore an immense stone&mdash;a little rock&mdash;and
-bring it to the place where his mother lay inhumed.<a name="FNanchor_347" id="FNanchor_347"></a><a href="#Footnote_347" class="fnanchor">[347]</a>
-That stone still exists, and has sculptured on one side a dragon,
-which calls forcibly to our mind that found on Maes-Howe (<a href="#Illustration85">woodcut No. 85</a>),
-and on the other side a figure, which is, no doubt, intended to
-represent Christ on the cross. On the two sides are Runic inscriptions,
-in which he records his affection for his father and mother and his
-conversion to the Christian faith.</p>
-
-<p>So far as I can ascertain, the tomb of King Gorm has not yet been
-opened. That of Thyra was explored many years ago&mdash;in 1820 apparently;
-but no sections or details have been published, so that it is
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span>
-
-extremely difficult to ascertain even the dimensions. Engelhardt
-reports the height as 43 feet, and the diameter as 240 feet;<a name="FNanchor_348" id="FNanchor_348"></a><a href="#Footnote_348" class="fnanchor">[348]</a>
-Worsaae gives the height as 75 feet, and the diameter as 180 feet, and
-he is probably correct.<a name="FNanchor_349" id="FNanchor_349"></a><a href="#Footnote_349" class="fnanchor">[349]</a>
-But in Denmark anything that cannot be put into a glass case in a
-museum is so completely rejected as valueless that no one cares to
-record it. When entered, it was found that it had been plundered
-probably in the middle ages, and all that remained were the following
-articles:&mdash;A small silver goblet, lined with gold on the
-inside, and ornamented with interlaced dragons on the exterior; some
-fibul&#230;, tortoise-shaped, and ornamented with fantastic heads of
-animals; some buckle-heads, and other objects of no great value. The
-chamber in which these objects were found measured 23 feet in length by
-8 feet 3 inches in width, and was 5 feet high;<a name="FNanchor_350" id="FNanchor_350"></a><a href="#Footnote_350" class="fnanchor">[350]</a>
-the walls and roof, formed of massive slabs of oak, were originally, it
-appears, hung with tapestries, but these had nearly all perished.</p>
-
-<p>Not only are these monuments of Gorm and Thyra interesting in
-themselves, and deserving of much more attention than the Danes have
-hitherto bestowed upon them, but they are most important in their
-bearing on the general history of monuments of this class. In the
-first place, their date and destination are fixed beyond dispute, and
-this being so, the only ground is taken away on which any <i>&#224; priori</i>
-argument could be based with regard to the age of any mound anterior
-to the tenth century. As soon as it is realised that sepulchral mounds
-have been erected in the tenth century, it is impossible to argue that
-it is unlikely or improbable that Silbury Hill or any other mound in
-England may not belong to the sixth or any subsequent century down to
-that time. The argument is, however, even more pertinent with reference
-to Maes-Howe and other tumuli in the Orkneys. If the Scandinavian kings
-were buried in "howes" down to the year 1000&mdash;I believe they extend
-much beyond that date&mdash;it is almost certain that the Orcadian Jarls
-were interred in similar mounds down at least to their conversion to
-Christianity (<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 986). Whether Maes-Howe was erected as
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span>
-
-a sepulchre for the sons of Ragnar Lothbrok, as John Stuart seems to
-infer from the inscriptions,<a name="FNanchor_351" id="FNanchor_351"></a><a href="#Footnote_351" class="fnanchor">[351]</a>
-or of Havard Earl, as I have above attempted to show, is of
-little consequence to the general argument. That it was the
-grave of a Scandinavian Jarl, erected between 800 and 1000 <span
-class="smcap">A.D.</span>, seems quite certain, and my own impression
-is that it is almost as certainly the tomb of the individual Jarl to
-whom I have ventured to ascribe it.</p>
-
-<p>As before mentioned, no argument against these views can be drawn
-from the fact that Thyra's tomb is lined with slabs of oak, while the
-chamber at Maes-Howe is formed with stone. The difference of the two
-localities is sufficient to account for this. Denmark has always been
-famous for its forests, and especially on the shores of the Baltic, at
-Jellinge, wood of the noblest dimensions was always available, whereas
-the stone of the country was hard and intractable. In the Orkneys, on
-the other hand, there is absolutely no timber of natural growth big
-enough to afford a good-sized walking-stick, and stone is not only
-everywhere abundant, but splits easily into slabs, self-faced, and most
-easily worked, so that stone, and stone only, would be the material
-employed in the Orkneys for that purpose, as wood would also be the
-best and most available material in Denmark.</p>
-
-<p>If, before leaving this branch of the subject, we turn back for a few
-minutes to the Irish monuments, we are now in a position to judge more
-correctly of the probabilities of the case than we were. Assuming the
-three-chambered tumulus at New Grange to have been erected between the
-years 200 and 400, and Maes-Howe and Jellinge between 800 and 1000
-A.D., we have a period of from five to six, it may possibly be seven,
-centuries between these monuments. Is this more than is sufficient to
-account for the difference between them, or is it too little? It is
-not easy to give a categorical answer to such a question, but judging
-from the experience gained from other styles, in different parts of the
-world, the conclusion generally would be that the time is in excess
-of what is required. That there was progress, considerable progress
-indeed, made in the interval between the Irish and Scandinavian
-monuments, cannot be denied, but that it should have required five
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span>
-
-centuries to achieve this advance is hardly what would be expected, and
-it would be difficult to quote another example of a progress so slow.
-Yet it is hardly possible to bring down New Grange to the age of St.
-Patrick (<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 436), and as difficult to carry back Maes-Howe
-beyond Ragnar Lothbrok (794 at the extreme), and between these dates
-there are only 358 years; but we must certainly add something at
-either one end or the other; and if we do this, we obtain an amount of
-progress so slow that it would be almost unaccountable, but upon the
-assumption that they are the works of two different peoples. At the
-time the sepulchre on the Boyne was erected, Ireland was energetically
-and rapidly progressive, and her arts were more flourishing than might
-have been expected from her then state of civilization. When Maes-Howe
-was erected, the native population was poor and perishing, and as the
-lordly Vikings would hardly condescend to act as masons themselves,
-they did the best they could with the means at their disposal. Explain
-it, however, as we may, it seems impossible to allow a longer time
-between the mounds at Jellinge and Stennis and those on the Boyne than
-has been accorded above; and as it seems equally difficult to bring
-them nearer to one another, the probability seems to be in favour of
-the dates already assigned to them.</p>
-
-<p>To return, however, from this digression; besides those just mentioned,
-Denmark possesses a nearly complete series of royal tombs such as
-are not to be found in any other country of Europe. Even Worsaae
-acknowledges the existence of that of Frode Frodegode, who lived
-about the Christian era, of Amlech, near Wexio&mdash;Shakespeare's Hamlet,
-of Humble, and Hjarne,<a name="FNanchor_352" id="FNanchor_352"></a><a href="#Footnote_352" class="fnanchor">[352]</a>
-besides those of Hildetand, and Gorm and Thyra, already mentioned.
-If the Danes would only undertake a systematic examination of these
-royal sepulchres, it might settle many of the disputed points of
-medi&#230;val arch&#230;ology. To explore tombs to which no tradition
-attaches may add to the treasures of their museums, but can only by
-accident elucidate either the history of the country or the progress of
-its arts. If ten or twelve tombs with known names attached to them were
-opened, one of two things must happen: either they will show a succession
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span>
-
-and a progress relative to the age of their reputed occupants, or no
-such sequence will be traceable. In the first case the gain to history
-and arch&#230;ology would be enormous, and it is an opportunity of
-settling disputed questions such as no other country affords. If, on
-the other hand, no such connection can be traced, there is an end of
-much of the foundations on which the reasoning of the previous pages
-is based, but in either case such an enquiry could not fail to throw
-a flood of light on the subject which we were trying to elucidate.
-The fear is that all have been rifled. The Northmen certainly spared
-none of the tombs in the countries they conquered, and our experience
-of Maes-Howe and Thyra's tomb would lead us to fear that after their
-conversion to Christianity they were as little inclined to spare those
-of their own ancestors. All they however cared for were the objects
-composed of precious metals; so enough may still be left for the less
-avaricious wants of the antiquary.</p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Dolmens.</span></h3>
-
-<p>So far as is at present known, there are not any tumuli of importance
-or any battle-fields marked with great stones in the north of Germany;
-but the dolmens there are both numerous and interesting, and belong
-to all the classes found in Scandinavia, and, so far as can be
-ascertained, are nearly identical in form. Nothing, however, would
-surprise me less than if it should turn out that both barrows and Bauta
-stones were common there, especially in the island of R&#252;gen and along
-the shores of the Baltic as far east as Livonia. The Germans have
-not yet turned their attention to this class of their antiquities.
-They have been too busy sublimating their national heroes into gods
-to think of stones that tell no tales. Whenever they do set to work
-upon them, they will, no doubt, do it with that thoroughness which
-is characteristic of all they attempt. But as the investigation will
-probably have to pass through the solar myth stage of philosophy, it
-may yet be a long time before their history reaches the regions of
-practical common sense.</p>
-
-<p>No detailed maps having been published, it is extremely difficult
-to feel sure of the distribution of these monuments in any part of
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span>
-
-the northern dolmen region; but the following, which is abstracted
-from Bonstetten's 'Essai sur les Dolmens,' may convey some general
-information on the subject, especially when combined with the map (p.
-275), which is taken, with very slight modifications, from that which
-accompanied his work.</p>
-
-<p>According to Bonstetten there are no dolmens in Poland, nor in Posen.
-They first appear on the Pregel, near K&#246;nigsberg; but are very rare in
-Prussia, only two others being known, one at Marienwerder, the other at
-Konitz. In Silesia there is one at Klein-Raden, near Oppeln; another
-is found in the district of Liegnitz, and they are very numerous in
-the Uckermark, Altmark, in Anhalt, and Prussian Saxony, as well as in
-Pomerania and the island of R&#252;gen. They are still more numerous in
-Mecklenburg, which is described as peculiarly rich in monuments of this
-class. Hanover possesses numerous dolmens, except in the south-eastern
-districts, such as G&#246;ttingen, Oberharz, and Hildesheim. To make up for
-this, however, in the northern districts, L&#252;neburg, Osnabr&#252;ck, and
-Stade, at least two hundred are found. The grand-duchy of Oldenburg
-contains some of the largest dolmens in Germany; one of these, near
-Wildesheim, is 23 feet long; another, near Engelmanns-Becke, is
-surrounded by an enclosure of stones measuring 37 feet by 23, each
-stone being 10 feet in height, while the cap stone of a third is 20
-feet by 10. In Brunswick there were several near Helmst&#228;dt, but they
-are now destroyed. In Saxony some rare examples are found as far south
-as the Erzgebirge, and two were recently destroyed in the environs of
-Dresden. Keeping along the northern line, we find them in the three
-northern provinces of Holland, Gr&#246;ningen, Ober-Yssel, and especially in
-Drenthe, where they exist in great numbers, but none to the southward
-of these provinces, and nowhere do they seem to touch the Rhine or its
-bordering lands; but a few are found in the grand-duchy of Luxembourg
-as in a sort of oasis, halfway between the southern or French dolmen
-region and that of northern Germany.</p>
-
-<p>From the North German districts they extend through Holstein and
-Schleswig into Jutland and the Danish isles, but are most numerous on
-the eastern or Baltic side of the Cimbrian peninsula, and they are also
-very frequent in the south of Sweden and the adjacent islands. Dolmens
-properly so called are not known in Norway, but, as above mentioned,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span>
-
-cairns and monuments of that class, are not wanting there.</p>
-
-<p>The value of this distribution will be more easily appreciated when we
-have ascertained the limits of the French field, but meanwhile it may
-be convenient to remark that, unless the dolmens can be traced very
-much further eastward, there is a tremendous gulf before we reach the
-nearest outlyers of the eastern dolmen field. There is a smaller, but
-very distinct, gap in the country occupied by the Belg&#230;, between it
-and the French field, and another, but practically very much smaller
-one, between it and the British isles. This is a gap because the
-intervening space is occupied by the sea; but as it is evident from
-the distribution of all the northern dolmens in the proximity to the
-shores and in the islands that the people who erected them were a
-sea-faring people, and as we know that they possessed vessels capable
-of navigating these seas, it is practically no gap at all. We know
-historically how many Jutes, Angles, Frisians, and people of similar
-origin, under the generic name of Saxons, flocked to our shores in the
-early centuries of the Christian era, and afterwards what an important
-part the Danes and Northmen played in our history, and what numbers
-of them landed and settled in Great Britain, either as colonists or
-conquerors, at different epochs, down to at least the eleventh century.
-If, therefore, we admit the dolmens to be historic, or, in other words,
-that the erection of megalithic monuments was practised during the
-first ten centuries after the Christian era, we have no difficulty
-in understanding where our examples came from, or to whom they are
-due. If, on the other hand, we assume that they are prehistoric, we
-are entirely at sea regarding them or their connection with those on
-the continent. The only continental people we know of who settled in
-Britain before the Roman times were the Belg&#230;, and they are the only
-people between the Pillars of Hercules and the Gulf of Riga who, having
-a sea-board, have also no dolmens or megalithic remains of any sort.
-All the others have them more or less, but the Northern nations did
-not, so far as we know, colonise this country before the Christian era.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>As all the Northern antiquaries have made up their minds that these
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span>
-
-dolmens generally belong to the mythic period of the Stone age, and
-that only a few of them extend down to the semi-historic age of bronze,
-it is in vain to expect that they would gather any traditions or record
-any names that might connect them with persons known in history. We
-are, therefore, wholly without assistance from history or tradition
-to guide us either in classifying them or in any attempt to ascertain
-their age, while the indications which enable us to connect them with
-our own, or with one another, are few and far between.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration106"></a>
-<img src="images/i_106.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">106.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen at Herrestrup.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Among the few that give any sure indications of their age, one of the
-most interesting is at Herrestrup, in Zeeland, which has recently
-been disinterred from the tumulus that once covered it.<a name="FNanchor_353" id="FNanchor_353"></a><a href="#Footnote_353" class="fnanchor">[353]</a>
-On it are engraved some half-dozen representations of ships, such as the
-Vikings were in the habit of drawing, and which are found in great
-quantities on the west coast of G&#246;ttenburg.<a name="FNanchor_354" id="FNanchor_354"></a><a href="#Footnote_354" class="fnanchor">[354]</a>
-According to the best authorities, these representations range from about <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 500
-to 900,<a name="FNanchor_355" id="FNanchor_355"></a><a href="#Footnote_355" class="fnanchor">[355]</a>
-and some may perhaps be more modern. Those in this dolmen do not appear
-to be either among the most ancient or the most modern, and if we fix
-on the eighth century as their date, we shall not be very far wrong.
-That they are also coeval with the monument seems perfectly
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span>
-
-certain. We cannot fancy any Viking engraving these on a deserted
-dolmen, say even 100 years old, and then covering it up with a tumulus,
-as this one was till recently. Had it never been covered up, any
-hypothesis might be proposed, but the mound settles that point. Besides
-the ships, however, there are an almost equal number of small circles
-with crosses in them, on the cap stone. Whether these are intended to
-represent chariot-wheels, or some other object, is not clear, but if
-we turn back to woodcut No. 41, representing the side-stone of the
-dolmen at Aspatria, we find the identical object represented there,
-and in such a manner that, making allowance for the difference of
-style in the century that has elapsed between the execution of the two
-engravings, they must be assumed to be identical. No engravings&mdash;so
-far as I know&mdash;have been published of the objects found in this Danish
-dolmen, but in the English one, as already mentioned, the objects found
-belonged to the most modern Iron age; such things, in fact, as will
-perfectly agree with the date of the eighth century. Among them, as
-will be recollected, was the snaffle-bit, so like, though certainly
-more modern than, Stukeley's bit found in Silbury Hill. We have thus
-three tumuli which from their engravings or their contents confirm
-one another to a most satisfactory extent, and render the dates above
-assigned to them, to say the least of it, very probable. If the date
-thus obtained for the Aspatria monument is accepted, it is further
-interesting as giving that of those mysterious concentric circles, with
-a line passing through them from the centre, which have been found in
-such numbers on the rocks in the north of England and in Scotland.<a name="FNanchor_356" id="FNanchor_356"></a><a href="#Footnote_356" class="fnanchor">[356]</a>
-These are, so far as I know, the only examples of these circles which
-were buried, and were consequently associated with other objects which
-assist in fixing their age.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration107"></a>
-<img src="images/i_107.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">107.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen at Halskov. From a drawing by Madsen.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>As before hinted, many of the monuments engraved by Madsen<a name="FNanchor_357" id="FNanchor_357"></a><a href="#Footnote_357" class="fnanchor">[357]</a>
-are so extremely like those in the field of Northern Moytura that it is
-almost impossible to believe that they were erected by a different race
-of people, or at any great distance of time. The one, for instance, at
-Halskov is so like the dolmen and circle
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span>
-
-represented in woodcut No. 61 that the one might almost pass for
-the other, were it not that the photograph is taken from the wrong
-side, to bring out the resemblance, as it is seen on the spot, while
-in others the resemblance is as great, or even greater. It is very
-unsatisfactory, however, picking these points of similarity from books,
-some of the engravings in which are from imperfect drawings. In others,
-artistic effect has been more aimed at than truth, and some are taken
-from photographs, which, though they give a truthful, generally give
-an unintelligent representation of the object. It is only by personal
-familiarity that all the facts can be verified and pitfalls avoided.
-But it is always useful to turn attention to any forms that may seem
-novel, and explain peculiarities in others which but for such means
-of comparison would remain unnoticed. Here, for instance, is one from
-Sj&#246;borg, which resembles the Countless Stones at Aylesford, as
-drawn by Dr. Stukeley (<a href="#Illustration27">woodcut No. 27</a>). It is found at a place
-called Oroust, in B&#246;huslan,<a name="FNanchor_358" id="FNanchor_358"></a><a href="#Footnote_358" class="fnanchor">[358]</a>
-and stands on a low mound encircled by twenty large stones at its
-base. The chamber is low, and semicircular in form, and in front of it
-stands what the Germans call a sentinel stone. No date is given to this
-monument by Sj&#246;borg, for he was so far indoctrinated in modern
-theories that he believed all dolmens to be prehistoric, though all the
-circles and Bauta stones marking battle-fields were to him as essentially
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span>
-
-historic as any monuments in his country. From its appearance, the
-dolmen at Oroust may be of the same age as the Countless Stones at
-Aylesford, and if other monuments in the two countries could be
-compared with anything like precision, their forms and traditions might
-mutually throw great light on their real histories.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration108"></a>
-<img src="images/i_108.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">108.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen at Oroust. From Sj&#246;borg.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>It is not only, however, from the analogies with similar monuments
-in this country, or from their bearing on their history, that the
-Scandinavian dolmens are interesting to us. They have forms and
-peculiarities of their own which are well worth studying. If materials
-existed for mastering these differences, their aggregate would make up
-a sum which would enable us to separate the Scandinavian group from the
-British, as we can our own from the French, and the French from that
-of Northern Germany. A great deal more must, however, be published,
-and in a more accurate form, before this can be done; but, whenever
-it is possible, it promises to afford most satisfactory results to
-ethnographical science. The problem is similar to that which was
-known to exist in reference to pointed Gothic architecture. That is
-now admitted to be a Celtic-French invention, but it was adopted by
-the Spaniards and Italians on the one hand, and by the Germans and
-ourselves on the other; although always with a difference. No antiquary
-would now for an instant hesitate in discriminating between an Italian
-and a German or between a Spanish and an English example, though the
-difference is so small that it can hardly be expressed in words, and
-must be carefully represented in order to be perceived. In like manner,
-the rude-stone style of art seems to have been invented by some
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span>
-
-pre-Celtic people, but to have been adopted by Celts, by Scandinavian,
-by British, and Iberian races&mdash;perhaps not always pure in their own
-countries, but always with considerable differences, which, when
-perceived and classified, will enable us to distinguish between the
-works of the several races as clearly as we can between the medi&#230;val
-styles that superseded them.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration109"></a>
-<img src="images/i_109.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">109.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Diagram from Sj&#246;borg, pl. i. fig. A.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Among these peculiarities, the most easily recognised are the square
-or oblong enclosures which surround tumuli, and, sometimes, one, at
-others two, or even three free-standing dolmens. In order to make the
-point clear, I have quoted a diagram from Sj&#246;borg, though it is almost
-the only instance in this work in which a woodcut does not represent a
-really existing object. I have no doubt, however, that it is correct,
-as old Olaus Wormius represents one of two similar ones which in his
-day existed near Roeskilde. Both had enclosures 50 paces square,
-enclosing one tumulus with a circle of stones round its base, another
-halfway up, and, the text says, an altar-dolmen on the top, though the
-woodcut does not show it. The other, on the road to Birck, in Zeeland,
-enclosed three tumuli in juxtaposition, the one in the centre similar
-to that just described, and with a dolmen on its summit; two smaller
-mounds are represented in juxtaposition on either side, but with only
-a circle of stones round their base.<a name="FNanchor_359" id="FNanchor_359"></a><a href="#Footnote_359" class="fnanchor">[359]</a>
-Other varieties no doubt exist, but modern antiquaries have not
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span>
-
-favoured us with any drawings of them. From the diagram and description
-it will be perceived that in so far as the mound itself is concerned
-these Danish tumuli are identical with those already quoted as existing
-in Auvergne (<a href="#Illustration8">woodcut No. 8</a>), but so far as I know, the square enclosure
-does not exist in France, nor does it in this country. These square
-enclosures seem, however, to belong to a very modern date, and the
-stones, consequently, are small, and may therefore have been removed,
-which could easily be done; but still there seems little doubt that
-many of them may still remain, and could be found if looked for.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration110"></a>
-<img src="images/i_110.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">110.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen near L&#252;neburg. From Bonstetten.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>One of the most striking examples I know of, an oblong rectangular
-enclosure, enclosing a single free-standing dolmen, is that near
-L&#252;neburg, figured by Bonstetten<a name="FNanchor_360" id="FNanchor_360"></a><a href="#Footnote_360" class="fnanchor">[360]</a>
-(<a href="#Illustration110">woodcut No. 110</a>); he seldom, however, indulges in dimensions, and
-being perfectly convinced that all are prehistoric, he never speculates
-as to dates, nor condescends to notice traditions. What we know of it
-is therefore confined to the representation, which after all may be
-taken from some other work, as he rarely favours us with references.
-Two others are represented by von Estorff as existing near Uelzen,
-in Hanover.<a name="FNanchor_361" id="FNanchor_361"></a><a href="#Footnote_361" class="fnanchor">[361]</a></p>
-
-<p>A good example of two dolmens in a rectangular enclosure is that at
-Valdbygaards, near Sor&#246;e, in Zeeland. Here the enclosure is about 70
-feet in one direction by 20 feet in the other&mdash;outside measurement. In
-this instance, the enclosing stones are smaller in proportion to the
-dolmens than is usually the case. On the same plate, Madsen represents
-a single dolmen in a much squarer enclosure.<a name="FNanchor_362" id="FNanchor_362"></a><a href="#Footnote_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a>
-It, like that at Halskov (<a href="#Illustration107">woodcut No. 107</a>), is represented as standing
-on a knoll, but whether dolmens stand so or on the flat, like that at
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span>
-
-Valdbygaards, it is quite certain they never were enclosed in tumuli,
-but always stood free, as they now do.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration111"></a>
-<img src="images/i_111.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">111.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Double Dolmen at Valdbygaards. From Madsen.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration112"></a>
-<img src="images/i_112.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">112.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan of Double Dolmen at Valdbygaards.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration113"></a>
-<img src="images/i_113.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">113.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Triple Dolmen, H&#246;bisch. From Keysler.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>For three dolmens in one square enclosure we are obliged to go back
-to old Keysler, though, in this case, the engraving is so good that
-there can be very little doubt of its correctness.<a name="FNanchor_363" id="FNanchor_363"></a><a href="#Footnote_363" class="fnanchor">[363]</a>
-It is situated near H&#246;bisch, in Mark Brandenburg, consists of an
-outer enclosure of forty-four stones, and is 118 paces in circuit, and
-in the middle are twelve stones, of which six bear three large stones, placed
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span>
-
-transversely upon them. It is very much to be regretted that no better
-illustration of this curious monument exists, as it probably very
-closely resembles those in Drenthe, with which, indeed, he compares it;
-and as these form one of the most remarkable groups of this class of
-monuments on the continent, it would be most desirable to trace their
-connection with others farther east.</p>
-
-<p>A similar monument to that at H&#246;bisch is figured by Sj&#246;borg (vol. i.
-pl. 6), but without the enclosure; and a third, Oroust, in B&#246;huslan
-(pl. 3); but in this instance the three long stones are surrounded by
-a circular enclosure with two sentinel stones outside; and there are
-several others which show similar peculiarities in a greater or less
-degree.</p>
-
-<p>The buried dolmens in Scandinavia are, in some respects, even more
-interesting than those which are, and were always intended to be,
-exposed, but our knowledge of them is necessarily more limited than of
-the other class. Sj&#246;borg deserts us almost entirely here, and Madsen
-illustrates only two, while the modern antiquaries have been more
-anxious to secure and classify their contents than to illustrate the
-chambers from which they were obtained. As a rule, they may be older
-than the free-standing examples, but they do not look old, though,
-as metal has not generally been found in them, it is assumed they
-all belong to the Stone age. One example will suffice to display the
-general features of the older group of this class of monuments. The
-next two woodcuts present an internal view and plan of one near Uby,
-in the district of Holbak, in Zeeland. It was opened in 1845, and
-measured then 13 feet in height, and had a circumference of upwards
-of 300 feet. The chamber measures 13 feet by 8 feet, and is walled in
-by nine great stones, which have been split or hewn, so as to obtain
-a flat surface towards the interior, and the interstices are filled
-in with smaller stones very neatly fitted. The entrance gallery is 20
-feet in length, and is closed, or capable of being so, by two doors.
-From the disposition of the entrance it certainly does not appear that
-it was intended to be hid. The whole appearance is that of a dignified
-approach to the tomb. Had it been meant to be closed, the chamber
-would, no doubt, have been in the centre of the tumulus, instead of
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span>
-
-being near one side, as it is. The other monument of the same class,
-illustrated by Madsen,<a name="FNanchor_364" id="FNanchor_364"></a><a href="#Footnote_364" class="fnanchor">[364]</a>
-is near Smidstrup, in the district of Fredericksborg. It is very
-similar in dimensions and details, but has the peculiarity of having
-two chambers placed side by side, with two separate entrances, and the
-chambers affect a curve more perfectly elliptical than is attained in
-that at Uby.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration114"></a>
-<img src="images/i_114.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">114.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; View of Interior of Chamber at Uby. From Madsen.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration115"></a>
-<img src="images/i_115.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">115.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan of Chamber at Uby. From Madsen.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>These last examples from Madsen's work are further interesting to us
-as illustrating the difference between dolmens or chambers always
-intended to be buried in tumuli and those which were always meant to be
-exposed. In the chambers at Uby and Smidstrup the stones are placed so
-closely together that very little packing between them was sufficient
-to keep out the earth, and the passages to them and other arrangements
-all indicate their original destination. The case, however, is widely
-different with the dolmens at Halskov and Valdbygaards, or those
-at L&#252;neburg or H&#246;bisch, which evidently are now on their mounds as
-originally designed. With a very little study it seems easy to detect
-the original intentions in all these monuments; but there is this
-further difference. None of those intended to be exposed were ever
-buried, while many which were meant to have been covered up never
-received their intended envelope.</p>
-
-<p>A monument having a considerable affinity to the two last quoted
-exists, or perhaps rather existed, at Axevalla, in Westergothland.
-It was opened apparently in 1805, and the representations are taken
-from drawings then made by a Captain Lindgren, who superintended the
-excavation by the king's command. It consists of one apartment 21 feet
-long by 8 feet wide and 9 feet high. The sides and roof are composed
-of slabs of red granite, which, if the plates are to be depended upon,
-were hewn or at least shaped in some mechanical fashion. Instead of the
-bodies being laid on the floor of the chamber as was usually the case,
-and being found mixed up with <i>d&#233;bris</i> and utensils of various kinds,
-each of the nineteen who occupied this chamber had a little cist to
-itself, so small and irregular-shaped, like those at Rose Hill (<a href="#Illustration39">woodcut No. 39</a>),
-that the body had to be doubled up, in a most uncomfortable
-position, to be placed in the cist. This was by no means an uncommon
-mode of interment in those early ages, but if the skeletons were really
-found in the attitudes here represented, their interment must date
-from very recent times indeed. I know there is nothing more common
-in arch&#230;ological books than to represent skeletons sitting in most
-free and easy attitudes in their boxes.<a name="FNanchor_365" id="FNanchor_365"></a><a href="#Footnote_365" class="fnanchor">[365]</a>
-But if all the flesh had disappeared as completely as these drawings
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span>
-
-represent, the integuments must have gone also, and if they were either
-rotted or reduced to dust, the skeleton must have collapsed and been
-found in a heap on the floor. It would be interesting to know how long,
-either in very dry or in moist places, the integuments would last so
-as to prevent this collapse before they were disturbed. No qualified
-person has yet given an opinion on such a subject, but the time could
-hardly extend to many centuries. But does the case really exist? are
-not all these queer skeletons merely the imaginings of enthusiastic
-antiquaries?</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration116"></a>
-<img src="images/i_116.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">116.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen at Axevalla. From Sj&#246;borg.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Be this as it may, these elliptical and long rectangular dolmens,
-with their arrangement of cists and entrances in the centre of the
-longer side, seem so distinguished from those generally found in other
-countries as to mark another province. It seems scarcely open to doubt
-that the oval forms are the older, though what their age may be is not
-so clear, nor have any descriptions of their contents been published
-which would enable us to form distinct opinion on the subject. Flint
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span>
-
-implements have been found in them, but, so far as I can gather, no
-bronze. According to the Danish system, therefore, they are all before
-the time of Solomon or the siege of Troy. It may be so, but I doubt
-it exceedingly. Those who excavated the Axevalla tomb reported that
-something like an inscription was found on one of the walls (<a href="#Illustration116">woodcut No. 116</a>
-, fig. A); but whether it was an inscription or a natural
-formation is by no means clear&mdash;at all events, as we have no copy of
-it, it hardly helps us in arriving at a date.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration117"></a>
-<img src="images/i_117.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">117.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Head-stone of Kivik Grave. From Sj&#246;borg.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In some respects, the Axevalla tomb resembles the grave near Kivik, in
-the district of Cimbrisham, near the southern extremity of Sweden. This
-is the most celebrated of Swedish graves. It is mentioned as perfect by
-Linn&#230;us in 1749, but was shortly afterwards opened, and drawings and
-illustrations of it have from time to time been published since, and
-given rise to the usual diversity of opinion. Suhm and Sj&#246;borg seem to
-agree in connecting it with a battle fought in that neighbourhood by
-Ragnar Lothbrok, about the year 750, in which the son of the then king
-was slain.<a name="FNanchor_366" id="FNanchor_366"></a><a href="#Footnote_366" class="fnanchor">[366]</a>
-This date appears probable; had it been later, there
-would almost certainly have been found Runes on some of its stones; if
-earlier, the representations of the human figure would hardly have been
-so perfect. One stone found elsewhere (<a href="#Illustration117">woodcut No. 117</a>),<a name="FNanchor_367" id="FNanchor_367"></a><a href="#Footnote_367" class="fnanchor">[367]</a>
-which seems to have been its head-stone, has a curious resemblance to the
-head-stone of the Dol ar Marchant, at Locmariaker, illustrated farther
-on. The likeness may be accidental, but, as in all these cases, it
-is difficult to believe that five or six centuries can have elapsed
-between two monuments which show so little progress; for whether this
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span>
-
-stone belonged to the Kivik grave or not, it certainly is of the same
-age and design, some of the figures on it being identical with those
-found in the tomb, and that can hardly be older than the date above
-quoted. Another of the stones of this tomb has two of those circles
-enclosing crosses which are seen on the Herrestrup dolmen and the
-Aspatria stone, all of which probably belong to the eighth century. The
-tomb itself is not remarkable for its dimensions, being only 14 feet
-long by 3 feet wide, and almost 4 feet in height. It is much too large,
-however, for any single warrior's grave, but we are not told whether
-it was occupied by a number of small cists like that at Axevalla. The
-probability, however, is that this was the case, but 120 years ago men
-were not accurate observers of antiquarian phenomena.</p>
-
-<p>Besides these, there are two other forms of tombs which, so far as is
-yet known, are quite peculiar to the Scandinavian province. The first
-of these are the so-called ship graves, from their form. They consist
-of two segments of a circle joined together at the ends, so as to
-represent the deck of a vessel, and are of all sizes, from 20 or 30
-feet to 200 or 300 feet. They are generally found on the sea-shore, and
-it seems hardly to be doubted that they mark the graves of Vikings.</p>
-
-<p>The other form is quite as peculiar, but more difficult to explain.
-It is marked by a range of stones forming an equilateral triangle,
-sometimes straight-lined, but as frequently the lines curve inwards
-so as to restrict the internal space considerably. It is by no means
-clear what suggested this form, or what it was intended to represent.
-It is, however, found on battle-fields (<a href="#Illustration118">woodcut No. 118</a>), and solitary
-examples are frequent in Sj&#246;borg's plates, sometimes with a Bauta
-stone in the centre. The one hypothesis that seems to account for this
-form, is that it is the "Cuneatus ordo" of Olaus Magnus, and that it
-marked a spot where a combined phalanx of horse and foot fought and
-conquered.<a name="FNanchor_368" id="FNanchor_368"></a><a href="#Footnote_368" class="fnanchor">[368]</a>
-The probability is that where single it marks the grave of a particular
-rank either in the army or in civil life.</p>
-
-<p>All these forms are shown in the next woodcut, from a group found in
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span>
-
-the peninsula of Hjortehammer, in Bleking, in the south of Sweden, but
-others are found in the island at Amrom, and in many other places.<a name="FNanchor_369" id="FNanchor_369"></a><a href="#Footnote_369" class="fnanchor">[369]</a>
-It has been disputed whether these represent battle-fields or are the
-ordinary graves of the inhabitants of the district in which they are
-found. That those found on the shore at Freyrs&#246; (<a href="#Illustration101">woodcut No. 101</a>) mark
-the graves of those who fell in Blodoxe's battle there in the tenth
-century seems quite certain, but whether this was always the case
-may be open to doubt; but certainly a sandy peninsula, like that of
-Hjortehammer, seems a most unlikely place for peaceful men to bury
-their dead, especially at a time when not one-tenth part of the land
-around could have been under cultivation.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration118"></a>
-<img src="images/i_118.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">118.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Graves at Hjortehammer. From Worsaae.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>For our present purposes it is of no great consequence which opinion
-prevails, as these forms have no bearing on those of other countries,
-especially as their date does not seem to be doubted. Worsaae places
-them all between the years 700 and 1000,<a name="FNanchor_370" id="FNanchor_370"></a><a href="#Footnote_370" class="fnanchor">[370]</a>
-or in the second and latest Iron age, and as no one seems to
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span>
-
-dispute this, it may be accepted as an established fact. Their
-peculiarities of form, and the smallness of the stones of which most
-of them are composed, are such that the date here ascribed to them
-does not necessarily bring down that of the true megalithic remains to
-anything like the same age. It takes away, however, all improbability
-from the assertion that these may be much more modern than was
-supposed, and this much is certain that there was no break between the
-great English and Irish circles and the Viking graves; or, in other
-words, men did not cease to mark their sepulchres with circles and
-cairns, and then after a lapse of centuries revive the custom, and
-begin it again on a smaller scale. There may be a descent, but there
-was no solution of continuity, and any one can consequently form an
-idea how long a time must have elapsed before the great Wiltshire
-circles could have degenerated into those of Hjortehammer.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration119"></a>
-<img src="images/i_119.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">119.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Circles at Aschenrade. From B&#228;hr.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>There is one other group of monuments it seems worth while to
-illustrate before leaving this branch of the subject. They are found
-in the extreme east of the province, on the banks of the Dwina, in
-Livonia. At a place called Aschenrade, about fifty miles as the crow
-flies from Riga, is a group shown in the accompanying woodcut.<a name="FNanchor_371" id="FNanchor_371"></a><a href="#Footnote_371" class="fnanchor">[371]</a>
-The arrangement is unusual in Europe, but is met with in Algeria, and seems
-to be only such a combination of the square enclosures of Scandinavia
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span>
-
-as we would expect to find in a cemetery, as contradistinguished from a
-battle-field.</p>
-
-<p>In these graves was found enormous wealth of bronze and other metal
-and personal ornaments, many of which are engraved in Professor
-B&#228;hr's book. They resemble in many respects the celebrated "find" at
-Hallstadt, in the Salzkammergut;<a name="FNanchor_372" id="FNanchor_372"></a><a href="#Footnote_372" class="fnanchor">[372]</a>
-but mixed with these Livonian treasures were great numbers of coins and
-implements of iron of very modern form. The coins are classified as
-follows:&mdash;</p>
-
-<table summary="coins">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">German coins, dating from</td>
-<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 936 to 1040.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Anglo-Saxon coins, dating from</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp; &nbsp;" &nbsp; &nbsp; 991&nbsp; " 1036.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Byzantine coins, dating from</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp; &nbsp;" &nbsp; &nbsp; 911&nbsp; " 1025.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Arabic or Kufic coins, dating from</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp; &nbsp;" &nbsp; &nbsp; 906&nbsp; "&nbsp; 999.</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>It is curious that the Eastern coins should be so much earlier than the
-others, but they are only five in number, and may have been preserved
-as curiosities. The dates of the others prove, at all events, that some
-of these tombs are not of earlier date than 1040, and all, probably,
-are included in the century which preceded that epoch.</p>
-
-<p>Besides these, however, there are tumuli at a place called Segewolde,
-and circles, sometimes with a stone in the centre, at Bajard, and no
-doubt other remains of the same class in the district. The purpose,
-however, of the only book I know on the subject was not to illustrate
-the forms of tombs, but that of the objects found in them, and to trace
-the ethnographic relations of the people who possessed them with the
-other tribes who at various times inhabited that district. The dates of
-the whole, according to their describer, may safely be included between
-the eighth and the twelfth century.<a name="FNanchor_373" id="FNanchor_373"></a><a href="#Footnote_373" class="fnanchor">[373]</a></p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Drenthe.</span></h3>
-
-<p>The most southern group of these monuments belonging to the northern
-division is one of the most extensive, though unfortunately one of
-the least known. It is situated almost exclusively in the province of
-Drenthe, in North Holland, where the Hunebeds&mdash;giants' beds or graves,
-as they are locally called&mdash;are spread over an area extending some
-twenty miles north and south, and probably ten or twelve miles in
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span>
-
-the opposite direction. This tract of country is a bare open heath,
-which even now is only partially cultivated, or indeed capable of
-cultivation, and at no time could have supported a population at all in
-proportion to so extensive a group of monuments.</p>
-
-<p>As long ago as 1720, Keysler drew attention to them, and gave
-a representation of one in order to show its similarity to
-Stonehenge.<a name="FNanchor_374" id="FNanchor_374"></a><a href="#Footnote_374" class="fnanchor">[374]</a>
-The engraving, however, is so defective that it is
-impossible to make out what it represents, and as no dimensions or
-statistics are given, it adds very little to our knowledge. A short
-paper on the subject appeared in the 'Journal of the Arch&#230;ological
-Association' in 1870, but unfortunately without any illustrations,<a name="FNanchor_375" id="FNanchor_375"></a><a href="#Footnote_375" class="fnanchor">[375]</a>
-and we are consequently dependent for our knowledge of them almost
-entirely to a work published at Utrecht in 1848, by the late Dr.
-Janssen, keeper of the antiquities in the museum at Leyden. This work
-is in many respects most painstaking and satisfactory; but, though it
-is hardly correct to say it, is without illustrations, the Hunebeds
-are represented by conventional symbols, which no one would guess
-were intended for buildings of any sort without a most careful study
-of the book. I have ventured to try to translate one of these into
-ordinary forms, in woodcut No. 120, but without at all guaranteeing
-its correctness. It is, however, sufficiently accurate to explain the
-general nature of the monuments.</p>
-
-<p>Within the area above described, Janssen measured and described
-fifty-one Hunebeds still existing, and they were probably at one time
-much more numerous, as he regrets the loss of four which he remembers
-in his youth; and several others have been very much ruined in very
-recent times. This, fortunately, is not likely to happen again, as,
-with a liberality and intelligence not shown by any other government in
-Europe, the Dutch have purchased the Hunebeds and the ground on which
-they stand, with a right of way to the nearest road, so that, so far as
-possible, they will be protected from future depredations.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Of these fifty-one monuments only one is a dolmen, in the sense in
-which we usually understand it, meaning thereby a single cap stone,
-supported by three, or, as in this instance, by four uprights. This one
-is near Exlo, and is one of the few that formed a chamber in a tumulus.
-A few have three cap stones, and from that number they range up to
-ten or twelve, with at least double that number of supports. They are
-all, in fact, of the class which the French call "all&#233;es couvertes,"
-or "grottes des f&#233;es;" Calliagh Birra's house (<a href="#Illustration80">woodcut No. 80</a>) and
-the dolmens at Glen Columbkill are of the same class. But the Drenthe
-dolmens have one peculiarity not found either in France or Ireland:
-that they are all closed at both ends, and the entrance, where there is
-one, is always on the longer side. In this respect they more resemble
-the Scandinavian examples, such as the tomb at Axevalla (<a href="#Illustration116">woodcut No. 116</a>
-), or that at Uby (<a href="#Illustration114">woodcut No. 114</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration120"></a>
-<img src="images/i_120.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">120.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan of Hunebed near Emmen.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The annexed attempted restoration of one near Emmen will give a fair
-idea of their general arrangements. It is 49 feet long over all, and
-internally from 4 to 6 feet in width. It is roofed with nine or ten
-stones, some of considerable dimensions. Some of these Hunebeds have
-a range of stones round them, not arranged in a circle or oval form,
-but, as in this instance, following the lines of the central chamber.
-This is the case with another near the same place, which is 125 feet
-in length over all. When closely examined, however, it does not seem
-to be one Hunebed, but three ranging in a straight line, with a small
-space between each. Two have five and one six cap stones. As a rule,
-each cap stone stands on two uprights, and though frequently they touch
-one another, as often they form really independent trilithons. It was
-no doubt this fact that induced Keysler to compare these monuments with
-Stonehenge, though in fact no two sets of rude-stone monuments could
-well be more dissimilar either in arrangement or construction. As
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span>
-
-will be seen from the annexed view of one near Ballo<a name="FNanchor_376" id="FNanchor_376"></a><a href="#Footnote_376" class="fnanchor">[376]</a>
-(<a href="#Illustration121">woodcut No. 121</a>), they are formed of unshaped granite boulders.
-Sometimes, it may be, artificially split, but certainly untouched by
-the chisel. All that has apparently been done has been to select those
-most appropriate in form for the purposes to which they were to be
-applied, and then rudely to heap them one upon the other, but in such
-a manner as to leave wide gaps everywhere between the stones composing
-the structure.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration121"></a>
-<img src="images/i_121.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">121.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen at Ballo. From a Photograph.</div>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>The first question that arises with regard to these Hunebeds is, were
-they originally covered with earth or not? That some of the smaller
-ones were and are is clear enough, and some of medium size are still
-partially so; but the largest, and many of the smaller, do not show a
-vestige of any such covering; and it seems impossible to believe that
-on a tract of wretched barren heath, where the fee-simple of the land
-is not now worth ten shillings an acre, any one could, at any time,
-have taken the trouble to dig down and cart away such enormous mounds
-as would have been required to cover these monuments. It seems here
-clearer than almost anywhere else that, even if it had been intended
-to cover them, that intention, in more than half the cases, was never
-carried into effect.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>It may be taken for granted that these Hunebeds were at one time
-much more numerous in Drenthe than they now are, but it is a much
-more difficult point to ascertain whether they extended into the
-neighbouring provinces or not. One is found in Gr&#246;ningen, and one in
-Friesland, and none elsewhere. It may, of course, be that in these more
-fertile and thickly inhabited districts they have been utilised, or
-removed as incumbrances from the soil, while in Drenthe their component
-parts were of no value, and they are useful as sheep-pens and pigstyes;
-and to these uses they seem to have been freely applied. It may be,
-also, that there are no granite boulders in the neighbouring provinces,
-and that they are common in Drenthe. There certainly seem to be none
-in Guelderland, a country in which we would expect to find monuments
-of this class, as it is the natural line of connection with the German
-dolmen region; and unless it is that there were no materials handy for
-their construction, it is difficult to understand their absence.</p>
-
-<p>As these Hunebeds have been open and exposed for centuries at least&mdash;if
-they were not so originally&mdash;and have been used by the peasantry for
-every kind of purpose, it is in vain to expect that anything will now
-be found in them which can throw much light on their age or use. We
-can only hope that an untouched or only partially plundered example
-may be found in some of the numerous tumuli which still exist all
-over the country. I confess I do not feel sanguine that this will be
-the case. I would hope more from the digging up of the floor of those
-which are known, and a careful collection of any fragments of pottery
-and other objects which may be found in them. Nothing of any intrinsic
-value will be found, of course; but what is perfectly worthless for
-any other purpose may be most important in an antiquarian sense.
-Judging them from a general abstract point of view, they do not seem
-of high antiquity, and may range from the Christian era down to the
-time when the people of this country were converted to Christianity,
-whenever that may have been. This, however, is only inferred from their
-similarity to other monuments mentioned in the preceding pages, not
-from any special evidence gathered from themselves or from any local
-tradition bearing on their antiquity.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>When we have examined the megalithic remains of Brittany and of the
-north of France, we shall be in a better position than we now are to
-appreciate the importance of the gap that exists between the French
-and Scandinavian provinces; but in the meanwhile it may be convenient
-to remark even here that it hardly seems doubtful that the Hunebeds
-of Drenthe and the Grottes des f&#233;es of Brittany are expressions of
-the same feeling, and, generally, that the megalithic remains of the
-southern and northern divisions of the western parts of the European
-continent are the works of similar if not identical races, applied to
-the same uses, and probably are of about the same age.</p>
-
-<p>These two provinces are now separated by the Rhine valley. It is
-probably not too broad an assertion to say there are no true Rude-Stone
-Monuments in the valleys of the Rhine or Scheldt,<a name="FNanchor_377" id="FNanchor_377"></a><a href="#Footnote_377" class="fnanchor">[377]</a>
-or of any of their tributaries, or, in fact, in any of the countries
-inhabited by the Germans and Belg&#230;. The dolmen-building races
-were, in fact, cut in two by the last-named race on their way to
-colonise Britain. When that took place, we have no exact means of
-knowing. According to C&#230;sar, shortly before his time, Divitiacus
-ruled over the Belg&#230; of Gaul and Britain as one province;<a name="FNanchor_378" id="FNanchor_378"></a><a href="#Footnote_378" class="fnanchor">[378]</a>
-and the inference from all we know&mdash;it is very little&mdash;is
-that the Belgian immigration to this island was of recent date at
-that time. Whether it was one thousand or ten thousand years, the
-fact that interests us here is that it took place before the age of
-the rude-stone monuments. If we admit that the peoples who, from
-Cadiz to the Cimbric Chersonese, erected these dolmens were one
-race&mdash;or, at least, had one religion&mdash;and were actuated by
-one set of motives in their respect for the dead, it seems impossible
-to escape from the conclusion that, whether they came direct from
-the east, or migrated from the south northward, or in the opposite
-direction, they at one time formed a continuous community of nations
-all along the western shores of Europe. They were cut across only
-in one place&mdash;between Drenthe and Normandy&mdash;and that by a
-comparatively modern people, the Belg&#230;. If this is so, the
-separation took place in the pre-dolmen period, whenever that
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span>
-
-may have been. If the original races in Belgium had been in the habit
-of erecting dolmens before they were dispossessed by the intruders, we
-should find remains at least of them there now, as we do both north
-and south of that district. As the case now stands, the conclusion
-seems inevitable that it was after their separation that the northern
-and southern families, though no longer in contact, adopted, each in
-its own peculiar fashion, those more permanent and megalithic forms
-which contact with a higher civilization taught them to aspire to,
-without abandoning the distinctions which separated them from the more
-progressive Celts and the thoroughly civilized Romans.</p>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p class="center">NOTE.</p>
-
-<p>The map opposite is compiled partly from the two by M. Bertrand,
-mentioned p. 326, and partly from one which accompanies Baron de
-Bonstetten's 'Essai sur les Dolmens,' 1864. It has been corrected,
-in so far as the scale would allow, from the information since
-accumulated; and may be considered as representing fairly our knowledge
-of the distribution of dolmens at the present day. Till, however, the
-Governments of this country and of Denmark condescend to take up the
-subject, such a map must necessarily remain imperfect in its most vital
-parts.</p>
-
-<div class="topspace1"></div>
-<div class="footnotes">
-<blockquote>
-<p class="footnote"><span class="smcap"><b>Footnotes</b></span></p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_321" id="Footnote_321"></a><a href="#FNanchor_321"><span class="label">[321]</span></a>
-'Samlingar f&#246;r Norders Forn&#228;lskare,' Stockholm, 1822-1830.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_322" id="Footnote_322"></a><a href="#FNanchor_322"><span class="label">[322]</span></a>
-'Scriptures rerum Danicorum medii &#230;vi,' 9 vols. folio, Hafni&#230;, 1722 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_323" id="Footnote_323"></a><a href="#FNanchor_323"><span class="label">[323]</span></a>
-'Historic Danic&#230;,' lib. xvi. Sor&#230;, 1644, in fol.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_324" id="Footnote_324"></a><a href="#FNanchor_324"><span class="label">[324]</span></a>
-The following list of the kings of Denmark, copied from Dunham's, and giving
-the dates from Suhm, and Snorro's 'Heimskringla,' will probably suffice for our
-present purposes:&mdash;</p>
-</div>
-
-<table summary="Kings of Denmark">
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdr">Suhm.</td>
-<td class="tdr">Snorro.</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdr">A.D.</td>
-<td class="tdr">B.C.</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Frode I.</td>
-<td class="tdr">35</td>
-<td class="tdr">17</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Fridlief</td>
-<td class="tdr">47</td>
-<td class="tdr">--</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Havar</td>
-<td class="tdr">59</td>
-<td class="tdr">--</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Frode II.</td>
-<td class="tdr">87</td>
-<td class="tdr">--</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Wermund</td>
-<td class="tdr">140</td>
-<td class="tdr">--</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Olaf</td>
-<td class="tdr">190</td>
-<td class="tdr">--</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdr">A.D.</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Dan Mykillate</td>
-<td class="tdr">270</td>
-<td class="tdr">170</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Frode III.</td>
-<td class="tdr">310</td>
-<td class="tdr">235?</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Halfdan I.</td>
-<td class="tdr">324</td>
-<td class="tdr">290</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Fridlief III.</td>
-<td class="tdr">348</td>
-<td class="tdr">300</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Frode IV.</td>
-<td class="tdr">407</td>
-<td class="tdr">370</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Ingel</td>
-<td class="tdr">436</td>
-<td class="tdr">386</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Halfdan II.</td>
-<td class="tdr">447</td>
-<td class="tdr"> "&nbsp;&nbsp; </td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Frode V.</td>
-<td class="tdr">460</td>
-<td class="tdr"> "&nbsp;&nbsp; </td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Helge and Roe</td>
-<td class="tdr">494</td>
-<td class="tdr">438</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Frode VI.</td>
-<td class="tdr">510</td>
-<td class="tdr"> "&nbsp;&nbsp; </td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Rolf Krake</td>
-<td class="tdr">522</td>
-<td class="tdr">479</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Frode VII.</td>
-<td class="tdr">548</td>
-<td class="tdr"> "&nbsp;&nbsp; </td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Halfdan III.</td>
-<td class="tdr">580</td>
-<td class="tdr">554</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Ruric</td>
-<td class="tdr">588</td>
-<td class="tdr"> "&nbsp;&nbsp; </td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Ivar</td>
-<td class="tdr">647</td>
-<td class="tdr">587</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Harald Hildetand</td>
-<td class="tdr">735</td>
-<td class="tdr"> "&nbsp;&nbsp; </td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Sigurd Ring</td>
-<td class="tdr">750</td>
-<td class="tdr">--</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Rajnar Lothbrog</td>
-<td class="tdr">794</td>
-<td class="tdr">--</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Sigurd Snogoge</td>
-<td class="tdr">803</td>
-<td class="tdr">--</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Herda Canute</td>
-<td class="tdr">850</td>
-<td class="tdr">--</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Eric I.</td>
-<td class="tdr">854</td>
-<td class="tdr">--</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Eric II.</td>
-<td class="tdr">883</td>
-<td class="tdr">--</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Harald Harfagar</td>
-<td class="tdr">--</td>
-<td class="tdr">863</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Gorm the Old (died?)</td>
-<td class="tdr">941</td>
-<td class="tdr">--</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Harald Blatand</td>
-<td class="tdr">991</td>
-<td class="tdr">--</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Sweyn</td>
-<td class="tdr">1014</td>
-<td class="tdr">--</td>
-</tr>
-
-</table>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_325" id="Footnote_325"></a><a href="#FNanchor_325"><span class="label">[325]</span></a>
-'Samlingar,' &amp;c. i. plate 11, fig. 38, p. 104.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_326" id="Footnote_326"></a><a href="#FNanchor_326"><span class="label">[326]</span></a>
-<i>Loc. sup. cit.</i>, fig. 39.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_327" id="Footnote_327"></a><a href="#FNanchor_327"><span class="label">[327]</span></a>
-Stokes, 'Life of Petrie,' p. 260.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_328" id="Footnote_328"></a><a href="#FNanchor_328"><span class="label">[328]</span></a>
-Beowulf, <i>loc. sup. cit.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_329" id="Footnote_329"></a><a href="#FNanchor_329"><span class="label">[329]</span></a>
-Engelhardt, 'Guide illustr&#233; du Mus&#233;e
-&#224; Copenhague,' p. 33.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_330" id="Footnote_330"></a><a href="#FNanchor_330"><span class="label">[330]</span></a>
-The woodcut is copied from a drawing
-in Sj&#246;borg, ii. fig. 214. It is repeated by
-Worsaae, <i>loc. sup. cit.</i>, both copying from
-some original I have not cared to trace.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_331" id="Footnote_331"></a><a href="#FNanchor_331"><span class="label">[331]</span></a>
-'Historia Danica,' viii. p. 133.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_332" id="Footnote_332"></a><a href="#FNanchor_332"><span class="label">[332]</span></a>
-'Danicorum Monument,' libri sex, i. p. 12.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_333" id="Footnote_333"></a><a href="#FNanchor_333"><span class="label">[333]</span></a>
-'Prim&#230;val Antiquities of Denmark,' p. 113.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_334" id="Footnote_334"></a><a href="#FNanchor_334"><span class="label">[334]</span></a>
-At one time I was, on the authority
-of a Saxon charter, inclined to believe
-that this tumulus was the grave of Cissa,
-Saxon king of Winchester, who was
-contemporary with Arthur. I am now
-informed by the Rev. Mr. Jones, who
-has carefully gone into the matter, that
-the Charter No. 1094, which is taken
-from the 'Codex Winton.' fol. 54, refers
-to Overton in Hants, and not to Overton
-in Wilts, because Tadanliage (Tadley) is
-mentioned as part of it. As I cannot
-dispute the competency of so eminent an
-authority on such a question, its identification
-with the tomb of King Cissa must
-for the present be withdrawn, but it by
-no means follows in consequence that it
-may not be of his age.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_335" id="Footnote_335"></a><a href="#FNanchor_335"><span class="label">[335]</span></a>
-'Prehistoric Times,' p. 153.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_336" id="Footnote_336"></a><a href="#FNanchor_336"><span class="label">[336]</span></a>
-The slaves of the Scythian kings were
-strangled (Herodotus, iv. 71 and 72).</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_337" id="Footnote_337"></a><a href="#FNanchor_337"><span class="label">[337]</span></a>
-"Si quis, hominem diabolo sacrificaverit
-et in hostiam more paganorum
-d&#230;monibus obtulerit, morte moriatur."&mdash;Balusius,
-<i>Capt. Reg. Franc.</i> i. 253.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_338" id="Footnote_338"></a><a href="#FNanchor_338"><span class="label">[338]</span></a>
-The wood-blocks of these and other
-illustrations of Dr. Thurnam's paper were
-lent to Sir John Lubbock, and used by
-him in his 'Prehistoric Times,' Nos. 146-156,
-where they will be more accessible
-to many than in the 'Arch&#230;ologia.'</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_339" id="Footnote_339"></a><a href="#FNanchor_339"><span class="label">[339]</span></a>
-An argument for secondary interments
-has been attempted to be founded
-(Lubbock, 'Prehistoric Times,' p. 156)
-on an edict of Charlemagne, in which he
-says:&mdash;"Jubemus ut corpora Christianorum
-Saxonum ad c&oelig;meteria ecclesi&#230;
-deferantur et non <i>ad</i> tumulos paganorum
-(Balusius, 'Cap. Reg. Franc.' i.
-p. 154). If the expression had been "<i>in</i>
-tumulos," there might have been something
-in it; but a fair inference from the
-edict seems to me to be that even in
-Charlemagne's time converted Saxons
-insisted on being buried&mdash;probably in
-tumuli&mdash;near where the tombs of their
-fathers were, and probably with pagan
-rites, in spite of their nominal conversion.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_340" id="Footnote_340"></a><a href="#FNanchor_340"><span class="label">[340]</span></a>
-'Arch&#230;ologia,' xlii. p. 195.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_341" id="Footnote_341"></a><a href="#FNanchor_341"><span class="label">[341]</span></a>
-Nothing would surprise me less than
-the discovery of an interment in the upper
-part of the barrow at West Kennet, between
-the roof of the chamber and the
-dolmen. Many indications in the West
-Country long barrows lead us to expect
-that such might be the case, but it
-by no means follows that it would be
-secondary. On the contrary, it would
-probably be, if not the first, at least the
-chief burial in the mound.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_342" id="Footnote_342"></a><a href="#FNanchor_342"><span class="label">[342]</span></a>
-I have tried hard to follow Worsaae's
-argument in respect to this point ('Zur
-Alterthumskunde des Nordens,' 1847), but
-without success. As he is personally
-familiar with the country and its monuments,
-he may be perfectly correct in
-what he states, but as there are neither
-maps nor illustrations to this part of the
-work, it is almost impossible for a stranger
-to judge; and as, like all Danes, he is a
-devout believer in the three-age system,
-it is difficult to know how far this may
-or may not influence his view.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_343" id="Footnote_343"></a><a href="#FNanchor_343"><span class="label">[343]</span></a>
-'Prehistoric Times,' p. 107.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_344" id="Footnote_344"></a><a href="#FNanchor_344"><span class="label">[344]</span></a>
-'One Year in Sweden,' ii. p. 183.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_345" id="Footnote_345"></a><a href="#FNanchor_345"><span class="label">[345]</span></a>
-Engelhardt, 'Catalogue illus.' p. 33.
-Suhm makes it 991, but this seems more
-probably to have been the date of the
-death of his son Harald Blaatand.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_346" id="Footnote_346"></a><a href="#FNanchor_346"><span class="label">[346]</span></a>
-'Annalen for Nordk. Oldk.' xii. p. 13.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_347" id="Footnote_347"></a><a href="#FNanchor_347"><span class="label">[347]</span></a>
-'Hist. danica,' x. p. 167.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_348" id="Footnote_348"></a><a href="#FNanchor_348"><span class="label">[348]</span></a>
-'Guide ill.' p. 33.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_349" id="Footnote_349"></a><a href="#FNanchor_349"><span class="label">[349]</span></a>
-'Prim&#230;val Ant. Denmark,' p. 104.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_350" id="Footnote_350"></a><a href="#FNanchor_350"><span class="label">[350]</span></a>
-Engelhardt, 'Cat. ill. du Mus&#233;e,' p. 33.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_351" id="Footnote_351"></a><a href="#FNanchor_351"><span class="label">[351]</span></a>
-'Proceedings Soc. Ant. Scot.' v.
-p. 265. If Ragnar was taken prisoner
-by Ella of Northumberland, it must
-have been in the latter half of the ninth
-century. Suhm places his death nearly
-a century earlier, 794.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_352" id="Footnote_352"></a><a href="#FNanchor_352"><span class="label">[352]</span></a>
-'Prim&#230;val Ant. of Denmark,' p. 112.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_353" id="Footnote_353"></a><a href="#FNanchor_353"><span class="label">[353]</span></a>
-'Annalen for Nord. Aldk.' vi. pl. x.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_354" id="Footnote_354"></a><a href="#FNanchor_354"><span class="label">[354]</span></a>
-Holmberg, 'Scandinavien Hallristingar,' p. 3.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_355" id="Footnote_355"></a><a href="#FNanchor_355"><span class="label">[355]</span></a>
-<i>Ibid.</i> p. 21. 'Soc. des Ant. du Nord,' ii. pp. 140 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_356" id="Footnote_356"></a><a href="#FNanchor_356"><span class="label">[356]</span></a>
-Sir James Simpson, appendix, vol. vi. 'Proc. Soc. Ant. of Scotland,' <i>passim</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_357" id="Footnote_357"></a><a href="#FNanchor_357"><span class="label">[357]</span></a>
-Madsen, 'Antiquit&#233;s pr&#233;historiques du Danemark,' 1869.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_358" id="Footnote_358"></a><a href="#FNanchor_358"><span class="label">[358]</span></a>
-'Samlingar,' i. pl. iii. fig. 6.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_359" id="Footnote_359"></a><a href="#FNanchor_359"><span class="label">[359]</span></a>
-Olaus Wormius, 'Danica Monumenta,' pp. 8 and 35.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_360" id="Footnote_360"></a><a href="#FNanchor_360"><span class="label">[360]</span></a>
-'Essai sur les Dolmens,' p. 9.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_361" id="Footnote_361"></a><a href="#FNanchor_361"><span class="label">[361]</span></a>
-'Heidnische Alterth&#252;mer von Uelzen,' Hanover, 1846.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_362" id="Footnote_362"></a><a href="#FNanchor_362"><span class="label">[362]</span></a>
-Madsen, 'Antiquit&#233;s pr&#233;hist.' pl. 8.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_363" id="Footnote_363"></a><a href="#FNanchor_363"><span class="label">[363]</span></a>
-'Antiquitates Septentrionales,' pp. 320 and 519, pl. xvii.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_364" id="Footnote_364"></a><a href="#FNanchor_364"><span class="label">[364]</span></a>
-Madsen, plates 13 and 14.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_365" id="Footnote_365"></a><a href="#FNanchor_365"><span class="label">[365]</span></a>
-Bateman, 'Ten Years' Diggings,' p. 23. Lewellyn Jowett, 'Grave Mounds,' pp.
-14 and 15, &amp;c.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_366" id="Footnote_366"></a><a href="#FNanchor_366"><span class="label">[366]</span></a>
-Sj&#246;borg. <i>loc. sup. cit.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_367" id="Footnote_367"></a><a href="#FNanchor_367"><span class="label">[367]</span></a>
-Now destroyed. Sj&#246;borg, iii. pl. 10, p. 143.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_368" id="Footnote_368"></a><a href="#FNanchor_368"><span class="label">[368]</span></a>
-<i>Vide ante</i>, footnote, p. 15.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_369" id="Footnote_369"></a><a href="#FNanchor_369"><span class="label">[369]</span></a>
-The woodcut is reduced from a plate
-in Worsaae's 'Alterthumskunde Scandinaviens,'
-but both it and the Amrom
-group are found in the 'English Arch&#230;ological
-Journal,' xxiii. p. 187.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_370" id="Footnote_370"></a><a href="#FNanchor_370"><span class="label">[370]</span></a>
-Arch&#230;ol. Journal,' <i>loc. sit.</i> p. 185.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_371" id="Footnote_371"></a><a href="#FNanchor_371"><span class="label">[371]</span></a>
-B&#228;hr, 'Die Gr&#228;ber der Liven,' Dresden, 1850, pl. i. Unfortunately, as is too
-often the case, no scale is engraved on the plate, and no dimensions are mentioned
-in the text.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_372" id="Footnote_372"></a><a href="#FNanchor_372"><span class="label">[372]</span></a>
-Not yet published, so far as I know.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_373" id="Footnote_373"></a><a href="#FNanchor_373"><span class="label">[373]</span></a>
-'Die Gr&#228;ber der Liven,' p. 51.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_374" id="Footnote_374"></a><a href="#FNanchor_374"><span class="label">[374]</span></a>
-'Ant. Septent.' p. 5, pl. ii.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_375" id="Footnote_375"></a><a href="#FNanchor_375"><span class="label">[375]</span></a>
-It is by no means clear whether
-Mr. Sadler, who is the author of this
-paper, ever visited the spot, or compiled
-his information from Janssen's book,
-which, however, he never mentions. Be
-this as it may, it is the best paper I
-know of on the subject, and well worthy
-of perusal.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_376" id="Footnote_376"></a><a href="#FNanchor_376"><span class="label">[376]</span></a>
-The woodcut is from a photograph
-kindly lent me by Mr. Franks. It is
-sufficient to show the nature of the construction,
-but the camera is a singularly
-unintelligent interpreter of plan
-or arrangements.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_377" id="Footnote_377"></a><a href="#FNanchor_377"><span class="label">[377]</span></a>
-There are several dolmens, as before
-stated, in rugged mountainous parts of
-Luxemburg, but they seem to belong to
-the old races that in those corners were
-not swept away by the Belgian current.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_378" id="Footnote_378"></a><a href="#FNanchor_378"><span class="label">[378]</span></a>
-C&#230;sar, 'Bell. Gall.' ii. p. 4.</p>
-</div>
-
-</blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a><br />
-<span class="small">FRANCE.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">It</span> is only in very recent times that the French have turned their
-attention to the study of their Rude-Stone Monuments; but since they
-have done so, it has been in so systematic and scientific a manner
-that, had it been continued a few years longer, little would have been
-left to be desired by the students of that class of antiquities in
-France. War and revolution, however, intervened just as the results of
-these labours were about to be given to the world, and how long we may
-now have to wait for them, no one can tell. The Mus&#233;e de St.-Germain
-was far from being complete in July last, and only the first parts of
-the great 'Dictionnaire des Antiquit&#233;s celtiques' had been published at
-that time. We can now hardly hope that the necessary expenditure will
-be continued which is indispensable to complete the former, and it is
-difficult to foresee in what manner the materials collected for the
-dictionary can now be utilised.</p>
-
-<p>Even when much further advanced towards completion, it is hardly to
-be expected that the museums of St.-Germain and Vannes can rival
-the royal collections at Copenhagen; and if the French had confined
-themselves only to collecting, they would not have advanced our
-knowledge very much; but, while doing this, they have also gathered
-statistical information, and have been mapping and describing, so that
-our knowledge of their monuments is much more complete than of those
-of the Danes. To borrow a simile from kindred sciences, it is as if
-the Danes had attended exclusively to the mineralogy of the subject:
-collecting specimens from all parts, and arranging them according to
-their similarities or affinities, wholly irrespective of the localities
-from which they came. The French, on the other hand, have founded a
-science similar to that of geology on their knowledge of the minerals;
-they have carefully noted the distribution of the various classes
-of monuments, and, so far as possible, ascertained their relative
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span>
-
-superposition. The first is, no doubt, a most useful process, and one
-that must to a certain extent precede the other; but unless we map the
-various rocks on the surface and ascertain their stratification, it
-hardly helps us in studying the formation or history of our globe.</p>
-
-<p>In 1864 M. Bertrand published in the 'Revue arch&#233;ologique' a small map
-of France, showing the distribution of dolmens as then known; and three
-years afterwards another, on a much larger scale, intended to accompany
-the 'Dictionnaire des Antiquit&#233;s celtiques,' and containing all that
-was then known. Were a second edition of this map published now, it
-would, no doubt, be much more full and complete; but the main outlines
-must still be the same, and are sufficient for our present purposes.
-From these maps and the text which accompanies them we learn that the
-greater number of the rude-stone monuments in France are arranged at no
-great distance on either side of a straight line drawn from the shores
-of the Mediterranean, somewhere about Montpellier, to Morlaix, in
-Brittany. There are none east of the Rhone, none south of the Garonne,
-till we come to the Pyrenees, and so few north of the basin or valley
-of the Seine that they may be considered as wanderers.</p>
-
-<p>Referring to the table at the end of this chapter, which is compiled
-from that of 1864, we find that thirty departments contain more than
-ten monuments. Thirty others, according to M. Bertrand, contain from
-one to eight or nine; and the remaining twenty-nine either contain none
-at all or these so insignificant as hardly to deserve attention.</p>
-
-<p>From this table we learn, at least approximately, several facts of
-considerable interest to our investigation. The first is that, of
-the three divisions into which C&#230;sar divides Gaul, the northern in
-his day belonged to a race who had had no stone monuments. There are
-none in Belgium proper, and so few in French Flanders, or indeed in
-any part of Gallia Belgica, that we may safely assert that the Belg&#230;
-were not dolmen-builders. In the next place, I cannot help agreeing
-with M. Bertrand in his conclusion that the Celts properly so called
-have as little claim to the monuments as the Belg&#230;.<a name="FNanchor_379" id="FNanchor_379"></a><a href="#Footnote_379" class="fnanchor">[379]</a>
-We know something of the provinces occupied by the Celts six hundred years
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span>
-
-before Christ from Livy's<a name="FNanchor_380" id="FNanchor_380"></a><a href="#Footnote_380" class="fnanchor">[380]</a>
-description of the tribes who, under Bellevesus, invaded Italy. Their
-capital was Bruges, and they occupied the departments immediately
-around that city; but they had not then penetrated into Brittany, nor
-north of the Seine, nor into any part of Aquitania.<a name="FNanchor_381" id="FNanchor_381"></a><a href="#Footnote_381" class="fnanchor">[381]</a>
-But they occupied the whole of the east of Gaul up, apparently, to
-the Rhine and the country on the east bank of the Rhone. According
-to the French statistics, there are 140,000 barrows or tumuli in the
-departments of the C&#244;te-d'Or, Vosges, Haut-Rhin, Bas-Rhin,
-Doubs, Jura, and Ain, but not one single dolmen;<a name="FNanchor_382" id="FNanchor_382"></a><a href="#Footnote_382" class="fnanchor">[382]</a>
-and there are none to the east of the Rhine. As we proceed westward, the tumuli
-become rarer, and the dolmens are gradually met with. The Averni, for
-instance, were one of the Celtic tribes that accompanied Bellovesus,
-and in their country dolmens are found; but perhaps we need only infer
-from this that in a hilly country like Auvergne the older people still
-remained, and followed their old customs in spite of its partial
-occupation by the conquering Celts. We do not know at what period the
-Celts first invaded Gaul, but there seems no reason for supposing that
-it could not be very long before they first came in contact with the
-Romans; and if we may judge from the rate of progress which they made
-in subduing the rest of the country in historic times, their first
-invasion could hardly have been a thousand years <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> All the
-tumuli in the east of France which have been dug into have yielded
-implements of bronze and metal,<a name="FNanchor_383" id="FNanchor_383"></a><a href="#Footnote_383" class="fnanchor">[383]</a>
-and if they belonged to the Celts, this would fairly accord with
-the conclusions at which arch&#230;ologists have arrived from other
-sources with regard to the Bronze age. It is not, however, worth while
-following up the question here; for unless it could be proved that the
-dolmens either succeeded or preceded the tumuli, it has no bearing
-on our argument. The fact of their occupying different and distinct
-districts prevents any conclusion of the sort being arrived at from
-geographical or external considerations. Their contents, if compared,
-might afford some information, but up to the present time this has not
-been done, and all we can at present assume is that there were two
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span>
-
-contemporary civilizations, or barbarisms, co-existing simultaneously
-on the soil of France. My impression is, however, that the Celtic
-barrow-builders were earlier converts to Christianity, and left
-off their heathenish mode of burial long before the less easily
-converted dolmen-builders of the west ceased to erect their Rude-Stone
-Monuments.</p>
-
-<p>We are thus reduced to the third of the great provinces into which Gaul
-was divided in C&#230;sar's time, to try and find the people who could have
-erected the stone monuments of France, and at first sight it seems
-extremely probable that they were erected by the Aquitanians. Both
-C&#230;sar<a name="FNanchor_384" id="FNanchor_384"></a><a href="#Footnote_384" class="fnanchor">[384]</a>
-and Strabo<a name="FNanchor_385" id="FNanchor_385"></a><a href="#Footnote_385" class="fnanchor">[385]</a>
-distinctly assert that the people of the southern province differed
-from the Celts in language and institutions as well as in features, and
-add that they resembled more the Iberians of Spain than their northern
-neighbours. When, however, we come to look more closely into the
-matter, we find that the Aquitania of C&#230;sar was confined to the
-country between the Garonne and the Pyrenees, and where, however, few,
-if any, dolmens now exist. They are rather frequent in the Pyrenees<a name="FNanchor_386" id="FNanchor_386"></a><a href="#Footnote_386" class="fnanchor">[386]</a>
-and the Asturias, where remnants of the dolmen-building races may
-have found shelter and continued to exist after their congeners were
-swept from the plains; and there are one or two on the left bank of
-the Garonne, but except these there are none in Aquitania proper.
-If, however, we apply the term Aquitania to the province as extended
-by Augustus up to the left bank of the Loire, we include the greater
-part of the provinces where dolmens are found; but here again, when we
-look more closely into it, we find that the northern districts of this
-great province were, in Augustus' time, inhabited by Celts, or, at all
-events, that Celts formed the governing and influential bodies in the
-states. Indeed, the fact seems to be that, during the six centuries
-which elapsed between the invasions of Italy by the Gauls and the
-return invasion of Gaul by the Romans, the Celts had gradually extended
-themselves over the whole of central France from the Garonne to the
-Seine, and had obliterated the political status of the people who had
-previously occupied the country, though there is no reason to suppose
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span>
-
-they had then at least attempted to exterminate them. It must thus be
-either that the Celts were the builders of the dolmens, which appears
-most improbable, or that there existed in these provinces a prehistoric
-people to whom they must be ascribed.</p>
-
-<p>Without at all wishing, at present at least, to insist upon it, I may
-here state that the impression on my mind is every day growing stronger
-that the dolmen-builders in France are the lineal descendants of the
-Cave men whose remains have recently been detected in such quantities
-on the banks of the Dordogne and other rivers in the south of
-France.<a name="FNanchor_387" id="FNanchor_387"></a><a href="#Footnote_387" class="fnanchor">[387]</a>
-These remains are found in quantities in the Ard&#232;che<a name="FNanchor_388" id="FNanchor_388"></a><a href="#Footnote_388" class="fnanchor">[388]</a>
-and in Poitou.<a name="FNanchor_389" id="FNanchor_389"></a><a href="#Footnote_389" class="fnanchor">[389]</a>
-If they have not been found in Brittany, it may be that they have
-not been looked for, or that the soil is unfavourable to their
-preservation; but they have been found in Picardy, though possibly not
-exactly of the same class. It is, of course, dangerous to found any
-argument on such local coincidence, as new discoveries may be made
-in the east of France or elsewhere; but in the present state of our
-knowledge the Cave men and the dolmens seem not only conterminous but
-their frequency seems generally to be coincident.</p>
-
-<p>As we know next to nothing of the languages spoken in the south-west
-of France before the introduction of the Romance forms of speech,
-philology will hardly assist us in our enquiry. There is, however, one
-particle, <i>ac</i>, which I cannot help thinking may prove of importance,
-when its origin is ascertained. In the table at the end of this
-chapter, I have placed the number of the names of the cities having
-this termination in each department<a name="FNanchor_390" id="FNanchor_390"></a><a href="#Footnote_390" class="fnanchor">[390]</a>
-next to M. Bertrand's number of dolmens. The coincidence is certainly
-remarkable, more especially as it is easy to account for the comparative
-paucity of names with this termination in Brittany by taking into
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span>
-
-account the enormous reflex wave of Celtic population from England that
-overwhelmed that country in the fourth and fifth centuries, and changed
-the nomenclature of half the places in the district: still, Carnac and
-Tumiac, Missilac, and others, as names of monuments, and Yffignac,
-as the name attached to the port which I believe was the place of
-embarkation for England, with many others that remain, are sufficient
-to attest that more previously may have existed.</p>
-
-<p>The question remains, what is this particle? The first impulse is
-to assume that it is the Basque definite article. The Basques, for
-instance, say <i>Guizon</i>, "a man," <i>Guiz&#243;nac</i>, "the man," and <i>Guiz&#243;nac</i>,
-"the men," besides using it in other cases, while their local
-proximity to the dolmen country would render such a connection far
-from improbable. Against this, however, it may be urged, that <i>ac</i>,
-as a terminal syllable, hardly ever occurs in the Basque provinces,
-and the names to which it is attached in France hardly seem to belong
-to that language. Another suggestion has been made,<a name="FNanchor_391" id="FNanchor_391"></a><a href="#Footnote_391" class="fnanchor">[391]</a>
-that it is equivalent to the Greek word πὁλις, which would
-be exactly the signification for which we are looking, though in what
-language this occurs is by no means clear. For our present purpose,
-however, it is of little consequence what it may or may not be. It
-is sufficient to know that its occurrence is, as nearly as may be,
-coincident with the existence of dolmens. It does not occur to the
-eastward of the Rhone, nor do dolmens, though both are frequent on the
-right bank of that river; and it is not to be found in the east of
-France, in those countries which we have reason to believe were at the
-dawn of history essentially Celtic, and where the tumuli of the Bronze
-period exist in such numbers. It does, however, occur in that part of
-Cornwall south of Redruth and west of Falmouth,<a name="FNanchor_392" id="FNanchor_392"></a><a href="#Footnote_392" class="fnanchor">[392]</a>
-where all the rude-stone monuments of that province are found, but it
-is not found anywhere else in Great Britain or Ireland.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Nor is it found in the Channel Islands, though dolmens abound there;
-but this may be accounted for by the subsequent colonisation of
-these islands, as of Brittany in more modern times, by races of a
-different origin, who have to a great extent obliterated the original
-nomenclature of the country.</p>
-
-<p>Equally interesting, however, for our purposes is the fact that, though
-the <i>ac</i>-termination occurs frequently in the departments between the
-Garonne and the Pyrenees, no dolmens exist in that region except, as
-before mentioned, a few at the roots of the mountains. This, at first
-sight, might seem to militate against the universality of the theory;
-but I, on the other hand, only take it to express that the <i>ac</i>-people
-were driven from that country by Ibero-Aquitanians before they had
-adopted the fashion of stone monuments. If we knew when Aquitania was
-first occupied by the people whom C&#230;sar and Strabo found there, it
-would give us a date before which dolmens could hardly have existed;
-but as we have no materials for the purpose, all that can be said is
-that, just as the dolmen races were cut in two by the Belg&#230; before the
-use of stone for funereal monuments had been introduced, so here the
-same phenomenon occurred, and the people we have to deal with were
-driven north of the Garonne, west of the Rhone, and south of the Seine,
-before they took to building dolmens&mdash;assuming, of course, that they
-once had extended beyond those limits; but this, except in the case of
-Aquitania proper, does not at present seem capable of being proved.</p>
-
-<p>Before the Romans came in contact with them, and our first written
-accounts describe them, they had ceased to be a nation politically, and
-their language also was lost, or, at least, except in the one syllable
-<i>ac</i>, we now know nothing of it. If, therefore, it may be argued, the
-nationality of this people was lost before the Christian era, and their
-language had become extinct, these monuments must belong to a long
-anterior period. There are, however, certain considerations which would
-make us pause before jumping too hastily to this conclusion. There are,
-throughout the whole dolmen region of the south of France, a series
-of churches whose style is quite distinct from that of central and
-northern France. The typical example of this style is the well-known
-church of St.-Front, P&#233;rigueux. But the churches at Cahors, at
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span>
-
-Souillac, at Moissac, Peaussac, Tremolac, St.-Avit-S&#233;nieur, and many
-others, are equally characteristic. The cathedral at Angoul&#234;me, the
-abbey church at Fontevrault, and St.-Maurice at Angers,<a name="FNanchor_393" id="FNanchor_393"></a><a href="#Footnote_393" class="fnanchor">[393]</a>
-and the church at Loches&mdash;all these churches are characterized by
-possessing domes, and the earlier ones by having pointed arches which
-look very much more as if they were derived from the horizontal arches
-of the tumuli than from the radiating arches of the Romans, which the
-Celts everywhere adopted; and, altogether, the style is so peculiar
-that no one the least familiar with it can ever mistake it for a Celtic
-style. All belong to the same group, and as distinctly as, or even
-more so than, the <i>ac</i>-termination, mark out the country as inhabited
-in the eleventh and twelfth centuries by a people differing from the
-Celts. Though, therefore, both their nationality and their language
-may have been superseded by those of the more enterprising and active
-Celts before the time of C&#230;sar, it is evident they retained their
-old feeling and a separate internal existence to a period at least a
-thousand years later.</p>
-
-<p>There is still another trait that marks this country as a non-Celtic
-country in historical times&mdash;it is in the south-west, and there only,
-in France that Protestantism ever flourished or took root. To the Celt,
-the transition was everywhere easy from the government of the hierarchy
-of the Druids to that of the similarly organized priesthood of Rome.
-But it required all the cruel power of the Inquisition&mdash;the crusades of
-Simon de Montfort&mdash;the exterminating wars against the Camisards of the
-Cevennes&mdash;-and, in fact, centuries of the most cruel and unrelenting
-persecution down to the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, and, indeed,
-to the French Revolution&mdash;to exterminate this people and extirpate the
-faith and feelings to which they clung. If they have in their veins,
-as I fancy they must have, any of the blood of the Cave people, they
-belong to one of the least progressive people of the earth, and we
-should not therefore be surprised if it required two thousand years
-of Celtic aggressiveness, coupled with Celtic ferocity, entirely to
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span>
-
-obliterate this race, if, indeed, that is done even now, which I very
-much doubt.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>Before leaving this part of the subject, there is one other question
-which it may be as well to allude to here, as these investigations into
-the distribution of the rude-stone monuments seem destined to throw a
-new and important light upon it. Few questions have been more keenly
-debated among the learned than the relationship stated to have existed
-between the Cimbri and the Gauls. A great deal has been, and can be,
-said on both sides,<a name="FNanchor_394" id="FNanchor_394"></a><a href="#Footnote_394" class="fnanchor">[394]</a>
-but the difficulty appears to me to have arisen principally from the
-erroneous assumption that on other people except the Celts existed in
-France.</p>
-
-<p>There is no trace of Celts or of a Celtic language in the Cimbric
-Chersonese or the north-west corner of Europe, which is generally
-assumed to be the country occupied by the Cimbri, and no such people as
-the Cimbri are found settled in any part of France in historical times.
-If, however, we assume that the relationship may have been between
-the Cimbri and the Aquitanians, the case assumes a totally different
-aspect. As we do not know what the language of the Aquitanians really
-was, no assistance can be obtained from it, but our very ignorance of
-it leaves the field open for any other evidence that may be adduced,
-and that of the monuments seems clear and distinct. It seems almost
-impossible that there should be so much similarity between the
-monuments of the two countries without some community of race, and
-the great likeness that exists between those on the southern frontier
-of the northern dolmen province and those on the northern edge of the
-southern dolmen field seems almost to settle the question.</p>
-
-<p>From history we only know of the existence of this relationship by the
-mode in which they fought together against Marius in the late Roman
-wars. If they were then geographically separated by the Belg&#230; and the
-Celts having thrust themselves between them, the separation must
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span>
-
-have been recent, for a barbarian people could hardly be brought to
-acknowledge the ties and duties of relationship after a long interval
-of time.<a name="FNanchor_395" id="FNanchor_395"></a><a href="#Footnote_395" class="fnanchor">[395]</a></p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>As may be gathered from the table, page 376, or the map opposite
-page 324, the rude-stone monuments are pretty evenly distributed
-over the whole of the area extending from the English Channel to the
-Mediterranean Sea. Our knowledge of them is, however, practically
-confined to the northern portion of this zone, known as Brittany. The
-information which is available regarding those of Languedoc and Guienne
-is of the most meagre description. Hundreds of English tourists have
-visited Brittany, and many of them have drawn the monuments there and
-at least described them intelligibly; but I do not know one English
-book that mentions those in the departments of Lot or Dordogne, and
-almost the only information regarding them is to be picked up from the
-local "Statistiques;" but as these are very rarely illustrated, they do
-not suffice. No form of words will convey a correct idea of any unknown
-architectural monument except by comparing it with one that is known;
-and unless both have some well-defined features of style, it is even
-then very difficult, and with rude unshaped stones, almost impossible,
-by words to convey what is intended.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration122"></a>
-<img src="images/i_122.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">122.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen at Saucli&#232;res.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>It is to be regretted that we do not know more of the southern
-examples,<a name="FNanchor_396" id="FNanchor_396"></a><a href="#Footnote_396" class="fnanchor">[396]</a>
-as they are different in several essential features
-from those of the north; and it is probable that any one who was
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span>
-
-familiar with all could point out a gradation of style which would
-aid materially in determining their age. Whatever that may turn out
-eventually to be, no one will, I presume, contend that all are of one
-age or even of one century. It is far more probable that they extend
-over a considerable lapse of time, probably a thousand years, and
-if this is so, there must have been changes of fashion even among
-Cave races as their blood got more and more mixed; and it would be
-interesting to know where and&mdash;relatively at least&mdash;when this took
-place. My present impression is that the southern are the most modern,
-for this among other reasons.&mdash;I look on the sequence of a cist in a
-barrow to a dolmen or chamber in a tumulus as very nearly certain,
-and from that the sequence to the exposed free-standing dolmen, and
-from that to the dolmen on the tumulus, as nearly, if not quite as,
-probable. The latter form, so far as I know, never occurs in Brittany,
-while on the other hand it is common in the south of France.<a name="FNanchor_397" id="FNanchor_397"></a><a href="#Footnote_397" class="fnanchor">[397]</a>
-If they are of the same age as similar monuments in Scandinavia and
-Ireland, they must be of comparatively modern date. There are also some
-monuments, trilithons of hewn or partially hewn stone, as this one
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span>
-
-at Saucli&#232;res (<a href="#Illustration122">woodcut No. 122</a>),
-which at least look more modern than their northern congeners.</p>
-
-<p>The monument, however, that seems capable of throwing the greatest
-amount of light on their age is the dolmen of St.-Germain-sur-Vienne,
-near Confolens, in Poitou. As will be seen from the woodcuts opposite,
-its cap-stone, measures 12 feet by 15 feet, and is of proportionate
-thickness. The mass was originally supported by five columns of
-Gothic design, but one having fallen away, it now rests only on
-four; but their interest arises from the fact that the style of
-their ornamentation belongs undoubtedly to the twelfth century or
-thereabouts&mdash;certainly not earlier than the eleventh. In order to
-explain away so unwelcome an anomaly, it has been suggested, that some
-persons in the twelfth century cut away all the rest of the original
-rude stones which supported the cap-stone, and left only the frail
-shafts which we now see. If this were so, it would in no way alter the
-argument to be derived from it. If men could be found in the twelfth
-century to take the trouble and run the enormous risk of such an
-operation, their respect for the monument must have been quite equal
-to that implied in its erection; but the fact is that each of the five
-columns is composed of three separate pieces&mdash;a base, a shaft, and a
-capital,<a name="FNanchor_398" id="FNanchor_398"></a><a href="#Footnote_398" class="fnanchor">[398]</a>
-and we see them now as they were originally erected.<a name="FNanchor_399" id="FNanchor_399"></a><a href="#Footnote_399" class="fnanchor">[399]</a></p>
-
-<p>There may be doubts about the tomb of the Moals at Ballina (<a href="#Page_233">page 233</a>),
-but doubt seems impossible with regard to this: it is a dolmen pure and
-simple, and it was erected in the twelfth century. In itself the fact
-may not be of any very great importance, but it cuts away the ground
-from any <i>&#224; priori</i> argument as to the age of these monuments. It does
-not, of course, prove that they are all modern, but it does show that
-some of them at least were erected after the time of the Romans, and
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span>
-
-at an era extending even far into the middle ages.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration123"></a>
-<img src="images/i_123.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">123.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen at Confolens.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration124"></a>
-<img src="images/i_124.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">124.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan of Dolmen at Confolens.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>It is amusing, however, to see how the French antiquaries resist
-such a conclusion. Dr. de Closmadeuc, for instance, one of the most
-distinguished antiquaries of Brittany, opened a perfectly virgin
-tumulus at Crubelz. After penetrating through three distinct but
-undisturbed strata, he reached the roof of the enclosed dolmen
-or chamber. In this he found the usual products of cremation and
-the inevitable flint arrow-heads, but he refers in triumph to the
-"absence de toute trace des m&#233;taux." "Aucun doute," he adds, "n'est
-donc possible. Ce dolmen appartient bien &#224; cette classe de monuments
-primitifs de l'&#226;ge de pierre." So far all is clear; but there are
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span>
-
-still difficulties, for he goes on to say: "Nous tenons peu de compte
-des d&#233;bris de tuiles antiques rencontr&#233;es &#224; la superficie du tumulus,
-et m&#234;me sous les tables du dolmen. Il est raisonnable d'admettre que
-ces fragments de tuiles qui d&#233;noncent l'industrie gallo-romaine, ont
-accidentellement p&#233;n&#233;tr&#233; dans l'int&#233;rieur."<a name="FNanchor_400" id="FNanchor_400"></a><a href="#Footnote_400" class="fnanchor">[400]</a></p>
-
-<p>Let us pause a moment to consider what is involved in such a
-supposition. These tiles, which it is admitted are scattered in
-quantities over the surrounding plain, must have climbed to the top
-of the mound, penetrated through three undisturbed strata of earth,
-and finally penetrated "accidentally" between the close-fitting slabs
-forming the roof of the chamber. The hypothesis will not bear a
-moment's examination, but anything, however absurd, is to some minds
-preferable to admitting that any dolmen or tumulus can be subsequent to
-Roman times. It is astonishing, however, what effect that shibboleth,
-"no trace of metal," has on the mind of most antiquaries. It is, of
-course, true that before the metals were introduced no trace of them
-could be found in the prehistoric barrows of the rude savages that
-occupied Europe in the earliest times. We do not, at the present day,
-bury metal objects in our graves, and but for the coffin nails it would
-be as fair to argue that the graves in Kensal Green are prehistoric
-because the interments show no trace of metal implements. At all
-events, there are many burying races now existing who do not use
-coffins, nor bury metal objects in their graves; and all these this
-argument would make prehistoric. To me it seems much more logical to
-assume that, in those countries which had been occupied by the Romans,
-the natives, though reverting after their departure to their original
-modes of sepulture, had at least been so far civilized as to know that
-bronze daggers and spear-heads were not likely to be of much use in the
-next world, and had come to the conclusion that the personal ornaments
-of the dead might as well remain with their living friends. This
-hypothesis would at least account for the absence of metal in the long
-barrows of Gloucestershire, and at West Kennet, as well as at Crubelz,
-though Roman pottery was found in all these instances. In fact, it is
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span>
-
-the merest negative presumption to assume that, because no metal is
-found in a grave, it must be prehistoric. It may be of any age, down to
-yesterday's, in so far as such proof is concerned.</p>
-
-<p>Even the presence of metal, however, does not disturb the faith of
-some antiquaries. The Baron de Bonstetten, for instance, opened a
-tumulus not far from Crubelz. At one foot (30 centimetres) below the
-undisturbed surface the usual deposit of flint implements was found;
-and two feet (60 centimetres) below them two statuettes of Latona in
-terra-cotta and a coin of Constantine II. were found, but without this
-in the least degree shaking his undoubting faith in the prehistoric
-antiquity of the tomb!<a name="FNanchor_401" id="FNanchor_401"></a><a href="#Footnote_401" class="fnanchor">[401]</a></p>
-
-<p>Numerous other Roman coins have been found in these French monuments,
-but their testimony is disregarded. In the Mann&#233; er H'ro&#235;k, commonly
-called the Butte de C&#233;sar, about half a mile south from Locmariaker,
-near the surface, eleven medals of the Roman emperors, from Tiberius
-to Trajan, were found, together with fragments of bronze, glass, and
-pottery, but there were no signs of a secondary interment.<a name="FNanchor_402" id="FNanchor_402"></a><a href="#Footnote_402" class="fnanchor">[402]</a>
-In like manner, in another monument at Beaumont-sur-Oise, Roman moneys were
-found, but, as M. Bertrand is careful to explain, in a stratum above
-the stone and flint implements, which, of course, he believed to mark
-the true date of the monument.<a name="FNanchor_403" id="FNanchor_403"></a><a href="#Footnote_403" class="fnanchor">[403]</a>
-It seems impossible, however, that all these Roman coins can have
-been accidentally placed there. Those of Valentinian and Theodosius
-in the mound at New Grange were precisely in the same position as
-those of Titus, Domitian, and Trajan in the Butte de C&#233;sar or
-those of Beaumont, and so were those of Constantine found at Uley, in
-Gloucestershire (<i>ante</i>, p. 165). Those of Valentinian at Minning Lowe
-were in the tomb itself; so probably might others have been found in
-the other tombs had they not previously been rifled. It is not easy to
-assign a motive for placing these coins in the upper part of the mound
-externally. Their being found in that position at New Grange, Uley,
-Locmariaker, and Beaumont, is, however, sufficient to prove it was
-not accidental, and their value is so small that they
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span>
-
-could not have been buried there for concealment. They must have had
-something to do with some funereal rite or superstition, the memory of
-which has passed away. No ancient British or Gaulish coins have ever
-been found in similar positions, and no Christian coins, which, had
-their presence been purely accidental, would probably have been the
-case. The inference seems to me inevitable that they were looked on as
-valued relics or curiosities, and placed there intentionally by those
-who raised the mounds it may be very long after the dates which the
-coins bear.</p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Dolmens.</span></h3>
-
-<p>There is nothing specific in the Rude Stone Monuments of France
-sufficient to distinguish them from those of the other countries
-we have been describing. They are larger, finer, and more numerous
-there than in either Scandinavia or the British Isles, but except
-in the negative peculiarity of there being no circles in France
-there is little to distinguish the two groups. It can hardly even be
-absolutely asserted that there are no circles in France. There are
-some semicircles, which may possibly have been parts of circles never
-completed; there are some rows of small stones around or on tumuli; but
-certainly nothing that can for one moment be classed with the great
-circles of Cumberland and Wiltshire, or those of Moytura and Stennis,
-and certainly nothing like the innumerable Scandinavian examples.</p>
-
-<p>We are hardly yet in a position to speculate why this should be so;
-but, so far as I can at present see, I would infer from this that the
-French examples are, as a rule, of earlier date than the British and
-Scandinavian. The circle I take to be one of the latest forms of rude
-stone architecture&mdash;the skeleton of a tumulus, after the flesh of the
-sepulchral mound, which gave meaning to the group, had been thrown on
-one side as no longer indispensable. But of this we shall be better
-able to judge as we proceed.</p>
-
-<p>Another characteristic, although not a distinction, is the fondness of
-the French for the "All&#233;e couverte" or "Grotte des f&#233;es." No examples
-of this form have yet been brought to light in England, but one is
-engraved (<a href="#Illustration80">woodcut No. 80</a>) as the Hag Birra's grave near Monasterboice,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span>
-
-a second from the same neighbourhood, at Greenmount (<a href="#Illustration81">woodcut No. 81</a>), and they exist in Scandinavia, but their home is Drenthe and
-the neighbouring corner of Germany. As already mentioned, upwards of
-fifty examples exist in that province. They are much ruder, it must be
-confessed, than those of France; but this may arise from the nature of
-the only material available; they have also the peculiarity of having
-the entrance always at the side instead of at the end.</p>
-
-<p>So far as their distribution in France has yet been ascertained, the
-Grottes des f&#233;es exist only on the Loire, and to the north of it, in
-fact in the most northern division of the French dolmen region; while,
-on the other hand, as they are principally found in Drenthe, or at the
-southern extremity of the German dolmen field, we may assume that there
-is some connection between the two, or that there would have been if it
-had not been severed by the Belgians before those in either region were
-erected.</p>
-
-<p>One of the finest of the French examples of this class of monuments
-is that near Saumur, at Bagneux. The walls are composed of only four
-stones on one side and three on the other, yet it measures 57 feet 6
-inches by 14 feet 4 inches across. Another, near Ess&#233;, is even larger,
-though not so regular in plan, nor so grand in the character of the
-stones. It measures, however, 61 feet by 12 feet at the entrance,
-increasing to 14 feet over all at the inner end. There is a third at
-Mettray, near Tours, which, though very much smaller, is curiously
-characteristic of the form. The immense mass in the centre (<a href="#Illustration125">woodcut No. 125</a>)
-and the two smaller which form the roof almost take from it
-the character of rude-stone architecture. There is a fourth, of a
-less megalithic character, at Locmariaker,<a name="FNanchor_404" id="FNanchor_404"></a><a href="#Footnote_404" class="fnanchor">[404]</a>
-and several others are dispersed over Brittany. It is not possible
-to know whether the intention may not have been that these, like all
-smaller chambers, should have been buried in tumuli. These just quoted,
-however, certainly never were so, but this may have arisen from their
-having been left unfinished. That at Bagneux, however, could hardly
-have supported a heavy mass without falling in, and that at Mettray
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span>
-
-looks too like a finished monument for any one to fancy its builders wished
-it hid.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration125"></a>
-<img src="images/i_125.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">125.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen near Mettray. From Gailhabaud.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration126"></a>
-<img src="images/i_126.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">126.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen of Krukenho.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The more usual form of French dolmens is either square or slightly in
-excess of that form, seldom reaching two squares in plan, and with a
-height equal to its breadth. One of the finest specimens<a name="FNanchor_405" id="FNanchor_405"></a><a href="#Footnote_405" class="fnanchor">[405]</a>
-of a monument of this class is in the middle of the village of Krukenho,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span>
-
-halfway between Carnac and Erdeven, and is now used as a cart-shed
-or barn. It certainly never was covered up, though its entrance may
-have been closed; indeed, the stones used for that purpose still lie
-in front of it. From this, which may be styled a first-class dolmen
-of the ordinary type, down to the simple dolmen of four stones, like
-Kit's Cotty house, every possible variety and gradation are to be found
-in France; but, so far as I know, no classification has been hit upon
-which would enable us to say which are the oldest or which the more
-modern.</p>
-
-<p>On the whole, however, I am inclined to look on the Grottes des f&#233;es
-as the more modern form. The stones of which they are composed are
-generally hewn, or at least shaped, by metal tools to the extent to
-which those of Stonehenge can be said to be so treated. They also look
-more like ordinary structures than other megalithic monuments, and seem
-rather sepulchral chapels than sepulchres. Even, however, if we were to
-determine to regard them as relatively the most modern of the northern
-dolmens, this would not settle the question of the southern external
-dolmens on tumuli, which may be even more modern. These questions,
-however, must, I fear, remain unanswered till our knowledge of the form
-of the whole group and of the materials of which the monuments are
-composed is more extensive and more accurate than it is at present.</p>
-
-<p>The holed-stone variety occurs frequently in France, either in the form
-of simple four-stone dolmens, like that of Trie, Oise<a name="FNanchor_406" id="FNanchor_406"></a><a href="#Footnote_406" class="fnanchor">[406]</a>
-(<a href="#Illustration127">woodcut No. 127</a>), or in a still more characteristic example at Grandmont, in
-Bas-Languedoc<a name="FNanchor_407" id="FNanchor_407"></a><a href="#Footnote_407" class="fnanchor">[407]</a>
-(<a href="#Illustration128">woodcut No. 128</a>). Certainly neither of these was
-intended to be covered up, at least in the first instance, or, at all
-events, only partially; or the use of the hole, which was, no doubt,
-to get access to the chamber, would have been destroyed. The umbrella
-form of the southern example is hardly such as would ever be used for a
-chamber in a tumulus, but as a pent-roof is singularly suitable for an
-open-air monument. The so-called Coves at Avebury were, I believe, in
-this form, and it prevails also in India<a name="FNanchor_408" id="FNanchor_408"></a><a href="#Footnote_408" class="fnanchor">[408]</a>
-and elsewhere, and the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span>
-
-likeness between the two is so remarkable that it may well have given
-rise to speculations as to their common origin.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration127"></a>
-<img src="images/i_127.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">127.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Holed Dolmen, at Trie. From Gailhabaud.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration128"></a>
-<img src="images/i_128.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">128.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen of Grandmont.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration129"></a>
-<img src="images/i_129.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">129.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Demi-dolmen. From Mal&#233;, 'Antiquit&#233;s du Morbihan.'</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>There is still a form of dolmen very common in France, but found
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span>
-
-also frequently in these islands, though I do not know if it occurs
-in Scandinavia. Mr. Du Noyer proposed to call them "earth-fast
-dolmens,"<a name="FNanchor_409" id="FNanchor_409"></a><a href="#Footnote_409" class="fnanchor">[409]</a>
-from one end of the cap-stones always resting on the
-ground, the other only being supported by a pillar or block. At first
-sight it might appear that they were only unfinished or imperfect
-dolmens, as it is more than probable that the mode of erection, in all
-instances, was to raise first one end of the cap-stone and then the
-other, as by this means the weight is practically halved. If, however,
-any faith is to be placed in this representation of a monument by
-Mal&#233;,<a name="FNanchor_410" id="FNanchor_410"></a><a href="#Footnote_410" class="fnanchor">[410]</a>
-it is clear that it was a deliberate mode of getting rid of
-half the expense and half the trouble of erecting a dolmen sepulchre.
-Generally speaking, however, they are more like the one near Poitiers
-(<a href="#Illustration130">woodcut No. 130</a>), where the stone either rests at one end on a bank or
-on a flat space sloping upwards. Those in Ireland and Wales seem all
-really to be only demi-dolmens, and as economy would hardly be a motive
-in the good old times, I look upon them as probably a very modern
-form of this class of monument. There is, indeed, one at Kerland, in
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span>
-
-Brittany (<a href="#Illustration131">woodcut No. 131</a>), which, in spite
-of the shock such an idea will give to most people, I cannot help
-thinking is and always was a Christian monument. At least it is
-inconceivable to me from what motive any Christian could have erected
-a cross on a pagan monument of this class, if it really were one. It
-seems, on the other hand, perfectly intelligible that long after their
-nominal conversion to Christianity
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span>
-
-the people would adhere to the forms so long practised by their
-ancestors, and there appears to be no great reason why even the most
-bigoted priest should object to it, provided the symbol of the cross
-made it quite clear that the "poor inhabitant below" died in the true
-faith.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration130"></a>
-<img src="images/i_130.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">130.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Demi-dolmen, near Poitiers.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration131"></a>
-<img src="images/i_131.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">131.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Demi-dolmen at Kerland.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>I have purposely refrained from speaking of rocking stones, which play
-so important a part in the forms of Druidical worship invented by
-Stukeley, Borlase, and the antiquaries of the last century, because
-I believe that nine-tenths of those found in this country&mdash;if not
-all&mdash;are merely natural phenomena. So far from being surprised that
-this should be the case, the wonder is that they are not more frequent
-where loose boulders abound, either ice-borne or freed by the washing
-away of the underlying strata. That some of these should rest in an
-unstable equilibrium easily disturbed is only what might be expected,
-and that they would also be matters of marvel to the country people
-around is also natural; but it does not follow from this that any
-priests purposely and designedly placed, or could place, rude stones in
-such positions, or that they used them for religious purposes.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration132"></a>
-<img src="images/i_132.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">132.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Pierre Martine.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In France, however, there is one called the Pierre Martine, near
-Livernon, in the department of the Lot, which was designedly balanced,
-if any one was. Its general appearance will be understood from the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span>
-
-preceding woodcut, taken from 'La France monumentale et pittoresque,'
-which correctly represents its form and appearance.<a name="FNanchor_411" id="FNanchor_411"></a><a href="#Footnote_411" class="fnanchor">[411]</a>
-The cap-stone measures 22 feet by 11 feet, and is 16 inches in thickness, and is so
-balanced on its two points of support that a slight pressure of the
-hand is sufficient to set it oscillating with a motion which it retains
-for some time.<a name="FNanchor_412" id="FNanchor_412"></a><a href="#Footnote_412" class="fnanchor">[412]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration1343"></a>
-<img src="images/i_133.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">133. Pierre Martine. From Bonstetten.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration134"></a>
-<img src="images/i_134.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">134.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Pierre Branlante, in Brittany.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Another and more celebrated one, in Brittany, which is known as the
-Pierre branlante de Huelgoat, seems rather due to accident. It looks
-as if it formed, or was intended to form, part of a demi-dolmen, but
-happening to rest on one of its supports so as to oscillate, it has
-been allowed to remain so. Even assuming, however, that this was done
-designedly, what would it prove beyond the desire which pervades
-all these monuments, of exciting astonishment by <i>tours de force</i>.
-I believe it is correct to say that no passage exists in any book
-ancient or medieval which mentions rocking stones or their uses; nor
-has anyone been able to explain how they delivered their oracles. A
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span>
-
-certain push produced an oscillation, not fitful or irregular, but
-always in proportion to the force applied; so the answer must always
-have been the same and alike to all people. A still more important
-fact is that nowhere do the people appeal to them now. Neither at the
-Beltane nor at Halloween, nor at any of those festivals where country
-people revive every extinct superstition to aid them in prying into
-futurity, are these rocking stones appealed to; and it seems almost
-impossible that, when so many other superstitions have survived, this
-one should be lost, and lost in presence of the rocks themselves, which
-still remain. Wonders they certainly are, but I question much if they
-ever were appealed to for any higher purpose than that of extracting
-sixpences from the pockets of gaping tourists.</p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Carnac.</span></h3>
-
-<p>In a zone about twenty miles in extent, stretching from Erdeven on the
-north-west to Tumiac in a south-easterly direction, and nowhere more
-than five miles in width, there is to be found the most remarkable
-group of megalithic remains, not only in France, but perhaps in the
-whole world. Not only are examples of every class of monument we
-have been describing, except circles, to be found here, but they are
-larger and finer examples than are generally to be met with elsewhere.
-Another point of interest also is that within the zone are found&mdash;if I
-am not mistaken&mdash;both a cemetery and a battle-field. At least in the
-neighbourhood of Locmariaker, which there seems no reason for doubting
-was the Dariorigum of the Romans, the capital of the Venetes in C&#230;sar's
-times,<a name="FNanchor_413" id="FNanchor_413"></a><a href="#Footnote_413" class="fnanchor">[413]</a>
-all the monuments are more or less sculptured, and all the
-stones fashioned, not to say hewn. On the other hand, no stone in the
-neighbourhood of Carnac is hewn, or even fashioned, beyond splitting,
-and no sculptures of any class have been traced. The distinction is too
-marked to be accidental, and unless it can be made out that they belong
-to different ages, which appears to me most improbable, goes far to
-establish the conclusion at which we have arrived in previous chapters.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>To begin with the Carnac monument,<a name="FNanchor_414" id="FNanchor_414"></a><a href="#Footnote_414" class="fnanchor">[414]</a>
-which is the best known and the most important. As will be seen by the
-woodcut on p. 352, it consists of two separate alignments, or great
-stone rows&mdash;one, that of Carnac, extending for nearly two miles
-in a direction nearly east and west; the other, that of Erdeven, at
-a distance of two miles and a half from that at Carnac, being little
-more than one mile in length. There is a third, but smaller, group at
-St.-Barbe, about a mile and a half due south of Erdeven; and numerous
-dolmens and tumuli are spread at intervals all over the plain.</p>
-
-<p>In order to be understood, the Carnac monument must again be subdivided
-into three portions. Beginning at Le Maenec (the Stones), we have
-eleven rows of very fine stones, measuring from 11 feet to 13 feet in
-height from the ground, and still nearly perfect. Gradually, however,
-they become smaller and more sparse, till, when they reach the road
-from Auray to Carnac, there are few of them that measure 3 feet in
-any direction, and some are still smaller. Shortly after passing that
-road the avenues cease altogether, for a distance of more than 300
-yards, there being nothing but a few natural boulders in the interval
-between. When, however, we reach the knoll on which the farm of
-Kermario stands, the avenues reappear, this time only ten in number,
-but perfectly regular, and with stones as large and as regularly spaced
-as those at Maenec. They diminish more and more in size, however, and
-almost die out altogether before they reach the mound (tumulus?) on
-which the windmill stands, and after that become so small and sparse
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span>
-
-that a stranger riding across the line could hardly remark that they
-were artificially disposed, but would merely regard it as a stony
-piece of land. They again cease entirely before we reach the brook, to
-recommence at Kerlescant, where thirteen rows are found; but these are
-composed of stones of less dimensions and more irregularly spaced than
-those at Maenec, and die out much more rapidly. At a distance of less
-than 500 yards from the head of the column they disappear entirely.
-It may be suggested that these gaps arise from the stones having been
-removed for agricultural and other purposes. I think, however, that
-any one who carefully examines the spot will be convinced that we
-really now possess all, or nearly all, that were ever placed here.
-They are thickest and best preserved in the village of Maenec, and at
-Kermario, where buildings are most frequent, and they disappear exactly
-in those places where there are no buildings or walls, but where the
-ground is an open, barren heath, without roads, and whence it would
-be very difficult to transport them; and in so stony a country it is
-very improbable that the attempt would be made. Besides this, the
-gradual way in which they diminish in size before disappearing shows
-a regularity of design, regarding which there can be no mistake. In
-addition to this, the heads of the three divisions are all marked by
-monuments of different kinds, but which are easily recognizable. At
-the head of the Maenec division there is a curvilinear enclosure of
-smaller stones, none of them being more than 6 feet in height, but set
-much closer together than the rows (<a href="#Illustration136">woodcut No. 136</a>). It probably was
-once complete, and, if so, joined the centre stone row. At Kermario,
-a dolmen stands in front of the alignment, not remarkable for its
-size, but conspicuous from its position; and at Kerlescant there is
-a quadrangular<a name="FNanchor_415" id="FNanchor_415"></a><a href="#Footnote_415" class="fnanchor">[415]</a>
-enclosure, three sides of which are composed of stones of smaller
-size and set closely together, like those at Maenec. The fourth side
-is formed by a tumulus or long barrow. This was dug into in 1851, by
-some persons with or without authority; but who they were, or what they
-found, is not recorded.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration135"></a>
-<img src="images/i_135.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">135.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; MAP OF SOME CELTIC ANTIQUITIES<br /><i>IN THE
-NEIGHBOURHOOD</i><br />OF CARNAC</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration136"></a>
-<img src="images/i_136.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">136.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The monument at Erdeven is very inferior in scale to that at Carnac,
-and planned on a different principle. Instead of the heads of the
-division following one another, as at Carnac, they face outwards;
-and, like the fabled Amphisbena, this group has two heads, one at
-each end. The principal one is the western, where there is a group of
-very large stones close to the road, but rather confusedly arranged.
-There seem to be nine or ten rows, and a row of large stones branches
-off at right angles to the north. After extending about 100 yards the
-main column dies out, and is resumed again at a distance of 200 yards,
-in smaller stones much more widely spaced. It is again and again so
-interrupted, that it is sometimes difficult to trace it till we come
-near the eastern end, where it resumes its regularity, possessing eight
-well-defined rows of stones similar to those at the west end.<a name="FNanchor_416" id="FNanchor_416"></a><a href="#Footnote_416" class="fnanchor">[416]</a></p>
-
-<p>At the west end there can still be traced the remains of what was once
-a tumulus, and, beyond that, a single standing menhir. At the east end
-there is a tumulus of a somewhat oval form, and in the centre, a hill,
-or rising ground, apparently natural, on which are placed two dolmens;
-and, south of the east end, a second hill or mound with two more
-similar monuments.</p>
-
-<p>It is not easy to guess whether the lines of St.-Barbe were ever more
-complete than we now find them. My own impression is that we have them
-now very nearly as originally completed. The head facing the west seems
-to have been intended for a curvilinear enclosure similar to that at
-Maenec, but is now, at least, very incomplete. Its most remarkable
-feature is the group of stones at its head (<a href="#Illustration137">woodcut No. 137</a>), two of
-which are the largest and finest blocks in the neighbourhood. The
-farthest away in the view is 19 feet long by 12 feet broad, and 8
-feet thick; the other, seen in the foreground, even exceeds it in
-dimensions. Whether these are like the Coffin stones at Aylesford, or
-the two stones found among the stone rows at Dartmoor, or have, indeed,
-any separate meaning, must be left to be determined when we know more
-of the general scheme on which these monuments were planned.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>There is nothing at present but juxtaposition to justify us in
-connecting these great stone rows with the smaller groups of stones and
-the dolmens or tumuli which stud the plain where they are found. In
-respect to these, what we find at Carnac seems the exact converse of
-what exists at Stonehenge and Stennis. There the great stone monuments
-stand among the pigmy barrows of another race and age. Here all are
-megalithic and all seem to have been erected nearly at the same time,
-and to belong to one people, whoever they may eventually be proved to
-have been. In so far as any argument as to their age is concerned, it
-is at present of little importance whether this is so or not, for they
-are all equally uncommunicative on this subject.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration137"></a>
-<img src="images/i_137.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">137.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Head of Column at St.-Barbe. From Messrs. Blair and
-Ronalds' work.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>One of the tumuli known as Mont St.-Michel, is so situated with
-respect to the Maenec row that it seems impossible to dissociate the
-two. It was opened by M. Ren&#233; Galles in 1862, and an account of his
-researches, in the form of a report to the Pr&#233;fet, was published
-shortly afterwards. The mound itself, at its base, is nearly 400 feet
-in length by half that dimension in width. In modern times its summit
-has been levelled, to form a platform for the church which now occupies
-its eastern summit. In front of the church, M. Galles sunk a shaft
-near the centre of the mound, and came upon a sepulchral chamber of
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span>
-
-irregular form, the side walls of which were formed of very irregular
-and bad masonry of small stones, similar to that of the dolmens at
-Crubelz. Its mean dimensions were about 6 feet by 5 feet, and 3 feet
-6 inches in height. In it were found some magnificent celts of jade
-and tribolite, nine pendents in jasper, and 101 beads in jasper, with
-some in turquoise, all polished and pierced so as to form a necklace.
-The human remains in the principal cell seem utterly to have perished,
-owing probably to the continued penetration of water since, at least,
-the levelling of the summit, though some bones were subsequently found
-in a small chamber adjoining.</p>
-
-<p>On the north side of the avenue at Kerlescant, at a distance of about
-100 paces from it, is a second long barrow, consequently occupying
-the same relative position to it that Mont St.-Michel does to that at
-Maenec. It is so similar in external appearance and general arrangement
-to that forming the north side of the enclosure, which terminates the
-avenue, that there can be little doubt of their being of the same age
-and forming part of the same general arrangement. It had been opened
-some twenty years ago by a gentleman residing at Carnac, but was
-re-examined in 1867 by the Rev. W. C. Lukis.<a name="FNanchor_417" id="FNanchor_417"></a><a href="#Footnote_417" class="fnanchor">[417]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration138"></a>
-<img src="images/i_138.jpg" alt="CAPTION" />
-<div class="caption">138.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Long Barrow at Kerlescant.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the centre he found a long rectangular chamber, measuring 52 feet
-in length by 5 feet in width internally, and divided into two equal
-compartments by two stones cut away in the centre, so as to leave a
-hole 1 foot 6 inches wide by 3 feet high. A similar but smaller hole
-exists on the side, and is identical with those found in the long
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span>
-
-barrows at Rodmarton and Avening in Gloucestershire.<a name="FNanchor_418" id="FNanchor_418"></a><a href="#Footnote_418" class="fnanchor">[418]</a>
-Mr. Lukis, among other things, found an immense quantity of broken
-pottery, some of very fine quality. Two vases which he was enabled to
-restore are interesting from their general resemblance to the two which
-Mr. Bateman found in Arbor Low (<a href="#Illustration31">woodcut No. 31</a>). Though not exactly the
-same in form, there can be little doubt that they belong to the same
-age.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration139"></a>
-<img src="images/i_139.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">139.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Hole between Two Stones at Kerlescant.<a name="FNanchor_419" id="FNanchor_419"></a><a href="#Footnote_419" class="fnanchor">[419]</a></div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration141"></a>
-<img src="images/i_141.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">141.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Vases found at Kerlescant.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>About a mile from this example, Mr. Lukis mentions a still larger
-one. It measures 81 feet in length by 6 feet in width, is divided
-into two compartments like the one just described, and has also a
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span>
-
-holed entrance. He also measured two in Finist&#232;re, one 76 feet, the
-other 66 feet, in length, and both 6 feet wide. Both, however, had
-been rifled long ago, and are now mere ruins. More, no doubt, would be
-found if looked for. Indeed, these straight-lined "all&#233;es couvertes,"
-or "Grottes des f&#233;es," without cells, as the French call them, as
-before mentioned, are the most characteristic, if not the most common,
-form of French rude-stone monuments. The only other place where they
-are equally common is Drenthe, and it may be that this side hole
-at Kerlescant is an approach to the side entrance so usual in that
-province.</p>
-
-<p>At Plouharnel, about a mile and a half westward from Mont St.-Michel, a
-double dolmen was opened a good many years ago. In it were found some
-beautiful gold ornaments, others in bronze, and some celts or stone
-axes in jade<a name="FNanchor_420" id="FNanchor_420"></a><a href="#Footnote_420" class="fnanchor">[420]</a>&mdash;all these, like those of Mont St.-Michel, belonging
-evidently to what antiquaries call the latest period of the Polished
-Stone age; but until it is determined what that age is, it does not
-help us much to a date.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration142"></a>
-<img src="images/i_142.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">142.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan of Moustoir-Carnac.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration143"></a>
-<img src="images/i_143.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">143.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Section of Moustoir-Carnac. From 'M&#233;moire' by Ren&#233;
-Galles</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>To the north of Kerlescant, at about the distance of half a mile,
-is another long barrow, called Moustoir or Moustoir-Carnac, which
-was opened in 1865, also by M. Ren&#233; Galles. It was found to contain
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span>
-
-four separate interments, dispersed along its length, which exceeds
-280 feet, the height varying from 15 to 20 feet. The western chamber
-is a regular dolmen, of the class called "Grottes des f&#233;es," and is
-apparently the oldest of the group. The centre one (<i>b</i>) is a very
-irregular chamber, the plan of which it is difficult to make out; the
-third (<i>c</i>) is a dolmen, irregular in plan, but roofed with three
-large stones; but the fourth (<i>d</i>) is a circular chamber, the walls
-of which are formed of tolerably large stones, the roof being built
-up into the form of a horizontal dome (<a href="#Illustration144">woodcut No. 144</a>), by stones
-projecting and overlapping, instead of the simpler ceiling of single
-blocks as on all the earlier monuments. This, as well as the walls,
-being built with small stones, I take to be a certain indication of
-a more modern age. A considerable number of flint implements were
-found in the western chamber, with some beads and a partially pierced
-cylinder in serpentine, but no coins, nor any object of an age which
-can be positively dated. Here, however, these troublesome Roman tiles
-make their appearance as at Crubelz. "Ici, comme &#224; Man&#233; er H'ro&#235;k,
-nous trouvons les traces caract&#233;ristiques du conquerant (les Romains):
-des tuiles &#224; rebord ont croul&#233;, au pied de notre butte fun&#233;raire, et
-plusieurs m&#234;me se sont gliss&#233;es &#224; travers les couches sup&#233;rieures des
-pierres, qui forment une partie de la masse."<a name="FNanchor_421" id="FNanchor_421"></a><a href="#Footnote_421" class="fnanchor">[421]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration144"></a>
-<img src="images/i_144.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">144.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Section of Chamber <i>d</i> of Moustier-Carnac.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>If these monuments are really prehistoric, it is to me incomprehensible
-that these traces of the Romans should be so generally prevalent in
-their structure. If it is objected that these are not found in the
-chambers of the tombs themselves, the answer seems only too evident
-that hardly one of them is virgin: all, or nearly all, have been
-entered before the time of recent explorers, and all their more
-valuable contents removed. Celts and beads and stone implements were
-not likely to attract the attention of early pilferers, and these they
-left; but except in the instance of the sepulchre at Plouharnel, metal
-is very rarely found in any. But the presence of Roman pottery, or
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span>
-
-other evidence of that people, in the long barrows in Gloucestershire,
-at Kennet, and at Carnac, are too frequent to be accidental. In so far
-as proving that the monument is not prehistoric, the presence of a
-single fragment of Roman pottery is as conclusive as a hoard of coins
-would be, provided it is found so placed that it could not have been
-inserted there after the mound was complete; and this I fancy is the
-case in all the instances mentioned above.</p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Locmariaker.</span></h3>
-
-<p>It is rather to be regretted that no good survey exists of this
-cemetery. Not that much depends on the juxtaposition of the monuments,
-but that, as the French are continually changing their names, and most
-of them have two, it is not always easy to feel sure which monument
-is being spoken of at any particular time. Those on the mainland are
-situated in a zone about a mile in length, running north and south,
-between Man&#233; Lud, the most northern, and Man&#233; er H'ro&#235;k, the most
-southern. The first-named is a long barrow, 260 feet by about 165,
-but not, as in England, of one age or containing only one, but, like
-Moustoir-Carnac, several sepulchres, which may either be of the same
-age or erected at different though hardly distant periods, and joined
-together by being buried under one great mound. Of the three which Man&#233;
-Lud contains, the most interesting is the partially covered dolmen at
-the west end. It consists of a chamber of somewhat irregular form, but
-measuring 12 feet by 10 feet, and covered by one enormous block of
-stone, measuring 29 feet by 15 feet, and with a passage leading to it,
-making the whole length from the entrance to the central block of the
-chamber 20 feet. According to Mr. Ferguson,<a name="FNanchor_422" id="FNanchor_422"></a><a href="#Footnote_422" class="fnanchor">[422]</a>
-five of the blocks of this dolmen are sculptured; according to
-M. Ren&#233; Galles,<a name="FNanchor_423" id="FNanchor_423"></a><a href="#Footnote_423" class="fnanchor">[423]</a>
-nine are so ornamented. The stone, however, is so rough and the place so
-dark that it is difficult at times to distinguish them and always so
-to draw them. The principal objects represented seem to be intended
-for boats and hatchets, but there are other figures which cannot be
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span>
-
-so classed, and, though it may be rash to call them writing, they may
-mean numbers or cyphers of some sort. Their great interest is, however,
-their similarity to the engravings on Irish monuments. If any one will,
-for instance, compare this woodcut (No. 145) and woodcut No. 68 from
-New Grange, he can hardly fail to see a likeness which cannot well be
-accidental; and in like manner the curvilinear forms of woodcut No.
-146, in a manner hardly to be mistaken, resemble those from Clover Hill
-(<a href="#Illustration77">woodcut No. 77</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration145"></a>
-<img src="images/i_145.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">145.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Sculpture at Man&#233; Lud.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration146"></a>
-<img src="images/i_146.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">146.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Sculpture at Man&#233; Lud.<a name="FNanchor_424" id="FNanchor_424"></a><a href="#Footnote_424" class="fnanchor">[424]</a>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration147"></a>
-<img src="images/i_147.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">147.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; View of Dol ar Marchant. From Blair and Ronald.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Close by Man&#233; Lud, but a little nearer to Locmariaker, stands what may
-be considered as the most interesting, if not the finest, free-standing
-dolmen in France. Its roof consists of two stones: one of these
-measures 18 feet by 9 feet,<a name="FNanchor_425" id="FNanchor_425"></a><a href="#Footnote_425" class="fnanchor">[425]</a>
-and more than 3 feet in thickness. The second stone is very much smaller,
-and seems to form a sort of porch to it. The great stone rests, like
-that of most free-standing dolmens, on three points, their architects
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span>
-
-having early learned how difficult it was to make sure of their resting
-on more; so that unless they wanted a wall to keep out the stuff out
-of which the tumulus was to be composed, they generally poised them on
-three points like that at Castle Wellan (<a href="#Illustration7">woodcut No. 7</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration148"></a>
-<img src="images/i_148.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">148.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; End Stone, Dol ar Marchant.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration149"></a>
-<img src="images/i_149.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">149.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Hatchet in roof of Dol ar Marchant.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The great interest in this dolmen, however, lies in its sculptures. The
-stone which closes the east end is shaped into the form of two sides of
-an equilateral spherical triangle and covered with sculptures, which
-this time are neither characters nor representations of living things,
-but purely decorative. At one time I thought the form of a cross could
-be traced on the stone. The central stem and the upper arm are shown
-clearly enough in the drawing by Mr. Ferguson; but all the drawings
-show a lower cross-arm&mdash;though I confess I did not see it&mdash;which quite
-destroys this idea. On the roof a well-sculptured plumed<a name="FNanchor_426" id="FNanchor_426"></a><a href="#Footnote_426" class="fnanchor">[426]</a>
-hatchet can be traced very distinctly, as shown in the woodcut copied from Mr.
-Ferguson. He fancies he can also trace the form of a plough in the
-sculptures of the roof, but this seems doubtful.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>It is to this dolmen that the great fallen obelisk belongs. If it
-was one stone, it measured 64 feet in length and 13 feet across its
-greatest diameter; but I confess I cannot, from the mode in which it
-has fallen, rid myself of the idea that it was in reality two obelisks,
-and not one. Whether this was the case or not, it is a remarkable work
-of art for a rude people, for it certainly has been shaped with care,
-and with the same amount of labour might have been made square or round
-or any other shape that might have been desired. This, however, is
-one of the peculiarities of the style. No one will dispute that this
-obelisk and the stones of the Dol ar Marchant are hewn; but instead of
-adopting the geometrical forms, of which we are so fond, they preferred
-those that reminded them of their old rude monuments, and which to
-their eyes were more beautiful than the straight lines of the Romans. I
-do not feel quite sure that artistically they were not right.</p>
-
-<p>If we compare this dolmen with that at Krukenho (<a href="#Illustration126">woodcut No. 126</a>), the
-difference between them appears very striking. The Del ar Marchant is a
-regular tripod dolmen, carefully built of shaped stones and engraved.
-The other is a magnificent cist, walled with rude stones, and such as
-would form a chamber in a tumulus if buried in one, though whether this
-particular example was ever intended to be so treated or not is by no
-means clear. Be this as it may, there are two modes of accounting for
-the difference between two monuments so nearly alike in dimensions and
-situated so near to one another. The first would be to assume that the
-Krukenho example is the oldest, it being the rudest and approaching
-more nearly to the primitive form of the monuments: the second would
-be to assume that the one was the memorial of some warrior, erected in
-haste on the battle-field where he fell, by his companions in arms;
-and that the other was a royal sepulchre, prepared at leisure either
-by the king himself or by those who succeeded him in times of peace,
-and consequently who had leisure for such works. We must know more of
-these monuments before a satisfactory choice can be made between these
-two hypotheses. At present I rather incline to the belief that the
-circumstances under which they were erected may have more to do with
-their differences than their relative ages.</p>
-
-<p>To return to Locmariaker. Close to the town there is, or was, a long
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span>
-
-all&#233;e couverte.<a name="FNanchor_427" id="FNanchor_427"></a><a href="#Footnote_427" class="fnanchor">[427]</a>
-It is 70 feet long, and divided towards its inner end into a square
-chamber, to which a long-slightly curved gallery led, composed
-of fourteen stones on each side. Five of these are covered with
-ornaments, and characters engraved on them. One might be considered
-as representing the leaf of a fern, or possibly a palm; the rest are
-ovals, circles, and similar ornaments, which may or may not have more
-meaning than those at New Grange or other monuments in the locality.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration150"></a>
-<img src="images/i_150.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">150. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Stone found inside Chamber at Man&#233; er H'ro&#235;k.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>On the other side of the village is the tumulus already mentioned as
-Man&#233; er H'ro&#235;k, where the twelve Roman coins were found, and inside
-it an immense collection of polished celts, but all broken, and one
-slab, which apparently originally closed the door, and is covered with
-sculptured hatchets, similar in character to that on the roof of the
-Dol ar Marchant, but not so carefully drawn nor so well engraved.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration151"></a>
-<img src="images/i_151.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">151.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan of Gavr Innis.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Besides these there are several&mdash;probably as many as a dozen&mdash;monuments
-of the same class, within what may fairly be considered the limits of
-this cemetery; but of these the most interesting, as well as the most
-perfect, is that on the island of Gavr Innis, about 2 miles eastward
-from Locmariaker.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration152"></a>
-<img src="images/i_152.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">152.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Sculptures at Gavr Innis. From a drawing by Sir
-Henry Dryden.<a name="FNanchor_428" id="FNanchor_428"></a><a href="#Footnote_428" class="fnanchor">[428]</a></div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration153"></a>
-<img src="images/i_153.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">153.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Holed Stone, Gavr Innis. From a drawing by Sir
-Henry Dryden.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The plan of the chamber of this monument will be understood from the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span>
-
-annexed plan.<a name="FNanchor_429" id="FNanchor_429"></a><a href="#Footnote_429" class="fnanchor">[429]</a>
-The gallery of entrance measures 44 feet from where the lining stones
-begin to the chamber, which is quadrangular in form, and measures 9
-feet by 8 feet. All the six stones forming the three sides of the
-chamber, and most of those which line the entrance on either hand,
-are most elaborately sculptured with patterns, the character of which
-will be understood from the annexed woodcuts. The pattern, it will be
-observed, is not so flowing or graceful as those found at New Grange
-or Dowth, and nowhere, I believe, can it be said to imitate vegetable
-forms; and in the woodcut on the left-hand stone are some seventeen
-or eighteen figures, which are generally supposed to represent celts,
-and probably do so; but if they do, from their position they must mean
-something more, either numbers or names, but, whatever it may be, its
-meaning has not yet been guessed. On other stones there are waving
-lines, which are very generally assumed to represent serpents, and, I
-believe, correctly so; but as that is somewhat doubtful, it is as well
-to refrain from citing them. Besides these, the general pattern is
-circles within circles, and flowing lines nearly equidistant, but,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span>
-
-except on one stone, never of spirals, and then less graceful than the
-Irish. The sculpture, however, on some of the stones at Lough Crew,
-and that in the centre especially of woodcut No. 75, is absolutely
-identical with the patterns found here; and altogether there is more
-similarity between these sculptures and those at Lough Crew than
-between almost any other monuments of the class that I know of.</p>
-
-<p>In the chamber on the left-hand side is a stone (<a href="#Illustration153">woodcut No. 153</a>),
-with three holes in it, which have given rise to an unlimited amount
-of speculation. Generally it is assumed that it was here that the
-Druids tied up the human victims whom they were about to sacrifice.
-But, without going back to the question as to whether there ever were
-any Druids in the Morbihan, would any priest choose a small dungeon 8
-feet square and absolutely dark for the performance of one of their
-greatest and most solemn rites? So far as we know anything of human
-sacrifices, they were always performed in the open day and in the
-presence of multitudes. Assuming for the moment, however, that these
-holes were intended for some such purpose, two would have sufficed, and
-these of a form much simpler and more easily cut. As will be seen from
-the woodcut, not only are the three holes joined, but a ledge or trough
-is sunk below them which might hold oil or holy water, and must, it
-appears to me, have been intended for some such purpose.</p>
-
-<p>The existence of these holes seems to set at rest another question of
-some interest. Generally it has been assumed that the tattooing on the
-stones of the chambers, &amp;c., may have been done with stone implements.
-This cannot be denied, though it seems improbable; but the undercutting
-of the passages between these holes and the formation of the trough
-could only be effected by a tool which would bear a blow on its head,
-and a heavy one too, or, in other words, by some well-tempered metal
-tool.</p>
-
-<p>At Tumiac, opposite Gavr Innis, existed a very large tumulus, which
-was opened in 1853 by Messrs. Fouquet and L. Galles. It was found to
-contain a small chamber, partly formed of large slabs, partly of small
-stones. Some of the former had rude carvings upon them, but without any
-meaning that can now be made out.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The whole has the appearance of being considerably more modern than
-Gavr Innis.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>Besides these, in the neighbourhood of Carnac and Locmariaker, there
-are at least three other groups of stones in France which deserve much
-more attention than has hitherto been bestowed upon them. The first is
-in the peninsula of Crozon, forming the southern side of the roadstead
-of Brest. It consists, among others, of three alignments of stones. The
-principal one is at a place called Kerdouadec, and consists of a single
-line of stones 1600 feet in length, arranged on a slightly curved plan,
-and terminating in a curious "Swastica"-like cross. The second, at
-Carmaret, is a single line, 900 feet long, and with two branches at
-right angles to it, near its centre. The third, at Leur&#233;, is likewise
-a single line with a slight elbow in the centre, from which starts a
-short branch at right angles.<a name="FNanchor_430" id="FNanchor_430"></a><a href="#Footnote_430" class="fnanchor">[430]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration154"></a>
-<img src="images/i_154.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">154.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Alignments at Crozon.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>I am not able to offer a conjecture what these alignments represent,
-nor why or when they were placed here. Whether an inspection on the
-spot might suggest some clue is not clear, but they are so unlike
-anything found anywhere else, either in France or any other country,
-that they must for the present, I fear, remain a mystery.</p>
-
-<p>The second group, known as the Gr&#233; de Cojou, is situated about halfway
-between Rennes and Redon. The remains here consist of a short double
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span>
-
-alignment some 500 feet long, several tumuli&mdash;one at least surmounted
-by a circle of stones&mdash;several stone enclosures, and frequent dolmens.
-They have been imperfectly described by M. Ram&#233;,<a name="FNanchor_431" id="FNanchor_431"></a><a href="#Footnote_431" class="fnanchor">[431]</a>
-and planned, but not published, by Sir Henry Dryden. Until these are
-given to the world more in detail than has hitherto been done, it is
-impossible to say whether they represent a battle-field or a cemetery.
-From their position&mdash;a bleak, barren heath, far from any centre of
-population&mdash;I would guess the former; but I have not visited the
-place myself, and the information at my command is too meagre to enable
-me to speak with any confidence regarding them.</p>
-
-<p>The third group is in the department of the Lot, near Preissac, in
-the parish of Junies, and extends over half a mile (800 metres) in
-length. Unfortunately we have nothing but verbal descriptions of it,
-and from these it is impossible to realise its form, or predicate its
-destination.<a name="FNanchor_432" id="FNanchor_432"></a><a href="#Footnote_432" class="fnanchor">[432]</a>
-We are, indeed, in a state of great ignorance with regard to all
-these megalithic remains in the south of France, but as they seem as
-important and as numerous as those in the north, it is to be hoped some
-one will devote an autumn to their illustration. There are probably
-several other groups as important as those at Junies, but they are
-quite unknown to us at present. These groups must therefore be put
-aside for the present, and any argument regarding age or use of this
-class of monuments must be based wholly on what we know of those of the
-Morbihan.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>So far as I know, no reasonable tradition attaches to any of the
-monuments in the Locmariaker cemetery which would enable us to fix
-their dates with anything like certainty, nor are there any local
-circumstances, except the Roman coins and tiles above alluded to, which
-aid us in our researches. We are thus left to such general inferences
-as the case admits of, and to a comparison with other similar monuments
-whose dates are nearer and better ascertained. No one, however, who is
-familiar with the two great cemeteries of Meath will probably hesitate
-in admitting that the two groups cannot be far separated in date. Of
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span>
-
-course, it is impossible in a general work like the present to put the
-evidence forward in anything like a complete state. In order to do
-this in a satisfactory manner would require a large volume to itself,
-and the illustrations both of the French and Irish examples should be
-drawn by the same person. Even the few illustrations that have been
-given are probably sufficient to show a similarity so great that it
-can hardly be accidental, and I may be allowed to add, from personal
-familiarity with both groups of monuments, that it seems impossible
-to escape the conviction that they are monuments of the same class,
-probably of the same or a closely allied race, and of about the same
-age. This last must always be the most uncertain premiss of the three,
-as we can scarcely hope ever to know the relative state of civilization
-of the two countries at a given time; and consequently, even if we
-could prove that two ornaments in the two countries were identical in
-form, this would not prove that there might not be a difference of
-fifty or a hundred years between them. Even at a later age, in the
-thirteenth century, for instance, the same form and the same style in
-France and England did not prevent a difference of fifty years existing
-between any two examples. In the fourteenth the two were abreast, and
-in the fifteenth century they again diverged, so that, although the
-architecture of both was still Gothic, a comparison of style for this
-purpose became almost impossible.</p>
-
-<p>In like manner, though the central ornament in the middle stone at
-Lough Crew (<a href="#Illustration75">woodcut No. 75</a>) is almost identical with some of the
-ornaments at Gavr Innis (<a href="#Illustration152">woodcut No. 152</a>),
-it by no means necessarily
-follows that the two are exactly of the same age. So, too, the foliage
-at New Grange (<a href="#Illustration67">woodcut No.67</a>) and that in the all&#233;e&mdash;now, I fear,
-destroyed&mdash;at Locmariaker are evidently of one style, but still admit
-of a certain latitude of date. On the whole, judging from style alone,
-I should feel inclined to range Gavr Innis rather with the cemetery at
-Lough Crew than with that on the Boyne; as well from its ornaments as
-because I fancy that those monuments which are roofed with flat stones
-only are earlier than those which make some attempt at construction.
-But, on the other hand, I believe that Man&#233; er H'ro&#235;k and Man&#233; Lud may
-more probably range with New Grange and Dowth; and as I look upon it
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span>
-
-as quite certain that the monuments on the Boyne were all erected in
-the first four centuries after the birth of Christ, it seems impossible
-that the age of those at Locmariaker can be very distant from that date.</p>
-
-<p>To many it will no doubt seem improbable that these monuments should
-have been erected during the occupation of the country by the Romans.
-If, however, they would take the trouble of studying what is now going
-on in India, their incredulity would, I fancy, soon disappear. The
-natives there at the present day are in many parts of the country
-building temples which it requires a practised eye to distinguish from
-those erected before any European settled in the land; and they follow
-their own customs, and worship their own gods, utterly irrespective of,
-and uninfluenced by, the strangers who have held the chief sway in the
-country for more than a hundred years. It must also be borne in mind
-that the Romans never really settled in Brittany. The country was poor
-then as now, and it led to nowhere. So long as the Bretons remained
-quiet, the Romans seem to have left them to themselves, and certainly
-have left no traces of any establishment of importance in their
-country&mdash;nothing that would lead us to suspect such intimate relations
-with the natives as would induce them to change their faith or fashions
-and copy the institutions of the foreigners.</p>
-
-<p>On the other hand, it seems not only possible, but probable, that
-intercourse with the Romans may first have inspired the inhabitants
-of Brittany with a desire to attain greater durability and more
-magnificence, by the employment of stone, instead of earth or wood,
-for their monuments. This they might do, without its creating in
-their minds the smallest desire to copy either Roman forms or Roman
-institutions. On the contrary, we have every reason to believe that in
-these remote districts the Romans would be hated as conquerors, and
-that their religion and their customs would be held in abhorrence as
-strange and unsuited to the land they occupied.</p>
-
-<p>Be this as it may, a comparison with the Irish examples reduces the
-questions at issue with regard to dates within very narrow limits.
-Either these monuments were erected immediately before or during the
-time of the Roman occupation or immediately after their departure,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span>
-
-but prior to the conversion of the natives to Christianity. We are not
-yet in a position to decide positively between these two hypotheses,
-but the presence of Roman coins and Roman tiles in some of the mounds
-and the whole aspect of the argument seem to me to incline the balance
-in favour of their belonging to Roman times. Some may be anterior to
-the Christian era, but I am very much mistaken if it be not eventually
-admitted that the greater number of them are subsequent to that epoch.</p>
-
-<p>Even, however, if the age of the monuments of the cemetery of
-Locmariaker could be ascertained, it would by no means necessarily
-carry with it that of the stone rows at Carnac. They belong to a
-different category altogether, and may be of a different age.</p>
-
-<p>No one now, I presume, after what has been said above, especially with
-regard to the Scandinavian examples, will think it necessary that I
-should go over the ground to prove that they are not temples. Every
-argument that could be adduced to prove that Avebury or Stonehenge are
-not temples tells with tenfold force here. A temple extending over six
-or seven miles of country is more improbable than one covering only
-28 acres. This one, too, is open everywhere, and has no enclosure or
-"temenos" of any sort, and there being an uneven number of equally
-spaced rows of stones in the principal monument is sufficient to show
-it was not intended and could not be used for processions. In fact I
-hardly know of any proposition that appears to me so manifestly absurd
-as that these stone rows were temples, and I feel sure that no one who
-thinks twice of the matter will venture again to affirm it.</p>
-
-<p>It seems equally clear that they were not erected for any civic or
-civil purpose. No meetings could be held, and no administrative
-functions could be carried on in or around them. Nor are they
-sepulchral in any ordinary sense of the term. In the first place
-because, though men were buried in tumuli or under dolmens, or had
-single head-stones, nowhere were men buried in rows like this,
-extending over miles of heath and barren country. But the great fact
-is that the French savants have dug repeatedly about these stones and
-found no trace of burials. The most conclusive experiment of the sort
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span>
-
-was made by a road surveyor some six or seven years ago. Wishing to
-raise the road from Auray to Carnac, he dug out the sand and gravel on
-the east side of the road, over a considerable area, to a depth of from
-three to four feet; but being of a conservative turn of mind, he left
-the eleven rows of stones each standing on a little pillar of sand. It
-was then easy to trace the undisturbed strata of differently coloured
-earth round and almost under the stones, and to feel perfectly certain
-that it had never been disturbed by any inhumation. It, no doubt, is
-true that the long barrow at Kerlescant, the dolmen at Kermario, and
-the enclosure at Maenec, may have been, indeed most probably were,
-all of them, burying-places, but they can no more be considered the
-monument than the drums and fifes can be considered the regiment. They
-are only the adjuncts; the great rows must be considered as essentially
-the monuments.</p>
-
-<p>If, therefore, they are neither temples, nor town-halls, nor even
-sepulchres, we are driven back on the only remaining group of motives
-which, so far as I know, ever induced mankind to expend time and labour
-on the erection of perfectly unutilitarian erections. They must be
-trophies&mdash;the memorials of some great battle or battles that at some
-time or other were fought out on this plain. The fact of the head of
-each division being a tomb is in favour of this hypothesis; but if it
-is considered as the principal part, it is like drawing a jackdaw with
-a peacock's tail&mdash;an absurdity into which these men of the olden time
-would hardly fall.</p>
-
-<p>It is more difficult to answer the questions, Are Carnac and Erdeven
-parts of one great design, or two separate monuments? Is Carnac the
-march, St.-Barbe the position before the battle, Erdeven the scene
-of the final struggle for the heights that gave the victory, and the
-tombs scattered over the plain between these alignments the graves of
-those who fell in that fight? Such appears to me the only feasible
-explanation of what we here find; but the great question still remains,
-What fight?</p>
-
-<p>There is, probably, no single instance in which the negative argument
-derived from the silence of the classical authors applies with such
-force as to this. If these stones existed when C&#230;sar waged war against
-the Veneti in this quarter, he must have seen them, and as it may be
-presumed that the monument was then more complete than it is now, he
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span>
-
-could hardly have failed to be struck with it, and, if so, to have
-mentioned it in his 'Commentaries.' Even, however, if he neglected
-them, the officers of his army must have seen these stones. They must
-have been talked about in Rome, and some gossip like Pliny, when
-writing about stones, must have heard of this wonderful group, and
-have alluded to it in some way. The silence, however, is absolute. No
-medi&#230;val rhapsodist even attempts to give them a pre-Roman origin.
-Such traditions as that of St. Cornely, or Cornelius the Centurion,
-though absurd enough, point, as such traditions generally do, to the
-transition time between paganism and Christianity, when, apparently,
-all medi&#230;val chroniclers seem to have believed that all these
-rude-stone monuments were erected. Till, therefore, some stronger
-argument than has yet been adduced, or some new analogy be suggested,
-the pre-Roman theory must be set aside; and if this is so, we are
-tolerably safe in assuming that no battle of sufficient importance was
-fought which these stones could be erected to commemorate during the
-time when the Romans held supreme sway in the country.</p>
-
-<p>If this is so, our choice of an event to be represented by these great
-stone rows is limited to the period which elapsed between the overthrow
-of the Roman power by Maximus, <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 383, and the time when the
-people of the country were completely converted to Christianity&mdash;which
-happened in the early part of the sixth century.<a name="FNanchor_433" id="FNanchor_433"></a><a href="#Footnote_433" class="fnanchor">[433]</a>
-But if the history of England is confused and uncertain during that
-century and a half, that of Brittany is even more so, and has not yet
-been elucidated by the French authorities to the same extent as ours
-has been.</p>
-
-<p>No one, I believe, doubts that Maximus, coming with an army from
-Britain, landed somewhere in Brittany, where he fought a great battle
-with the forces of Gratian, whom he defeated, and that afterwards,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span>
-
-in a second battle near Lyons, he expelled the legitimate government
-of the Romans from Gaul.<a name="FNanchor_434" id="FNanchor_434"></a><a href="#Footnote_434" class="fnanchor">[434]</a>
-I also see no reason for doubting that he was accompanied by a British
-prince Conan Meriadec, who afterwards settled in the country with
-thousands of his emigrant countrymen, over whom he was enabled to
-establish his chieftainship on the ruins of the Roman power.</p>
-
-<p>If this is so, the battle which destroyed the Roman power, and gave
-rise to the native dynasty, would be worthy of such a monument as that
-at Carnac; but so far as local traditions go, the place where Maximus
-and his British allies landed was near St. Malo, and the battle was
-fought at a place called Alleth, near St. Servan.<a name="FNanchor_435" id="FNanchor_435"></a><a href="#Footnote_435" class="fnanchor">[435]</a>
-If this is so, it was too far off to have any connection with the
-Carnac stones. Two other wars seem to have been carried on by Conan,
-one in 410 against a people who are merely called barbarians,<a name="FNanchor_436" id="FNanchor_436"></a><a href="#Footnote_436" class="fnanchor">[436]</a>
-a second against the Romans under Exuperantius in 416;<a name="FNanchor_437" id="FNanchor_437"></a><a href="#Footnote_437" class="fnanchor">[437]</a>
-but we have no local particulars which would enable us to connect these
-wars with our stones. A war of liberation against Rome would be worthy
-of a national monument, and it may be that this is such a one, but I
-know of nothing to connect the two together, though local enquiries on
-the spot might remove this difficulty.</p>
-
-<p>On the whole, however, I am more inclined to look among the events of
-the next reign for a key to the riddle. Grallon was engaged in two
-wars at least: one against the Roman consul Liberius in 439,<a name="FNanchor_438" id="FNanchor_438"></a><a href="#Footnote_438" class="fnanchor">[438]</a>
-in which he succeeded in frustrating the attempts of that people to
-recover their lost power; the other against the "Norman pirates;"<a name="FNanchor_439" id="FNanchor_439"></a><a href="#Footnote_439" class="fnanchor">[439]</a>
-and it is to this, as connecting the stone monuments with a Northern
-people, that I should be inclined to ascribe the erection of the Carnac
-alignments. From Grallon being the reputed founder of Landevenec, it
-might seem more probable that the alignments at Crozon marked the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span>
-
-position of this battle, and I am not prepared to dispute that it may
-be so. The question is not of importance; if either group marked a
-battle-field of this period, the other certainly did so also, and I
-would prefer to refrain from offering any opinion as to what particular
-battle these stones commemorate. That must be determined by some
-local antiquary with much more intimate knowledge of the history and
-traditions of the province than I possess. All I wish to show here is
-that there was a period of a century and a half between the departure
-of the Romans and the time when the Bretons were so completely
-converted to Christianity as to abandon their old habits and customs,
-and that during that period there were wars with the Romans and the
-Northern barbarians of sufficient importance to justify the erection
-of any monuments within the competence of the people. If this is so,
-and we are limited to this period, enough is established in so far as
-the argument of this work is concerned, and the rest may fairly be
-left to be discussed and determined by the local antiquaries. All that
-it is necessary to contend for here is, that the alignments at Carnac
-are neither temples, nor tombs, nor town-halls, and that they were not
-erected before the time of the Romans. If these negative propositions
-are answered, there will not, probably, be much difficulty in admitting
-that they must be trophies, and that the battle or campaign which they
-commemorate was fought between the years 380 and 550 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>&mdash;in
-fact in the Arthurian age, to which we have ascribed most of those in
-this country.</p>
-
-<p>The monuments in the cemetery at Locmariaker are probably older, but
-some of them extend down to the time when Carnac "closed the line in
-glory."</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Number of Dolmens in Thirty-one Departments of France according to<br />
-M. Bertrand, 1864.</span><a name="FNanchor_440" id="FNanchor_440"></a><a href="#Footnote_440" class="fnanchor">[440]</a></p>
-
-<table summary="dolmens">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl">Dolmens.</td>
-<td class="tdc">Terminations in <i>ac</i>.</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Lot</td>
-<td class="tdr">500</td>
-<td class="tdr">71</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Finist&#232;re</td>
-<td class="tdr">500</td>
-<td class="tdr">3</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Morbihan</td>
-<td class="tdr">250</td>
-<td class="tdr">26</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Ard&#232;che</td>
-<td class="tdr">155</td>
-<td class="tdr">16</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Aveyron</td>
-<td class="tdr">125</td>
-<td class="tdr">35</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Dordogne</td>
-<td class="tdr">100</td>
-<td class="tdr">75</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Vienne (Haute et Basse)</td>
-<td class="tdr">82</td>
-<td class="tdr">41</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Côtes du Nord</td>
-<td class="tdr">56</td>
-<td class="tdr">8</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Maine-et-Loire</td>
-<td class="tdr">53</td>
-<td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Eure-et-Loir</td>
-<td class="tdr">40</td>
-<td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Gard</td>
-<td class="tdr">32</td>
-<td class="tdr">16</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Aube</td>
-<td class="tdr">28</td>
-<td class="tdr">1</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Indre-et-Loire</td>
-<td class="tdr">28</td>
-<td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Charente</td>
-<td class="tdr">26</td>
-<td class="tdr">50</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Creuse</td>
-<td class="tdr">26</td>
-<td class="tdr">6</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Charente-Inf&#233;rieure</td>
-<td class="tdr">24</td>
-<td class="tdr">21</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Loz&#232;re</td>
-<td class="tdr">19</td>
-<td class="tdr">16</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Corr&#232;ze</td>
-<td class="tdr">17</td>
-<td class="tdr">42</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Vend&#233;e</td>
-<td class="tdr">17</td>
-<td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Loire-Inf&#233;rieure</td>
-<td class="tdr">16</td>
-<td class="tdr">11</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Sarthe</td>
-<td class="tdr">15</td>
-<td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Ille-et-Vilaine</td>
-<td class="tdr">15</td>
-<td class="tdr">18</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Deux-S&#232;vres</td>
-<td class="tdr">15</td>
-<td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Orne</td>
-<td class="tdr">14</td>
-<td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Indre</td>
-<td class="tdr">13</td>
-<td class="tdr">3</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Manche</td>
-<td class="tdr">13</td>
-<td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Pyr&#233;n&#233;es-Orientales</td>
-<td class="tdr">12</td>
-<td class="tdr">2</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Puy-de-Dôme</td>
-<td class="tdr">10</td>
-<td class="tdr">3</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Oise</td>
-<td class="tdr">9</td>
-<td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Cantal</td>
-<td class="tdr">8</td>
-<td class="tdr">37</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Tarn-et-Garonne</td>
-<td class="tdr">7</td>
-<td class="tdr">16</td>
-</tr>
-
-</table>
-
-
-<div class="topspace1"></div>
-<div class="footnotes">
-<blockquote>
-<p class="footnote"><span class="smcap"><b>Footnotes</b></span></p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_379" id="Footnote_379"></a><a href="#FNanchor_379"><span class="label">[379]</span></a>
-'Revue arch&#233;ologique,' August, 1864, 148 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_380" id="Footnote_380"></a><a href="#FNanchor_380"><span class="label">[380]</span></a>
-Livy, v. chap. 34.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_381" id="Footnote_381"></a><a href="#FNanchor_381"><span class="label">[381]</span></a>
- Walcknaer, 'G&#233;ographie des Gaules.'
-The earlier chapters and Map V.
-</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_382" id="Footnote_382"></a><a href="#FNanchor_382"><span class="label">[382]</span></a>
-'Revue arch&#233;ologique,' new series,
-vii. 228.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_383" id="Footnote_383"></a><a href="#FNanchor_383"><span class="label">[383]</span></a>
-<i>Ibid.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_384" id="Footnote_384"></a><a href="#FNanchor_384"><span class="label">[384]</span></a>
-'De Bello Gall.' i. 1.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_385" id="Footnote_385"></a><a href="#FNanchor_385"><span class="label">[385]</span></a>
-Strabo, vi. 176, 189.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_386" id="Footnote_386"></a><a href="#FNanchor_386"><span class="label">[386]</span></a>
-'Arch&#230;ological Journal,' 1870, cviii. p. 225 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_387" id="Footnote_387"></a><a href="#FNanchor_387"><span class="label">[387]</span></a>
-Lartet, Christy, and 'Reliqui&#230; Aquitanic&#230;.'
-London, 1865 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_388" id="Footnote_388"></a><a href="#FNanchor_388"><span class="label">[388]</span></a>
-'Monuments m&#233;galithiques du Vivarais,'
-p. Oll. de Marchand; Montpellier, 1870.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_389" id="Footnote_389"></a><a href="#FNanchor_389"><span class="label">[389]</span></a>
-'Époques ant&#233;historiques du Poitou,'
-P. A. Brouillet; Poitiers, 1865.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_390" id="Footnote_390"></a><a href="#FNanchor_390"><span class="label">[390]</span></a>
-This list must be taken as only
-tentative. All I have done was to take
-the Atlas Joanne, and count the number
-of names as well as I could. I feel far
-from confident that I have counted all;
-and, besides, the scale of the maps is too
-small to feel sure that all, or nearly all,
-are there. It is, however, sufficient for
-present purposes of comparison. If it
-is thought worth while to pursue the
-investigation farther, it must be done on
-the 80,000 scale map of France, which
-would be work of great labour.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_391" id="Footnote_391"></a><a href="#FNanchor_391"><span class="label">[391]</span></a>
-Delpon, 'Statistique du D&#233;partement du Lot,' i. p. 383.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_392" id="Footnote_392"></a><a href="#FNanchor_392"><span class="label">[392]</span></a>
-In the Ordnance Maps, 1-inch scale,
-the termination <i>ac</i> occurs at least 38
-times in this corner, though in these
-maps always spelt with an additional <i>k</i>,
-as Botallac<i>k</i>, Carnidjac<i>k</i>; although this is
-by no means the usual or ancient spelling of the district.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_393" id="Footnote_393"></a><a href="#FNanchor_393"><span class="label">[393]</span></a>
-The whole of these churches are described
-in more or less detail by F&#233;lix de
-Verneilh in his 'Architecture byzantine
-en France,' 4to. Paris, 1851. Several of
-them are also illustrated in my 'History of Architecture,' i. 418-441.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_394" id="Footnote_394"></a><a href="#FNanchor_394"><span class="label">[394]</span></a>
-The argument, which it is not necessary to enter on here, has been well summed
-up by Dr. Schmitz, in Smith's 'Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography,' <i>sub</i>
-<i>voce</i> Cimbri.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_395" id="Footnote_395"></a><a href="#FNanchor_395"><span class="label">[395]</span></a>
-The existence of this line of dolmens
-and of a separate people, all the way from
-Brittany to Narbonne, may serve, perhaps,
-to explain the mode in which the tin of
-Britain found its way across France to the
-Mediterranean Sea. That the Veneti
-traded from the Côtes-du-Nord and the
-Morbihan to Cornwall and the Cassiterides,
-no one, probably, will dispute. Their
-vessels, according to C&#230;sar's account,
-were fully equal to carrying to France
-all the metal this country could produce.
-The road by which it reached Marseilles
-across France was always the difficulty.
-In later times, the Celtic trade-route
-across France was apparently up the
-Rhone, but on its left bank, and down
-the Seine, or on its right bank; passing
-then through Celtica, but round the
-Aquitania of Augustus, and reaching
-Britain through the country of the
-Morini, which was the route C&#230;sar
-followed. This does not, however, appear
-to have been the line which was taken
-by the trade in tin. It followed, so far
-as we know, the central line of the
-dolmen country; and the fact of one
-people and one language prevailing
-throughout the whole of that region
-takes away any improbability, and removes
-all the difficulties that have
-hitherto impeded the adoption of that
-hypothesis.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_396" id="Footnote_396"></a><a href="#FNanchor_396"><span class="label">[396]</span></a>
-My intention was to have spent last autumn in travelling
-through the southern departments of France with this intent; but the
-war rendered the position of an exploring and sketching foreigner
-so undesirable that I was forced to desist. Had this book been a
-"statisque" of the subject, as it was originally intended, I should
-have been obliged to defer its publication till I had accomplished
-this journey, or till the monuments had been illustrated. As, however,
-it has now assumed more the form of an "argument," this is of
-comparatively little consequence.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_397" id="Footnote_397"></a><a href="#FNanchor_397"><span class="label">[397]</span></a>
-In a paper on the 'Monuments m&#233;galithiques
-de l'Auvergne,' by M. Cartheilhac,
-in the Norwich volume of the Prehistoric
-Congress, he gives drawings of ten as
-types. Five of these, or one-half, are dolmens
-on tumuli, which is, however, probably
-more than a fair proportion. One
-has already been given, <a href="#Illustration8">woodcut No. 8</a>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_398" id="Footnote_398"></a><a href="#FNanchor_398"><span class="label">[398]</span></a>
-'Statistique monumentale de la Charente,'
-141. Richard, 'France monumentale,'
-p. 677. 'M&#233;m. de la Soci&#233;t&#233;
-royale des Antiquaires de France,' vii. 26.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_399" id="Footnote_399"></a><a href="#FNanchor_399"><span class="label">[399]</span></a>
-The woodcuts are copied from
-Michon, 'Statistique de la Charente.'
-In describing it, he quotes the Edict
-of the Council at Nantes with regard
-to the destruction of these "venerated
-stones." He (p. 141) gives the date of
-this council as <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1262, which would
-almost make it appear that this was one
-of the stones against which the decree
-was fulminated. This date, however,
-appears to be a mistake. The true date
-I believe to be 658, as given above,
-p. 24.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_400" id="Footnote_400"></a><a href="#FNanchor_400"><span class="label">[400]</span></a>
-'Rev. arch&#233;ologique,' ix. 400.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_401" id="Footnote_401"></a><a href="#FNanchor_401"><span class="label">[401]</span></a>
-'Essai sur les Dolmens,' p. 38.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_402" id="Footnote_402"></a><a href="#FNanchor_402"><span class="label">[402]</span></a>
-Paper read by S. Ferguson, Q.C.,
-before the R. I. A. 14th Dec. 1863. See
-also pamphlet by Ren&#233; Galles (Vannes,
-1863), describing the exploration.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_403" id="Footnote_403"></a><a href="#FNanchor_403"><span class="label">[403]</span></a>
-'Congr&#232;s pr&#233;historique,' vol. de
-Paris, 1868, 42.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_404" id="Footnote_404"></a><a href="#FNanchor_404"><span class="label">[404]</span></a>
-All these are represented in Gailhabaud's 'Architecture ancienne et moderne,'
-ii. plates 7 and 8.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_405" id="Footnote_405"></a><a href="#FNanchor_405"><span class="label">[405]</span></a>
-The woodcut is from a publication privately printed by Dr. Blair and Mr. Ronalds.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_406" id="Footnote_406"></a><a href="#FNanchor_406"><span class="label">[406]</span></a>
-Gailhabaud, 'Arch. anc. et mod.' i.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_407" id="Footnote_407"></a><a href="#FNanchor_407"><span class="label">[407]</span></a>
-Renouvier, 'Monuments de Bas-Languedoc.' No numbers to plates.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_408" id="Footnote_408"></a><a href="#FNanchor_408"><span class="label">[408]</span></a>
-See one published by Sir R. Colt Hoare, 'Modern Wiltshire,' iv. p. 57.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_409" id="Footnote_409"></a><a href="#FNanchor_409"><span class="label">[409]</span></a>
-'Kilkenny Journal,' third series,
-vol. i. p. 40 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_410" id="Footnote_410"></a><a href="#FNanchor_410"><span class="label">[410]</span></a>
-I have not seen the monument myself,
-nor do I know any one who has, but
-I cannot believe it to be a pure invention.
-Too much stress must not, however,
-be laid upon it.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_411" id="Footnote_411"></a><a href="#FNanchor_411"><span class="label">[411]</span></a>
-There is a woodcut in Bonstetten's
-work (p. 25) which,
-being taken endways, explains
-more clearly how, the cap-stone
-resting on two points only, it
-can be understood to oscillate.
-It is, however, much less correct
-as a representation.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration133"></a>
-<img src="images/i_133.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">133.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Pierre Martine. From Bonstetten</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_412" id="Footnote_412"></a><a href="#FNanchor_412"><span class="label">[412]</span></a>
-Delpon, 'Statistique du
-D&#233;p. du Lot,' i. p. 388.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_413" id="Footnote_413"></a><a href="#FNanchor_413"><span class="label">[413]</span></a>
-'Ptolem&#230;i Geo.' Amstel. 1605, p. 47.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_414" id="Footnote_414"></a><a href="#FNanchor_414"><span class="label">[414]</span></a>
-The only survey of this monument
-which has been published, and can be
-depended upon, is that made by Mr.
-Vicars, a surveyor of Exeter, for the
-Rev. Dr. Bathurst Deane. It was published
-by him on a reduced scale in
-vol. xxv. of the 'Arch&#230;ologia,' and re-engraved,
-with the principal parts on the
-original scale, by Dr. Blair and Mr.
-Ronalds, in the work before alluded to,
-but unfortunately never published. The
-original map, on a scale of 440 feet to
-1 inch, is still in Dr. Deane's possession, at
-Bath, and is so valuable a record of what
-the monument was thirty-two years ago
-that it is hoped it may be preserved by
-some public body. Sir Henry Dryden and
-the Rev. Mr. Lukis have been employed for
-some years past exploring and surveying
-in that neighbourhood, and have brought
-back perfect plans, on a large scale, of all
-the principal monuments; and if these
-were published, they would leave little
-to be desired in that respect. Meanwhile
-nothing can exceed Sir Henry's
-kindness and liberality in allowing access
-to his treasures, and the use of them by
-any one who desires it; and I am indebted
-to him for a great deal of the
-information in this chapter. The general
-plans here published are from Messrs.
-Blair and Ronalds' work, which is quite
-sufficiently correct for my scale or my
-present purpose.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_415" id="Footnote_415"></a><a href="#FNanchor_415"><span class="label">[415]</span></a> The form of this enclosure, as will be
-seen from the plan, is not an exact square,
-and some of the angle-stones being
-removed, it is difficult now to ascertain
-its exact form. Sir Henry Dryden makes
-it curvilinear. Messrs. Blair and Ronalds
-make the east side quite straight; the
-south and west were slightly curvilinear,
-but the whole figure is quadrangular;
-which is my own impression of its form.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_416" id="Footnote_416"></a><a href="#FNanchor_416"><span class="label">[416]</span></a>
-Sir Henry Dryden counts ten rows. Mr. Vicars' survey, from which the woodcut
-is copied, makes only eight. Their irregularity makes it difficult to feel certain on
-such a point.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_417" id="Footnote_417"></a><a href="#FNanchor_417"><span class="label">[417]</span></a>
-'Journal of Arch&#230;ological Association,' vol. xxiv. pp. 40 <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_418" id="Footnote_418"></a><a href="#FNanchor_418"><span class="label">[418]</span></a>
-<i>Ante</i>, pp. 163 <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_419" id="Footnote_419"></a><a href="#FNanchor_419"><span class="label">[419]</span></a>
-It is so difficult to realise these
-similarities, except by representation,
-that I give here a woodcut of
-that at Rodmarton. Allowing for
-the difference of drawing and engraving,
-the openings are identical,
-and it is so peculiar in form that
-the likeness cannot be accidental.
-If it does not occur anywhere else,
-or at any other time, it proves, as
-far as anything can prove, that the
-French and English long barrows
-were erected under the same inspiration.
-If one is post-Roman, so,
-certainly, is the other; or if one can
-be proved to be prehistoric, the other
-must follow.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration140"></a>
-<img src="images/i_140.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">140.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Entrance to Cell, Rodmarton.</div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_420" id="Footnote_420"></a><a href="#FNanchor_420"><span class="label">[420]</span></a>
-These were exhibited in the inn in the village when I was there. Where they
-are now, I do not know.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_421" id="Footnote_421"></a><a href="#FNanchor_421"><span class="label">[421]</span></a>
-'Revue arch&#233;ologique,' xii. p. 17.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_422" id="Footnote_422"></a><a href="#FNanchor_422"><span class="label">[422]</span></a>
-'Proceedings of Royal Irish Academy,' vol. viii. 1864, p. 298 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_423" id="Footnote_423"></a><a href="#FNanchor_423"><span class="label">[423]</span></a>
-'Revue arch&#233;ologique,' vol. x. 1864, pl. iv.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_424" id="Footnote_424"></a><a href="#FNanchor_424"><span class="label">[424]</span></a>
-Woodcuts No. 145 and 146 are
-copied from Mr. Ferguson's paper in the
-'Proceedings of Royal Irish Academy,'
-viii. 398 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_425" id="Footnote_425"></a><a href="#FNanchor_425"><span class="label">[425]</span></a>
-These dimensions are from Richard;
-other authorities make it 18 feet by 12
-feet.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_426" id="Footnote_426"></a><a href="#FNanchor_426"><span class="label">[426]</span></a>
-The existence of the plume is doubted by Sir Henry Dryden, and he is so
-accurate that he probably is right; but as others say they have seen it, and nothing
-depends upon it, I have allowed it to remain.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_427" id="Footnote_427"></a><a href="#FNanchor_427"><span class="label">[427]</span></a>
-It was in a very ruinous state when I
-saw it five years ago; and there is an
-ominous silence regarding it among subsequent
-tourists. The measurements
-here quoted are from Richard, 'France
-monumentale.'</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_428" id="Footnote_428"></a><a href="#FNanchor_428"><span class="label">[428]</span></a>
-The plan here given is reduced from
-one by Sir Henry Dryden, and may be
-perfectly depended upon as far as the
-smallness of the scale will allow.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_429" id="Footnote_429"></a><a href="#FNanchor_429"><span class="label">[429]</span></a> Sir Henry drew all these sculptures
-first on the spot, and afterwards corrected
-his drawings from the casts at
-St.-Germain. They are the only drawings
-existing which can thoroughly be
-depended upon.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_430" id="Footnote_430"></a><a href="#FNanchor_430"><span class="label">[430]</span></a>
-A plan of the first-named alignment
-was published by Freminville, 'Finist&#232;re,'
-part ii. pl. i., but the above particulars
-and the woodcut are taken from a diagram
-by Sir Henry Dryden in the last
-number of the 'Journal of the Anthrop.
-Inst.' He has perfect plans of the
-whole.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_431" id="Footnote_431"></a><a href="#FNanchor_431"><span class="label">[431]</span></a>
-'Revue arch&#233;ologique,' new series, ix. pp. 81 <i>et seq.</i> I may mention that almost
-every other name in their neighbourhood ends in <i>ac</i>. See 'Joanne Atlas,' d&#233;p. Ille-et-Vilaine.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_432" id="Footnote_432"></a><a href="#FNanchor_432"><span class="label">[432]</span></a>
-Delpon, 'Statistique du D&#233;p. du Lot,' i. 384.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_433" id="Footnote_433"></a><a href="#FNanchor_433"><span class="label">[433]</span></a>
-"C'est en 465 que Vannes reçut pour
-premier &#233;v&#234;que l'Armoricain St. Patern,
-qui mourut peu d'ann&#233;es apr&#232;s chez les
-Francs, où les Goths l'avoient forc&#233; de
-se r&#233;fugier. Modestus en 511 mit tout
-en &oelig;uvre pour repandre le Christianisme
-parmi les Pagani de son dioc&#232;se, mais
-son z&#232;le ne fut pas recompens&#233;, car plus
-de trente ans apr&#232;s la mort de Patern les
-habitans de la V&#233;n&#233;tie &#233;toient encore
-presque tous païens. 'Erant enim tunc
-temporis Venetenses pene omnes Gentiles.'&mdash;<i>Ap.</i>
-<i>Boll.</i> 'Vita St. Melan.' vi.
-Jan. p. 311."&mdash;<i>Courzon</i>, 'Chartulaire de
-l'Abbaye de Redon,' cxliii.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_434" id="Footnote_434"></a><a href="#FNanchor_434"><span class="label">[434]</span></a>
-The authority for these events will
-be found at length in Gibbon, chap. xviii.,
-and are too familiar to need quoting here.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_435" id="Footnote_435"></a><a href="#FNanchor_435"><span class="label">[435]</span></a>
-Daru's 'Histoire de la Bretagne,'
-vol. i. p. 58.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_436" id="Footnote_436"></a><a href="#FNanchor_436"><span class="label">[436]</span></a>
-<i>Ibid.</i> p. 112.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_437" id="Footnote_437"></a><a href="#FNanchor_437"><span class="label">[437]</span></a>
-Dom. Bouquet, 'Recueil des Hist. des
-Gaules,' i. p. 629. "Exuperantius anno
-circa 416 Armoricos qui a Romanis defecerunt
-ad officium reducere tentavit."</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_438" id="Footnote_438"></a><a href="#FNanchor_438"><span class="label">[438]</span></a>
-Daru, i. p. 112.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_439" id="Footnote_439"></a><a href="#FNanchor_439"><span class="label">[439]</span></a>
-"Gradlonus gratia dei rex Britonum
-necnon ex parte Francorum."&mdash;<i>Chartulaire</i>
-<i>de Landevenec</i>; quoted by P. Lobineau,
-ii. 17. And further: "'Pervenit
-Sancti (Wingaboei) fama ad Grallonum
-regem Occiduorum Cornubiensium, gloriosum
-ultorem Normannorum qui post devictas
-gentes inimicas sibi duces subduxerat.'&mdash;<i>Gurdestan,</i>
-<i>Moine de Landevenec</i>,
-'Vie de St.-Wingabois.'"&mdash;<i>Daru</i>, i. p. 69.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_440" id="Footnote_440"></a><a href="#FNanchor_440"><span class="label">[440]</span></a>
-The information in this table must
-be received with great limitation. In
-the first place, What is a dolmen? Do
-the alignments at Carnac count as two,
-as seven, or as 700? Many also are mere
-estimates of local antiquaries. It is, for
-instance, very doubtful if Finist&#232;re contains
-more monuments than the Morbihan;
-and subsequent information may
-introduce great modifications into many
-of the numbers.</p>
-
-<p>The value of the <i>ac</i> distinction does
-not come out clearly: first, because of the
-imperfect mode in which it has been obtained,
-but more because it does not
-make it clear that there are in France
-twenty-nine departments in which there
-are no dolmens, and no <i>ac</i>-terminations;
-in fact, the negative evidence which does
-not appear here is stronger than the
-positive.</p>
-</div>
-
-</blockquote>
-</div>
-
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a><br />
-<span class="small">SPAIN, PORTUGAL, AND ITALY.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">It</span> would not be easy to find a more apt illustration of the difficulty
-and danger of writing such a book as this than the history of how
-we acquired our knowledge of Spanish dolmens. When Ford published
-his interesting and exhaustive 'Handbook of Spain,' in 1845, he had
-travelled over the length and breadth of the land, and knew its
-literature intimately, but he did not know that there was a single
-"Druidical remain" in the country. The first intimation of their
-existence was in a pamphlet by Don Rafael Mitjana,<a name="FNanchor_441" id="FNanchor_441"></a><a href="#Footnote_441" class="fnanchor">[441]</a>
-containing the description of one at Antequera; and since then Don Gongora ý
-Martinez<a name="FNanchor_442" id="FNanchor_442"></a><a href="#Footnote_442" class="fnanchor">[442]</a>
-has published a work containing views and descriptions of
-thirteen or fourteen important monuments of this class in Andalusia and
-the south of Spain; and from other sources I know the names of at least
-an equal number in the Asturias and the north of Spain.<a name="FNanchor_443" id="FNanchor_443"></a><a href="#Footnote_443" class="fnanchor">[443]</a>
-Had this work consequently been written only a very few years ago, a description
-of the dolmen at Antequera must have begun and ended the chapter. As
-it now is, we not only know that dolmens are numerous in Spain, but
-we have a distinct idea of their distribution, which may lead to most
-important historical results.</p>
-
-<p>With regard to Portugal, the case is even more striking. Kinsey, in his
-'Portugal Illustrated,' in 1829, gave a drawing of a "Druid's altar"
-at Arroyolos, and it was mentioned also by Borrow,<a name="FNanchor_444" id="FNanchor_444"></a><a href="#Footnote_444" class="fnanchor">[444]</a>
-but there our information stopped, till the meeting of the International Prehistoric
-Congress at Paris in 1867, when S. Pereira da Costa described by name
-thirty-nine dolmens as still existing in Portugal. He also mentioned
-that as long ago as 1734 a memoir had been presented to the Portuguese
-Academy enumerating 314 as then to be met with; and though this is
-doubtful, it seems that they were at one time very numerous, and many,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span>
-
-no doubt, still exist which have escaped S. da Costa's enquiries.
-Neither he nor any one else appears to have visited Cape Cuneus, the
-most southern point of Portugal, where, if we read Strabo aright,
-dolmens certainly existed in his day;<a name="FNanchor_445" id="FNanchor_445"></a><a href="#Footnote_445" class="fnanchor">[445]</a>
-and if they do so now, it would be a point gained in our investigation.</p>
-
-<p>At present, according to S. da Costa, there are twenty-one dolmens in
-Alentejo, two in Estramadura, nine in Beira, four in Tras os Montes,
-and three in Minho. According to my information, they are numerous in
-Gallicia, but have never been described. Three at least are known by
-name in Santander, and as many in the Asturias. One at least is known
-in Biscay, and two in Vitoria; one in Navarre, and one in Catalonia.
-But I am assured that all along the roots of the mountains they are
-frequent, though no one has yet described or drawn them.<a name="FNanchor_446" id="FNanchor_446"></a><a href="#Footnote_446" class="fnanchor">[446]</a>
-So far as is known, there are none in the Castiles, in the centre
-of Spain, and only that group above alluded to in Andalusia, where
-probably, instead of a dozen, it may turn out that there are twice or
-thrice that number.</p>
-
-<p>Assuming this distribution of the Spanish dolmens to be correct&mdash;and
-I see no reason for doubting that it is so, in the main features at
-least&mdash;it is so remarkable that it affords a good opportunity for
-testing one of the principal theories put forward with regard to the
-migrations of the dolmen-building people. According to the theory of M.
-Bertrand, the dolmen people, after passing down the Baltic and leaving
-their monuments there, migrated to the British islands, and after a
-sojourn of some time again took to their ships and landed in France and
-Spain, to pass thence into Africa and disappear.<a name="FNanchor_447" id="FNanchor_447"></a><a href="#Footnote_447" class="fnanchor">[447]</a>
-This seems so strange, that it is fortunate we have another hypothesis which assumes
-the probability of an indigenous population driven first to the hills
-and then into the ocean by the advancing tide of modern civilization.</p>
-
-<p>The first hypothesis involves the assumption that the dolmen people
-possessed a navy capable of transplanting them and their families from
-shore to shore, and that they had a sufficient knowledge of geography
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span>
-
-to know exactly whither to go, but at the same time possessed with
-such a spirit of wandering that so soon as they settled for a certain
-time in a given place, and buried a certain number of their chiefs,
-they immediately set out again on their travels. According to this
-view, they were so weak that they fled the moment when the original
-possessors of the land rose against them, though, strange to say, they
-had in the first instance been able to dispossess them. What is still
-more unlikely is that they should have possessed the organization to
-keep together, and to introduce everywhere their own arts and their
-own customs, but that, when they departed, they should have left
-nothing but their tombs behind. This hypothesis involves in fact so
-many difficulties and so many improbabilities that I do not think that
-either M. Bertrand or the Baron de Bonstetten would now, that our
-knowledge is so much increased, adhere to it. I at least cannot see
-on what grounds it can be maintained. It is so diametrically opposed
-to all we know of ancient migrations. They seem always&mdash;in so far as
-Europe is concerned&mdash;to have followed the course of the sun from east
-to west; and the idea that a people, after having peopled Britain,
-should have started again to land on the rugged coasts of the Asturias
-or in Portugal, and not have been able to penetrate into the interior,
-is so very unlikely that it would require very strong and direct
-testimony to make it credible, while it need hardly be said no such
-evidence is forthcoming.</p>
-
-<p>The hypothesis which seems to account much more satisfactorily for
-the facts as we know them assumes that an ancestral worshipping
-people inhabited the Spanish peninsula from remote prehistoric times.
-If so, they certainly occupied the pastoral plains of Castile and
-the fertile regions of Valencia and Andalusia, as well as the bleak
-hills of Gallicia and the Asturias. Whether we call them Iberians, or
-Celtiberians, or, to use a more general term, Turanians, they were
-a dead-reverencing, ancestral worshipping people, but had not in
-prehistoric times learnt to use stone for the adornment of their tombs.</p>
-
-<p>The first people, so far as we know, who disturbed the Iberians in
-their possessions were the Carthaginians. They occupied the sea coast
-at least of Murcia and Valencia, and if, according to their custom,
-they sought to reduce the natives to slavery, they probably frightened
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></span>
-
-multitudes from the coast into the interior, but there is no proof that
-they ever made any extensive settlements in the centre of the country,
-nor on its west or north coast. It was different with the Romans: with
-them the genius of conquest was strong; they longed to annex all Spain
-to their dominions, and no doubt drove all those who were impatient
-of their yoke into the remote districts of Portugal and the rugged
-fastnesses of the Asturias and the northern mountains. It is also
-probable that many, to avoid their oppressions, sought refuge beyond
-the sea; but the great migrations are probably due to the intolerance
-of the early Christian missionaries. It thus seems that it was to avoid
-Carthaginian rapacity, Roman tyranny, and Christian intolerance, that
-the unfortunate aborigines were forced first into the fastnesses of the
-hills, and thence driven literally into the sea, to seek refuge from
-their oppressors in the islands of the ocean.<a name="FNanchor_448" id="FNanchor_448"></a><a href="#Footnote_448" class="fnanchor">[448]</a></p>
-
-<p>Such an hypothesis seems perfectly consonant with all the facts as we
-now know them, and it also accounts for the absence of dolmens in the
-centre of Spain; for if this is correct, these migrations took place
-in the pre-dolmen period, and just as we find the Bryts beginning to
-use stones after having been driven from the fertile plains of the east
-into the fastnesses of Cumberland and Wales, so we find the Spaniards
-first adopting rude-stone monuments after having been driven into
-Portugal and the Asturias.</p>
-
-<p>The one point which this theory does not seem to account for is the
-presence of dolmens in Andalusia. They however are, if I am not
-mistaken, an outlying branch of the great African dolmen field, and
-belong to the same age as these do, of which we shall be better able
-to judge presently. That there was a close or intimate connection
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></span>
-
-from very early times between the south coast of Spain and the north
-of Africa hardly admits of a doubt. The facility with which the Moors
-occupied it in the seventh century, and the permanence of their
-dominion for so many centuries, is in itself sufficient to prove that
-a people of the same race had been established there before them, and
-that they were not a foreign race holding the natives in subjection,
-but dwelling among their own kith and kin.</p>
-
-<p>It seems in vain to look among the written annals, either of Spain
-or Ireland, for a rational account of these events. Both countries
-acknowledge to the fullest extent that the migration did take place;
-and the Spanish race of Heremon is one of the most illustrious of
-those of Ireland, and fills a large page in its history. So, too, the
-Spanish annalists fill volumes with the successful expeditions of
-their countrymen to the Green Island.<a name="FNanchor_449" id="FNanchor_449"></a><a href="#Footnote_449" class="fnanchor">[449]</a>
-The mania, however, of the annalists of both countries for carrying
-everything back to the Flood, and the sons and daughters of Noah,
-so vitiates everything they say, that beyond the fact, which seems
-undoubted that such migration did occur no reliance can be placed on
-their accounts of these transactions.</p>
-
-<p>One only paragraph that I know of seems to have escaped perversion. In
-his second chapter of his fourth book, D. O'Campo states:&mdash;"Certain
-natives of Spain called Siloros (the Siluri), a Biscayan tribe, joined
-with another, named Brigantes, migrated to Britain about 261 years
-before our era, and obtained possession of a territory there on which
-they settled."<a name="FNanchor_450" id="FNanchor_450"></a><a href="#Footnote_450" class="fnanchor">[450]</a>
-This is so consonant with what we know of the settlement of the Silures
-on the banks of the Severn that there seems no good reason for doubting
-its correctness. It is more doubtful, however, whether any Spanish
-colonies reached Ireland at so early an age. Even allowing for the
-existence in the north-east of Ireland of the realm of Emania, the only
-kingdom in Ireland of which we have any authentic annals before the
-Christian era, there was plenty of room for the contemporary existence
-of the race of Heremon in the south and west. Tara did not then exist,
-and, in fact, according to the annals of the 'Four Masters,' was
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></span>
-
-founded by Heremon himself, and took its first name, Teamair, from Tea,
-his wife, who selected this spot. All this is perfectly consistent with
-what we know of the history of the place. The earliest monument at Tara
-is the Rath of Cormac<a name="FNanchor_451" id="FNanchor_451"></a><a href="#Footnote_451" class="fnanchor">[451]</a>
-(218 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, or probably fifty years later).
-Though therefore chosen by Heremon as a sacred or desirable spot for
-residence, there is no proof that his race ever occupied it; and in
-the two centuries that elapsed from his advent to the time of Cormac
-his race had passed away from Meath at least, and was only to be found
-in the south and west of Ireland. The one reminiscence of the Milesian
-race that remained at Tara, in historical times, is the Lia Fail, or
-Stone of Destiny, which these "veneratores lapidum" are said to have
-brought with them from Spain, but which, with all due deference to
-Petrie, is not the obelisk still standing there,<a name="FNanchor_452" id="FNanchor_452"></a><a href="#Footnote_452" class="fnanchor">[452]</a>
-but may be the stone now in Westminster Abbey. The Spanish colonists
-seem principally to have occupied the country about Wexford and Galway,<a name="FNanchor_453" id="FNanchor_453"></a><a href="#Footnote_453" class="fnanchor">[453]</a>
-and to these places, especially the latter, a continual stream of
-immigration appears to have flowed from the first century of our era
-down to the time of Elizabeth. No one can travel in these counties
-without remarking the presence of a dark-haired, dark-eyed race that
-prevails everywhere; but, strange to say, the darkest-complexioned
-people in the west are those who still linger among the long-neglected
-dolmens of Glen Malim More.</p>
-
-<p>According to the annals of the 'Four Masters,' Heremon landed in
-Ireland fifty years after the death of the great Dagdha. The Irish
-historians say that the country was then ruled by three princesses,
-wives of the grandsons of the Dagdha, and add that the event took
-place 1002 years after Forann (Pharaoh) had been drowned in the Red
-Sea.<a name="FNanchor_454" id="FNanchor_454"></a><a href="#Footnote_454" class="fnanchor">[454]</a>
-If that event took place in 1312, as I believe it did,<a name="FNanchor_455" id="FNanchor_455"></a><a href="#Footnote_455" class="fnanchor">[455]</a>
-this would fix their advent in 310 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, which, though less
-extravagant than the chronology of the 'Four Masters, is still, I
-believe, at least three centuries too early. All this may not be&mdash;is
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</a></span>
-
-not in fact&mdash;capable of absolute proof; but it has at least the merit
-that it pieces together satisfactorily all we know of the history and
-ethnography of these races, and explains in a reasonable manner all the
-architectural forms which we meet with. It is hardly fair to expect
-more from the annals of a rude people who could not write, and whose
-history has never been carefully investigated in modern times. It is
-too early yet to say so, but the fact is, that it is these rude-stone
-monuments which alone can reveal the secrets of their long forgotten
-past. As they have hitherto been treated, they have only added mystery
-to obscurity. But the time is not far off when this will be altered,
-and we may learn from a comparison of the Irish with Spanish dolmens,
-not only what truth there is in the migrations of Heremon, but also at
-what time these Spanish tribes first settled as colonists in the Irish
-isle.</p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Dolmens.</span></h3>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration155"></a>
-<img src="images/i_155.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">155.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; View of the Interior of Dolmen at Antequera. From
-Mitjana.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The finest dolmen known to exist in Spain is that of Antequera, above
-alluded to; it will, indeed, bear comparison with the best in France
-or any other country in Europe. The chamber is of a somewhat oval
-shape, and measures internally about 80 feet from the entrance to the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></span>
-
-front of the stone closing the rear. Its greatest width is 20 feet 6
-inches, and its height varies between 9 and 10 feet.<a name="FNanchor_456" id="FNanchor_456"></a><a href="#Footnote_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a>
-The whole is composed of thirty-one stones: ten on each side form the
-walls; one closes the end; five are roofing, and three pillars support
-the last at their junction. The stone forming the roof of the cell or
-innermost part measures 25 feet by 21 feet, and is of considerable
-thickness. All the stones comprising this monument are more or less
-shaped by art&mdash;at least to the extent to which those at Stonehenge
-can be said to be so; while the three pillars in the centre, which seem
-to be part of the original structure, are certainly hewn. The whole
-was originally covered with a mound about 100 feet in diameter, and
-is still partially at least so buried. Its entrance is, however, and
-probably always was, flush with the edge of the mound, and open and
-accessible, and it is consequently not to be wondered at if nothing was
-found inside to indicate its age or use.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration156"></a>
-<img src="images/i_156.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">156.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan of Dolmen called Cueva de Menga, near
-Antequera.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>If we might assume&mdash;there is no proof&mdash;that the mound at Antequera was
-originally surrounded by a circle of stones like those at Lough Crew
-(<a href="#Illustration72">woodcut No. 72</a>), we should have a monument whose plan and dimensions
-were the same as those of Stonehenge, and, <i>mutatis mutandis</i>, the two
-would be, as nearly as may be, identical. There is the same circle
-of stone or earth 100 feet in diameter, and the same elliptical
-choir 80 feet in length, assuming that of Stonehenge to be extended
-to the outer circle. Antequera is, in fact, a roofed and covered-up
-Stonehenge, Stonehenge a free-standing Antequera. If both were situated
-in Wiltshire or in Andalusia, I should unhesitatingly declare for
-Antequera being the older. Men do what is useful before they indulge
-in what is merely fanciful. The two, in fact, bear exactly the same
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</a></span>
-
-relation to one another that Callernish does to New Grange; but when so
-widely separated geographically as the former two are, and belonging to
-two different races, it is difficult to say which may be the older. All
-we can feel sure of is that both belong to the same system, and that
-they are not far removed from each other in date. We must, however,
-know more than we do of the local history of Spanish dolmens before we
-can feel sure that Antequera may not be even considerably more modern
-than Stonehenge.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration157"></a>
-<img src="images/i_157.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">157.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen del Tio Cogolleros. From Gongora.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>None of the other dolmens in Andalusia approach Antequera in
-magnificence, though they all seem to bear a similar character, and in
-appearance belong to the same age. The supporting stones seem to be all
-more or less shaped by art, and fitted to some extent to one another.
-The cap-stone is generally left in its natural state, largeness being
-the feature that the builders always aimed at. These peculiarities are
-well exhibited in the dolmen called de la Cruz del Tio Cogolleros,
-in the parish of Fonelas, near Guadix. Here the cap-stone measures
-nearly 12 feet each way, and covers what was intended to be a nearly
-square chamber; one side, as at Kit's Cotty House, being left open;
-consequently it could hardly ever have been intended to be covered with
-a mound. Indeed, so far as we can gather from Don Gongora's drawings,
-none of those which he illustrates were ever so buried, nor does it
-appear that it was originally the intention ever to cover them with
-earth. Another monument, called only Sepultura Grande, in the parish
-of Gor, in the same neighbourhood, is interesting from its resemblance
-to the Swedish sepulchre illustrated in woodcut No. 108, and to the
-Countless Stones at Aylesford. Its cap-stone is 12 feet by 8 feet, and
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span>
-
-the side-stones fall away to a point in front. It evidently never was
-intended to be further roofed, nor to be buried in a mound, and, so far
-as can be judged from its appearance, is of comparatively modern date.</p>
-
-<p>The most interesting of Don Gongora's plates is one representing
-a dolmen near Dilar. This, if the drawing is to be depended upon,
-consists of a monolithic chamber, hollowed out of a stone of
-considerable dimensions, and hewn so as almost to look like an Egyptian
-cell. It is surrounded by twelve or fourteen rude-stone pillars,
-apparently 3 feet in height, and like those of Callernish in shape.
-In the distance are seen two other circles of rude stones, but with
-nothing in their centre. If I understand Don Gongora rightly, these
-monuments are now very much ruined, if not entirely destroyed, and it
-is not clear how far the drawings are actual sketches or restorations.
-They may be correct, but without further confirmation it would hardly
-be safe to found any argument upon them.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration158"></a>
-<img src="images/i_158.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">158.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Sepultura Grande. From Gongora.</div>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>So little is known&mdash;or at least so little has been published&mdash;regarding
-the dolmens of the north of Spain that it is very difficult and very
-unsafe to attempt any generalisation regarding them. There are three,
-however, which do seem to throw some light on our enquiries. The first
-is at Eguilar, in the district of Vitoria, on the road between that
-city and Pampeluna. It is of a horse-shoe form, like the Countless
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</a></span>
-
-Stones at Aylesford, and measures 13 feet by 10 feet internally.
-Originally it was roofed by a single stone, measuring 19 feet by 15
-feet, but which is now, unfortunately, broken. The side-stones and roof
-are closely fitted to one another, showing that it was always intended
-to be, and, in fact, is now, partially covered by a mound of earth.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration159"></a>
-<img src="images/i_159.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">159.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan of Dolmen at Eguilar.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>At Cangas de Onis, in the Asturias, about forty miles east from Oviedo,
-there is a small church built on a mound which contains in it a dolmen
-of rather unusual shape. Its inner end is circular in plan, from which
-proceeds a funnel-shaped nave, formed of three stones on each side,
-and with a doorway formed by two large stones at right angles to its
-direction. On the top of the mound a church was built, probably in
-the tenth or eleventh century,<a name="FNanchor_457" id="FNanchor_457"></a><a href="#Footnote_457" class="fnanchor">[457]</a>
-to which this dolmen served as a crypt. From this it seems to be a fair
-inference that, when the church was built on the mound, the dolmen was
-still a sacred edifice of the aborigines. Had the Christians merely
-wanted a foundation for their building, they would have filled up or
-destroyed the pagan edifice, but it seems to have remained open to the
-present day; and though it has long ceased to be used for any sacred
-purpose, it still is, and always was, an essential part of the church
-which it supported.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration160"></a>
-<img src="images/i_160.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">160.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan of Dolmen at Cangas de Onis.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration161"></a>
-<img src="images/i_161.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">161.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen of San Miguel, at Arrichinaga.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>A still more remarkable instance of the same kind is to be found at
-a place called Arrichinaga, about twenty-five miles from Bilboa, in
-the province of Biscay. In the hermitage of St. Michael, at this
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span>
-
-place, a dolmen of very considerable dimensions is enclosed within
-the walls of what seems to be a new modern church. It may, however,
-be the successor of one more ancient; but the fact of these great
-stones being adopted by the Christians at all shows that they must have
-been considered sacred and objects of worship by the natives at the
-time when the Christians enclosed them in their edifice. If the facts
-are as represented in the woodcut,<a name="FNanchor_458" id="FNanchor_458"></a><a href="#Footnote_458" class="fnanchor">[458]</a>
-we can now easily understand why the councils of Toledo, in 681 and 692,
-fulminated their decrees against the "veneratores lapidum;"<a name="FNanchor_459" id="FNanchor_459"></a><a href="#Footnote_459" class="fnanchor">[459]</a>
-and why also the more astute provincial priesthood followed the advice
-that Pope Gregory gave to Abbot Millitus, and by means of a little holy
-water and an image of San Miguel turned
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</a></span>
-
-the sacred stones of the pagans into a temple of the true God.
-It is difficult to say when Christianity penetrated into the
-Asturias&mdash;not, probably, before the time of Pelayo (<span
-class="smcap">A.D.</span> 720); but even this would be too early for
-such churches as those of Cangas de Onis and Arrichinaga. They, in
-fact, seem to carry down the veneration for big stones to almost as
-late a date as the age indicated by the dolmen at Confolens (<a href="#Illustration123">woodcut No. 123</a>),
-and bring the probable erection of some of them at least, if
-not of all, within the historic era.</p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Portugal.</span></h3>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration162"></a>
-<img src="images/i_162.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">162.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen at Arroyolos. From Kinsey.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Only one drawing of a dolmen in Portugal has as yet, so far as I know,
-been published. It is situated on a bleak heath-land at Arroyolos, not
-far from Evora. Mr. Borrow describes it as one of the most perfect and
-beautiful of its kind he had ever seen. "It was circular, and consisted
-of stones immensely large and heavy at the bottom, which towards
-the top became thinner, having been fashioned by the hand of art to
-something like the shape of scallop-shells. These were surmounted by
-a very large flat stone, which slanted down towards the south, where
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</a></span>
-
-was a door. Three or four individuals might have taken shelter within
-the interior, in which was growing a small thorn-tree."<a name="FNanchor_460" id="FNanchor_460"></a><a href="#Footnote_460" class="fnanchor">[460]</a>
-Neither he nor Kinsey condescend to dimensions, and S. da Costa merely remarks
-that the dolmens which he has seen at Castello da Vide are of a similar
-construction to this one at Arroyolos.<a name="FNanchor_461" id="FNanchor_461"></a><a href="#Footnote_461" class="fnanchor">[461]</a></p>
-
-<p>This, it must be confessed, is but a meagre and imperfect outline of
-one of the most important dolmen-fields in Europe, but it is probably
-sufficient to indicate its importance and its bearing on the history
-of megalithic remains in general. When filled up, it promises to throw
-a flood of light on the subject in general, not only from being one of
-the connecting links serving to join the African dolmen-field to that
-of Europe, but more especially from the assistance it seems to afford
-us in understanding the hitherto mysterious connection of the Irish
-Milesians with Spain. If the dolmens on the north and west coasts of
-the Spanish peninsula were carefully examined and compared with those
-in Ireland, their similarity would probably suffice to prove their
-affinity, and to establish on a broad basis of fact what has hitherto
-been left to the wild imaginings of patriotic annalists, more anxious
-for the fabled antiquity of their race than for the prosaic results of
-truthful investigations.</p>
-
-<p>From such knowledge as we at present possess, I see no reason for
-supposing that any of the Spanish dolmens are as old as the Christian
-era; and the facts connected with the two at Cangas de Onis and
-Arrichinaga seem to prove that they were "venerated" as late at least
-as the eighth, it may be the tenth, century, and, if venerated, there
-is no reason why they should not also have been erected at that late
-age.</p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Italy.</span></h3>
-
-<p>Although the experience we have just acquired with reference to dolmens
-in Spain ought to make any one cautious as to making assertions
-regarding those in Italy, still it probably is safe to assert that,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[Pg 391]</a></span>
-
-with the exception of one group at Saturnia, there are no dolmens in
-that country. In many respects Italy is very differently situated from
-Spain. Her own learned societies and antiquaries have for centuries
-been occupied with her antiquities, and foreign tourists have traversed
-the length and breadth of the land, and could hardly have failed to
-remark anything that called to their recollection the Druids or Dragons
-of their own native lands. As nothing, however, of the sort has been
-recorded, we may feel tolerable confidence that no important specimens
-exist; though at the roots of the hills and in remote corners there can
-be little doubt that waifs and strays of wandering races will reward
-the careful searcher for such objects. One, for instance, is known to
-exist near Sesto Calende, in Lombardy. It is a circle of small stones,
-some 30 feet in diameter, with an avenue 50 feet in length touching
-it tangentially on one side, and with a small semicircle of stones 20
-feet wide a few yards farther off.<a name="FNanchor_462" id="FNanchor_462"></a><a href="#Footnote_462" class="fnanchor">[462]</a>
-The whole looks like the small alignments on Dartmoor, and if several
-were found and the traditions of the country were carefully sifted,
-this might lead to some light being thrown on the subject. At present
-it is hardly much bigger or more interesting than a sheep-fold.</p>
-
-<p>The Saturnia group is thus described by Mr. Dennis:&mdash;"They are very
-numerous, consisting generally of a quadrangular chamber sunk a few
-feet below the surface, lined with rough slabs of rock set upright,
-one on each side, and roofed over with two large slabs resting against
-each other, so as to form a penthouse, or else a single one of enormous
-size, covering the whole, and laid with a slight slope, apparently for
-the purpose of carrying off the rain. Not a chisel has touched these
-rugged masses, about 16 feet square to half that size; some divided,
-like that shown in the annexed woodcut, into two chambers over 18 feet
-across. To most of them a passage leads, 10 or 12 feet long and 3 feet
-wide. All are sunk a little below the surface, because each had a
-tumulus of earth piled around it, so as to cover all but the cap stone."</p>
-
-<p>One tumulus was observed with a circle of small stones set round it,
-and Mr. Dennis suggests "that all may have been so encircled, but that
-the small stones would be easily removed by the peasantry." "Nothing,"
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[Pg 392]</a></span>
-
-he adds, "at all like them is seen in any other part of Etruria."<a name="FNanchor_463" id="FNanchor_463"></a><a href="#Footnote_463" class="fnanchor">[463]</a>
-Saturnia is situated twenty miles from the sea, and if it is true that
-nothing of the sort is found elsewhere in Italy, these dolmens must
-be looked upon as exceptional&mdash;the remains of some stray colony of
-dolmen-builders, the memory of which has passed away, and may probably
-now be lost for ever.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration163"></a>
-<img src="images/i_163.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">163.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen at Saturnia. From Dennis' 'Etruria.'</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>If this is a correct representation of what took place in Italy,
-the conclusion seems inevitable that the chambered tumuli of that
-country&mdash;all of which are erected with hewn stones&mdash;did not grow out
-of rude-stone monuments. In no country in Europe are the tumuli so
-numerous or so important as in Etruria, and, as before mentioned, they
-certainly extend back to an era twelve or thirteen centuries before
-Christ. But if the dolmens of France or Scandinavia are prehistoric,
-or, in other words, extend back to anything like a thousand or fifteen
-hundred years before Christ, there is no reason whatever why dolmens
-should not be found also in Italy, if they ever existed there. Either
-it must be that Italy never possessed any or that those in the rest of
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[Pg 393]</a></span>
-
-Europe are very much more modern. If the northern dolmens are only one
-thousand to two thousand years old, the matter is easily explained. If
-they are three thousand or four thousand years old, they ought also to
-be found in Italy.</p>
-
-<p>The fact seems to be that both the Pelasgi of Greece and the Tyrrheni
-of Italy came in contact either with Egypt or some early stone-hewing
-people before they left their homes in the East to migrate into Europe,
-and that they never passed through the rude-stone stage of architecture
-at any period, or at any place with which we are acquainted; and as
-they were, so far as we know, the earliest colonists of the countries
-they afterwards occupied, it seems in vain to look for dolmens where
-they settled. If Attila had lived five centuries before instead
-of after the Christian era, he and his Huns might have produced a
-rude-stone age in Italy. The inhabitants of Etruria were essentially a
-burying, dead-reverencing people, and if they had only been thrown back
-to that stage of barbarism which the rude monuments of our forefathers
-represent, we might have found dolmens there in thousands. The fate
-of Italy was different. Pressed by the Celts of Gallia Cisalpina
-in the north and by the Romans in the south, Etruria was squeezed
-out of existence, but by two races more civilized and progressive
-than herself. So far from throwing her back towards barbarism, Rome
-in adopting many of her forms advanced and improved upon them, and
-imparted to her architecture a higher and more intellectual form than
-she had been herself able to impress upon it. So, too, in Greece. The
-Dorian superseded and extinguished the Pelasgic forms, but after a
-longer interval of time. Four or five centuries elapsed between the
-last tomb we know of, at Mycen&#230;, and the earliest Doric temple at
-Corinth, and the consequence is that we see far fewer traces of the
-earlier people in the architecture of Greece than we do in that of
-Rome. But in neither instance was there any tendency to retrograde to a
-dolmen stage of civilization.</p>
-
-<p>The case was widely different with such countries as Spain or France.
-There an aboriginal population had existed for thousands and tens of
-thousands of years, unprogressive and incapable, so far as we know, of
-progress within themselves, and only at last</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[Pg 394]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>slowly and reluctantly forced by Roman example to adopt a more
-ambitious mode of sepulture than a mere mound of earth. No
-semi-civilized race ever settled in their lands, and the Carthaginians
-at Carthagena or Marseilles hardly penetrated into the interior,
-and were besides neither a building nor burying race, and had,
-consequently, very little influence on their modes of sepulture.</p>
-
-<p>With Rome the case was different. She conquered and administered for
-centuries all those countries in which we find the earliest traces
-of rude-stone monuments, and she could hardly fail to leave some
-impress of her magnificence in lands which she had so long occupied.
-But when she withdrew her protecting care, France, Spain, and Britain
-relapsed into, and for centuries remained sunk in, a state of anarchy
-and barbarism as bad, if not worse than, that in which Rome had found
-them three or four centuries before. It was in vain to expect that the
-hapless natives could maintain either the arts or the institutions
-with which Rome had endowed them. But it is natural to suppose that
-they would remember the evidences of her greatness and her power, and
-would hardly go back for their sepulchres to the unchambered mole-hill
-barrows of their forefathers, but attempt something in stone, though
-only in such rude fashion as the state of the arts among them enabled
-them to execute.</p>
-
-
-<div class="topspace1"></div>
-<div class="footnotes">
-<blockquote>
-<p class="footnote"><span class="smcap"><b>Footnotes</b></span></p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_441" id="Footnote_441"></a><a href="#FNanchor_441"><span class="label">[441]</span></a>
-'Memoria sobre el Tempio Druida de Antequera,' Malaga, 1847.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_442" id="Footnote_442"></a><a href="#FNanchor_442"><span class="label">[442]</span></a>
-'Anteg&#252;edades prehistoricos de Andalucia,' Madrid, 1868.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_443" id="Footnote_443"></a><a href="#FNanchor_443"><span class="label">[443]</span></a>
-For a great part of the information
-regarding them, I am indebted to my
-friend Don J. F. Ria&#241;o, of Madrid.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_444" id="Footnote_444"></a><a href="#FNanchor_444"><span class="label">[444]</span></a>
-'Bible in Spain,' ii. p. 35.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_445" id="Footnote_445"></a><a href="#FNanchor_445"><span class="label">[445]</span></a>
-Strabo, iii. p. 138.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_446" id="Footnote_446"></a><a href="#FNanchor_446"><span class="label">[446]</span></a>
-There is an interesting paper by
-Lord Talbot de Malahide on this subject
-in the 'Arch&#230;ological Journal,' 108,
-1870, illustrated by drawings of hitherto
-unknown dolmens, by Sir Vincent Eyre.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_447" id="Footnote_447"></a><a href="#FNanchor_447"><span class="label">[447]</span></a>
-'Revue arch&#233;ologique,' new series, viii. p. 530.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_448" id="Footnote_448"></a><a href="#FNanchor_448"><span class="label">[448]</span></a>
-"In the year <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 218, the second
-and fiercest struggle between the rival
-republics of Carthage and Rome was
-commenced by Hannibal taking Seguntum.
-The Peninsula thereafter became
-the theatre of a war afterwards
-carried by Hannibal into Italy, which
-was not concluded till 202 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, when
-Spain was added to the growing Italian
-Republic. But the nation of Spain did
-not willingly bow to the yoke. One of
-the bloodiest of all the Roman wars
-commenced in Spain in 153, and did not
-finally terminate for twenty years,
-during which cities were razed to the
-ground, multitudes massacred and made
-slaves, and the triumphant arms of Rome
-borne to the Atlantic shores. Here,
-therefore, is an epoch in the history of
-the Spanish peninsula which seems
-completely to coincide with the ancient
-traditions of the Scoti, and the knowledge
-we possess of the period of their
-arrival in Ireland."&mdash;<i>Dan Wilson</i>, 'Prehistoric
-Annals of Scotland,' p. 475.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_449" id="Footnote_449"></a><a href="#FNanchor_449"><span class="label">[449]</span></a>
-See a paper on the migration from Spain to Ireland, by Dr. Madden, 'Proceedings
-of Royal Irish Academy,' viii. pp. 372 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_450" id="Footnote_450"></a><a href="#FNanchor_450"><span class="label">[450]</span></a>
-Madden, <i>l. s. c.</i> p. 377.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_451" id="Footnote_451"></a><a href="#FNanchor_451"><span class="label">[451]</span></a>
-<i>Ante</i>, <a href="#Page_193">p. 193.</a></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_452" id="Footnote_452"></a><a href="#FNanchor_452"><span class="label">[452]</span></a>
-Petrie, "Essay on Tara," 'Trans.
-R. S. A.' xviii.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_453" id="Footnote_453"></a><a href="#FNanchor_453"><span class="label">[453]</span></a>
-"The two provinces which the race
-of Heremon possessed were the province
-of Gailian (<i>i.e.</i> Leinster) and the
-province of Olnemacht (<i>i.e.</i> Connaught)."&mdash;<i>Petrie</i>, 'Round Towers,' p. 100.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_454" id="Footnote_454"></a><a href="#FNanchor_454"><span class="label">[454]</span></a>
-Reeves, translation of Nennius, p. 55.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_455" id="Footnote_455"></a><a href="#FNanchor_455"><span class="label">[455]</span></a>
-'True Principles of Beauty in Art,'
-by the Author, appendix, 526.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_456" id="Footnote_456"></a><a href="#FNanchor_456"><span class="label">[456]</span></a>
-These dimensions are taken from Mitjana's book, merely turned into their
-equivalents in English feet. They do not, however, agree in scale with the
-plan, but are probably approximately correct.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_457" id="Footnote_457"></a><a href="#FNanchor_457"><span class="label">[457]</span></a>
-There is a view of the mound and church in Parcerisa, 'Recuerdos y Bellezas de
-Espa&#241;a, Asturias y Leon,' p. 30, but too small to enable us to be able to form any
-idea of its age from the lithograph.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_458" id="Footnote_458"></a><a href="#FNanchor_458"><span class="label">[458]</span></a>
-The woodcut is copied from one
-in Frank Leslie's 'Illustrated News;'
-which is itself, taken from a French illustrated
-journal. I do not doubt that the
-American copy is a correct reproduction
-of the French original; but there may
-be exaggerations in the first. I see no
-reason, however, for doubting that the
-great stones do exist in the hermitage,
-and that they are parts, at least, of a
-dolmen&mdash;-and this is all that concerns the
-argument. I wish, however, we had
-some more reliable information on the
-subject.</p
-></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_459" id="Footnote_459"></a><a href="#FNanchor_459"><span class="label">[459]</span></a>
-Vide <i>ante</i>, <a href="#Page_24">p. 24.</a></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_460" id="Footnote_460"></a><a href="#FNanchor_460"><span class="label">[460]</span></a>
-Borrow, 'Bible in Spain,' ii. p. 35.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_461" id="Footnote_461"></a><a href="#FNanchor_461"><span class="label">[461]</span></a>
-'Congr&#232;s international pr&#233;historique,' Paris volume, p. 182.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_462" id="Footnote_462"></a><a href="#FNanchor_462"><span class="label">[462]</span></a>
-'Congr&#232;s international pr&#233;historique,' Paris volume, p. 197.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_463" id="Footnote_463"></a><a href="#FNanchor_463"><span class="label">[463]</span></a>
-'Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria,' ii. p. 314.</p>
-</div>
-
-</blockquote>
-</div>
-
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[Pg 395]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</a><br />
-<span class="small">ALGERIA.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">It</span> would be difficult to find a more curious illustration of the fable
-of "Eyes and no Eyes" than in the history of the discovery of dolmens
-in northern Africa. Though hundreds of travellers had passed through
-the country since the time of Bruce and Shaw, and though the French
-had possessed Algiers since 1830, an author writing on the subject ten
-years ago would have been fully justified in making the assertion that
-there were no dolmens there. Yet now we know that they exist literally
-in thousands. Perhaps it would not be an exaggeration to say that ten
-thousand are known, and their existence recorded.</p>
-
-<p>The first to announce the fact to the literary world in Europe was
-the late Mr. Rhind. He read a paper on what he called "Ortholithic
-remains in North Africa," to the Society of Antiquaries in 1859, which
-was afterwards published in volume xxxviii. of the 'Arch&#230;ologia.' It
-attracted, however, very little attention, perhaps in consequence of
-its name, but more from its not being illustrated. It was not really
-till 1863, when the late Henry Christy visited Algeria, that anything
-really became known. At Constantine he formed the acquaintance of a M.
-F&#233;raud, interpreter to the army of Algeria, who took him to a place
-called Bou Moursug, about twenty-five miles south of Constantine,
-where, during a short stay of three days, they saw and noted down
-upwards of one thousand dolmens.<a name="FNanchor_464" id="FNanchor_464"></a><a href="#Footnote_464" class="fnanchor">[464]</a>
-M. F&#233;raud afterwards published an account of these in the
-'M&#233;moires de la Soci&#233;t&#233; arch&#233;ologique de
-Constantine' for 1863, and the subject having attracted some attention
-in Europe, a second memoir appeared in the following year, which
-contained a good deal of additional information collected from
-different district officers. Since then various memoirs have been
-published in Algeria and France. One by the now celebrated General
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[Pg 396]</a></span>
-
-Faidherbe "speaks of three thousand tombs in the single necropolis
-at Roknia, and of another equally extensive within a few leagues of
-Constantine."<a name="FNanchor_465" id="FNanchor_465"></a><a href="#Footnote_465" class="fnanchor">[465]</a>
-An excellent <i>r&#233;sum&#233;</i> of the whole subject will be
-found in the Norwich volume of the International Prehistoric Congress,
-by Mr. Flower. From all these we gather a fair general idea of the
-subject, but, unfortunately, none of the memoirs are written by persons
-combining extensive local experience with real arch&#230;ological knowledge,
-except, perhaps, Mr. Flower. No plan of any one group has yet been
-given to the world, nor are any of the monuments illustrated with such
-details and measurements as would enable one to speak with certainty
-regarding them. This is especially the case with those represented
-in the 'Exploration scientifique de l'Alg&#233;rie,' published by the
-French Government. There are in this work numerous representations of
-dolmens carefully and beautifully drawn, but very seldom with scales
-attached to them; and as no text has yet been published, they are
-of comparatively little value for the purposes of research. Had Mr.
-Christy lived a little longer, these deficiencies would doubtless have
-been supplied; but, unfortunately, his mantle has not fallen on any
-worthy successor, and we must wait till some one appears who combines
-leisure and means with the knowledge and enthusiasm which characterized
-that noble-minded man.</p>
-
-<p>It need hardly be added that no detailed map exists showing the
-distribution of the dolmens in Algeria,<a name="FNanchor_466" id="FNanchor_466"></a><a href="#Footnote_466" class="fnanchor">[466]</a>
-and as many of the names by which they are known to French
-arch&#230;ologists are those of villages not marked on any maps
-obtainable in this country, it is very difficult to trace their precise
-position, and almost always impossible to draw with certainty any
-inferences from their distribution. In so far as we at present know,
-the principal dolmen region is situated along and on either side of
-a line drawn from Bona on the coast to Batna, sixty miles south of
-Constantine. But around Setif, and in localities nearly due south from
-Boujie, they are said to be in enormous numbers. The Commandant Payen
-reports the number of menhirs there as not less than ten thousand,
-averaging from 4 to 5 feet in height. One colossal
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[Pg 397]</a></span>
-
-monolith he describes as 26 feet in diameter at its base and 52 feet
-high.<a name="FNanchor_467" id="FNanchor_467"></a><a href="#Footnote_467" class="fnanchor">[467]</a>
-This, however, is surpassed by a dolmen situated near
-Tiaret, described by the Commandant Bernard. According to his account
-the cap-stone is 65 feet long by 26 feet broad, and 9 feet 6 inches
-thick; and this enormous mass is placed on other rocks which rise
-between 30 and 40 feet above the surface.<a name="FNanchor_468" id="FNanchor_468"></a><a href="#Footnote_468" class="fnanchor">[468]</a>
-If this is true, it is the most enormous dolmen known, and it is
-strange that it should have escaped observation so long. Even the
-most apathetic traveller might have been astonished at such a
-wonder. Whether less gigantic specimens of the class exist in that
-neighbourhood, we are not told, but they do in detached patches
-everywhere eastward throughout the province. Those described by Mr.
-Rhind are only twelve miles from Algiers, and others are said to exist
-in great numbers in the regency of Tripoli.<a name="FNanchor_469" id="FNanchor_469"></a><a href="#Footnote_469" class="fnanchor">[469]</a>
-So far as is at present known, they are not found in Morocco, but are
-found everywhere between Mount Atlas and the Syrtes, and apparently not
-near the sites of any great cities, or known centres of population,
-but in valleys and remote corners, as if belonging to a nomadic or
-agricultural population.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration164"></a>
-<img src="images/i_164.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">164.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Bazina. From Flower's Paper.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>When we speak of the ten thousand or, it may be, twenty thousand stone
-sepulchral monuments that are now known to exist in northern Africa,
-it must not be understood that they are all dolmens or circles of
-the class of which we have hitherto been speaking. Two other classes
-certainly exist, in some places, apparently, in considerable numbers,
-though it is difficult to make out in what proportion, and how far
-their forms are local. One of these classes, called Bazina by the
-Arabs, is thus described by Mr. Flower:&mdash;"Their general character is
-that of three concentric enclosures of stones of greater or less
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[Pg 398]</a></span>
-
-dimensions, so arranged as to form a series of steps. Sometimes,
-indeed, there are only two outer circles, and occasionally only one.
-The diameter of the larger axis of that here represented is about 30
-feet. In the centre are usually found three long and slender upright
-stones, forming three sides of a long rectangle, and the interior is
-paved with pebbles and broken stones.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration165"></a>
-<img src="images/i_165.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">165.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Choucha. From a drawing by Mr. Flower.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>"The Chouchas are found in the neighbourhood of the Bazinas, and are
-closely allied to them. They consist of courses of stones regularly
-built up like a wall, and not in steps like the Bazinas. Their diameter
-varies from 7 to as much as 40 feet; but the height of the highest
-above the soil does not exceed 5 to 10 feet. They are usually capped
-and covered by a large flag-stone, about 4 inches thick, under which
-is a regular trough or pit formed of stones from a foot and a half
-to 3 feet in thickness. The interior of these little towers is paved
-like the Bazinas; and indeed M. Payen considers that they are the
-equivalents in the mountains of the Bazinas in the plains."<a name="FNanchor_470" id="FNanchor_470"></a><a href="#Footnote_470" class="fnanchor">[470]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration166"></a>
-<img src="images/i_166.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">166.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen on Steps. From 'Exploration scientifique de
-l'Alg&#233;rie.'</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In many instances the chouchas and bazinas are found combined in one
-monument, and sometimes a regular dolmen is mounted on steps similar
-to those of a bazina, as shown in the annexed woodcut, representing
-one existing halfway between Constantine and Bona. But, in fact,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[Pg 399]</a></span>
-
-there is no conceivable combination which does not seem to be found in
-these African cemeteries; and did we know them all, they might throw
-considerable light on some questions that are now very perplexing.</p>
-
-<p>The chouchas are found sometimes isolated, and occasionally 10 to
-12 feet apart from one another in groups. In certain localities the
-summits and ridges of the hills are covered with them, while on the
-edges of steep cliffs they form fringes overhanging the ravines.</p>
-
-<p>In both these classes of monuments the bodies are almost always found
-in a doubled-up posture, the knees being brought up to the chin, and
-the arms crossed over the breast,<a name="FNanchor_471" id="FNanchor_471"></a><a href="#Footnote_471" class="fnanchor">[471]</a>
-like those in the Axevalla tomb described above (<a href="#Page_312">page 312</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration167"></a>
-<img src="images/i_167.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">167.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Tumuli, with Intermediate Lines of Stones.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration168"></a>
-<img src="images/i_168.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">168.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Group of Sepulchral Monuments, Algeria.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The most remarkable peculiarity of the tumuli and circles in Algeria
-is the mode in which they are connected together by double lines of
-stones&mdash;as Mr. Flowers expresses it, like beads on a string&mdash;in the
-manner shown in woodcut No. 167. What the object of this was has not
-been explained, nor will it be easy to guess, till we have more,
-and more detailed, drawings than we now possess. Mr. F&#233;raud's plate
-xxviii.<a name="FNanchor_472" id="FNanchor_472"></a><a href="#Footnote_472" class="fnanchor">[472]</a>
-shows such a line zigzagging across the plain between
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[Pg 400]</a></span>
-
-two heights, like a line of field fortifications, and with dolmens
-and tumuli sometimes behind or in front of the lines, and at others
-strung upon it. At first sight it looks like the representation of
-a battle-field, but, again, what are we to make of such a group as
-that represented in woodcut 168 on the previous page? It is the most
-extensive plan of any one of these groups which has yet been published,
-but it must be received with caution.<a name="FNanchor_473" id="FNanchor_473"></a><a href="#Footnote_473" class="fnanchor">[473]</a>
-There is no scale attached to it. The triple circles with dolmens I
-take to be tumuli, like those of the Aveyron (<a href="#Illustration8">woodcuts Nos. 8</a> and <a href="#Illustration122">122</a>),
-but the whole must be regarded as a diagram, not as a plan, and as such
-very unsafe to reason upon. Still, as it certainly is not invented, it
-shows the curious manner in which these monuments are joined together,
-as well as the various forms which they take.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration169"></a>
-<img src="images/i_169.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">169.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan and Elevation of African Tumulus. From F&#233;raud.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>One of these (?) is represented in plan and elevation in the annexed
-woodcut 169.<a name="FNanchor_474" id="FNanchor_474"></a><a href="#Footnote_474" class="fnanchor">[474]</a>
-It is, as will be observed, almost identical&mdash;
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[Pg 401]</a></span>
-
-making allowance for bad drawing&mdash;with those of Aveyron just referred
-to, or with the Scandinavian examples as exemplified in the diagram
-(<a href="#Illustration109">woodcut No. 109</a>). As this class with the external dolmen on the
-summit seems to be very extensive in Algeria, indeed almost typical,
-an examination of their interior would at once solve the mystery of
-their arrangements, and tell us whether there was a second cist on the
-ground level, or where the body was deposited. Where the dolmen stands
-free, but on the flat ground, as is the case with that shown in this
-cut (No. 170), with two rows of stones surrounding it, the body was
-deposited in a cist formed between the two uprights that support the
-cap-stone, which are carried down some 5 or 6 feet into the ground for
-that purpose. My impression is that the same arrangement is met with in
-those which are raised, and that either the supports of the cap-stone
-are carried down to the ground for that purpose or that an independent
-cist, is formed directly under the visible one.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration170"></a>
-<img src="images/i_170.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">170.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen with Two Circles of Stones. From F&#233;raud.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The dolmen in this last instance is of the usual Kit's Cotty House
-style, consisting of three upright stones supporting the cap-stone.
-Sometimes the outer row of stones is replaced by a circular pavement
-of flat stones,<a name="FNanchor_475" id="FNanchor_475"></a><a href="#Footnote_475" class="fnanchor">[475]</a>
-forming what may be supposed to be a procession path round the monument;
-but in fact hardly any two are exactly alike, and when we come to deal
-with thousands, it requires very complete knowledge of the whole
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[Pg 402]</a></span>
-
-before any classification can be attempted. Suffice it to say here that
-there is hardly any variety met with elsewhere of which a counterpart
-cannot be found in Algeria.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration171"></a>
-<img src="images/i_171.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">171.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmens on the Road from Bona to Constantine. From
-'Exploration scientifique de l'Alg&#233;rie.'</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Of their general appearance as objects in the landscape, the annexed
-woodcut will convey a tolerable idea. They seem to affect the ridges
-of the hills, but they also stretch across the plain, and in fact are
-found everywhere and in every possible position. Except apparently on
-the sea-coast, nothing like the Viking graves, so far as is known, is
-found in Algeria; whether this indicates that they were a sea-faring
-people or not is not quite clear, but it is a distinction worth bearing
-in mind.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration172"></a>
-<img src="images/i_172.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">172.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Four Cairns enclosed in Squares. (From 'Soc. arch.
-de Constantine,' 1864.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>One curious group is perhaps worth quoting as a means of comparison
-with the graves of Aschenrade (<a href="#Illustration119">woodcut No. 119</a>). It consists of four
-tumuli enclosed in four squares joined together like the squares of
-a chess-board. Single squares enclosing cairns are common enough in
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[Pg 403]</a></span>
-
-Scandinavia, but this conjoined arrangement is rare and remarkable,
-and its similarity to the Livonian example is so great that it can
-hardly be accidental. The Aschenrade graves, it will be recollected,
-contained coins of the Caliphs extending down to <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 999,
-and German coins down to 1040. There would, therefore, be no <i>&#224;
-priori</i> improbability in these graves in Algeria being as late, if the
-similarity of two monuments so far apart can be considered as proving
-identity of age. Without unduly pressing the argument, the points of
-resemblance which exist everywhere between the Northern Europe and
-North African monuments appear to prove that the latter may be of any
-age down to the tenth or eleventh century, but any decision as to
-their real date must depend on the local circumstances attending each
-individual example.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>The preceding woodcuts are perhaps sufficient to explain the more
-general and more typical forms of Algerian dolmens, but they are so
-numerous and so varied that ten times that number of illustrations
-would hardly suffice to exhibit all their peculiarities. Their study,
-however, is comparatively uninteresting, till we know more of their
-contents, and till something definite is accepted as to their age.
-When, however, we turn to examine that, we find the data from which
-our conclusions must be drawn both meagre and unsatisfactory. Such as
-they are, however, they certainly all tend one way. In the first place,
-the negative evidence is as complete here as elsewhere. The Greeks,
-the Romans, and the early Christians were all familiar with northern
-Africa, and there is not one whisper as to any such monuments having
-been seen by any of them. When we consider our own ignorance of their
-existence till some ten years ago, it may be said that such evidence
-does not go for much; but it is worth alluding to, as a hint in the
-opposite direction would be considered final, and as its absence,
-at all events, leaves the question open. On the other hand, all the
-traditions of the country as reported by M. F&#233;raud, and others, and
-repeated by M. Bertrand and Mr. Flower, ascribe these monuments to
-the pagan inhabitants who occupied the country at the time of the
-Mahommedan conquest. Thus (page 127): "At the epoch the Mussulman
-invasion these countries were inhabited by a pagan population, who
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[Pg 404]</a></span>
-
-elevated these vast ranges of stone to arrest the invading host." Or,
-again, they even name the prince who opposed the conquerors. Thus
-(page 117): "Formerly at Machira lived a pagan prince called Abd en
-Nar&mdash;fire worshipper. He married Zana, queen of a city now in ruins
-bearing that name. When the Arabs conquered Africa, Abd en Nar abjured
-his crown, became a Mussulman, and from that time called himself Abd en
-Nour&mdash;worshipper of the light."<a name="FNanchor_476" id="FNanchor_476"></a><a href="#Footnote_476" class="fnanchor">[476]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration173"></a>
-<img src="images/i_173.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">173.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Tombs near Djidjeli. From 'Exploration scientifique
-de l'Alg&#233;rie.'</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>This, too, must be taken for what it is worth; but in a cemetery
-near Djidjeli, on the north coast, there is a curious tomb formed of
-a circle of stones like those of the pagan cists, with a head-stone
-which, if it is not the turban-stone that is usually found in Turkish
-tombs of modern date, is most singularly like it. That the cemetery
-belongs to the Mahommedans seems clear, but the circles of stones,
-though small, indicate a very imperfect conversion&mdash;just such as the
-tradition indicates.</p>
-
-<p>These arguments, however, acquire something like consistency when we
-come to examine the contents of the tombs themselves. One of them (No.
-4) is described by Mr. F&#233;raud as surrounded by a circular enceinte, 12
-metres, nearly 40 feet, in diameter. The chamber of the dolmen measured
-7 feet by 3 feet 6 inches. At the feet of the skeleton were the bones
-and teeth of a horse, and an iron bridle-bit. In the same grave were
-found a ring of iron, another ring with various other objects in
-copper (bronze?), some fragments of pottery of a superior quality,
-and fragments of worked flint implements, and lastly a medal of the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[Pg 405]</a></span>
-
-Empress Faustina.<a name="FNanchor_477" id="FNanchor_477"></a><a href="#Footnote_477" class="fnanchor">[477]</a>
-All the three ages were consequently represented
-in the one tomb, and yet it certainly belongs to the second century.
-None of the others give such distinct evidence of their age, but M.
-Bertrand, who is a strong advocate for the prehistoric age of French
-dolmens, sums up his impressions of M. F&#233;raud's discoveries in the
-following words: "Ceux de la province de Constantine ne pouvaient, &#224; en
-juger par les objets qui y out &#233;t&#233; trouv&#233;s, &#234;tre de beaucoup ant&#233;rieur
-&#224; l'&#232;re chr&#233;tienne; quelques-uns m&#234;me seraient post&#233;rieurs."<a name="FNanchor_478" id="FNanchor_478"></a><a href="#Footnote_478" class="fnanchor">[478]</a></p>
-
-<p>In addition to what he found inside the tombs, M. F&#233;raud discovered a
-Latin inscription in the cap-stone of a dolmen near Sidi Kacem. The
-letters are too much worn to enable the sense of the inscription to be
-made out, but quite sufficient remains to prove that it is in Latin,
-and, from the form of the letters, of a late type.<a name="FNanchor_479" id="FNanchor_479"></a><a href="#Footnote_479" class="fnanchor">[479]</a></p>
-
-<p>Monsieur Leternoux found hewn stones and even columnar shafts of Roman
-workmanship among the materials out of which the bazinas at the foot
-of the Aures chain had been constructed, and he gives a drawing of a
-cippus of late Roman workmanship, bearing an inscription in Berber
-character, which he identifies with those on two upright stones of rude
-form, one of which forms parts of a circle near Bona.<a name="FNanchor_480" id="FNanchor_480"></a><a href="#Footnote_480" class="fnanchor">[480]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration174"></a>
-<img src="images/i_174.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">174.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Circle near Bona.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In addition to these there are numerous instances among the plates
-which form the volume of the 'Exploration scientifique de l'Alg&#233;rie'
-where the rude-stone monuments are so mixed up with those of late Roman
-and early Christian character that it seems impossible to doubt that
-they are contemporary. As no text, however, has yet been published to
-accompany these plates, it is most unsafe to rely on any individual
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[Pg 406]</a></span>
-
-example, which from some fault of the draughtsman or engraver may
-be misleading. The general impression, however, which these plates
-convey is decidedly in favour of a post-Roman date, and of their being
-comparatively modern. It requires, however, some one on the spot, whose
-attention is specially directed to the subject, to determine whether
-the rude-stone monuments are earlier than those which are hewn, or
-whether the contrary is not sometimes, perhaps always, the case. If
-M. Bertrand is right, and the Faustina tomb is of any value as an
-indication of age, certainly sometimes at least, the rude monuments are
-the more modern. Carthage fell <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 146, and the Jugurthan
-war ended <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 106, and it is impossible to conceive that
-a people like the Romans, would possess as they did the sovereignty
-of northern Africa, after that date, and not leave their mark on it,
-in the shape of buildings of various sorts. If we adopt the usual
-progressive theory, all must be anterior to <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 100; for on
-that hypothesis it would be considered most improbable that after long
-contact with Carthaginian civilization and under the direct influence
-of that of Rome anyone could prefer rude uncommunicative masses to
-structures composed of polished and engraved stones. It certainly was
-so, however, to a very great extent, and my impression is, for the
-reasons above given, that the bulk of these North African dolmens are
-subsequent to the Christian era, and that they extend well into the
-period of the Mahommedan domination, for it could not, for a long
-time at least, have been so complete as entirely to obliterate the
-feelings and usages so long indulged in by the aboriginal inhabitants
-of the country. Nothing, indeed, would surprise me less than if it were
-eventually shown that some of these rude-stone monuments extended down
-to the times of the Crusades. As, however, we are not yet in a position
-to prove this, it is only put forward here as a suggestion, in order
-that those who may hereafter have the task of opening these tombs may
-not reject any evidence of their being so late, as they probably would
-do if imbued with prehistoric prejudices.</p>
-
-<p>It is to be feared that the question who the people were that set up
-these African dolmens must wait for an answer till we know more of
-the ethnography of northern Africa in ancient times than we do at
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[Pg 407]</a></span>
-
-present. The only people who, so far as we now see, seem to be able
-to claim them, are the Nasamones. From Herodotus we learn that this
-people buried their dead sitting, with their knees doubled up to their
-chins, and were so particular about this that, when a man was dying,
-they propped him up that he might die in that attitude (iv. 190). We
-also learn from him that they had such reverence for the tombs of their
-ancestors that it was their practice in their solemn form of oath to
-lay their hands on these tombs, and so invoke their sanction; and in
-their mode of divination they used to sleep in or on these sepulchres
-(iv. 172). All this would agree perfectly with what we find, but
-Herodotus unfortunately never visited the country nor saw these tombs,
-and consequently does not describe them, and we do not know whether
-they were mere mounds of earth, or cairns of stone, or dolmens such
-as are found in Africa. It is also unfortunate for their claim that,
-in his day, the Nasamones lived near the Syrtes and to the eastward
-of them (ii. 32), and it seems hardly possible that they could have
-increased and multiplied to such an extent in the four following
-centuries as to occupy northern Africa as far as Mount Atlas, without
-either the Greeks or the Romans having known it. They are mentioned
-again by Curtius (iv. 7), by Lucan (ix. v. 439), and by Silius Italicus
-(ii. v. 116 and xi. v. 180), but always as a plundering Libyan tribe,
-never as a great people occupying the northern country. Their claim,
-therefore, to be considered the authors of the thousands of dolmens
-which are even now found in the province of Algeria, seems for the
-present wholly inadmissible.</p>
-
-<p>Still less can we admit M. Bertrand's theory alluded to above, that the
-dolmen-builders migrated from the Baltic to Britain, and thence through
-France and Spain to Africa. Such a migration, requiring long land
-journeys and sea voyages, if it took place at all, is much more likely
-to have been accomplished when commercial intercourse was established,
-and the North Sea and the Mediterranean were covered with sailing
-vessels of all sorts; but then it is unlikely that a rude people, as
-the dolmen-builders are assumed to be, could have availed themselves of
-these trade routes.</p>
-
-<p>Still no one can look at such monuments as this of Aveyron (woodcuts
-<a href="#Illustration8"> Nos. 8</a> and <a href="#Illustration122">122</a>)
-and compare them with those of Algeria, of which
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[Pg 408]</a></span>
-
-<a href="#Illustration169">woodcut No. 169</a> is a type, without feeling that there was a connection,
-and an intimate one, at the dolmen period, between the people on the
-northern with those on the southern shores of the Mediterranean, which
-can only be accounted for in one of three ways.</p>
-
-<p>Either it was that history was only repeating itself when Marshal
-Bougeaud landed in Algeria in 1830, and proceeded to conquer and
-colonise Algeria for the French. Or we must assume, as has often been
-done, that some people wandering from the east to colonise western
-Europe left these traces of their passage in Africa on their way
-westward. The third hypothesis is that already insisted upon at the end
-of the Scandinavian chapter, which regards these rude-stone monuments
-as merely the result of a fashion which sprung up at a particular
-period, and was adopted by all those people who, like the Nasamones,
-reverenced their dead and practised ancestral worship rather than that
-of an external divinity.</p>
-
-<p>Of all these three hypotheses, the second seems the least tenable,
-though it is the one most generally adopted. The Pyramids were built,
-on the most moderate computation, at least 3000 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span><a name="FNanchor_481" id="FNanchor_481"></a><a href="#Footnote_481" class="fnanchor">[481]</a>
-Egypt was then a highly civilized and populous country, and the art of
-cutting and polishing stones of the hardest nature had reached a degree
-of perfection in that country in those days which has never since been
-surpassed, and must have been practised for thousands of years before
-that time in order to reach the stage of perfection in which we there
-find it. Is it possible to conceive any savage Eastern race rushing
-across the Nile on its way westward, and carrying their rude arts with
-them, and continuing to practise them for four or five thousand years
-afterwards without change? Either it seems more probable to assume that
-the Egyptians would have turned them back, or if they had sojourned
-in their land like the Israelites, and then departed because they
-found the bondage intolerable, it is almost certain that they would
-have carried with them some of the arts and civilization of the people
-among whom they had dwelt. If such a migration did take place, it must
-have been in prehistoric times so remote that its occurrence can have
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[Pg 409]</a></span>
-
-but little bearing on the argument as to who built these Algerian
-monuments. But did they come by sea? Did the dolmen-building races
-embark from the ports of Palestine or those of Asia Minor? Were they in
-fact the far-famed Ph&oelig;nicians, to whom antiquaries have been so fond
-of ascribing these structures. The first answer to this is that there
-are no dolmens in Ph&oelig;nicia, and that they have not yet been found
-near Carthage, nor Utica, nor in Sicily, nor indeed anywhere where the
-Ph&oelig;nicians had colonies. They are not even found at Marseilles,
-where they settled, though on the western bank of the Rhone, where they
-had no establishments, they are found in numbers. They may have traded
-with Cornwall, and discovered lands even farther north, but to assume
-that so small a people could have erected all the megalithic remains
-found in Scandinavia and the continent of France, and other countries
-where they never settled, perhaps never visited, is to ascribe great
-effects to causes so insignificant as to be wholly incommensurable.
-So wholly inadequate does the Ph&oelig;nician power seem to have been to
-produce such effects, that the proposition would probably never have
-been brought forward had the extent of the dolmen region been known at
-the time it was suggested. Even putting the element of time aside, it
-is now clearly untenable, and if there is any truth in the date above
-assigned to this class of monuments, it is mere idleness to argue it.</p>
-
-<p>The idea of a migration from France to Algeria is by no means so
-illogical. The French dolmens, so far as is now known, seem certainly
-older than the African&mdash;a fact which, if capable of proof, is fatal to
-the last suggestion&mdash;and if we assume that this class of monument was
-invented in western Europe, it only requires that the element of time
-should be suitable to establish this hypothesis. When the Celts of
-central Gaul, six centuries before the Christian era, began to extend
-their limits and to press upon those of the Aquitanians, did the latter
-flee from their oppressors to seek refuge in Africa, as at a latter
-period the dolmen-builders of Spain sought repose in the green island
-of the west? There certainly appears to be no great improbability that
-they may have done so to such an extent as to cause the adoption of
-this form of architecture after it had become prevalent elsewhere; and
-as the encroaching Celts, down to the prosecution of the middle ages,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[Pg 410]</a></span>
-
-may have driven continual streams of colonists in the same direction,
-this would account for all the phenomena we find, provided we may
-ascribe that modern date to the Algerian examples which to me appears
-undoubted.</p>
-
-<p>It is hardly probable, however, that the Aquitanians would have sought
-refuge in Africa unless some kindred tribe existed there to afford them
-shelter and a welcome. If such a race did exist, that would go far to
-get rid of most of the difficulties of the problem. We are, however,
-far too ignorant of North African ethnography to be able to say whether
-any such people were there, or if so, who their representatives may now
-be, and till our ignorance is dispelled, it is idle to speculate on
-mere probabilities.</p>
-
-<p>We know something of the migrations of the peoples settled around the
-shores of the Mediterranean for at least ten centuries before the birth
-of Christ, but neither in Greek or Roman or Carthaginian history, nor
-in any of the traditions of their literature, do we find a hint of any
-migration of a rude people, either across Egypt or by sea from Asia,
-and, what is perhaps more to the point, we have no trace of it in any
-of the intermediate islands. The Nurhags of Sardinia, the Talayots of
-the Balearic Islands, are monuments of quite a different class from
-anything found in France or Algeria. So too are the tombs of Malta,
-and, as just mentioned, there are no such remains in Sicily.</p>
-
-<p>We seem thus forced back on the third hypothesis, which contemplates
-the rise of a dolmen style of architecture at some not very remote
-period of the world's history, and its general diffusion among all
-those kindred races of mankind with whom respect for the spirits of
-deceased ancestors was a leading characteristic.</p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Tripoli.</span></h3>
-
-<p>Dr. Barth seems to be the only traveller who has in recent times
-explored the regions about Tripoli to a sufficient extent and with
-the requisite knowledge to enable him to observe whether or not there
-were any rude-stone monuments in that district. About halfway between
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[Pg 411]</a></span>
-
-Moursuk and Gh&#226;t, he observed "a circle laid out very regularly with
-large slabs, like the opening of a well; and, on the plain above the
-cliffs, another circle regularly laid out, "and," he adds, "like the
-many circles seen in Cyrenaica and in other parts of Northern Africa,
-evidently connected with the religious rites of the ancient inhabitants
-of these regions."<a name="FNanchor_482" id="FNanchor_482"></a><a href="#Footnote_482" class="fnanchor">[482]</a>
-This is meagre enough; but fortunately, in addition to this, he
-observed and drew two monuments which are of equal and perhaps even of
-more importance to our present purposes.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration175"></a>
-<img src="images/i_175.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">175.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Trilithon at Ksaea.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>One of these, situated at a place called Ksaea, about forty-five miles
-east by south from Tripoli, consists of six pairs of trilithons,
-similar to that represented in the annexed woodcut. No plan is given
-of their arrangement, nor does Dr. Barth speculate as to their use;
-he only remarks that "they could never have been intended as doors,
-for the space between the upright stones is so narrow that a man of
-ordinary size could hardly squeeze his way between them."<a name="FNanchor_483" id="FNanchor_483"></a><a href="#Footnote_483" class="fnanchor">[483]</a></p>
-
-<p>The other, situated at Elkeb, about the same distance from Tripoli,
-but south by east, is even more curious. It, too, is a trilithon, but
-the supports, which are placed on a masonry platform two steps in
-height, slope inwards, with all the appearance of being copied from a
-carpentry form, and the cap-stone likewise projects beyond the uprights
-in a manner very unusual in masonry. Another curious indication of its
-wooden origin is that the western pillar has three quadrangular holes
-on its inner side, 6 inches square, while the corresponding holes in
-the eastern pillar go quite through. These pillars are 2 feet square
-and 10 feet high, while the impost measures 6 feet 6 inches.<a name="FNanchor_484" id="FNanchor_484"></a><a href="#Footnote_484" class="fnanchor">[484]</a></p>
-
-<p>In front of these pillars lies a stone with a square sinking in it
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[Pg 412]</a></span>
-
-and a spout at one side. Whatever this may have been intended for, it
-is&mdash;if the woodcut and description are to be depended upon&mdash;the exact
-counterpart of a Hindu Yoni, and as such would not excite remark as
-having anything unusual in its appearance if found in a modern temple
-at Benares. Beyond these in the woodcut are seen several other stones,
-evidently belonging to the same monument, one of which seems to have
-been formed into a throne.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration176"></a>
-<img src="images/i_176.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">176.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Trilithon at Elkeb. From a Drawing by Dr. Barth.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>These monuments are not, of course, alone. There must be
-others&mdash;probably many others&mdash;in the country, a knowledge of which
-might throw considerable light on our enquiries. In the meanwhile the
-first thing that strikes one is that Jeffrey of Monmouth's assertion,
-that "Giants in old days brought from Africa the stones which the
-magic arts of Merlin afterwards removed from Kildare and set up at
-Stonehenge,"<a name="FNanchor_485" id="FNanchor_485"></a><a href="#Footnote_485" class="fnanchor">[485]</a>
-is not so entirely devoid of foundation as might at first sight appear.
-The removal of the stones is, of course, absurd, but the suggestion and
-design may possibly have travelled west by this route.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[Pg 413]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration177"></a>
-<img src="images/i_177.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">177.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Buddhist Monument at Bangkok.<br />From Mouhot's
-'Travels in Indo-China, Cambodia, &amp;c.' vol. i. p. 218.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[Pg 414]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>If we now turn back to page 100, it seems impossible not to be struck
-with, the likeness that exists between woodcut No. 25 and woodcuts 175
-and 176, especially the first. Such similarity is more than sufficient
-to take away all improbability from Dr. Barth's suggestion that "the
-traces of art which they display may be ascribed to Roman influence."
-It also renders it nearly certain that these African trilithons were
-sepulchral, and adds another to the many proofs adduced above that
-Stonehenge was both sepulchral and post-Roman.</p>
-
-<p>The most curious point, however, connected with these monuments is
-the suggestion of Indian influence which they&mdash;especially that at
-Elkeb&mdash;give rise to. The introduction of sloping jambs, derived
-from carpentry forms, can be traced back in India, in the caves of
-Behar<a name="FNanchor_486" id="FNanchor_486"></a><a href="#Footnote_486" class="fnanchor">[486]</a>
-and the Western Gh&#226;ts, to the second century before Christ,
-but certainly to no earlier date. The carpentry forms, but without the
-sloping jambs, continued at Sanchi and the Ajunta caves till some time
-after the Christian era, and where wood is used has, in fact, continued
-to the present day. "Mutatis mutandis," no two monuments can well be
-more alike to one another than that at Elkeb and the Buddhist tomb at
-Bangkok, represented in woodcut 177. The Siamese tomb may be a hundred
-years old; and if we allow the African trilithon to be late Roman, we
-have some fourteen or fifteen centuries between them, which, certainly,
-is as long as can reasonably be demanded. In reality it was probably
-less, but if the one was prehistoric, we lose altogether the thread of
-association and tradition that ought to connect the two.</p>
-
-<p>To all this we shall have occasion to return, and then to discuss
-it more at length, when speaking of the Indian monuments and their
-connection with those of the West. In the meanwhile these two form a
-stepping-stone of sufficient importance to make us feel how desirable
-it is that the country where they are found should be more carefully
-examined. My impression is that the key to most of our mysteries is
-hidden in these African deserts.</p>
-
-
-<div class="topspace1"></div>
-<div class="footnotes">
-<blockquote>
-<p class="footnote"><span class="smcap"><b>Footnotes</b></span></p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_464" id="Footnote_464"></a><a href="#FNanchor_464"><span class="label">[464]</span></a>
-'International Congress,' Norwich volume, 1869, p. 196.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_465" id="Footnote_465"></a><a href="#FNanchor_465"><span class="label">[465]</span></a>
-Norwich volume of 'Prehistoric
-Congress,' p. 196.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_466" id="Footnote_466"></a><a href="#FNanchor_466"><span class="label">[466]</span></a>
-A very imperfect one appeared in
-the 'Revue arch&#233;ologique,' in 1865,
-vol. xi. pl. v. It contained most of the
-names of places where dolmens were then
-known to exist, but our knowledge has
-been immensely extended since then.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_467" id="Footnote_467"></a><a href="#FNanchor_467"><span class="label">[467]</span></a>
-'M&#233;moires de la Soc. arch. de Constantine,' 1864, p. 127.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_468" id="Footnote_468"></a><a href="#FNanchor_468"><span class="label">[468]</span></a>
-Flower, in Norwich volume, p. 204.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_469" id="Footnote_469"></a><a href="#FNanchor_469"><span class="label">[469]</span></a>
-'M&#233;moires, etc., de Constantine,' 1864, p. 124.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_470" id="Footnote_470"></a><a href="#FNanchor_470"><span class="label">[470]</span></a>
-Flower, in Norwich volume, pp. 201 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_471" id="Footnote_471"></a><a href="#FNanchor_471"><span class="label">[471]</span></a>
-'M&#233;moires, etc., de Constantine,' 1864, pp. 109, 114.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_472" id="Footnote_472"></a><a href="#FNanchor_472"><span class="label">[472]</span></a>
-'M&#233;moires, etc., de Constantine.'</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_473" id="Footnote_473"></a><a href="#FNanchor_473"><span class="label">[473]</span></a>
-Another is published by M. Bourguignal,
-in his 'Monuments symboliques
-de l'Alg&#233;rie,' pl. i., but it is still more
-suspicious.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_474" id="Footnote_474"></a><a href="#FNanchor_474"><span class="label">[474]</span></a>
-I have been obliged to take some
-liberties with M. F&#233;raud's cuts; the plan
-and elevation are so entirely discrepant,
-that one or both must be wrong. I have
-brought them a little more into harmony.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_475" id="Footnote_475"></a><a href="#FNanchor_475"><span class="label">[475]</span></a>
-'Prehistoric Congress,' Norwich volume, p. 199.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_476" id="Footnote_476"></a><a href="#FNanchor_476"><span class="label">[476]</span></a>
-'M&#233;moires, &amp;c., de Constantine,' 1864.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_477" id="Footnote_477"></a><a href="#FNanchor_477"><span class="label">[477]</span></a>
-'Revue arch&#233;ologique,' viii. p. 527.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_478" id="Footnote_478"></a><a href="#FNanchor_478"><span class="label">[478]</span></a>
-<i>Ibid.</i> <i>l. s. c.</i></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_479" id="Footnote_479"></a><a href="#FNanchor_479"><span class="label">[479]</span></a>
-'M&#233;moires, &amp;c., de Constantine,' 1864, p. 122, pl. xxx.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_480" id="Footnote_480"></a><a href="#FNanchor_480"><span class="label">[480]</span></a>
-Flower, in Norwich volume, pp. 202-206.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_481" id="Footnote_481"></a><a href="#FNanchor_481"><span class="label">[481]</span></a>
-'History of Architecture,' i. p. 81.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_482" id="Footnote_482"></a><a href="#FNanchor_482"><span class="label">[482]</span></a>
-'Travels and Discoveries in Northern Africa,' i. p. 204.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_483" id="Footnote_483"></a><a href="#FNanchor_483"><span class="label">[483]</span></a>
-<i>Ibid.</i> p. 74.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_484" id="Footnote_484"></a><a href="#FNanchor_484"><span class="label">[484]</span></a>
-<i>Ibid.</i> p. 59. The holes are not shown in the cut.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_485" id="Footnote_485"></a><a href="#FNanchor_485"><span class="label">[485]</span></a>
-'British History,' viii. chap. ii.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_486" id="Footnote_486"></a><a href="#FNanchor_486"><span class="label">[486]</span></a>
-'History of Architecture,' by the Author, ii. p. 483.</p>
-</div>
-
-</blockquote>
-</div>
-
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[Pg 415]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.</a><br />
-<span class="small">MEDITERRANEAN ISLANDS.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Before</span> leaving the Mediterranean Sea and the countries bordering
-upon it, it seems desirable to say a few words regarding certain
-"non-historic" monuments which exist in its islands. Strictly speaking,
-they hardly come within the limits assigned to this book, for they are
-not truly megalithic in the sense in which the term has been used in
-the previous pages; for though stones 15 feet and 20 feet high are used
-in the Maltese monuments, they are shaped and, it may be said, hewn
-with metal tools, and they are used constructively with smaller stones,
-so as to form walls and roofs, and cannot therefore be considered as
-Rude Stone Monuments. Still they have so much affinity with these, and
-are so mixed up in all works treating of the subject with Druidical
-remains and prehistoric mysteries, that it certainly seems expedient to
-explain as far as possible their forms and uses.</p>
-
-<p>The monuments are of three classes. The first, found in Malta, are
-there called giants' towers&mdash;"Torre dei giganti"&mdash;a name having
-no meaning, but which, as also involving no hypothesis, it may be
-convenient to adhere to. The second class, called Nurhags, are peculiar
-to Sardinia. The third, or Talyots, are found only in the Balearic
-islands. There may be some connection between the two last groups, but
-even then with certain local peculiarities sufficient to distinguish
-them. The Maltese monuments however stand alone, and have certainly no
-connection with the other two, and, as it will appear in the sequel,
-none of the three have any very clear affinity with any known monuments
-on the continent of either Europe or Africa.</p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Malta.</span></h3>
-
-<p>The best known monuments of the Maltese groups are situated near the
-centre of the Isle of Gozo, in the commune of Barbato. When Houel
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[Pg 416]</a></span>
-
-wrote in 1787,<a name="FNanchor_487" id="FNanchor_487"></a><a href="#Footnote_487" class="fnanchor">[487]</a>
-only the outside wall with the apse of one of the
-inner chambers and the entrance of another were known. He mistook
-the right-hand apse of the second pair of chambers for part of a
-circle, and so represented it with a dolmen in the centre, led to this
-apparently by the existence of a real circle which then was found at
-a distance of 350 yards from the main group. This circle was 140 feet
-in diameter, composed of stones ranged close together and alternately
-broad and tall, as shown in the next woodcut, which represents the rear
-of the principal monument. The entrance was marked by two very tall
-stones, apparently 20 feet high. The interior was apparently rugged,
-but there is nothing in the plates to show from what cause. When Houel
-made his plan,<a name="FNanchor_488" id="FNanchor_488"></a><a href="#Footnote_488" class="fnanchor">[488]</a>
-it had all the appearance of being what was styled
-a regular "Druidical circle," and might have been used as such to
-support any Druidical theory. It is now however evident that it really
-was only the commencement of the envelope of a pair of chambers, such
-as we find in all the monuments of this class on these islands. If the
-plan is correct, it was the most regular of any, which, besides its
-having every appearance of never having been completed, would lead
-us to suppose that it was the last of the series. This monument has
-now entirely disappeared, as has also another of even more megalithic
-appearance which stood within a few yards of the principal group, but
-of which unfortunately we have neither plan nor details. It is shown
-with tolerable distinctness in a view in Mr. Frere's possession, and
-in the plates which are engraved from drawings by a native artist,
-which Admiral Smyth brought home in 1827,<a name="FNanchor_489" id="FNanchor_489"></a><a href="#Footnote_489" class="fnanchor">[489]</a>
-and which are engraved
-in volume xxii. of the 'Arch&#230;ologia.' Unfortunately the text that
-accompanies these plates is of the most unsatisfactory character. This
-he partially explains by saying that he had left his measurements with
-Colonel Otto Beyer, who had just caused the principal pair of chambers
-to be excavated.</p>
-
-<p>The second pair of chambers was excavated by Sir Henry Bouverie when
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[Pg 417]</a></span>
-
-he was governor, some time before or about 1836, when a careful plan
-and drawings of the whole were published by Count de la Marmora.<a name="FNanchor_490" id="FNanchor_490"></a><a href="#Footnote_490" class="fnanchor">[490]</a>
-It has been re-engraved by Gailhabaud and others, and is well known to
-arch&#230;ologists.</p>
-
-<p>The monuments thus brought to light consisted of two pairs of
-elliptical chambers very similar in dimensions and plan to those at
-Mnaidra (<a href="#Illustration179">woodcut No. 179</a>). The greatest depth internally from the
-entrance to the apse of the principal pair is 90 feet; the greatest
-width across both 130 feet. The right-hand pair as you enter is
-comparatively plain. The outer chamber of the left-hand pair still
-retained, when excavated, fittings that looked like an altar in the
-right-hand apse, which was separated from the rest by what may be
-called the choir-screen or altar-rail; and this was ornamented with
-spirals and geometric figures neatly and sharply cut. In the inner
-chamber was a stone, near the entrance, on which was a bas-relief of
-a serpent, but no other representation of any thing living was found
-elsewhere.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration178"></a>
-<img src="images/i_178.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">178.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; View of the exterior of the Giants' Tower at Gozo.<br />
-From a drawing in the possession of Sir Bartle Frere, K.C.B.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The external appearance of the monument may be gathered from the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[Pg 418]</a></span>
-
-woodcut No. 178. The lower part of the wall is composed alternately&mdash;as
-in the circle just alluded to&mdash;of large stones laid on their sides and
-smaller ones standing perpendicularly between them. Above this the
-courses of stones are of regular masonry, and probably there was some
-kind of cornice or string-course before the beginning of the roof, but
-of this no trace now remains in any of these monuments.</p>
-
-<p>The second group, known as Hagiar Khem, is situated near Krendi, on the
-south side of the island of Malta, and is the most extensive one known.
-The principal monument contains, besides the usual pair of chambers,
-four or five lateral chambers; and a short way to the north is a second
-monument, containing at least one pair; and to the south a third
-group, but so ruined it is difficult to make out the plan. Only the
-tops of the walls and the tall stones which still rise above the walls
-were known to exist of the monument, till in 1839 Sir Henry Bouverie
-authorized the expenditure of some public money to excavate it. An
-account of these excavations, with a plan and drawings, was published
-in Malta at the time by Lieutenant Foulis. The plan was repeated, in
-less detail however, in the 'Arch&#230;ologia,'<a name="FNanchor_491" id="FNanchor_491"></a><a href="#Footnote_491" class="fnanchor">[491]</a>
-and afterwards in the Norwich volume of the International Prehistoric
-Congress, by Mr. Furze, from a survey recently made by the Royal
-Engineers.</p>
-
-<p>The third group, known as that at Mnaidra, is situated not far from the
-last, between it and the sea; and as it never has been published, a
-plan of it is given here<a name="FNanchor_492" id="FNanchor_492"></a><a href="#Footnote_492" class="fnanchor">[492]</a>
-from a survey made by Corporal Mortimer,
-of the Royal Engineers. Like the Gozo monument, it consists of two
-pairs of oval chambers in juxtaposition. The right-hand pair, in this
-instance, is larger and simpler in design than that on the left, but
-it is so nearly identical, both in plan and dimensions, with the
-right-hand pair at Gozo that they are probably of the same age and
-served the same purpose. They are also, as nearly as may be, of the
-same dimensions: both would be enclosed, with their side walls, by
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[Pg 419]</a></span>
-
-a circle 75 feet in diameter. The left-hand cone at Mnaidra would be
-nearly of the same diameter; but at Gozo the corresponding enclosure
-would require to be, and in fact was, 100 feet in diameter, and the
-inner room, measuring 80 feet by 50 feet, including the apse, was the
-largest and finest apartment of the class in the islands.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration179"></a>
-<img src="images/i_179.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">179.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan of Monument of Mnaidra. From one by Corporal
-Mortimer.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration180"></a>
-<img src="images/i_180.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">180.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Section, on the line A B, through Lower Pair of
-Chambers, Mnaidra.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The section through the lower chambers (<a href="#Illustration180">woodcut No. 180</a>)
-will suffice to explain the general appearance of these buildings internally,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[Pg 420]</a></span>
-
-as they now stand. <span class="smcap">A</span> is the entrance into a small square
-apartment in which the altar or table stands, shown more completely
-in the next woodcut (No. 181), from a photograph, which also renders
-much more clear the peculiar style of ornamenting with innumerable
-"pit markings," peculiar to these Maltese monuments. <span class="smcap">D</span> is
-the entrance into the other chamber, which but for the interference
-of that last described, would have been of the usual elliptical form.
-My impression is that the left-hand apse was removed at some time
-subsequent to the erection of the monument, to admit of its insertion.
-On each side of the doorway are seats, <span class="smcap">C</span> and <span class="smcap">E</span>, which
-are always found in similar situations. Beyond, at <span class="smcap">F</span>, is one
-of those mysterious openings which are so frequent; it is also seen
-with another in Woodcut No. 182. Between this apartment and the upper
-apartment <span class="smcap">H</span> are two tiers of shelves or loculi, which are also
-found at Gozo, and for which it is difficult to suggest a meaning if
-they were not used as columbaria for sepulchral purposes.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration181"></a>
-<img src="images/i_181.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">181.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Entrance to Chamber B, Mnaidra, showing Table
-inside.<br />(The Rod is divided into English feet.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[Pg 421]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>A difficult question here arises as to which of these two pairs of
-apartments is the older&mdash;the upper, with the simpler style and the
-smaller stones, or the apartments with the larger stones and more
-ornate arrangements. On the whole, I am inclined to think the simpler
-the older: among other reasons because the floor of the right-hand pair
-at Mnaidra is 10 feet above the level of the left-hand apartments. As
-the edifices are all placed on heights, it seems improbable that the
-first comer would have chosen a site commanded by a knoll 10 feet above
-him, and touching his half-buried building. But, besides this local
-indication, it seems probable that the style was progressive, and that
-this right-hand chamber at Mnaidra may be the oldest, and the great one
-at Gozo the last completed of all which we know.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration182"></a>
-<img src="images/i_182.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">182.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  North End of Left-hand Outer Chamber at Mnaidra.
-From a photograph.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The excavations at Mnaidra as well as those at Hagiar Khem have
-sufficed to settle the question of how these buildings were roofed. The
-above woodcut, from a photograph, shows the springing of the roof of
-the north end of the outer left-hand chamber, but, like photographs in
-general, does so unintelligently. Colonel Collinson, however, informs
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[Pg 422]</a></span>
-
-me that they bracket outwards, at the rate of 1 foot in 10, and he
-calculates that they would meet at a height of 30 feet so nearly that
-they could be closed by a single stone. He, however, overlooks the
-fact that all these horizontally-constructed domes, whether in Greece,
-or Italy, or Sardinia, are curvilinear, their section being that of a
-Gothic pointed arch, and consequently, if corbelling forward at the
-rate of 1 in 10 near the springing, they would certainly meet in this
-chamber at 15 or 20 feet from their base. When we recollect that before
-the Trojan war the Pelasgic architects of Greece roofed chambers 50 and
-60 feet in diameter (<i>vide ante</i>, <a href="#Page_33">page 33</a>),
-we should not be surprised at the Maltese architects grappling with
-apses of 20 feet span. This has generally been admitted as easy, but
-several authors have been puzzled to think how the flat spaces joining
-the two apses could have been so roofed. A careful examination of the
-plans of the Maltese building seems to make this easy. Looking, for
-instance, at the plan of Mnaidra, a retaining wall will be observed on
-the extreme right, which is a segment of a circle 75 feet in diameter,
-and continuing it all round, it encloses both chambers. If a similar
-circle is drawn round the left-hand chambers, it equally encloses them,
-and the circles osculate, or have one party wall at a point where
-there is the group of cells. This granted, it is easy to see that
-the external form of the roof was a stepped cone, covering the inner
-roofs, and so avoiding the ridges and hollows which would have rendered
-independent roofing impracticable. The external appearance of the
-building would thus have been that of two equal cones joined together,
-and rising probably to a height of 50 feet above their springing. To
-erect such a cone on an enclosing wall only 8 or 10 feet thick may
-appear at first sight a little difficult for such rude builders as the
-Maltese were when they erected these domes, but when we recollect that
-the cone was divided into two by a cross party wall, which may have
-been carried the whole height, all difficulty vanishes.</p>
-
-<p>When we apply these principles to the ruins at Hagiar Khem, their
-history becomes plain at once. Originally the monument seems to have
-consisted of a single pair of chambers of the usual form, <span class="smcap">A</span>
-and <span class="smcap">B</span> of the accompanying plan; but extension becoming
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[Pg 423]</a></span>
-
-necessary, the central apse of the inner apartment was removed and
-converted into a doorway, and the left-hand lateral apse was also
-removed so as to make an entrance into four other ovoid apartments,
-which were arranged radially so as to be covered by a cone 90 feet in
-diameter. Here again the difficulty, if any, of constructing a cone
-of these dimensions is got over by the numerous points of support
-from perpendicular walls which honeycomb the building. The external
-appearance of this building would be that of one great cone 90 feet
-in diameter covering the cells, and anastomosing with one 60 feet, or
-one-third less, in diameter covering the entrance chambers.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration183"></a>
-<img src="images/i_183.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">183.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan of Hagiar Khem, partially restored.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Restored in this manner, the external appearance of these monuments
-would have been very similar to that of the Kubber Roumeia near Algiers
-and the Madracen near Blidah. The former was 200 feet in diameter, with
-a cone rising in steps to the height of 130 feet, which was lower in
-proportion than suggested above, but its interior was nearly solid,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[Pg 424]</a></span>
-
-and admitted therefore of any angle that might appear most beautiful.
-The Madracen looks even lower, but no correct section of it has been
-published. The Kubber Roumeia has now been ascertained to have been the
-tomb of the Mauritanian kings down to the time of Juba II., or about
-the Christian era.<a name="FNanchor_493" id="FNanchor_493"></a><a href="#Footnote_493" class="fnanchor">[493]</a>
-Judging from its style, the Madracen may be a century earlier. Be this
-as it may, it hardly seems to me doubtful but that these tombs are late
-Roman translations of a type to which the Maltese examples belonged;
-but the intermediate links in the long chain which connects them have
-yet to be recovered.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration184"></a>
-<img src="images/i_184.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">184.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; View of Madracen. From a plate in Blakesley's 'Four
-Months in Algeria.'</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Internally, these Maltese monuments are rude, and exhibit very little
-attempt at decoration. The inner apartments, being dark, are quite
-plain, but the outer, admitting a certain quantity of light by the
-door, have a proportionate amount of ornament. At Gozo, in the outer
-apartment, there are, as mentioned above, scrolls and spirals of a
-style very much more refined than is found in Ireland or in rude
-monuments generally, but more resembling that of those found at Mycen&#230;
-and other parts of Greece. At Hagiar Khem and Mnaidra the favourite
-ornament are pit markings. Whether these have any affinity with those
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[Pg 425]</a></span>
-
-which Sir J. Simpson so copiously illustrated,<a name="FNanchor_494" id="FNanchor_494"></a><a href="#Footnote_494" class="fnanchor">[494]</a>
-is by no means clear. In Malta they are spread evenly over the stone,
-and are such a decoration as might be used at the present day (<a href="#Illustration181">woodcut No. 181</a>).
-An altar was found in one of the outer chambers at Hagiar
-Khem, and in both the Maltese monuments, stone tables from 4 to 5 feet
-high (one is shown in the <a href="#Illustration181">woodcut No. 181</a>), the use of which is not
-clearly made out. They are too tall for altars, and, unless in the
-Balearic Islands, nothing like them is known elsewhere.</p>
-
-<p>After what has been said above, it is hardly worth while to enter
-into the argument whether these buildings are temples or tombs. Their
-situation alone, in this instance, is sufficient to prove that they do
-not belong to the former class. Men do not drop three or four temples
-irregularly, as at Gozo, within a stone's throw of one another, on a
-bare piece of ground, far away from any centres of population. The same
-is the case at Hagiar Khem, where certainly three, probably four, sets
-of chambers exist; and Mnaidra may almost be considered a part of the
-same group or cemetery.</p>
-
-<p>Malta, it is said, was colonised by the Ph&oelig;nicians, at least was
-so in Diodorus' time,<a name="FNanchor_495" id="FNanchor_495"></a><a href="#Footnote_495" class="fnanchor">[495]</a>
-though how much earlier they occupied it, we are not told, nor to
-what extent they superseded the original inhabitants. We also learn
-incidentally that they possessed temples dedicated to Melkart and
-Astarte. This is very probable, and if so, their remains will be found
-near their harbours, and where they established themselves; and Colonel
-Collinson informs me that remains of columnar buildings have been
-found both at Marsa Sirocco and near the dockyard creek at Valetta.
-These, most probably, are the remains of the temples in question,
-though possibly rebuilt in Roman times. The little images found in the
-apartments at Hagiar Khem may be representations of the Cabeiri, though
-I doubt it; but little headless deformities, 20 inches high, some of
-stone and some of clay, are not the divinities that would be worshipped
-in such temples, though they might be offerings at a tomb.</p>
-
-<p>If these buildings were tombs, they were the burying-places of a people
-who burnt their dead and carefully preserved their ashes, and who
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[Pg 426]</a></span>
-
-paid the utmost respect to their buried dead long after their decease.
-The inner apartments have shelves and cupboards in stone, and numerous
-little arrangements which it seems impossible to understand except on
-the supposition that they were places for the deposit of these sacred
-remains. Some of the recesses have doors cut out of a single slab 2 and
-3 feet square at the opening, some are so small that a man could hardly
-squeeze himself through, and some are holes into which only an arm
-could be thrust,<a name="FNanchor_496" id="FNanchor_496"></a><a href="#Footnote_496" class="fnanchor">[496]</a>
-but from the rebate outside of all, the intention seems to have been
-for them all to be closed.</p>
-
-<p>Although from all these arrangements it may broadly be asserted that
-they are not temples in the ordinary sense of the term; the outer
-apartments may be considered as halls in which religious ceremonies
-were performed in honour of the dead, and, so far, as places of
-worship; but essentially they were sepulchres, and their uses
-sepulchral.</p>
-
-<p>We know so little of the ancient history of Malta that it is extremely
-difficult even to guess who the people were who erected and used these
-sepulchres. Most people would at once answer, the Ph&oelig;nicians;
-but, in order to establish their claim, one of two things is
-necessary&mdash;either we must have some direct testimony that they erected
-these monuments, or we must be able to show that they erected similar
-tombs either near their own homes or elsewhere. Neither kind of proof
-is forthcoming. No such tombs are found near Tyre or Sidon, or near
-Carthage, and classical authorities are absolutely silent on the
-subject. The monuments most like them are the tombs at Mycen&#230;, but the
-differences are so great that I would hesitate to lay much stress on
-any slight similarities that exist. The Greek monuments were always
-intended to be buried in tumuli. Those at Malta have so strongly marked
-and so ornamental a podium outside that it is evident they never were
-so covered up. It may be difficult to prove it, but I fancy if we are
-ever to find their originals, it is to Africa we must look for them.
-They are too unlike anything else in Europe.</p>
-
-<p>It seems even more difficult to define their age than to ascertain
-their origin. Looking at the nature of the stone, their state of
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[Pg 427]</a></span>
-
-preservation, and other circumstances, I cannot believe they are
-very old. If they were in Greece, or in Europe, or anywhere where
-they could be compared with other monuments, some useful inferences
-might be drawn; but they are so unique that this mode is unavailable.
-We have nothing we can confidently compare them with, and we are so
-entirely ignorant of the ancient history of Malta that we cannot tell
-in the least at what age she reached that stage of civilization which
-the workmanship of these monuments represents. We are probably safe,
-however, in assuming that they are pre-Roman, and as safe in believing
-that they are not earlier than the monuments of Mycen&#230; and Thyrns;
-in short, that they belong to some period between the Trojan and the
-Punic wars, but are most probably much nearer to the former than to the
-latter epoch in the world's history.</p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Sardinia.</span></h3>
-
-<p>It is a curious illustration of the fragmentary nature of society in
-the ancient world that Sardinia should possess a class of monuments
-absolutely peculiar to itself. It is not this time ten or a dozen
-monuments, like those of Malta, but they are numbered by thousands, and
-so like one another that it is impossible to mistake them, and, what
-is still more singular, as difficult to trace any progress or change
-among them. The Talyots of the Balearic Islands may resemble them, but,
-excepting these, the Nurhags of Sardinia stand quite alone. Nothing the
-least like them is found in Italy, or in Sicily, or, indeed, anywhere
-else, so far as is at present known.</p>
-
-<p>A Nurhag is easily recognized and easily described. It is always a
-round tower, with sides sloping at an angle of about 10 degrees to the
-horizon, its dimensions varying from 20 to 60 feet in diameter, and its
-height being generally equal to the width of the base. Sometimes they
-are one, frequently two and even three storeys in height, the centre
-being always occupied by circular chambers, constructed by projecting
-stones forming a dome with the section of a pointed arch. The chamber
-generally occupies one-third of the diameter, the thickness of the
-walls forming the remaining two-thirds. There is invariably a ramp
-or staircase leading to the platform at the top of the tower. These
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[Pg 428]</a></span>
-
-peculiarities will be understood from the annexed section and plan of
-one from De la Marmora's work.<a name="FNanchor_497" id="FNanchor_497"></a><a href="#Footnote_497" class="fnanchor">[497]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration185"></a>
-<img src="images/i_185.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">185.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Nurhag. From De la Marmora.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration186"></a>
-<img src="images/i_186.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">186.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Nurhag of Santa Barbara.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>When the Nurhags are of more than one storey in height, they are
-generally surrounded by others which are attached to them by platforms,
-often of considerable extent. That at Santa Barbara has, or had, four
-small Nurhags encased in the four corners of the platform, to which
-access was obtained by a doorway in the central tower; but frequently
-there are also separate ramps when the platforms are extensive. The
-masonry of these monuments is generally neat, though sometimes the
-stones are unhewn, but nowhere does there appear any attempt at
-megalithic magnificence.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[Pg 429]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>They are, at the same time, absolutely without any architectural
-ornament which could give us any hint of their affinities; and no
-inscriptions, no images, no sculptures of any kind, have been found in
-them. They are in this respect as uncommunicative as our own rude-stone
-monuments.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration187"></a>
-<img src="images/i_187.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">187.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Nurhag of Santa Barbara. From De la Marmora.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Written history is almost equally silent. Only one passage has
-been disinterred which seems to refer to them. It is a Greek work,
-generally known as 'De Mirabilibus Auscultationibus,'<a name="FNanchor_498" id="FNanchor_498"></a><a href="#Footnote_498" class="fnanchor">[498]</a>
-and ascribed doubtfully to Aristotle. It is to the following
-effect:&mdash;"It is said that in the island of Sardinia there exist,
-among other beautiful and numerous edifices, built after the manner of
-the ancient Greeks, certain domes (&#920;&#8057;&#955;&#959;&#953;)
-of exquisite proportions. It is further said that they were built by
-Iolas, son of Iphicles, who, having taken with him the Thespiad&#230;,
-went to colonise this island." This certainly looks as if the Nurhags
-existed when this book was written, though the description is by a
-person who evidently never saw them. Diodorus so far confirms this
-that he says: "Iolaus, having founded the colony, fetched Dedalus from
-Sicily, and built numerous and grand edifices, which subsist to the
-present day, and are called Dedalean, from the name of their builder;"<a name="FNanchor_499" id="FNanchor_499"></a><a href="#Footnote_499" class="fnanchor">[499]</a>
-and in another paragraph he recurs to the veneration "in which the
-name of Iolaus is held." This, too, is unsatisfactory, as written by
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[Pg 430]</a></span>
-
-a person who never visited the island, and had not seen the monuments
-of which he was speaking.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>It is little to be wondered at if buildings so mysterious and so unlike
-any known to exist elsewhere should have given rise to speculations
-almost as wild as those that hang around our own rude-stone monuments.
-The various theories which have been advanced are enumerated and
-described by De la Marmora<a name="FNanchor_500" id="FNanchor_500"></a><a href="#Footnote_500" class="fnanchor">[500]</a>
-so fully that it will not be necessary to recapitulate them here, nor
-to notice any but three, which seem really to have some plausible
-foundation.</p>
-
-<p>The first of these assumes the Nurhags to have been watch-towers or
-fortifications.</p>
-
-<p>The second, that they were temples.</p>
-
-<p>The third, that they were tombs.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration188"></a>
-<img src="images/i_188.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">188.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Map of La Giara. From De la Marmora.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Looking at the positions in which they are found, the first of these
-theories is not so devoid of foundation as might at first sight appear.
-As a rule, they are all placed on heights, and at such distances as
-to be seen from one another, and consequently be able to communicate
-by signal at least. Take such an example, for instance, as that of
-Giara, near Isili (<a href="#Illustration188">woodcut No. 188</a>). Any engineer officer would be
-delighted with the manner in which the position is taken up. Every
-point of vantage in the circumference is occupied, and two points in
-the interior fortified, so as to act as supports. The designer of the
-entrenched camp at Linz might rub his eyes in astonishment to find
-his inventions forestalled by three thousand years, and by towers
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[Pg 431]</a></span>
-
-externally so like his own as hardly to be distinguishable to an
-unpractised eye. The form of the towers themselves lends considerable
-plausibility to the defensive theory. Such a Nurhag, for instance, as
-that of Santa Barbara (woodcuts <a href="#Illustration186">Nos. 186</a>, <a href="#Illustration187">187</a>),
-surrounded by four lesser ones, connected by a platform, and dominated
-by the central tower, is a means of defence we might now adopt,
-provided we may assume the existence of a parapet, which has fallen
-through age.</p>
-
-<p>When we come to look a little more closely at this military question,
-we perceive that we are attempting to apply to a people who certainly
-had no projectiles that would carry farther than arrows, principles
-adapted to artillery or musketry fire. The Nurhags are placed at such
-distances as to afford no support to one another before the invention
-of gunpowder, and though in themselves not indefensible, they possess
-the radical defect of having no accommodation for their garrisons.
-It is impossible that men could live, cook, and sleep in the little
-circular apartments in their interior, and the platforms added very
-little to their accommodation. Had the four detached Nurhags at Santa
-Barbara been connected with walls only, so as to surround the central
-tower with a court, the case would have been very different; but as
-in all instances this is filled up, so as to form a platform, it is
-evident that it was exposure, not shelter, that was sought in their
-construction.<a name="FNanchor_501" id="FNanchor_501"></a><a href="#Footnote_501" class="fnanchor">[501]</a></p>
-
-<p>Another, and even stronger, argument is derived from their number. De
-la Marmora asserts that the remains of at least three thousand Nurhags
-can now be traced in Sardinia,<a name="FNanchor_502" id="FNanchor_502"></a><a href="#Footnote_502" class="fnanchor">[502]</a>
-and there seems no reason to doubt the truth of his calculation, nor
-his assertion that they were once much more numerous, and that they
-are dispersed pretty evenly over the whole island. Can any one fancy
-a state of society in such an island which would require that there
-should be three thousand castles and yet no fortified cities as places
-of refuge? They were not erected to protect the island against a
-foreign enemy, because most of them are inland. They could not be made
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[Pg 432]</a></span>
-
-to serve for the protection of the rich during insurrections or civil
-wars, nor to enable robbers to plunder in security the peaceful
-inhabitants of the plain. In short, unless the ancient Sardinians lived
-in a state of society of which we have no knowledge elsewhere, these
-Nurhags were certainly not military works.</p>
-
-<p>When we turn to the second hypothesis and try to consider them as
-temples, we are met by very much the same difficulties as beset the
-fortification theory. If temples, they are unlike the temples of any
-other people. Generally it is assumed that they were fire temples,
-from their name <i>Nur</i>&mdash;in the Semitic languages signifying fire&mdash;but
-more from their construction. The little circular chambers in their
-interiors are admirably suited for preserving the sacred fire, and
-the external platforms as well adapted for that Sabean worship of
-the planets which is generally understood to be associated with
-fire-worship. But assuming this to be the case, why so numerous? We
-can count on our fingers all the fire-temples that exist, or were ever
-known to exist, in fire-worshipping Persia; and if a dozen satisfied
-her spiritual wants, what necessity was there for three thousand,
-or probably twice that number, in the small and sparsely inhabited
-island of Sardinia? Had every family, or little village community its
-own separate temple on the nearest high place? and did each perform
-its own worship separately from the rest? So far as we know, there
-is no subordination among them, nothing corresponding to cathedrals,
-or parish churches or chapels. Some are smaller, or some form more
-extensive groups than others, but a singularly republican equality
-reigns throughout, very unlike the hierarchical feeling we find in most
-religions. In one other respect, too, they are unlike the temples of
-other nations. None of them are situated in towns or villages, or near
-the centres of population in the island.</p>
-
-<p>Must we then adopt the third hypothesis, that they were tombs? Here
-again the same difficulties meet us. If they were tombs, they are
-unlike those of any other people with whom we are acquainted. Their
-numbers in this instance is, however, no difficulty. It is in the
-nature of the case that sepulchres should accumulate, and their number
-is consequently one of the strongest arguments in favour of this
-destination. Nor does their situation militate against this view.
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[Pg 433]</a></span>
-
-Nothing is more likely than that a people should like to bury their
-dead, on high places, where their tombs can be seen from afar. In fact,
-there does not seem much to be said against this theory, except that
-no sepulchral remains have been found in them. It is true that De la
-Marmora found a skeleton buried in one at Iselle,<a name="FNanchor_503" id="FNanchor_503"></a><a href="#Footnote_503" class="fnanchor">[503]</a>
-and apparently so placed that the interment must have taken place
-before the tower was built, or at all events finished; but the presence
-of only one corpse in two thousand nurhags tells strongly against the
-theory, as where one was placed more would have been found had this
-form of interment been usual, and amidst the hundreds of ruined and
-half-ruined nurhags some evidence must have been found had any of the
-usual sepulchral usages prevailed. To my mind the conclusion seems
-inevitable that, if they were tombs, they were those of a people who,
-like the Parsees of the present day, exposed their dead to be devoured
-by the birds of the air. If there is one feature in the nurhags more
-consistent or more essential than another, it is that of the stairs or
-ramps that give access to their platforms. It shows, without doubt,
-that, whether for defence, or worship, or burial, the platform was
-the feature for which the edifice was erected, and there it must have
-been that its purposes were fulfilled. But is it possible that such
-a practice ever prevailed in Sardinia? It is, of course, precipitate
-to answer that it did. But the custom is old. Anything so exceptional
-among modern usages is not the invention of yesterday, and it may have
-been far more prevalent than it now is, and it may in very ancient
-times have been brought by some Eastern colonists to this Western
-isle. I dare hardly suggest that it was so; but this is certain, that
-such towers would answer in every respect perfectly to the "Towers of
-Silence" of the modern Persians, and the little side chambers in the
-towers would suit perfectly as receptacles of the denuded bones when
-the time arrived for collecting them.</p>
-
-<p>One argument against their being sepulchres has been drawn from the
-fact that frequently a different class of graves, called giants' tombs,
-is found in their immediate proximity. The conclusion I would draw
-from this is in a contrary sense. These giants' tombs are generally
-long graves of neatly fitted stones, with a tall frontispiece, which
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[Pg 434]</a></span>
-
-is formed of one stone, always carefully hewn and sometimes carved. On
-each side of the entrance two arms extend so as to form a semicircle in
-front, and when the circle is completed by detached menhirs, these are
-generally shaped into cones and carved. The whole, in fact, has a more
-advanced and more modern appearance than the nurhags, and, as I read
-the riddle, the inhabitants adopted this form, and that found in the
-nurhag at Iselle, after they had ceased to use the nurhag itself as a
-means of disposing of their dead, but were still clinging to the spots
-made sacred by the ashes of their forefathers.</p>
-
-<p>That the nurhags are old scarcely seems to admit of a doubt, though
-I know of only one material point of evidence on the subject. It is
-that the pier of a Roman aqueduct has been founded on the stump of a
-ruined and consequently desecrated nurhag.<a name="FNanchor_504" id="FNanchor_504"></a><a href="#Footnote_504" class="fnanchor">[504]</a>
-Some time must have elapsed before the primitive and sacred use of the
-nurhag had been so completely forgotten that it should be so used. But
-the passages above quoted from the 'Mirabilibus' and Diodorus show that
-in the first and fifth centuries B.C. nothing was known of their origin
-by these authors, and no other has ventured to hint at their age.
-In classical times they seem to have been as mysterious as they are
-now:&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
- <div class="poetry">
-   <div class="stanza">
-    <div class="verse indent-1">"In the glimmer of the dawn</div>
-    <div class="verse">They stand the solemn silent witnesses</div>
-    <div class="verse">Of ancient days,&mdash;altars&mdash;or graves."</div>
-
-</div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Balearic Islands.</span></h3>
-
-<p>The third group of monuments indicated above are the Talyots of Minorca
-and Majorca. Unfortunately our guide, De la Marmora, deserts us here.
-He went to explore them, but ill health and other adverse circumstances
-prevented his carrying his intent fully into effect, and we are left
-consequently very much to the work of Don Juan Ramis,<a name="FNanchor_505" id="FNanchor_505"></a><a href="#Footnote_505" class="fnanchor">[505]</a>
-which is the reverse of satisfactory.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration189"></a>
-<img src="images/i_189.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">189.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Talyot at Trepuc&#242;, Minorca. From De la Marmora.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration190"></a>
-<img src="images/i_190.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">190.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Talyot at Alajor, Minorca. From De la Marmora.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Externally they generally resemble the nurhags in appearance, and
-apparently have always chambers in their interior, but De la Marmora
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[Pg 435]</a></span>
-
-was unable to determine whether any of them had the internal
-staircase<a name="FNanchor_506" id="FNanchor_506"></a><a href="#Footnote_506" class="fnanchor">[506]</a>
-leading to the summit which is the invariable and essential
-characteristic of the nurhag. If they had not this, they must be
-considered as more nearly approaching to our chambered cairns than to
-nurhags; and till this point is settled, and we know more about them,
-we must refrain from speculations on the subject. One characteristic
-feature they have, however, which it is useful to note. It is a
-bilithon, if such a term is admissible&mdash;an upright flat stone,
-with one across it forming a sort of table. In appearance it very much
-resembles those stone tables which are found inside the chambers of the
-Maltese sepulchres, but these are always larger, and placed, so far as
-is known, externally. What their use may have been, it is difficult to
-conjecture, but they were evidently considered important here, as in
-woodcut No. 190 one is shown surrounded by a sacred enclosure,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[Pg 436]</a></span>
-
-as if being itself the "Numen" to be honoured. At Malta, as before
-remarked, they certainly were not altars, because pedestals, which were
-unmistakably altars, are found in the same apartments, and they are
-very unlike them. They seem more like the great saucers in the Irish
-tombs, and may have served the same purposes; but altogether these
-Balearic outside tables are unlike anything we know of elsewhere.</p>
-
-<p>Rude-Stone circles seem to be not uncommon in combination with the
-talyots and tall altars, and on the whole they seem to bear as much
-affinity to the monuments of Spain as to those of Sardinia, but again
-till we know more it is idle to speculate on either their age or uses
-beyond the conclusion drawn from all similar monuments&mdash;that their
-destination was to honour departed greatness.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>It would be not only interesting but instructive to pursue the subject
-further, for the monuments of these islands deserve a more complete
-investigation than they have yet received; but this is not the place to
-pursue it. Indeed, it is only indirectly that they have any connection
-with the subject of this work. They are not megalithic in the sense in
-which the word is generally used. Nor are they rude, for all the stones
-are more or less shaped by art, and all are used constructively. In
-none of them is the stone itself the object and end of the erection. In
-all it is only a means to an end.</p>
-
-<p>It is their locality and their age that import them into our argument
-if there is anything in the connection between the monuments of France
-and Algeria, as attempted to be shown above. Whether the African ones
-came from Europe, or <i>vice vers&#226;</i>, it must have been in consequence
-of long-continued intercourse between the two countries, and of
-an influence of the dolmen builders in the Western Mediterranean
-which could hardly have failed to leave traces in the intermediate
-islands, unless they had been previously civilized and had fixed and
-long-established modes of dealing with their own dead.</p>
-
-<p>Assuming that the nurhags and giants' towers extend back to the
-mythic times of Grecian history, say the war of Troy&mdash;and some of
-them can hardly be more modern&mdash;it will hardly be contended now that
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[Pg 437]</a></span>
-
-the dolmens are earlier. If they were so, it must be by centuries
-or by thousands of years, if we are to assume that the one had any
-influence on the other, for it must have taken long before a truly
-rude-stone monument could have grown into a constructive style like
-that of Sardinia or Malta; and I do not think, after what has been
-said above, any one would now contend for so remote an antiquity. If
-neither anterior nor coeval, the conclusion, if we admit any influence
-at all, seems inevitable that the dolmens must be subsequent. But this
-is just the point at issue. The nurhags did not grow out of dolmens,
-nor dolmens out of nurhags. They are separate and distinct creations,
-so far as we know, belonging to different races, and practically
-uninfluenced by one another. Here, as elsewhere, each group must be
-judged by itself, and stand on its own merits. If any direct influence
-can be shown to exist between any two groups, there is generally very
-little difficulty in arranging them in a sequence and seeing which is
-the oldest, but till such connection is established, all such attempts
-are futile.</p>
-
-<p>In so far as any argument can now be got out of these insular
-monuments, it seems to take this form. If the dolmen people were
-earlier than the nurhag-builders, they certainly would have occupied
-the islands that lay in their path between France or Spain and Africa,
-and we should find traces of them there. If, on the contrary, the
-nurhag-builders were the earlier race, and colonised these islands
-so completely as to fill them before the age of the dolmen-builders,
-the latter, in passing from north to south, or <i>vice vers&#226;</i>, could
-only have touched at the islands as emigrants or traders, and not as
-colonists, and consequently could have neither altered nor influenced
-to any great extent the more practically civilized people who had
-already occupied them.</p>
-
-<p>So far as we can see, this is the view that most nearly meets the
-facts of the case at present known, and in this respect their negative
-evidence is both interesting and instructive, though, except when
-viewed in this light, the monuments of the Mediterranean islands have
-no real place in a work treating on rude-stone monuments.</p>
-
-<div class="topspace1"></div>
-<div class="footnotes">
-<blockquote>
-<p class="footnote"><span class="smcap"><b>Footnotes</b></span></p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_487" id="Footnote_487"></a><a href="#FNanchor_487"><span class="label">[487]</span></a>
-'Voyage pittoresque en Sicile et Malte,' 4 vols. folio, Paris, 1787.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_488" id="Footnote_488"></a><a href="#FNanchor_488"><span class="label">[488]</span></a>
-<i>Ibid.</i> pl. ccxli.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_489" id="Footnote_489"></a><a href="#FNanchor_489"><span class="label">[489]</span></a>
-The three formed part of a set of
-nine, a duplicate of which has kindly
-been lent to me by Mr. Frere, of Roydon
-Hall, Norfolk. Unfortunately there is no
-artist's name, and no date, upon them.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_490" id="Footnote_490"></a><a href="#FNanchor_490"><span class="label">[490]</span></a>
-'Nouvelles Annales de l'Institut archéologique,' i.; Paris, 1836.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_491" id="Footnote_491"></a><a href="#FNanchor_491"><span class="label">[491]</span></a>
-With a paper by Mr. Vance, 'Archæologia,'
-vol. xxix. p. 227.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_492" id="Footnote_492"></a><a href="#FNanchor_492"><span class="label">[492]</span></a>
-For this plan and the photographs
-of it I am indebted to the kindness of
-Col. Collinson, R.E., who accompanied
-them by a very full description and
-notes on their history and uses, from
-which much of the following information
-is derived.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_493" id="Footnote_493"></a><a href="#FNanchor_493"><span class="label">[493]</span></a>
- Berbrugger, 'Tombeau de la Chrétienne&mdash;Mausolée des derniers Rois de Mauritanie;'
-Alger, 1867.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_494" id="Footnote_494"></a><a href="#FNanchor_494"><span class="label">[494]</span></a>
-'Proceedings Soc. Ant. Scot.,' vi., Supplement.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_495" id="Footnote_495"></a><a href="#FNanchor_495"><span class="label">[495]</span></a>
-Hist., v. 12, 3.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_496" id="Footnote_496"></a><a href="#FNanchor_496"><span class="label">[496]</span></a>
-One at Mnaidra will be seen at <span class="smcap">F</span>, in woodcut No. 180, and also in the view,
-woodcut No. 182.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_497" id="Footnote_497"></a><a href="#FNanchor_497"><span class="label">[497]</span></a>
-'Voyage en Sardaigne,' par le Cte.
-Albert de la Marmora; Paris, 1840. As
-this is not only the best but really the
-only reliable work on the subject, all, or
-nearly all, the information in this chapter
-is based upon it.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_498" id="Footnote_498"></a><a href="#FNanchor_498"><span class="label">[498]</span></a>
-Bekker, iii. p. 604, para. 100.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_499" id="Footnote_499"></a><a href="#FNanchor_499"><span class="label">[499]</span></a>
-Diodorus, iv. 30; v. 15.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_500" id="Footnote_500"></a><a href="#FNanchor_500"><span class="label">[500]</span></a>
-'Voyage en Sardaigne,' chap. iv. pp. 117 to 159.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_501" id="Footnote_501"></a><a href="#FNanchor_501"><span class="label">[501]</span></a>
-The Scotch brochs, which are in
-their construction the erections most like
-these, have all courtyards in their centre,
-in which all the domestic operations of
-the garrison could be carried on conveniently,
-and they only needed to
-creep into the chambers in the wall
-to sleep.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_502" id="Footnote_502"></a><a href="#FNanchor_502"><span class="label">[502]</span></a>
-'Voyage en Sardaigne,' pp. 46 and 116.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_503" id="Footnote_503"></a><a href="#FNanchor_503"><span class="label">[503]</span></a>
-'Voyage,' p. 152.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_504" id="Footnote_504"></a><a href="#FNanchor_504"><span class="label">[504]</span></a>
-De la Marmora, pl. v. p. 149.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_505" id="Footnote_505"></a><a href="#FNanchor_505"><span class="label">[505]</span></a>
-'Antig&#252;edades Celticas de la Isla de Menorca, &amp;c.;' Mahon, 1818.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_506" id="Footnote_506"></a><a href="#FNanchor_506"><span class="label">[506]</span></a>
-'Voyage,' pp. 547 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-</blockquote>
-</div>
-
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[Pg 438]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.</a><br />
-<span class="small">WESTERN ASIA.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Palestine.</span></h3>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Palestine</span> is one of those countries in which dolmens exist, not in
-thousands and tens of thousands, as in Algeria, but certainly in
-hundreds&mdash;perhaps tens of hundreds; but travellers have not yet
-condescended to open their eyes to observe them, and the Palestine
-Exploration Fund is too busy making maps to pay attention to a subject
-which would probably throw as much light on the ethnography of the
-Holy Land as anything we know of. Before, however, retailing what
-little we know about the monuments actually existing, it is necessary
-in this instance to say a few words about those which we know of only
-by hearsay. All writers on megalithic remains in the last century, and
-some of those of the present, have made so much of the stones set up by
-Abraham and Joshua that it is indispensable to try to ascertain what
-they were, and what bearing they really have on the subject of which we
-are treating.</p>
-
-<p>The earliest mention of a stone being set up anywhere as a monument or
-memorial is that of the one which Jacob used as a pillow in the night
-when he had that dream which became the title of the Israelites to the
-land of Canaan. "And Jacob rose up early in the morning, and took the
-stone that he had put for his pillows, and set it up for a pillar, and
-poured oil upon the top of it."<a name="FNanchor_507" id="FNanchor_507"></a><a href="#Footnote_507" class="fnanchor">[507]</a>
-The question is, What was the size of this stone? In the East, where
-hard pillows are not objected to, natives generally use a brick for
-this purpose. Europeans, who are more stiffnecked as well as more
-luxurious, insist on two bricks, and these laid one on the other, with
-a cloth thrown over them, form by no means an uncomfortable headpiece.
-The fact of Jacob being alone, and moving the stone to and from the
-place where it was used, proves that it was not larger than, probably
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[Pg 439]</a></span>
-
-not so large as, the head that was laid upon it. It certainly,
-therefore, was neither the Lia Fail which still adorns the hill of Tara
-nor even the Scone stone that forms the king's seat in Westminster
-Abbey, and, what is more to our present purpose, it may safely be
-discharged from the category of megalithic monuments of which we are
-now treating.</p>
-
-<p>The next case in which stones are mentioned is in Genesis xxxi. 45 and
-46: "And Jacob took a stone, and set it up for a pillar. And Jacob
-said unto his brethren, Gather stones; and they took stones, and made
-an heap: and they did eat there upon the heap." This is not quite so
-clear; but the fair inference seems to be that what they erected was
-a stone altar, on which they partook of an offering, which, under the
-circumstances, took the form of a sacramental oath&mdash;one party standing
-on either side of it. The altar in the temple of Jerusalem, we know,
-down even to the time of Herod, was formed of stones, which no iron
-tool had ever touched,<a name="FNanchor_508" id="FNanchor_508"></a><a href="#Footnote_508" class="fnanchor">[508]</a>
-and the tradition derived from this altar of Jacob seems to have lasted
-during the whole Jewish period. So there is nothing in this instance
-to lead us to suppose that "the heap" had any connection with the
-megalithic monuments of other countries.</p>
-
-<p>The third instance, though more frequently quoted, seems even less
-relevant. When Joshua passed the Jordan, twelve men, according to the
-number of the tribes, were appointed, each "to take up a stone on
-his shoulder out of the Jordan, in the place where the priests' feet
-had stood, and to carry them and set them down at the place where
-they lodged that night, as a memorial to the children of Israel for
-ever."<a name="FNanchor_509" id="FNanchor_509"></a><a href="#Footnote_509" class="fnanchor">[509]</a>
-Here, again, stones that men can carry on their shoulders are not much
-bigger than their heads, and are not such as in any ordinary sense
-would be used as memorials, inasmuch as they could be as easily removed
-by any one, as placed where they were. If ranged on an altar, in a
-building, this purpose would have been answered; but as an open-air
-testimonial such stones seem singularly inappropriate.</p>
-
-<p>The only instance in which it seems that the Bible is speaking of the
-same class of monuments as those we are concerned with is in the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[Pg 440]</a></span>
-
-last chapter of Joshua, where it is said (verse 26), he "took a great
-stone, and set it up there under an oak, that was by the sanctuary of
-the Lord," and said, "Behold, this stone shall be a witness unto us."
-It is the more probable that this was really a great monolith, as it
-seems to be the stone mentioned in Judges ix. 6 as "the pillar of the
-plain," ... or "by the oak of the pillar which was in Shechem;" and if
-this is so, it must have been of considerable dimensions. It therefore
-alone, of all the stones mentioned in the Bible, seems to belong to the
-class of stones we are treating of; but even then its direct bearing
-on the subject is not clear. It by no means follows that because the
-Israelites in Joshua's time set up such a stone for such a purpose that
-either then or a thousand years afterwards the French or Scandinavians
-did the same thing with the same intention. It may be so, but both
-the time and locality seem too remote for us to rely on any supposed
-analogy.</p>
-
-<p>As bearing indirectly on this subject, it is curious to observe that
-the rite of circumcision in these early days of Jewish history was
-performed with flint knives,<a name="FNanchor_510" id="FNanchor_510"></a><a href="#Footnote_510" class="fnanchor">[510]</a>
-which, considering that bronze and iron were both familiarly known
-to the Israelites at that period, is a remarkable example of the
-persistence in an old fashion long after it might have been supposed it
-would have become obsolete. It is equally curious, if the Septuagint is
-to be depended upon, that they should have buried with Joshua in his
-grave those very flint implements (τὰς μαχαίραγς τὰς πετρίνας)
-with which the operation was performed. This cannot of course be quoted
-as the latest or even a late example of flint being buried in tombs,
-but it is interesting as explaining one reason for the practice. It
-is at least one instance in which flint was used long after metal was
-known, and one tomb in which stone implements were buried for other
-reasons than the people's ignorance of the use of metal.<a name="FNanchor_511" id="FNanchor_511"></a><a href="#Footnote_511" class="fnanchor">[511]</a>
-If the Jews used flints for that purpose in Joshua's time, and so
-disposed of them after the death of their chief, the only wonder is
-that they do not do so at the present day.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[Pg 441]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>To turn from these speculations, based on words, to the real facts
-of the case. We find that the first persons who observed dolmens in
-Syria were Captains Irby and Mangles. In their hurried journey from Es
-Salt, in 1817, to the fords of the Jordan, apparently in a straight
-line from Es Salt to Nablous, they observed a group of twenty-seven
-dolmens, very irregularly situated at the foot of the mountain. All
-those they observed were composed of two side-stones, from 8 to 10 feet
-long, supporting a cap-stone projecting considerably beyond the sides
-and ends. The chambers, however, were only 5 feet long internally&mdash;too
-short, consequently, for a body to be stretched out at full length.
-The contraction arose from the two transverse stones being placed
-considerably within the ends of the side-stones. One of these appears
-to have been solid, the other to have been pierced with what is called
-a door; but whether this was a hole in one stone, or a door formed by
-two jambs, is not clear.<a name="FNanchor_512" id="FNanchor_512"></a><a href="#Footnote_512" class="fnanchor">[512]</a>
-No drawing or plan accompanies their description; but the arrangement
-will be easily understood when we come to examine those of Rajunkoloor,
-in India, <a name="FNanchor_513" id="FNanchor_513"></a><a href="#Footnote_513" class="fnanchor">[513]</a>
-described farther on (<a href="#Illustration206">woodcut No. 206</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration191"></a>
-<img src="images/i_191.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">191.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmens at Kafr er W&#226;l. From a sketch by Mrs.
-Roberton Blaine.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The only other reliable information I have is extracted for me from
-his note-books by my friend, Mr. D. R. Blaine. In travelling from Om
-Keis&mdash;Gadara&mdash;towards Gerash, at a place called Kafr er W&#226;l, not far
-from Tibn&#233;, they met with one considerable group, a portion of which
-is represented in the above woodcut (No. 191). The size of the stones
-varies considerably; generally, however, they are about 12 feet by 6
-feet, and from 1 to 2 feet in thickness. One cap-stone was nearly 12
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[Pg 442]</a></span>
-
-feet square, and the side-stones vary from 5 to 6 feet in height. On
-approaching S&#251;f, a great number of dolmens were observed on either side
-of the road for a distance of from three to four miles. Some of these
-seemed quite perfect, others were broken down; but the travellers had
-unfortunately no time to count or examine them with care.</p>
-
-<p>This is a very meagre account of a great subject&mdash;so meagre, indeed,
-that it is impossible to found any argument upon it that will be worth
-anything; but it is interesting to observe that all the dolmens as yet
-noticed in Syria are situated in Gilead, the country of the Amorites,
-and of Og, king of Bashan. If it should prove eventually that there are
-none except in this district, it would give rise to several interesting
-ethnographical determinations. At present all we can feel confident
-about is that there are no dolmens west of the Jordan; but the Amorites
-were originally settled in Hebron,<a name="FNanchor_514" id="FNanchor_514"></a><a href="#Footnote_514" class="fnanchor">[514]</a>
-and there are certainly no dolmens there. So unless they migrated
-eastward before the dolmen period, they can scarcely lay claim to them.
-Then these dolmens may belong to the Rephaim, the Emim, the Anakim, the
-Zuzim, and all those giant tribes that dwelt beyond Jordan at the time
-of Chedorlaomer, the dreaded king of Elam, who smote the kings of this
-district at the dawn of the Bible history of these regions.
-<a name="FNanchor_515" id="FNanchor_515"></a><a href="#Footnote_515" class="fnanchor">[515]</a>
-The speculation is a tempting one, and if it should eventually be
-proved that they are confined to this one district, it will no doubt
-find favour in some quarters. There seems, however, nothing to support
-it beyond the fact that the people in the region beyond the Jordan
-seem all and always to have been of Hamite or Turanian blood, and
-therefore likely to adopt this mode of burial whenever it may have
-been introduced, in spite of the colonization of two tribes and a
-half of Israelites, who could do but little to leaven the mass. I am
-afraid that, like the theory which identified the Roman cities of
-the Hauran with the giant cities of Og, king of Bashan, and his tall
-contemporaries, this hypothesis will not bear examination. Every stone
-of these cities, it is now known, was placed where we now find it,
-after the time when Pompey extended Roman influence to these regions;
-and nothing would surprise me less than to find that these dolmens are
-even more modern. Before, however, we venture to speculate on such
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[Pg 443]</a></span>
-
-a subject, we must feel surer than we now do of their extent and their
-distribution, and know something of their contents. On both these
-subjects we are at present practically entirely ignorant.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>Gilead is almost the last safe resting-place at which we can pause in
-our explorations eastward in our attempts to connect the Eastern and
-the Western dolmen regions together. But Gilead is two thousand miles
-from Peshawur, where we meet the first example of the Indian dolmens;
-and in the vast regions that lie between, only one or two doubtful
-examples are known to exist. We can creep on doubtfully a couple of
-hundred miles nearer, in Arabia and Circassia; but that hardly helps
-us much, and unless some discoveries are made in the intermediate
-countries, the migration theory will become wholly untenable.</p>
-
-<p>In the course of the recent ordnance survey of the peninsula of Sinai
-in 1868-9, great numbers of circular buildings were discovered, many of
-which were certainly tombs; and plans and drawings of some of them have
-been engraved, and will be published by the authorities at Southampton.
-But as great bodies move slowly, it may yet be a long time before they
-are accessible to the public. Meanwhile the following particulars,
-gleaned from a paper by the Rev. Mr. Holland,<a name="FNanchor_516" id="FNanchor_516"></a><a href="#Footnote_516" class="fnanchor">[516]</a>
-will suffice to explain what they are. The buildings are of two
-classes: the first, which were probably store-houses, were built in the
-shape of a dome, about 5 feet high and 5 or 6 feet in diameter in the
-interior. The walls were often as much as 4 feet thick, and a large
-flat stone formed the highest portion of the roof, which appeared to
-have been covered with loose shingle. They had no windows, and one
-door, about 3 feet high and 1&frac12; foot broad. The stones used in
-their construction were often large, but never dressed, and no mortar
-was used.</p>
-
-<p>The other kind of ruins, which is generally found in close proximity
-to the former, often in separate groups, consists of massively built
-circles of stones, of about 14 to 15 feet in diameter, and 3 feet
-high, but without any roof. "These," Mr. Holland says, "were evidently
-tombs; for I found human bones in all that I opened," which were
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[Pg 444]</a></span>
-
-never met with in the buildings of the first class; "and in one two
-skeletons lying side by side, one of them on a bed of flat stones.
-The rings of stones were apparently first half filled with earth; the
-bodies were then laid in them, and they were then quite filled up with
-earth, and heavy stones placed on the top to prevent the wild beasts
-disturbing the bodies. Some of these rings are of much larger size:
-some 45, others 90, feet in diameter, and some contained a smaller
-ring in the centre. Near the mound of Nukb Hawy is one no less than
-375 feet in diameter." From the above description it is evident that,
-except from the dimensions of the last-mentioned, these circles have
-much more affinity with the Chouchas and Bazinas of Algeria than with
-anything farther north or west, and there is probably some connection
-between them. But a wall of coursed masonry of small stones can hardly
-be compared with our megalithic structures, and, so far as is known,
-no dolmens, nor any examples of the great rude-stone monuments we are
-discussing, have been found in the peninsula. When the results of the
-survey are published, we may see reason to alter this opinion; but
-at present these Sinaitic tombs seem to belong to a class altogether
-different from the European examples, except in two points&mdash;that they
-are circular and sepulchral. These characteristics are, however, so
-important that eventually other points of comparison may be established.</p>
-
-<p>The rude-stone monuments which Mr. Giffard Palgrave accidentally
-stumbled upon in the centre of Arabia are of a very different class
-from these. According to his account, what he saw was apparently
-one-half of what had once been a complete circle of trilithons; but
-whether continuous, like the outer circle of Stonehenge, or in pairs,
-like the inner circle there, is not quite clear. As he could just
-touch the impost with his whip when on his camel, the height was, as
-he says, about 15 feet&mdash;the same as Stonehenge; and the expression he
-uses would lead us to suppose that the whole structure was essentially
-similar. Allowance, however, must be made for his being in disguise,
-which prevented his making notes or writing down his observations; and
-writing afterwards from memory, his description may not be minutely
-correct. He is, however, so clear and acute an observer that he could
-hardly be deceiving himself; and we may take it for granted that
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[Pg 445]</a></span>
-
-exactly halfway between the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, near Eyoon,
-in latitude 26&#176; 20´, there exist three rude-stone monuments&mdash;he saw
-only one, but heard of two others&mdash;of a class similar to those found
-in England and in the continent of Europe,<a name="FNanchor_517" id="FNanchor_517"></a><a href="#Footnote_517" class="fnanchor">[517]</a>
-and what is more important to our present purpose, similar to those
-found in Tripoli, and illustrated above in woodcuts 175 and 176.</p>
-
-<p>De Vogu&#235;'s plates of late Roman tombs in the Hauran, especially those
-represented in his plates 93 and 94,<a name="FNanchor_518" id="FNanchor_518"></a><a href="#Footnote_518" class="fnanchor">[518]</a>
-take away all improbability from the idea that trilithons should have
-been erected for sepulchral purposes in this part of the world. That
-the one form is copied from the other may be assumed as certain;
-but whether the rude stones are anterior to or contemporary with or
-subsequent to those of the Roman order, every one must decide for
-himself. I believe them to be either coeval or more modern, but there
-is nothing in these particular monuments to guide us to a decision
-either way. If we could fancy that the savages who now occupy that
-country would ever allow it to be explored, it would be extremely
-interesting to know more of the Arabian examples, even if they should
-only prove to be an extension of Syrian or North African forms into
-Central Arabia. If, on the other hand, a migration theory is ever to be
-established, this probably would be the southern route, or at least one
-of the southern routes; though the imagination staggers when we come
-to consider how long it must have been ago since any wandering tribes
-passed through Central Arabia on their way westward.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>Are there any dolmens in Asia Minor? It is no answer to this question
-to say that none have been seen by any of the numerous travellers who
-have traversed that country. Ten years ago, by a parity of reasoning,
-their existence in Algeria or in Syria might have been denied. My
-impression is that they will not be found in that region. I expect that
-Asia Minor was too completely civilized in a pre-dolmen period to have
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[Pg 446]</a></span>
-
-adopted this form afterwards; but it is dangerous to speculate about a
-country of whose early history, as well as of whose modern geography,
-we really know so little.</p>
-
-<p>It would be extremely interesting, however, if some traveller would
-open his eyes, and tell us what really is to be found there, as it
-would throw considerable light on some interesting problems connected
-with this subject. It would, for instance, be interesting to know
-whether there are or are not dolmens in Galatia. If there are, it would
-go far to assist the Celtic claim to their invention. If they do not
-exist, either the Celts must be asked to waive their claim or we must
-find out some other mode of accounting for their absence.</p>
-
-<p>In like manner, it would be interesting to know if there are dolmens in
-Lydia. As mentioned before, there are numberless chambered tumuli in
-that country, and it would be curious to trace the existence or absence
-of any connection between these two forms of sepulchres. My impression
-is that the case of Lydia is very similar to that of Etruria. It was
-civilized before the dolmen era, and it will consequently be in vain to
-look there for any megalithic remains. The chambers in all the tombs
-yet opened are, so far as we at present know, constructed of small
-stones, and show no reminiscence of a rude-stone stage of art.<a name="FNanchor_519" id="FNanchor_519"></a><a href="#Footnote_519" class="fnanchor">[519]</a></p>
-
-<p>When we cross the Black Sea to Kertch, we find a state of affairs
-very similar to that in Lydia&mdash;great numbers of chambered tumuli,
-but all of microlithic or masonic forms. The tombs seem to be the
-lineal descendants of those at Mycen&#230;, and to belong to a totally
-different class from those we are treating of, and, notwithstanding
-their similarity of purpose, have apparently sprung from a different
-source. Yet it is curious to observe that even here the inevitable
-flints reappear. In one tomb, known as Kouloba, or Hill of Cinders,
-were found the remains of a chief, with his wife, their servants, and a
-horse. He wore a cap ornamented with gold, a gold enamelled necklace,
-and gold bracelets, and his sword was of iron. An electrum plate, which
-had formed part of a quiver, was ornamented with figures of animals
-and inscribed with the Greek word Πὁναχο. The queen's
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[Pg 447]</a></span>
-
-ornaments were richer in metal and more elaborate in workmanship than
-her husband's, yet among all this magnificence were found a quantity
-of flakes and other implements of flint:<a name="FNanchor_520" id="FNanchor_520"></a><a href="#Footnote_520" class="fnanchor">[520]</a>
-a tolerably convincing proof that flint implements were not buried in
-this tomb, any more than in Joshua's, because men did not know the use
-of metals, but for some symbolical reason we do not now understand.
-There is little doubt that other examples as striking as these will
-be found when looked for, and, at all events, these do away with all
-<i>&#224; priori</i> arguments based on the probability or otherwise of
-their being modern.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration192"></a>
-<img src="images/i_192.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">192.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Holed Dolmen. From Dubois de Montpereux.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration193"></a>
-<img src="images/i_193.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">193.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Holed Dolmen, Circassia. From a drawing by Simpson.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Combined with these are found, very sparsely on the shore of the
-Crimea, but frequently on the eastern shore of the Baltic and in
-Circassia, the forms of dolmens we are familiar with in other parts
-of the world. Nothing like a regular survey of them has yet been
-attempted, nor have we any detailed accounts of them; but from such
-information as is published,<a name="FNanchor_521" id="FNanchor_521"></a><a href="#Footnote_521" class="fnanchor">[521]</a>
-the general type seems to be that of the holed dolmen, such as those
-represented in the annexed woodcuts.</p>
-
-<p>As far as can be judged from such illustrations as have been published,
-all the Caucasian or Circassian dolmens are composed of stones more
-or less hewn and shaped and carefully fitted together, giving them a
-more modern appearance than their Western congeners. That, however,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[Pg 448]</a></span>
-
-may be owing to other circumstances than age, and cannot be used as
-an argument either way till we know more about them. It would be
-extremely interesting if some one would make a special study of this
-group, as Circassia lies exactly halfway between India and Scandinavia,
-and if we adopt a migration theory, this is exactly the central
-resting-place where we would expect to find traces of the passage of
-the dolmen-builders. Their route probably would be through Bactria,
-down the Oxus to the Caspian, across Circassia, and round the head of
-the Sea of Azof to the Dnieper, and up that river and down the banks of
-the Niemen or Vistula to the Baltic.</p>
-
-<p>If, on the other hand, we adopt a missionary theory, and are content
-to believe in an Eastern influence only, without insisting on a great
-displacement of peoples, this would equally be the trade route along
-which such influence might be supposed to extend, and so connect
-the north with the east, just as we may suppose a southern route to
-have extended through Arabia and Syria to the southern shores of the
-Mediterranean.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration194"></a>
-<img src="images/i_194.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">194.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Baba. From Dubois de Montpereux.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration195"></a>
-<img src="images/i_195.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">195.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Four-cornered Grave. From Sj&#246;borg.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Even more important for our present purpose, however, than an
-examination of these Caucasian regions would be an exploration of the
-Steppes to the northward of the route just indicated. If there is any
-foundation for the theory that the dolmens are of Turanian origin, it
-is here that we should expect to find the germs of the system. It is
-one of the best-established facts of ethnology that the original seat
-of the Aryans was somewhere in Upper and Central Asia, whence they
-migrated eastward into India, southward into Persia, and westward into
-Europe. In like manner, the original seat of the Turanians is assumed
-to be somewhat farther north, and thence at an earlier period it is
-believed that they spread themselves at some very early prehistoric
-time over the whole face of the Old World. When we turn to the Steppes,
-whence this great family of mankind are supposed to have migrated,
-we find it covered with tumuli. As Haxthausen<a name="FNanchor_522" id="FNanchor_522"></a><a href="#Footnote_522" class="fnanchor">[522]</a>
-expresses it, the Kurgans, as they are there called, are counted
-"non par des milliers, c'est centaines de milliers qu'il faudrait dire;"
-and Pallas equally gives an account of their astonishing
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[Pg 449]</a></span>
-
-numbers.<a name="FNanchor_523" id="FNanchor_523"></a><a href="#Footnote_523" class="fnanchor">[523]</a>
-These tumuli resemble exactly our barrows, such as are seen on
-Salisbury plain, except that they are generally of very much larger
-dimensions, and they have one peculiarity not known elsewhere. On the
-top of each is an upright stone, rudely carved, but always unmistakably
-representing a human figure, and understood to be intended for a
-representation of the person buried beneath. Pallas, Haxthausen,
-and Dubois, all give representations of these figures, but in some
-instances at least they are repetitions of the same original. They are
-perfectly described by the monk Ruberquis, who visited these countries
-in 1253. "The Comanians," he says, "build a great tomb over their dead,
-and erect an image of the dead party thereon, with his face towards the
-east, holding a drinking-cup in his hand before his navel. They also
-erect on the monuments of rich men pyramids, that is to say, little
-pointed houses or pinnacles. In some places I saw mighty towers, made
-of brick, and in other places pyramids made of stones, though no stones
-are found thereabouts. I saw one newly buried in whose behalf they
-hanged up sixteen horse-hides, and they set beside his grave Cosmos
-(Kumiss) to drink and flesh to eat, and yet they say he was baptized.
-And I beheld other kinds of sepulchres, also towards the east, namely,
-large floors or pavements made of stone, some round and some square;
-and then four long stones, pitched upright above the said pavement,
-towards the four regions of the world."<a name="FNanchor_524" id="FNanchor_524"></a><a href="#Footnote_524" class="fnanchor">[524]</a>
-The general correctness of this account is so fully confirmed by more
-modern travellers that there seems no reason for doubting it; but, as
-no one has described these "pavements," we dare not rely too much on
-their manifest similarity to the Scandinavian square and round graves,
-with four angle-stones, like the preceding one (<a href="#Illustration195">woodcut No. 195</a>).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[Pg 450]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>It may not be satisfactory to be obliged to go back to a traveller of
-the thirteenth century, however much he may be confirmed by subsequent
-writers, for an account of monuments which we would like to see
-measured and drawn with modern accuracy. It is, on the other hand,
-however, a gain to find a trustworthy witness who lived among a people
-who buried their dead in tumuli and sacrificed horses in their honour,
-and provided them with meat and drink for their journey to the Shades;
-who, in fact, in the thirteenth century were enacting those things as
-living men which we find only in a fossil state in more Western lands.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration196"></a>
-<img src="images/i_196.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">196.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Tumulus at Alexandropol.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The general appearance of these tumuli may be judged of by one of the
-most magnificent recently excavated by the Russians near Alexandropol,
-between the Dnieper and the Bazaolouk. It is about 1000 feet in
-circumference and 70 feet high, and was originally surmounted by a
-"Baba," which, however, is not there now. Around its base was a sort
-of retaining wall of small stones, and outside these a ditch and low
-mound, but no attempt whatever at lithic magnificence. Within it were
-several sepulchres. The principal one in the centre had apparently
-been already rifled, but in the subsidiary ones great quantities of
-gold ornaments were found, especially on the trappings of the horses
-which seem to have been buried here almost with more honour than
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[Pg 451]</a></span>
-
-their masters. Judging from the form of the ornaments and the style
-of the workmanship, the tomb belonged to the third or fourth century
-<span class="smcap">B.C.</span><a name="FNanchor_525" id="FNanchor_525"></a><a href="#Footnote_525" class="fnanchor">[525]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration197"></a>
-<img src="images/i_197.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">197.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Uncovered Base of a Tumulus at Nikolajew.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In Haxthausen's work<a name="FNanchor_526" id="FNanchor_526"></a><a href="#Footnote_526" class="fnanchor">[526]</a>
-there is a woodcut which may give us a hint as to the genesis of
-circles. A kurgan, or tumulus, at Nikolajew, in the government of
-Cherson, was cleared away, and though nothing was found in it to
-indicate its age and purpose, its base was composed of three or four
-concentric circles of upright stones, surrounding what appears to be
-a tomb composed of five stones in the centre. Similar arrangements
-have been found in Algerian tumuli, and it looks as if the first
-hint of a sepulchral circle may have arisen from such an arrangement
-having become familiar before being covered up, just as I believe the
-free-standing dolmen arose from the uncovered cist having excited such
-admiration as to make its framers unwilling to hide it.</p>
-
-<p>It does not appear to me to admit of doubt that there is a connexion,
-and an intimate one, between these Scythian or Tartar tombs and those
-of Europe; but the steps by which the one grew out of the other, and
-the time when it took place, can only be determined when we have
-more certain information regarding them than we now possess. It is
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[Pg 452]</a></span>
-
-important, however, to observe that, if they are the original models
-or congeners of the tumuli of the Western world, they are not of the
-dolmens or circles, except in such an indirect way as in the last
-example quoted from Haxthausen; nor are they of our menhirs, for all
-the stones we know of are carved as completely as the babas (<a href="#Illustration194">woodcut No. 194</a>);
-and we know literally of no rude stones connected with them,
-nor do we find any attempt in Scythia to produce effect by masses in
-unhewn stone, which is the fundamental idea that governed their use in
-Europe.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration198"></a>
-<img src="images/i_198.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">198.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Circle near Peshawur. From a photograph.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>We tread on surer ground when we reach the Caubul valley, not that
-many proofs of it have yet been published, but the quantity of tumuli,
-topes, and similar monuments,<a name="FNanchor_527" id="FNanchor_527"></a><a href="#Footnote_527" class="fnanchor">[527]</a>
-render it certain that circles and dolmens will be found there when
-looked for. Only one typical example has been published, but Sir Arthur
-Phayre, to whom we owe it, heard of other similar monuments existing
-in the neighbourhood. Fourteen of the stones composing this circle
-are still standing, and the tallest are about 11 feet in height, but
-others are lying on the ground more or less broken. The circle is about
-50 feet in diameter, and there are appearances of an outer circle of
-smaller stones at a distance of about 50 to 60 feet from the inner one.
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[Pg 453]</a></span>
-
-The natives have no tradition about its erection, except the same myth
-which we find in Somersetshire, that a wedding party, passing over the
-plain, were turned into stone by some powerful magician.
-<a name="FNanchor_528" id="FNanchor_528"></a><a href="#Footnote_528" class="fnanchor">[528]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration199"></a>
-<img src="images/i_199.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">199.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Circle at Deb Ayeh, near Darabgerd.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>At present, these Eusufzaie circles, and those described by Sir
-William Ouseley at Deli Ayeh,<a name="FNanchor_529" id="FNanchor_529"></a><a href="#Footnote_529" class="fnanchor">[529]</a>
-are almost the only examples we have to bridge over the immense gulf
-that exists between the Eastern and Western dolmen regions. Even the
-last, however, is only a frail prop for a theory, inasmuch as we have
-only a drawing of it by Sir W. Ouseley, who, in his description, says:
-"I can scarcely think the arrangement of these stones wholly, though
-it may be partly, natural or accidental." Coupled with the stone
-represented as figure 13 on the same plate, in Sir William Ouseley's
-work, I feel no doubt about these belonging to the class of rude-stone
-monuments, but we must know of more examples and more about them
-before we can reason with confidence regarding them. Another example,
-which certainly appears to be artificial, is recorded by Chardin. In
-travelling between Tabriz and Miana, he observed on his left hand
-several circles of hewn stones, which his companions informed him
-had been placed there by the Caous&mdash;the giants of the Kaianian
-dynasty. "The stones," he remarks, "are so large, that eight men could
-hardly move one of them, yet they must have been brought from quarries
-in the hills, the nearest of which is twenty miles distant."<a name="FNanchor_530" id="FNanchor_530"></a><a href="#Footnote_530" class="fnanchor">[530]</a>
-Numerous travellers must have passed that way since, but no one has
-observed these stones. It does not, however, follow that they are
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[Pg 454]</a></span>
-
-not still there, and hundreds of others besides; but while all this
-uncertainty prevails, it is obviously most unsafe to speculate on the
-manner in which any connexion may have taken place. It may turn out
-that the intervening country is full of dolmens, or it may be that
-practically we know all that is to be learned on the subject, but till
-this is ascertained, any theory that may be broached must be open to
-correction, perhaps even to refutation. It is not, however, either
-useless or out of place to make such suggestions as those contained
-in the last few pages. They turn attention to subjects too liable to
-be overlooked, but which are capable of easy solution when fairly
-examined, while their truth or falsehood does not practically in any
-essential degree affect the main argument. The age and uses of the
-Indian dolmens, as of the European examples, must be determined from
-the internal evidence they themselves afford. Each must stand or fall
-from its own strength or weakness. It would of course be interesting if
-a connexion between the two can be established, and we could trace the
-mode and time when it took place, but it is not necessarily important.
-If anyone cares to insist that there was no connexion between the two,
-he deprives himself of one of the principal points of interest in the
-whole enquiry, but does not otherwise affect the argument either as
-to their age or use. But of all this we shall be in a better position
-to judge when we have gone through the evidence detailed in the next
-chapter.</p>
-
-
-<div class="topspace1"></div>
-<div class="footnotes">
-<blockquote>
-<p class="footnote"><span class="smcap"><b>Footnotes</b></span></p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_507" id="Footnote_507"></a><a href="#FNanchor_507"><span class="label">[507]</span></a>
-Genesis xxviii. 18; xxxv. 14.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_508" id="Footnote_508"></a><a href="#FNanchor_508"><span class="label">[508]</span></a>
-Josephus, 'Bell. Jud.' v. 6.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_509" id="Footnote_509"></a><a href="#FNanchor_509"><span class="label">[509]</span></a>
-Joshua iv. 2 to 8. There is some
-mistake in the 9th verse; either it is a
-mistranslation or the verse is an interpolation.
-It is to be hoped that the
-Revisers will look to it.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_510" id="Footnote_510"></a><a href="#FNanchor_510"><span class="label">[510]</span></a>
-Exodus iv. 25; Joshua v. 3.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_511" id="Footnote_511"></a><a href="#FNanchor_511"><span class="label">[511]</span></a>
-Herodotus (ii. 86) mentions that, in
-his day, the Egyptians, after extracting
-the brain with an iron instrument, cut
-open the body they intended to embalm
-with an Ethiopic stone, and Sir Gardner
-Wilkinson ('Ancient Egyptians,' iii. 262)
-found two flint knives in a tomb which
-might have been used for such a purpose.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_512" id="Footnote_512"></a><a href="#FNanchor_512"><span class="label">[512]</span></a>
-Irby and Mangles, 'Travels in Egypt, Nubia, &amp;c.' 1823, p. 325.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_513" id="Footnote_513"></a><a href="#FNanchor_513"><span class="label">[513]</span></a>
-Colonel Meadows Taylor, in 'Trans. Royal Irish Academy,' 1865.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_514" id="Footnote_514"></a><a href="#FNanchor_514"><span class="label">[514]</span></a>
-Genesis, xiii. 18; xiv. 13.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_515" id="Footnote_515"></a><a href="#FNanchor_515"><span class="label">[515]</span></a>
-Gen. xiii. 5.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_516" id="Footnote_516"></a><a href="#FNanchor_516"><span class="label">[516]</span></a>
-'Journal Royal Geographical Society,' 1868, pp. 243 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_517" id="Footnote_517"></a><a href="#FNanchor_517"><span class="label">[517]</span></a>
-S. Palgrave, 'Central and Eastern
-Arabia,' i. p. 251. These appear to
-be the same as those mentioned by
-Bonstetten. "Derni&#232;rement encore un
-missionaire j&#233;suite, le P&#232;re Kohen, a
-d&#233;couvert en Arabie dans le district de
-Kasim, pr&#232;s de Khabb, trois vastes cercles
-de pierres pareils &#224; celui de Stonehenge,
-et compos&#233;s chacun de groupes de trilithes
-d'une grande &#233;levation."&mdash;<i>Essai</i>
-<i>sur les Dolmens</i>, p. 27.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_518" id="Footnote_518"></a><a href="#FNanchor_518"><span class="label">[518]</span></a>
-One of them has already been given,
-woodcut No. 25, p. 100.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_519" id="Footnote_519"></a><a href="#FNanchor_519"><span class="label">[519]</span></a>
-<i>Ante</i>, <a href="#Page_32">p. 32.</a></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_520" id="Footnote_520"></a><a href="#FNanchor_520"><span class="label">[520]</span></a>
-Dubois de Montpereux, v. pp. 194
-<i>et seq.</i> pls. xx. to xxv. See also 'Journal
-Arch. Ass.' xiii. pp. 303 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_521" id="Footnote_521"></a><a href="#FNanchor_521"><span class="label">[521]</span></a>
-Dubois de Montpereux, 'Voyage
-autour du Caucase,' i. p. 43. See also
-two dolmens from drawings by W. Simpson,
-in Waring's 'Stone Monuments,'
-pl. lx.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_522" id="Footnote_522"></a><a href="#FNanchor_522"><span class="label">[522]</span></a>
-Haxthausen, 'M&#233;moires sur la Russie,' ii. p. 291.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_523" id="Footnote_523"></a><a href="#FNanchor_523"><span class="label">[523]</span></a>
-'Voyage,' i. p. 495.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_524" id="Footnote_524"></a><a href="#FNanchor_524"><span class="label">[524]</span></a>
-'Purchas his Pilgrims,' iii. p. 8.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_525" id="Footnote_525"></a><a href="#FNanchor_525"><span class="label">[525]</span></a>
-These particulars are taken from a Russian work, 'Recueil d'Antiquit&#233;s de la
-Scythie,' 1866. Only one number, apparently, was ever published.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_526" id="Footnote_526"></a><a href="#FNanchor_526"><span class="label">[526]</span></a>
-'M&#233;moires sur la Russie,' ii. p. 308.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_527" id="Footnote_527"></a><a href="#FNanchor_527"><span class="label">[527]</span></a>
-Introduction to Wilson's 'Ariana Antiqua,' <i>passim</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_528" id="Footnote_528"></a><a href="#FNanchor_528"><span class="label">[528]</span></a>
-'Journal Asiatic Soc. Bengal,' p. i. No. 1, 1870.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_529" id="Footnote_529"></a><a href="#FNanchor_529"><span class="label">[529]</span></a>
-'Travels in Persia,' ii. p. 124, pl. lv. fig. 14.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_530" id="Footnote_530"></a><a href="#FNanchor_530"><span class="label">[530]</span></a>
-'Voyages en Perse, &amp;c.,' i. p. 267.</p>
-</div>
-
-</blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[Pg 455]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.</a><br />
-<span class="small">INDIA.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The</span> number of rude-stone monuments in India is probably as great or
-even greater than that of those to be found in Europe, and they are
-so similar that, even if they should not turn out to be identical,
-they form a most important branch of this enquiry. Even irrespective,
-however, of these, the study of the history of architecture in India is
-calculated to throw so much light on the problems connected with the
-study of megalithic monuments in the West that, for that cause alone it
-deserves much more attention than it has hitherto received.</p>
-
-<p>No one, it is presumed, will now be prepared to dispute the early
-civilization at least of the northern parts of India. Whether the
-Aryans crossed the Indus three thousand years <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, as I
-believe, or two thousand <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, as others contend, is of little
-consequence to our present purposes. It is generally understood that
-the Vedas were compiled or reduced to writing thirteen centuries before
-Christ, and the Laws of Menu seven or eight hundred years before our
-era, and these works betoken a civilization of some standing. Ayodia
-was a great prosperous city at the time of the incidents described in
-the Ramayana, and Hastinapura when the tragedy of the Mahabharata was
-being enacted; and these great events took place probably one or two
-thousand years before Christ, or between these two dates. Or to come a
-little nearer to our time, all the circumstances depicted in all the
-thousand and one legends connected with the life and teaching of Sakya
-Muni (623 to 543 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>), describe a country with cities and
-palaces, and possessing a very high state of civilization; and these
-legends are so numerous and so consentaneous that they may fairly be
-considered, for this purpose at least, as rising to the dignity of
-history. Yet with all this we now know it for a fact that no stone
-building or monument of stone now exists in India that was erected
-before the time of Asoka, <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 250. But, besides negative
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[Pg 456]</a></span>
-
-proof, we have in the early caves, 150 to 200 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, such
-manifest proofs of the stone architecture being then a mere transcript
-of wooden forms that we know certainly that we have here reached the
-very <i>incunabula</i> of a style. Of course it does not follow from this
-that the cities before this time may not have been splendid or the
-palaces magnificent. In Burmah and Siam the palaces and monasteries
-are either wholly or mostly in wood, and these timber erections are
-certainly more gorgeous and quite as expensive as the stone buildings
-of the West, and the Indians seem to have been content with this less
-durable style of architecture till the influence of the Bactrian Greeks
-induced them to adopt the clumsier but more durable material of stone
-for their buildings.</p>
-
-<p>With such an example before us, ought we to be surprised if the rude
-inhabitants of Europe were content with earth and the forms into which
-it could be shaped, till the example of the Romans taught them the
-use of the more durable and more strongly accentuated material? Nor
-will it do to contend that, if our forefathers got this hint from the
-Romans, they would have adopted the Roman style of architecture with
-it. The Indians certainly did not do so. Their early attempts at stone
-architecture are wooden, in the strictest sense, and retained their
-wooden forms for two or three centuries almost unchanged, and when
-gradually they became more and more appropriate to the newly adopted
-material, it was not Greek or foreign forms that they adopted, but
-forms of their own native invention. In Asoka's reign we have Greek or
-rather Assyrian ornaments in one of his l&#226;ts,<a name="FNanchor_531" id="FNanchor_531"></a><a href="#Footnote_531" class="fnanchor">[531]</a>
-and something like a Persepolitan capital in some of the earlier caves,<a name="FNanchor_532" id="FNanchor_532"></a><a href="#Footnote_532" class="fnanchor">[532]</a>
-but these died out, and it is not till after five centuries that we really find
-anything like the arts of Bactria at Amravati.<a name="FNanchor_533" id="FNanchor_533"></a><a href="#Footnote_533" class="fnanchor">[533]</a>
-As the civilized race copied their own wooden forms with all the
-elaborateness of which wood carving is capable, so the rude race seems
-to have used the forms which were appropriate to their status, and
-which were the only forms they could appreciate.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[Pg 457]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Another peculiarity of Indian architecture is worth pointing out here
-as tending to modify one of the most generally received dogmas of
-Western criticism. In speaking of such monuments as New Grange or the
-tombs at Locmariaker, which are roofed by overlapping stones forming
-what is technically called a horizontal arch, it is usual to assume
-that this must have been done before the invention of the Roman or
-radiating arch form. So far as Indian experience goes, this assumption
-is by no means borne out. When Kutb u deen wished to signalise his
-triumph over the idolaters, he, in 1206 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, employed the
-Hindus to erect a mosque for him in his recently acquired capital of
-Delhi. In the centre of the screen forming the mosque, he designed a
-great archway 22 feet span, 53 feet in height, and formed as a pointed
-arch of two sides of an equilateral spherical triangle. This was the
-usual form of Saracenic openings at Ghazni or Balkh in the beginning
-of the thirteenth century, but it was almost beyond the power of the
-Hindus to construct it. They did so, however, and it still stands,
-though crippled; but all the courses are horizontal, like their own
-domes, except two long stones which form the apex of the arch.<a name="FNanchor_534" id="FNanchor_534"></a><a href="#Footnote_534" class="fnanchor">[534]</a>
-In a very few years after this time the Mahommedan conquerors had taught
-the subject Hindus to build radiating arches, and every mosque or
-Mahommedan building from that time forward is built with arches formed
-as we form them; but, except a very few in the reign of the cosmopolite
-Akbar, no single Hindu building or temple, even down to the present
-time, has an arch in the sense in which we understand the word.</p>
-
-<p>One of the most striking instances of this peculiarity is found in the
-province of Guzerat. There are still to be seen the splendid ruins of
-the city of Ahmedabad built by the Mahommedan kings of the province
-between the years 1411 and 1583.<a name="FNanchor_535" id="FNanchor_535"></a><a href="#Footnote_535" class="fnanchor">[535]</a>
-There every mosque and every building is arched or vaulted according to
-one system. In the same province stands the sacred city of Palitana,
-with its hundreds of temples, some of a date as early as the eleventh,
-many built within the limits of the present century, and some now in
-the course of construction; yet, so far as is known, there is not a single arch
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[Pg 458]</a></span>
-
-within the walls of the city. So it is throughout India: side by
-side stand the buildings of the two great sects&mdash;those belonging to
-the Mahommedans universally arched, those belonging to the Hindus
-as certainly avoiding this form of construction. This is the more
-remarkable as the moment we cross the frontier of India we find the
-arch universally prevalent in Burmah, as early certainly as the tenth
-or eleventh century, and in all the forms, round, pointed, and flat,
-which we use in the present day.<a name="FNanchor_536" id="FNanchor_536"></a><a href="#Footnote_536" class="fnanchor">[536]</a>
-But if we extend our researches a little farther east, we again come
-to a country full of the most wonderful buildings known to exist
-anywhere, with bridges and viaducts and vaults; but not one single arch
-has yet been discovered in the length and breadth of the kingdom of
-Cambodia.</p>
-
-<p>All this is no doubt very anomalous and strange, though, if it were
-worth while, some of it might be accounted for and explained. This,
-however, is not the place for doing so: all that is here required is to
-point out the existence of the apparent anomaly, in order that we may
-not too hurriedly jump to chronological conclusions from the existence
-or absence of arches in any given building.</p>
-
-<p>Another most instructive lesson bearing on our present subject that is
-to be derived from the study of Indian antiquities will be found in
-that curious but persistent juxtaposition that everywhere prevails of
-the highest form of progressive civilization beside the lowest types of
-changeless barbarism. Everywhere in India the past is the present, and
-the present is the past; not, as is usually assumed, that the Hindu is
-immutable&mdash;quite the contrary. When contemporary history first dawned
-on us, India was Buddhist, and for eight or nine centuries that was the
-prevalent religion of the state. There is not now a single Buddhist
-establishment in the length and breadth of the land. The religions
-which superseded Buddhism were then new, and have ever since been
-changing, so that India now contains more religions and more numerous
-sects than any portion of the world of the same extent. Even within
-the last six centuries one-fifth of the population have adopted the
-Mahommedan religion, and are quite prepared to follow any new form of
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[Pg 459]</a></span>
-
-faith that may be the fashion of the day. But beside all this never
-ceasing change, there are tribes and races which remain immutable.</p>
-
-<p>To take one instance among a hundred that might be adduced. Ougein
-was a great commercial capital in the days of the Greek. It was the
-residence of Asoka, 260 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span><a name="FNanchor_537" id="FNanchor_537"></a><a href="#Footnote_537" class="fnanchor">[537]</a>
-It was the Ozene of the Periplus, the capital of the great Vicramaditya
-in the middle of the fifth century,<a name="FNanchor_538" id="FNanchor_538"></a><a href="#Footnote_538" class="fnanchor">[538]</a>
-and it was the city chosen by Jey Sing for the erection of one of his
-great observatories in the reign of Akbar. Yet almost within sight of
-this city are to be found tribes of Bhils, living now as they lived
-long before the Christian era. They are not agricultural, hardly
-pastoral, but live chiefly by the chase. With their bows and arrows
-they hunt the wild game as their forefathers did from time immemorial.
-They never cared to learn to read or write, and have no literature
-of any sort, hardly any tradition. Yet the Bhil was there before the
-Brahmin; and the proudest sovereign of Rajpootana acknowledges the Bhil
-as lord of the soil, and no new successor to the throne considers his
-title as complete till he has received the tika at the hands of the nomad.<a name="FNanchor_539" id="FNanchor_539"></a><a href="#Footnote_539" class="fnanchor">[539]</a>
-If India were a country divided by high mountain-ranges, or
-impenetrable forests, or did impassable deserts anywhere exist, this
-co-existence of two forms of society might be accounted for. But
-the contrary is the case. From the Himalayas to Cape Comorin, no
-obstacle exists, nor, so far as we know, ever did exist, to the freest
-intercourse between the various races inhabiting the country. If we may
-believe the traditions on which the epic of the Ramayana was founded,
-armies traversed the length and the breadth of the land one thousand,
-it may be two thousand, years before Christ. The Brahmins carried
-their arms and their literature to the south at a very early age. The
-Buddhists spread everywhere. The Jains succeeded them. The Mahommedans
-conquered and settled in Mysore and the Carnatic, but in vain. The
-Bhil, the Cole, the Gond, the Toda, and other tribes, remain as they
-were, and practise their own rites and follow the customs of their
-forefathers as if the stranger had never come among them.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[Pg 460]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Eastern India.</span></h3>
-
-<p>To turn from these generalities to two instances more directly
-illustrative of our European experience. The first is that of the
-Khonds, the Druids of the East, worshipping in groves, <i>prisc&#226;
-formidine sacris</i>, and indulging in human sacrifices and other
-unamiable practices of our forefathers.<a name="FNanchor_540" id="FNanchor_540"></a><a href="#Footnote_540" class="fnanchor">[540]</a>
-These tribes exist partly on a range of hills bounding the province
-of Cuttack on the western side and partly extend into the plains
-themselves. Almost within their boundaries there exists a low range
-of rocky hills known as the Udyagiri, in which are found a series of
-Buddhist caves, many of them excavated before the Christian era, and as
-beautiful and as interesting as any caves in India.<a name="FNanchor_541" id="FNanchor_541"></a><a href="#Footnote_541" class="fnanchor">[541]</a>
-A little beyond this are seen the great tower of the Bobaneswar temple
-and of the hundred and one smaller fanes dedicated to the worship of
-Siva, which was established here in all its splendour in the seventh
-century;<a name="FNanchor_542" id="FNanchor_542"></a><a href="#Footnote_542" class="fnanchor">[542]</a>
-and a little farther on, rises on the verge of the ocean the great tower of the
-temple of Juggernaut, at Puri, established in the twelfth century for
-the worship of that form of Vishnu.<a name="FNanchor_543" id="FNanchor_543"></a><a href="#Footnote_543" class="fnanchor">[543]</a>
-Yet in defiance of all this, in close proximity to the shrines of the
-gentle ascetic who devoted his life to the prevention of the shedding
-of the blood of the meanest of created beings, in sight of Bobaneswar
-and Puri, Macpherson tells us, unconsciously almost repeating the words
-of Tacitus<a name="FNanchor_544" id="FNanchor_544"></a><a href="#Footnote_544" class="fnanchor">[544]</a>
-: "The Khonds use neither temples nor images in their worship. They cannot
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[Pg 461]</a></span>
-
-comprehend and regard as absurd the idea of building a house in honour
-of a deity, or in the expectation that he will be peculiarly present
-in any place resembling a human habitation. Groves kept sacred from
-the axe, hoar rocks, the tops of hills, fountains, and the banks of
-streams, are in their eyes the fittest places for worship." It was in
-these sacred and venerable groves, that annually human victims were
-offered up to appease the wrath of the dreaded Tari, and to procure
-fertility for the fields. In 1836 we first interfered to put a stop to
-this, and before the Mutiny believed we had been successful. Perhaps
-we may have been so, but if our strong repressive hand were once
-removed, it cannot be doubted but the sacrifices would be instantly
-resumed. What the Buddhists and the Brahmins, working during at least
-two thousand years, have failed to accomplish, we strangers cannot
-expect to succeed in, in a few years, unless indeed we adopt the system
-followed by our forefathers, and are determined on extirpating those
-who obstinately adhere to such practices. Had it not been that first
-the Roman, and then the Celt, by sword and cord set vigorously to
-improve the older race, we might now have human sacrifices celebrated
-on the plains of Bauce in the neighbourhood of Chartres, and find
-people quietly erecting dolmens in the valley of the Dordogne.</p>
-
-<p>The practices, however, of a Claudius or a Simon de Montfort
-are repugnant to the feelings of the Indians, and so long as no
-political issue is at stake, they rarely interfere with the religious
-proclivities of their neighbours.</p>
-
-<p>When from the hills inhabited by the Khonds we cross the delta of the
-Ganges in a northerly direction, and come to the Khassia hills, we
-find a very different state of things, but equally interesting as an
-illustration of our present studies. These hills are situated between
-the valley of Assam and the plains of Sylhet, and, rising to a height
-of some 5000 to 6000 feet, catch the rains during the south-west
-monsoon, and but for this would be one of the most delightful sanitaria
-of the Bengal province. A country, however, where 300 inches of rain
-fall in three months is, for at least a quarter of the year, an
-undesirable abode, and it is difficult also to keep any soil on the
-rocks. Throughout the whole of the western portion of the hilly region,
-inhabited by tribes bearing the generic
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[Pg 462]</a></span>
-
-name of Khassias, rude-stone
-monuments exist in greater numbers than perhaps in any other portion
-of the globe of the same extent (<a href="#Illustration200">woodcut No. 200</a>). All travellers who
-have visited the country have been struck with the fact and with the
-curious similarity of their forms to those existing in Europe.<a name="FNanchor_545" id="FNanchor_545"></a><a href="#Footnote_545" class="fnanchor">[545]</a>
-So like, indeed, are they that it has long been the fashion to assume
-their identity, and it has consequently been often hoped that, if we
-could only find out why the Indian examples were erected, we might
-discover the motive which guided those in Europe who constructed
-similar monuments, while at the same time there seemed every reason for
-believing that it would not be difficult to discover the motives which
-led to the erection of the Indian examples. The natives make no mystery
-about them, and many were erected within the last few years, or are
-being erected now, and they are identical in form with those which are
-grey with years, and must have been set up in the long forgotten past.
-Here, therefore, there seemed a chance of at last solving the mystery
-of the great stones. Greater familiarity with them has, however,
-rather tended to dispel these illusions.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration200"></a>
-<img src="images/i_200.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">200.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; View in Khassia Hills. By H. Walters.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[Pg 463]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The Khassias burn their dead, which is a practice that hardly could
-have had its origin in their present abodes, inasmuch as, during three
-months in the year, it is impossible, from the rain, to light a fire
-out of doors, and consequently, if any one dies during that period, the
-body is placed in a coffin, formed from the hollowed trunk of a tree,
-and pickled in honey, till a fair day admits of his obsequies being
-properly performed.<a name="FNanchor_546" id="FNanchor_546"></a><a href="#Footnote_546" class="fnanchor">[546]</a>
-According to Mr. Walters, the urns containing the ashes are placed
-in little circular cells, with flat tops like stools, which exist in
-the immediate proximity of all the villages, and are used as seats
-by the villagers on all state occasions of assembly; but whether one
-stool is used for a whole family, or till it is filled with urns, or
-whether a new stool is prepared when a great man dies, has not yet been
-ascertained.<a name="FNanchor_547" id="FNanchor_547"></a><a href="#Footnote_547" class="fnanchor">[547]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration201"></a>
-<img src="images/i_201.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">201.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Khassia Funeral Seats. From Yule.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The origin of the menhirs is somewhat different. If any of the Khassia
-tribe falls ill or gets into difficulties, he prays to some one of
-his deceased ancestors, whose spirit he fancies may be able and
-willing to assist him. Father or mother, uncle or aunt, or some more
-distant relative, may do equally well, and to enforce his prayer, he
-vows that, if it is granted, he will erect a stone in honour of the
-deceased.<a name="FNanchor_548" id="FNanchor_548"></a><a href="#Footnote_548" class="fnanchor">[548]</a>
-This he never fails to perform, and if the cure has been
-rapid, or the change in the luck so sudden as to be striking, others
-address their prayers to the same person, and more stones are vowed.
-It thus sometimes happens that a person, man or woman, who was by no
-means remarkable in life, may have five, or seven, or ten&mdash;two fives,
-for the number must always be unequal&mdash;in their honour. The centre
-stone generally is crowned by a capital, or turban-like ornament, and
-sometimes two are joined together, forming a trilithon, but then they
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">[Pg 464]</a></span>
-
-apparently count as one. Major Austen mentions a set of five being
-erected in 1869 on the opposite side of the road to an original set of
-the same number with which an old lady had previously been honoured, in
-consequence of the services which after her death she had rendered to
-her tribe.<a name="FNanchor_549" id="FNanchor_549"></a><a href="#Footnote_549" class="fnanchor">[549]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration202"></a>
-<img src="images/i_202.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">202.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Menhirs and Tables. From Schlagintweit.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration203"></a>
-<img src="images/i_203.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">203.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Turban Stone, with Stone Table.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration204"></a>
-<img src="images/i_204.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">204.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Trilithon.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The origin of the stone tables or dolmens is not so clearly made out.
-Like the tomb stools, they frequently at least seem to be places of
-assembly. One, described by Major Austen, measured 30 feet 4 inches by
-10 feet in breadth, and had an average thickness of 1 foot; it had
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">[Pg 465]</a></span>
-
-steps to ascend to it; and certainly it looks like a place from which
-it would be convenient to address an audience. The great stone of this
-monument weighed 23 tons 18 cwt., and another is described as measuring
-30 feet by 13 feet, and 1 foot 4 inches in thickness, and others seem
-nearly of the same dimensions; and they are frequently raised some
-height from the ground, and supported on massive monoliths or pillars.</p>
-
-<p>While this is so, we need not wonder at the masses employed in the
-erection of Stonehenge or Avebury, or any of our European monuments.
-Physically the Khassias are a very inferior race to what we can
-conceive our forefathers ever to have been. Their stage of civilization
-is barely removed from that of mere savages, and their knowledge of the
-mechanical arts is of the most primitive description. Add to all this
-that their country is mountainous and rugged in the highest degree. Yet
-with all these disadvantages they move these great stones and erect
-them with perfect facility, while we are lost in wonder because our
-forefathers did something nearly equal to it some fourteen centuries
-ago.</p>
-
-<p>There are apparently no circles and no alignments on the hills, nor
-any of the forms which in the previous pages we have ascribed to
-battle-fields, and no tumuli nor any of their derivatives, and no
-sculptured stones of any sort. The real likeness, therefore, between
-the two forms of art is not so striking as it appears at first sight,
-but still presents coincidences that it is impossible to overlook.</p>
-
-<p>One of the most curious points which an examination of these two Indian
-tribes brings to light with reference to the European congeners is that
-in Cuttack we have sacred groves, human sacrifices, an all-powerful
-priesthood indulging in divination, and various other peculiarities,
-all savouring of Druidism, but not one upright stone or stone monument
-of any sort. In the Khassia hills, on the other hand, we have dolmens,
-menhirs, trilithons, and most of the forms of rude-stone architecture,
-but no dominant priesthood, no human sacrifices, no groves, nor
-anything savouring of the Druidical religion.</p>
-
-<p>To the European student the most interesting fact connected with the
-monuments on the Khassia hills is probably their date. We do not know
-how far back they extend, but we do know that many were erected within
-the limits of the present century, and some within the last few years.
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">[Pg 466]</a></span>
-
-Yet this has taken place in presence of, and in immediate contact with,
-two far higher forms of civilization.</p>
-
-<p>At the foot of the Khassia hills, to the north, lies the famous Hindu
-kingdom of Kamarupa. How far it extends back to, we do not know,
-but its foundation was certainly anterior to the Christian era;
-and when Hiouen Thsang visited it in the beginning of the seventh
-century, he found it rich and prosperous, and containing "temples by
-hundreds."<a name="FNanchor_550" id="FNanchor_550"></a><a href="#Footnote_550" class="fnanchor">[550]</a>
-And now, in the jungles, ruins are continually being
-discovered of temples not so old perhaps as this date, but showing
-continued prosperity down to a far later period. All these temples are
-richly and elaborately carved and ornamented with that exuberance of
-detail characteristic of Hindu architecture.</p>
-
-<p>At the foot of the southern slope of the hills lies Sylhet. When it
-became great, we do not know, but it certainly was occupied by the
-Mahommedans some centuries ago, and adorned with mosques and palaces
-and all that magnificence in which the Moslems indulged in the East.
-Yet the Khassia looks down on these new forms of civilization unmoved.
-As a servant or a trader he must have been for centuries familiar
-with both: but he clings to his old faith, and erects his rude-stone
-monuments, as his forefathers had done from time immemorial, and it is
-doubtful whether either our soldiers or our missionaries will soon wean
-him from this strange form of adoration.</p>
-
-<p>Surely all this is sufficient to make us pause before arguing from our
-own European experiences, or deciding questions when so few facts have
-hitherto been available on which to base any sound conclusions.</p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Western India.</span></h3>
-
-<p>On the other side of India there are some groups of rude-stone
-monuments similar to those found in the Khassia hills, and apparently
-erected for similar purposes. They are, however, much less perfectly
-known, and are described or at least drawn by only one traveller.<a name="FNanchor_551" id="FNanchor_551"></a><a href="#Footnote_551" class="fnanchor">[551]</a>
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">[Pg 467]</a></span>
-The most conspicuous of these is one near Belgaum. It consists of
-two rows of thirteen stones each, and one in front of them of three
-stones&mdash;the numbers being always uneven, as in Bengal&mdash;and on the
-opposite side four of those small altars, or tables, which always
-accompany these groups of stones on the Khassia hills. These, however,
-are very much smaller, the central stone being only about 4 feet high,
-and falling off to about a foot in height at the end of each row.<a name="FNanchor_552" id="FNanchor_552"></a><a href="#Footnote_552" class="fnanchor">[552]</a>
-Whether they were or were not dedicated to the same purpose, Colonel
-Leslie does not inform us; but their resemblance is so marked that
-there seems very little doubt that they were dedicated or vowed to the
-spirits of deceased ancestors.</p>
-
-<p>Another class of circular fanes looks at first sight more promising as
-a means of comparison with ours. Generally they seem to consist of one
-or three stones, in front of which a circular space&mdash;in the largest
-instance 40 feet in diameter, but more generally 20 to 30 feet only&mdash;is
-marked out by a number of small stones, from 8 to 20 inches in height,
-while the great central stones are only 3 feet high. To compare these,
-therefore, with our great megalithic monuments seems rather absurd.
-So far as can be made out, the central stone seems to represent a
-local village deity, called Vetal or Betal, who, like Nadzu Pennu, the
-village god, one of the inferior deities of the Khonds, is familiarly
-represented merely by a rude-stone, placed under a tree.<a name="FNanchor_553" id="FNanchor_553"></a><a href="#Footnote_553" class="fnanchor">[553]</a>
-In the instance of Vetal, it seems when a sacrifice&mdash;generally of
-a cock&mdash;is to be made, all those who are interested bring their
-own stones, and arrange them, in a circular fashion, round the place
-where the ceremony is to be performed; hence the superficial likeness.
-None, so far as is known, are ancient, nor indeed has it at all been
-made out when and how the worship of this deity arose. It is evidently
-a local superstition of some of the indigenous tribes, which latterly
-under our tolerant rule has become more prominent, for the sect is
-hated and despised by the Brahmins; and so far as facts are concerned,
-it would be difficult to carry back the history of this form of
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">[Pg 468]</a></span>
-
-architecture for a hundred years from this time. It may be older, but
-there is nothing to show that it is so.</p>
-
-<p>So far as the monuments above mentioned are concerned, there seems
-nothing in them that affords a real analogy or establishes any direct
-connexion between the European and Indian examples. The sacrifice of
-a cock to Vetal, when in sickness, looks like a similar sacrifice to
-Esculapius, and the human sacrifices and sacred groves of the Khonds
-are very Druidical in appearance; but no one probably will be found to
-contend that Vetal and Esculapius are the same god, or that the Khonds
-are Celts; and without this being established, the argument halts.
-The case, however, seems different when we turn to the sepulchral
-arrangements of the aboriginal tribes of India. Here the analogies are
-so striking that it is hard to believe that they are accidental, though
-equally hard to understand how and when the intercourse could have
-taken place which led to their similarity.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration205"></a>
-<img src="images/i_205.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">205.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen at Rajunkoloor. From a drawing by Colonel
-Meadows Taylor.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration206"></a>
-<img src="images/i_206.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"> 206.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan of Open Dolmen at Rajunkoloor.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration207"></a>
-<img src="images/i_207.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">207.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Closed Dolmen at Rajunkoloor.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration208"></a>
-<img src="images/i_208.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">208.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; View of Closed Dolmen at Rajunkoloor.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>As in Europe, the sepulchral monuments of India may be divided into
-two great classes&mdash;the dolmens and the tumuli. In the present state
-of our knowledge it is difficult to say which are the more numerous.
-According to Colonel Meadows Taylor,<a name="FNanchor_554" id="FNanchor_554"></a><a href="#Footnote_554" class="fnanchor">[554]</a>
-who is our best authority on the subject, the dolmens are of
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">[Pg 469]</a></span>
-
-two kinds&mdash;those consisting of four stones, that is to say,
-three supporting stones and one cap-stone&mdash;thus leaving one side
-open&mdash;and those in which the chamber is closed by a fourth stone;
-in the latter case this fourth stone has invariably a circular opening
-in it, like the Circassian examples (woodcuts <a href="#Illustration192">Nos. 192</a>, <a href="#Illustration193">193</a>),
-and the dolmen at Trie (<a href="#Illustration127">No. 127</a>).
-These forms are both shown in woodcut No. 205, representing two at
-Rajunkoloor, in the province of Sholapore, between the Bheema and
-Kistnah, near their junction. The side-stones of the larger monument
-measure 15 feet 3 inches by 9 feet in height, and more than 1 foot in
-thickness. The cap-stone is 15 feet 9 inches by 10 feet 9 inches, and
-the internal space 8 feet by 6 feet, the third slab being placed at
-some distance from the rear, and between the two side-stones. The same
-arrangement is followed in the closed dolmen, the cross slabs being
-inside, as shown in the view (<a href="#Illustration208">woodcut No. 208</a>),
-and plan (<a href="#Illustration207">woodcut No. 207</a>). The interior of
-the closed dolmen contained a little black mould on the surface. Below
-this a greyish white earth, brought from a distance, with which were
-found human ashes and portions of bones and charcoal mixed, and pieces
-of broken pottery, red and black. These rested on the solid rock on
-which the dolmen was erected. Nothing whatever was found in any of the
-open dolmens; but whether this arose from their being plundered, or
-from being exposed, is not clear. It could hardly have been that they
-were not sepulchral. They seem at least to be mixed up indiscriminately
-with the others, and except their being open, there is nothing to
-distinguish them. The arrangement of these dolmens in plan is peculiar.
-As will be seen from the next woodcut (No. 209), they are as regular as
-in our cemeteries, and apparently in certain directions would have
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[Pg 470]</a></span>
-
-gone on extending <i>ad infinitum</i>; but in another direction are cairns
-irregularly spaced, and showing a distinction in the mode of burying
-which at present it is difficult to account for.</p>
-
-<p>At a place in the Raichore Doab, called Yemmee Gooda, four of the
-dolmens of the first class were surrounded by double circles of stones;
-but this does not seem to be a usual arrangement.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration209"></a>
-<img src="images/i_209.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">209.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Arrangement of Dolmens at Rajunkoloor. By Colonel
-Meadows Taylor.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Almost more interesting than the dolmens are the cairns. The following
-plan of the group at Jewurgi, a place fifty miles, as the crow flies,
-north-east from Rajunkoloor, will explain their arrangement and
-juxtaposition. They, too, seem to divide themselves into two classes,
-as shown in the two sections&mdash;those with a summit-cist, like those in
-Auvergne, and those without; all, however, apparently have single and
-double circles of stones surrounding them. Two stones are generally
-found protruding slightly through the surface of the tumulus, and when
-an excavation is made between them, the cist is found laid in their
-direction at a depth of 9 to 10 feet below the surface. This seems to
-be generally double, and contains skeletons laid on their faces. At
-one end, but outside the cist, are quantities of pottery, and above
-the cist a number of skeletons, thrown in pellmell, and over these a
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">[Pg 471]</a></span>
-
-thick layer of earth and gravel. Detached heads are found sometimes
-in the cists, sometimes outside among the pottery, which led Colonel
-Taylor to the conclusion that human sacrifices had been practised at
-the time these cairns were raised, and that these are the remains of
-the wives or slaves of the defunct. It may be so, but it may also be
-that, as in Europe, we must make a distinction between battle-fields
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">[Pg 472]</a></span>
-
-and cemeteries; and I confess the idea that the cairns at Jewurgi mark
-a battle-field, and the dolmens at Rajunkoloor a cemetery, appears to
-account for the phenomena better than the other hypothesis. If this is
-not so, as the distance between Rajunkoloor and Jewurgi is only fifty
-miles, we must assume either that the district was inhabited by two
-different races of men at the same time, practising different modes of
-sepulture, or we must concede that the one is older than the other, and
-that the one race had been dispossessed and was succeeded by the other.
-The difficulties attending either of these suppositions appear to me
-infinitely greater than those involved in assuming that the one is a
-battle-field, the other a cemetery. The only thing that would make me
-hesitate about this is the presence of several cairns at Rajunkoloor.
-These, however, do not appear to have been opened, and we do not
-consequently know whether the same instances of decapitation were to
-be found, or whether the bodies were arranged in the same manner as at
-Jewurgi.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration210"></a>
-<img src="images/i_210.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">210.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Cairns at Jewurgi. By Colonel Meadows Taylor.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration211"></a>
-<img src="images/i_211.jpg" alt="CAPTION" />
-<div class="caption">211.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Section of Cairn at Jewurgi.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration212"></a>
-<img src="images/i_212.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">212.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Section of Cairn at Jewurgi.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Be this as it may, if these sections are to be depended on, it appears
-to be tolerably certain that these tombs cannot be old. It seems
-impossible that human bones could remain so entire and perfect as these
-are represented to be, so near the surface and in a recently disturbed
-soil, where rain and moisture must easily have penetrated at all times.
-A medical man on the spot might determine whether two or three or five
-centuries have elapsed since these bodies were laid where they are
-found; but I should be very much surprised if he raised their date
-beyond the last named figure. It is hazardous, however, to pronounce on
-such questions from the scanty data we have before us.</p>
-
-<p>There is still another class of dolmens, or rather kistvaens, common
-on the Nilgiri hills and throughout the hill region of Malabar. In it
-the chamber is formed like those described above, but always buried
-in the earth, only showing the cap-stone flush with the surface of
-the soil. One of these, in the Coorg country, is worth quoting, from
-its possessing two circular apertures, like those of the Plas Newydd
-tumulus (<a href="#Illustration48">woodcut No. 48</a>). This one, however, has a diaphragm dividing
-it into two chambers. If the Welsh one was so partitioned, the wall has
-disappeared.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">[Pg 473]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration213"></a>
-<img src="images/i_213.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">213.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Double Dolmen, Coorg.<a name="FNanchor_555" id="FNanchor_555"></a><a href="#Footnote_555" class="fnanchor">[555]</a></div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration214"></a>
-<img src="images/i_214.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">214.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Tomb, Nilgiri Hills. From a drawing by Sir Walter
-Elliot.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>One other class of monument must be quoted, not as illustrating any
-of our examples, but because it is so nearly identical with the
-chouchas<a name="FNanchor_556" id="FNanchor_556"></a><a href="#Footnote_556" class="fnanchor">[556]</a>
-of Northern Africa (<a href="#Illustration165">woodcut No. 165</a>), and when we try to find out
-whether there was any real connexion between the East and the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">[Pg 474]</a></span>
-
-West, such examples may afford valuable flints. According to Sir Walter
-Elliot,<a name="FNanchor_557" id="FNanchor_557"></a><a href="#Footnote_557" class="fnanchor">[557]</a>
-they are the commonest, or rather, perhaps, the most conspicuous, being
-perched on the tops of hills or ridges. Their form is a circular wall
-of uncemented rough stones, 4 to 5 feet high, 3 feet thick, and 6 to 8
-feet in diameter.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration215"></a>
-<img src="images/i_215.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">215.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Sepulchral Circles at Amravati.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>One other variety is interesting, not only from its similarity to
-those in Europe, especially in Scandinavia, but also from its bearing
-on the question of the age of those in India. The sepulchres of this
-class are all very like one another, and consist of small circles
-of rude stones, generally of two dimensions only, 24 and 32 feet in
-diameter, and have something like an opening on one side, and opposite
-this two or three stones within the circle, apparently marking the
-position of the sepulchral deposit.<a name="FNanchor_558" id="FNanchor_558"></a><a href="#Footnote_558" class="fnanchor">[558]</a>
-Monuments very similar to these exist in the Nilgiri hills, and
-elsewhere in India,<a name="FNanchor_559" id="FNanchor_559"></a><a href="#Footnote_559" class="fnanchor">[559]</a>
-but they are principally found at the roots of the hills round Amravati,
-where they exist literally in hundreds. No one, probably, who studies
-Colonel Mackenzie's map of that district<a name="FNanchor_560" id="FNanchor_560"></a><a href="#Footnote_560" class="fnanchor">[560]</a>
-will doubt that they form the cemetery of the city of Dharani Kotta,
-to which the Amravati Tope is attached. As in China, burying in the
-fertile land was not allowed, and consequently the place selected for
-the graves of the inhabitants was the nearest uncultivated spot, which
-was the foot of the hills. So far as is at present known, these circular
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">[Pg 475]</a></span>
-
-graves exist nowhere in such numbers as here, and it can hardly be
-doubted but that they have some connexion with the great circular rail
-of the Amravati Tope. That rail is unique in India, whether we consider
-its extent, the beauty of its sculptures, or the elaborateness of its
-finish. Other rails exist elsewhere surrounding dagobas or sacred
-spots, but none where the circle itself is relatively so much greater
-and more magnificent than the surrounding objects. The question thus
-arises, did the Amravati circle grow out of the rude-stone graves that
-cluster round the hills in its neighbourhood, or are the rude circles
-humble copies of that pride of the city? I have myself no doubt that
-the latter is the true explanation of the phenomena; but the grounds
-for this conclusion will be clearer as we proceed. Meanwhile it is
-hardly worth while enumerating all the smaller varieties of form which
-the rude-stone sepulchres of the Indians took in former days. Their
-numbers in many classes are few, and have no direct bearing on the
-subject of our enquiries.</p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Geographical Distribution.</span></h3>
-
-<p>Nothing would tend more to convey clear ideas on the subject of
-Indian dolmens than a map of their distribution, were it possible to
-construct one. As, however, no nation even in Europe, except France,
-is in a position to attempt such a thing, it is in vain to expect
-that sufficient information for the purpose should exist in India,
-where the subject has been taken up only so recently in so sporadic
-a manner.<a name="FNanchor_561" id="FNanchor_561"></a><a href="#Footnote_561" class="fnanchor">[561]</a>
-The following sketch, however, is perhaps not very
-far from the truth regarding them. They do not exist in the valley
-of the Ganges, or of any of its tributaries, nor in the valleys of
-the Nerbudda or Taptee; not, in fact, in that part of India which is
-generally described as north of the Vindhya range of hills. They exist,
-though somewhat sparsely, over the whole of the country drained by
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">[Pg 476]</a></span>
-
-the Godavery and its affluents. They are very common, perhaps more
-frequent than in any other part of India, in the valleys of the Kistnah
-and its tributaries. They are also found on both sides of the Gh&#226;ts,
-through Coimbatore, all the way down to Cape Comorin; and they are also
-found in groups all over the Madras presidency, but especially in the
-neighbourhood of Conjeveran.</p>
-
-<p>The first inference one is inclined to draw from this is that they must
-be Dravidian, as contradistinguished from Aryan; and it may be so.
-But against this view we have the fact that all the races at present
-dominant in the south repudiate them: none use similar modes of burial
-now, nor do any object to our digging them up and destroying them.</p>
-
-<p>If we look a little deeper, we come to a race of Karumbers, to whom
-Sir Walter Elliot is inclined to ascribe the bulk of the rude-stone
-monuments.<a name="FNanchor_562" id="FNanchor_562"></a><a href="#Footnote_562" class="fnanchor">[562]</a>
-From his own researches, and the various documents
-contained in the Mackenzie MSS.,<a name="FNanchor_563" id="FNanchor_563"></a><a href="#Footnote_563" class="fnanchor">[563]</a>
-they seem to have been a powerful race in the south of India, from the
-earliest times to which our knowledge extends, and to have continued
-powerful about Conjeveran and Madras till say the tenth or eleventh
-centuries, when they were overpowered by the Cholas, and finally
-disappear from the political horizon before the rising supremacy of
-that triumvirate of powers, the Chola, Chera, Pandya, who governed the
-south till the balance of power was disturbed by the Mahommedan and
-Maharatta invasions.</p>
-
-<p>A wretched remnant of these Karumbers still exists on the Nilgiri
-hills, and about the roots of the western Gh&#226;ts, but without a
-literature or a history, or even traditions that would enable us to
-identify or distinguish them from any of the other races of the south.
-The only test that seems capable of application is that of language,
-and this philologers have determined to be a dialect of the Dravidian
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">[Pg 477]</a></span>
-
-tongues.<a name="FNanchor_564" id="FNanchor_564"></a><a href="#Footnote_564" class="fnanchor">[564]</a>
-But, in such a case as this, language is a most unsafe guide. Within
-recent times the Cornish have changed their language without any
-alteration of race, and if intercommunication goes on at its present
-rate, English, in a century or two, may be the only language spoken
-in these islands. From the names of places we would know that Celtic
-races had inhabited many localities, but from the tongue of the people
-we should not know now that the Cornish, or then that the Welsh, were
-more Celtic than the inhabitants of Yorkshire or the Lothians. So in
-India nothing seems more likely than that, during the last eight or
-ten centuries, the Tamulian or Dravidian influence should have spread
-northward to the Vindhya, and that the Gonds, the Karumbers, and other
-subject half-civilized races, should have adopted the language of their
-conquerors and masters. It may be otherwise, but we know certainly that
-the southern Dravidians brought their style of architecture&mdash;as
-difficult a thing to change almost as language&mdash;as far north as
-Ellora, and carved the imperishable rocks there, in the eighth or ninth
-century, in the style that was indigenous at Tanjore;<a name="FNanchor_565" id="FNanchor_565"></a><a href="#Footnote_565" class="fnanchor">[565]</a>
-and this, too, for the purpose of marking their triumph over the
-religion of Buddha, which they had just succeeded in abolishing in the
-south.</p>
-
-<p>If this is so, there are still two distinguishing features which may
-help us to discriminate between the candidates for the rude-stone
-monuments. The true Dravidians&mdash;the Chola, Chera, Pandya&mdash;never were
-Buddhists, and never put forward a claim to have erected any monuments
-of this class. The Karumbers were Buddhists, and claim these monuments;
-and Buddhism and such structures must, I fancy, for reasons to be given
-hereafter, always have gone together.</p>
-
-<p>Further researches may enable us to speak with precision on the
-subject, but all we can at present do is to except, first, the Aryans
-of the north, and all the people incorporated with them, from the
-charge of being builders of rude-stone monuments. We must also except
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">[Pg 478]</a></span>
-
-the Tamulians or pure Dravidians of the south. But between these two
-there must have been some race, whom, for the present at least, we may
-call Karumbers. One of their centres of power was Conjeveran, but from
-that they were driven, as far as I can make out, about the year 750.
-But it does not appear that they might not have existed as a power on
-the banks of the Upper Kistnah and Tongabudra to a much later period.</p>
-
-<p>The limits of the Chalukya kingdom, which arose at Kalyan early in the
-seventh century,<a name="FNanchor_566" id="FNanchor_566"></a><a href="#Footnote_566" class="fnanchor">[566]</a>
-and of that of Vijianagara, which was established
-in the Tongabudra in the fourteenth, are so nearly coincident with the
-limits of the dolmen region&mdash;except where the latter was compressed on
-the north by the Mahommedan kingdom of Beejapore&mdash;that it seems most
-probable that there must have been a homogeneity among the people of
-that central province of which we have now lost the trace.</p>
-
-<p>This, however, like many other questions of the sort, must be postponed
-till we know something of the Nizam's country. In so far as the history
-or ethnography of the central plateau of India is concerned, or its
-arts or architecture, the Nizam's dominions are absolutely a <i>terra
-incognita</i>. No one has visited the country who had any knowledge of
-these subjects, and the Indian Government has done nothing to enquire,
-or to stimulate enquiry, into these questions in that country. Yet, if
-I am not very much mistaken, the solution of half the difficulties,
-ethnological or arch&#230;ological, that are now perplexing us lies on the
-surface of that region, for anyone who will take the trouble to read
-them. Till this is done, we must, it is feared, be content with the
-vaguest generalities; but even now I fancy we are approaching a better
-state of knowledge in these matters, and I almost believe I can trace
-a connexion between our so-called Karumbers and the Singalese, which,
-if it can be sustained, will throw a flood of light on some of the most
-puzzling questions of Indian ethnography.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">[Pg 479]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Age of the Stone Monuments.</span></h3>
-
-<p>A glimmering of light seemed to be thrown on this subject by a passage
-quoted by Sir Walter Elliot from a missionary report from Travancore,
-in which it was stated that an Indian tribe still continued to bury
-in "cromlechs," like those of Coimbatore, "constructed with four
-stones and a covering one."<a name="FNanchor_567" id="FNanchor_567"></a><a href="#Footnote_567" class="fnanchor">[567]</a>
-If this were so, we might have got hold of one end of a thread which
-would lead us backwards through the labyrinth. It looked so like a
-crucial instance that Mr. Walhouse kindly wrote to Mr. Baker, the
-author of the report in question, and sent me an extract from his
-reply, which is curious. "The M[a]la Arryians are a race of men
-dwelling in dense jungles and hills. Cromlechs are common among them,
-and they worship the spirits of their ancestors, to whom they make
-annual offerings. At the present day they are accustomed to take
-corpses into the sacred groves, and place small slabs of stones, in
-the form of a box, and, after making offerings of arrack, sweetmeats,
-&amp;c., to the departed spirit, supposed to be hovering near, a small
-stone is placed in the model box or vault, and it is covered over with
-great ceremony. The spirit is supposed to dwell in the stone, which
-in many cases is changed at the annual feast into a rough silver or
-brass figure." As Mr. Walhouse remarks, this looks like an echo from
-megalithic times. The people, having lost the power of erecting such
-huge structures as abound in their hills and on the plains around,
-from which they may have been driven at some early period, are content
-still to keep up the traditions of a prim&#230;val usage by these
-miniature shams. There seems little doubt that this is the case, and
-it is especially interesting to have observed it here, as it accounts
-for what has often puzzled Indian antiquaries. In Coorg and elsewhere,
-miniature urns and miniature utensils, such as one sees used as toys
-in European nurseries, are often found in these tombs, and have given
-rise to a tradition among the natives that they belong to a race of
-pigmies: whereas it is evident that it is only a dying out of an
-ancient faith, when, as is so generally the case, the symbol supersedes
-the reality.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">[Pg 480]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The articles found in the cairns and dolmens in India unfortunately
-afford us very little assistance in determining their age. The pottery
-that is found in quantities in them everywhere, is to all appearances,
-identical in form, in texture, and in glaze with the pottery of the
-present day. No archaic forms have, so far as I know, been found
-anywhere, nor anything that would indicate a progression. This might be
-used as an argument to prove how modern they were. In India, however,
-it would be most unsafe to do so. We have no knowledge as to how long
-ago these forms were introduced into or invented in that country, and
-no reason to suppose that they would change and progress as ours do. So
-far as our present knowledge extends, the pottery found in these tombs
-may have been made within the last few centuries, but it may also be a
-thousand or two thousand years old for anything we know to the contrary.</p>
-
-<p>The same remarks apply to the gold and silver ornaments and generally
-to the trinkets found in the tombs. Similar objects may be picked up in
-the bazaars in remote districts at the present day, but they may also
-have been in use in the time of Alexander the Great. Iron spear-heads
-and iron utensils of the most modern shape and pattern are among the
-commonest objects found in these tombs; and if anyone were arguing for
-victory, and not for the truth, these might be adduced to prove that
-the tombs belonged to what the Germans call "the youngest Iron age."
-This reasoning has no application whatever to India. Flint implements
-are found there, and very similar to those of Europe, but never in the
-tombs. Bronze was probably known to the Indians at a remote age, but
-no bronze implements have been buried with the dead so far as we yet
-know, though iron has been, and that frequently; but its presence tells
-us nothing as to age. So far we know, the Indians were as familiar
-with the use of iron in the fourth century <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> as the Greeks
-themselves were, and, for anything we know to the contrary, may have
-understood the art of extracting it from the ore and using it for arms
-and cutting-tools before these arts were practised in Europe.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration216"></a>
-<img src="images/i_216.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"> 216.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Iron Pillar at the Kutub, Delhi. From a
-photograph.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>One of the most curious and interesting illustrations of this is
-found in the existence of the celebrated iron pillar of Dhava, in the
-courtyard of the mosque at the Kutub, near Delhi. This consists of
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">[Pg 481]</a></span>
-
-a solid shaft of wrought iron, standing 22 feet 6 inches out of the
-ground and is 5 feet 6 inches in circumference at about 5 feet from
-its base. When I visited it, the report was that Colonel Baird Smith
-had dug down and found its base 16 feet below the surface. Lieutenant
-Cole<a name="FNanchor_568" id="FNanchor_568"></a><a href="#Footnote_568" class="fnanchor">[568]</a>
-now brings home a report that it is 26 feet deep in the
-ground. Taking, however, the more moderate dimension, a single forging
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">[Pg 482]</a></span>
-
-nearly 40 feet long and 5 feet circumference was not made, and could
-not have been made, in any country of Europe before the introduction
-of steam-machinery, nor, indeed, before the invention of the Nasmyth
-hammer.</p>
-
-<p>There is an inscription on the pillar which, unfortunately, bears no
-date; but from the form of the characters, the nature of the event it
-describes,<a name="FNanchor_569" id="FNanchor_569"></a><a href="#Footnote_569" class="fnanchor">[569]</a>
-coupled with the architecture of the capital of the
-pillar, it leaves no doubt that it was erected in the third or fourth
-century of our era.</p>
-
-<p>It must be left to those practically skilled in the working of metals
-to explain how any human being could work in close proximity to such
-a mass heated to a welding heat, or how it was possible without
-steam-machinery to manipulate so enormous a bar of iron. The question
-that interests us here is, how long must the Hindus have been familiar
-with the use of iron and the mode of working it before they could
-conceive the idea of such a monument and carry it into execution? It
-could hardly have been centuries, it must have been nearer thousands of
-years, and yet they erect rude-stone monuments in India at the present
-day!<a name="FNanchor_570" id="FNanchor_570"></a><a href="#Footnote_570" class="fnanchor">[570]</a></p>
-
-<p>One other instance, at the lower end of the scale, may be quoted as
-also bearing directly on this subject. Of all the people of India the
-Khassias are probably the most expert in extracting iron from its ores
-and manufacturing it when made; and their mode of doing this is so
-original, and, though rude, so effective, that there can be no doubt
-that it is the result of long experience among themselves.<a name="FNanchor_571" id="FNanchor_571"></a><a href="#Footnote_571" class="fnanchor">[571]</a>
-They have, in fact, practised the art from time immemorial; yet though
-possessing iron tools for, it may be, thousands of years, they at
-the present day adhere to the practice of using rude unhewn-stone
-monuments, like the Jews, in preference to those "which any iron tool
-had touched at any time."<a name="FNanchor_572" id="FNanchor_572"></a><a href="#Footnote_572" class="fnanchor">[572]</a>
-Nor can it be argued that they do this because they do not know
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">[Pg 483]</a></span>
-
-better. As just mentioned, at any time, certainly within the last
-thousand years, they might have seen the Buddhist or Hindu stonemasons
-of Kamarupa erecting the most elaborately carved stone temples, and can
-now see the domes of the mosques which the Mahommedans erected in the
-cities of Sylhet three or four centuries ago.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration217"></a>
-<img src="images/i_217.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">217.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Sculpture on under side of Cap-stone of a Nilgiri
-Dolmen.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Although it thus happens that all these <i>&#224; priori</i> reasonings and
-mistaken analogies, drawn from our own progressive state, which are so
-familiar to European antiquaries, break down at once when applied to
-India, still there are a few indications from which approximate dates
-may be obtained, and many more could, no doubt, be found if looked
-for. One of these is, that the greater number of the dolmens of the
-Nilgiri hills are sculptured; but only one of the drawings on them, so
-far as I know, has been published,<a name="FNanchor_573" id="FNanchor_573"></a><a href="#Footnote_573" class="fnanchor">[573]</a>
-and though it is ungracious to say so, I fear that it is not a very
-faithful representation. It is, however, sufficiently so to enable
-us to recognise at once a similarity to a class of monuments very
-common in the plains. These are called Viracull, if destined to
-commemorate men or heroes, and Masteecull if erected in honour of women
-who sacrifice themselves on their husband's funereal pile. Colonel
-Mackenzie collected drawings of more than one hundred of these, which
-are now in the India Office, and photographs of many others have been
-made but not published.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">[Pg 484]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The similarity in the costume and style of art displayed in the
-preceding woodcut with that of the memorial stones leaves little or
-no doubt of their being approximately of the same age. As most of the
-memorial stones are inscribed and their dates at least approximately
-known, if the identity can be established the date of the dolmens can
-also be determined. Till, however, some one will take the trouble of
-photographing the cairns, so as to enable us to compare them with the
-standing stones, no certainty can be obtained; but as none of the
-sculptured stones go back a thousand years, and those most like the
-woodcut cannot claim five centuries of antiquity, these sculptured
-cairns in the Nilgiris cannot be so very old as is sometimes assumed.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration218"></a>
-<img src="images/i_218.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">218.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen at Iwullee. From a photograph.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The second instance is curious and instructive. In the centre of the
-courtyard of a now ruined Sivite temple at Iwullee, in Dharwar, in the
-very centre of the dolmen country, now stands a regular tripod dolmen
-of the usual shape (<a href="#Illustration218">woodcut No. 218</a>).
-The question is, how got it there? No one who knows anything of India
-will, I presume, argue that the Brahminical followers of Siva would
-erect the sanctuary of their god in front of the tomb of one of the
-despised aboriginal tribes, if still reverenced by them, or would have
-neglected to utilize
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">[Pg 485]</a></span>
-
-it if neglected. One of two things therefore only seems possible.
-Either a Korumber, or native chief of some denomination, stipulated
-that on his conversion to the faith of the Brahmins, if he erected a
-temple in honour of his newly-adopted god, he should be allowed to be
-buried, "more majorum," in the courtyard. This is possible, but hardly
-probable. It seems more likely that, after the temple was desecrated
-and neglected, some native thought the spot fit and appropriate for
-his last resting-place, and was buried there accordingly. From its
-architecture, there is no doubt that the age of the temple may be
-carried back as far as the thirteenth century, but it more probably
-belongs to the fourteenth. According to the first hypothesis, the age
-of the dolmen would be that of the temple; according to the second,
-one, two, or three centuries more modern.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration219"></a>
-<img src="images/i_219.jpg" alt="CAPTION" />
-<div class="caption">219.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Stone Monuments at Shahpoor.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>A third indirect piece of evidence is derived from Colonel Meadows
-Taylor's paper in the 'Irish Transactions.' He represents a tolerably
-extensive group of these monuments as placed immediately outside the
-city gate at Shahpoor, and from what he says of them they are evidently
-of the same age as the other examples he quotes. From their position
-and arrangement, it does not seem doubtful that they are the usual
-extramural cemetery so generally attached to Indian cities, and they
-are, in fact, subsequent in date to the erection of the gate in front
-of which they are placed. The gateway, I learn from a letter from
-Colonel Meadows Taylor, undoubtedly belongs to the Mahommedan period.
-It is a regular arch, of the usual pointed form, and consequently
-subsequent to 1347 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, when the Bahmany dynasty first
-established themselves in this quarter. This being so, the masons who
-built the gate would certainly have utilized the tombs of the pagans
-had they existed previously. They must, therefore, be subsequent to
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">[Pg 486]</a></span>
-
-the gate; and as it cannot be five centuries old, we have a limit to
-their age beyond which we cannot go.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration220"></a>
-<img src="images/i_220.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">220.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Cross at Katapur. From a photograph.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Our next example is still more curious and interesting. In the cold
-weather of 1867-8, Mr. Mulheran, when attached to the Trigonometrical
-Survey of India, came accidentally across a great group of "cromlechs,"
-situated on the banks of the Godavery, near Nirmul, about halfway
-between Hyderabad and Nagpore, in Central India. Some of these he
-photographed, and sent an account of them to the Asiatic Society of
-Bengal,<a name="FNanchor_574" id="FNanchor_574"></a><a href="#Footnote_574" class="fnanchor">[574]</a>
-from which the following particulars are gleaned. "The
-majority of the cromlechs consist of a number of upright stones,
-sunk in the ground in the form of a square, and covered with one
-or two large slabs of sandstone. In some two bodies appear to have
-been interred, and in others only one. The crosses are found in the
-neighbourhood of Malúr and Katapur, two villages on the Nizam's side
-of the river. The crosses at Katapur (<a href="#Illustration220">woodcut No. 220</a>)
-are, with one exception, uninjured. All are situated to the right of
-the cromlechs near which they have been erected. Judging from the one
-lying exposed at Malúr, they are all above 10 feet in length, although
-only 6 to
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487">[Pg 487]</a></span>
-
-7 feet appear above ground. They all consist of one stone, and are
-all of the latest form. No information of any kind could be obtained
-regarding the people by whom the crosses or cromlechs were erected.
-There can be no doubt, however, that the crosses are memorials of the
-faith of Christians buried in their vicinity." Close by is a cave,
-before which a cross was erected, which Mr. Mulheran assumes was thrown
-down by the Brahmins when they took possession of it; and he adds, "I
-enclose a note from Captain Glasfurd, who sent a packet of implements,
-rings, and utensils, found in two of the cromlechs he opened, to the
-Asiatic Society." No such packet, however, ever arrived, and we are,
-therefore, left to his photographs and descriptions from which to draw
-our conclusions.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration221"></a>
-<img src="images/i_221.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">221.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen at Katapur. From a photograph.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration222"></a>
-<img src="images/i_222.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">222.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen with Cross in Nirmul Jungle.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the first place, I think it can hardly be doubted that the crosses
-are Christian emblems; and secondly, that the cromlechs and crosses
-are of the same date. Their juxtaposition and whole appearance render
-escape from this conclusion apparently inevitable. The question,
-therefore, is, when could any community of native Christians have
-existed in India who would bury in dolmens and use the cross as their
-emblems? Their distance from the coast and the form of the cross seem
-at once to cut them off from all connexion with St. Thomas's mission
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488">[Pg 488]</a></span>
-
-or that of the early apostles, even assuming that the records of
-these are authentic. My impression is that this form of cross was not
-introduced as an out-of-doors self-standing sign till, say, the sixth
-or seventh century.<a name="FNanchor_575" id="FNanchor_575"></a><a href="#Footnote_575" class="fnanchor">[575]</a>
-On the other hand, it is extremely improbable
-that any such community could have existed after the Mahommedan
-invasion at the end of the thirteenth century. Between these limits
-we know that the Nestorians had establishments as far east as China,
-and extending in a continuous chain westward as far at least as the
-Caspian;<a name="FNanchor_576" id="FNanchor_576"></a><a href="#Footnote_576" class="fnanchor">[576]</a>
-and there seems to be no difficulty in assuming that,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489">[Pg 489]</a></span>
-between the seventh and the thirteenth centuries a form of Taiping
-Christianity may have been introduced from the north and established
-itself extensively in the western and central parts of India, but,
-owing allegiance only to the potentate we know of as Prester John,
-may have entirely escaped the knowledge of the Western world. Besides
-helping to fix the date of the dolmens in India, this discovery opens
-out a wide field for those who would investigate the early history of
-the Christian Church in India. There can be little doubt that this
-group is not solitary. Many more will be found, when people open their
-eyes and look for them. Meanwhile it is a curious illustration of the
-policy of Pope Gregory in his advice to Abbot Mellitus, alluded to
-in the Introduction (<a href="#Page_21">page 21</a>). It is the same thing as the dolmen at
-Kerland (<a href="#Illustration131">woodcut No. 131</a>), and that
-at Arrichinaga (<a href="#Illustration161">woodcut No. 161</a>),
-repeated in the centre of India, though probably at a somewhat later
-date.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>There is still another point of view from which these Indian monuments
-may be regarded, so as to throw considerable light on the history
-of their analogues in Europe, and perhaps to modify to some extent
-our preconceived views regarding their history. In Ceylon there is a
-class of dagoba, which, in some respects, is peculiar to the island.
-Two of these will suffice for our present purposes, both in the city
-of Anuradhapura, which was the capital of the country from about
-<span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 400 till the eleventh century. The first of these,
-the Thupa Ramayana, was erected <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 161; the second, the
-Lanka Ramayana, <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 231.<a name="FNanchor_577" id="FNanchor_577"></a><a href="#Footnote_577" class="fnanchor">[577]</a>
-For the sake of the argument it would be best to select the first for
-illustration; but it was, unfortunately, so completely restored about
-forty years ago that, as in the case of our unfortunate cathedrals, it
-requires considerable knowledge of the style to discriminate between
-what is old and what new. Notwithstanding the four centuries that
-elapsed between their dates, however, they are so like one another
-in all essentials that it is of little consequence which we select.
-Neither is large, and both consist of nearly hemispherical domes,
-surmounted by a square box-like appendage called a Tee, and both
-are surrounded by three rows of tall stone pillars, as shown in the
-accompanying woodcut.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">[Pg 490]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration223"></a>
-<img src="images/i_223.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">223.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Lanka Ramayana Dagoba, <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 231. From a
-photograph.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>That the domical part of the dagoba is the lineal and direct descendant
-of the sepulchral tumuli or cairns, which are found everywhere in
-Northern Asia and probably existed in India in prim&#230;val times, is
-hardly open to doubt. This the Buddhists early refined into a relic
-shrine, probably immediately after the death of the founder of the
-religion, <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 543; and we know from numerous
-excavations<a name="FNanchor_578" id="FNanchor_578"></a><a href="#Footnote_578" class="fnanchor">[578]</a>
-that the relic was placed in a cist in the centre of the mound, nearly
-on the level of the soil, exactly where, and in the same manner as,
-the body-containing kistvaens of our sepulchral tumuli. To this,
-however, the Buddhists added a square box on the top, which either
-was invented by them or copied from some earlier form; but no dagoba
-was complete without it, and all the rock-cut examples and sculptured
-representations of topes, with many structural ones, still possess
-it. That it represented a wooden relic-casket may be assumed as
-certain, but whether it was ever used as such is not quite clear. The
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491">[Pg 491]</a></span>
-
-relics were sometimes accessible, and shown to the public on festal
-occasions,<a name="FNanchor_579" id="FNanchor_579"></a><a href="#Footnote_579" class="fnanchor">[579]</a>
-and unless they were contained in some external case like this it is
-not easy to see how they could be got at. A third indispensable part of
-a perfect dagoba was an enclosing rail. All the early dagobas and all
-the sculptured representations possess this adjunct. In the rock-cut
-examples and in the later structural ones the rail becomes attached to
-the building as a mere ornament, but is never omitted.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration224"></a>
-<img src="images/i_224.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">224.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen at Pullicondah.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>If we compare such a sepulchral mound as this at Pullicondah, near
-Madras,<a name="FNanchor_580" id="FNanchor_580"></a><a href="#Footnote_580" class="fnanchor">[580]</a>
-or that represented in section, woodcut No. 211, with
-the Lanka or Thupa Ramayana dagobas, we cannot fail to be struck with
-their similarity. Both possess the mound, the rail, and the tee; and in
-this last instance it is a simulated tomb, such as many in Europe are
-suspected of having been. That a people might both bury in barrows and
-erect domical cairns to contain relics would not necessarily involve a
-proof of the one form being copied from the other; but that both should
-be surmounted by a simulated sarcophagus or shrine, and both surrounded
-by one, two, or three rows of useless stones, points to a direct
-imitation of the one from the other which can hardly be accidental.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492">[Pg 492]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Assuming for the nonce that the one is copied from the other, the
-ordinary mode of reasoning with which we are familiar in Europe would
-be then something like this. If the Thupa Ramayana were erected
-<span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 161, this cairn at Pullicondah must probably be as old as
-<span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 1000, for it would take many centuries before so rude a
-style of architecture could be reformed into so polished an example as
-the Thupa Ramayana, which, as before stated, we may assume as identical
-with the Lanka Ramayana (<a href="#Illustration223">woodcut No.223</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration225"></a>
-<img src="images/i_225.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">225.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Rail at Sanchi, near Bhilsa.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The conclusions I have arrived at are diametrically opposed to this
-view. As stated at the beginning of this chapter, the architectural
-material of India was wood, down to <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 250 or 300. It then
-became timidly lithic, but retained all its wooden forms and simulated
-carpentry fastenings down, at all events, to the Christian era. The
-rail at Sanchi, which was erected in the course of the two centuries
-preceding our era, is still essentially wooden in all its parts, so
-much so that it is difficult to see how it could be constructed in stone,
-<a name="FNanchor_581" id="FNanchor_581"></a><a href="#Footnote_581" class="fnanchor">[581]</a>
-and these pillars round the Ceylonese dagobas are copies of
-wooden posts, and not such forms as in any number of centuries would
-have grown out of rude-stone forms. Had they been derived from the
-latter original they would have been thick, strong and massive, and
-never have assumed forms so curiously attenuated as we find here. It
-is difficult to see what these stone pillars or posts were originally
-intended for. It may have been either that garlands might be hung upon
-them on festal occasions, as we see represented in the sculptures, or
-that pictures might be suspended from them, as Fa Hian, who visited
-this place in the year 400, tells us was done all the way from
-Anuradhapura to Mehentele on the occasion of a great procession in
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_493" id="Page_493">[Pg 493]</a></span>
-
-honour of the Tooth relic which was there exposed to public view.
-<a name="FNanchor_582" id="FNanchor_582"></a><a href="#Footnote_582" class="fnanchor">[582]</a></p>
-
-<p>Be all this as it may, the question which this comparison raises is
-simply this: If we admit the similarity between the Pullicondah cairn
-and the Lanka Ramayana Tope, and that the one grew out of the other,
-it seems to me perfectly evident that the adjunct of the Tope grew out
-of a wooden and not out of a rude-stone original. If this is so, and
-if the Tope did not grow out of the cairn, the conclusion seems to me
-inevitable that the cairn is only a rude copy of a polished original.</p>
-
-<p>The same conclusion hinted at above was forced on me by the examination
-of the rude-stone circles which crowd round the elaborate tope at
-Amravati. Generally, I know of no hypothesis by which the phenomenon
-of polished-stone buildings, with known dates, existing in India for
-the last 2000 years side by side with rude-stone monuments which are
-being erected at this day, can be accounted for, unless we give up our
-favourite system of sequence and are content to take facts as we find
-them.</p>
-
-<p>It is quite certain there were no hewn-stone buildings in India before
-the year 250 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, and my impression is that none of the
-rude-stone monuments now existing there were erected till five, it may
-be ten centuries from that time, and when they once began that there is
-no break in the sequence to the present day.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>I know nothing that can be fairly urged against this reasoning, except
-our own ignorance, and that of the natives themselves, with regard
-to the origin and date of these monuments. Neither is much to be
-wondered at, as it is only so lately that Europeans have turned their
-attention to the subject, and the natives know so little about their
-own monuments that it would be strange indeed if they knew anything
-at all about those of the hated and despised Dasyus. Any one who has
-travelled in India knows what sort of information he gets even from
-the best and most intelligent Brahmins with regard to the dates of the
-temples they and their forefathers have administered in ever since
-their erection. One thousand or two or three thousand years is a
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_494" id="Page_494">[Pg 494]</a></span>
-
-moderate age for temples which we know were certainly erected within
-the last two or three centuries. Or ask any native about the date of
-the rock-cut temples at Ellora or Elephanta, he at once glibly answers,
-they were erected by the Pandus, 3101 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>; and if he breaks
-loose from that landmark, ten or twenty thousand years is the least you
-can expect. Yet we know now, from inscriptions and other data, that no
-rock-cut temple can be carried further back than the second century
-<span class="smcap">B.C.</span></p>
-
-<p>In this infantile state of the native mind it costs them nothing to
-hide their ignorance in the mists of thousands of years when questioned
-about these rude stones, but their testimony is absolutely worthless,
-and it is only by processes like those just described that we can
-hope to arrive at the truth. Among races so unchangeable as some of
-those existing in India they may carry us back to a time prior to
-the Christian era with some classes of monuments; but, unless I am
-very much mistaken, it will be found that all those mentioned in the
-preceding pages are of comparatively recent date and are members of an
-unbroken series which continues to the present day.</p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Comparison of Eastern with Western Dolmens.</span></h3>
-
-<p>We are now in a position to approach one of the most interesting, but
-at the same time most difficult, branches of the inquiry we are engaged
-upon, which is the connexion, if any, that exists between these Indian
-rude-stone monuments and those we find in Europe. The difficulties,
-however, do not appear to be so much inherent in the essence of the
-subject as in its novelty. It has never fairly been approached by any
-modern writer, and would consequently require an amount of illustration
-incompatible with such a work as this to make it clear, or, on the
-other hand, it is necessary to assume an amount of information on the
-part of the public which it is feared hardly anywhere exists.</p>
-
-<p>The architectural evidence, as detailed in the preceding pages, seems
-of a nature difficult to resist. It is easy and generally correct to
-assume that men in certain stages of civilization will do the same
-thing or things, in a manner so similar that it is difficult to
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_495" id="Page_495">[Pg 495]</a></span>
-
-discriminate between them. There would thus be no improbability in
-assuming that all men would raise a mound of earth over the dead bodies
-of their buried ancestors, or that they would protect their bodies
-from being crushed by the superincumbent weight, by a cist or coffin
-more or less artificially formed of stone or wood. It may even further
-be granted that when having got so far they would naturally improve
-and enlarge this cist into a dolmen or chamber and provide it with an
-external entrance. All these things being found together would by no
-means prove a necessary connexion between two races using them, further
-than that the races using or inventing these forms must have belonged
-to the same family of tomb-building ancestral-worshipping people. But
-when we find two distinct people putting this cist outside, on the
-tumulus in the open air, and piercing one of the slabs in it with a
-circular hole 6 or 8 inches in diameter, we come to a coincidence that
-can hardly be considered accidental. As there was no writing and no
-post, either some tribe must have migrated from the east to the west
-and introduced the form, or <i>vice vers&#226;</i>, some European must have
-taught the Indians the advantages of this hole, whatever they were; and
-having been once taught to adopt, they afterwards continued to employ
-it.</p>
-
-<p>A still more striking instance is that already pointed out, of the
-combination of a central cistvaen containing a body inside a mound with
-a simulated cist on the top outside, and several circles of stones on
-or around the mound externally. All this is so complicated and shows
-so much design that it cannot possibly be the result of accident,
-if it is found in two distinct lands. The examples quoted above are
-perhaps sufficient to establish this similarity, but they are only a
-fraction of those which might be adduced if the subject were carefully
-followed out. It evidently was much more common in the East than we
-have hitherto had reason to suspect&mdash;for this reason alone, if for no
-other&mdash;that it continued to last so long. In this example from Burmah
-(<a href="#Illustration226">woodcut No. 226</a>) we have first an external mound encircling the tope,
-then the circles of rude stones replaced by a complicated rail, and
-above all, in the centre, a simulated dagoba replacing the simulated
-cist. These are great changes, it must be confessed, but hardly so
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_496" id="Page_496">[Pg 496]</a></span>
-
-great as we might expect when we consider that the Senbya dagoba was
-only erected fifty-five years ago, and that the interval between it and
-the rude-stone monuments is consequently considerable. Another striking
-instance of the modern form this prim&#230;val sepulchre assumes is found
-in the celebrated tomb of Akbar the Great at Agra. There the king is
-buried in a vault below the level of the ground, but his simulated
-tomb is on the top of the pyramid, exposed to the air outside; and on
-each stage, externally, little pavilions replace the stones which his
-progenitors had previously employed for a like purpose.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_497" id="Page_497">[Pg 497]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration226"></a>
-<img src="images/i_226.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">226.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; View of the Senbya Pagoda, Burmah. From a
-photograph.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>These two&mdash;the holed stone and the simulated cist&mdash;are perhaps the most
-direct evidences of similarity between the East and the West, but the
-whole system affords innumerable points of contact, not sufficiently
-distinct perhaps to quote as evidence individually, but collectively
-making up such a case that it seems very difficult to refuse to believe
-that both styles were the product of one kindred race of men, and who
-at the time they erected them must have been more or less directly in
-communication with one another.</p>
-
-<p>The literary evidence is much less complete or satisfactory. So far
-as I know, no paragraph has been detected in any classical authors
-which would lead us to suspect any connexion at any time between India
-and any country so remote from it, as France for instance, and still
-less with Denmark, unless it be the Woden myth belonging to the latter
-country. That, however, was either so indistinct originally, or has
-been so obscured by later additions, that it is now almost impossible
-to say what it is. Though so frequently insisted upon, it seems almost
-impossible that by any process, the gentle ascetic Sakya Muni could
-ever have become the fierce warlike Woden, and except some nominal
-similarities there seems nothing to connect the two. It may be that at
-some time about the Christian era, a chief of that name migrated from
-the Crimean Bosphorus to the Baltic, and may have brought with him some
-Asiatic practices, but the connecting link between him and India seems
-wholly wanting, and not likely to be now supplied.</p>
-
-<p>The one passage that seems to bear directly on the subject, strange
-to say, comes this time from India itself. Among the edicts that
-Asoka engraved on the rocks in various parts of India,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_498" id="Page_498">[Pg 498]</a></span>
-
-the last or thirteenth is to the following effect, so far as it can
-be made out. It is unfortunately the nearest to the ground, and
-consequently in all the published copies appears more or less injured.
-Two more copies of the edicts are known to exist,&mdash;one in the
-Dehra Doon, the other in Orissa: when they are copied and published,
-perhaps a more perfect translation may be possible. Meanwhile, Mr.
-Prinsep's translation runs thus:&mdash;"There is not in either class
-of the heretics of men a procedure marked by such grace ... nor so
-glorious nor friendly, nor even so extremely liberal, as Devanampiyo's
-(Asoka's) injunction for the non-injury and content of living
-creatures.... And the Greek king besides by whom the kings of Egypt,
-Ptolemaios, Antigonus and Magas.... Both here and in foreign countries
-wherever they go, the religious ordinances of Devanampiyo effect
-conversion. Conquest is of every description, but the conquest that
-bringeth joy, springing from pleasant emotion, becometh joy itself. The
-victory of virtue is happiness. Such victory is desired in things of
-this world and things
-
-of the next world."<a name="FNanchor_583" id="FNanchor_583"></a><a href="#Footnote_583" class="fnanchor">[583]</a>
-In other copies of this edict the names of Antiochus and Alexander
-are found, making five well known names, and curiously enough all
-five are mentioned by Justin within a few lines of one another in the
-last chapter of his twenty-sixth book and the first chapter of his
-twenty-seventh book. There is thus no doubt who the kings were, nor of
-more than a year as to the date of this edict, which must have been
-within a year or so of 257 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span></p>
-
-<p>The great interest, however, for our present purpose is that an Indian
-emperor, in the middle of the third century before Christ, should be
-in a condition to form an alliance with Magas of Cyrene so near the
-African dolmen-field. As before mentioned (<i>ante</i>, p. 410), we are
-still very deficient in our knowledge of the Megalithic remains of this
-country; but we do know that they exist, and that those which have been
-illustrated are of a singularly Indian type. It is also nearly certain
-that many of the rock-cut chambers about his capital are monasteries or
-temples, not tombs, as has always been too hastily assumed. Whether,
-on further investigation, these will prove to be so essentially Indian
-as they at present appear to be, remains to be seen, but meanwhile the
-possibility of an alliance of this sort two or three centuries before
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_499" id="Page_499">[Pg 499]</a></span>
-
-Christ, takes away much of the improbability that would otherwise exist
-in assuming that Indian influence might have extended further westward
-at some subsequent period, and that the African dolmens might be proved
-to be allied to, and possibly contemporary with, those of India.</p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Buddhism in the West.</span></h3>
-
-<p>The great basis, however, on which any proof of the existence of
-a connexion between the East and West must eventually rest, will
-probably be found in the amount of pure Buddhism which crept into
-Christianity in the early age of the Church. The subject has not yet
-been fairly grappled with by any one capable of doing it justice. It
-has been frequently alluded to by travellers, who have been struck with
-resemblances which could hardly be accidental, and used sometimes by
-scoffers in order to depreciate Christianity; but no serious historian
-of the Latin Church has had sufficient knowledge of Buddhism or of its
-forms to be able to appreciate correctly either the extent or the cause
-of its introduction; and till some one does this, it will be treated by
-the general reader as an idle speculation. Yet it probably is not too
-much to assert, that at least nine-tenths of the institutions and forms
-which were engrafted on pure evangelical Christianity in the middle
-ages, are certainly derived from Buddhist sources.</p>
-
-<p>Of these, one of the most striking is the introduction of monastic
-institutions, which exercised so important an influence on the forms of
-Christianity during the whole period of the middle ages. It is in vain
-to look for their origin in anything that existed in Europe before the
-Christian era. Nothing can be more forced than the analogies it has
-been attempted to establish between the Vestal virgins and the nuns of
-the middle ages, and no trace of conventual life can be found among the
-semi-secular priesthood of classical times. According to the usually
-received opinion, Antony (<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 305<a name="FNanchor_584" id="FNanchor_584"></a><a href="#Footnote_584" class="fnanchor">[584]</a>)
-was the first monk, and from him and about his time a prolific progeny
-are traced to the Thebais, which is usually assumed to be the cradle
-of the institution. Monastic life was, however, absolutely antithetical
-to the religious institutions of the ancient Egyptians, amongst
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_500" id="Page_500">[Pg 500]</a></span>
-
-whom the king was high priest and god, and where civil could hardly
-be distinguished from religious rank. It was equally opposed to the
-feelings of the Arabic or at least Semitic races, that superseded the
-Coptic in that country, and could consequently hardly have existed at
-all, unless introduced from some foreign source and maintained by some
-extraneous influence. The Essenes are the only sect to whom in the
-ancient world in the West anything like the peculiar institutions of
-monasticism can be traced; but unfortunately we do not know how or when
-they adopted them. Josephus represents them as only one of the three
-principal sects into which the Jews in his time were divided; but the
-silence not only of the Bible but of the Rabbis weakens the force of
-his statement, while his unfortunate omission of the name of their Lawgiver<a name="FNanchor_585" id="FNanchor_585"></a><a href="#Footnote_585" class="fnanchor">[585]</a>
-leaves us in the dark on the most essential point. That it was not
-Moses, whose name is usually interpolated, is quite certain. He never
-inculcated any such doctrines, and one hardly dares to suggest the
-Indian name, which would clear up the whole mystery at once. Be this as
-it may, the sect only arose apparently in the time of the Maccabees,
-and practically disappeared with the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus;
-all which would accord perfectly with the hypothesis of their Indian
-origin, but would hardly suffice to support the idea that they were the
-sect from whom, in the fourth century, the Christian Church adopted the
-principles and practices of Asceticism.</p>
-
-<p>When from these sparse indications we turn to the East, we are met
-by the difficulty that none of the books we possess were reduced
-to writing in their present form till the time of Buddhaghosa,
-<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 412,<a name="FNanchor_586" id="FNanchor_586"></a><a href="#Footnote_586" class="fnanchor">[586]</a>
-or even later; and any one who knows what wild<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_501" id="Page_501">[Pg 501]</a></span> imaginings can in the fertile East creep into works during the
-remodellings of a thousand years, will easily understand with what
-caution they must be used. Fortunately in this instance the monuments
-and inscriptions come to our assistance, and we are enabled to form a
-fair idea of the progress of monasticism in India from what they tell
-us.</p>
-
-<p>Before the first monuments, the books tell us of three great
-convocations: the first held immediately on the death of the founder
-of the religion, <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 543, at Rajagriha; the second 100 years
-afterwards, at Vaisali; and the third by Asoka, 250 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, at
-Pataliputta, or Patna. These we are told were attended by thousand and
-tens of thousands of monks.<a name="FNanchor_587" id="FNanchor_587"></a><a href="#Footnote_587" class="fnanchor">[587]</a>
-But Asoka's edicts give no countenance to any such extension of the
-system in his day. Shortly after this, however, the earlier caves
-show cells appropriated to hermits, or even for the reunion of a
-limited number of monks under one roof. These Viharas or monasteries
-are small at first, and insignificant as compared with the Chaityas
-or church caves to which they are attached, as at Karlee, Baja, Bedsa
-and elsewhere; but shortly afterwards, at Nassick and Jooneer, in the
-first or second centuries they become more important; and when we reach
-such a series as that at Ajunta or Baug, for instance, we find the
-Vihara becoming all important, the Chaitya sinking into comparative
-insignificance. This great change took place apparently about the
-end of the third or beginning of the fourth century of our era, and
-continued till Buddhism actually perished, smothered under the weight
-of its enormously developed hierarchy some three centuries later.</p>
-
-<p>The sculptures tell the same story. There are no representations of
-priests in the form we afterwards find them in at Sanchi, in the first
-century of our era. Ascetics there are, dwelling in woods and lonely
-places, but not congregated in monasteries, nor jointly performing
-ceremonies. But at Amravati, three centuries later, we have shaven
-priests in their distinctive robes, and every symptom of a well
-developed system.</p>
-
-<p>If this is so, it could hardly have been before the era of the Roman
-Empire that these peculiar institutions penetrated to the West; nor
-could they have done so during its supremacy without attracting
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_502" id="Page_502">[Pg 502]</a></span>
-
-attention. But in the great "d&#233;bacle" which followed the change of
-the seat of government and the destruction of the old faith, it is
-easy to see how these forms may have crept in, together with the new
-Eastern faith, which an illiterate people were adopting, without much
-knowing whence it came, and without being able to discriminate what was
-Christian and what Buddhist in the forms or doctrines that were being
-presented to them.</p>
-
-<p>Among the peculiarities then introduced, one of the most remarkable
-was the segregation of the clergy from the laity, and the devotion
-of the former wholly to the performance of religious duties. Still
-more so was their seclusion in monasteries, living a life of the most
-self-denying asceticism, subsisting almost wholly on alms, and bound
-by vows of poverty, chastity and temperance, to a negation of all the
-ordinary enjoyments of life. That the two systems are identical no one
-has doubted, and no one, indeed, can enter now a Buddhist monastery in
-the East and watch the shaven priests in the yellow robes at matins, or
-at vespers, issue from their cells and range themselves on either side
-of a choir, on whose altar stands an image of the Queen of Heaven, or
-of the three precious Buddhas, and listen to their litanies, chanted
-in what to them is a dead or foreign tongue, without feeling that
-he is looking in the East on what is externally the same as he had
-long been familiar with in the West.<a name="FNanchor_588" id="FNanchor_588"></a><a href="#Footnote_588" class="fnanchor">[588]</a>
-If he follows these monks back to their cells and finds them governed
-by a mitred abbot, and subordinated as deacons, priests, and neophytes,
-learns that they are bound by vows of celibacy, live by alms, and spend
-their lives in a dull routine of contemplation and formal worship, he
-might almost fancy he was transported back into some Burgundian convent
-in the middle ages, unless he is prepared, like Huc and Gabet, to
-believe that it is a phantasm conjured up by the author of all evil for
-the confusion of mankind. We know from the form and arrangement of
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_503" id="Page_503">[Pg 503]</a></span>
-
-the great Chaitya caves, that these forms prevailed as early at least
-as the first century <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, and, as they are
-practised without change in the East to the present day, it seems clear
-that it is thence that they were introduced into Europe.</p>
-
-<p>Canonization is another remarkable institution common to the Buddhist
-and Christian Churches, and to them only. It has frequently been
-attempted to draw a parallel between the demigods of Greece and Rome
-and the institution of Saints in the medi&#230;val Church; but this argument
-has always failed, because in fact no two institutions could in their
-origin be more essentially different. The minor gods of the heathen
-pantheon, though sometimes remarkable for their prowess or virtues,
-were all more or less connected by ties of blood or marriage with the
-great Olympic family, and owed their rank rather to their descent than
-to their merits. It is true that in later times the deification of
-Roman emperors and others of that class, which the abject flattery of
-a corrupt age had introduced, was a nearer approach to the practice of
-Buddhism, which was then flourishing in the East, than anything before
-known in the pagan world. But canonization in its purity, as practised
-both in the East and West, is not to be attained through either birth
-or office, but by the practice of ascetic virtues on the part of the
-clergy, and by piety coupled with benefactions to the Church by those
-outside its pale. In these casteless institutions any man, however
-obscure his origin, by devotion to the interests of his adopted order,
-and the practice of the asceticism, heightened if possible by the
-endurance of self-inflicted tortures, might attain to Buddhahood or
-saintship. But such a path to adoration in this world, or to worship
-hereafter, was utterly unknown in Europe until it was introduced from
-the East, after the Christian era.</p>
-
-<p>Relic-worship is another peculiarity which the medi&#230;val Church
-certainly borrowed from the East. No tradition is more constant than
-that which relates that the relics of Buddha were, after cremation,
-divided into eight parts, and distributed to eight different
-kingdoms, and the history of some portions of these can be traced to
-comparatively modern times. Perhaps too much reliance should not be
-placed on these very early traditions, as no material evidence of
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_504" id="Page_504">[Pg 504]</a></span>
-
-them exists, nor in the often-repeated assertion that Asoka built
-84,000 dagobas,<a name="FNanchor_589" id="FNanchor_589"></a><a href="#Footnote_589" class="fnanchor">[589]</a>
-to receive relics. That he built several is quite certain. The fact of
-the relics of two of the favourite disciples of Buddha&mdash;Mogalana
-and Sariputra&mdash;and of ten of the principal dignitaries of the
-Buddhist Church in the time of Asoka having been found at Sanchi in
-topes certainly anterior to the Christian era, <a name="FNanchor_590" id="FNanchor_590"></a><a href="#Footnote_590" class="fnanchor">[590]</a>
-is quite sufficient for our present purpose. As is well known, the
-Tooth relic, whose history can be traced back with certainty for more
-than fifteen centuries, is now worshipped under British protection in
-Ceylon.</p>
-
-<p>No such form of worship existed in classical antiquity, nor is it quite
-clear how it came to be adopted by the Christian Church. Buddhism was
-a reform of a material, ancestral-worshipping, body-respecting form
-of religion. The sepulchral tumulus with them became in consequence a
-dagoba, or relic shrine, containing a bone, or a vessel, or rag, or
-something that belonged to Buddha or some of his followers; and all
-the grosser superstitions of the Turanian natives, whose faith he was
-trying to elevate and refine, were sublimated into something immaterial
-and more pure. But Christianity never could have wanted this, and its
-adoption of relic worship was either a piece of blind imitation adopted
-without thinking, among other things, for which there was more excuse,
-or it was one of the many instances of the toleration of foreign
-elements which characterized the Christian priesthood in the early age
-of the Church.</p>
-
-<p>It is as little clear when this worship was introduced as why it was
-done, for Christian legends in regard to relics are not more to be
-depended upon than those of the Buddhists. It could not have been
-common in the days of Clemens of Alexandria, or he would not have
-mentioned as a wonder that the Indians worshipped a bone enclosed in a
-pyramid;<a name="FNanchor_591" id="FNanchor_591"></a><a href="#Footnote_591" class="fnanchor">[591]</a>
-but shortly after Constantine's time the fashion became prevalent,
-and the miracles performed by the touch of relics became one of the
-favourite delusions of the middle ages. If this is correct, and we are
-justified in assuming that the Buddhism which we find in
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_505" id="Page_505">[Pg 505]</a></span>
-
-medi&#230;val Christianity was introduced after Constantine's time, we may
-take it for granted that any influence which the East exercised on the
-Western rude-stone monuments was also subsequent to that monarch's
-reign. If this is so, a considerable portion, at least, of those found
-in both countries must also belong to the dark ages that closed with
-the Crusades.</p>
-
-<p>It would be easy to go on multiplying instances of Eastern customs
-introduced into the Western Church were this the place to do it. All
-that is required here, however, is to adduce sufficient evidence to
-accentuate an assertion which no one, probably, who knows anything of
-the subject would be found to dispute. It is, that the medi&#230;val Church
-borrowed many of its forms from pre-existing Buddhism, and that these
-were introduced not before but after the time of Constantine. If,
-after having reached conviction on this point, we turn to our books to
-ascertain what light they throw on the subject, we find them absolutely
-silent. You may wade through all the writings of the Fathers, all the
-ponderous tomes of the Bollandists, without finding a trace, or even
-a hinted suspicion, that such a transference of doctrine took place.
-Except from one or two passages in Clemens of Alexandria, we should
-not be able to show that before the time of Constantine the nations
-of the West knew even the name of Buddha,<a name="FNanchor_592" id="FNanchor_592"></a><a href="#Footnote_592" class="fnanchor">[592]</a>
-much less anything of his doctrines. While this is so it is obviously
-idle to ask for written evidence with regard to the influence of either
-country on the architectural style of the other. Men write volumes
-on volumes with regard to doctrines and faiths, but rarely allude to
-anything that concerns mere buildings; and while written history is so
-absolutely silent respecting the introduction of Buddhist forms into
-the West, it is in vain to hope that any allusion will be found to the
-influence Eastern forms may have had on the sepulchral monuments of
-Northern Africa or Europe. In this case, the "litera scripta" is not
-to be depended upon, but the monuments and their inscriptions are, and
-it is from them and them only, that either correct dates or reliable
-materials for such an investigation can be obtained. So far as I am
-capable of forming an opinion, their evidence is amply sufficient, in
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_506" id="Page_506">[Pg 506]</a></span>
-
-the first place, to take away all <i>&#224; priori</i> improbability from the
-assumption that there may have been a direct influence exercised by
-the East on the Western rude-stone monuments. But it seems to me at
-the same time sufficient to render it extremely probable that while
-influencing to so great an extent the religious institutions of the
-country, they should also have modified their sepulchral forms so
-as fully to account for all the similarities which we find existing
-between them.</p>
-
-<p>It may not be possible, in the present state of our knowledge, to
-explain exactly how this influence was exercised, and we must,
-consequently, rest content with the fact that as Buddhism did so
-influence the religion of the West in those early ages, the same agency
-may equally have acted upon the architectural or sepulchral forms of
-the same class in our population.</p>
-
-<p>To explain this it is necessary to revert for a moment to a
-proposition I have often had occasion to advance, and have not yet
-seen refuted&mdash;that Buddhism is the religion of a Turanian race, using
-that word, as used by its inventors, in the broadest possible sense.
-The Persians say Iran and Turan, and Iran and Aniran, terms equivalent
-to our Aryan and non-Aryan; and Buddhism is not and never was, but
-exceptionally, the religion of the Aryan race, and is not now professed
-by any Aryan people in any quarter of the globe. It is essentially the
-faith of a quiescent, contemplative race, with no distinct idea of a
-god external to this world, or of a future state other than through
-transmigrations accomplished in this world, leading only to eternal
-repose hereafter; its followers, however, still believing in the direct
-influence of the temporarily-released spirits of their forefathers in
-guiding and controlling the destiny of their offspring, thus leading
-directly to ancestral worship. In India this primitive faith was
-refined and elevated into one of the most remarkable and beneficent of
-human institutions by the Aryan Sakya Muni and his Brahmin coadjutors,
-and did at one time nearly obliterate the Aryan faith which it
-superseded. After, however, a thousand years of apparent supremacy,
-the old faith came again to the surface and Buddhism disappeared from
-India, but still remains the only faith of all the Turanian nations
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_507" id="Page_507">[Pg 507]</a></span>
-
-around it and wherever the Aryan races never seem to have settled.</p>
-
-<p>If any Turanian blood remained in the veins of any of the various races
-who inhabited Europe in the middle ages, it is easy to understand how
-the preaching or doctrines of any Buddhist missionaries or Turanian
-tribes must have struck a responsive chord in their hearts, and how
-easily they would have adopted any new fashion these Easterns may have
-taught. As we have had occasion to point out above, the dolmen-builders
-of Europe certainly were not Aryan. Nor, if we may trust M. Bertrand
-and the best French antiquaries, were they Celts; but that an old
-pre-Celtic people did exist in those parts of France in which the
-dolmens are generally found appears to me indisputable. Though the more
-active and progressive Celts had commenced their obliteration of this
-undemonstrative people at the time when written history first began in
-their country, there is no reason to suppose that their blood or their
-race was entirely exterminated till a very recent period, and it may
-still have been numerically the prevalent ingredient in the population
-between the fourth and the tenth centuries of our era.</p>
-
-<p>Of course, it is not intended to assert or even to suggest that the
-Western nations first adopted from the East the practice of using stone
-to accentuate and adorn their sepulchral monuments. The whole evidence
-of the preceding pages contradicts such an assumption. But what they
-do seem to have borrowed is the use or abuse of holed stones, and the
-arrangement of external dolmens on the summit of tumuli combined with
-two or three circles of rude stones. These I fancy to have been among
-the latest of the forms which rude-stone architecture adopted, and may
-very well have been introduced in post-Constantinian times; and when we
-become more familiar with the peculiarities of these monuments, both in
-the East and the West, there may be other forms which we may recognize
-as modern and interchangeable, while many others, such as the great
-chambered tumuli and the tall solitary menhirs, seem as original and as
-peculiar to the West.</p>
-
-<p>Having now made the tour of the Old World, it will be convenient to
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_508" id="Page_508">[Pg 508]</a></span>
-
-try to resume, in as few words as possible, the principal results we
-have arrived at from the preceding investigation.</p>
-
-<p>First, with regard to their age. It seems that the uncivilized,
-ancestral-worshipping races of Europe first borrowed from the
-Romans&mdash;or, if any one likes, from the Ph&oelig;nicians or Greeks of
-Marseilles&mdash;the idea of using stone to accentuate and adorn the
-monuments of their dead. In like manner, it certainly was from the
-Bactrian Greeks that the Indians first learned the use of stone as a
-building material. How early the Eastern nations adopted it in its rude
-form we do not know. In its polished form it was used as early as the
-middle of the third century B.C., but we have no authentic instance
-of the rude form till at least a century or two after Christ; but,
-once introduced, its use continued to the present day. Its history
-in the West seems somewhat different. The great chambered tumuli at
-Gavr Innis, and others in France, as well as those at Lough Crew, in
-Ireland, seem to belong to a time before the Romans occupied the states
-of Western Europe; but no stone monument of this class has yet made
-out its claim to an antiquity of more than two centuries, if so much,
-before the Christian era. Some of those in Greece about Mycen&#230;, and
-those at Saturnia, may be earlier, but they are as yet undescribed
-scientifically, and we cannot tell. From shortly before the Christian
-era, till the countries in which they are found became entirely and
-essentially Christian, the use of these monuments seems to have been
-continual, whenever a dolmen-building race&mdash;or, in other words, a race
-with any taint of Turanian blood in their veins&mdash;continued to prevail.
-This, in remote corners of the world, seems to have extended in France
-and Britain down to the eighth or ninth century. In Scandinavia
-it lasted down to the eleventh or twelfth, and sporadically, in
-out-of-the-way and neglected districts, as late both in France and
-Great Britain.</p>
-
-<p>These results do not, of course, touch the age of the earthen tumuli
-or barrows, for the determination of whose age no scale has yet been
-invented; still less do they approach the question of the antiquity of
-the Cave men or the pal&#230;olithic stone implements, the age of which we
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_509" id="Page_509">[Pg 509]</a></span>
-
-must, for the present at least, leave wrapped in the mists of the long
-prehistoric past.</p>
-
-<p>Their uses seem more easily determined than their dates; with only a
-few rare and easily-recognizable exceptions, all seem originally to
-have been intended for sepulchral or cenotaphic purposes. Either, like
-the great chambered tumuli and the dolmens, they were actually the
-burying-places of the illustrious dead; or, like the greater circles
-and the alignments, they marked battle-fields, and were erected in
-honour of those slain there, whether their bodies were actually laid
-within their precincts or not; or, like the rude stone pillars of the
-Khassia hills, they were offerings to the spirits of the departed.</p>
-
-<p>With the fewest possible exceptions<a name="FNanchor_593" id="FNanchor_593"></a><a href="#Footnote_593" class="fnanchor">[593]</a>
-and these of the most insignificant character, their connexion with
-the relics of the dead can be proved from all having become places
-for ancestral worship and having under various forms been used for
-commemorating or honouring departed spirits. No single instance has
-been authenticated of either circles or dolmens in any other form,
-except perhaps single stones, having ever been used for the worship of
-Odin, or of the gods called Mercury, Mars, Venus, or the other gods of
-the Druids, still less is there any trace of the worship of the sun or
-moon or any of the heavenly host; nor, I am sorry to think, can the
-serpent lay claim to any temple of this class. Honour to the dead and
-propitiation of the spirits of the departed seem to have been the two
-leading ideas that both in the East and West gave rise to the erection
-of these hitherto mysterious structures which are found numerously
-scattered over the face of the Old World.</p>
-
-
-<div class="topspace1"></div>
-<div class="footnotes">
-<blockquote>
-<p class="footnote"><span class="smcap"><b>Footnotes</b></span></p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_531" id="Footnote_531"></a><a href="#FNanchor_531"><span class="label">[531]</span></a>
-'History of Architecture,' by the Author, ii. p. 459, fig. 968.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_532" id="Footnote_532"></a><a href="#FNanchor_532"><span class="label">[532]</span></a>
-'Caves of Baja and Bedsa in Western
-Gh&#226;ts;' unpublished.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_533" id="Footnote_533"></a><a href="#FNanchor_533"><span class="label">[533]</span></a>
-'Tree and Serpent Worship,' quotation
-from Hiouen Thsang, p. 135, and
-plates, <i>passim</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_534" id="Footnote_534"></a><a href="#FNanchor_534"><span class="label">[534]</span></a>
-'History of Architecture,' by the Author, ii. p. 649.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_535" id="Footnote_535"></a><a href="#FNanchor_535"><span class="label">[535]</span></a>
-'Architecture of Ahmedabad.' 120 photographs, with text. Murray, 1868.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_536" id="Footnote_536"></a><a href="#FNanchor_536"><span class="label">[536]</span></a>
-Yule, 'Mission to the Court of Ava,' p. 43, pl. ix.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_537" id="Footnote_537"></a><a href="#FNanchor_537"><span class="label">[537]</span></a>
-'J. A. S. B.,' vii. p. 930.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_538" id="Footnote_538"></a><a href="#FNanchor_538"><span class="label">[538]</span></a>
-'J. R. A. S.,' new series, iv. p. 88.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_539" id="Footnote_539"></a><a href="#FNanchor_539"><span class="label">[539]</span></a>
-'Tods Rajastan,' i. p. 224.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_540" id="Footnote_540"></a><a href="#FNanchor_540"><span class="label">[540]</span></a>
-The information regarding the
-Khonds is principally derived from a
-work entitled 'Memorials of Service,' by
-Major Charteris-Macpherson (Murray,
-1865), and his papers in 'J. R. A. S.'
-xiii. pp. 216 <i>et seq.</i> I quote by preference
-from the latter, as the more generally
-accessible.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_541" id="Footnote_541"></a><a href="#FNanchor_541"><span class="label">[541]</span></a>
-For several years past I have officially
-and privately been exerting all the
-influence I possess to try and get two
-bassi relievi that exist in these caves
-cast or photographed, or at least carefully
-copied in some form, but hitherto
-in vain. In 1869 the Government sent an
-expedition to Cuttack with draftsmen,
-photographers, &amp;c., but they knew so
-little what was wanted that they wasted
-their time and money in casting minarets
-and sculptures of no beauty or interest,
-and, having earned their pay, returned <i>re</i>
-<i>infecta</i>. I am not without hopes that something
-may be done during the present
-cold season. When representations are
-obtained, they will throw more light on
-the history of the Yavanas or Greeks in
-that remote part of India than anything
-else that could be done, and would clear
-up some points in the history of Indian
-art that are now very obscure.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_542" id="Footnote_542"></a><a href="#FNanchor_542"><span class="label">[542]</span></a>
-Sterling's account of Cuttack,
-'Asiatic Researches,' xv. p. 306.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_543" id="Footnote_543"></a><a href="#FNanchor_543"><span class="label">[543]</span></a>
-<i>Loc. s. c.</i> p. 315.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_544" id="Footnote_544"></a><a href="#FNanchor_544"><span class="label">[544]</span></a>
-Tacitus' 'Germania,' 9.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_545" id="Footnote_545"></a><a href="#FNanchor_545"><span class="label">[545]</span></a>
-H. Walters, 1828, 'Asiatic Researches,'
-xvii. pp. 499 <i>et seq.</i> Colonel
-Yule, 'Proceedings, Soc. of Antiq. Scot.'
-i. p. 92. Hooker's 'Himalayan Journals,' ii.
-p. 276. Major Godwin Austen, 'Journal
-Anthropological Institute,' vol. i. Part II.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_546" id="Footnote_546"></a><a href="#FNanchor_546"><span class="label">[546]</span></a>
-Schlagintweit, in 'Ausland,' No. 23, 1870, pp. 530 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_547" id="Footnote_547"></a><a href="#FNanchor_547"><span class="label">[547]</span></a>
-'Asiatic Researches,' xvii. p. 502.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_548" id="Footnote_548"></a><a href="#FNanchor_548"><span class="label">[548]</span></a>
-Major Godwin Austen, 'Journal Anthrop. Institute,' i. p. 127.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_549" id="Footnote_549"></a><a href="#FNanchor_549"><span class="label">[549]</span></a>
-'Journal Anthrop. Inst.' i. p. 126.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_550" id="Footnote_550"></a><a href="#FNanchor_550"><span class="label">[550]</span></a>
-'M&#233;moires sur les Contr&#233;es occidentales,' iii. p. 76.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_551" id="Footnote_551"></a><a href="#FNanchor_551"><span class="label">[551]</span></a>
-Colonel Forbes Leslie, 'Early Races
-of Scotland,' vol. ii. pls. lviii. lix. lx. They
-have also been described by Dr. Stevenson,
-'J. R. A. S.' v. pp. 192 <i>et seq.</i> It
-would be extremely interesting, in an
-ethnographic point of view, if some
-further information could be obtained
-regarding these stone rows.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_552" id="Footnote_552"></a><a href="#FNanchor_552"><span class="label">[552]</span></a>
-'Early Races of Scotland,' ii. 459.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_553" id="Footnote_553"></a><a href="#FNanchor_553"><span class="label">[553]</span></a>
-'J. R. A. S.' xiii. p. 268.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_554" id="Footnote_554"></a><a href="#FNanchor_554"><span class="label">[554]</span></a>
-I quote from a paper by him, published
-in the 'Trans. R. Irish Academy,'
-xxiv. pp. 329 <i>et seq.</i> There is an earlier
-paper by him in the 'J. B. B. R. A. S.'
-vol. iii. p. 179, but it is superseded by the
-later publication.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_555" id="Footnote_555"></a><a href="#FNanchor_555"><span class="label">[555]</span></a>
-'Proceedings, Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1868,' p. 152.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_556" id="Footnote_556"></a><a href="#FNanchor_556"><span class="label">[556]</span></a>
-'International Prehistoric Congress,' Norwich volume, p. 200.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_557" id="Footnote_557"></a><a href="#FNanchor_557"><span class="label">[557]</span></a>
-'International Prehistoric Congress,'
-Norwich volume, p. 245.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_558" id="Footnote_558"></a><a href="#FNanchor_558"><span class="label">[558]</span></a>
-'J. R. A. S.' new series, iii. p. 143.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_559" id="Footnote_559"></a><a href="#FNanchor_559"><span class="label">[559]</span></a>
-'International Prehistoric Congress,'
-Norwich volume, p. 257.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_560" id="Footnote_560"></a><a href="#FNanchor_560"><span class="label">[560]</span></a>
-Published on a reduced scale, 'Tree
-and Serpent Worship,' p. xlvi.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_561" id="Footnote_561"></a><a href="#FNanchor_561"><span class="label">[561]</span></a>
-The principal sources of information
-on the subject are the papers of Sir
-Walter Elliot and Col. Meadows Taylor,
-so often referred to above. But I am
-also indebted to Mr. M. J. Walhouse,
-M.C.S., for a great amount of valuable
-information on the subject. His private
-letters to me are replete with details
-which if he would only consent to
-arrange and publish would throw a
-flood of light on the subject.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_562" id="Footnote_562"></a><a href="#FNanchor_562"><span class="label">[562]</span></a>
-Norwich volume, 'International Prehistoric
-Congress,' pp. 252 <i>et seq.</i> He
-places the destruction of the Karumbers as
-early as the seventh century, but the dates
-are, to say the least, often very doubtful.
-When, for instance, Hiouen Thsang visited
-Conjeveran in 640&mdash;the Buddhist establishment&mdash;they
-were still flourishing,
-and no signs apparent of the storm,
-which did not, I fancy, break out till at
-least a century after that time. See also
-'The Seven Pagodas,' by Capt. Carr,
-Madras, 1869, p. 127.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_563" id="Footnote_563"></a><a href="#FNanchor_563"><span class="label">[563]</span></a>
-Second Report by the Rev. W.
-Taylor, 'Madras Lit. Jour.' vii. p. 311
-<i>et passim</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_564" id="Footnote_564"></a><a href="#FNanchor_564"><span class="label">[564]</span></a>
-Caldwell's 'Dravidian Grammar,'
-pp. 9 <i>et seq.</i> 'The Tribes of the Nilgiri
-Hills,' by a German missionary (Madras,
-1856)&mdash;the Rev. F. Metz, who probably
-knows more of their language than any
-one now living. Mr. Walhouse's letters
-are also strong on this point.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_565" id="Footnote_565"></a><a href="#FNanchor_565"><span class="label">[565]</span></a>
-See 'Rock-cut Temples,' by the
-Author, p. 50.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_566" id="Footnote_566"></a><a href="#FNanchor_566"><span class="label">[566]</span></a>
-Sir Walter Elliot, 'J. R. A. S.' iv. pp. 7 <i>et seq.</i>; and new series, i. 250.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_567" id="Footnote_567"></a><a href="#FNanchor_567"><span class="label">[567]</span></a>
-Sir W. Elliot, 'Journal Ethnological Soc.,' new series, 1869, p. 110.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_568" id="Footnote_568"></a><a href="#FNanchor_568"><span class="label">[568]</span></a>
-Lieut. Cole, R.E., has brought home a cast of the upper part of this pillar,
-which is now at the South Kensington Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_569" id="Footnote_569"></a><a href="#FNanchor_569"><span class="label">[569]</span></a>
-'Journal Asiatic Soc. Bengal,' vii.
-p. 629.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_570" id="Footnote_570"></a><a href="#FNanchor_570"><span class="label">[570]</span></a>
-The crack and bend in the upper
-part of the pillar are caused by a cannon
-shot, the dent of which is distinctly
-visible on the opposite side. I hope it
-was not fired by the English, but I do
-not know who else would, or could, have
-done it.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_571" id="Footnote_571"></a><a href="#FNanchor_571"><span class="label">[571]</span></a>
-Hooker's 'Himalayan Journals,' ii.
-p. 310. Percy's 'Metallurgy: Iron and
-Steel,' p. 254 <i>et seq.</i> All the original
-authorities will be found referred to in
-the last-named work.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_572" id="Footnote_572"></a><a href="#FNanchor_572"><span class="label">[572]</span></a>
-Josephus, 'Bell. Jud.,' v. p. 6.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_573" id="Footnote_573"></a><a href="#FNanchor_573"><span class="label">[573]</span></a>
-'Journal Madras Lit. Soc.' xiv. pl. 8.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_574" id="Footnote_574"></a><a href="#FNanchor_574"><span class="label">[574]</span></a>
-'J. A. S. B.' xxxvii. p. 116 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_575" id="Footnote_575"></a><a href="#FNanchor_575"><span class="label">[575]</span></a>
-An elaborate paper by the Rev. Mr.
-Joyce, in the 'Arch&#230;ological Journal,'
-108, 1870, shows, I think clearly, that
-these crosses could not be earlier than 470
-<span class="smcap">A.D.</span>&mdash;all the crosses he quotes being of
-the usual Greek form, though possessing
-one longer limb. Indeed, I do not myself
-know of any crosses like those at Nirmul
-earlier than the 10th or 11th century;
-but, as my knowledge of the subject
-is not profound, I have allowed the
-widest possible margin in the text. I
-cannot prove it, but my impression is,
-that they belong to the 11th or 12th
-century.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_576" id="Footnote_576"></a><a href="#FNanchor_576"><span class="label">[576]</span></a>
-As it is wholly beside the object of
-this work I have not attempted to go
-into the history of the Siganfu Tables,
-nor the records of the early churches in
-the East. If the reader cares to know
-more, he will find the subject fully and
-clearly discussed in Col. Yule's 'Cathay,
-and the Way Thither,' published by the
-Hakluyt Society, 1866. It is the last
-work on the subject, and contains references
-to all the earlier ones.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_577" id="Footnote_577"></a><a href="#FNanchor_577"><span class="label">[577]</span></a>
-'J. R. A. S.,' xiii. 164 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_578" id="Footnote_578"></a><a href="#FNanchor_578"><span class="label">[578]</span></a>
-Wilson's 'Ariana Antiqua,' Introduction <i>passim</i>.
-Cunningham, 'Bhilsa Topes,'
-&amp;c., <i>passim</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_579" id="Footnote_579"></a><a href="#FNanchor_579"><span class="label">[579]</span></a>
-Hiouen Thsang, 'Vie et Voyages,' p. 77.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_580" id="Footnote_580"></a><a href="#FNanchor_580"><span class="label">[580]</span></a>
-'Madras Journal of Lit. and Science,' xiii. pl. 14.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_581" id="Footnote_581"></a><a href="#FNanchor_581"><span class="label">[581]</span></a>
-'Tree and Serpent Worship,' p. 82, woodcut 8.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_582" id="Footnote_582"></a><a href="#FNanchor_582"><span class="label">[582]</span></a>
-'Foe Kou&#233; Ki,' p. 335.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_583" id="Footnote_583"></a><a href="#FNanchor_583"><span class="label">[583]</span></a>
-'J.R.A.S.' xii. p. 233. 'J.B.A.S.' vii. p. 261 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_584" id="Footnote_584"></a><a href="#FNanchor_584"><span class="label">[584]</span></a>
-Gibbon, 'Decline and Fall,' iv. p. 392, where the original authorities are found.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_585" id="Footnote_585"></a><a href="#FNanchor_585"><span class="label">[585]</span></a>
-Josephus, 'B. J.,' II. viii. p. 9.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_586" id="Footnote_586"></a><a href="#FNanchor_586"><span class="label">[586]</span></a>
-"The prestige of such a witness as
-Buddhaghosa soon dwindles away, and
-his statements as to kings and councils
-800 years before his time are, in truth,
-worth no more than the stories told of
-Arthur, by Geoffrey of Monmouth, or
-the accounts we read in Livy of the
-early history of Rome"&mdash;<i>Chips from a
-German Workshop</i>, i. p. 198. As a mere
-linguist, and dependent wholly on books,
-Max M&#252;ller was perfectly justified in
-making this statement, while his ignorance
-of everything connected with the
-arch&#230;ology or art of India, prevented
-his perceiving how these wild statements
-could be verified or controlled. Till he
-learns that there are other means of
-investigation than mere words his statements
-on these subjects are untrustworthy,
-and, in many cases, absolutely
-worthless.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_587" id="Footnote_587"></a><a href="#FNanchor_587"><span class="label">[587]</span></a>
-Turnour's 'Mahawanso,' 12 <i>et seq.</i> 'J. A. S. B.,' vii. <i>passim</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_588" id="Footnote_588"></a><a href="#FNanchor_588"><span class="label">[588]</span></a>
-Huc and Gabet, in their 'Travels in
-Thibet,' give a most amusing account of
-their bewilderment on observing there
-these things:&mdash;"La crosse, la mitre, la
-dalmatique, la chape ou pluvial, que les
-grands Lamas portent en voyage, ou
-lorsqu'ils font quelque c&#233;r&#233;monie hors du
-temple; l'office des deux ch&oelig;urs, la
-psalmodie, les exorcismes, l'encensoir
-soutenu par cinque chaines, et pouvant
-s'ouvrir et se fermer &#224; volont&#233;; les
-b&#233;n&#233;dictions donn&#233;es par les Lamas, en
-&#233;tendant la main droite sur la t&#234;te des
-fid&#232;les; le chapelet, le c&#233;libat ecclesiastique,
-les retraites spirituelles, le
-culte des saints, les je&#251;nes, les processions,
-les litanies, l'eau b&#233;nite: voil&#224; autant
-des rapports que les Bouddhistes ont
-avec nous."&mdash;Vol. ii. p. 110.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_589" id="Footnote_589"></a><a href="#FNanchor_589"><span class="label">[589]</span></a>
-'Mahavanso,' p. 26.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_590" id="Footnote_590"></a><a href="#FNanchor_590"><span class="label">[590]</span></a>
-Cunningham, 'Bhilsa Topes,' p. 289 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_591" id="Footnote_591"></a><a href="#FNanchor_591"><span class="label">[591]</span></a>
-Clemens, i. 194. Oxford, 1715.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_592" id="Footnote_592"></a><a href="#FNanchor_592"><span class="label">[592]</span></a>
-Clemens, i. 132. Translation by Potter, <i>ut sup.</i> p. 504.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_593" id="Footnote_593"></a><a href="#FNanchor_593"><span class="label">[593]</span></a>
-The accidental resemblance of the
-microlithic temples of the Deccan mentioned
-above (<a href="#Page_467">p. 467</a>) can hardly be
-quoted as an exception. They are said
-to be dedicated to Vetal, but it is not
-clear that the stones of the circle do
-not represent dead, as they certainly
-do absent persons, and the sacrifice, after
-all, is offered up to their departed spirits;
-it being a form of the present day we do
-not know how much its spirit may not
-be changed from the ancient rite which
-it was originally intended to typify.</p>
-</div>
-
-</blockquote>
-</div>
-
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_510" id="Page_510">[Pg 510]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.</a><br />
-<span class="small">AMERICA.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">If</span> this work had any pretension to being a complete history or
-statistical account of the Rude Monuments of the world, it might be
-necessary to describe somewhat in detail, and to illustrate those of
-the New World as well as those of the Old. In the form that it has now
-taken, however, nothing more is required than to point out as briefly
-as possible what the American monuments really are, with sufficient
-detail to show whether they have or have not any connexion with those
-we have been describing, and to point out what bearing&mdash;if any&mdash;their
-peculiarities may have on the main argument of this work.</p>
-
-<p>In so far as the rude monuments of North America are concerned, there
-is fortunately no difficulty in speaking with confidence. In the
-first volume of the 'Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge,'<a name="FNanchor_594" id="FNanchor_594"></a><a href="#Footnote_594" class="fnanchor">[594]</a>
-the Americans possess a detailed description of their antiquities of
-this class such as no nation in Europe can boast of. The survey was
-carefully and scientifically carried out by Messrs. Squier and Davis,
-to whom it was entrusted. The text is tersely and clearly written,
-mere theories or speculations are avoided, and the plates are clearly
-and carefully engraved. If we had such a work on our own antiquities
-we should long ago have known all about them; but unfortunately there
-are no Smithsons in this country, and among our thousand and one
-millionaires, to whom the expense would be a flea-bite, there is not
-one who has the knowledge requisite to enable him to appreciate the
-value of such a survey, nor consequently the liberality sufficient to
-induce him to incur the expense necessary for its execution.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_511" id="Page_511">[Pg 511]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">North America.</span></h3>
-
-<p>With this work before us, we feel justified in making the assertion
-that there are no rude-stone monuments on the continent of North
-America. There are extensive earth works of nearly all the classes
-found in the Old World, and some&mdash;especially the animal forms&mdash;which
-are peculiar to the New.</p>
-
-<p>These earthworks Messrs. Squier and Davis classify as follows (page
-7):&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>
-<span style="margin-left:1em;">1. Enclosures for defence.</span><br />
-<span style="margin-left:1em;">2. Sacred and miscellaneous enclosures.</span><br />
-<span style="margin-left:1em;">3. Mounds of sacrifice.</span><br />
-<span style="margin-left:1em;">4. Mounds of sepulture.</span><br />
-<span style="margin-left:1em;">5. Temple mounds.</span><br />
-<span style="margin-left:1em;">6. Animal mounds.</span>
-</p>
-
-<p>With the first we have nothing to do: they are similar to those erected
-everywhere and in all ages of the world. They consist of a ditch, the
-earth taken in forming which is thrown up on its inner side, so as to
-form an obstacle to the advance of an enemy, and to become a shelter to
-the defenders. Some of these in America are of great extent, and show
-not only considerable proficiency in the art of defence, but indicate
-the presence of an extensive and settled population. The so-called
-"sacred enclosures" are not only numerous and extensive, but are unlike
-anything met with elsewhere. In Ross county alone our authors state
-that there are 100 at least of various sizes, and in the State of Ohio
-1000 to 1500, some of them enclosing areas from 100 to 200 acres in
-extent.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration227"></a>
-<img src="images/i_227.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">227.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Enclosure in Newark Works.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Their typical form will be understood from the annexed woodcut. All
-seem to have a forecourt either square or octagonal in form, with 4
-or 8 entrances to it, and beyond this is a circle generally quite
-complete, and entered only by a passage or opening from the forecourt.
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_512" id="Page_512">[Pg 512]</a></span>
-
-These are enclosed by earthen mounds varying from 5 to 30 feet in
-height, with the ditch almost invariably on the inside.</p>
-
-<p>The last peculiarity is in itself, as in the case of the English
-circles, quite sufficient to preclude the idea of their being
-fortifications or meant for defence, and they certainly are not
-sepulchral in any sense in which we understand the term. In the first
-place, because we know perfectly what the sepulchres of these people
-were, from the thousands and tens of thousands of tumuli which dot the
-plains everywhere; but also because, unlike the English circles, which
-are as a rule found in the most remote and barren spots, these American
-enclosures as generally occupy the flattest and richest spots in the
-country. They are most frequently situated near the rivers, and on the
-natural lines of communication; so much so indeed that many of the
-cities of the present occupants of the country stand on the same spots
-and within the enclosures of the earlier races who raised these mounds.</p>
-
-<p>We are thus left to the choice between two hypotheses. Either they
-are sacred enclosures, as suggested by our authors, or they are royal
-residences&mdash;temples or palaces.</p>
-
-<p>All the arguments, derived from its excessive size, that were urged
-against Avebury being a temple, apply with redoubled force to these
-American enclosures. Temples occupying 50 to 100 acres are certainly
-singular anomalies when we try to realise what these admeasurements
-imply. Our largest square, Lincoln's Inn Fields, occupies only 12
-acres; the Green Park is 53; and all our parks together do not occupy
-the same space as the Newark enclosures, which, according to Messrs.
-Squier and Davis, cover more than four square miles.<a name="FNanchor_595" id="FNanchor_595"></a><a href="#Footnote_595" class="fnanchor">[595]</a>
-Yet all these are circles and squares with connecting lines, and all
-with inside ditches. Temples of these dimensions, without divisions, or
-enclosures, or mounds, or permanent works of any kind, are anomalies
-difficult to understand, and must belong to some religion of which I,
-at least, have no knowledge; and no one, so far as I know, has yet
-suggested what that religion was, nor how these vast spaces could be
-utilized for any religious purpose.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_513" id="Page_513">[Pg 513]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>If we adopt the idea that they were the residences of the chiefs of
-the people, the mystery does not seem so great. If the circular wigwam
-of the chief was erected in the centre of the circles, and the wigwams
-of his subordinates and retainers in concentric circles around him,
-it would account for their dimensions, and also for the disappearance
-of all traces of habitation. The forecourt would thus be the place of
-assembly of the tribe, the exercise ground or gymnasium, and for such
-purposes it is admirably adapted, and both the size and the situation
-of these enclosures seem easily explicable.</p>
-
-<p>One curious circumstance tends to render this view more tenable. On
-plate xxi. of Messrs. Squier and Davis's work four groups of squares
-with circles are delineated, situated in different parts of the
-country; but all the four squares are almost identical in size, each
-side measuring 1080 feet. Why four temples should be exactly alike is a
-mystery, but that a tetrarchy of chiefs should be bound down to equal
-dimensions for their rival residences seems reasonable from a civil
-point of view.</p>
-
-<p>It does not seem difficult to explain the meaning of the inside ditch
-when fortification was not intended, as it must have been almost a
-necessity with a people who had not arrived at the elevation of using
-brick drains or drain-pipes. Without some such arrangement all the
-rain that fell within these solid enclosures would have remained on
-the surface, or in the squares could only have escaped through the
-openings, but a deep and broad ditch all round would drain the whole
-surface without inconvenience, and secure the only mode which would
-prevent the enclosure, be it a temple or palace, from becoming a swamp.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>Messrs. Squier and Davis divide the conical mounds which they excavated
-into two classes. The first they call "Mounds of sacrifice," because
-on digging into them they found on the level of the soil what appeared
-to be altars&mdash;raised floors which exhibited evidence of intense heat,
-and what they considered a long-continued practice of burning. It is
-evident, however, that such results might be produced in a week as well
-as in years, and it is very difficult to understand why at any time
-that which had been an altar should be buried in a tumulus. If it had
-been used for years, why, and on what occasion, was it agreed to bury
-it? If it was the funereal pyre of some chief, and used for burning
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_514" id="Page_514">[Pg 514]</a></span>
-
-sacrifices for the time the funeral services lasted, and was then
-buried, the case is intelligible enough, but the other hypothesis is
-certainly not easy of explanation.</p>
-
-<p>The true "Sepulchral mounds" are, as before mentioned, immensely
-numerous, and of all sizes, from a few feet up to such as the Grave
-Creek mound, 70 feet high and 1000 feet in circumference, or that at
-Miamisburgh, 68 feet high, and 852 feet in circumference at its base.
-The dead were buried in them apparently without coffins or cists,
-unless of wood, and generally in the contracted doubled-up position
-found so frequently in Scandinavia and in Algeria.</p>
-
-<p>The "Temple mounds" are generally square or oblong truncated pyramids,
-with inclined planes leading up to them on three and frequently on all
-four sides. They are in fact in earth the same form as the Teocallis
-of the Mexicans, though the latter seem always to have been in stone.
-Whether in the one material or the other, they are of a perfectly
-intelligible templar form. If a human sacrifice or any great ceremonial
-is to take place before all the people, the first requisite is an
-elevated platform where the ministrants can stand above the heads of
-the crowd, and be seen by all; and the absence of this in the Ohio
-and in our English circles is one of the most fatal objections to the
-temple theory. In one or two instances a single earthen Teocalli is
-found within the circles, but this no further militates against the
-supposition that they were residences than the presence of a chapel or
-place of worship in any of our palaces would prove them to be temples
-also. It must, however, be borne in mind that it is always difficult to
-draw a hard and fast line between the House of God and the Palace of
-the King. In Egypt it is never possible, and in the middle ages royal
-monasteries and royal residences were frequently interchangeable terms.
-We should not therefore feel surprised if, in America, we found the
-one fading into the other. But, on the whole, the enormous number of
-these circular enclosures&mdash;1000 and 1500 in one State&mdash;their immense
-size, 100 and 200 acres being not unfrequent, and the general absence
-of all signs of preparations for worship, seem sufficient to prove that
-they must be classed among civil and not among sacred erections. This
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_515" id="Page_515">[Pg 515]</a></span>
-
-seems to be the case even though sometimes three or four temple mounds
-are found together surrounded by a rampart just sufficient to enclose
-them with the necessary space for circulation all round; in which case,
-however, it is evident that they have passed the line separating the
-two divisions, and may, probably must, be classified as really sacred
-enclosures. These are generally found in the South, in Texas, and in
-the States most nearly bordering on Mexico, which looks as if they
-belonged to another race more nearly allied to the Toltecs or Aztecs
-than to the northern tribes.</p>
-
-<p>The only remaining class of mounds are those representing "Animals,"
-to which plates xxxv. to xliv. of Messrs. Squier and Davis's book are
-devoted. One of these, our authors have no doubt, represents a serpent
-700 feet long as he lies with his tail curled up into a spiral form,
-and his mouth gaping to swallow an egg (?) 160 feet long by 60 feet
-across. This at first sight looks so like one of Stukeley's monstrous
-inventions that the first impulse is to reject it as an illusion on the
-part of the surveyors. When, however, we bear in mind that the American
-mound-builders did represent not only men, but animals, quadrupeds,
-and lizards, in the same manner, and on the same relative scale, all
-improbability vanishes. At the same time the simple fact that the form
-is so easily recognisable here is in itself sufficient to prove that
-our straight-lined stone rows were not erected with any such intention,
-and could only be converted into Dracontia by the most perverted
-imagination.</p>
-
-<p>Though therefore we may assume that this mound really represents a
-serpent, it by no means follows that it was an idol or was worshipped.
-It seems to represent an action&mdash;the swallowing of something, but
-whether a globe or a grave is by no means clear, and must be left for
-further investigation. It is, however, only by taking it in connection
-with the other animal mounds in America that we can hope to arrive at a
-solution. They were not apparently objects of worship, and seem to have
-no connexion with anything found in the Old World.</p>
-
-<p>The other mounds representing quadrupeds are quite unmistakable: they
-are a freak of this people whoever they were. But it seems difficult to
-explain why they should take this Brobdignagian way of representing the
-animals they possessed, or were surrounded by. If we knew more of the
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_516" id="Page_516">[Pg 516]</a></span>
-
-people, or of their affinities, perhaps the solution would be easy; at
-present it hardly interests us, as we have no analogue in Europe.<a name="FNanchor_596" id="FNanchor_596"></a><a href="#Footnote_596" class="fnanchor">[596]</a></p>
-
-<p>It only now remains to try and ascertain if any connexion exists
-or existed between these American monuments and those of the Old
-World; and what light, if any, their examination may be expected to
-throw on the problems discussed in the preceding chapters. If it is
-wished to establish anything like a direct connexion between the two
-continents, we must go back to the far distant prehistoric times when
-the conformations of land and water were different from what they
-now are. No one, I presume, will be found to contend that, since the
-continents took their present shape, any migration across the Atlantic
-took place in such numbers as to populate the land, or to influence the
-manners or customs of the people previously existing there. It may be
-that the Scandinavians did penetrate in the tenth or eleventh centuries
-to Vinland, by the way of Greenland, and so anticipated the discovery
-of Columbus by some centuries;<a name="FNanchor_597" id="FNanchor_597"></a><a href="#Footnote_597" class="fnanchor">[597]</a>
-but this is only a part of that world-pervading energy of the Aryan
-races, and has nothing whatever to do with the people of the tumuli.
-If any connexion really existed between the Old and the New World, in
-anything like historic times, everything would lead us to believe that
-it took place <i>vi&#226;</i> Behring Strait or the Aleutian Islands. It
-seems reasonable to suppose that the people who covered the Siberian
-Steppes with tumuli may have migrated across the calm waters of the
-Upper Pacific, and gradually extended themselves down to Wisconsin
-and Ohio, and there left these memorials we now find. It may also be
-admitted that the same Asiatic people may have spread westward from the
-original hive, and been the progenitors of those who covered our plains
-with barrows, but beyond this no connexion seems to be traceable which
-would account for anything we
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_517" id="Page_517">[Pg 517]</a></span>
-
-find. Nowhere, however, in America do these people ever seem to have
-risen to the elevation of using even rude stones to adorn their tombs
-or temples. Nor do they appear to have been acquainted with the use of
-iron or of bronze; all the tools found in their tombs being of pure
-unalloyed native copper&mdash;both of which circumstances seem to separate
-these American mound-builders entirely from our rude-stone people in
-anything like historic times.</p>
-
-<p>Unfortunately, also, the study of the manners and customs of the
-Redmen, who occupied North America when we first came in contact with
-them, is not at all likely to throw any light on the subject. They
-have never risen beyond the condition of hunters, and have no settled
-places of abode, and possess no works of art. The mound-builders, on
-the contrary, were a settled people, certainly pastoral, probably to
-some extent even agricultural; they had fixed well chosen unfortified
-abodes, altogether exhibiting a higher state of civilization than we
-have any reason to suppose the present race of Redmen ever reached or
-are capable of reaching.</p>
-
-<p>Although, therefore, it seems in vain to look on the Red Indians who
-in modern times occupied the territories of Ohio and Wisconsin as the
-descendants of the mound-builders, there are tribes on the west coast
-of America that probably are, or rather were, very closely allied to
-them. The Hydahs and the natives inhabiting Vancouver's Island and
-Queen Charlotte's Sound seem both from their physical condition, and
-more so from their works of art, to be just such a people as one would
-expect the mound-builders to have been. If this is so, it again points
-to Northern Asia, and not to Europe, as the country where we must
-look for the origin of this mysterious people; and it is there, I am
-convinced, if anywhere, that the solution of our difficulties with
-regard to this phase of North American civilization is to be found.</p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Central America.</span></h3>
-
-<p>When we advance a little farther south, we meet in Mexico and Yucatan
-with phenomena which are the exact converse of those in Ohio and
-Wisconsin. There everything is in stone; earth either never being
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_518" id="Page_518">[Pg 518]</a></span>
-
-used, or, if employed at all, it was only as a core to what was faced
-or intended to be faced with the more durable material. There is one
-fact, however, which takes the Mexican monuments entirely out of the
-category of the works contemplated in this book. All the stones in
-Central America are carved. So far as is known, no rude stones were
-ever set up there, even the obelisks which stand alone, and look most
-like our menhirs in outline, are, like the Babas of the Steppes, all
-carved, most of them elaborately; and though it may be true that they
-may, at some remote period, have been derived from some such rude
-originals as are found in Europe, still till we find some traces of
-these in Central America they cannot be said to belong to the class
-of monuments of which we are now treating; nor can they be used as
-affording any analogies or illustrations which it would be worth while
-citing in this place.</p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Peru.</span></h3>
-
-<p>The same remarks apply to what we find in Peru with equal force, but
-not with equal distinctness. No one will, I presume, contend that there
-was any direct communication between Europe and the west coast of South
-America before the time of Columbus. Yet there are similarities between
-the masonry of the Peruvian monuments and those of the Pelasgi in
-Greece and Tyrrheni in Italy which are most striking, and can only be
-accounted for, at present, on the assumption that nations in the same
-stage of civilization, and using similar materials, arrive nearly at
-the same results. Perhaps we ought to add to this, provided they have
-some taint of the same blood in their veins; and that, in this case,
-does not seem absolutely improbable.</p>
-
-<p>Be this as it may, there are, so far as I know, no rude-stone monuments
-in Southern America. The ruins, for instance, of Tia Huanaco, which
-have often been quoted for their similarity to "Druidical remains,"
-are as far removed as possible from that category. It is true that
-there are rows of squared stones that now stand apart, and in imperfect
-drawings look like our menhirs enclosing a square or circular space.
-In reality, however, as we learn from photographs, they are carefully
-squared stones, which formed pilasters in walls constructed with
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_519" id="Page_519">[Pg 519]</a></span>
-
-Adobes, or imperfectly burned bricks, or smaller stones which have been
-removed.<a name="FNanchor_598" id="FNanchor_598"></a><a href="#Footnote_598" class="fnanchor">[598]</a>
-The doorways which led into this enclosure are hewn out
-of a single block of stone, and are more carefully cut and polished
-than anything else to be found anywhere out of Egypt, and there only in
-the best days of her great Pharaohs.</p>
-
-<p>The same remarks may apply to the circles and squares illustrated by
-Mr. Squier.<a name="FNanchor_599" id="FNanchor_599"></a><a href="#Footnote_599" class="fnanchor">[599]</a>
-I may be mistaken, but my impression is that like Houel's Druidical
-circles in Gozo, above alluded to, they are only the foundation courses
-of square and circular buildings, the upper parts of which have
-perished. At all events, till they are excavated, or some traditional
-or real use is found for them, I should be very unwilling to base any
-argument on their accidental similarity with our stone circles.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>There can be no doubt that these earthen mounds and primitive carved
-stones of the American continent form in themselves a most interesting
-group of monuments, well deserving more attention than has yet been
-bestowed upon them, and that, when properly investigated, they will
-throw more light on the origin and migrations of the various aboriginal
-races of that country than can be expected from any other source.
-They are not, however, of the class we are treating of, nor do they
-seem to have any direct connexion with those of the Old World. As,
-besides this, their examination does not promise to solve any of our
-difficulties, they do not necessarily occupy an extended space in
-a work devoted to the elucidation of the Use and Age of Rude-Stone
-Monuments.</p>
-
-
-<div class="topspace1"></div>
-<div class="footnotes">
-<blockquote>
-<p class="footnote"><span class="smcap"><b>Footnotes</b></span></p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_594" id="Footnote_594"></a><a href="#FNanchor_594"><span class="label">[594]</span></a>
-'Ancient Monuments in the Mississippi Valley;' Philadelphia, 1847.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_595" id="Footnote_595"></a><a href="#FNanchor_595"><span class="label">[595]</span></a>
-'Ancient Monuments,' &amp;c., p. 49. Hyde Park, including Kensington Gardens,
-occupies about one square mile.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_596" id="Footnote_596"></a><a href="#FNanchor_596"><span class="label">[596]</span></a>
-I cannot help fancying that the
-great animals in stone that line the
-avenues leading to the tombs of the emperors
-in China may have some affinity
-with the American animal sculptures,
-which occur principally in Wisconsin
-and the farther West. I am unable,
-however, to obtain any information with
-regard to the Chinese or Siberian examples
-sufficiently reliable to found any
-argument upon.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_597" id="Footnote_597"></a><a href="#FNanchor_597"><span class="label">[597]</span></a>
-'Annal. for Nordk. Oldkyndighed,' ii. p. 3 <i>et seqq</i>.
-See also C. C. Rafn, 'Antiquitates Americanæ,' &amp;c., Hafniæ, 1837.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_598" id="Footnote_598"></a><a href="#FNanchor_598"><span class="label">[598]</span></a>
-'History of Architecture,' by the Author, vol. ii. pp. 774 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_599" id="Footnote_599"></a><a href="#FNanchor_599"><span class="label">[599]</span></a>
-'The American Naturalist,' iv., March, 1870, figures 1, 8, and 9.</p>
-</div>
-
-</blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_520" id="Page_520">[Pg 520]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2 id="APPENDIX_A">APPENDIX A.</h2>
-</div>
-<p class="center">(<i>Referred to, page 225.</i>)</p>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Dunminning, Glarryford, Co. Antrim</span>,<br />
-<i>August 18, 1871</i>.<span style="margin-right: 5em;">&nbsp;</span><br />
-</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">My dear Sir</span>,&mdash;I was unable to get to Glen Columbkille till
-this week, and I am afraid that I shall be too late to be of use
-to you. As, however, I did not forget to examine the monuments, I
-send the notes I made on them. All were written down at the stones
-themselves. Glen Columbkille is about 4 miles long and 3 broad. Its
-eastern boundary is a steep rocky mountain, from which the floor of
-the glen slopes down to the sea, and ends westward in Glen Bay. Glen
-Bay is of considerable width from its southern point, Rossan, to its
-northern, Glen Head, but it has only a short beach. There is also
-a dangerous bar, so that it is an almost impossible landing-place
-except for curraghs, and in smooth weather for boats. The north side
-of Glen Columbkille is rocky and steep, and is chiefly formed by the
-mountain Ballard. The south side, though in parts precipitous, and
-nowhere a very gradual slope, is not so steep as its opposite. The
-coast south and north of Glen Bay for miles is a range of cliffs, of
-from 1900 to 100 feet, with here and there a small beach, but no safe
-landing-places. South of Glen Columbkille is a smaller and shallower
-valley, Glen Malin. The sides of Glen Malin are all gradual; its
-coast is precipitous; on the south it is bounded by a mountain of
-large base, Leathan. Both Glen Columbkille and Glen Malin are in the
-parish of Glen Columbkille and barony of Banagh. Most of the great
-stone structures are in Glen Malin.</p>
-
-<p>The monuments are of three kinds: (1) cromlechs;<a name="FNanchor_600" id="FNanchor_600"></a><a href="#Footnote_600" class="fnanchor">[600]</a>
-(2) stone chambers; (3) solitary stones. They are in groups of various size and
-compactness. There are five distinct groups, a considerable distance
-apart, and with no apparent connexion of arrangement. Three groups
-are on the north and two on the south side of the glen. The stones in
-each have been more or less disturbed, and have been made to serve
-in lime-kilns and byres and as malt stores. While examining one set,
-I felt my foot sink, and, lifting the edge of a piece of heather,
-found an excavation filled with barley, soaking. On getting into
-another cavity, I found two black lambs inside, and in another some
-pigs, in another calves. The most remarkable general feature of the
-architecture that I noticed was that the stones in each group were
-much of a size, but that in some groups they were a good deal larger
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_521" id="Page_521">[Pg 521]</a></span>
-
-than in others. I shall speak of the groups as they are marked by
-letters in a plan I made for my own use on the spot.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration228"></a>
-<img src="images/i_228.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">228.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan of the Uprights of Cromlech D I.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>D. This group, which is that nearest the sea on the south side of the
-river, consists of six cromlechs, arranged in line, with considerable
-intervals. A few yards west of this group are several mounds of
-stones with some large blocks amongst them, but no blocks more than 4
-feet long. These extend for some 50 yards in line from west to east.
-A few yards above them is a large pile of stones, in the midst of
-which is a stone 6 feet high and 3 feet wide. These heaps have been
-augmented by stones collected from the fields, but I think there are
-indications that they were originally of the nature of the cromlechs.</p>
-
-<p>There are six cromlechs, and from the first the other five are in
-sight. The line in which they are placed along the glen side is not
-quite straight. The westernmost cromlech is some yards south of the
-others, and the west to east line is not exact with regard to the
-others, but is nowhere so much departed from as with the first pile.
-The first is about half a mile from the sea. I shall describe them
-from west to east.</p>
-
-<p>I. This was a cromlech of five huge stones and a top. The top stone
-has fallen to westward, and the uprights are all somewhat displaced.
-Three of the upright stones are still erect; two are fallen, but not
-quite to the ground. At the west end are some smaller blocks and
-another slab. These are hidden by small stones and earth; I think
-there were two support stones and a slab. After examining all the
-monuments of the two glens, I came to the conclusion that this (D I.)
-was a cromlech with a stone chamber beside it. There is a space 2
-feet 6 inches wide between the two tallest uprights. The annexed plan
-shows the arrangement of the uprights. The top slab has fallen over
-<i>e</i>; <i>d</i> and <i>e</i> are fallen; <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, and <i>c</i> are upright, but slant
-more or less. The dimensions are:&mdash;</p>
-
-<table summary="dimensions">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdr">Ft.</td>
-<td class="tdr">In.</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">(<i>a</i>)</td>
-<td class="tdl">Height</td>
-<td class="tdr">12</td>
-<td class="tdr">9</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;(<i>a</i>) slants somewhat to westward; the</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl">Breadth</td>
-<td class="tdr">9</td>
-<td class="tdr">4</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; height from its tip to the ground is 10 feet</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl">Thickness(about)</td>
-<td class="tdr">3</td>
-<td class="tdr">0</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 2 inches.</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl">Widest girth</td>
-<td class="tdr">23</td>
-<td class="tdr">0</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">(<i>b</i>)</td>
-<td class="tdl">Height</td>
-<td class="tdr">7</td>
-<td class="tdr">5</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;(<i>b</i>) from tip perpendicular the height</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl">Breadth</td>
-<td class="tdr">4</td>
-<td class="tdr">3</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;is 6 feet 6 inches.</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl">Thickness</td>
-<td class="tdr">2</td>
-<td class="tdr">0</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">(<i>c</i>)</td>
-<td class="tdl">Height</td>
-<td class="tdr">7</td>
-<td class="tdr">0</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl">Breadth</td>
-<td class="tdr">2</td>
-<td class="tdr">10</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl">Thickness</td>
-<td class="tdr">1</td>
-<td class="tdr">0</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">(<i>d</i>)</td>
-<td class="tdl">Length</td>
-<td class="tdr">10</td>
-<td class="tdr">0</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl">Breadth</td>
-<td class="tdr">5</td>
-<td class="tdr">0</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl">Thickness</td>
-<td class="tdr">2</td>
-<td class="tdr">0</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">(<i>e</i>)</td>
-<td class="tdl">Length</td>
-<td class="tdr">7</td>
-<td class="tdr">0</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;(<i>e</i>) is hard to measure, as it lies under</td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;earth, stones, and the top slab.</td>
-</tr>
-
-</table>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_522" id="Page_522">[Pg 522]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>All these are of a gritty stone, veined with quartz, a rock plentiful
-in Sliabh Liag, Sliabh Leathan, and the cliffs of the coast. Their
-shape is rugged.</p>
-
-<p>The top slab is of pure quartz. It is about a foot thick, and is
-smooth on both sides. This sort of stone splits with a smooth
-surface, as may be seen on Sliabh Liag and in some of the cliffs.
-The slab is a tolerably regular oblong, 9 feet 8 inches by 6 feet 6
-inches. The smaller slab alluded to above, and which was, I think,
-the top of the chamber, is about 6 feet by 3 feet.</p>
-
-<p>D II. lies about 40 feet east of D I. It, too, is a cromlech, but the
-stones of which it is built are of smaller size than those of D I.
-There are no traces of a chamber, but otherwise it is constructed as
-D I. The highest standing stone is 4 feet high. There seem to have
-been five uprights. The top slab has fallen to the west side. It
-measures 6 feet 3 inches by 5 feet.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration229"></a>
-<img src="images/i_229.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">229.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan showing the actual
-position of the Stones of D III.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>D III. is situate 55 feet east of D II. It is a cromlech of five
-uprights and one slab. One upright only is erect now. Its height is 5
-feet, its width 3 feet. The slab which was atop is 8 feet by 7 feet,
-and averages 2 feet in thickness.</p>
-
-<p>D IV. is 31 feet east of D III. It is a small-sized cromlech. The
-uprights are all fallen. The slab measures 6 feet 8 inches by 6 feet.
-A series of low mounds with large stones sticking out here and there
-forms a sort of connexion with the next cromlech, which stands 48 feet
-farther east.</p>
-
-<p>D V. Its slab has fallen to eastward, and the uprights in several
-directions. The tallest upright is 6 feet high. The slab is of quartz,
-and measures 10 feet by 7 feet, and is about 13 inches thick. Around
-this cromlech are numbers of loose stones. They are from 1 foot to 2
-feet long, and are of mica-schist and quartz. They are not such as
-would be picked off the meadow, and seem to have been in some way
-connected with the cromlech.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration230"></a>
-<img src="images/i_230.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">230.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan (excl. Top Slab.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>D VI. stands 96 feet farther east. It is a very large cromlech. It is
-a good deal fallen; all the stones of which it is built have more or
-less the character of slabs. It is used as one side of a respectable
-byre. One great smooth piece of quartz seems to have been the roof. It
-measures 18 feet 7 inches by 11 feet. The biggest of the stones seems
-to have formed the east wall of the chamber. Its dimensions are 12 feet
-by 14 feet, and it is 4 feet thick. I took the dimensions of three
-others:&mdash;1. Length 5 feet 6 inches, width 4 feet; 2. Length 11 feet,
-width 8 feet; 3. Length 9 feet, width 3 feet, thickness 3 feet.</p>
-
-<p>From the flat nature of the component stones, the chamber inside would
-have had few gaps in its walls. Near this cromlech is a low stony mound.</p>
-
-<p>From a few yards east of D VI. a ridge runs slantwise up the side
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_523" id="Page_523">[Pg 523]</a></span>
-
-of Leathan. Many stones stick up out of it, but I could make out no
-arrangement. The highest projecting stone is not 4 feet high. This
-ridge is about a quarter of a mile long. It might be natural, but it
-has very much the look of a human work. Some 150 yards up the ridge
-I noticed a slab projecting from the heather. It might possibly be
-the top of a chamber, of which the walls are beneath the earth. This
-seeming road does not lead to another group of stones, but disappears
-a short way up the mountain side. Near the mountain top there is a
-small bare cliff, the only bare bit of rock on the otherwise smooth
-slopes of Leathan. The rock exposed is quartz, and the position of
-the little cliff leads one at a glance to imagine that it may have
-been the quarry whence the slabs were brought. In this case the ridge
-may have been the road down the mountain. When one goes up to the
-crag, it looks less like a quarry than from below, but at the same
-time I could perceive no geological reason for the exposure of so
-small a surface of rock.</p>
-
-<p>Some distance up Glen Malin, and on the same side of the river as D,
-but not in sight from it, is another group, E, of stone monuments.</p>
-
-<p>The large stones of this group are surrounded by numbers of rough,
-weather-worn stone blocks, averaging 2 feet in length. The monuments
-seem to be all cromlechs or chambers, and, as far as I could tell,
-are about a dozen in number. One cromlech stands a good deal higher
-than the rest. West of it are two stony mounds; these seem to have
-been chambers. They are built of long flat slabs, with similar slabs
-at the ends and top.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration231"></a>
-<img src="images/i_231.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">231.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plan of the Arrangement of the Cromlechs of Group
-E.</div>
-</div>
-<div class="topspace-1"></div>
-<p>
-<span style="margin-left:18em;"><i>a.</i> Eastmost one.</span><br />
-<span style="margin-left:18em;"><i>b.</i> Highest.</span><br />
-<span style="margin-left:18em;"><i>c</i>, <i>d</i>. Mounds.</span><br />
-</p>
-
-<p>The ground beyond the cromlechs is moorland, and without loose
-stones. The stony area is oval, and measures east to west 130 feet,
-north to south 50 to 60 feet.</p>
-
-<p>All the cromlechs are about the same size. In the construction
-of all, the aim seems to have been a well shut-in chamber. The
-easternmost one is a chamber 9 feet 10 inches long. At each end it
-has a flat stone 3 feet high. The side stones are 7&frac12; feet long
-and 3 feet high The width of the chamber is 4 feet 6 inches. At each
-side, and at each end, are heaps of loose small stones. The top slab
-is about 1 foot thick, and is almost a square of 9 feet.</p>
-
-<p>On the north side of Glen Malin, there are three groups:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>A. This, which is the group furthest from the sea, is of five or six
-cromlechs, but only one is in good preservation. It consists of a
-slab resting on four flat blocks, and encloses a chamber. The side
-stones are each 5 feet 8 inches long. This group stands on a small
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_524" id="Page_524">[Pg 524]</a></span>
-
-flat piece of ground below a crag and above a stream. Leading from the
-chamber there seems to have been a passage, the sides of which were
-formed of slabs of stone, of which a few remain.</p>
-
-<p>Some distance lower down the glen, on the north side, is a solitary
-pointed stone. It is 6 feet 1 inch high, and its girth is 5 feet 5
-inches. Higher on the slope by 110 feet, and 18 feet farther west,
-group B begins.</p>
-
-<p>B. The first of this group is a chamber cromlech. It is much buried
-in the heather. Some loose stones lie around the cromlech. What seems
-to have been the top slab is 10 feet across and nearly square, and 2
-feet thick. One of the side slabs of the chamber is 10 feet 8 inches
-by 4 feet. The tallest stone is at the east end, and is in height 6
-feet 8 inches. Lower down the slope, below this cromlech, are several
-low mounds, from which there are no projecting stones; 200 yards west
-in a straight line is a huge cromlech. It seems to have consisted of
-a gigantic slab, supported on three upright stones, not forming a
-closed chamber. The top slab is still on its supports; it is 3 feet
-thick, and measures 13 feet by 10 feet 9 inches. The tallest of the
-uprights is 9 feet high, and is rather pointed at top. The third
-upright seems to have been broken into several pieces. Some 10 yards
-from this is another cromlech of equal dimensions, and a little south
-of these several large loose stones are lying on the ground. Forty
-yards west is a chamber cromlech of small dimensions, and near it are
-many mounds with stones projecting, possibly artificial.</p>
-
-<p>C. This group is some distance farther down on the same side of the
-glen; it consists of two cromlechs, separated by a short ridge, so
-that I think they are really parts of one structure. The eastern part
-is fallen; it consists of three uprights and a top slab. The western
-part consists of two stones leaning gablewise against one another.
-Between the two there is a short ridge, from which several stones
-stick out. Each of the western pair of stones is about 7 feet high
-by 6 feet broad. The dimensions of the eastern part of the monument
-are:&mdash;Top slab, 11 feet by 7 feet; thickness, 1&frac12; foot. Uprights:
-(<i>a</i>) 8 feet (and I think 2 feet below ground) by 7 feet 7 inches
-broad; 2 feet 3 inches thick. (<i>b</i>) 9 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 8
-inches; thickness 2 feet 5 inches, (<i>c</i>) 9 feet 6 inches by 3 feet 5
-inches; thickness, 1 foot 9 inches.</p>
-
-<p>The other groups do not command remarkable prospects, but from this
-last group there is a fine view of the sea, with the island of
-Rathlin O'Beirne close below, and beyond the mountainous coast line
-of Mayo as far as Belmullet.</p>
-
-<p>So far the stone monuments of Glen Malin.</p>
-
-<p>In Glen Columbkille is but one group. It stands in the townland of
-Farn MacBride, on the north side of the glen, and at the foot of the
-mountain Ballard. Its monuments are all of the chamber kind. The</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_525" id="Page_525">[Pg 525]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>chambers are made of huge slabs, one at each side, one atop, one at
-each end. I measured one, and found the sides each 12 feet long and
-4 feet broad. Most of the monuments project but little above the
-ground. One is used to keep calves in, one for pigs, and one for
-lambs. A native of the townland told me that his brother had dug up a
-skull and a piece of earthenware near one of the cromlechs. The skull
-was buried in the churchyard, and its grave is forgotten. The same
-man also told me that, digging to clear a cromlech for a malt-store,
-they found that the side slabs rested on a basement slab. The ground
-is very rugged about these monuments, and some are quite beneath
-ground, but I think there are altogether six.</p>
-
-<p>I hope that, if these notes are too late to be of use for your book,
-they may yet be of some interest to you, and</p>
-
-<p class="right">I remain, my dear Sir, yours sincerely,<span style="margin-right:10em;">&nbsp;</span><br />
-<span class="smcap">Norman Moore</span>.<span style="margin-right:3em;">&nbsp;</span><br /></p>
-<p><i>James Fergusson, Esq.</i><br /></p>
-</blockquote>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p>On receiving the above communication, I forwarded to Mr. Moore an
-impression of the woodcut No. 80, representing Calliagh Birra's Tomb or
-House, and received the following reply:&mdash;</p>
-
-<blockquote>
-<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Dunminning, Glarryford, Co. Antrim</span>,<br />
-<i>August 28, 1871</i>.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">My dear Sir</span>,&mdash;The cromlechs of Farn MacBride, as they stand
-apparently undisturbed, exactly resemble in plan that depicted in
-the woodcut. With one or two exceptions the cromlechs of Glen Malin,
-as far as one can tell in their fallen condition, are built on the
-same plan. The shape of the stones at the sides and of the top slabs
-of the cromlech in the engraving is exactly the shape of the stones
-of the cromlechs in both Glen Malin and Farn MacBride. In one or
-two of the cromlechs I noticed stones which might correspond to the
-buttress-like outside stones of the ground-plan in the cut.</p>
-
-<p>The number of slabs in the side walls of the Glen cromlechs is
-smaller than the number in the woodcut.</p>
-
-<p>The very large cromlech, easternmost of the group the first described
-in my letter, is in every particular, except the number of its
-component blocks, the counterpart of your engraving.</p>
-
-<p><i>In fine</i>, the plan of all the cromlechs of Glen Columbkille, except
-one or two, the variety of which may be owing to disarrangement, is
-that of the Meath cromlech.</p>
-
-<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Norman Moore</span>.<span style="margin-right:3em;">&nbsp;</span></p>
-
-</blockquote>
-
-<div class="topspace1"></div>
-<div class="footnotes">
-<blockquote>
-<p class="footnote"><span class="smcap"><b>Footnotes</b></span></p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_600" id="Footnote_600"></a><a href="#FNanchor_600"><span class="label">[600]</span></a>
-Throughout this paper Mr. Moore uses the term "Cromlech," as is usually done
-by English antiquaries, in the sense in which "Dolmen" is employed in the body
-of the work.</p>
-</div>
-
-</blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_526" id="Page_526">[Pg 526]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2 id="APPENDIX_B">APPENDIX B.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class="center"><span class="smcap">The Diggings in Oden's Howe</span>, &amp;c. Gamla, Upsala, 1846-7.</p>
-
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">These</span> diggings were conducted by Riks Antiquary B. E. Hildebrand and
-Lieut.-Colonel Ståt, chiefly in the days of August-September, 1846,
-and June 7-22, 1847. The only printed notices thereon appeared at the
-time, chiefly from the pen of B. E. Hildebrand, in the Upsala paper
-'Correspondenten,' Nos. 75, 77, 79&mdash;September 12, 19, 26, 1846, and
-Nos. 50, 53&mdash;June 23 and July 3, 1847.</p>
-
-<p>1. 'Correspondenten,' September 12, 1846.&mdash;Diggings going on, but
-prove more laborious than had been expected.</p>
-
-<p>2. 'Correspondenten,' September 19, 1846.&mdash;A boarded gallery 7
-Swedish feet 5 inches high and 5 feet broad has been constructed from
-the east side of the howe (Oden's Howe, the largest of the three
-so-called King-howes), towards the centre. After penetrating 68 feet
-(20 met.), a mighty wall of granite blocks was struck, probably a
-grave-chamber. The gently rising gallery abuts on the lowest stones
-of the chamber. During the diggings have been found unburnt animal
-bones, bits of dark wood, charcoal, burnt bones, &amp;c. Thus this was
-evidently a sepulchral mound. The name <i>King-howes</i> is evidently
-correct. Diggings have also been made in the smaller cairns near by,
-and although they have been opened before, burial-urns have been
-found, burnt human bones, bones of animals and birds, bits of iron
-and bronze, &amp;c.</p>
-
-<p>3. 'Correspondenten,' September 26, 1846.&mdash;The great wall has proved
-to be the edge of a mighty chamber. Between 200 and 300 large granite
-blocks have been taken out. Some of them have traces of tooling. The
-gallery has been carried 16 Swedish feet through the stone mass,
-which lies on hard packed clay, over a layer of fine sand, resting
-on large stones above the natural soil. At the middle of the howe
-the grave-chamber is 9 feet above the level of the soil, 18 feet
-under the top of the howe. On the bed of clay under the great stones
-have been found an iron clinker 3 inches long, remains of pine poles
-partly burnt, a lock of hair chestnut coloured, &amp;c. The numerous
-clusters of charcoal show that the dead had been burned on the layer
-of clay, and the bones have been collected in an urn not yet found.
-In one of the nearest small howes have been found a quantity of
-burnt animal and human bones, two little-injured bronze brooches, a
-fragment of a golden ornament, &amp;c.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_527" id="Page_527">[Pg 527]</a></span></p>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>4. 'Correspondenten,' June 23, 1847.&mdash;The burial-urn has been found
-in the grave-chamber. Also have turned up bones of men, horses, dogs,
-a golden ornament delicately worked, a bone comb, bone buttons, &amp;c.</p>
-
-<p>5. 'Correspondenten,' July 3, 1847.&mdash;The gallery has been driven 4
-feet farther, thereafter has been made a side gallery, 8&frac12; feet
-wide and 8 feet long, up to the burial-urn. This was found 3 inches
-under the soil, and was covered with a thin slab. It was 7 inches
-high, 9 inches in diameter, filled with burnt bones, human and animal
-(horse, dog, &amp;c.), ashes, charcoal (of needle and leaf trees), nails,
-copper ornaments, bone articles, a bird of bone, &amp;c. In the mass of
-charcoal about were found bones, broken ornaments, bits of two golden
-bracteates, &amp;c. Coins of King Oscar were then placed in the urn, and
-everything restored as before.</p>
-
-<p>Frey's Howe was opened, and showed the same results.</p>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p>The gallery remained for some years, and was visited by thousands of
-persons, but afterwards fell in, and the howe is now inaccessible.</p>
-
-<p class="right"><span style="margin-right:2em;"><span class="smcap">Carl S&#228;ve.</span></span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Upsala</span>, <i>March 1, 1871</i>.</p>
-
-</blockquote>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2 id="APPENDIX_C">APPENDIX C.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Since</span> the sheets containing the account of the Scottish monuments
-were printed off, I have received from Sir Henry Dryden slips of two
-letters which he addressed to the editor of the <i>John o' Groat's
-Journal</i>, giving an account of some explorations he had made in
-Caithness during this autumn. One of these contains an account of
-certain chapels, brochs, and circles he had examined. The first
-two classes do not concern us here, and are therefore omitted;
-but the circles are of interest as probably belonging to the same
-category as those in the Orkneys, and the description of them is
-consequently printed with the other letter, which gives an account
-of four alignments which are so germane to our subject that Sir
-Henry's description is printed <i>in extenso</i>. The name of the first,
-"The Battle Moss, Yarhouse," is of itself singularly suggestive, and
-I have little doubt that, if properly inquired into, the peasantry
-could tell what battle was fought there, and what, consequently,
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_528" id="Page_528">[Pg 528]</a></span>
-
-these lines were erected to commemorate. Taken in conjunction with the
-horned cairns described by Mr. Anderson,<a name="FNanchor_601" id="FNanchor_601"></a><a href="#Footnote_601" class="fnanchor">[601]</a>
-and the circles, it does not seem to me doubtful that the whole of
-this Caithness group belongs to the tenth century. The circles, and
-especially the horned cairns, are the exact counterparts of the
-fanciful forms of the Viking graves found at Hjortehammer (<a href="#Illustration118">woodcut No. 118</a>)
-and elsewhere in Scandinavia, which resemble them in more
-respects than one, and the alignments are such as those at Ashdown
-(<a href="#Illustration28">woodcut No. 28</a>). Nor need we go far for the events they commemorate.
-Between the years 970 and 996, <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, two
-great battles, at least, are recorded to have taken place in Caithness,
-between the sons of Thorfin, and between Liotr, the victor of the first
-fight, and the Scots, who in vain attempted to avenge the death of
-Skiuli; and besides these there may have been many subordinate frays.
-It is probable that both brothers were buried in Caithness, and we are
-distinctly told that Laudver, the last surviving son of Thorfin, was
-certainly buried there.<a name="FNanchor_602" id="FNanchor_602"></a><a href="#Footnote_602" class="fnanchor">[602]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration232"></a>
-<img src="images/i_232.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">232.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Horned Cairn, Caithness.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The fact of these alignments and horned cairns and semicircles being
-unlike what is found elsewhere in Scotland, separates this group
-from anything existing further south. Their similarity to the Viking
-graves of Scandinavia, avowedly of the tenth century, points to an
-age from which they cannot be distant; and when it is recollected
-that Caithness in the tenth century formed part of the Orcadian
-Jarldom, it does not seem that we have far to seek for an authentic
-explanation of all we find in that remote corner of the isle.</p>
-
-<p class="right">J. F.<span style="margin-right:2em;">&nbsp;</span></p>
-
-<div class="topspace1"></div>
-<div class="footnotes">
-<blockquote>
-<p class="footnote"><span class="smcap"><b>Footnotes</b></span></p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_601" id="Footnote_601"></a><a href="#FNanchor_601"><span class="label">[601]</span></a>
-'Proceedings Soc. Ant. Scot.,' vii. 480 <i>et seqq.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a name="Footnote_602" id="Footnote_602"></a><a href="#FNanchor_602"><span class="label">[602]</span></a>
-'Barry's History of Orkney,' pp. 125-129.</p>
-</div>
-
-</blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_529" id="Page_529">[Pg 529]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a name="LETTER_FROM_SIR_H_DRYDEN_Bart" id="LETTER_FROM_SIR_H_DRYDEN_Bart">LETTER FROM SIR H. DRYDEN, <span class="smcap">Bart.</span>,</a><br />
-<span class="smaller">TO THE</span><br />
-<span class="small"><i>Editor of the 'John o' Groat's Journal.'</i></span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Lines, Battle Moss, Yarhouse. Lines and Cist,
-Garrywhin. Lines, "Many Stones," Clyth. Lines,
-Camster. Circle(?) Achanloch. Circle, Guidebest,
-Latheronwheel.</span></p>
-
-<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Groups of Lines.</span></p>
-
-<p>I am not aware of any similar groups in Great Britain, though no doubt
-there are some, and have no books at hand to refer to any in Denmark,
-Norway, or Sweden. The groups of lines in France (of far larger stones
-and greater length than those in Caithness) have the largest stones
-and widest intervals and the highest ground (the heads) to the west
-or thereabouts, and the smallest stones and narrowest intervals and
-lowest ground (the tails) to the east or thereabouts. The Caithness
-groups differ entirely in principle. The one at Yarhouse Loch runs
-north and south, does not radiate, and is on nearly level ground; but
-the three others have the narrower intervals and higher ground to the
-north (which end we may call the head), and radiate towards the south
-and lower ground. The group at Battlemoss, near Yarhouse, is on ground
-falling slightly to north-west. It consists of eight lines placed north
-and south. The width at the south end is forty-four feet. The lines are
-somewhat irregular, and appear to radiate slightly towards the north,
-but this is uncertain. One line extends 384 feet, and another one 170
-feet, but the remaining six now only extend 133 feet. The ground is
-covered with peat and heather, and other stones may be hidden below the
-surface. There is no cairn or other grave now visible in proximity to
-the lines. The largest stones are about 2 feet 6 inches high, 2 feet 6
-inches wide, and 1 foot 3 inches thick.</p>
-
-<p>The group at Garrywhin consists of six lines. The whole width at the
-head (north-east end) is 50 feet, and at the bottom 107 feet. The
-central line bears N.N.E. or S.S.W. The length of this line is 200
-feet. The fall is 20 feet to the S.S.W. At the head is a cist of slabs
-3 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches, and 2 feet 4 inches deep, placed
-east and west. As this grave is on the highest point of the knoll,
-and as the lines commence at it, it is fair to presume that they are
-connected. In the cist were found ashes, pieces of pottery, and flint
-chips, but no bones. As the cist is between the third and fourth lines,
-it is fair to presume that there never were more than six lines.</p>
-
-<p>The group called "Many Stones" has the head on the top of a knoll, from
-which the ground falls on all sides. The lines are on the south
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_530" id="Page_530">[Pg 530]</a></span>
-
-slope, and are 22 in number. The width at the head or north end is
-118 feet, and at the bottom is 188 feet. The length in the centre is
-145 feet, but there is no proof that this was the original length,
-and the presumption is the reverse. The average bearing is north
-and south, and the fall 10 feet 3 inches. The largest stones now
-remaining are about 3 feet high, 3 feet wide, and 1 foot 6 inches
-thick. There are numerous blocks of stone lying about the head,
-where, however, the rock is exposed, but the example of Garrywhin
-makes it probable that a cairn once existed on this knoll. There are
-no traces of any <i>sunk</i> grave, but the cairn may have contained a
-chamber above ground, like many in the vicinity.</p>
-
-<p>The group at Camster is on the moor, on ground falling slightly
-to the south-west. A considerable depth of peat overlies the rock
-here, and many stones are below the surface. There are now six lines
-ascertained. The length is 105 feet, width at the head or north end
-30 feet, and at the tail or lower end 53 feet. The average bearing is
-north and south. The stones are smaller than at the last mentioned
-group. There is no cairn or other grave apparent close to these
-lines, but in a direction due north, at 346 feet, is a chambered
-cairn. No stones are now traceable between; but as there are gaps in
-the lines themselves, this blank interval may once have had lines on
-it to connect the cairn with the existing group. No habitation <i>now</i>
-exists near the spot, but there were many in this strath, which may
-account for destruction of stones in former times. A few hundred feet
-farther north is the huge horned cairn described by Mr. Anderson, and
-at 436 feet N.N.E. from the small cairn is the round chambered cairn
-described in the same paper.</p>
-
-
-<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Circle at Achanloch, Estate of Forse, in Parish of Latheron.</span></p>
-
-<p>The name is spelt Achinloch and Auchinleck. These no doubt are wrong,
-and probably the name is derived from Gaelic words signifying "The
-Field at the Loch," or "The Field of the Stones," from these standing
-stones. The place is close to the new road from Lybster to Thurso.
-This series of standing-stones, entitled "circle," as a classname,
-is in the form of a donkey's shoe, the length being N.N.W, and
-S.S.E., the open end to the latter. The sides are nearly parallel.
-The area is covered with heather and peat, on a substratum of rock
-of the slaty character common to the district. The ground falls from
-the area to the west, north, and east. In the latter direction, the
-ground falls only for a short distance, and then rises to much higher
-ground. On the north-east, at 700 feet or 800 feet, is the loch of
-Stemster.</p>
-
-<p>There is no evidence that the two south ends were ever joined by a
-straight or curved line of stones; and as the sides are of equal
-length, we may infer that they never were joined, though possibly
-intended
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_531" id="Page_531">[Pg 531]</a></span>
-
-to be so. The highest point of the area is about 13 feet above the
-hollow on the east. This donkey-shoe-shaped series of stones is 226
-feet long, and 110 feet wide in the middle, inside measure. The two
-extremities are 85 feet 3 inches apart.</p>
-
-<p>There are now 36 stones existing, of which only one is down; but by
-filling up intervals at usual distances, it appears there were 54
-stones, supposing the lower end vacant as now. The average interval
-seems to have been 8 feet. The highest stone is 5 feet 7 inches high
-above ground; the widest 5 feet 4 inches; and the thickest 1 foot 7
-inches.</p>
-
-<p>All these stones are of a slaty character, and have their sides
-parallel, so that in width (long sides) they are generally three
-or four times their thickness (short sides). But the singular
-characteristic of this series is that the stones are set with their
-long sides at right angles to the curve, projecting like cogs of a
-wheel.</p>
-
-<p>In many circles some or all of the stones have no decided difference
-in the measures of width and thickness; but in all cases, when I have
-found a difference, the long sides are in the line of the curve.</p>
-
-<p>Any notice of an arrangement similar to that at Achanloch would be a
-favour.</p>
-
-<p>There is no appearance of any part of the area having been disturbed
-for burial or other purposes. There is a ruin of a chambered cairn
-south-east of the circle; and in the loch of Rangag, about a mile
-west, is the remain of a brough.</p>
-
-
-<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Circle at Guidebest, Latheronwheel, Parish of Latheron.</span></p>
-
-<p>The place is on the north bank of the burn, one mile and a half
-up the strath. The circle is nearly true in form, and though now
-imperfect, doubtless was once complete. It is 170 feet in diameter.
-The area is flat, covered with heather and peat, on a substratum of
-rock in some places, and of alluvial gravel in others. It is 15 feet
-above the brook, which has washed away the cliff very close up to the
-south-west stone, and appears likely, unless prevented, to dislocate
-the stones on that side.</p>
-
-<p>There are now only seven stones existing&mdash;all erect&mdash;and by filling
-up the gaps at usual distances there were thirteen stones. The
-average interval seems to have been 45 feet. The highest stone is
-5 feet 3 inches above ground; the widest 3 feet 2 inches; and the
-thickest 1 foot 10 inches. The stone is of the common argillaceous
-slate of the district.</p>
-
-<p>The stones are nearer square or circular in plan than those at
-Achanloch, but (so far as they can be) are all set with the long
-sides to the curve. The south stone is a little beyond the line of
-the circle, but is evidently a moved and erected stone.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_532" id="Page_532">[Pg 532]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>There are numbers of stones lying about the area; but no evidence of
-a cairn or other burial-place in or near the circle. From its soil,
-and the absence of remains, it was probably not sepulchral, though
-some antiquaries hold that all circles are sepulchral.</p>
-
-<p>Lower down the strath on the same side of the brook were many circles
-which were destroyed in "improving" the land some years ago. These
-are stated to have been 20 or 30 yards across, of stones 2 feet to
-4 feet high. No remains are known to have been found in them; but
-no observations or measures were made. It is probable that these
-circles were sepulchral&mdash;the absence of stones in the centres
-notwithstanding. Nearer the road and shore are other remains of
-broughs, cairns, cists, &amp;c.</p>
-
-<p class="right">I remain your obedient servant,<span style="margin-right:12em;">&nbsp;</span><br /></p>
-<p class="right"><span class="smcap">H. Dryden</span>,<span style="margin-right:15em;">&nbsp;</span><br /></p>
-<p class="right">Hon. Mem. of the Soc. of Antiquaries of Scotland.<span style="margin-right:8em;">&nbsp;</span></p>
-
-<div class="topspace2"></div>
-
-<p><i>Caithness, September 21, 1871.</i></p>
-
-</blockquote>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="Illustration233"></a>
-<img src="images/i_233.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">233.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Dolmen near Bona, Algeria.</div>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_533" id="Page_533">[Pg 533]</a></span></p>
-
-<h2 id="INDEX">INDEX.</h2>
-
-<ul class="index">
-
-<li class="indx">Abbeville, museum at, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Abbot Millitus, Pope Gregory's letter to, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Abd en Nar and Abd en Nour, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Aberdeenshire circles, <a href="#Page_202">202</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Aberlemmo, stone at, with cross, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">memorial of what, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Abraham, stone set up by, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ac, import of termination, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">its prevalence in West of France, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">its coincidence with dolmens, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">its occurrence in West of England, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">names of cities with this termination in France, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Achemlock circle, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Addington, groups at, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circles at, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Aylesford.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Adil, Swedish king, defeats Snio, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Africa. <i>See</i>Algeria, Tripoli.  Its monuments may furnish key to</li>
-<li class="isub2">solution of mysterious questions, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">African prince mentioned by Asoka, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Age between exodus of Romans and Alfred, darkness of, <a href="#Page_113">113-4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">stones more eloquent than books then, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Agra, tomb of Akbar at, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Agricola, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ahmedabad, city of, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Aix la Chapelle, decree of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ajunta, importance of Vihara at, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Akbar, sovereign of India, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tomb of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Alajor, Talyot at, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Alaska, Hydahs in, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Aleutian Islands, route of peoplers of America, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Alexander mentioned in edict of Indian prince, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Alfred, <a href="#Page_23">23-4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his victory at Ashdown, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">how commemorated, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Alentejo, dolmen in, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Algeria, no Druids in, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">long ignorance as to its numerous dolmens, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">researches of Messrs. Rhind, Christy, and M. Féraud, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Bou Moursug, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Setif, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Tiaret, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Tripoli, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">their ordinary position, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Bazinas, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Chouchas, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen on steps, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tumuli with lines between, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sepulchral stones, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">plan and elevation of African tumulus, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen with two circles, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">others on road from Bona to Constantine, four</li>
-<li class="isub2">cairns enclosed in squares, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">analogy to examples in Scandinavia, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">age of Algerian examples, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of what race, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Djidjeli, tombs near, with circle, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find there, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">their age, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Sidi Kacem, dolmen near, and inscription, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circle near Bona, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Algerian monuments contemporary with early Christians, <a href="#Page_405">405-6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">their general age, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">who erected them, <a href="#Page_406">406</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date of, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">compared to Aveyron, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Alignment, at Shap, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Carnac, Erdeven, St.-Barbe, <a href="#Page_354">354</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">two heads, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">singular head of column, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Crozon, Kerdouadec, Carmaret, Leuré, Gré de Cojou, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Preissac, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Stonehenge, why made, <a href="#Page_110">110-1</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Sesto Calende, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Avebury, Avenues, Beckhampton, Caithness.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Alkil, Danish chief, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Allées couvertes ou grottes des Fées in France, <a href="#Page_340">340</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_358">358-9</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Lochmariaker, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Alleth, battle at, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Alphabetical writing, date of its introduction into Ireland, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>,</li>
-<li class="isub3"><a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">interruption of use for centuries, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Altars, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Altmark, dolmen at, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Alyattes, tomb of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ambrius, convent of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ambrosius Aurelius said to have erected Stonehenge, and why, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">forces a peace upon Saxons, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">America, North, Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge;</li>
-<li class="isub2">survey of Messrs. Squiers and Davis, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">absence of rude-stone monuments, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">earthworks, American peculiarity, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>enclosures for defence</i>, extent of, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">inference from, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>sacred enclosures</i>, peculiarity and number of, size and form of</li>
-<li class="isub3">enclosures, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Newark Works, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">whether residences of chiefs, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>conical mounds</i>, mounds of sacrifice, finds, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Grave Creek mound, Miamisburgh mound, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>temple mounds</i>compared to Teocallis of Mexicans, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">difficulty of distinguishing between temple and palace, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">were the mounds not civil? <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">animal mounds, gigantic serpent form, doubt</li>
-<li class="isub3">whether animal object of worship, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">whether European emigrants account for population of America, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">way of communication, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">material of tools found in America, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Redmen and mound-builders distinguished, these correspond with the</li>
-<li class="isub3">"Hydahs," <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">America, Central, and Peru, carved stone monuments, <a href="#Page_517">517-8</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Peruvian compared to those of Pelasgi and Tyrrheni, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">no rude-stone monuments observed in South America, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Tia Huanaco not like so-called Druidical remains, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circles and squares, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">American Indians non-progressive, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Amesbury, Hengist's meeting with British chiefs at, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Amlaff, King, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Amlech, or Hamlet, tomb of, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Amorites, dolmens in country of, and perhaps nowhere else in</li>
-<li class="isub3">Palestine, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Amravati, arts of Bactria at, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sepulchral circles at, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tope and rail, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">representations of priests at, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">'Ancient and Modern Wiltshire,' <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">'Ancient English Castles,' Mr. Clark's, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Andalusia, dolmens in, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Anderson, Mr., horned cairns described by, <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Angles, <i>see</i>Saxons.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Anglesea, Druids in, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circles in, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Anhalt dolmen, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Animal mounds in America, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">whether of Chinese origin, <a href="#Page_517">517</a> <i>note</i>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">'Annals of the Four Masters,' <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187-8</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Annandale, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circle, <i>see</i>Woodcastle.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Antequera dolmen, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Antigonus } mentioned in edict of Asoka, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1">Antiochus }</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Antiquity, why caution necessary in assigning, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of rude and polished stone monuments, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Antony, whether founder of Monasticism, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Aquhorties circle, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Aquitania in time of Cæsar, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of Augustus, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">language of, unknown, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">pressed upon by Celts, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">whether they migrated to Africa, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Aquitanians perhaps in Britain, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and perhaps dolmen builders, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">but few dolmens between Garonne and Pyrenees, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Arabia, rude-stone monuments in, <a href="#Page_444">444</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Arabs, their conquest of North Africa, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">their feeling as to monasticism, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Arborlowe, vallum and ditch of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Derbyshire.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Archæological Congress at Copenhagen, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Arches not in use amongst Hindus, but Burmese, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Architecture, meagreness of historical accounts of buildings between</li>
-<li class="isub3">erection of Parthenon and Henry VII.'s Chapel, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Irish, <a href="#Page_221">221</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">law of progressive development, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">when inapplicable, <a href="#Page_222">222-3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sequence in monuments of Ireland, <a href="#Page_237">237-8</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">three styles of three races perhaps simultaneous there, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of monuments at Stennis, <a href="#Page_255">255-6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">differences of style of similar monuments in different countries,</li>
-<li class="isub3"><a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sequence of style in dolmens, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">without drawings no words can describe style, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">peculiarity of church architecture in south dolmen region in France,</li>
-<li class="isub3"><a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Celtic, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">similarity of style no proof of synchronism, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">different examples compared, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">influences of Roman, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of Indian Art, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of dolmens or nurhags and giants' towers, which the older, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sequence of style and material in India, <a href="#Page_456">456</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">wood, stone imitation of wood architecture, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Mahommedan mosque built by Hindus, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">arches not used by Hindus, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">ruins of Ahmedabad, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Palitana, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Burmah, Cambodia, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Hindu not immutable, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Indian unprogressive tribes, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">rude and refined architecture, co-existence of, in India, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">early crosses in India, of what date?, <a href="#Page_486">486</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">appropriation by Romanists of pagan forms, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">connexion of Singalee dagobas and sepulchral tumuli, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Tee, what it represented, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">wood and then stone forms--rails, <a href="#Page_492">492-3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">styles of Eastern and European dolmens compared, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">points of similarity and dissimilarity, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cists outside tumuli, holed slabs, simulated summit cists,</li>
-<li class="isub3">concentric enclosing circles, <a href="#Page_496">496</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">use of stone imitated by rude nations in Europe, from what nations,</li>
-<li class="isub3"><a href="#Page_508">508</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and in India from what race, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">when introduced in the East in its rude form, and in its polished</li>
-<li class="isub3">form, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">ditto in the West, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">age of introduction of tumuli or barrows unascertained, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">as also of Cave men and stone implements, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">uses sepulchral or cenotaphic, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">or for battle-field, or offerings to spirits of the departed, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">connexion with relics of the dead, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">whether dedicated to God, sun or moon, &amp;c., or serpents, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">twofold principle of erection of such structures, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">North America, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">civil and sacred, royal and monastic, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">animal, gigantic earthen forms, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ard-na-Raigh, place of execution, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ardèche, remains of Cave men in, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Arfin, Prince of Norway, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Argyllshire dolmens, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Arles council, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Arnbjörg, wife of Sandulf, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Art, King, where buried, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Arthur, King, his existence doubted by some, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">round table, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">contemporary history null, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his round table, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> (<i>see</i>Penrith);</li>
-<li class="isub2">probable history of Arthur, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his defensive war against invaders, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his supposed Scottish career, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">ill-founded, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">localities of his twelve battles, <a href="#Page_135">135</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of his last battle, <a href="#Page_86">86-7</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">views of the author, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">fables respecting, likened to those about Alexander, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Arthur's pike at Shap, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Arthur's Quoit, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Baden Mound, Bas Lowe, Caerleon, Caledonian Forest, Gain,</li>
-<li class="isub3">Salkeld, Stanton Drew, Woodcastle Lyn.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Arrichinaga dolmen, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Arroyolos dolmen, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">described by Borrow, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Aryans a progressive race, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">occupation of Greece, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">when they crossed Indus, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">penetrate into North America, by what route, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Aryan, non-Aryan, equivalents of what, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Aschenrade, singular arrangement of circles, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ashdown, Sarsen stones at, <a href="#Page_121">121-3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">drawing of, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">contrasted with Carnac, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Druidical, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">or monument of battle between Saxons and Danes, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Asia Minor, dolmens not yet found in, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Asoka, King, monument of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">introduction of stone monuments in India, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his rock-engraved edict, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">convocation, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Aspatria, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">compared to Herrestrup, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Circles.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Asser cited as to battle between Saxons and Danes, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Astarte, <i>see</i>Melkart.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Asturias, dolmens in, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Atridæ, tombs of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Atreus, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Aubrey, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his account of Hakpen Hill, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cited, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Augustine, St., cession of temple at Canterbury to, <a href="#Page_22">22-3</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Augustus, tomb of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">no coins of, found in Britain, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Auisle, King, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Aurelius, <i>see</i>Ambrosius.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Axevalla, singular dolmen at, <a href="#Page_312">312-3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find there, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Aztecs, buildings of, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Avebury, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">age of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">pretended serpent worship, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">represented, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">vallum, ditch and circle, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Sarsens, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Kennet avenue, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">no curved avenues, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">double circle or oval, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">who interred there, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">author's opinion, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">holes, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Beckhampton avenue, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Silbury hill, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Waden hill, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">object of structure, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">theory of Druidical temples, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">disputed, <a href="#Page_66">66</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Avebury a burying-place, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">charter of Athelstan as to, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">stone row, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">plan of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sepulchral or battle-field, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">attached to circles, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">with or without circles or dolmens, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">example at St. Helier, Jersey, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">chamber there found buried, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Merivale Bridge, on Dartmoor, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">why erected, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">what they represent, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Avening, holes in chamber at, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Avenue. <i>See</i>Alignments, Avebury, Aylesford.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Averni Celts mentioned by Livy, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Aylesford, <a href="#Page_110">110</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
-<li class="isub2">Kit's Cotty House, what, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">description of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">why erected, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">erroneous view of Mr. Wright as to Belgian burials there, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Tollington, stones at, purpose of, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">obelisks or coffin stones, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in memory of what, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circles of Addington abbey, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Horstead, tumulus at, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">explored by Colonel Fisher, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">absence of valuables or other articles in tombs there, accounted</li>
-<li class="isub3">for, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">"Countless stones," <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">resembles Oroust, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">drawing of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">a supposed avenue near, <a href="#Page_117">117-8</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">other groups at Addington and near Kit's Cotty House, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Aylesford the stage of a battle between Vortigern and Saxons, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Bede's statement of locality of battle not conclusive, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">BABA, images of, buried, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Babylon, age of its palaces, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bactrian Greeks, influence of, upon Indian architecture, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Badon Hill, Arthur's battle there, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>. <i>See</i>Battles.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bahmany dynasty in India, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bähr, Professor, his book of Graves, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Baille clough togal dolmen, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Baker, Mr., his account of Aryan interments, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Balk, Saracenic arches, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ballina, <i>see</i>Maols.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ballo dolmen, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ballysadare, cairn at, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Balor of the Evil Eye, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Balquhain circle, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Banesdown battle, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bang, importance of monastery at, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bangkok, Buddhist monument at, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Barbarism of early Irish, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Barbato, monuments in, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Barbury Castle, siege of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bards, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">testify to Druids, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Barrows, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of Roman period, <a href="#Page_36">36</a> (<i>see</i>Bartlow Hills);</li>
-<li class="isub2">British, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Silbury, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">conical, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">their number and position, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">age of, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Derbyshire, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Yorkshire, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">on Boyne, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in Orkneys at Stennis;</li>
-<li class="isub2">bowl-shaped, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Sandwick, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">conoid barrows, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of what race the barrows, <a href="#Page_243">243-4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>see</i>Maes-Howe;</li>
-<li class="isub2">little barrows by thousands in Orkneys, of what race, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Halfdan's barrow, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Danish Royal barrow, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>Long</i>barrow at Lethra, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and at West Kennet, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">whose grave, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">explored by Thurnam, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find there, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">inference from, <a href="#Page_286">286-9</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">post-Roman, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">long barrow at Wiskehärad in Halland, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">what it marks, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">long barrows post-Roman, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">ship barrows, <a href="#Page_291">291-2</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">numerous in East France, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">holed chambers in long barrows at Kerlescant and Rodmarton, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Barry's 'Views in Orkneys,' <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bartlow Hills barrow, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">elevation, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bas Lowe, Arthur's table, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Basin, flat-bottomed, mysterious, <a href="#Page_216">216-7</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bassas, Arthur's battle on, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bateman, Messrs., diggings by, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140-4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">finds at Benty Grange, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and at Kenslow barrow, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">overlook monuments at Stanton Drew, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bateman, Mr., explores Arbor Lowe, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his and author's remarks on finds by, <a href="#Page_13">13-4</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bath, <i>see</i>Battles.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Battles.--Arthur's, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Ashdown, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Aylesford, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Badbury, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Badon Hill, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">place of Arthur's last battle disputed, <a href="#Page_86">86-7</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Banbury Hill, date of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Banesdon, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Bath, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Battlemoss, Yarhouse, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Braavalla, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280-2</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Deorham, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Kongsbacka, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Moytura, South and North, <a href="#Page_176">176</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Rollright, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Battlefields marked by megalithic remains, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Battlestones in Scotland, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Kirkliston, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bauta stones, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bazinas in North Africa, <a href="#Page_397">397-8</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Beaumont-sur-Oise, find at, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Beckhampton avenue, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">position of stone, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bede, his division of Kent explained, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">"Beds" of Diarmid and Graine, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Behring's Straits route of peoplers of America, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Beira dolmens, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Belgæ, absence of dolmens amongst, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">their pre-dolmen immigration into Britain, <a href="#Page_323">323-4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Belgæ or Firbolgs in Ireland, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Belgaum, altars and tables at, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Belgians, erroneous statement of interments at Kit's Cotty House, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bellovesus, his invasion of Italy, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Benares, style of architecture at, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Benty Grange barrow, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>. <i>See</i>Derbyshire.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Beowulf's poem contains incidents of Saxon burials, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Beowulf's victory over Wurm, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his interment, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his helmet, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his verses on Knock na Rea, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bernard, Commandant, his description of enormous dolmen at Tiaret,</li>
-<li class="isub3"><a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bertrand, Alexander, attacks Celtic origin of megalithic monuments,</li>
-<li class="isub3"><a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bertrand, M., <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his essay upon dolmens, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his theory as to migration of dolmen race, <a href="#Page_378">378-9</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">as to builders in North Africa, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Betal or Vetal, worship of, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bhils, Coles, Gonds and Toda, non-progressive tribes in India, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">their tenacity to usages, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bilithons, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Birck, dolmen enclosed in square, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Birra the hag, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">monastery, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.<i> note</i>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Biscay dolmens, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bits of Bridle, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.<i> See</i> Stukeley.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Blaine, Mr. D. R., his notes and sketch of dolmen at Kafr er Wâl, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Blair, Dr., engraves Carnac, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Blenda, Swedish heroine, her victory, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bluestones, if part of Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">whence the stones, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">story explained, <a href="#Page_108">108-9</a>. <i>See</i>Sarsens.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">"Bluetooth," <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Boece and Fordun, their fables, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Boinn, wife of Nechtan, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">"her small hound" buried with her, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bollandists' work silent as to Buddhism, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bona, circle near, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bonstetten, cited, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">map, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">according to, no dolmen in Poland, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Borlase cited as to Boscawen circles, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Borrow mentions monument at Arroyolos, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Borther Lowe, find at, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Boscawen, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>. <i>See</i>Circles.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Boucher de Perthes, collection by, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bouie's survey of New Grange, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bousquet, dolmen of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Boyne, monuments on, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">burials, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Braavalla Heath battle, <a href="#Page_280">280-2</a>. <i>See</i>Battle-fields.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brachenbyr dolmen, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brahmins, their domination in India, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Breas' invasion of Ireland and defeat, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brest Menhir, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brigantes join Silures, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">British chiefs massacred by Hengist, where, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">British isles described by Diodorus, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">not more prosperous before Roman invasion than in 5th century,</li>
-<li class="isub3"><a href="#Page_114">114-5</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Spaniards, Silures, settle in, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">British Rude-Stone Monuments,</li>
-<li class="isub2">how affected by conquest by and withdrawal of Romans, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Britons, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">peace with Saxons, when, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brittany, monuments in, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>. <i>See</i>Carnac.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Broad-pated race, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brochs, Scotch, resemble Nurhags, <a href="#Page_431">431</a> <i>note</i>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brodick Bay circles, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brogar, King of, in Orkneys, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">failure of search there, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">how to proceed, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tumuli, <a href="#Page_252">252-3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">compared to Stanton Drew circles, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bronze age, Stonehenge belongs to, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">as also tumuli in South of France, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brouillet, M., his work on Poitou, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brown, Mr., his account of Hydahs, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bruges, capital of Celts, temp. Bellovesi, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brugh, burial-place of Kings of Tara, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brugh na Boinne, burials at, <a href="#Page_191">191</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brunswick dolmens, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bryce, Dr., his observations in Arran, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Buckingham, Duke of, directs diggings at Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Buddha, Dagobas or Stupas of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Buddhagosa, no written books before, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Buddhism, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in India, <a href="#Page_458">458</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in the West, <a href="#Page_499">499</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in Christianity, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">monastic institutions, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">monasticism opposed to Egyptian institutions and Arab or Semitic</li>
-<li class="isub3">feeling, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">relation of Essenes to Buddhism, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">monasticism in India apparent from monuments and inscriptions, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">three convocations: cells: Viharas, Chaityas, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sculptures: Sanchi: Ascetics: Amravati shaven priests: date of</li>
-<li class="isub3">similar institutions in West, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">peculiarities of, separation of clergy from laity, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">canonization, relic worship, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date, silence of the Fathers, eloquence of architecture, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Buddhism Turanian, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">nature of the faith, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Turanians in Europe in Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">what with respect to stone monuments the West borrowed from the</li>
-<li class="isub3">East, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of what Buddhism was the reform, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Buddhist architecture, <a href="#Page_40">40-2</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Buddhist Topes <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">rails, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Lâts or Stambas, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">convocations, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Burials, usages of, in the Steppes, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Burmah, date of temples at, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dagobas, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Burmah and Siam, architecture of wood, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Burn Moor, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>. <i>See</i>Circles.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Burton, Right Hon. W., describes cairn Knock na Rea, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Butte de Cæsar, find there, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Buxton, rude monuments near. <i>See</i>Derbyshire.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">  CABEIRI, images of, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Caboul valley, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cæsar mentions Druids, but not their temples, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">stood, perhaps, at Carnac, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">inference from his and Pliny's silence, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Caerleon, or Chester, Arthur's ninth battle at, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cairns at Rath Cruachan, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Lough Crew, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Glen Columbkille, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Freyrsö, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Norway, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">the distribution of dolmens in Europe, <a href="#Page_301">301-2</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmens belong to a sea-faring race, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">four cairns enclosed in squares, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">compared to Aschenrade, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Jewurgi, <a href="#Page_471">471-2</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">probably battle-field, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">huge horned cairn Caithness, <a href="#Page_528">528</a>, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of "one Man," find there, <a href="#Page_178">178-9</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Caldwell, Mrs., find in possession of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Caledonians like Germans, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Caledonian Forest, place of Arthur's battle, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Callernish, age of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Calliagh Birra's House, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Calvaries in Brittany, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cambodia, monuments of, not ancient, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">style of buildings, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Camden, his remark as to place of interments at Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">as to Rollright and Rollo in England, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">as to Long Meg, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">as to ruins at Shap, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and Penrith, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Camster alignment, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cangas de Onis, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cannibalism of early Irish, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Canonization in the East, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Canterbury, Roman Cathedral at, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Canute forbids adoration of stones, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Caons, or Giants' circles, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cape St. Matthieu, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Carder Lowe, barrow opened at, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Carl Sverkersson slays Danish prince, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Carmaret, alignment at, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Carnac, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Rev. Bathurst Deane's plan of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Cæsar perhaps saw from it battle with Veneti, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">described, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">plan, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Carnutes, Druids' chief seat amongst, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Carrowmore, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">field of battle, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Carte, Mr., as to field of battle at Baydon hill, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Carthaginians in Spain, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">not building or burying race, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cartheilhac, M., his paper on megalithic monuments, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cas Tor avenue, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Castern, find at, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Castille, if dolmens in, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Castle Wellan dolmen, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cat stones, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>. <i>See</i>Derbyshire battle stones.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Catalonia, dolmens in, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cathair, or round fort, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of Tuatha de Danann, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of Cormac at Tara, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cathregomion, Cabregonnon, Catbregonnion, or Cathbregion, Arthur's</li>
-<li class="isub3">11th battle there, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>. <i>See</i>Stanton Drew.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Catigren, where buried, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>. <i>See</i>Kitt's Cotty House.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cattle spoil of Cooley, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cave men, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">like Red Indians, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">or Esquimaux, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">under what circumstances found in France, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and England, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cave races, gradations of style of monuments among, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Caves, early, in India, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Buddhist, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ceallach, murder of, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cedric, Saxon chief, <a href="#Page_88">88-9</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Celtiberians, <i>see</i>Iberians.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Celtic race, priests of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">whether French megalithic monuments belong to, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">their influence upon Etruria, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Celts, ready converts to Christianity, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date of the first invasion of Gaul, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">were earlier converts than dolmen builders, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">spread themselves through centre of France, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">either Celts or a prehistoric race built the dolmens, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">the Cave men, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">who these were, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmens and Cave men perhaps conterminous, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Cimbri, Celts, and Gauls, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Cimbri and Aquitanians, relation of, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">their capital temp. Bellevesi, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">described by Livy, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Averni, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">if dolmens in Galatia, important bearing upon Celtic theory, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">their invasions of other countries, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cemeteries of Ireland, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Cruachan, or Rathcrogan, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circular mounds there, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">monument of Dathi, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Relig na Riogh, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Red stone pillar, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circle, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cairns, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">burials, Queen Meave and Dathi, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">compared with Arbor Low and Salkeld, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Knowth, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">New Grange, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">plundered by Danes, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">first mentioned by Mr. Lloyd, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Sir T. Molyneux's statement, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Governor Pownall's, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">engravings of by Bouie, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">if uncovered, resemblance to Salkeld and Stanton Drew, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sculpture, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">reverses of stones elaborately carved, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">how such came to be covered, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">entrance, position of, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">ornaments, <a href="#Page_206">206-7</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sculptured mark, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">whether characters, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Dowth, or perhaps Dubhad, plundered by Danes, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">diggings, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find there, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Netterville House, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tomb of the Dagdha, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">perhaps intact, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find there, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">ornaments at Dowth, <a href="#Page_211">211-2</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">written evidence respecting these three cemeteries, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and persons buried, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">author's conjecture as to New Grange, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Lough Crew, <a href="#Page_213">213</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">if cemetery of Talten, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">choice of plan of cemetery amongst Irish, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">'Book of the Cemeteries' cited, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">stone in cairn T, Lough Crew, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">stones in sculptured graves, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Clover Hill, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Shahpoor, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cetti, stone of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ceylon dagobah, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Thupa Ramayana, and Lanka Ramayana, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chaityas, <i>see</i>Church Caves.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Champollion's discoveries, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chardin cited as to circles at Tabriz and Miana, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chariot wheels sculptured on dolmens, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Charlemagne condemns stone worship, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Charleton, Dr., <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Inigo Jones's theory attacked by, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chartham Downs, find at, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chartres Carnutes, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chester, <i>see</i>Caerleon.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">China, monuments of, not ancient, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chinese not progressive, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chisel, early use of, in Ireland, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chorœa Gigantum, <i>see</i>Giants' Dance.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chouchas in North Africa, <a href="#Page_398">398-9</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">position of bodies in, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Christian era, rude-stone monuments subsequent to, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">according to Danes, iron introduced about commencement of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Christianity, according to Welsh and Irish writers, their Druids prior</li>
-<li class="isub3">to, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date of introduction into Denmark, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">into India, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in what respect influenced by Buddhism, <a href="#Page_499">499</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Christians in India, <i>see</i>Crosses.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Christy, Mr., his researches in Algeria, <a href="#Page_395">395-6</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Church caves at first more important than Viharas, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cimboeth marks date in Irish history, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">founds Armagh, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cimbri, their cognate races, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cimbrian Chersonese visited by Pytheas, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Circassia, dolmens in, of shaped stone, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">importance of, to migration or missionary theory, <a href="#Page_447">447-8</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Circles, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Englewood Wood, or Rosehill tumulus, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">platform, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">bilithons, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Aspatria, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">barrow, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find, <a href="#Page_156">156-7</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circle of cists in Isle of Man, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Mule Hill, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">view and plan of, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">openings to circle, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Burn Moor, Cumberland, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find there, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">square enclosure there, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">plan, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Boscawen not Temples nor "Things," <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">plan of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Moytura, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">triple, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sculptured, enclosing crosses, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">mysterious concentric circles, with lines traversing them, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">the use of circles and Viking graves continuous in Ireland and</li>
-<li class="isub3">England, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">singular arrangement at Aschenrade and in Algeria, <a href="#Page_317">317-8</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circles with stone in centre at Bajard, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circular groups in India, <a href="#Page_467">467</a> (<i>see</i>Bazina, Choucha);</li>
-<li class="isub2">Alexandropol circles, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Nikolajew concentric circles, base of tumulus, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Western circles not imitation of Tartar, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Peshawur, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Deh Ayeh, near Darabgerd, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circles attributed to Caons or Giants, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">enclosed circles in America, <a href="#Page_511">511-3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Caithness (<i>see</i>Scotland);</li>
-<li class="isub2">Amravati, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Circles, great English, peculiar, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and belong probably to Arthurian age, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">post-Roman, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of what race, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in Wales and Anglesea no circles, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Giant's grave, Drumbo, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circle there object of, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in Scotland, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">district of circles <i>par excellence</i>not on mainland, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Orkneys, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">King of Brogar and Stennis, <a href="#Page_241">241-2</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">part of entire group, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Callernish, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circle-building race, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">opposite currents of migration, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Braavalla Heath, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in France, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circle the skeleton of tumulus, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circle at Sesto Calende, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">semicircle, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circles, <a href="#Page_397">397-9</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">triple and quadruple, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">enclosed in squares, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Djideli, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Bona, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Malta, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Sinai, <a href="#Page_443">443-4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Arabia, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Circles surrounding tumuli or dolmens, circles without tumuli or</li>
-<li class="isub3">dolmens, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Addington, <a href="#Page_118">118-9</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Rollright, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Dartmoor, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Penrith, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">concentric, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> <i>note</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Marden, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Shap, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Merivale Bridge, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Arbor Low, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Stanton Drew, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Circular temple mentioned by Diodorus among Hyperboreans, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cissa, King, his tomb where, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cists, <i>see</i>Kistvaens.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Civil and sacred structures, where indistinguishable, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Clark, Mr. George, his paper on Ancient English Castles, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Clatford Bottom, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Sarsen stones at, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circles at, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Claudian, verses of, as to disasters of Saxons, Picts, and Scots, in</li>
-<li class="isub3">the North, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Claudius Gothicus, coins of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Claudius, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Clava, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circles and mounds, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">perhaps burial-place of King Brude, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Clemens of Alexandria, his surprise at relic-worship, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">as to Buddhism, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Clergy and laity, separation of, in the East, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Closmadeuc, Dr., antiquary, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Clover Hill, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cnodhba, cave of, identified with Knowth, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cock sacrificed to Betal, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cocumella, tomb at, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cœlus, God, Stonehenge ascribed to, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cœre, tomb at, <a href="#Page_33">33-4</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cogolleros, dolmen del Tio, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Coibi, his conversion, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Coilsfield, rubbing on stone at, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">stone, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Coins, Roman, of what Emperors generally found, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in Ireland, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">inference from, <i>see</i>Finds.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cojou, Gré de, alignment at, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cole, <i>see</i>Bhil.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cole, Lieutenant, his report as to Kutub pillar, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Collas barrow mentioned in Charter of Athelstan, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Collinson, Colonel, finds columnar buildings in Malta, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Columba, St., <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Columbus, America peopled by Europeans prior to, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Columns, <i>see</i>Alignment.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Come Lowe, find at, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Commerce of early Britons, with what races, <a href="#Page_133">133-4</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Conaing, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Conan, <i>see</i>Meriadec.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Concentric circles, <i>see</i>Circles.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Conchobhar McNessa, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">husband of Queen Meave, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his conversion, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">where buried, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Confolens, dolmen at, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cong, at Moytura, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">place of battle, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Conical form, Roman and Post-Roman, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Conjeveran, city of Kurumbers, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Conn of a Hundred Battles, <a href="#Page_193">193-7</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Cormac MacArt.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Conor MacNessa, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Constantine, Saxons defeated by, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his supposed interment at Stonehenge, and when, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">coins, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Constantine Junior, coins of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Constantinople, coins of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Constans, coins of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Constantius, coins of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Conwell, Mr., exploration of Lough Crew, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Copenhagen, congress at, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">museum, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cormack, son of Conn, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">where buried, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cormack MacArt, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">convert to Christianity, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">orders tracts to be written, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">could he write? <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cornelius, tradition as to, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cornwall, circles, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circle-building race in, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Corpre, Etan's son, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Costa, S. Pereira da, his account of Portuguese dolmens, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cotty or Coity House, <i>see</i>Aylesford.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Councils of Arles, Nantes, Rouen, Toledo, Tours, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">their decrees as to stoneworship, <a href="#Page_23">23-4</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Countless Stones, <i>see</i>Aylesford.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Court held at standing stones of Rayne by Bishop of Aberdeen, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cove, Long stone, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cremation amongst Saxons, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Crew, Lough, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Crichie, find at, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Crimthann, when he lived, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">where buried, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">seat of his dynasty, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Croker, Mr., his survey of Stanton Drew, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Crom, meaning of word, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>note</i>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cromlech, near Merivale, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">among M[a]la Aryans, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Dolmen.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cross Flats, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Crosses, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Irish, how distinguished from Scottish, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Isle of Man, with Runic inscriptions, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">crosses in circles, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">"Swastica"-like cross, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in India, and their date, <a href="#Page_486">486</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Crozon, alignment at, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">what battle there, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cruachan, ancient burial-place of Kings of Tara, find, <a href="#Page_190">190-9</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Crubelz, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Crusades, rude-stone monuments in time of, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cuchullin, <a href="#Page_193">193-7</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cumberland, no mention of Druids in, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">rude monuments, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circles in, probably of same age, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circle-building race in, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cumbhail (Fingal), <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cumot, or Commensurate grave of Cairbre Lifeachaire, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cumrew, Salkeld and Mayborough, circles at, similar, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cuneus, Cape, unvisited by Portuguese writers, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cunningham, Lord Albert, finds by, at Dowth, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cunnington, Mr., his opinion as to Marden, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">excavation by, at Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_105">105-6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">finds in long barrows, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Curtius cited as to Nasomenes, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cuthbert, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cuttack, sacred groves at, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cyvragnon, pile of, mentioned in Welsh Triads, what, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">  DABILLA, the hound, interment of, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Daghda, the general, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and king, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">where buried, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">when, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">real name Eochy, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cairn of, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">residence, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his spit, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">family, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his tomb where, according to author, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">written evidence as to, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dagoba, Buddhist, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">relic, cists, Tee, rail, <a href="#Page_490">490-1</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">compared to dolmen at Pullicondah, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dananns, Tuatha de, <a href="#Page_177">177</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">arrival in Ireland, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">when, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">burial of, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Ireland, Moytura.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Danes, cemeteries plundered by, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Danish antiquaries, their opinion as to epoch of introduction of</li>
-<li class="isub3">bronze and iron into Denmark, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">their system respecting, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">too hastily adopted in France and England, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">their mistaken proceedings, <a href="#Page_10">10-14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">International Congress of Prehistoric Archæology, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">merits of Sjöborg, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Danish isles, dolmens in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Danish settlers in Greenland, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in Britain and Scotland before Roman invasion, <a href="#Page_133">133-4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">commerce, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Daoulas, menhir and cross at, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Darabgerd, circle near, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dariorigum, standing stones of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dartmoor parallel stones at Merivale Bridge, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circles and cromlechs, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">avenues at Cas Tor, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circles compared with those at Rollright, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dasyus the despised, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Date, priority of, in dolmens external or covered, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dates, found and corrected by architects, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">comparative antiquity of certain classes of monuments, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">rude-stone sometimes more modern, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dathi, monument of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Daviot circle, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dead, images of, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Deane, Rev. Bathurst, adopts Stukeley's views, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">visits Carnac, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Decrees of Councils respecting veneration of stone monuments, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dedalean buildings in Sardinia, why so called, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Deer Park, Sligo, monument in, <a href="#Page_234">234-5</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Defence, <i>see</i>Mounds.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Deh Ayeh, circle at, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Delhi, iron pillar near, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">mosque of Kutb u deem, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Demi-dolmens, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Demons, <i>see</i>St. Patrick.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Denmark, megalithic remains in, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">museums, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">bronze and iron, date of their introduction into, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tombs of kings described by Olaus Magnus, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">ignorance of Romans respecting, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tumuli in, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circles in, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Bauta or battle-stones, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dennis' 'Etruria' cited, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Derbyshire dolmens, date of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">rude-stone monuments in, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Derbyshire Rude-Stone Monuments, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Arbor Low, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">description of, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">similarity to Arthur's Round Table, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">plan of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circle, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tumulus, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">excavations and find there, <a href="#Page_140">140-1</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Gib Hill tumulus, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">excavation and find, <a href="#Page_141">141-2</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Minning Low, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">plans of, <a href="#Page_142">142-3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find there, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">similarity to New Grange, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and Kit's Cotty House, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">first Roman, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Benty Grange barrow, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find there, <a href="#Page_144">144-5</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Kentlow barrow, <a href="#Page_45">45-6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Stanton Moor, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">monuments of earth and stone, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Nine Ladies, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">King Stone, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">other groups near Arbor Low, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cat stones, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Derbyshire monuments not temples nor tombs of inhabitants, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">monuments of what race? <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">similar in purpose and age to those in Cumberland, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find in former, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Stanton Drew, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Devil's Quoits, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Devonshire, circles in, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Diarmid and Graine, <i>see</i>Beds.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dinnsenchus, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Diodorus, cited as to circular temple, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">text explained, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">as to barbarism of Irish, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Phœnicians in Malta in his time, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Dedalean buildings, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Divitiacus, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Djideli, tombs near, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">whose, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find there, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dodwell, tombs of Atridæ discovered by, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">that of Minyas explored, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dolicocephalic race, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dolmens, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">free-standing, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">on outside of tumuli, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">progress of tomb-building, <a href="#Page_40">40-43</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">kistvaens, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">chambers, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">with gallery, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmens covered, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">uncovered, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">opinion that all once covered with tumuli refuted, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen at Wellan, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">de Bousquet, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">excavation suggested of dolmen-crowned tumuli, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Kit's Cotty House, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Rollright, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in Cumberland (<i>see</i>Penrith);</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Arbor Low, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">France native country of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">few in England, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and most of English in Cornwall, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in Wales more numerous, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and Anglesea, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and Isle of Man, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">by whom erected, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">where, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">all not originally buried, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">some always intended to be covered, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen in Park Cwn tumulus, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find there, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Uley, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find there, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">judicious conclusions of Dr. Thurnam from, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Plas Newydd, <a href="#Page_166">166-9</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">stone avenue leading to, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">holes in slab, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Pentre Ifan, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Arthur's Quoit, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">whether originally in tumulus, <a href="#Page_171">171-2</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">alleged avenue, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">group of cairns there, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">purpose, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">not a cemetery, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">but battle-field? <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Arthur's 8th battle there? <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">the stone of "Cetti," <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Hob Hurst's House, <a href="#Page_172">172-3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dates of dolmens, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Moytura, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in Ireland, how situated, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">not on battle-fields, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">perhaps most on east coast, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">beds of Diarmid, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">elopement of, with Graine, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">legend as to dolmens, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">legitimate inference from legend, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Glen Columbkill and Glen Malin More, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cairns there, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">age of, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tradition as to St. Columba, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of what race the group, <a href="#Page_227">227-8</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Spaniards or Iberians in Ireland, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">giant's grave, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circle there, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">object of, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Town of the Stone of the Strangers, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen at Knockeen, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Knockeen, plans of, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Calliagh Vera or Birra, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Greenmount tumulus, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">the "four Maols," Ballina, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmens in Ireland do not mark battle-fields, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmens in Scotland, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">many dolmens erected by kings, &amp;c., as their burial-places, and</li>
-<li class="isub3">covered after their interment, <a href="#Page_260">260</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">comparative antiquity of Callernish and New Grange, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmens in North Germany, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">silence of German archæology, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">no dolmens in Poland, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Prussia, <i>ib.</i>:</li>
-<li class="isub2">Silesia, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Prussian Silesia, Pomerania, Rügen, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Mecklenburg, Hanover, Oldenburg, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Wildesheim and Engelmanns Becke, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Helmstädt, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Holland, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Saxony, Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Holstein Schleswig, Jutland, Danish isles, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Sweden, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">none in Norway, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Herrestrup, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen with representations of ships, and circles with crosses,</li>
-<li class="isub3"><a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">analogous to dolmen at Aspatria, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Halskov, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Oroust, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmens in the different countries have distinguishing features,</li>
-<li class="isub3"><i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">oblong enclosures, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">diagram from Sjöborg, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Roeskilde and Birck dolmens with oblong enclosures, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Lüneburg, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Hanover, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Valdbygaards, near Soröe, double dolmen, <a href="#Page_308">308-9</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">triple dolmens, Höbisch, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sentinel stones, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">buried dolmens, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Uby, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Smidstrup, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Axevalla, and find there, <a href="#Page_312">312-3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmens,   elliptical and oblong, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">age of, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">inscription at Axevalla, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">head-stone with drawings on it, of Kivik Grave, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">its resemblance to one at Locmariaker, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen at Exlo, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">peculiarity of Drenthe dolmens, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Ballo, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">distribution of dolmens map, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">pre-dolmen immigration of Belgæ into Britain, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Luxemburg, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Belgians and pure Celts not dolmen builders, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sequences of dolmens, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Sauclières, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">St. Germain-sur-Vienne or Confolens, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date of, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">demi-dolmens, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">others in Ireland and Wales, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Poitiers and Kerland, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">rocking stones, Pierre Martine, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">whether accidental, <a href="#Page_347">347-9</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Pierre branlante de Huelgoat, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">double dolmen at Plouharnel, and find, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmens, &amp;c., if built with small stones, more modern, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Mané Lud, dolmen with sculptured stones, similar to Irish, <a href="#Page_360">360-3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Dol ar Marchant, sculpture decorations, <a href="#Page_361">361-2</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Bertrand's list of dolmens in France, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">termination of names in ac, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmens in Spain, Portugal, <a href="#Page_377">377</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen race, migration of, <a href="#Page_378">378-9</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Spain, Antequera, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">its stone town once wholly buried, circle, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">contrasted with Stonehenge, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Tio Cogolleros, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Sepultura Grande, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">compared to what, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen near Dilar, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Eguilar, Cangas de Onis, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen of San Miguel, Arrichinaga, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Portugal, Arroyolos, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Cangas de Onis, Arrichinaga, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">why not so numerous in Italy, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">influence of conquest and withdrawal of Romans upon, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">distribution in Algeria, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">principal dolmen region, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Tiaret, enormous dolmen there, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Tripoli, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Morocco, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">but not near populous centres, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">inference thence as to nomadic origin, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen on steps, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">on a circled tumulus, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">with two circles of stones, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">resemblance to Kit's Cotty House, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmens on road from Bona to Constantine, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">no dolmens in Phœnicia nor in their colonies, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Nurhags and giants' towers earlier than dolmens, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in Palestine, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in Gilead, whether of the giant tribe, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">long interval from the first Indian dolmen at Peshawur, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">query as to dolmens in Asia Minor, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">holed dolmen in Circassia, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">migration theory of dolmens, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">missionary theory, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">important bearing of searches in the Steppes upon theories, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Tartar tumuli not models of Western dolmens, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">space unexplored for dolmens in East, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Rajunkoloor, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmens with holes, find, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">double circles round dolmens at Yemmee Gooda, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">arrangement of dolmens at Rajunkoloor, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Nilgiri hills: Courg double dolmens with circular openings, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tomb, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sepulchral circles at Amravati, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">rail there, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">geographical distribution, <a href="#Page_475">475</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of what race, <a href="#Page_476">476</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">age of, <a href="#Page_479">479</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">finds in Indian dolmens, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Nilgiri sculptured dolmen, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">singular position of one at Iwallee, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">stone monuments at Shahpoor, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Katapur, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen with cross in Nirmul jungle, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">illustration of Romish policy, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen at Pullicondah compared with Cingalese Dagoba, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Eastern and European dolmen compared, <a href="#Page_494">494</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">whether connexion between them to be inferred from similarity, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">or from literature, or from rock-engraved edict of Asoka, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Glen Columbkille;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen near Bona, Algeria, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dordogne, monuments in, insufficient knowledge of, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Doric supersedes Pelasgic style, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">earliest Doric temple, interval between and last Pelasgic tomb, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dowe Lowe, "find" in, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Down, English tumuli on, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dowth Hill, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">the Dagdha's Rath at, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his son born there, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dracontia, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>. <i>See</i>Serpent, Stukeley.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dragon in Maes-Howe, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Drenthe, dolmens in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Hunebeds at, their extent, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">compared by Keysler to Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">described by Dr. Janssen, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Hunebeds, grottes des fées, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dresden, dolmens destroyed near, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Drew, Stanton, circles at, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Drosten, name inscribed on stone, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Druids, human sacrifices by, at Stonehenge, no longer believed, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Dr. Stukeley's fancy respecting their temples, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Cæsar's account of them, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">serpent worship supposed, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">by Stukeley and Sir R. C. Hoare, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Druids in Mona met by Suetonius, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">none ever seen in regions of principal rude monuments, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">nor in Algeria nor India, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in Wales, according to Welsh writers, before Christianity</li>
-<li class="isub3">introduced, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">controversy in France respecting so-called Druidical monuments,</li>
-<li class="isub3"><i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">difficulty of connecting them with Druids, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Stukeley's idea adopted by Deane, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Stonehenge pretended to be their observatory, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">remarks of author, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">gods worshipped by Druids, according to Cæsar, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Druidical institutions in India, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Druids and serpents, freedom of Sjöborg from errors as to, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dryden, Sir Henry, explores Carnac, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">near Emmen, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and Caithness, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">letter from, to author, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cited, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his drawings of Gavr Innis, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">describes Gré de Cojou, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Duald Mac Firbis, antiquary, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dubois, cited, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Duglas or Dubglas River, Arthur's battle on, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">meaning of word, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dunadeer Circle, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Du Noyer, M., cited, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">drawings, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dutthagamini, <i>see</i>Ellala.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">  EADWARD, contemporary of Rollo, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">East, <i>see</i>Palestine.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Easter Island, images in, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Eguilar dolmen, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Egypt, iron when introduced into, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Egyptians, tomb building race, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">pyramids contained true and false tombs, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">their feelings as to monasticism, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">royal monasteries and residences indistinguishable, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Eithlenn, daughter of Balor, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ellala, his defeat by King Dutthagamani commemorated by Dagoba, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Elliot, Sir Walter, cited on Indian interments, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Elliptical dolmens, <i>see</i>Dolmens.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ellis, Mr., his opinion that Stonehenge was an Observatory, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ellora and Elephanta, dates of, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Elopement of Diarmid with Graine, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Emmen, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>. <i>See</i>Hunebed.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Emmrys, work of, in Welsh Triads, what, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Enclosures, dolmens with, <a href="#Page_307">307</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in America, for defence, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sacred and miscellaneous, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">End Low mound, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>. <i>See</i>Derbyshire.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">England, circle-building race in, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen-building race, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">old race in, improved by Celts and Romans, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Engelmanns-Becke, dolmen near, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">English idolatry, letter of Gregory the Great concerning, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Eochy, King, tradition as to his bath, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his death, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Eochy the Daghda, <a href="#Page_192">192</a> <i>note</i>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Erdeven, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Eric Blodoxe, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sons of, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Eric the Holy, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Eskil, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Esquimaux, Cave men similar to, in what respects, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Es Salt, dolmens near, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Essenes, their connexion with Buddhism, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Estremadura, dolmens in, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Etan, poetess, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">where buried, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ethelbert, cedes temple at Canterbury to Augustine, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ethnography, <i>see</i>Races.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Etrurians, tomb-building race, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dead reverencing, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tomb of Commella, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of Regulini Galeassi, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">contents of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">belong to age of bronze, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">imitated at Rome, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Europe, Northern, limited knowledge of, before Roman epoch, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Eusufzaie circles, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li>
-
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">  FA HIAN, his visit to Sanchi, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Faidherbe, General, his remarks on tombs in Roknia, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Family sepulchres marked by megalithic monuments, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Faussett, Mr. Godfrey, his happy reference to Beowulf, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Féraud, M., his researches in Algeria, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his opinion as to building-race, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">respecting find at Djideli, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ferguson, Mr., drawings by, of sepulchres at Dol ar Marchant, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fiddes Hill circle, <a href="#Page_263">263-5</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fin, his conflict with Hengist, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Finds: altar stone, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">armour, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">amber beads, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">amulet of</li>
-<li class="isub2">iron, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">arrow-head, flint, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">ditto, iron, <a href="#Page_104">104-6</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">awl, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">axe-stone, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">ball syenite, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">batter dishes, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">battle-axe, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">basaltic celt, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and hammer head, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">beads of glass, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">and of amber, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">bird of bone, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">bluestone, chippings of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">bones, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">burnt, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">charred, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">calcined, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">human bones, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">bones of animals, <a href="#Page_143">143-5</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">bones of mammalia, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">of horse, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">dogs, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">rats, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">stags, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">oxen, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">of men, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">bones incinerated, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">bone bodkin, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">comb, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">box of bronze, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">brass, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">brass or copper pin, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">spear-head, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">bracelet, gold, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">bridle bit, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">bronze, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">buckle, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and heads, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">of gold, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">burial urn, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cap ornamented with gold, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">carvings, rude, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">celt, basaltic, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">stone, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">of bronze, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">of jade, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">chamber, rude, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">charcoal, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">chief, and wife and children, remains of, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">chippings of stones, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circular instrument, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circumcision, instruments of, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cists, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140-1</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155-6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">coal, Kimmeridge, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">coins (<i>see</i>Roman Coins);</li>
-<li class="isub2">coins, German, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">Anglo-Saxon, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">Byzantine, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">Arabic or Kufic, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">coins, Roman, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">brass coins, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Claudius, Gothicus, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Constantine, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">family of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Constans, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Constantine II., <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Constantinopolis, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Constantine Junior, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">Gratian, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">Hadrian, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">from Tiberius to Trojan, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">Theodosius, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">Urbs Roma, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">Valens, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">Valentinian, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">combs, engravings on, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">compass, leg of, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">comb, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">copper, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cromlechs, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cylinder partially pierced, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dagger, bronze, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">brass or bronze, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dart or javelin point, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dog's bones, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">drinking cup (fragments), <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">earthenware, <a href="#Page_525">525</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">electrum plate, part of quiver ornamented with figures of animals</li>
-<li class="isub3">and Greek inscription, <a href="#Page_446">446-7</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">enamels, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">engraved dagger and Wurm knot, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">fibula, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">fibula, gold, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">flat basin, large, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">flint, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">fragments of, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">flakes, and instruments of, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">flowers, silver, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Faustina, medal of, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">garnets, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">giant, remains of, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">glass, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">glass beads, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">glass, molten drop of, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">gold-enamelled necklace and bracelets, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">gold cross, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">necklace, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">brooch, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">ornaments, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">goblet, silver, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">gold, traces of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">hair, human, chestnut-coloured, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">hammer-head, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">handle of knife, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">helmets ornamented with bronze and silver, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">hone of sandstone, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">horns, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">stags', <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">of other animals, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">horse, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">bones and teeth of, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">teeth, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">bones, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">human remains, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">ashes and bones, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">hair, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">human interments, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">original or secondary, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">inscriptions, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">implements of flint and bone, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">of iron, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">of modern form, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">of flint, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">inscriptions, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">instruments, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">ironstone, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">ivory tweezers, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">jade, axes in, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">jet bracelet, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">ornaments, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">knife, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">knife with iron sheath, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">iron, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">knife-shaped articles, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">lacrymatory, Roman, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">medal, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">metal, lump, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">nails, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">ornaments, Anglo-Saxon, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">rude, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">more refined, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">of goblet, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">dragons, tortoise, fantastic heads of animals, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">in gold and bronze, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">and copper, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">oyster shells, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">pebbles, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">pin, iron, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">bronze ditto, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">copper, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">pine poles partly burnt, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">point, flint, of dart or javelin, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">pottery, fine, broken, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">pottery, rude, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">Roman, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">black, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">fine, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">red and black, rude British, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">Roman British, or Mediæval, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">precious stones, traces of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">punch, iron, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">rat's bones, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">ring, gold, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">iron, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">bronze, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Runes, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">representations of stag and camels, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">shield, fragments of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">silver-flower sword-ornaments, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">slate, <a href="#Page_525">525</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">spear-heads, flint or stone, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">skulls, human, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_525">525</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">snaffle bridle, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sword, iron, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">syenite, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sea shells, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">silver, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">skeletons, human, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sling-stones, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">spear-head, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">of brass, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sculptured slab, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">stained fragments, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">stag's bones, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">statuettes, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">stone, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">polished stones, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">stone button, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">stone shot, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">studs of coal, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tiles, Romano-Gallic, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">others, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">teeth of animals, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">human, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">of horse, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tweezers, ivory, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">terra cotta, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">torques, gold, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">silver, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">urns, <a href="#Page_11">11-13</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">with ashes, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">of stone, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">for burial, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">vases, <a href="#Page_140">140-1</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">whetstone, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">wood, coals, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">wood, burnt, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">wood, dark, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Finds in Denmark, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Derbyshire, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Winster Moor, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Pegges Barrow, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Long Rood, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Haddon Field Barrow, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Gib Hill, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Cross Flats, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Galley Lowe, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Minning Lowe, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Borther Lowe, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Rolley Lowe, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Ashford Moor, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Carder Lowe, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">New Inns, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Net Lowe, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Castern, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Chartham Downs, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Stand Lowe, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Wetton and Ilam, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Middleton Moor. <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Come Lowe, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Dowe Lowe. <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">valley of Somme, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Abbeville, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Gray's Inn Lane, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Nineveh, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Avebury, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Crichie, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Hakpen, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">contents of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tumuli, analysis of contents of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">finds at Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_103">103-5</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at West Kennet, <a href="#Page_285">285</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">inferences from, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">inference from nature of, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">from coins, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">from absence of British, Gallic, and Christian coins, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">from Roman pottery, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">few inferences of age possible from finds in India, and why, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">no iron or bronze, but copper, in North America, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and tools only of copper, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Finn, suitor of Graine, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Firbolgs, or Belgæ, in Ireland, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">when, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">defeat at Moytura, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">how long in Ireland, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">whence they came thither, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fire, worship of, forbidden by Councils, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Flann, son of Conaing, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Flint remains found at Abbeville, <a href="#Page_16">16</a> <i>note</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">inference from, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">symbolic of what, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Finds.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Flower, Mr., account of African monuments, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and their builders, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ford, Mr., his 'Handbook of Spain.'</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fordun, <i>see</i>Boece.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fomorians, from Africa settled in Ireland, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dispossessed by Belgæ, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of same race as Dananns, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Forres, Sweno's stone at, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fountains, worship of, <a href="#Page_24">24-5</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fouquet, M., <i>see</i>Galles, M.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Four-cornered grave, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">"Four Masters" cited, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">France, climate of, at epoch of "Cave men," <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">finds in, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">menhirs, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">a single sculptured stone there, <a href="#Page_59">59</a> <i>note</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">French study of rude-stone monuments, recent, but scientific, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">'Dictionnaire des Antiquités Celtiques,' <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Bertrand, M., his map of France, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">general distribution of French monuments, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">no dolmens in East of France, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date of Celtic first invasion of Gaul, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">two early contemporary races in, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">the 'ac' termination, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">church architecture in dolmen region of the South of France, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">form of dolmen distinguishes dolmens in Brittany from those in South</li>
-<li class="isub3">of France, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Confolens, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">plan of, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">error of French antiquaries, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find, <a href="#Page_337">337-9</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmens, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">size, number, and beauty of, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">few and imperfect circles, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">"Allée couverte" or "Grotte des Fées," <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">examples of, elsewhere than in France, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">their distribution here, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Saumur, Essé, Locmariaker, Bagneux, Mettray, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">form of French dolmens, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Krukenho, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">comparative age of, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">demi-dolmens, rocking stones, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_345">345</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Carnac, cemetery and battle-field, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">alignments, Carnac and Erdeven, St. Barbe, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Maenec and Kermario, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">map, <a href="#Page_352">352-3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">stone rows, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">differ how, from Stonehenge and Stennis, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">head of column of St. Barbe, Mont St. Michel, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Kerlescant, find, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Plouharnel, double dolmen and find, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">long barrow, Moustoir-Carnac, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Locmariaker, cemetery, dolmen, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sculptured stones at Mané Lud, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen, Dol ar Marchant, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">end stone and roof, sculptured, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">fallen obelisk, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">compared to dolmen at Krukenho, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">allée couverte, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">ornamented stones, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Mané er H'roëk, and find, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Gavr Innis, sculptured stones, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">resemble sculptures at Lough Crew, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">three-holed stone, tools used, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Tumiac, tumulus and find, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Crozon alignments, their origin and purpose obscure, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Gré de Cojou, double alignment, circle, enclosures, dolmen, <a href="#Page_367">367-8</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Preissac, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date and object of monuments at Carnac, <a href="#Page_370">370</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Carnac, Erdeven, and St. Barbe, are they parts of one whole? <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">argument against their existence in Cæsar's time, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">not pre-Roman, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">early history not satisfactory, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">battle between Maximus and Gratian, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Conan Meriadec, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">author's view as to origin of Carnac monuments, <a href="#Page_374">374-5</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Grallon's war with Liberius and Northern pirates, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Romans never settled in Brittany, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">effect there of Roman building-style, ib;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and of withdrawal of Romans, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Franks, M., his photograph of Ballo dolmen, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">French antiquaries, errors of, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Frere, Mr., his find at Abbeville, <a href="#Page_16">16</a> <i>note</i>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Freyrsö, battle at, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Frey's Howe, opened, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Friar's Heel stone at Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Frode Frodegode, tomb of, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Frode V., <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
-
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">  GALATIA, importance of dolmens there, if any, to Celtic theory, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Galles, M. René, explores Mont St. Michel,<a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">with M. Fouquet explores Tumiac, find, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Galley Low, find at, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gallicia, dolmens in, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ganora, <i>see</i>Guinevere.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gariock, Newton stone at, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Garrywhin alignment, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gaul, Pliny's tale of snakes in, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">no stone temples in, mentioned by Cæsar or Tacitus, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gavr Innis, in Morbihan, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sculptures, holed stone, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">compared to Lough Crew, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">holes and trough below, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">object of it.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Geraldus Cambrensis, his statement as to removal of stones to</li>
-<li class="isub3">Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">how fable originated, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Germans, worship of, in groves only, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Germany, North (<i>see</i>Scandinavia); dolmens in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gervaise mentions cemetery at Canterbury, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ghazni, Saracenic arches at, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Giant tribes in Palestine, builders of dolmens? <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circles, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">"Giant's dance," Geraldus and Ware cited as to, <a href="#Page_107">107</a> <i>note</i>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Giant's grave, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circle there, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Giants' towers, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Giara, plan of, Nurhag of, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>. <i>See</i>Mediterranean Islands.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gib Hill, find at, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <i>see</i>Derbyshire;</li>
-<li class="isub2">analogue of Silbury Hill, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gildas cited, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">as to interments at Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gilead, dolmens in, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">last safe place for dolmens before India, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gizeh, date of pyramid of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Glasfurd, Capt., find by, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Glem, or Glein, river, Arthur's battle near, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Glen Columbkille, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Glen Columbkille and Glen Malin, survey of Mr. Norman Moore, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cromlechs or dolmens, stone chambers, solitary stones, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">plan of one, <a href="#Page_521">521</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">groups of, <a href="#Page_523">523-4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find, <a href="#Page_525">525</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">resemblance of one to Calliagh Birra's tomb, <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Glen Malin More, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Godmundingham, destruction of church at, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gond, <i>see</i>Bhil.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gongora y Martinez, Don, his work cited, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gordon, Principal, anecdotes of, respecting holed stones at Stennis,</li>
-<li class="isub3"><a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gorm, monument of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date of, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dragon on, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gothland perhaps mentioned by Diodorus, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Göttenburg, drawings of ships on stones at, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Göttingen, no dolmens in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gower caves, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gozo, spirals and scrolls at, compared to those at Mycenæ, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Graine, daughter of Cormac Mac Art, <i>see</i>Beds.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Grallon, king of Briton, his wars, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Grandmont, holed dolmen at, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Grange, New, cairns at, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gratian, defeat of, in Brittany, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Grave, four cornered, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Greece, Aryan occupation of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">early tombs in Greece, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">succession of architectural styles, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>. <i>See</i>Bactrian.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Greeks of Bactria introduce usage of stone monuments in India, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Greek kings mentioned by Asoka, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Greenland, route of early peoplers of America, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Greenmount, tumulus at, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">diggings at, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Greenwell, Canon, his researches as to prehistoric tumuli, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gregory the Great, letter of, respecting English idols, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gröningen, dolmens in <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Grottes des Feés, <i>see</i>Alées couvertes.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Groups of stones in England, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Groves, sacred, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Guest, Dr., accuracy of his dates, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">opinions as to place of Arthur's last battle, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Guidebert circle, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Guin, Arthur's 8th battle there, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Guinevere, where born and buried? <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Guzerat, ruins in, of Mahommedan city, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">  HACAS PEN, <i>see</i>Hakpen Hill.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hadrian, mausoleum of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">coins of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hagiar Khem, plan of cone, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">pit-markings, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">altar, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">headless image, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hag's Hill, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>. <i>See</i>Slieve na Calliage.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Haken, his victory, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hakpen Hill, circle and avenue, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">double circles, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Dr. Stukeley's theory as to, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dimensions, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">mentioned in Charter of Athelstane, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dimensions of ovals, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">stones, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date of interments, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Camden's account, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Saxon and Danish burials, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Roman road at, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hale Farm, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Halkor, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen, with drawing of ships, circles with crosses or</li>
-<li class="isub3">chariot-wheels, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hamlet, citation from, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hannibal in Spain, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hanover dolmen, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">with enclosure, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Harald Blaatand, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Harald Hildetand, his defeat, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">grave, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Harold Harfagar, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">when took the Orkneys, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Haugagerdium, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Havard the Happy, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Havard, Earl, where interred, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hauran, Roman tombs in the, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Haxthausen, cited as to Steppes, <a href="#Page_448">448-9</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Head-stone, <i>see</i>Kivik.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hecatæus cited, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Height of mound an indication of its age, <a href="#Page_142">142</a> <i>note</i>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Helmstädt, once dolmens were near, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hengist and Horsa, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Hengist's grandson, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his treachery, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Henry of Huntingdon cited as to triliths at Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Heracleidæ, return of, what figured by, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Heraldic symbolism, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Heremon, Spanish race of, in Ireland, <a href="#Page_381">381</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">kings of this race in Ireland, where buried, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Herodotus, his descriptions of tomb of Alyattes, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his account of the Nasomenes, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Herrestrup, dolmen at, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">ships, and circles with crosses engraved upon, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hesiod, his statement as to respective antiquity of brass or iron, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hiero's temple at mouth of Loire, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hildebrand, his account of diggings and find at Oden's Howe, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hildesheim, no dolmen at, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hindu Goni, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hindus as builders, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">did not employ the arch, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">not immutable, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Historic, monuments not, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hjarnæ, tomb of, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hjortehammer, singular form of graves at, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date of, according to Worsaae, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Viking graves at, <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hoare, Sir R. C., <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his work on Wiltshire, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his authority, in what questionable, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his account of Hakpen, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">etymology of Marlborough, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">surveyed Marden, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his opinion of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">plan of Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cited as to Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_101">101-5</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Stanton Drew, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find by long barrows, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hob Hurst's house, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Höbisch, double dolmen at, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hock Norton, defeat of English at, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Holback, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Holes in dolmens, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Plas Newydd monolith at Stennis, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">ceremony connected with, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">certainly Scandinavian, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in France, Trie, Grandmont, Bas Languedoc, <a href="#Page_343">343-4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">umbrella form has analogues in India, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">holes as entrances to chambers at Kerlescant and Rodmarton, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">others at Finistère, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Gavr Innis, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">objects of holes there, trough below, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in trilithon, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in dolmen in Circassia, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Rajunkoloor, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">inference of connexion of race from, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Tumulus.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Holland, dolmens in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Drenthe, Hunebeds.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Holland, Rev. Mr., cited as to Sinai, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find by, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Holstein, dolmens in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Holy Land, <i>see</i>Palestine.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Horsa, his burial-place, <a href="#Page_119">119-21</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">battle between and Vortigern, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Horses, sacrifices of, in the Steppes, <a href="#Page_449">449-52</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Horstead, Horsa perhaps there buried, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Houel's monuments in Malta, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Howes, Danish and Saxon burials in, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">British ditto, to what date, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Danish kings buried, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">to what date, argument from, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hoxay, <a href="#Page_249">249-50</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hubba the Dane, his era, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Huc and Gabet cited as to monasticism in the East, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Human remains, <i>see</i>Finds.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Human sacrifices amongst Anglo-Saxons, <a href="#Page_284">284-5</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and Khonds in India, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in Cuttack, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Humble, tomb of, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hunebeds, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Emmen, <a href="#Page_320">320-1</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Ballo, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">were they originally covered, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Gröningen and Friesland, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">use and date, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hunestadt, dragon at, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hwitaby circles and Bacta stones, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hydahs in Alaska, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">compared to Cave men, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">accounts of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a> <i>note</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">whether of race of mound builders, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hy Fiachrach cited, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hyperboreans, mentioned by Diodorus, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circular temples amongst, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">falsely supposed to be inhabitants of Britain, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">  IBERIANS, or Celtiberians, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in Britain, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in Donegal, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmens, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Irish dolmens, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">not very ready converts to Christianity, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Idols, worship of, Councils forbidding, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ilam, find at, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Images, headless, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of dead on tombs, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">India, temples of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">no Druids in, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">observations on, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">when iron first known in, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tombs in, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">holed stones, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">westernmost dolmen, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">rude-stone monuments, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dates of Aryans crossing Indus, of Vedas and laws of Menou, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">no existing stone building prior to Asoka, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">progress of Indian architecture contrasted with that of other</li>
-<li class="isub3">countries, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Hindu not immutable, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">but other races are so, <a href="#Page_459">459-461</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Khassia Hills, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">rude monuments there similar to European examples, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cremation amongst Khassias, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">funereal seats, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">origin of menhirs there, stone turbans, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">menhirs and tables, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">turban-stone, stone-table, trilithon, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">no circles and alignments, tumuli, nor sculptures, but coincidences</li>
-<li class="isub3">with Western nations, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">points of similarity and of dissimilarity to Druidical institutions,</li>
-<li class="isub3"><i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date of monuments, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Kamarupa, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Sylhet, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Western India, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Belgaum altars or tables, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">small circles, central stones, worship of Betal, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen at Rajunkoloor, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">closed dolmen, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cairns, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Raichore Doab dolmens surrounded by double circles, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">arrangement of dolmens at Rajunkoloor, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cairns at Jewurgi, find, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">purpose of each set of dolmens, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">their ages, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">double dolmen, Coorg, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tomb, Nilgiri Hills, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sepulchral circles at Amravati, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circular rail, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">distribution of dolmens in India, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Karumbers Buddhists, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Dravidians or Tumulians, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Karumbers and Singalese, connexion of, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">importance of the unexplored territory of Nizam, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Travancore cromlechs, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">mode of interment, offerings to departed spirits, explanation of</li>
-<li class="isub3">miniature utensils, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">finds, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">age of monuments, iron how long known in India, iron pillar at Kutub,</li>
-<li class="isub3">Delhi, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sculptured Indian dolmen, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Iwallee, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">group at Shahpoor, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cross and dolmen at Katapur, <a href="#Page_486">486-7</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen with cross at Nirmul Jungle, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dagobas in Ceylon, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen at Pullicondah, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Sanchi, rail near, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">author's view as to dates of hewn and rude-stone buildings, ignorance</li>
-<li class="isub3">of natives, <a href="#Page_493">493-4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Eastern and Western dolmens, similarities between, how far proof of</li>
-<li class="isub3">connexion, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tomb of Akbar at Agra, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">proof from literature inconclusive, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">from Asoka's rock-engraved edict, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Indian Buddhists, rails of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">art influences elsewhere, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Indian origin of Essenes, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Inhumation, different kinds and history of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Inigo Jones, his treatise on Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Inquisition, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Inscriptions in Maes-Howe, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Newton Stone, perhaps earliest Scotch inscription, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Kirkliston, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Ogham inscription, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Interments, place of, in case of circles, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Shap, Hakpen, and Crichie, <a href="#Page_131">131-2</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Saxon (<i>see</i>Beowulf);</li>
-<li class="isub2">articles deposited by Saxons, <a href="#Page_145">145-6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">theory of successive interments, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">secondary interments, <a href="#Page_165">165-6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">fallacy as to, <a href="#Page_288">288-9</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Sir John Lubbock's argument respecting summit interments, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">International Prehistoric Congress at Paris, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Iolaus with Thespiadæ colonizers of Sardinia, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Iorsala Farer or pilgrims, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Iran and Turan or Aniran, of what these words the equivalents, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Irby and Mangles, Captains, observe dolmens in Syria, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ireland, tomb-building in, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmens in, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">external ditto, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">menhirs in, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">no symbolage in, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">bluestones from, transported to England, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">rude-stone monuments in, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">best illustration of megalithic remains, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">obstruction of the study of Irish monuments, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">services of Dr. Petrie, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">materials for history of, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">copious literature, <a href="#Page_176">176</a> (<i>see</i>Moytura);</li>
-<li class="isub2">King Eochy, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Firbolgs or Belgians, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tradition of the "One Man," <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Queen Misgan Meave, <a href="#Page_184">184-6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Dananns who? <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">King Nuada of the Silver Hand, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Fomorians, <a href="#Page_186">186-7</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Breas, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Balor of the Evil Eye, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">the great Daghda, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Fomorians and Dananns alleged to be of same Scandinavian race, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">their very early intercourse with Irish, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Dananns were Danes, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">chronology of early events, <a href="#Page_188">188</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">places of royal interment, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">race of Crimthann, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">introduction of alphabet, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">division into kingdoms, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">early accounts of its peopling, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Irish history doubtful until Cimboeth, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">burial-places of ancient kings, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">first influx of civilization, when, according to Dr. Todd,</li>
-<li class="isub3"><a href="#Page_193">193</a> <i>note</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Oghams, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">authentic history of Ireland, when commences, according to Petrie,</li>
-<li class="isub3"><i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">legend of the Beds of Diarmid, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tradition as to (<i>see</i>Cemeteries);</li>
-<li class="isub2">St. Colomba, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Iberians in Ireland, monuments of, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">murder of Dathi by foster-brothers, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">barbarism of Irish before St. Patrick, <a href="#Page_235">235-6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">their civilization progressive, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">stages of architecture, <a href="#Page_237">237-8</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">marks of triple system of monuments, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">importance of them to history, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">age and sequence of its monuments, <a href="#Page_237">237-8</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circle-building race in, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen-building ditto, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Spanish migration to, Heremon, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">where Spaniards settled, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date, <i>ib.</i></li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Glen Columbkille.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Iron, when known to Greeks, Israelites, Etruscans, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">argument from absence of iron in tombs considered, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">when introduced into Denmark, England, Egypt, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">iron, early manufacture of, in India, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and now by Khassias especially, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Iron pillar at Kutub, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date of, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Italy, tomb-building in, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen at Saturnia, <a href="#Page_391">391-2</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">chambered tumuli, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">hewn stones, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Etruria, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">why dolmens not so uniform in Italy as in France and Scandinavia,</li>
-<li class="isub3"><a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">earliest colonists, the Pelasgi and Tyrrheni, in contact with merely</li>
-<li class="isub3">stone-hewing peoples, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">reverence of Etrurians for dead, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">their effacement by more progressive races, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Rome adopts and improves Etruscan architecture, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and forces Spain and France to a more ambitious sepulture, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">their relapse into rude-stone monuments, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Iwallee, singular place of dolmen, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li>
-
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">  JACOB, stone set up by, <a href="#Page_438">438-9</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jains succeeded Buddhists in India, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">James I. directs researches respecting Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Janssen, Dr., his work on Hunebeds, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jarl Ragnvald, his expedition, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jarls, Orcadian, how buried, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jeffrey of Monmouth cited, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">account by, of Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_106">106</a> and of Merlin, are justified, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his character as writer, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jellinge, King Gorm's tomb at, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jersey, tumulus in, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circle, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jewurgi, cairns at, <a href="#Page_471">471-2</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jey Sing, observatories of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">John, St., Baptistery of, at Canterbury, erected, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jones, <i>see</i>Inigo.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Joshua, stone set up by, <a href="#Page_438">438-40</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">flint instruments of circumcision interred with him, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Joyce, Rev. Mr., on crosses, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Juggernaut, temple of, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Junies, remains there, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jutes, settle in and trade with Britain before Cæsar's time, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jutland, dolmens in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">  KAFR ER WÂL, dolmen at, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kamarupa, Hindu kingdom, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Karl Lofts, if circle there, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Karumbers, <a href="#Page_476">476</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">originators of rude monuments in India, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Katapur, cross and dolmen at, <a href="#Page_486">486-7</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kemble cited, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">as to historical value of poem of Beowulf, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kemp How, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kennet Avenue at Avebury, <a href="#Page_63">63-4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">called "stone row" in charter of Athelstan, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">river, station of Saxons upon, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">long barrow similar to Lethra, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>River Kennet.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kens Low, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">barrow, find at, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kent, division of, by Bede, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kent's Hole, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kerdouadec alignment, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kerland demi-dolmen, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kerlescant, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">long barrow opened, find, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kermario avenues, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Keyna, traditions respecting, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Keysler, citations from, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">compares Drenthe to Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Khassia Hills, rude-stone monuments, <a href="#Page_462">462</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tribes practise cremation, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">funereal usages, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">iron manufacture, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Khatoura, tomb of Isidorus at, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Khonds (<i>see</i>Gonds), usages of, resemblance to Druids, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Major Macpherson's remarks respecting their worship, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">difficulty of putting an end to their human sacrifices, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">King Stone, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Stanton Drew.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kings of Denmark, tombs of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kinsey, his 'Portugal Illustrated,' <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kistvaens, or cists, how composed, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">contents of, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">when covered, <a href="#Page_43">43-4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">passages into, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sculpture in, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">New Grange, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Gavr Innis, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Maes-Howe, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Arbor Low, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Gib Hill, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Plas Newydd, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kit's Cotty House, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">whether ever covered, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kivik grave, head-stone of, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">figures upon, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date assigned to, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">resembles one in France, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Klein-Raden, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Cotty House.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Knock na Rea, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cairn at, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Queen Misgan Meave.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Knockeen, dolmen at, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Knowth, cairn of, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">identified by Petrie with cave of Cnodhba, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">searched by Danes, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Knut, the great battle between and Olof, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kongsbacka battle-field, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Königsberg, dolmens near, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Konitz, dolmen at, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Krukenho, allée couverte at, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen compared with Dol ar Marchant, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kubber Roumeia, tomb of Mauritanian kings, <a href="#Page_423">423-4</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kurgans or mounds in the Steppes, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kutb u Deen, his mosque at Delhi, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kutub iron pillar, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">  LAITY, <i>see</i>Clergy and Laity.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Landevenec founded by Grallon, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Landver, son of Thufin, where buried, <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Largs, battle of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">stone to mark, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Larking, Rev. Mr., his visit to Aylesford, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Latheronwheel, <a href="#Page_530">530</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lean Low mound, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Derbyshire.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lecan, book of, cited, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lech, meaning of word, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ledwich, Dr., his description of New Grange, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lefroy, General, his diggings at Greenmount, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Leoghaine, <a href="#Page_212">212-3</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Leslie, Col. Forbes, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his paper upon Aberdeenshire circles, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Belgian group described by, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lethra, tomb at, of Harold, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Leuré, alignment at, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lia Fail, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Stone of Destiny.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Liberius, Consul, defeat of, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Liegnitz, dolmen at, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lifeachaire Cairbre, his grave, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Linn} <i>see</i>Linuis; meaning of word, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Lyn } perhaps Lake country, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Linuis, where, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">locality of a battle of Arthur, different opinions respecting</li>
-<li class="isub3">locality, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Liotr, or Landver, sepulchre, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Listoghil cairn, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">mentioned by Petrie, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find there, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Llwyd, Mr., <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lockmaben, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Wood Castle.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Locmariaker, allée couverte at, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Dariorigum, capital of Venetes, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">long barrow, Mané Lud <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Mané er H'roëk, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen and sculpture, <a href="#Page_360">360-1</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Dol ar Marchant, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">allée couverte near, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Loire, grottes des fées along, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Loncarty, defeat of Danes at, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Long Stow Cove, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Long-headed race, superior antiquity of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Long Roods, barrow at, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lot, department of, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lothbrok Ragnar, victories of, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sepulchre of, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">battle fought by, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lough Crew, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">excavations, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cairn T. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Hag's Chair, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">two stones, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cairn L, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cairn H, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find there, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cairn D, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">other monuments at, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lubbock, Sir John, analysis by, of contents of numerous tumuli, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Park Cwn tumulus described by, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lucan cited as to Nasomenes, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lug, grandson of Balor, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lukis, Rev. Mr., explores Carnac, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356-7</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lumberdale House, cist at Gib Hill removed to, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lüneburg, dolmen near, with enclosures, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Luxembourg, Grand Duchy, dolmens in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">to whom referred, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lyons, battle near, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">  MACKENZIE, Col., his map cited, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his drawings of Viraculls and Masteeculls, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Macpherson, Major Charteris, his work, memorials of service in India</li>
-<li class="isub3">cited, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Madracen, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of same type as Maltese examples, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Madsen, his 'Antiquités préhistoriques du Danemark,' <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">gives examples of buried dolmen, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Maenec, Le, <a href="#Page_350">350</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Maes-Howe tumulus, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">opened, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">early spoliation of, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">runes descriptive of origin, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">the spoilers, who, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">inference from runes, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">engraving of dragon, similar to Danish, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Wurm knot, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">inscription, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">age of, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">architecture of howe, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">chamber and loculi, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">resemblance of mound to those on Boyne, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of what race and age, <a href="#Page_249">249-256</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">unique monument must have belonged to most magnificent race, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Magas mentioned by Asoka, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Magh Mor, King of Spain, his connexion with Ireland, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Magnus Henricksson, Danish Prince, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Magnus Olaus, description by, of megalithic remains in Sweden, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mahabharata, date of the, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mahommedans could not influence the non-progressive tribes of India,</li>
-<li class="isub3"><a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mahommedanism, aversion to, in India, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Majorca and Minorca, <i>see</i>Mediterranean Islands, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mal Lumkun, cross erected by, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Malé, M., his example of demi-dolmen, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Malmor, or Mal Muru, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Malta, tombs of, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">giants' towers, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Maltese monuments, <i>see</i>Mediterranean Islands.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Man, Isle of, circles in, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">crosses in, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mané er H'roëk, find there, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">singular sculptured slab, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mané Lud, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mangles, Captain, <i>see</i>Irby.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">"Many Stones," group, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Maols, or Murderers, graves of four, at Ballina, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">certain date of, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Marden, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circle, plan, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Marienwerder, dolmen at, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Marlborough, etymology of word, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Marmora, Count de la, his work on Sardinia, <a href="#Page_428">428</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Marsa Sirocco, remains at, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Masses, immense, moved by rude peoples, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Masteeculls, what, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mauritanian kings, tombs of, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Maximus, overthrow of Roman power by, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his battle, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mayborough (<i>see</i>Penrith and Cumrew);</li>
-<li class="isub2">circle at, compared to Little Salkeld, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Meave Misgan, Queen, <i>see</i>Misgan.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mecklenburg, dolmens in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mediterranean islands, non-historic monuments of, shaped stones, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>,</li>
-<li class="isub3"><a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Malta, giants' towers, circles, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Gozo, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Hagiar Khem, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Mnaidra, <a href="#Page_418">418-22</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">roofing of Maltese monuments, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">these compared to Kubber Roumeia and Madracen, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Gozo scrolls and spirals compared to those of Mycenæ and Greece,</li>
-<li class="isub3"><i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">pit-markings, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">altars and stone tables, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">monuments not temples but sepulchres, <a href="#Page_425">425-6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Phœnicians in Malta, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">the monuments, of what race and age, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">prior to dolmens, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Sardinic Nurhags, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">storeys of Nurhags and groups, plan of, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Santa Barbara, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">silence of history as to them, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Dedalean buildings according to Diodorus, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">La Giara, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">what Nurhags were, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">derivation of, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">view of author as to purpose of Nurhags, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Balearic islands, Talyots at Trepucò, Minorca bilithon, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Alajor, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">stone tables, <a href="#Page_435">435-6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">rude-stone circles, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Megalithic monuments at Moytura, <a href="#Page_180">180</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">every kind of, except avenues, <a href="#Page_180">180-1</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">monument in Deer Park, Sligo, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">its anomalous nature, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Celts had nothing to do with, according to Bertrand, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">gap of, between France and Scandinavia, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">none in valleys of Rhine or Scheldt, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">distribution of, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">map, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">table, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">demi-dolmens, rocking stones, <a href="#Page_345">345</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Carnac, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Tiaret, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Megalithic remains, how to study, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">rarely in this country contain flint, bronze, or iron, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">style uniform, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">age of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">resemblance to Buddhist structure, <a href="#Page_42">42</a> (<i>see</i>Kistvaens);</li>
-<li class="isub2">mark battle-fields, family sepulchres, or graves of distinguished</li>
-<li class="isub3">men, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">great light as to, derivable from Irish remains, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Melkart and Astarte, temple in Malta dedicated to, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">'Memorials of Service,' work of Major Charteris-Macpherson, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Menhirs, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">derivation of word, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">where, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">purpose, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">single stones in Scripture, Greece, Etruria, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">rarely inscribed, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in Ireland, Wales, Scotland, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">France, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Lochrist, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Denmark, <a href="#Page_60">60</a> (<i>see</i>Monoliths);</li>
-<li class="isub2">purpose of menhir in Khassia, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Western not after Tartar models, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Menou, laws of, date of, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Meriadec Conan, British Prince in France, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">wars of, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Merivale, bridge at, <a href="#Page_55">55-6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">parallel lines of stones at, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">their purpose, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">avenue, circles, and cromlech at, <a href="#Page_55">55-6</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Merlin, his bury, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his connexion with Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">fable about, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">explained, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mettray, allée couverte at, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mexican temples, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">race non-progressive beyond a certain point, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mexico, carved stone monuments in, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Miamisburgh, sepulchral mound at, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Miana, circle at, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Microlithic remains, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Miegle, alleged burial-place of Guinevere, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Migration from France to Algeria, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of people settled around Mediterranean, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Migration theory, how proved or disproved, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Minho, dolmens in, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Miniature urns and utensils in Indian tomb, use of, explained, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mitjana, Don Rafael, pamphlet by, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Minning Low, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142-3</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Derbyshire.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Minorca, <i>see</i>Mediterranean.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Minyas, tomb of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">'Mirabilibus Auscultationibus, De,' work ascribed to Aristotle, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>,</li>
-<li class="isub3"><a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Miscellaneous, <i>see</i>Mounds.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Misgan Meave, Queen, cairn of, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">killed by whom, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> (<i>see</i>Moytura);</li>
-<li class="isub2">poem of her life and adventures, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">her husband, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mnaidra, elliptical chambers, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">plans of monuments at, <a href="#Page_418">418-22</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cones, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">pit-markings, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">openings in walls, shelves or loculi or columbaria? <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">roofs, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Modestus, his zeal of proselytism unsuccessful in Brittany, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mogalana and Sariputra, disciples of Buddha, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mogols, domes of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Molyneux, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Monasticism in the West, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Vestal Virgins, Antony, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Essenes, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">history silent as to monasticism in the East, not so architecture,</li>
-<li class="isub3"><a href="#Page_501">501</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">imitated by the West from the East, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">peculiarities introduced, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Monoliths at Stennis, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">holed, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Setif, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mont St. Michel, possibly occupied by Cæsar, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Montfort, Simon de, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">'Monumenta Britannica' cited, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Monuments, <i>see</i>Rude-Stone.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Moon worship forbidden, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Moore, Norman, Mr., his visit to Glen Columbkille, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">letters from, respecting, <i>Appendix</i>, <a href="#Page_520">520-3</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Moors in Spain, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Motes, or places of judgment, stones to mark, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mounds of sacrifice in North America, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of sepulture, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">temple, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">animal mounds, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">conical mounds, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Moustoir Carnac, long barrow and find, <a href="#Page_358">358-9</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Moytura, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">two battles at, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">narrative of, by O'Donovan, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">first battle at North Moytura, <a href="#Page_176">176-7</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">second battle at South Moytura, <a href="#Page_177">177-9</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circles, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cairns, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cairn of "One Man," <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">importance and varieties of monuments at Northern Moytura, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">map, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">plan of circles, <a href="#Page_182">182-3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tomb of Misgan Meave, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">locality of it doubted, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">account of battle of Northern Moytura, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dates of battles, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">when accounts first written, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">localities of battles, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">monuments at, contrasted with English and Scandinavian examples, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">resemblance of, to Braavalla, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Muir Divock, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circles at, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mule Hill, <a href="#Page_157">157-8</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Circles, Small.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mulheran, Mr., account of Katapur, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mull of Cantyre circles, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Munch, Professor, his observations as to spoilers of Maes-Howe, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">mentions Halfdan's barrow, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mycenæ, tombs of Atridæ at, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">analogous to Jersey circles, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">scrolls and spirals there resemble those of Gozo, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
-
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">  NABLOUS, dolmens on road to, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Naper, Mr., excavations by, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nasamones, who, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Herodotus mentions their veneration of dead, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">a plundering tribe, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Navarre, dolmens in, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nemedh, three sons of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nennius, his account of origin of Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of Arthur's battles, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nestorians, how far to the east, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Net Lowe, find, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Netterville House, tumulus, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">New Craig circle, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">New Grange, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Royal cemetery, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">New Inn, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Newark Works in America, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Newton, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sculptured stone, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Niall, father of Leoghaire, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nicol, Dr., his observations in Kincardine, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nikolajew, uncovered base of tumulus, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nilgiri Hills, tombs and dolmens, <a href="#Page_472">472-3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sculptured dolmens, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nine Ladies, circle of, at Stanton Moor, <a href="#Page_48">48-9</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nineveh, dates of buildings at, how ascertained, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nirmul Jungle dolmen with cross, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nizam's unexplored territory important to art and history, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nonhistoric monuments, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Norman pirates, Grallon's war with, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">North Germany, <i>see</i>Scandinavia.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Norway, no dolmens in, but cairns and such like monuments, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nuada, king, "of the silver hand," battle and death, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nur, meaning of, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nurhags of Sardinia, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">derivation of word, <i>see</i>Sardinia.</li>
-
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">  OAK used in Thyra's tomb, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Obelisk, development of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Aylesford, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Rollright, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Dol ar Marchant, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Oberhartz, no dolmens in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Oberyssel, dolmen in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">O'Brian, wild speculations of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Observatories in India, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ochaim, Niall's burying-place, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">O'Curry, his account of battle cited, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his view as to date of Ogham writing, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Oden's Howe, exploration of, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">O'Donovan, his account of Moytura, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his confession of uncertainty of Irish chronology, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">remarks as to dolmen of four Maols, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Og, king of Bashan, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Oghams, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">on menhirs, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date of introduction, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">little used, and for what, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">on Newton Stone, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ohio, sacred enclosures in, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">district of, how first peopled, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Oise, holed dolmen at, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Olaus, <i>see</i>Wormius, Magnus.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Old Testament, stones mentioned in, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Oldenburg, dolmens in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Olfers, Dr., tomb of Alyattes examined by, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Olof the Holy, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ophite theory, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Oppeln, dolmen near, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Orchomenos sepulchre explored by Dodwell, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">lined with bronze, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">inference from, as to civilization, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Orkneys (<i>see</i>Maes-Howe, Scotland, Stennis);</li>
-<li class="isub2">no timber in, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Orkhow, treasure there, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Oroust, dolmen at, <a href="#Page_305">305-6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">resembles Countless Stones, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in enclosure, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Osnabrück, dolmen in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ougein, observatories in, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">commercial capital of Asoka, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ouseley, Sir W., cited as to Eastern circles, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Oval dolmens, <i>see</i>Dolmens.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ozene, or Ougein, which see.</li>
-
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">  PAGAN TEMPLES, similarity of, to Christian, <a href="#Page_22">22-3</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Palestine and the East, dolmens, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of stones mentioned in Scripture but one of megalithic class, <a href="#Page_438">438-40</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">monolith, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmens between Es Salt and Nablous, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and Kafr-er-Wâl, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">whether dolmens outside of Gilead, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of what tribe known examples are, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">age of, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Peshawur, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circular-domed tombs at Sinai, and stone circles, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Nukb Hawy ring, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">resemblance to Bazinas and Chouchas, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Arabia, near Eyoor, rude-stone monuments mentioned by Palgrave,</li>
-<li class="isub3">resembling those of the West and at Tripoli, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">interest attaching to Arabian examples, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Asia Minor, unsolved problems respecting, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Kertch, chambered tumuli, and finds, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmens of shaped stones, holed in Circassia, Crimea, and on shore of</li>
-<li class="isub3">Baltic, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Palgrave, Mr. Giffard, rude-stone monuments seen by him in Arabia, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pallas cited, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pancras, St., temple at Canterbury dedicated to, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pandus, temples popularly assigned to, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pape and Peti, early inhabitants of Orkneys, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Parallel lines or avenues, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Avenues.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Park Cwn tumulus, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">meant to be visible, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find at, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Parkhouse circle, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pataliputta, <i>see</i>Patna.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Patan, Emperors, domes of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Patna, convocation at, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pausanias, tomb of Atridæ described by, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pegges Barrow, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pelasgi and Tyrrheni, in contact with only stone-hewing races, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">'Pelasgic Remains,' work by Dadwell, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">style superseded by Doric in Greece, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pembroke, Philip, Earl of, his testimony as to Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pen, prefix, meaning of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pennant cited as to Mayborough, <a href="#Page_128">128-9</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Penrith, Arthur's Round Table at, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Long Meg and her Daughters, <a href="#Page_126">126</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">mentioned by Camden, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Mayborough, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">monolith, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">King Arthur's Round Table, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">plan of, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">history of monuments, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Shap alignment not Druidical, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">nor sepulchral, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at least not the cemetery of Shap, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">marks battle-field, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">victory over Saxons, perhaps, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">objections, <a href="#Page_132">132-3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">monuments near, mark victories of Arthur, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pentre Ifan dolmen, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">'Periplus,' the, cited, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Perthes, M. Boucher de, "find" by, on the Somme, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Peru, carved stone monuments in, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">resemble Pelasgic and Tyrrhenian, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Peshawur dolmen, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circle, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and at Deh Ayeh, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">hewn-stone circles ascribed to Caons or giants, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">if other dolmens in the East? <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Peti or Picts, <a href="#Page_248">248-9</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Pape.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Petrie, Dr., his useful but interrupted services in Ireland, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">observations of, as to cairn Listoghil, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Moytura, <a href="#Page_181">181</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Tara, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">introduction of writing into Ireland, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Oghams, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Knowth, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cited as to Talten, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">style of Irish monuments, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his excavations in the Orkneys, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his suggestion as to Moytura, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Phayre, Sir Arthur, on circle at Peshawur, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Phœnicians, Romans, and Greeks of Marseilles, their influence upon</li>
-<li class="isub3">architecture of rude nations, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Phœnicians, voyages of, to Cornwall, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">written characters at New Grange, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">not builders of rude-stone monuments, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Picardy, remains of Cave men in, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pictland, features of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Picts, origin and relations with Irish and Gauls, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">their capitals, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">language, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pierre branlante, Brittany, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pierre Martine, rocking stone, <a href="#Page_347">347-8</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pilgrim Scandinavian pirates, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pit-markings, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Plas Newydd dolmen, <a href="#Page_167">167-9</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pliny, <i>see</i>Cæsar.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Plouharnel, double dolmen at, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Poitiers, demi-dolmen, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Poitou, Cave men's remains in, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Poland and Posen, no dolmens in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pomerania, dolmens in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Portugal, writers on its rude-stone monuments, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmens, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Strabo, an authority for its dolmens, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Cuneus, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">distribution of dolmens, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">throws light upon theories, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">course taken by dolmen race, <a href="#Page_378">378</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Arroyolos, dolmen at, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Posen, <i>see</i>Poland.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pownall, Governor, his disquisition upon marks at New Grange, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pregel, dolmens on, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Prehistoric prejudices, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>International.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Preissac, alignment at, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pre-Roman theory, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Progressive theory, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Prussia, dolmens rare in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Prussian Saxony, <i>see</i>Saxony.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Priam's house of brass, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Prinsep, Mr., his translation of an edict of Asoka, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Priority of dates, <i>see</i>Dates.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ptolemy, mentioned in edict of Indian Prince, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pullicondah, cairn or dolmen, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Puri, temple of Juggernaut at, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pyramids, inference as to climate from pictures in, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date of that at Gizeh, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">antecedent structures supposed, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">contain tombs true and false, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">probable date of, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pytheas, visit of, to Cimbrian Chersonese, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
-
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">  QUEEN Charlotte's Sound, whether natives a race of mound-builders, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">  RACE, inference as to, from use of circles, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of dolmens, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of circles and dolmens, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">divisions of, in Britain by Tacitus, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">inference from simultaneous monuments of three kinds in Ireland as to</li>
-<li class="isub3">races, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">relations of Picts with Irish and Gaels, shown by comparison of</li>
-<li class="isub3">monuments, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circle-building and dolmen-building races, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">whence each came, and course which each took, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmens, historic, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">distribution of, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">prehistoric theory leaves subject of races obscure, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen-building race not so ready converts to Christianity as the</li>
-<li class="isub3">Celts, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">inference from church architecture in South of France, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and Protestant feeling in South of France, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">non-progressive, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Cimbri, Celts, and Gauls, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Cimbri and Aquitani related, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">race traced by dolmens from Brittany to Narbonne, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Iberians, Celtiberians, Turanians, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">disturbed by Carthaginians, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Romans, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Moors, their easy conquest of Spain, how accounted for, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Spanish settlers in Ireland and Britain, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Tara, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Lia Fail, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Heremon, <a href="#Page_381">381-3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">ethnography of North Africa, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">different theories as to, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">connexion between races on the northern and southern sides of</li>
-<li class="isub3">Mediterranean, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">chief race in India, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Bhil, Cole, Gond, and Toda, non-progressive, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Hindus not immutable, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">inference from style of architecture, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">peopling of America, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">by what way, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Mound-builders, Redmen, Hydahs, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Aztecs and Toltecs, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Pastoral or Agricultural races, ditto Hunters in North America, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Race-course, notion that alignments at Stonehenge were, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Raguhilda, wife of Eric, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rail, Sanchi, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rajagriha, convocation at, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rajpootana, pertinacity of Bhil usages, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rajunkoloor, <a href="#Page_468">468</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ramayana, the date of, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ramé, M., describes alignment at Gré de Cojou, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rath at Dowth, residence of the Dagdha, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rath of Leoghaire, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">singular direction by him as to his burial, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rath of Queen Meave, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rath na Riogh, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">resembles Avebury, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rathcrogan, supposed burial-place of Queen Meave, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rayne, old circle at, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rectangular dolmens, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Dolmens.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Redmen of North America, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub3">not mound-builders, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Redstone pillar, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Relic worship in the East, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Relig na Riogh, Dathi's burial-place, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rhind, Mr., his bequest for Professorship</li>
-<li class="isub2">of Archæology in Scotland, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">paper on ortholithic remains in Africa, <a href="#Page_395">395-7</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ribroit, Arthur's tenth battle there, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rickman, his perception of progress and sequence in monuments, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">value of his process in fixing dates, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ring Sigurd, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">saga as to, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ringham Low, group, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Derbyshire.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rocking stones, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rodmarton, chambered tumulus, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">post-Roman, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">holes in entrance, resembles Kerlescant, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Roeskilde, dolmen in square, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rolley Lowe, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rollo in England, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rollright, circle at, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">obeliscal stone, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">examined by R. Sheldon, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">unimportance of monuments there, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">whether sepulchral, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">assigned by Camden to Rollo, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Roman coins, find of, in Ireland, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Coins, Finds.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Roman pottery found at Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">inference from, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Finds.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Roman road at Silbury Hill, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">argument from its state, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and of that at Hakpen Hill, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Romans, Stonehenge assigned to, by Inigo Jones, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in England, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">effect of Roman art upon British civilization, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and architecture, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in Africa, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">pressure of, upon Etruria, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ronalds, Mr., his engraving of Carnac, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rooke, Mr., his account of Stanton Moor, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">snaffle-bit found by, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rose Hill tumulus, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Circles, Small, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ros-na-righ, who buried there, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ross County, North America, sacred enclosures in, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rothiemay circle, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Round tower, <i>see</i>Tower.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Roy's, General, 'Military Antiquities of Romans' cited as to circle at</li>
-<li class="isub3">Wood Castle, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rude-Stone monuments erected even where letter inscriptions and carving</li>
-<li class="isub3">practised, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">none in the valleys of Scheldt and Rhine, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sometimes comparatively modern, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">result sometimes of fashion, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Aryans and pure Dravidians or Tamulians not builders of, in India,</li>
-<li class="isub3"><a href="#Page_447">447-8</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rudeness of monument, what it proves, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rügen, island of, dolmens in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Runes on menhirs, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Maes-Howe, <a href="#Page_246">246-8</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Isle of Man, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
-
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">  SABÆAN worship of planets, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">"Sabrinum ostium," meaning of words, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Arthur's last battle fought near, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sacrifices, <i>see</i>Human.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sagas, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">as to Harald Hildetand, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sakya Muni, date of, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">influences Buddhism, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">is not Woden, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Salkeld, Arthur's seventh battle, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Cumrew.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sanchi rail, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">gate, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">no images of priests, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">relics of saints, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dagobas and stupas, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sandulf the Swarthy, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Santa Barbara, Nurhags at, <a href="#Page_428">428</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Mediterranean Islands.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Santander dolmens, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sardis, tombs at, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">age of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sariputra, see Mogalana.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sarsen stones, at Ashdown, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">what they represent, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Avebury, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">whence they came, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Saturnia, dolmen at, <a href="#Page_391">391-2</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sauclières dolmen, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Saumur, grotte des feés near, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Säve, Karl, letter from, respecting diggings at Oden's Howe, <a href="#Page_526">526-7</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Savernake Forest, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Saxo-Grammaticus as to Gorm's son, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Saxons, defeat of, by Vortimer, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">battle with Vortigern, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Saxons, march of, in the West, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">encounter Arthur, <a href="#Page_88">88-9</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">their defeat near Penrith, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">traded with and settled in Britain before Cæsar's time, <a href="#Page_133">133-4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">grave mounds in England, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">articles supposed Saxon at Stand Lowe, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Saxons, Prussian, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Saxony, dolmens in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Scandinavia and North Germany, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Danes, their megalithic remains little known, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">false route of their antiquaries, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">except Sjöborg, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">their early historians little reliable, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Scandinavian history prior to Christ, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Odin, fable as to, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Frode I., date of, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and of Harald Harfagar, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">list of kings, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">battle-fields, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Kongsbacka, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">its analogy to Dartmoor, Ashdown, and Karnac alignments, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">view of, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">grave of Frode, but which Frode? <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">battle-field of Swedes and Danes, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Braavalla Heath, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">resemblance to Moytura, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circles, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">doubt as to date of, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">square and triangular graves, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">King Harald Hildetand, saga of, and Sigurd Ring, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tomb of former, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find of flints, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">erroneous inference, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">form of grave, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Hwitaby circles and Bauta stones at, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">battle-fields, whose, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Lothbrok, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Stiklastad, and circles there, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circles and ovals, mounds and square enclosures, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">victory of Blenda, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Freyrsö cairns, mounds, and ship barrows, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tumuli, to what race due, aboriginal or invading, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Scandinavians, of what race, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Worsaae's argument, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">triple group at Upsala, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">mound of Wodin, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Jellinge, tombs of Gorm and Thyra, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">importance of, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">diggings in the latter, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">compared to Maes-Howe, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">comparative dates of Danish, Irish, and Stennis monuments, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">series of Royal Danish tombs, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">might furnish dates of styles, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Scotland, Caithness.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Scandinavian antiquaries commended, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Scandinavians in Ireland, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">different tribes of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Vikings, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in Scotland, Orkneys, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">pilgrims, Christian, and pirates, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">conoid graves, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">ship graves, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">equilateral triangles, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">meaning of the latter form, <a href="#Page_315">315-6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">singular arrangement of circles at Aschenrade, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">resembles Algerian example, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">finds, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">no Druids amongst, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">ignorant of iron, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Schleswig dolmens, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Scone stone, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Scotland, menhirs in, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">megalithic remains in, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Wilson's 'Prehistoric Annals' of, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">scanty means of studying monuments in, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cat or battle-stones, dolmens, circles, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">distribution of, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Orkneys, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circles, tumuli, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Stennis, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmens, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">monoliths, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">holed monument, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">bowl-shaped barrows, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">conoid barrows, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find there, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Maes-Howe, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">spoliation of, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">runes, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dragon and Wurm knot, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">inscription at Maes-Howe, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">chamber there, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and loculi, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">resemblance to Boyne monuments, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">red sandstone material, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">conquest of Island by Harold Harfagar, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Pape and Peti, who these races were, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">what is Maes-Howe, <a href="#Page_248">248-9</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and what the barrows, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Haugagerdium, perhaps How of Hoogsay, who buried there, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Halfdan's Barrow, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">similarity to Danish royal tumuli, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">account of conquest of Orkneys by the Norwegians, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Stennis, scene of what battle, <a href="#Page_250">250-1</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">runic inscriptions, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">scantiness of, accounted for, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">an inscription confirmed by a find, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Maes-Howe, whether it has connexion with circles, <a href="#Page_253">253-4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dates of early invasions of Northmen, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Brogar, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">less ancient than Stennis, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">conversion of Northmen to Christianity, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date of group of monuments at Stennis, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">analogy of to Stanton Drew, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">author's reasons justifying date assigned to group at Stennis, <a href="#Page_257">257-8</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Callernish circles, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cruciform grave, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">avenue, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Tormore,</li>
-<li class="isub2">Isle of Arran, cist circles, <a href="#Page_261">261-2</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Brodick Bay circle, and obelisk, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Mull of Cantyre, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Aberdeenshire circles, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Fiddes Hill, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circle at Rayne and find, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">post Christian date of, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">moat and entrances, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">uses merely sepulchral, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Clava mounds and circular chambers, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">their use, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">stone at Coilsfield, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">stone at Aberlemmo, <a href="#Page_268">268-9</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">its purpose, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Caithness alignments differ from British and French, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">horned cairn, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circles inferred by Sir H. Dryden not always to be sepulchral, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date, <a href="#Page_528">528</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">similarity to Viking graves, <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Scott, Sir Walter, his description of holed monolith in Orkney, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Scrolls and spirals in Irish sculpture, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sculpture, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">difficulty of reasoning from gradation of style as to Irish or</li>
-<li class="isub3">Scottish, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">chiselled, engraved, pricked, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">what tools employed, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Mané Lud, imitations of boats, hatchets, writing, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Dol ar Marchant, hatchet, plume, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Secondary, <i>see</i>Interment.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Semitic race, their feeling to monasticism, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Senbya dagoba, <a href="#Page_496">496-7</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sentinel stones, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sepultura Grande dolmen, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sepulture, <i>see</i>Cairns, Circles, Cists, Dolmens, Mounds, Tombs,</li>
-<li class="isub3">Tumuli.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Seringham, monoliths of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">monstrous size of, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">work there, how interrupted, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Serpent temples, false theory as to, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">gigantic serpent-forms in earth in America, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">serpent knot, <i>see</i>Wurm.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sesto Calende, rude-stone monuments at, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Setif, dolmen near, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Shahpoor stone monuments, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Shap avenue, counterpart of Kennet, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Penrith.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ship graves, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ships sculptured in dolmens, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Siam, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dagobas and stupas in, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Siberian Steppes, America peopled from, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Side-stone, Aspatria cist, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Siganfu tables, <a href="#Page_488">488</a> <i>note</i>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sigurd, converted by Olaus, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Silbury Hill, Roman writers silent as to monuments, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">their purpose and age, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">description of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dimensions, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">researches there, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">negative results, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">accounted for, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find in, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">mound, who raised, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">near Wansdyke, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Arthur's last battle, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">mound, why created, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">analogue of Gib Hill, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Silesia, dolmens in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Silius Italicus cited, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Silures in Britain, <a href="#Page_162">162-3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in Wales and Anglesea, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Cornwall, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">join with Brigantes, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Simpson, Sir J., cited as to Vetta, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">as to pit-markings, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sinai, monuments at, <a href="#Page_443">443-4</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sing, Jey, observatory, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sivite temple, ruined, at Iwullee, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sjöborg, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his merits, <a href="#Page_276">276-9</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">treats dolmens all as prehistoric, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Skail Bay, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Skiuli, death of, <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Skene, <i>see</i>Stuart, Glennie.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Slieve na Calliagh, <a href="#Page_213">213</a> (<i>see</i>Hengist and Horsa);</li>
-<li class="isub2">when first remarked, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">illustrations of, <a href="#Page_214">214</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">style of sculpture, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find at, <a href="#Page_215">215-6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">mysterious great stone saucer, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find, <a href="#Page_217">217-8</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">absence of circles, alignments, and rude-stone monuments, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sligo trilithon, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cairn of Ballysadare, King Eochy's tomb, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Smidstrup, buried dolmen at, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Smith, Colonel Baird, his excavation at Kutub pillar, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Smith, Dr., his astronomical theory, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">'Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge' cited, <a href="#Page_510">510</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Smyrna, date of tombs at, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Smyth, Piazzi, his theories, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Snake theory, <i>see</i>Stukeley, Dr.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Snio, king, where slain, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Spain, writers on its rude-stone monuments, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmens there, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen race, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">its navigation, in which direction, <a href="#Page_378">378</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">prehistoric race in Spain, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">its characteristics, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and non-use of stone in prehistoric times, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Iberians, Celtiberians, Turanians, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Carthaginians, Romans, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Moors' easy conquest proves earlier settlements in Spain, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Spanish race of Heremon in Ireland, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Spaniards, Siloros, migrate to Britain, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">part occupied by them in Ireland, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date of Heremon, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">light thrown by rude-stone monuments on connexion of Spain and</li>
-<li class="isub3">Ireland, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Roman architecture, its influence upon rude-stone monuments, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Spaniards in Ireland, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Spring Farm, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Square enclosures in North America, <a href="#Page_511">511-12</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Squares in Algeria, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">four cairns enclosed in squares, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Squier and Davis, Messrs., their survey of America, <a href="#Page_510">510</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">St. Augustine's monastery, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">St. Barbe, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">head of column at, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">St. Columba, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">converts Picts, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">visits King Brude, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">language of Picts unknown to, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">St. Front, Périgueux, church, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">St. Germain-sur-Vienne, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Confolens.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">St. Helier, cells at, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">St. Jerome cited as to barbarism of Irish, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">St. Malo, Maximus and British landed there, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">St. Pancras, heathen fane consecrated to, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">St. Patern, a Breton, his death, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">St. Patrick fails to convert Leoghaire, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">legend of him and demons, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">St. Servan, battle near, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">St. Vigean's stone, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stand Low find, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stanton Drew circles, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">not observatories, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circles at, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">similar to those in Derbyshire and Cumberland in purpose and date,</li>
-<li class="isub3"><i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">plan of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">oval, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">avenues, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Kingstone, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Stukeley's interpolation of serpentine avenues, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">ruins of dolmens, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tradition as to Keyna, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date of, <a href="#Page_151">151-2</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">belongs to Arthurian age, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">scene of Arthur's 9th battle, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">meaning of "Stanton," <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Maes Knoll, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">meaning of word Maes, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">similarity to Stennis, <a href="#Page_256">256-7</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stanton Moor circle, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stanley, Hon. W. C., circles enumerated by, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">cist found by, at Plas Newydd, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stawell, Lord, excavation directed by, at Avebury, <a href="#Page_74">74-5</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stennis, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">great circle like English ones, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">like Stanton Drew, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">date, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">countless barrows, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">magnificent effect of group, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circles and barrows belong to different and what races, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dates thereof, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Steppes, importance of exploring with reference to Turanian origin of</li>
-<li class="isub3">dolmens, <a href="#Page_447">447</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tumuli, <a href="#Page_448">448-9</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">images of dead on tombs, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">usages as to interments and sepulchres, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">four-cornered grave, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tumulus at Alexandropol, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">uncovered base of tumulus, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">genesis of circles, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Tartar and European tombs cognate, but not of same origin as Western</li>
-<li class="isub3">dolmen or circles, or menhirs, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Haxthausen's example an exception, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">examples in the Steppes carved, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stiklastad in Norway, battle at, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">"Stone of Destiny," where now, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stone tables, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stone temples, no classical writer connects Druids with, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stonehenge, theories respecting, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">not an observatory, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">not alluded to by Diodorus, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">ill-judged proceedings as to, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">age of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">not mentioned by Roman writers, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">plans, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circles, <a href="#Page_100">100-3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Sarsen or bluestones, <a href="#Page_92">92-7</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">trilithons, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">means of transport, <a href="#Page_95">95-6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">who erected, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">intermediate circle, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">mere stones more numerous, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">was Stonehenge a temple, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">why hewn stones there, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">erected leisurely, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">trilithons called gates by Olaus, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">question as to priority in time of the barrows or stone monuments,</li>
-<li class="isub3"><i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">connexion between circles and British villages, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">diggings there, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">map of country around, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">its builders not Christians, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">whether sepulchral, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">why erected and by whom, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Alignments, Avenues, Barrows, Bluestones, Finds, Sarsens.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stones, worship of, forbidden, <a href="#Page_24">24-6</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stoney Littleton, chambered tumulus, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">grave intended to be covered, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">post-Roman, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Strabo, account of Druids by, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of temple by, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">barbarism of early Irish, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stuart, Glennie, and Kendal, W., assign Scottish birthplace and</li>
-<li class="isub3">campaign to Arthur, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stuart, J., cited, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">as to diggings at Rayne, <a href="#Page_264">264-5</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stukeley, Dr., wild theory of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">adopted by Sir R. C. Hoare, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">misunderstands text of Diodorus, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">drawings by, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his visit to Shap, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">compared in one respect to Boece, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his serpent interpolation at Stanton Drew, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his snake bit, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stupas in India, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Suetonius, Druids met by, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sûf, dolmens near, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Suhm, cited as to date of Lothbrok victories, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Summit interments, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Interments.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sun worship forbidden, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sutherland, Duchess of, her etchings of ruins in Orkneys, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Swansea, Arthur's Quoit at, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sweden, South, megalithic remains in, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circles, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmens in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Swen Grate, King, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sylhet, Mohammedan kingdom, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Symbol stage, none in Ireland, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Syria, trilithons in, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">  TABLE-STONES, <a href="#Page_435">435-6</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tabriz circle, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tacitus cited as to three races in Britain, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tailten, Talton, or Telltown, burial of Irish kings there, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of Lough Crew, <a href="#Page_219">219</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">fair in honour of Magh Mor, King of Spain, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Táin Bó Chuailgne, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Talyots, or talayots, <a href="#Page_434">434</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in Balearic isles, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tamulians not builders of rude-stone monuments in India, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tantalais tumulus, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tara, Hill of, remains at, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">early celebrity of, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">capital of Firbolgs and Dananns, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, whence the name, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tartar tombs, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Taylor, Col. Meadows, cited as to Indian dolmens, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and Shahpoor monuments, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Teamair, wife of Heremon, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tee in Tope, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in rock at Ajunta, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">as connecting links between Eastern and Western dolmens, <a href="#Page_489">489-90</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Temples, what structures not, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">megalithic remains not, <a href="#Page_20">20</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>mounds.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Teocallis, Mexican, what, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">"Things," meaning of word, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Thomas, Lieut., his account of monuments in the Orkneys, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Thorfin, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">sons of, <a href="#Page_528">528</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">where buried, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">battle between them and Liotr, <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Three Ages, Danish doctrine of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">illusive application of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Thunder-stone at Shap, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Thurnam, his work on British Skulls, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his inference from finds, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">as to West Kennet, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Thyra, monument of Queen, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">finds, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tia Huanaco, ruins at, not like those attributed to Druids, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">what they were, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tigernach, his date of Queen Meave's death, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of Crimthann's, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tika received by Rajahs from Bhils, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tin, route of ancient British commerce in, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Toda tribe in India, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Bhil.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Toltecs, buildings of, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tollington, supposed avenue at, <a href="#Page_117">117-9</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">obelisks at, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tombs--of Alyattes, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Atridæ, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Cocumella, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Cœre, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Regulini Galeassi, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of great men marked by megalithic monuments, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of Isidorus, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Tartar, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Nilgiri hills, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Toope, Dr., his letter to Aubrey respecting Hakpen Hill, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tooth-relic, worship of, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Topes in India found blind, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Dagoba.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tormore, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Towers, round, at Brechin and Abernethy, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Town of the Stone of the Strangers, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tras os Montes dolmens, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tree-worship forbidden, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Trepucò talyot, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Triads, Welsh authority for interments at Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">as to stone of Cetti, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">value of, as authority, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Triangular monuments, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">perhaps cuneatus ordo of Olaus Magnus, <i>ib.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Trie, holed dolmens, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Trilithons at Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">connexion with dolmens, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">in Sligo, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Ksaea at Elkeb, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Hauran, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tripoli, trilithons at Ksaea, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Elkel with holes, <a href="#Page_411">411-2</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">compared to Hindu Yoni, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Buddhist monument at Bangkok, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tuatha de Dananns, <i>see</i>Dananns.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tuathal, authentic history begins with, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">"the accepted," <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tumiac tumulus and find, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tumuli, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">different kinds of, <i>ib.</i>(<i>see</i>Barrows, Pyramids, Tombs);</li>
-<li class="isub2">history of inhumation, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Troy, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Roman, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">truncated cones, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">spoliation of their own ancestors' tombs by Northmen, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Kemp How at Shap, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find at, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">chambered tumuli, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Freyrsö, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">certain Danish, identical with some in Auvergne, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tumuli by thousands in the east of France, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">finds, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">numerous in Etruria, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">peculiarity of tumuli in North Africa, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">plan and elevation of two sepulchral monuments, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">not battle-field, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">quadruple circles, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tumuli chambered in Lydia and Kertch, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">kouloba on hill of cinders, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">find there, <a href="#Page_446">446-7</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">tumuli in the Steppes, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">at Alexandropol, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">finds there, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">uncovered base of, at Nikolajew, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Tartar tumuli perhaps models of Western, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Turanian origin of dolmens, theory of, how to be proved or</li>
-<li class="isub3">disproved, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Turanian race in Europe, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Twining's strange map theory, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tyrebagger, circle at, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tynwald Mount, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tyrrheni, <i>see</i>Pelasgi.</li>
-
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">  U, buried dolmen at, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">chamber, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Udyagiri Hills, Buddhist caves in, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Uekermark, dolmen at, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Uelzen, dolmen with enclosures near, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Uffington Castle, monuments near, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">why constructed, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Uley, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">chambered grave, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">post-Roman, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ultonians, tombs of, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Upland, Danish prince killed at, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Urn found in cairn of One Man, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
-
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">  VAISALI, convocation at, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Valdbygaards, two dolmens in enclosure, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vallancy, wild speculations of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vancouver's Island, natives of, whether mound-builders, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vannes, Museum of, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vedas, date of, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Veneti, Cæsar's naval battle with, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">hence what inference of age of monuments, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">iron nails used by, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Verneilh, Felix de, his 'Byzantine Architecture in France,' <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vestal Virgins, no just analogy of Nuns, to, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vetta, his name on Cat stone, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">supposed grandfather of Hengist and Horsa, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Via Badonica, under Silbury Hill, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vicars, Mr., surveys Carnac, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vicramaditya, his capital, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Viharas, early date and growth of, in India, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vikings, <a href="#Page_303">303-4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">grave, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vinland, America peopled through, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Viraculls, what, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vitoria, dolmens in, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Voguë's, De, plates of Roman tombs in the Hauran, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vortigern, victory of, at Aylesfor, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vulci, tomb at, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
-
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">  WADEN HILL, where and what it is, site of what battle, <a href="#Page_88">88-9</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wales, Druids in, when <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen-building race, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Walhouse, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Walker, Mr., his find at Knock na Rea, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wansdyke, barrier against Welsh, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ware, statement of, as to Giant stones in Kildare, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">circles in, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Waterloo, mound at, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wayland Smith's Cave in Berkshire, used by Scott in 'Kenilworth,' <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">what it was, <a href="#Page_123">123-4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">great circle there, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Webb's reply to Dr. Charleton respecting Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Welsh Gate, what and where it was, <a href="#Page_87">87-89</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Welsh Triads, <i>see</i>Triads.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">West Kennet, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">its similarity to barrow in Denmark, <a href="#Page_283">283</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Barrow.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Western Islands, no Druids in, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">White Horse, near Uffington, described by Mr. T. Hughes, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wilde, Sir W., his residence at Moytura, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his work, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wildesheim, dolmen at, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wilkinson, Sir Gardner, observations on Long Meg, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">on Arbor Low, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, and Gib Hill, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his corrections to Croker's survey of Stanton Drew, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">dolmen at Gower opened by, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wilson, Captain, his survey of Clava, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wilson, Daniel, dolmen mentioned by, in Argyllshire, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wilson's 'Prehistoric Annals,' <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">his remarks upon Daw's theory as to origin, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wiltshire, Sir R. C. Hoare's work on, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wisconsin and Ohio, how first peopled, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Woden myth, its allusion to Indian</li>
-<li class="isub2">origin, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Woden not Sakya Muni, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Woking, principle of selection of, as cemetery, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">not applied by ancients, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wood worship forbidden, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">early employment of, in Indian architecture, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wood Castle, circle at, <a href="#Page_129">129</a> <i>note</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Arthur's battle there, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wormius Olaus, correspondence with Dr. Charleton respecting</li>
-<li class="isub3">Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">mentions dolmens with square enclosures, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Worsaae cited as to Scandinavian monuments, <a href="#Page_297">297</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wright, Mr., account of monuments at Aylesford, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>See</i>Aylesford.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Written history, errors of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">deficiency of, supplied by monuments, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and by architectural study, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">uncertain accounts of King Arthur, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wurm Knot in Maes-Howe, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
-
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">  YARHOUSE, battle at, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Yarrow, inscription in stone at, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Yucatan, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">carved stone monuments, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Yule, Col., his 'Cathay,' <a href="#Page_488">488</a> <i>note</i>.</li>
-
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">  ZANA, Queen, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Zealand, <i>see</i>Bilk Valdbygaards.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<div class="topspace2"></div>
-
-<p class="center"><span class="large">THE END.</span></p>
-
-<div class="topspace2"></div>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p class="center">
-LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET,<br />
-AND CHARING CROSS.
-</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_560" id="Page_560">[Pg 560]</a></span></p>
-
-<h2 id="WORKS_BY_THE_SAME_AUTHOR">WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</h2>
-
-
-<p class="p3">HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE IN ALL COUNTRIES, <span class="smcap">from the Earliest Times
-to the Present Day</span>. With 1200 Illustrations. 2 vols. 8vo. 84<i>s.</i>
-London, Murray, 1865-7.</p>
-
-<p class="p3">HISTORY OF THE MODERN STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE. <span class="smcap">Forming the Third
-Volume of the 'History of Architecture.'</span> With 312 Illustrations.
-8vo. 31<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> London, Murray, 1862.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p class="p3">ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE ROCK-CUT TEMPLES OF INDIA. 18 Plates in Tinted
-Lithography, folio: with an 8vo. volume of Text, Plans, &amp;c. 2<i>l.</i>
-7<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> London, Weale, 1845.</p>
-
-<p class="p3">PICTURESQUE ILLUSTRATIONS OF ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE IN HINDOSTAN. 24
-Plates in Coloured Lithography, with Plans, Woodcuts, and explanatory
-Text, &amp;c. 4<i>l.</i> 4<i>s.</i> London, Hogarth, 1847.</p>
-
-<p class="p3">AN ESSAY ON THE ANCIENT TOPOGRAPHY OF JERUSALEM; with restored Plans
-of the Temple, and with Plans, Sections, and Details of the Church
-built by Constantine the Great over the Holy Sepulchre, now known as
-the Mosque of Omar. 16<i>s.</i> London, Weale, 1847.</p>
-
-<p class="p3">AN ESSAY ON A PROPOSED NEW SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION, with Hints for
-its Application to our National Defences. 12<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> London, Weale,
-1849.</p>
-
-<p class="p3">AN HISTORICAL INQUIRY INTO THE TRUE PRINCIPLES OF BEAUTY IN ART, more
-especially with reference to Architecture. Royal 8vo. 31<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>
-London, Longmans, 1849.</p>
-
-<p class="p3">THE PALACES OF NINEVEH AND PERSEPOLIS RESTORED: An Essay on Ancient
-Assyrian and Persian Architecture. 8vo. 16<i>s.</i> London, Murray, 1851.</p>
-
-<p class="p3">THE PERIL OF PORTSMOUTH. <span class="smcap">French Fleets and English Forts.</span>
-Plan. 8vo. 3<i>s.</i> London, Murray, 1853.</p>
-
-<p class="p3">PORTSMOUTH PROTECTED: with Notes on Sebastopol and other Sieges
-during the Present War. Plans. 8vo. 3<i>s.</i> London, Murray, 1856.</p>
-
-<p class="p3">OBSERVATIONS ON THE BRITISH MUSEUM, NATIONAL GALLERY, and NATIONAL
-RECORD OFFICE; with Suggestions for their improvement. 8vo. London,
-Weale, 1849.</p>
-
-<p class="p3">THE ILLUSTRATED HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURE. Being a Concise and Popular
-Account of the Different Styles prevailing in all Ages and all
-Countries. With 850 Illustrations. 8vo. 26<i>s.</i> London, Murray, 1859.</p>
-
-<p class="p3">NOTES ON THE SITE OF THE HOLY SEPULCHRE AT JERUSALEM. An answer to
-'The Edinburgh Review.' 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> London, Murray, 1861.</p>
-
-<p class="p3">THE MAUSOLEUM AT HALICARNASSUS RESTORED, <span class="smcap">in Conformity with the
-Remains recently discovered</span>. Plates. 4to. 7<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> London,
-Murray, 1862.</p>
-
-<p class="p3">THE HOLY SEPULCHRE AND THE TEMPLE AT JERUSALEM. Being the Substance
-of Two Lectures delivered in the Royal Institution, Albemarle Street,
-on the 21st February, 1862, and 3rd March, 1865. Woodcuts. 8vo. 7<i>s.</i>
-6<i>d.</i> London, Murray, 1865.</p>
-
-<p class="p3"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_561" id="Page_561">[Pg 561]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter"><a id="image_id"></a>
-<img src="images/i_map.jpg" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><i>Map, designed to illustrate the distribution of
-Dolmens, and probable lines of the migrations of the Dolmen builders.</i></div>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="full" />
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-
-<div class="transnote">
-<p><span class="smcap">Transcriber's Note</span></p>
-<p>1. Simple spelling, grammar, and typographical errors have been silently corrected.</p>
-<p>2. Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed.</p>
-<p>3. The original book contained several unpaired double quotation
-     marks which could not be corrected with certainty.</p>
-<p>4. Out of order entries in Index have been corrected.</p>
-<p>5. Page 324: "Note" refers to the map opposite. There is no Map.</p>
-<p>6. Page 411: "Footnote Anchor 484" is missing. An anchor has been added
-       at the end of the paragraph in which the text, to which it refers, appears.</p>
-<p>7. Index: The entry "Ross County, North America, sacred enclosures in, 811." should read
-      "Ross County, North America, sacred enclosures in, 511." Index corrected.</p>
-<p>8. Variations in hyphenation (e.g. battlefields/battle-fields)
-       have not been harmonised.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<hr class="pg" />
-<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RUDE STONE MONUMENTS IN ALL COUNTRIES***</p>
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