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diff --git a/old/54383-0.txt b/old/54383-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 8f28b33..0000000 --- a/old/54383-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,16636 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The American Railway, by -Thomas Curtis Clarke and Theodore Voorhees and John Bogart and and others - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: The American Railway - Its Construction, Development, Management, and Appliances - -Author: Thomas Curtis Clarke - Theodore Voorhees - John Bogart - and others - -Release Date: March 18, 2017 [EBook #54383] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AMERICAN RAILWAY *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, John Campbell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE - - Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. - - Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=. - - A superscript is denoted by ^x for example 12^1. - - Details on minor changes can be found at the end of the book. - - - - -THE AMERICAN RAILWAY - -[Illustration: THE LAST SPAN--READY TO JOIN.] - - - - - THE AMERICAN RAILWAY - - _ITS CONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT,_ - _MANAGEMENT, AND APPLIANCES_ - - BY - - THOMAS CURTIS CLARKE - JOHN BOGART - M. N. FORNEY - E. P. ALEXANDER - H. G. PROUT - HORACE PORTER - THEODORE VOORHEES - BENJAMIN NORTON - ARTHUR T. HADLEY - THOMAS L. JAMES - CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS - B. B. ADAMS, JR. - - WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY - - THOMAS M. COOLEY - - CHAIRMAN OF INTERSTATE COMMERCE COMMISSION - - - _WITH MORE THAN 200 ILLUSTRATIONS_ - - - NEW YORK - - CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS - - 1889 - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1888, 1889, BY - - CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS - - - TROW'S - PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING COMPANY, - NEW YORK. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - _INTRODUCTION_ xxi - - BY THOMAS M. COOLEY, - _Chairman Interstate Commerce Commission_. - - - THE BUILDING OF A RAILWAY 1 - - BY THOMAS CURTIS CLARKE, - _Civil Engineer_. - - Roman Tramways of Stone--First Use of Iron Rails--The Modern - Railway created by Stephenson's "Rocket" in 1830--Early - American Locomotives--Key to the Evolution of the American - Railway--Invention of the Swivelling Truck, Equalizing Beams, - and the Switchback--Locating a Road--Work of the Surveying - Party--Making the Road-bed--How Tunnels are Avoided--More - than Three Thousand Bridges in the United States--Old Wooden - Structures--The Howe Truss--The Use of Iron--Viaducts of - Steel--The American System of Laying Bridge Foundations - under Water--Origin of the Cantilever--Laying the Track--How - it is Kept in Repair--Premiums for Section Bosses--Number - of Railway Employees in the United States--Rapid Railway - Construction--Radical Changes which the Railway will Effect. - - - FEATS OF RAILWAY ENGINEERING 47 - - BY JOHN BOGART, - _State Engineer of New York_. - - Development of the Rail--Problems for the Engineer--How - Heights are Climbed--The Use of Trestles--Construction on a - Mountain Side--Engineering on Rope Ladders--Through the Portals - of a Cañon--Feats on the Oroya Railroad, Peru--Nochistongo - Cut--Rack Rails for Heavy Grades--Difficulties in Tunnel - Construction--Bridge Foundations--Cribs and Pneumatic - Caissons--How Men work under Water--The Construction of Stone - Arches--Wood and Iron in Bridge-building--Great Suspension - Bridges--The Niagara Cantilever and the enormous Forth - Bridge--Elevated and Underground Roads--Responsibilities of the - Civil Engineer. - - - AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS 100 - - BY M. N. FORNEY, - _Author of "The Catechism of the Locomotive," Editor "Railroad - and Engineering Journal," New York_. - - The Baltimore & Ohio Railroad in 1830--Evolution of the Car - from the Conestoga Wagon--Horatio Allen's Trial Trip--The - First Locomotive used in the United States--Peter Cooper's - Race with a Gray Horse--The "De Witt Clinton," "Planet," and - other Early Types of Locomotives--Equalizing Levers--How Steam - is Made and Controlled--The Boiler, Cylinder, Injector, and - Valve Gear--Regulation of the Capacity of a Locomotive to - Draw--Increase in the Number of Driving Wheels--Modern Types of - Locomotives--Variation in the Rate of Speed--The Appliances by - which an Engine is Governed--Round-houses and Shops--Development - of American Cars--An Illustration from Peter Parley--The Survival - of Stage Coach Bodies--Adoption of the Rectangular Shape--The - Origin of Eight-wheeled Cars--Improvement in Car Coupling--A - Uniform Type Recommended--The Making of Wheels--Relative Merits - of Cast and Wrought Iron, and Steel--The Allen Paper Wheel--Types - of Cars, with Size, Weight, and Price--The Car-Builder's - Dictionary--Statistical. - - - RAILWAY MANAGEMENT 149 - - BY GEN. E. P. ALEXANDER, - _President of the Central Railroad and Banking Company of Georgia_. - - Relations of Railway Management to all Other Pursuits--Developed - by the Necessities of a Complex Industrial Life--How a Continuous - Life is Given to a Corporation--Its Artificial Memory--Main - Divisions of Railway Management--The Executive and Legislative - Powers--The Purchasing and Supply Departments--Importance of - the Legal Department--How the Roadway is Kept in Repair--The - Maintenance of Rolling Stock--Schedule-making--The Handling - of Extra Trains--Duties of the Train-despatcher--Accidents - in Spite of Precautions--Daily Distribution of Cars--How - Business is Secured and Rates are Fixed--The Interstate - Commerce Law--The Questions of "Long and Short Hauls" and - "Differentials"--Classification of Freight--Regulation of - Passenger-rates--Work of Soliciting Agents--The Collection of - Revenue and Statistics--What is a Way-bill--How Disbursements are - Made--The Social and Industrial Problem which Confronts Railway - Corporations. - - - SAFETY IN RAILROAD TRAVEL 187 - - BY H. G. PROUT, - _Editor "Railroad Gazette," New York_. - - The Possibilities of Destruction in the Great Speed of - a Locomotive--The Energy of Four Hundred Tons Moving at - Seventy-five Miles an Hour--A Look ahead from a Locomotive at - Night--Passengers Killed and Injured in One Year--Good Discipline - the Great Source of Safety--The Part Played by Mechanical - Appliances--Hand-brakes on Old Cars--How the Air-brake Works--The - Electric Brake--Improvements yet to be Made--Engine Driver - Brakes--Two Classes of Signals: those which Protect Points - of Danger, and those which Keep an Interval between Trains - on the Same Track--The Semaphore--Interlocking Signals and - Switches--Electric Annunciators to Indicate the Movements--The - Block Signal System--Protection for Crossings--Gates and - Gongs--How Derailment is Guarded Against--Safety Bolts--Automatic - Couplers--The Vestibule as a Safety Appliance--Car Heating and - Lighting. - - - RAILWAY PASSENGER TRAVEL 228 - - BY GEN. HORACE PORTER, - _Vice-President Pullman Palace-Car Company_. - - The Earliest Railway Passenger Advertisement--The First - Time-table Published in America--The Mohawk & Hudson - Train--Survival of Stage-coach Terms in English Railway - Nomenclature--Simon Cameron's Rash Prediction--Discomforts - of Early Cars--Introduction of Air-brakes, Patent Buffers - and Couplers, the Bell-cord, and Interlocking Switches--The - First Sleeping-cars--Mr. Pullman's Experiments--The - "Pioneer"--Introduction of Parlor and Drawing-room - Cars--The Demand for Dining-cars--Ingenious Devices for - Heating Cars--Origin of Vestibule-cars--An Important Safety - Appliance--The Luxuries of a Limited Express--Fast Time in - America and England--Sleeping-cars for Immigrants--The Village - of Pullman--The Largest Car-works in the World--Baggage-checks - and Coupon Tickets--Conveniences in a Modern Depot--Statistics - in Regard to Accidents--Proportion of Passengers in Various - Classes--Comparison of Rates in the Leading Countries of the - World. - - - THE FREIGHT-CAR SERVICE 267 - - BY THEODORE VOORHEES, - _Assistant-General Superintendent, New York Central Railroad_. - - Sixteen Months' Journey of a Car--Detentions by the - Way--Difficulties of the Car Accountant's Office--Necessities - of Through Freight--How a Company's Cars are Scattered--The - Question of Mileage--Reduction of the Balance in Favor of - Other Roads--Relation of the Car Accountant's Work to the - Transportation Department--Computation of Mileage--The Record - Branch--How Reports are Gathered and Compiled--Exchange of - "Junction Cards"--The Use of "Tracers"--Distribution of - Empty Cars--Control of the Movement of Freight--How Trains - are Made Up--Duties of the Yardmaster--The Handling of - Through Trains--Organization of Fast Lines--Transfer Freight - Houses--Special Cars for Specific Service--Disasters to Freight - Trains--How the Companies Suffer--Inequalities in Payment for Car - Service--The Per Diem Plan--A Uniform Charge for Car Rental--What - Reforms might be Accomplished. - - - HOW TO FEED A RAILWAY 298 - - BY BENJAMIN NORTON, - _Second Vice-President, Long Island Railroad Company_. - - The Many Necessities of a Modern Railway--The Purchasing and - Supply Departments--Comparison with the Commissary Department of - an Army--Financial Importance--Immense Expenditures--The General - Storehouse--Duties of the Purchasing Agent--The Best Material the - Cheapest--Profits from the Scrap-heap--Old Rails Worked over into - New Implements--Yearly Contracts for Staple Articles--Economy - in Fuel--Tests by the Best Engineers and Firemen--The - Stationery Supply--Aggregate Annual Cost of Envelopes, Tickets, - and Time-tables--The Average Life of Rails--Durability of - Cross-ties--What it Costs per Mile to Run an Engine--The - Paymaster's Duties--Scenes during the Trip of a Pay-car. - - - THE RAILWAY MAIL SERVICE 312 - - BY THOMAS L. JAMES, - _Ex-Postmaster General_. - - An Object Lesson in Postal Progress--Nearness of the Department - to the People--The First Travelling Post-Office in the United - States--Organization of the Department in 1789--Early Mail - Contracts--All Railroads made Post-routes--Compartments for - Mail Clerks in Baggage-cars--Origin of the Present System in - 1862--Important Work of Colonel George S. Bangs--The "Fast Mail" - between New York and Chicago--Why it was Suspended--Resumption - in 1877--Present Condition of the Service--Statistics--A - Ride on the "Fast Mail"--Busy Scenes at the Grand Central - Depot--Special Uses of the Five Cars--Duties of the Clerks--How - the Work is Performed--Annual Appropriation for Special Mail - Facilities--Dangers Threatening the Railway Mail Clerk's Life--An - Insurance Fund Proposed--Needs of the Service--A Plea for Radical - Civil Service Reform. - - - THE RAILWAY IN ITS BUSINESS RELATIONS 344 - - BY ARTHUR T. HADLEY, - _Professor of Political Science in Yale College, Author of - "Railroad Transportation_." - - Amount of Capital Invested in Railways--Important Place in - the Modern Industrial System--The Duke of Bridgewater's - Foresight--The Growth of Half a Century--Early Methods of - Business Management--The Tendency toward Consolidation--How - the War Developed a National Idea--Its Effect on Railroad - Building--Thomson and Scott as Organizers--Vanderbilt's Capacity - for Financial Management--Garrett's Development of the Baltimore - & Ohio--The Concentration of Immense Power in a Few Men--Making - Money out of the Investors--Difficult Positions of Stockholders - and Bondholders--How the Finances are Manipulated by the Board - of Directors--Temptations to the Misuse of Power--Relations of - Railroads to the Public who Use Them--Inequalities in Freight - Rates--Undue Advantages for Large Trade Centres--Proposed - Remedies--Objections to Government Control--Failure of - Grangerism--The Origin of Pools--Their Advantages--Albert - Fink's Great Work--Charles Francis Adams and the Massachusetts - Commission--Adoption of the Interstate Commerce Law--Important - Influence of the Commission--Its Future Functions--Ill-judged - State Legislation. - - - THE PREVENTION OF RAILWAY STRIKES 370 - - BY CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS, - _President of the Union Pacific Railroad_. - - Railways the Largest Single Interest in the United - States--Some Impressive Statistics--Growth of a Complex - Organization--Five Divisions of Necessary Work--Other Special - Departments--Importance of the Operating Department--The Evil - of Strikes--To be Remedied by Thorough Organization--Not the - Ordinary Relation between Employer and Employee--Of what the - Model Railway Service Should Consist--Temporary and Permanent - Employees--Promotion from one Grade to the Other--Rights - and Privileges of the Permanent Service--Employment during - Good Behavior--Proposed Tribunal for Adjusting Differences - and Enforcing Discipline--A Regular Advance in Pay for - Faithful Service--A Fund for Hospital Service, Pensions, and - Insurance--Railroad Educational Institutions--The Employer - to Have a Voice in Management through a Council--A System of - Representation. - - - THE EVERY-DAY LIFE OF RAILROAD MEN 383 - - BY B. B. ADAMS, JR., - _Associate Editor, "Railroad Gazette," New York_. - - The Typical Railroad Man--On the Road and at Home--Raising the - Moral Standard--Characteristics of the Freight Brakeman--His Wit - the Result of Meditation--How Slang is Originated--Agreeable - Features of his Life in Fine Weather--Hardships in - Winter--The Perils of Hand-brakes--Broken Trains--Going back - to Flag--Coupling Accidents--At the Spring--Advantages of - a Passenger Brakeman--Trials of the Freight Conductor--The - Investigation of Accidents--Irregular Hours of Work--The - Locomotive Engineer the Hero of the Rail--His Rare Qualities--The - Value of Quick Judgment--Calm Fidelity a Necessary Trait--Saving - Fuel on a Freight Engine--Making Time on a Passenger - Engine--Remarkable Runs--The Spirit of Fraternity among - Engineers--Difficult Duties of a Passenger-train Conductor--Tact - in Dealing with Many People--Questions to be Answered--How - Rough Characters are Dealt with--Heavy Responsibilities--The - Work of a Station Agent--Flirtation by Telegraph--The - Baggage-master's Hard Task--Eternal Vigilance Necessary in a - Switch-tender--Section-men, Train Despatchers, Firemen, and - Clerks--Efforts to Make the Railroad Man's Life Easier. - - - STATISTICAL RAILWAY STUDIES 425 - - ILLUSTRATED WITH THIRTEEN MAPS AND NINETEEN CHARTS. - - BY FLETCHER W. HEWES, - _Author of "Scribner's Statistical Atlas_." - - Railway Mileage of the World--Railway Mileage of the United - States--Annual Mileage and Increase--Mileage Compared with - Area--Geographical Location of Railways--Centres of Mileage - and of Population--Railway Systems--Trunk Lines Compared: - By Mileage; Largest Receipts; Largest Net Results--Freight - Traffic--Reduction of Freight Rates--Wheat Rates--The Freight - Haul--Empty Freight Trains--Freight Profits--Passenger - Traffic--Passenger Rates--Passenger Travel--Passenger - Profits--General Considerations--Dividends--Net Earnings per - Mile and Railway Building--Ratios of Increase--Construction and - Maintenance--Employees and their Wages--Rolling Stock--Capital - Invested. - - - _INDEX_ 449 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - -FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS. - - _Title._ _Designer._ _Page_ - - THE LAST SPAN (Frontispiece) A. B. Frost v - - ALPINE PASS. AVOIDANCE OF A TUNNEL _From a photograph_ 5 - - BIG LOOP, GEORGETOWN BRANCH OF THE UNION - PACIFIC, COLORADO _From a photograph_ 11 - - SNOW-SHEDS, SELKIRK MOUNTAINS, CANADIAN - PACIFIC J. D. Woodward 19 - - RAIL MAKING Walter Shirlaw 39 - - LOOP AND GREAT TRESTLE NEAR HAGERMAN'S, - ON THE COLORADO MIDLAND RAILWAY J. D. Woodward 51 - - PORTAL OF A TUNNEL IN PROCESS OF - CONSTRUCTION Otto Stark 65 - - AT WORK IN A PNEUMATIC CAISSON--FIFTY - FEET BELOW THE SURFACE OF THE WATER Walter Shirlaw 73 - - BELOW THE BROOKLYN BRIDGE J. H. Twachtman 83 - - THE ST. LOUIS BRIDGE DURING CONSTRUCTION M. E. Sands - & R. Blum 95 - - A TYPICAL AMERICAN PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVE _From a photograph_ 111 - - INTERIOR OF A ROUND-HOUSE M. J. Burns 130 - - VIEW IN LOCOMOTIVE ERECTING SHOP J. D. Woodward - & R. Blum 135 - - DIAGRAM USED IN MAKING RAILWAY TIME-TABLES 161 - - THE GENERAL DESPATCHER M. J. Burns 165 - - MANTUA JUNCTION, WEST PHILADELPHIA, - SHOWING A COMPLEX SYSTEM OF - INTERLACING TRACKS W. C. Fitler 169 - - DANGER AHEAD! A. B. Frost 189 - - INTERLOCKING APPARATUS FOR OPERATING - SWITCHES AND SIGNALS BY COMPRESSED - AIR, PITTSBURG YARDS, PENNSYLVANIA - RAILROAD _From a photograph_ 211 - - PULLMAN VESTIBULED CARS _From a photograph_ 247 - - IN A BAGGAGE-ROOM W. C. Broughton 255 - - "SHOW YOUR TICKETS!" Walter Shirlaw 261 - - FREIGHT YARDS OF THE NEW YORK CENTRAL & - HUDSON RIVER RAILROAD, WEST SIXTY-FIFTH - STREET, NEW YORK W. C. Fitler 285 - - FREIGHT FROM ALL QUARTERS--SOME TYPICAL - TRAINS W. C. Fitler 291 - - AT A WAY-STATION--THE POSTMASTER'S - ASSISTANT Herbert Denman 321 - - TRANSFER OF MAIL AT THE GRAND CENTRAL - STATION, NEW YORK Herbert Denman 327 - - SORTING LETTERS IN CAR NO. 1--THE - FAST MAIL Herbert Denman 333 - - A BREAKDOWN ON THE ROAD A. B. Frost 405 - - IN THE WAITING ROOM OF A COUNTRY STATION A. B. Frost 413 - - THE TRIALS OF A BAGGAGE-MASTER A. B. Frost 417 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT. - - - PAGE - First Locomotive 2 - - Locomotive of To-day 3 - - A Sharp Curve--Manhattan Elevated Railway, 110th Street, - New York 7 - - A Steep Grade on a Mountain Railroad 8 - - A Switchback 9 - - Plan of Big Loop 10 - - Profile of the Same 10 - - Engineers in Camp 14 - - Royal Gorge Hanging Bridge, Denver and Rio Grande, Colorado 16 - - Veta Pass, Colorado 17 - - Sections of Snow-sheds (3 cuts) 18 - - Making an Embankment 21 - - Steam Excavator 21 - - Building a Culvert 22 - - Building a Bridge Abutment 22 - - Rock Drill 23 - - A Construction and Boarding Train 24 - - Bergen Tunnels, Hoboken, N. J. 25 - - Beginning a Tunnel 26 - - Old Burr Wooden Bridge 28 - - Kinzua Viaduct; Erie Railway 30 - - Kinzua Viaduct 31 - - View of Thomas Pope's Proposed Cantilever (1810) 34 - - Pope's Cantilever in Process of Erection 35 - - General View of the Poughkeepsie Bridge 36 - - Erection of a Cantilever 37 - - Spiking the Track 38 - - Track Laying 41 - - Temporary Railway Crossing the St. Lawrence on the Ice 44 - - View Down the Blue from Rocky Point, Denver, South Park and - Pacific Railroad; showing successive tiers of railway 49 - - Denver and Rio Grande Railway Entering the Portals of the - Grand River Cañon, Colorado 54 - - The Kentucky River Cantilever, on the Cincinnati Southern - Railway 55 - - Truss over Ravine, and Tunnel, Oroya Railroad, Peru 56 - - The Nochistongo Cut, Mexican Central Railway 57 - - The Mount Washington Rack Railroad 58 - - Trestle on Portland and Ogdensburg Railway, Crawford Notch, - White Mountains 58 - - A Series of Tunnels 59 - - Tunnel at the Foot of Mount St. Stephen, on the Canadian - Pacific 60 - - Peña de Mora on the La Guayra and Carácas Railway, Venezuela 61 - - Perspective View of St. Gothard Spiral Tunnels, in the Alps 62 - - Plan of St. Gothard Spiral Tunnels 63 - - Profile of the Same 63 - - Portal of a Finished Tunnel; showing Cameron's Cone, Colorado 64 - - Railway Pass at Rocky Point in the Rocky Mountains 67 - - Bridge Pier Founded on Piles 68 - - Pneumatic Caisson 70 - - Transverse Section of Pneumatic Caisson 71 - - Pier of Hawkesbury Bridge, Australia 75 - - Foundation Crib of the Poughkeepsie Bridge 76 - - Transverse Section of the Same 76 - - Granite Arched Approach to Harlem River Bridge in Process - of Construction 77 - - The Old Portage Viaduct, Erie Railway, N. Y. 78 - - The New Portage Viaduct 79 - - The Britannia Tubular Bridge over the Menai Straits, - North Wales 80 - - Old Stone Towers of the Niagara Suspension Bridge 82 - - The New Iron Towers of the Same 82 - - Truss Bridge of the Northern Pacific Railway over the Missouri - River at Bismarck, Dak.--Testing the Central Span 87 - - Curved Viaduct, Georgetown, Col.; the Union Pacific Crossing - its own Line 88 - - The Niagara Cantilever Bridge in Progress 90 - - The Niagara Cantilever Bridge Completed 91 - - The Lachine Bridge, on the Canadian Pacific Railway, near - Montreal, Canada 92 - - The 510-feet Span Steel Arches of the New Harlem River Bridge, - New York, during Construction 97 - - London Underground Railway Station 98 - - Conestoga Wagon and Team 101 - - Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, 1830-35 101 - - Boston & Worcester Railroad, 1835 102 - - Horatio Allen 103 - - Peter Cooper's Locomotive, 1830 104 - - "South Carolina," 1831, and Plan of its Running Gear 105 - - The "De Witt Clinton," 1831 105 - - "Grasshopper" Locomotive 106 - - The "Planet" 107 - - John B. Jervis's Locomotive, 1831, and Plan of its - Running Gear 108 - - Campbell's Locomotive 109 - - Locomotive for Suburban Traffic 110 - - Locomotive for Street Railway 110 - - Four-wheeled Switching Locomotive 113 - - Driving Wheels, Frames, Spurs, etc., of American Locomotive 114 - - Longitudinal Section of a Locomotive Boiler 115 - - Transverse Section 115 - - Rudimentary Injector 116 - - Injector Used on Locomotives 117 - - Sections of a Locomotive Cylinder 118 - - Eccentric 118 - - Eccentric and Strap 118 - - Valve Gear 119 - - Turning Locomotive Tires 121 - - Six-wheeled Switching Locomotive 122 - - Mogul Locomotive 123 - - Ten-wheeled Passenger Locomotive 123 - - Consolidation Locomotive (unfinished) 124 - - Consolidation Locomotive 124 - - Decapod Locomotive 125 - - "Forney" Tank Locomotive 126 - - "Hudson" Tank Locomotive 127 - - Camden & Amboy Locomotive, 1848 129 - - Cab End of a Locomotive and its Attachments 133 - - Interior of Erecting Shop, showing Locomotive Lifted by - Travelling Crane 137 - - Forging a Locomotive Frame 138 - - Mohawk & Hudson Car, 1831 139 - - Early Car 139 - - Early Car on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad 140 - - Early American Car, 1834 140 - - Old Car for Carrying Flour on the Baltimore & - Ohio Railroad 141 - - Old Car for Carrying Firewood on the Baltimore & - Ohio Railroad 141 - - Old Car on the Quincy Granite Railroad 141 - - Janney Car Coupler, showing the Process of Coupling 142 - - Mould and Flask in which Wheels are Cast 143 - - Cast-iron Car Wheels 144 - - Section of the Tread and Flange of a Car Wheel 145 - - Allen Paper Car Wheel 145 - - Modern Passenger-car and Frame 147 - - Snow-plough at Work 154 - - A Type of Snow-plough 155 - - A Rotary Steam Snow-shovel in Operation 156 - - Railway-crossing Gate 157 - - Signal to Stop 162 - - Signal to Move Ahead 162 - - Signal to Move Back 163 - - Signal that the Train has Parted 163 - - Entrance Gates at a Large Station 167 - - Central Switch and Signal Tower 168 - - Interior of a Switch-tower, showing the Operation of - Interlocking Switches 171 - - Stephenson's Steam Driver-brake, patented 1833 192 - - Driver-brake on Modern Locomotive 192 - - English Screw-brake, on the Birmingham and Gloucester Road, - about 1840 193 - - English Foot-brake on the Truck of a Great Western Coach, - about 1840 193 - - Plan and Elevation of Air-brake Apparatus 196 - - Dwarf Semaphores and Split Switch 202 - - Semaphore Signal with Indicators 203 - - Section of Saxby & Farmer Interlocking Machine 204 - - Diagram of a Double-track Junction with Interlocked - Switches and Signals 205 - - Split Switches with Facing-point Locks and Detector-bars 206 - - Derailing Switch 207 - - Torpedo Placer 213 - - Old Signal Tower on the Philadelphia & Reading, at - Phœnixville 214 - - Crossing Gates worked by Mechanical Connection from - the Cabin 217 - - Some Results of a Butting Collision--Baggage and Passenger - Cars Telescoped 218 - - Wreck at a Bridge 219 - - New South Norwalk Drawbridge. Rails held by Safety Bolts 220 - - Engines Wrecked during the Great Wabash Strike 222 - - Link-and-pin Coupler 224 - - Janney Automatic Coupler applied to a Freight Car 224 - - Signals at Night 225 - - Stockton & Darlington Engine and Car 229 - - Mohawk & Hudson Train 231 - - English Railway Carriage, Midland Road. First and Third - Class and Luggage Compartments 232 - - One of the Earliest Passenger Cars Built in this Country; - used on the Western Railroad of Massachusetts (now the - Boston & Albany) 233 - - Bogie Truck 233 - - Rail and Coach Travel in the White Mountains 234 - - Old Time Table, 1843 235 - - Old Boston & Worcester Railway Ticket (about 1837) 236 - - Obverse and Reverse of a Ticket used in 1838, on the New - York & Harlem Railroad 236 - - The "Pioneer." First Complete Pullman Sleeping-car 240 - - A Pullman Porter 241 - - Pullman Parlor Car 243 - - Wagner Parlor Car 244 - - Dining-car (Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad) 245 - - End View of a Vestibuled Car 249 - - Pullman Sleeper on a Vestibuled Train 250 - - Immigrant Sleeping-car (Canadian Pacific Railway) 251 - - View of Pullman, Ill. 252 - - Railway Station at York, England, built on a Curve 257 - - Outside the Grand Central Station, New York 258 - - Boston Passenger Station, Providence Division, Old - Colony Railroad 259 - - A Page from the Car Accountant's Book 277 - - Freight Pier, North River, New York 280 - - Hay Storage Warehouses, New York Central & Hudson River - Railroad, West Thirty-third Street, New York 282 - - "Dummy" Train and Boy on Hudson Street, New York 287 - - Red Line Freight-car Mark 288 - - Star Union Freight-car Mark 288 - - Coal Car, Central Railroad of New Jersey 289 - - Refrigerator-car Mark 289 - - Unloading a Train of Truck-wagons, Long Island Railroad 290 - - Floating Cars, New York Harbor 295 - - Postal Progress, 1776-1876 313 - - The Pony Express--The Relay 314 - - The Overland Mail Coach--A Star Route 315 - - Mail Carrying in the Country 316 - - Loading for the Fast Mail, at the General Post-Office, - New York 324 - - At the Last Moment 326 - - Pouching the Mail in the Postal Car 329 - - A Very Difficult Address--known as a "Sticker." 331 - - Distributing the Mail by States and Routes 332 - - Pouching Newspapers for California--in Car No. 5 335 - - Catching the Pouch from the Crane 339 - - George Stephenson 345 - - J. Edgar Thomson 349 - - Thomas A. Scott 350 - - Cornelius Vanderbilt 352 - - John W. Garrett 355 - - Albert Fink 366 - - Charles Francis Adams 367 - - Thomas M. Cooley 369 - - "Dancing on the Carpet" 386 - - Trainman and Tramps 387 - - Braking in Hard Weather 389 - - Flagging in Winter 391 - - Coupling 392 - - The Pleasant Part of a Brakeman's Life 395 - - At the Spring 397 - - Just Time to Jump 403 - - Timely Warning 407 - - The Passenger Conductor 409 - - Station Gardening 416 - - In the Yard at Night 419 - - A Track-walker on a Stormy Night 421 - - A Crossing Flagman 423 - - A Little Relaxation 424 - - - - -MAPS. - - - Mileage compared with Area 429 - - Railways, 1830, 1840, 1850, and 1860 430 - - Railways, 1870 431 - - Railways, 1880 432 - - Railways, 1889 433 - - Five Railway Systems 434, 435 - - - - -CHARTS. - - - Principal Railway Countries 425 - - Mileage to Area in New Jersey 426 - - Total Mileage and Increase, 1830-1888 429 - - Mileage by States, 1870 431 - - Mileage by States, 1880 432 - - Mileage by States, 1888 433 - - Largest Receipts, 1888 435 - - Largest Net Results, 1888 435 - - Freight Rates of Thirteen Trunk Lines, 1870-1888 436 - - Wheat Rates, by Water and by Rail, 1870-1888 438 - - The Freight Haul, 1882-1888 439 - - East-bound and West-bound Freight, 1877-1888 439 - - Freight Profits, 1870-1888 440 - - Passenger Rates, 1870-1888 441 - - Passenger Travel, 1882-1888 442 - - Passenger Profits, 1870-1888 442 - - Average Dividends, 1876-1888 443 - - Net Earnings and Mileage Built, 1876-1888 444 - - Increase of Population, Mileage, and Freight Traffic, - 1870-1888 446 - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - -BY THOMAS M. COOLEY. - - -The railroads of the United States, now aggregating a hundred -and fifty thousand miles and having several hundred different -managements, are frequently spoken of comprehensively as the -railroad system of the country, as though they constituted a unity -in fact, and might be regarded and dealt with as an entirety, -by their patrons and by the public authorities, whenever the -conveniences they are expected to supply, or the conduct of -managers and agents, come in question. So far, however, is this -from being the case, that it would be impossible to name any other -industrial interest where the diversities are so obvious and the -want of unity so conspicuous and so important. The diversities -date from the very origin of the roads; they have not come into -existence under the same laws nor subject to the same control. It -was accepted as an undoubted truth in constitutional law from the -first that the authority for the construction of railroads within -a State must come from the State itself, which alone could empower -the promoters to appropriate lands by adversary proceedings for -the purpose. The grant of corporate power must also come from the -State, or, at least, have State recognition and sanction; and where -the proposed road was to cross a State boundary, the necessary -corporate authority must be given by every State through or into -which the road was to run. It was conceded that the delegated -powers of the General Government did not comprehend the granting -of charters for the construction of these roads within the States, -and even in the Territories charters were granted by the local -legislatures. The case of the transcontinental roads was clearly -exceptional; they were to be constructed in large part over the -public domain, and subsidies were to be granted by Congress for -the purpose. They were also, in part at least, to be constructed -for governmental reasons as national agencies; and invoking State -authority for the purpose seemed to be as inconsistent as it would -be inadequate. But, though these were exceptional cases, the -magnitude and importance of the Pacific roads are so immense that -the agency of the General Government in making provision for this -method of transportation must always have prominence in railroad -history and railroad statistics. - -Not only have the roads been diverse in origin, but the -corporations which have constructed them have differed very -greatly in respect to their powers and rights, and also to the -obligations imposed by law upon them. The early grants of power -were charter-contracts, freely given, with very liberal provisions; -the public being more anxious that they be accepted and acted upon -than distrustful of their abuse afterward. Many of them were not -subject to alteration or repeal, except with the consent of the -corporators; and some of them contained provisions intended to -exclude or limit competition, so that, within a limited territory, -something in the nature of a monopoly in transportation would be -created. The later grants give evidence of popular apprehension of -corporate abuses; the legislature reserves a control over them, and -the right to multiply railroads indefinitely is made as free as -possible, under the supposition that in this multiplication is to -be found the best protection against any one of them abusing its -powers. In very many cases the motive to the building of a new road -has been antagonism to one already in existence, and municipalities -have voted subsidies to the one in the hope that, when constructed, -it would draw business away from the other. The anomaly has thus -been witnessed of distrust of corporate power being the motive -for increasing it; and the multiplication of roads has gone on, -without any general supervision or any previous determination -by competent public authority that they were needed, until the -increase has quite outrun in some sections any proper demand for -their facilities. - -Roads thus brought into existence, without system and under diverse -managements, it was soon seen were capable of being so operated -that the antagonism of managers, instead of finding expression in -legitimate competition, would be given to the sort of strife that -can only be properly characterized by calling it, as it commonly -is called, a war. From such a war the public inevitably suffers. -The best service upon the roads is only performed when they are -operated as if they constituted in fact parts of one harmonious -system; the rates being made by agreement, and traffic exchanged -with as little disturbance as possible, and without abrupt break at -the terminals. But when every management might act independently, -it sometimes happened that a company made its method of doing -business an impediment instead of a help to the business done over -other roads, recognizing no public duty which should preclude -its doing so, provided a gain to itself, however indirect or -illegitimate, was probable. Many consolidations of roads have had -for their motive the getting rid of this power to do mischief on -the part of roads absorbed. - -In nothing is the want of unity so distinctly and mischievously -obvious as in the power of each corporation to make rates -independently. It may not only make its own local rates at -discretion, but it may join or refuse to join with others in -making through rates; so that an inconsiderable and otherwise -insignificant road may be capable of being so used as to throw -rates for a large section of the country into confusion, and to -render the making of profit by other roads impossible. It is -frequently said in railroad circles that roads are sometimes -constructed for no other reason than because, through this power of -mischief, it will be possible to levy contributions upon others, or -to compel others, in self-protection, to buy them up at extravagant -prices. Cases are named in which this sort of scheming is supposed -to have succeeded, and others in which it is now being tried. - -Evils springing from the diversities mentioned have been cured, or -greatly mitigated, by such devices as the formation of fast-freight -lines to operate over many roads; by allowing express companies to -come upon the roads with semi-independence in the transportation -of articles, where, for special reasons, the public is content to -pay an extra price for extra care or speed; and by arrangements -with sleeping-car companies for special accommodations in luxurious -cars to those desiring them. These collateral arrangements, -however, have not been wholly beneficial; and had all the roads -been constructed as parts of one system and under one management, -some of them would neither have been necessary nor defensible. They -exist now, however, with more or less reason for their existence; -and they tend to increase the diversities in railroad work. - -The want of unity which has been pointed out tended to breed abuses -specially injurious to the public, and governmental regulation was -entered upon for their correction. Naturally the first attempts -in this direction were made by separate States, each undertaking -to regulate for itself the transportation within its own limits. -Such regulation would have been perfectly logical, and perhaps -effectual, had the roads within each State formed a system by -themselves; but when State boundaries had very little importance, -either to the roads themselves or to the traffic done over them, -unless made important by restrictive and obstructive legislation, -the regulation by any State must necessarily be fragmentary and -imperfect, and diverse regulation in different States might -be harmful rather than beneficial. It must be said for State -regulation that it has in general been exercised in a prudent and -conservative way, but it is liable to be influenced by a sensitive -and excitable public opinion; and as nothing is more common than -to find gross abuses in the matter of railroad transportation -selfishly defended in localities, and even in considerable -sections, which are supposed to receive benefits from them, it -would not be strange if the like selfishness should sometimes -succeed in influencing the exercise of power by one State in a -manner that a neighboring State would regard as unfriendly and -injurious. - -The Federal Government recently undertook the work of regulation, -and in doing so accepted the view upon which the States had acted, -and so worded its statute that the transportation which does not -cross State lines is supposed to be excluded. The United States -thus undertakes to regulate interstate commerce by rail, and the -States regulate, or may regulate, that which is not interstate. -It was perhaps overlooked at first that, inasmuch as Government -control may embrace the making of classifications, prescribing -safety and other appliances, and naming rates, any considerable -regulation of State traffic and interstate traffic separately must -necessarily to some extent cause interference. The two classes of -traffic flow on together over the same lines in the same vehicles -under the management of the same agencies, with little or no -distinction based on State lines; the rates and the management -influenced by considerations which necessarily are of general -force, so that separate regulation may without much extravagance be -compared to an attempt in the case of one of our great rivers to -regulate the flow of the waters in general, but without, in doing -so, interfering with an independent regulation of such portion -thereof as may have come from the springs and streams of some -particular section. This is one of many reasons for looking upon -all existing legislation as merely tentative. - -No doubt the time will come when the railroads of the country will -constitute, as they do not now, a system. There are those who think -this may, sufficiently for practical purposes, be accomplished by -the legalization of some scheme of pooling; but this is a crude -device, against which there is an existing prejudice not easily to -be removed. Others look for unity through gradual consolidations, -the tendency to which is manifest, or through something in the -nature of a trust, or by means of more comprehensive and stringent -national control. Beyond all these is not infrequently suggested a -Government ownership. - -Of the theories that might be advanced in this direction, or the -arguments in their support, nothing further will be said here; -the immediate purpose being accomplished when it is shown how -misleading may be the term _system_, when applied to the railroads -of the country as an aggregate, as now owned, managed, and -controlled. - - * * * * * - -Every man in the land is interested daily and constantly in -railroads and the transportation of persons and property over them. -The price of whatever he eats, or wears, or uses, the cost and -comfort of travel, the speed and convenience with which he shall -receive his mail and the current intelligence of the day, and even -the intimacy and extent of his social relations, are all largely -affected thereby. The business employs great numbers of persons, -and the wages paid them affect largely the wages paid in other -lines of occupation. The management of the business in some of its -departments is attended by serious dangers, and thousands annually -lose their lives in the service. Other thousands annually are -either killed or injured in being transported; the aggregate being -somewhat startling, though unquestionably this method of travel -is safer than any other. The ingenuity which has been expended -in devices to make the transportation rapid, cheap, and safe may -well be characterized as marvellous, and some feats in railroad -engineering are the wonder of the world. With all these facts and -many others to create a public interest in the general subject, the -editor of _Scribner's Magazine_, some little time ago, applied to -writers of well-known ability and competency to prepare papers for -publication therein upon the various topics of principal interest -in the life and use of railroads, beginning with the construction, -and embracing the salient facts of management and service. He -was successful in securing a series of papers of high value, -the appearance of which has been welcomed from month to month, -beginning with June, 1888, with constant and increasing interest. -These papers have a permanent value; and, in obedience to a demand -for their separate publication in convenient form for frequent -reference, the publishers now reproduce them with expansions and -additions. A reference to the several titles will convince anyone -at all familiar with the general subject that the particular topic -is treated in every instance by an expert, entitled as such to -speak with authority. - - - - -THE BUILDING OF A RAILWAY. - -BY THOMAS CURTIS CLARKE. - - Roman Tramways of Stone--First Use of Iron Rails--The Modern - Railway created by Stephenson's "Rocket" in 1830--Early - American Locomotives--Key to the Evolution of the American - Railway--Invention of the Swivelling Truck, Equalizing Beams, - and the Switchback--Locating a Road--Work of the Surveying - Party--Making the Road-bed--How Tunnels are Avoided--More - than Three Thousand Bridges in the United States--Old Wooden - Structures--The Howe Truss--The Use of Iron--Viaducts of - Steel--The American System of Laying Bridge Foundations - under Water--Origin of the Cantilever--Laying the Track--How - it is Kept in Repair--Premiums for Section Bosses--Number - of Railway Employees in the United States--Rapid Railway - Construction--Radical Changes which the Railway will Effect. - - -The world of to-day differs from that of Napoleon Bonaparte more -than his world differed from that of Julius Cæsar; and this change -has chiefly been made by railways. - -Railways have been known since the days of the Romans. Their tracks -were made of two lines of cut stones. Iron rails took their place -about one hundred and fifty years ago, when the use of that metal -became extended. These roads were called tram-roads, and were used -to carry coal from the mines to the places of shipment. They were -few in number and attracted little attention. - -The modern railway was created by the Stephensons in 1830, when -they built the locomotive "Rocket." The development of the -railway since is due to the development of the locomotive. Civil -engineering has done much, but mechanical engineering has done more. - -The invention of the steam-engine by James Watt, in 1773, attracted -the attention of advanced thinkers to a possible steam locomotive. -Erasmus Darwin, in a poem published in 1781, made this remarkable -prediction: - - "Soon shall thy arm, unconquered steam! afar - Drag the slow barge, or drive the rapid car." - -[Illustration: First Locomotive.] - -The first locomotive of which we have any certain record was -invented, and put in operation on a model circular railway in -London, in 1804, by Richard Trevithick, an erratic genius, who -invented many things but perfected few. His locomotive could -not make steam, and therefore could neither go fast nor draw a -heavy load. This was the fault of all its successors, until the -competitive trial of locomotives on the Liverpool and Manchester -Railway, in 1829. The Stephensons, father and son, had invented the -steam blast, which, by constantly blowing the fire, enabled the -"Rocket," with its tubular boiler, to make steam enough to draw ten -passenger cars, at the rate of thirty-five miles an hour. - -Then was born the modern giant, and so recent is the date of his -birth that one of the unsuccessful competitors at that memorable -trial, Captain John Ericsson, was until the present year (1889) -living and actively working in New York. Another engineer, Horatio -Allen, who drove the first locomotive on the first trip ever made -in the United States, in 1831, still lives, a hale and hearty old -man, near New York. - -The earlier locomotives of this country, modelled after the -"Rocket," weighed five or six tons, and could draw, on a level, -about 40 tons. After the American improvements, which we shall -describe, were made, our engines weighed 25 tons, and could draw, -on a level, some sixty loaded freight cars, weighing 1,200 tons. -This was a wonderful advance, but now we have the "Consolidation" -locomotive, weighing 50 tons, and able to draw, on a level, a -little over 2,400 tons. - -And this is not the end. Still heavier and more powerful engines -are being designed and built, but the limit of the strength of the -track, according to its present forms, has nearly been reached. It -is very certain we have not reached the limit of the size and power -of engines, or the strength of the track that can be devised. - -After the success of the "Rocket," and of the Liverpool and -Manchester Railway, the authority of George Stephenson and his -son Robert became absolute and unquestioned upon all subjects -of railway engineering. Their locomotives had very little side -play to their wheels, and could not go around sharp curves. They -accordingly preferred to make their lines as straight as possible, -and were willing to spend vast sums to get easy grades. Their lines -were taken as models and imitated by other engineers. All lines in -England were made with easy grades and gentle curves. Monumental -bridges, lofty stone viaducts, and deep cuts or tunnels at every -hill marked this stage of railway construction in England, which -was imitated on the European lines. - -[Illustration: Locomotive of To-day.] - -As it was with the railway, so it was with the locomotive. The -Stephenson type, once fixed, has remained unchanged (in Europe), -except in detail, to the present day. European locomotives have -increased in weight and power, and in perfection of material and -workmanship, but the general features are those of the locomotives -built by the great firm of George Stephenson & Son, before 1840. - - * * * * * - -When we come to the United States we find an entirely different -state of things. The key to the evolution of the American railway -is the contempt for authority displayed by our engineers, and the -untrammelled way in which they invented and applied whatever they -thought would answer the best purpose, regardless of precedent. -When we began to build our railways, in 1831, we followed English -patterns for a short time. Our engineers soon saw that unless vital -changes were made our money would not hold out, and our railway -system would be very short. Necessity truly became the mother of -invention. - -The first, and most far-reaching, invention was that of the -swivelling truck, which, placed under the front end of an engine, -enables it to run around curves of almost any radius. This enabled -us to build much less expensive lines than those of England, for -we could now curve around and avoid hills and other obstacles at -will. The illustration opposite shows a railroad curving around a -mountain and supported by a retaining wall, instead of piercing -through the mountain with a tunnel, as would have been necessary -but for the swivelling truck. The swivelling truck was first -suggested by Horatio Allen, for the South Carolina Railway, in -1831; but the first practical use of it was made on the Mohawk and -Hudson Railroad, in the same year. It is said to have been invented -by John B. Jervis, Chief Engineer of that road. - -The next improvement was the invention of the equalizing beams or -levers, by which the weight of the engine is always borne by three -out of four or more driving-wheels. They act like a three-legged -stool, which can always be set level on any irregular spot. The -original imported English locomotives could not be kept on the -rails of rough tracks. The same experience obtained in Canada when -the Grand Trunk Railway was opened, in 1854-55. The locomotives of -English pattern constantly ran off the track; those of American -pattern hardly ever did so. Finally, all their locomotives were -changed by having swivelling trucks put under their forward ends, -and no more trouble occurred. The equalizing levers were patented -in 1838, by Joseph Harrison, Jr., of Philadelphia. - -[Illustration: Alpine Pass. Avoidance of a Tunnel.] - -These two improvements, which are absolutely essential to the -success of railways in new countries, and have been adopted -in Canada, Australia, Mexico, and South America,[1] to the -exclusion of English patterns, are also of great value on the -smoothest and best possible tracks. The flexibility of the American -machine increases its adhesion and enables it to draw greater loads -than its English rival. The same flexibility equalizes its pressure -on the track, prevents shocks and blows, and enables it to keep -out of the hospital and run more miles in a year than an English -locomotive.[2] - -[Illustration: A Sharp Curve--Manhattan Elevated Railway, 110th -Street, New York.] - -Equally valuable improvements were made in cars, both for -passengers and freight. Instead of the four-wheeled English car, -which on a rough track dances along on three wheels, we owe to Ross -Winans, of Baltimore, the application of a pair of four-wheeled -swivelling trucks, one under each end of the car, thus enabling it -to accommodate itself to the inequalities of a rough track and to -follow its locomotive around the sharpest curves. There are, on -our main lines, curves of less than 300 feet radius, while, on the -Manhattan Elevated, the largest passenger traffic in the world is -conducted around curves of less than 100 feet radius. There are few -curves of less than 1,000 feet radius on European railways. - -[Illustration: A Steep Grade on a Mountain Railroad.] - -The climbing capabilities of a locomotive upon smooth rails were -not known until, in 1852, Mr. B. H. Latrobe, Chief Engineer of the -Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, tried a temporary zigzag gradient -of 10 per cent.--that is 10 feet rise in 100 feet length, or 528 -feet per mile--over a hill about two miles long, through which the -Kingwood Tunnel was being excavated. A locomotive weighing 28 tons -on its drivers took one car weighing 15 tons over this line in -safety. It was worked for passenger traffic for six months. This -daring feat has never been equalled. Trains go over 4 per cent. -gradients on the Colorado system, and there is one short line, used -to bring ore to the Pueblo furnaces, which is worked by locomotives -over a 7 per cent. grade. These are believed to be the steepest -grades worked by ordinary locomotives on smooth rails. - -Another American invention is the switchback. By this plan -the length of line required to ease the gradient is obtained -by running backward and forward in a zigzag course, instead of -going straight up the mountain. As a full stop has to be made at -the end of every piece of line, there is no danger of the train -running away from its brakes. This device was first used among the -hills of Pennsylvania over forty years ago, to lower coal cars -down into the Nesquehoning Valley. It was afterwards used on the -Callao, Lima, and Oroya Railroad in Peru, by American engineers, -with extraordinary daring and skill. It was employed to carry the -temporary tracks of the Cascade Division of the Northern Pacific -Railroad over the "Stampede" Pass, with grades of 297 feet per -mile, while a tunnel 9,850 feet long was being driven through the -mountains. - -[Illustration: A Switchback.] - -With the improvement of brakes and more reliable means of stopping -trains upon steep grades, came a farther development of the above -device, which was first applied on the Denver and Rio Grande -Railroad in Colorado, and has since been applied on a grand scale -on the Saint Gothard road, the Black Forest railways of Germany, -and the Semmering line in the Tyrol. This device is to connect the -two lines of the zigzag by a curve at the point where they come -together, so that the train, instead of going alternately backward -and forward, now runs continuously on. It becomes possible for the -line to return above itself in spiral form, sometimes crossing over -the lower level by a tunnel, and sometimes by a bridge. A notable -instance of this kind of location is seen on the Tehachapi Pass -of the Southern Pacific, where the line ascends 2,674 feet in 25 -miles, with eleven tunnels, and a spiral 3,800 feet long. - -[Illustration: Plan of Big Loop.] - -The "Big Loop," as it is called, on the Georgetown branch of the -Union Pacific, in Colorado, between Georgetown and a mining camp -called Silver Plume, has been chosen to illustrate this point. The -direct distance up the valley is 1¼ miles and the elevation 600 -feet, requiring a gradient of 480 feet per mile. But by curving -the line around in a spiral, the length of the line is increased -to 4 miles and the gradient reduced to 150 feet per mile. Zigzags -were used first for foot-paths, then for common roads, lastly for -railways. Their natural sequence, spirals, was a railway device -entirely, and confirms the saying of one of our engineers: "Where -a mule can go, I can make a locomotive go." This may be called the -poetry of engineering, as it requires both imagination to conceive -and skill to execute. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: Profile of the Same.] - -There is one thing more which distinguishes the American railway -from its English parent, and that is the almost uniform practice -of getting the road open for traffic in the cheapest manner and in -the least possible time, and then completing it and enlarging its -capacity out of its surplus earnings, and from the credit which -these earnings give it. - -[Illustration: Big Loop, Georgetown Branch of the Union Pacific, -Colorado.] - -The Pennsylvania Railroad between Philadelphia and Harrisburg -is a notable example of this. Within the past few years it has -been rebuilt on a grand scale, and in many places relocated, and -miles of sharp curves and heavy gradients, originally put in to -save expense, have been taken out. This system has been followed -everywhere, except on a few branch lines, and upon one monumental -example of failure--the West Shore Railroad, of New York. The -projectors of that line attempted in three years to build a -double-track railroad up to the standard of the Pennsylvania road, -which had been forty years in reaching its present excellence. -Their money gave out, and they came to grief. - - -II. - -We have thus briefly reviewed the development of our railways to -show what they are, and how they came to be what they are, before -describing the processes of building, in order that the reasons may -be clearly understood why we do certain things, and why we fail to -do other things which we ought to do. - -In the building of a railway the first thing is to make the surveys -and locate the position of the intended road upon the ground, and -to make maps and sections of it, so that the land may be bought and -the estimates of cost be ascertained. The engineer's first duty -is to make a survey by eye without the aid of instruments. This -is called the "reconnoissance." By this he lays down the general -position of the line, and where he wants it to go if possible. -Great skill, the result of long experience, or equally great -ignorance may be shown here. After the general position of the -line, or some part of it, has been laid down upon the pocket map, -the engineer sends his party into the field to make the preliminary -survey with instruments. - -In an old-settled country the party may live in farm-houses -and taverns, and be carried to their daily work by teams. But -a surveying party will make better progress, be healthier and -happier, if they live in their own home, even if that home be a -travelling camp of a few tents. With a competent commissary the -camp can be well supplied with provisions, and be pitched near -enough to the probable end of the day's work to save the tired -men a long walk. When they get to camp and, after a wash in -the nearest creek, find a smoking-hot supper ready--even though -it consist of fried pork and potatoes, corn-bread and black -coffee--their troubles are all forgotten, and they feel a true -satisfaction which the flesh-pots of Delmonico's cannot give. One -greater pleasure remains--to fill the old pipe, and recline by the -camp-fire for a jolly smoke. - -[Illustration: Engineers in Camp.] - -A full surveying party consists of the front flag-man, with his -corps of axe-men to cut away trees and bushes; the transit-man, -who records the distances and angles of the line, assisted by his -chain-men and flag-men; and lastly the leveller, who takes and -records the levels, with his rod-men and axe-men. The chief of the -party exercises a general supervision over all, and is sometimes -assisted by a topographer, who sketches in his book the contours of -the hills and direction and size of the watercourses. - -One tent contains the cook, the commissary, and the provisions; -another tent or two the working party, and another the superior -engineers, with their drawing instruments and boards. In a properly -regulated party the map and profile of the day's work should be -plotted before going to bed, so as to see if all is right. If it -turns out that the line can be improved and easier grades got, or -other changes made, now is the time to do it. - -After the preliminary lines have been run, the engineer-in-chief -takes up the different maps and lays down a new line, sometimes -coinciding with that surveyed, and sometimes quite different. The -parties then go back into the field and stake out this new line, -called the "approximate location," upon which the curves are all -run in. In difficult country the line may be run over even a third -or fourth time; or in an easy country, the "preliminary" surveys -may be all that is wanted. - -The life of an engineer, while making surveys, is not an easy one. -His duties require the physical strength of a drayman and the -mental accuracy of a professor, both exerted at the same time, and -during heat and cold, rain and shine. - -An engineer, once on a time, standing behind his instrument, was -surrounded by a crowd of natives, anxious to know all about it. He -explained his processes, using many learned words, and flattered -himself that he had made a deep impression upon his hearers. At -last, one old woman spoke up, with an expression of great contempt -on her face, "Wall! If I knowed as much as you do, I'd quit -ingineerin' and keep a grocery!" - -A large part of the financial difficulties of our railways results -from not taking time enough to properly locate the line. It must -be remembered that a cheaply constructed line can be rebuilt, but -with a badly located line nothing can be done except to abandon it -entirely. - -[Illustration: Royal Gorge Hanging Bridge, Denver and Rio Grande, -Colorado.] - -It is well therefore to consider carefully what is the true problem -of location. It is so to place and build a line of railway that -it shall get the greatest amount of business out of the country -through which it passes, and at the same time be able to do that -business at the least cost, including both expenses of operating -and the fixed charges on the capital invested. The mere statement -of this problem shows that it is not an easy one. Its solution -is different in a new and unsettled country from that in an -old-settled region. In the new country, the shortest, cheapest, and -straightest line possible, consistent with the easiest gradients -that the topography of the land will allow, is the best. The towns -will spring up after the road is built, and will be built on its -line, and generally at the places where stations have been fixed. - -[Illustration: Veta Pass, Colorado.] - -In a mountainous country, like Colorado, the problem is how to -reach the important mining camps, regardless of the crookedness -and increased length given to the line. The Denver and Rio Grande -has been compared to an octopus. This is really a compliment to -its engineers. It sucks nutriment from every place where nutriment -is to be found. To do this it has been forced to climb mountains, -where it was thought locomotives could never climb. In one place, -called the Royal Gorge, the difficulties of blasting a road-bed -into the side of the mountain were so great that it was thought -expedient to carry the track upon a bridge, and this bridge was -hung from two rafters, braced against the sides of the gorge. In -surveying some parts of the lines the engineers were suspended by -ropes from the top of the mountains and made their measurements -swinging in mid-air. - -The problem of location is different in an old-settled country, -where the position of the towns as trade-centres has been fixed -by natural laws that cannot be overruled. In this case the best -thing the engineer can do is to get the easiest gradient possible -consistent with the topography of the country, and let the curves -take care of themselves; always to strike the important towns, even -if the line is made more crooked and longer thereby; to so place -the line in these towns as to accommodate the public, and still -be able to buy plenty of land; also to locate for under or over, -rather than grade crossings. - -[Illustration: Sections of Snow-sheds.] - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -In all countries, old and new, mountainous and level, the rule -should be to keep the level of track well above the surface of -the ground, in order to insure good drainage and freedom from -snow-drifts. - -The question of avoidance of obstruction by snow is a very -serious one upon the Rocky Mountain lines, and they could not -be worked without the device of snow-sheds--another purely -American invention. There are said to be six miles of stanchly -built snow-sheds on the Canadian Pacific and sixty miles on -the Central Pacific Railway. The quantity of snow falling is -enormous, sometimes amounting to 250,000 cubic yards, weighing -over 100,000 tons, in one slide. It is stated by the engineers of -the Canadian Pacific, that the force of the air set in motion by -these avalanches has mown down large trees, not struck by the snow -itself. Their trunks, from one to two feet in diameter, remain, -split as if struck by lightning. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: Snow-sheds, Selkirk Mountains, Canadian Pacific. The -winter track under cover; the outer track for summer use.] - -After the railway line has been finally located, the next duty of -the engineers is to prepare the work for letting. Land-plans are -made, from which the right of way is secured. From the sections, -the quantities are taken out. Plans of bridges and culverts are -made; and a careful specification of all the works on the line is -drawn up. - -[Illustration: Making an Embankment.] - -The works are then let, either to one large contractor or to -several smaller ones, and the labor of construction begins. -The duties of the engineers are to stake out the work for the -contractors, make monthly returns of its progress, and see that -it is well done and according to the specifications and contract. -The line is divided into sections, and an engineer, with his -assistants, is placed in charge of each. Where the works are heavy, -the contractors build shanties for their men and teams near the -heavy cuttings or embankments. It is the custom to take out heavy -cuttings by means of the machine called a steam shovel, which will -dig as many yards in a day as 500 men. - -[Illustration: Steam Excavator.] - -On the prairies of the West the road-bed is thrown up from -ditches on each side, either by men with wheelbarrows and carts, -or by means of a ditching-machine, which can move 3,000 yards -of earth daily. In this case the track follows immediately -after the embankment, and the men live in cars fitted up as -boarding-shanties, and moved forward as fast as required. If the -country contains suitable stone, the culverts and bridge abutments -are built by gangs of masons and stone-cutters, who move from -point to point. But the general practice is to put in temporary -trestle-work of timber resting upon piles, which trestle-work is -renewed in the shape of stone culverts covered by embankments, or -iron bridges resting on stone abutments and built after the road is -running. - -[Illustration: Building a Culvert.] - -[Illustration] - -The pile-driver plays a very important part therefore in the -construction of our railroads, and has been brought to great -perfection. It is worked by a small boiler and engine, and gives -its blows with great rapidity. It drags the piles up to leaders -and lifts them into place by steam-power, so that it is worked -by a small gang of men. Finally, it is as portable as a pedler's -cart, and as soon as it has finished one job it is taken to pieces, -packed upon wagons, and moved on to the next job. - -[Illustration: (Rock Drill.)] - -Tunnels are neither so long nor so frequent upon American railways -as upon those of Europe. The longest are from two to two and a half -miles long, except one, the Hoosac, about four miles. Sometimes -they are unavoidable. The ridge called Bergen Hill, west of -Hoboken, N. J., is a case in point. This is pierced by the tunnels -of the West Shore, of the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western, and of -the Erie, the last two of which, as shown on page 25, are placed at -different levels to enable one road to pass over the other. - -[Illustration: Rock Drill.] - -It is by our system of using sharp curves that we avoid tunnels. It -may be said, in general terms, that American engineers have shown -more skill in avoiding the necessity of tunnels than could possibly -be shown in constructing them. When we are obliged to use tunnels, -or to make deep cuttings in rocks, our labors are greatly assisted -by the use of power-drills worked by compressed air and by the use -of high explosives, such as dynamite, giant powder, rend-rock, -etc. Rocks can now be removed in less than half the time formerly -required, when ordinary blasting-powder was used in hand-drilled -holes.[3] - -[Illustration: A Construction and Boarding Train.] - - -III. - -From data furnished by Mr. D. J. Whittemore, chief engineer of the -Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul system (which had a total length -of 5,688 miles on January 1, 1888), the length of open bridges on -these lines was 115-91/100 miles, and of culverts covered over with -embankment, 39-2/10 miles. "Everything," says Mr. Whittemore, "not -covered with earth, except cattle guards, be the span 10 or 400 -feet, is called a bridge. Everything covered with earth is called -a culvert. Wherever we are far removed from suitable quarries, we -build a wooden culvert in preference to a pile bridge, if we can -get six inches of filling over it. These culverts are built of -roughly squared logs, and are large enough to draw an iron pipe -through them of sufficient diameter to take care of the water. -We do this because we believe that we lessen the liability to -accident, and that the culvert can be maintained after decay has -begun, much longer than a piled bridge with stringers to carry the -track. Had we good quarries along our line, stone would be cheaper. -Many thousands of dollars have been spent by this company in -building masonry that after twenty to twenty-five years shows such -signs of disintegration that we confine masonry work now only to -stone that we can procure from certain quarries known to be good." - -[Illustration: Bergen Tunnels, Hoboken, N. J.] - -Mr. Whittemore is an engineer of great experience, skill, and -judgment, and there is food for much reflection in these words of -his: First--that it is better to use temporary wooden structures, -to be afterward renewed in good stone, rather than to build of the -stone of the locality, unless first-class. Second--that a structure -covered with earth is much safer than an open bridge; which, if -short and apparently insignificant, may be, through neglect, a most -serious point of danger, as was shown in the dreadful accident of -1887 on the Toledo, Peoria, and Western road in Illinois, where -one hundred and fifty persons were killed and wounded, and by the -equally avoidable accident on the Florida and Savannah line, in -March, 1888. Had these little trestles been changed to culverts -covered with earth, many valuable lives would not have been lost. - -[Illustration: Beginning a Tunnel.] - -It was safely estimated that there were, in 1888, 208,749 bridges -of all kinds, amounting in length to 3,213 miles, in the United -States.[4] - -The wooden bridge and the wooden trestle are purely American -products, although they were invented by Leonardo da Vinci in the -sixteenth century. From the above statistics it will be seen how -much our American railways owe to them, for without them over -150,000 miles could never have been built. - -The art of building wooden truss-bridges was developed by Burr & -Wernwag, two Pennsylvania carpenters, some of whose works are still -in use after eighty years of faithful duty (p. 28). A bridge built -by Wernwag across the Delaware in 1803 was used as a highway bridge -for forty-five years, was then strengthened and used as a railway -bridge for twenty-seven years more, and was finally superseded by -the present iron bridge in 1875. - -These old bridge-builders were very particular about the quality of -their timber, and never put any into a bridge less than two years -old. But when we began to build railways, everything was done in a -hurry, and nobody could wait for seasoned timber. This led to the -invention of the Howe truss, by the engineer of that name, which -had the advantage of being adjustable with screws and nuts, so that -the shrinkage could be taken up, and which had its parts connected -in such a way that they were able to bear the heavy concentrated -weight of locomotives without crushing. This bridge was used on -all railways, new and old, from 1840 to about 1870. Had it been -free from liability to decay and burn up, we should probably not be -building iron and steel bridges now, except for long spans of over -200 feet; and as the table opposite shows, the largest number of -our spans are less than 100 feet long. - -The Howe truss forms an excellent bridge, and is still used in the -West on new roads, with the intention of substituting iron trusses -after the roads are opened. - -After 1870, the weights both of locomotives and other rolling -stock began to be increased very rapidly. This, together with -the development of the manufacture of iron, and especially the -invention of rolled beams and of eye-bars, gave a great impetus to -the construction of iron bridges. At first cast-iron was used for -the compression members, but the development of the rolling-mill -soon enabled us to make all parts of rolled iron sections at no -greater cost, and rolled iron, being a less uncertain material, -has replaced cast-iron entirely. Iron bridges came in direct -competition with the less costly Howe truss, and during the first -decade of their construction every attempt was made to build them -with as few pounds of iron as would meet the strains. - -[Illustration: Old Burr Wooden Bridge.] - -S. Whipple, C.E., published a book in 1847 which was the first -attempt ever made to solve the mathematical questions upon which -the due proportioning of iron truss-bridges depends. This work -bore fruit, and a race of bridge designers sprang up. The first -iron bridges were modelled after their wooden predecessors, with -high trusses and short panels. Riveted connections were avoided, -and every part was so designed that it might be quickly and easily -erected upon staging or false works, placed in the river. This was -very necessary, for our rivers are subject to sudden freshets, -and if we had adopted the English system of riveting together all -the connections, the long time required before the bridge became -self-sustaining would have been a serious element of danger. - -Following the practice of wooden bridge building, iron bridges -were contracted for by the foot, and not by the pound as is now -the custom. To this accidental circumstance is greatly due the -development of the American iron bridge. The engineer representing -the railway company fixed the lengths of spans, and other general -dimensions, and also the loads to be carried and the maximum -strains to be allowed. The contracting engineer was left perfectly -free to design his bridge, and he strained every nerve to find the -form of truss and the arrangement of its parts that should give the -required strength with the least number of pounds weight per foot, -so that he could beat his competitors. When the different plans -were handed in, an expert examined them and rejected those whose -parts were too small to meet the strains. Of those found to be -correctly proportioned, the lowest bid took the work. - -By the rule of the survival of the fittest all badly designed forms -of trusses disappeared and only two remained: one the original -truss designed by Mr. Whipple, and the other, the well-known -triangular, or "Warren" girder, so called after its English -inventor. - -It speaks well for the skill and honesty of American bridge -engineers that many of their old bridges are still in use, designed -for loads of 2,500 pounds per lineal foot, and now daily carrying -loads of 4,000 pounds and over per foot. Sometimes the floor has -been replaced by a stronger one, but the trusses still remain and -do good service. The writer may be permitted to point to the bridge -over the Mississippi River at Quincy, Ill., built in 1869, as an -example. Most bridge-accidents can be traced to derailed trains -striking the trusses and knocking them down. Engineers (both those -specially connected with bridge works, and those in charge of -railways) know much better now what is wanted, and the managers of -railways are willing to pay for the best article. The introduction -of mild steel is a great step in advance. This material has an -ultimate strength, in the finished piece, of 63,000 to 65,000 -pounds per square inch, or forty per cent. more than iron, and it -is tough enough to be tied in a knot, or punched into the shape of -a bowl, while cold. With this material it is as easy to construct -spans of 500 feet as it was spans of 250 feet in iron. - -Bridges are now designed to carry much heavier loads than formerly. -The best practice adopts riveted connections except at the junction -of the chord-bars and the main diagonals, where pins and eyes -are still very properly used. Plate girders below the track are -preferred up to 60 or 70 feet long, then riveted lattice up -to 125 feet. The wind strains also are now provided for with a -considerable excess of material, amounting in very long spans to -nearly as much as the strains due to gravity. Observing the rule -that no bridge can be stronger than its weakest part, a vast deal -of care and skill has been applied in perfecting the connections -of the parts of a truss, and many valuable experiments have been -made which have greatly enlarged our knowledge of this difficult -subject. The introduction of riveting by the power of steam or -compressed air is another very great improvement.[5] - -[Illustration: Kinzua Viaduct; Erie Railway.] - -Valleys and ravines are now crossed by viaducts of iron and steel, -of which the Kinzua viaduct, illustrated here, is an example. A -branch line from the Erie, connecting that system with valuable -coal-fields, strikes the valley of the Kinzua, a small creek, -about 15 miles southwest of Bradford, Pa. At the point suitable -for crossing, this ravine is about half a mile wide and over 300 -feet deep. At first it was proposed to run down and cross the creek -at a low level by some of the devices heretofore illustrated in -this article. But finally the engineering firm of Clarke, Reeves & -Co. agreed to build the viaduct, shown above, for a much less sum -than any other method of crossing would have cost. This viaduct -was built in four months. It is 305 feet high and about 2,400 feet -long. The skeleton piers were first erected by means of their -own posts, and afterward the girders were placed by means of a -travelling scaffold on the top, projecting over about 80 feet. No -staging of any kind was used, nor even ladders, as the men climbed -up the diagonal rods of the piers, as a cat will run up a tree. - -[Illustration: Kinzua Viaduct.] - -The Manhattan Elevated Railway, about 34 miles long, is nothing but -a long viaduct, and is as strong and durable as iron viaducts on -railways usually are, while from the slower speed of its trains it -is much safer. - -It may not be out of place for the writer to state here what, in -his belief, is the next series of steps to be taken to insure -safety in travelling over our bridges: Replace, wherever possible, -all temporary trestles by wood or stone culverts covered with -earth. Where this cannot be done, build strong iron or steel -bridges and viaducts with as short spans as possible and having -no trusses above the track where it can possibly be helped. Cover -these and all new bridges with a solid deck of rolled-steel -corrugated plates, coated with asphalt to prevent rusting. Place -on this broken stone ballast, and bed the ties in it as in the -ordinary form of road-bed. - -By this means the usual shock felt in passing from the elastic -embankment to the comparatively solid bridge will be done away. -Has a crack formed in a wheel or axle, this shock generally -develops it into a break, the car or engine is derailed, and if it -strikes the truss the bridge is wrecked. The cost of this proposed -safety floor is insignificant, compared with the security resulting -from it. - - * * * * * - -The improvements in the processes of putting in the foundations of -bridges have been as great as those above water. All have shortened -greatly the time necessary, and have made the results more certain. -The American system may briefly be described as an abandonment of -the old engineering device of coffer-dams, by which the bed of the -river is enclosed by a water-tight fence and the water pumped out. -For this we substitute driving piles and sawing them off under -water; or sinking cribs down to a hard bottom through the water. In -both cases we sink the masonry, built in a great water-tight box -(called a caisson) with a thick bottom of solid timber, until it -finally rests on the heads of the piles sawn to a level, or on the -top of a crib which is filled with stone, dumped out of a barge. -Sometimes it is filled with concrete lowered through the water by -special apparatus.[6] - -Another process, developed within the last twenty years, is to -sink cribs through soft or unreliable material to a harder stratum -by compressed air. This is an improvement on the old diving-bell. -The air, forced into the bell-shaped cavity, expels the water and -allows the men to work and remove the material, which is taken up -by a device called an air-lock. The crib slowly sinks, carrying the -masonry on its top. - -By this means the foundations of the Brooklyn bridge and of the St. -Louis bridge were sunk a little over 100 feet below water. A recent -invention is that of a German engineer, Herr Poetsch, who freezes -the sand by inserting tubes filled with a freezing mixture, and -then excavates it as if it were solid rock. - -The process of sinking open cribs through the water by weighting -them and dredging out the material was followed at the new bridge -recently built over the Hudson at Poughkeepsie, where the cribs -were sunk 130 feet below water, and at the bridge building over the -Hawkesbury River, in Australia. The Hawkesbury piers are sunk to -a depth of 175 feet below water, and are the deepest foundations -yet put in. The writer (who derives his knowledge from being one of -the designing and executive engineers of both these bridges) sees -no difficulty in putting down foundations by this process of open -dredging to even much greater depths. The compressed-air process is -limited to about 110 feet in depth. - - -IV. - -The most notable invention of latter days in bridge construction -is that of the cantilever bridge, which is a system devised to -dispense with staging, or false works, where from the great depth, -or the swift current, of the river, this would be difficult, or, -as in the case of the Niagara River, impossible to make. The word -cantilever is used in architecture to signify the lower end of a -rafter, which projects beyond the wall of a building, and supports -the roof above. It is from an Italian word, taken from the Latin -_cantilabrum_ (used by Vitruvius), meaning the _lip of the rafter_. -If two beams were pushed out from the shores of a stream until they -met in the centre, and these two beams were long enough to run back -from the shores until their weight, aided by a few stones, held -them down, we should have a primitive form of the cantilever, but -one which in principle would not differ from the actual cantilever -bridges. This is another American invention, although it has been -developed by British engineers--Messrs. Fowler & Baker--in their -huge bridge now building across the Forth, in Scotland, of a size -which dwarfs everything hitherto done in this country, the Brooklyn -bridge not excepted. - -The first design of which we have any record was that of a bridge -planned by Thomas Pope, a ship carpenter of New York, who, in 1810, -published a book giving his designs for an arched bridge of timber -across the North River at Castle Point, of 2,400 feet span. Mr. -Pope called this an arch, but his description clearly shows it to -have been what we now call a cantilever. As was the fashion of the -day, he indulged in a poetical description: - - "Like half a Rainbow rising on yon shore, - While its twin partner spans the semi o'er, - And makes a perfect whole that need not part - Till time has furnish'd us a nobler art." - -[Illustration: View of Thomas Pope's Proposed Cantilever (1810).] - -The first railway cantilever bridge in the world was built by the -late C. Shaler Smith, C.E., one of our most accomplished bridge -engineers. This was a bridge over the deep gorge of the Kentucky -River.[7] The next was a bridge on the Canadian Pacific, in British -Columbia, designed by C. C. Schneider, C.E. A very similar bridge -is that over the Niagara River, designed by the same engineer in -conjunction with Messrs. Field & Hayes, Civil Engineers. This -bridge was the first to receive the distinctive name of cantilever. - -The new bridge at Poughkeepsie has three of these cantilevers, -connected by two fixed spans, as shown in the illustration (pg. -36). The fixed spans have horizontal lower chords, and really -extend beyond each pier and up the inclined portions, to where the -bottom chord of the cantilever is horizontal. At these points the -junctions between the spans are made, and arranged in such a way, -by means of movable links, that expansion and contraction due to -changes of temperature can take place. The fixed spans are 525 feet -long. Their upper chord, where the tracks are placed, is 212 feet -above water. These spans required stagings to build them upon. -These stagings were 220 feet above water, and rested on piles, -driven through 60 feet of water and 60 feet of mud, making the -whole height of the temporary staging 332 feet, or within 30 feet -of the height of Trinity Church steeple, in New York. The time -occupied in building one of these stagings and then erecting the -steel-work upon it was about four months. - -The cantilever spans were erected, as shown in the illustration on -page 37, without any stagings at all below, and entirely from the -two overhead travelling scaffolds, shown in the engraving. These -scaffolds were moved out daily from the place of beginning over -the piers, until they met in the centre. The workmen hoisted up -the different pieces of steel from a barge in the river below and -put them into place, using suspended planks to walk upon. The time -saved by this method was so great that one of these spans of 548 -feet long was erected in less than four weeks, or one-seventh of -the time which would have been required if stagings had been used. - -[Illustration: Pope's Cantilever in Process of Erection. (From his -"Treatise on Bridge Architecture.")] - -At the Forth Bridge, all the projecting cantilevers will be built -from overhead scaffolds, 360 feet above the water. It contains two -spans of 1,710 feet each. When spans of this length are used, the -rivets become very long--seven inches--and it would be impossible -to make a good job by hand riveting. Hence a power-riveter is used -in riveting the work upon the staging. A steam-engine raises up a -heavy mass of cast-iron, called "the accumulator;" the weight of -this in descending is transmitted through tubes of water, and its -power increased by contracting the area of pressure, until some -twenty tons can be applied to the head of each rivet. One rivet per -minute can be put in with this tool. - - * * * * * - -It will be seen that most of the great saving of time in modern -construction of bridges and other parts of railways is due to -improved machinery. The engineer of to-day is probably not more -skilful than his ancestor, who, in periwig and cue, breeches -and silk stockings, is represented in old prints supervising a -gang of laborers, who slowly lift the ram of a pile-driver by -hauling on one end of a rope passed over a pulley-wheel. The -modern engineer has that useful servant, steam, and the history -of modern engineering is chiefly the history of those inventions -by which steam has been able to supersede manual labor--such as -pile-drivers, steam-shovels, steam-dredges, and other similar tools. - -[Illustration: General View of the Poughkeepsie Bridge.] - - * * * * * - -After the road-bed of a railway is completed and covered with a -good coat of gravel or stone-ballast, and after all the temporary -structures have been replaced by permanent ones, that part of the -work may be said to be done, requiring only that the damages of -storms should be repaired. But the track of a railway is never -done. It is always wearing out and always being replaced. - -[Illustration: Erection of a Cantilever.] - -Some of the early English engineers, not appreciating this, -endeavored to lay down solid stone walls coped with stone cut to a -smooth surface, on which they laid their rails. They called this -"permanent way," as distinguished from the temporary track of rails -and cross-ties used by contractors in building the lines. But -experience soon showed that the temporary track, if supported by -a bed of broken stone, always kept itself drained and was always -elastic, and remained in much better order than the more expensive -so-called "permanent way." When the increase in the weight of our -rolling stock began to take place, dating from about 1870, iron -rails were found to be wearing out very fast. Some railway men -declared that the railway system had reached its full development. -But in this world the supply generally equals the demand. When a -thing is very much wanted, it is sure to come, sooner or later. -The process of making steel invented by, and named after, Henry -Bessemer, of England, and perfected by A. L. Holley, of this -country, gave us a steel rail which at the present time costs -less than one of iron, and has a life five or six times as long, -even under the heavy loads of to-day. We are now approaching very -near the limit of what the rail will carry, while the joints are -becoming less able to do their duty. Bad joints mean rough track. -Rough track means considerably greater expenditure both for its -maintenance and that of all the rolling stock, as the blows and -shocks do reciprocal damage, both to the rails and to that which -runs on them. Hence all railway managers are now devoting more care -and attention to their tracks. - -In laying track on a new railway, if it be in an old-settled -country where other railroads are near and the highways good, -the ties are delivered in piles along the line where wanted, and -the haul of the rails is comparatively short. The ties are laid -down, spaced and bedded, adzed off to a true bearing, and the -rails laid upon them; the workmen being divided into gangs, each -doing a different part of the work. After the track is laid, the -ballast-trains come along and cover the roadbed with gravel. The -track is raised, the gravel tamped well under the ties, and the -track is ready for use. - -[Illustration: Spiking the Track.] - -[Illustration: Rail Making.] - -The road is then divided into sections about five miles long. On -each section there is a section-boss, with four to six laborers. -Their duty is to pass over the track at least twice a day in their -hand-car, to examine every joint, and where one is found low or out -of line, to bring it back to its true position by tamping gravel -under it and moving the track. They have also to see that all -ditches are kept clear of water, a most essential point, as without -good drainage the ground under gravel ballast becomes soft, and the -mud is churned up into the gravel, and the whole soon gets into bad -order. - -They have to see that the fences are all right, that trees and -telegraph poles do not fall across the track, that wooden bridges -do not burn down, that iron and stone bridges are not undermined by -freshets, and always to set up danger signals to warn the trains. - -[Illustration: Track Laying.] - -It is admitted by competent judges, that the track of the -Pennsylvania Railroad is the best in this country, and one of the -best in the world. It is kept up to its high standard of excellence -by a system of competitive examinations. - -About the first of November, in each year, after the season's work -has been done, a tour of inspection is made over all the lines, on -a train of cars expressly prepared, consisting of two or more cars -not unlike ordinary box cars with the front end taken out. Each car -is pushed in front of an engine, and goes slowly over the line, by -daylight only, so that the inspecting party may have a full view of -the road. - -The Pennsylvania road is divided into Grand Divisions, -Superintendents' Divisions, of about 100 miles long, Supervisors' -Divisions, of about 30 miles, and Subdivisions, of 2½ miles. - -The examining committee for each Supervisor's Division consists of -the supervisors of other divisions. As they pass along, they mark -on a card. One sub-committee marks the condition of the alignment -and surfacing of the rails; another the condition of the joints -and the spacing of the ties; another the ballast, switches, and -sidings; another the ditches, road-crossings, station grounds. -The marks range from 0 to 10, 0 being very bad, 5 medium, and 10 -perfection. When the trip is done these reports are all collected -and the average is taken for each division. - -As an inducement to the supervisors and the foremen of the -Subdivisions to excel on their division, premiums are given as -follows: - - $100 to the supervisor having the best yard on his Grand Division. - - $100 each to the supervisors having the best Supervisor's - Division on each Superintendent's Division of 100 miles. - - $75 to the foreman having the best subdivision of 2½ miles on - each Grand Division. - - $60 to each foreman having the best subdivision on his - Superintendent's Division, including yards. - - $50 to the foreman having the best subdivision on each - Supervisor's Division. - -In addition to the above there are two premiums of honor given by -the general manager, which bring into competition with each other -those parts of the main line lying on either side of Philadelphia, -viz.: - - $100 to the supervisor having the best line and surface between - Pittsburg and Jersey City. - - $50 to the second best ditto. - -If a supervisor or foreman of subdivision receives one of the -higher premiums, he is not allowed to be a competitor for any -others premiums, except the premiums of honor. - -The advantages of these inspections and premiums are these: Every -man knows exactly what the standard of excellence is, and strives -to have his section reach it. Under the old system, a man never got -off of his own section, and had no means of comparison, and like -all untravelled persons, became conceited. - -The standard of excellence becomes higher and higher every year. -Perfect fairness prevails, as the men themselves are the judges. -The officers of the road make no marks, but usually look on and see -that there is fair play. - -This brings the officers and men nearer together, and shows the men -how all are working for the common good. An agreeable break is made -in the monotony of the men's lives. They have something to look -forward to better than a spree. - -It is by the adoption of such methods as these that strikes will be -prevented in the future. It encourages an _esprit de corps_ among -the men, and educates them in every way. - -This system was first devised and put in operation on the -Pennsylvania Railroad in 1879, by Mr. Frank Thomson, General -Manager, to whom the credit of it is justly due. - - -V. - -I have thus endeavored to trace the history of the building of -a railway; and it must have been seen, from what has been said, -that the evolution of the railway and of its rolling stock follows -the same laws which govern the rest of the world: adaptation to -circumstances decides what is fittest, and that alone survives. The -scrap-heap of a great railway tells its own story. - -Our railways have now reached a development which is wonderful. The -railways of the United States, if placed continuously, would reach -more than half-way to the moon. Their bridges alone would reach -from New York to Liverpool. Notwithstanding the number of accidents -that we read of in the daily papers, statistics show that less -persons are killed annually on railways than are killed annually by -falling out of windows. - -Railways have so cheapened the cost of transportation that, while -a load of wheat loses all of its value by being hauled one hundred -miles on a common road, meat and flour enough to supply one man a -year can, according to Mr. Edward Atkinson, be hauled 1,500 miles -from the West to the East for one day's wages of that man, if he -be a skilled mechanic. If freight charges are diminished in the -future as in the past, this can soon be done for one day's wages of -a common laborer. - -The number of persons employed in constructing, equipping, and -operating our railways is about two millions. - -The combined armies and navies of the world, while on peace -footing, will draw from gainful occupations 3,455,000 men. - -Those create wealth--these destroy it. Is it any wonder that -America is the richest country in the world? - -The rapidity with which it is possible to build railways over the -prairies of the West is extraordinary. It is true that the amount -of earth necessary to be moved is much less than on the railways -of the East. In Iowa and Wisconsin, the amount runs from 20,000 to -25,000 yards per mile, while in Dakota it is only 12,000 to 15,000 -yards per mile. After making all due allowance for this, the result -is still remarkable. - -[Illustration: Temporary Railway Crossing the St. Lawrence on the -Ice.] - -The Manitoba system was extended in 1887 through Dakota and -Montana, a distance of 545 miles. A small army of 10,000 men, with -about 3,500 teams, commanded by General D. C. Shepard, of St. Paul, -a veteran engineer and contractor, did it all between April 2 and -October 19. All materials and subsistence had to be hauled to the -front, from the base of supplies. The army slept in its own tents, -shanties, and cars. The grading was cast up from the side ditches, -sometimes by carts, and sometimes by the digging machine. - -Everything was done with military organization, except that what -was left behind was a railway and not earth-work lines of defence. -Assuming that this railway, ready for its equipment, cost $15,100 -per mile, or $8,175,000, and if it be true, as statisticians tell -us, that every dollar expended in building railways in a new -country adds ten to the value of land and other property, then this -six months' campaign shows a solid increase of the wealth of our -country of over eighty millions of dollars. Had it been necessary -for our Government to keep an army of observation of the same size -on the Canadian frontier, there would have been a dead loss of over -eight millions of dollars, and the only result would have been a -slight reduction of the Treasury surplus. - -It must be remembered that this railway was built after the -American system: when the rails were laid, so as to carry trains, -it was not much more than half finished; the track had to be -ballasted, the temporary wooden structures replaced by stone and -iron, and many buildings and miles of sidings were yet to be -constructed. But it began to earn money from the very day the last -rail was laid, and out of its earnings, and the credit thereby -acquired, it will complete itself. - -And this is only one instance out of many. The armies of peace are -working all over our country, increasing our wealth, and binding -all parts into a common whole. We have here the true answer to the -Carlyles and the Ruskins who ask: "What is the use of all this? Is -a man any better who goes sixty miles an hour than one who went -five miles an hour?" "Were we not happier when our fields were -covered with their golden harvests, than now, when our wheat is -brought to us from Dakota?" - -The grand function of the railway is to change the whole basis of -civilization from military to industrial. The talent, the energy, -the money, which is expended in maintaining the whole of Europe -as an armed camp is here expended in building and maintaining -railways, with their army of two millions of men. Without the -help of railways the rebellion of the Southern States could never -have been put down, and two great standing armies would have -been necessary. By the railways, aided by telegraphs, it is easy -to extend our Federal system over an entire continent, and thus -dispense forever with standing armies. - -The moral effect of this upon Europe is great, but its physical -effect is still greater. American railways have nearly abolished -landlordism in Ireland, and they will one day abolish it in -England, and over the continent of Europe. So long as Europe was -dependent for food upon its own fields, the owner of those fields -could fix his own rental. This he can no longer do, owing to the -cheapness of transportation from Australia and from the prairies -of America, due to the inventions of Watt, the Stephensons, -Bessemer, and Holley. - -With the wealth of the landlord his political power will pass -away. The government of European countries will pass out of the -hands of the great landowners, but not into those of the rabble, -as is feared. It will pass into the same hands that govern America -to-day--the territorial democracy, the owners of small farms, and -the manufacturers and merchants. When this comes to pass, attempts -will be made to settle international disputes by arbitration -instead of war, following the example of the Geneva arbitration -between the two greatest industrial nations of the world. Whether -our Federal system will ever extend to the rest of the world, -no one knows, but we do know that without railways it would be -impossible. - -When we consider the effects of all these wonderful changes upon -the sum of human happiness, we must admit that the engineer should -justly take rank with statesmen and soldiers, and that no greater -benefactors to the human race can be named than the Stephensons and -their American disciples--Allen, Rogers, Jervis, Winans, Latrobe, -and Holley. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] It is proper here to say that English engineers now appreciate -the merits of the American swivelling truck or bogie. In the -article on Railways in the last edition of the "Encyclopædia -Britannica," speaking of locomotives, the author of the article, -who is an English engineer of high authority, says: "American -practice, many years since, arrived at two leading types of -locomotive for passenger, and for goods traffic. The passenger -locomotive has eight wheels, of which four in front are framed in -a bogie, and the four wheels behind are coupled drivers. _This is -the type to which English practice has been approximating._" The -italics are ours. - -[2] The statistics of ten leading English and ten leading American -lines, given by Dorsey, show the following results: 1. The cost -per year of the rations, wages, fuel of an American locomotive -is $5,590; of an English locomotive, $3,080. 2. Average yearly -number of train-miles run by American locomotive, 23,928; English -locomotive, 17,539. 3. Yearly earnings: American locomotive, -$14,860; English locomotive, $10,940, although the English freight -charges are much greater than those of the United States. - -[3] The writer has obtained many of the statistics used in this -article from A. M. Wellington's "Economic Theory of Railway -Location," a perfect mine of valuable information upon all such -matters. - -[4] The amount of permanent wood and iron truss bridges, and of -temporary wooden trestles on the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul -is as follows: - - Truss bridges, 700 spans, average 93 feet, 12-4/5 miles. - Trestle " 7,196 " " 77 " 103-1/10 " - ------ -------- - Total, 7,896 115-9/10 " - -The approximate total number of bridges in the United States was in -1888: - - Iron and wood truss bridges, 61,562 spans, 1,086 miles. - Wooden trestles, 147,187 2,127 " - -------- ------ - Total, 208,749 3,213 " - -Probably three-fourths of the truss bridges are now of iron -or steel, and may be considered perfectly safe so long as the -trains remain upon the rails and do not strike the side trusses. -The wooden trestles are a constant source of danger from decay -or burning or from derailed trains, and should be replaced by -permanent structures as fast as time and money will allow. - -[5] See following article on "Feats of Railroad Engineering," page -86. - -[6] For fuller description of work in a caisson see "Feats of -Railway Engineering," page 69. - -[7] See "Feats of Railway Engineering," page 55. - - - - -FEATS OF RAILWAY ENGINEERING. - -BY JOHN BOGART. - - Development of the Rail--Problems for the Engineer--How - Heights are Climbed--The Use of Trestles--Construction on a - Mountain Side--Engineering on Rope Ladders--Through the Portals - of a Cañon--Feats on the Oroya Railroad, Peru--Nochistongo - Cut--Rack Rails for Heavy Grades--Difficulties in Tunnel - Construction--Bridge Foundations--Cribs and Pneumatic - Caissons--How Men work under Water--The Construction of Stone - Arches--Wood and Iron in Bridge-building--Great Suspension - Bridges--The Niagara Cantilever and the enormous Forth - Bridge--Elevated and Underground Roads--Responsibilities of the - Civil Engineer. - - -There are one hundred and fifty thousand miles of railway in the -United States: three hundred thousand miles of rails--in length -enough to make twelve steel girdles for the earth's circumference. -This enormous length of rail is wonderful--we do not really grasp -its significance. But the rail itself, the little section of steel, -is an engineering feat. The change of its form from the curious and -clumsy iron pear-head of thirty years ago to the present refined -section of steel is a scientific development. It is now a beam -whose every dimension and curve and angle are exactly suited to the -tremendous work it has to do. The loads it carries are enormous, -the blows it receives are heavy and constant, but it carries the -loads and bears the blows and does its duty. The locomotive and the -modern passenger and freight cars are great achievements; and so is -the little rail which carries them all. - -The railway to-day is one of the matter-of-fact associations of -our active life. We use it so constantly that it requires some -little effort to think of it as a wonderful thing; a creation -of man's ingenuity, which did not exist when our grandfathers -were young. Its long bridges, high viaducts, and dark tunnels may -be remarked and remembered by the traveller, but the narrow way -of steel, the road itself, seems but a simple work. And yet the -problem of location, the determination, foot by foot and mile by -mile, of where the line must go, calls in its successful solution -for the highest skill of the engineer, whose profession before the -railway was created hardly existed at all. Locomotives now climb -heights which a few years ago no vehicle on wheels could ascend. -The writer, with some engineer friends, was in the mountains -of Colorado during the summer of 1887, and saw a train of very -intelligent donkeys loaded with ore from the mines, to which no -access could be had but by those sure-footed beasts. Within a year -one of that party of engineers had located and was building a -railway to those very mines. No heights seem too great to-day, no -valleys too deep, no cañons too forbidding, no streams too wide; if -commerce demands, the engineer will respond and the railways will -be built. - -The location of the line of a railway through difficult country -requires the trained judgment of an engineer of special experience, -and the most difficult country is not by any means that which might -at first be supposed. A line through a narrow pass almost locates -itself. But the approach to a summit through rolling country is -often a serious problem. The rate of grade must be kept as light -as possible, and must never exceed the prescribed maximum. The -cuttings and the embankments must be as shallow as they can be -made--the quantities of material taken from the excavations should -be just about enough to make adjacent embankments. The curves must -be few and of light radius--never exceeding an arranged limit. -The line must always be kept as direct as these considerations -will allow--so that the final location will give the shortest -practicable economical distance from point to point. Many a mile -of railway over which we travel now at the highest speed has been -a weary problem to the engineer of location, and he has often -accomplished a really greater success by securing a line which -seems to closely fit the country over which it runs without marking -itself sharply upon nature's moulding, than if he had with apparent -boldness cut deep into the hills and raised embankments and -viaducts high over lowlands and valleys. - -[Illustration: View Down the Blue from Rocky Point, Denver, South -Park and Pacific Railroad; showing successive tiers of railway.] - -But roads must run through many regions where very different -measures must be taken to secure a location practicable for -traffic. For instance, a line at a high elevation approaches a wide -valley which it must cross. The rate of descent is fixed by the -established maximum grade, and the sides of the valley are much -steeper than that rate. Then the engineer must gain distance--that -is to say, he must make the line long enough to overcome the -vertical height. This can often be accomplished by carrying it -up the valley on one side and down on the other. Tributary -valleys can be made use of if necessary, and the desired crossing -thus accomplished. But at times even these expedients will not -suffice. Then the line is made to bend upon itself and wind down -the hillside upon benches cut into the earth, or rock, curving at -points where nature affords any sort of opportunity, and reaching -the valley at last in long convolutions like the path of a great -serpent on the mountain side. These lines often show several tiers -of railway, one directly above the other, as may be seen in the -illustrations on pages 49 and 51. - -The long trestle shown in the illustration opposite is an -example of an expedient often of the greatest service in railway -construction. These trestles are built of wood, simply but strongly -framed together, and are entirely effective for the transport of -traffic for a number of years. Then they must be renewed, or, what -is better, be replaced by embankment, which can be gradually made -by depositing the material from cars on the trestle itself. The -trestle illustrated is interesting as conforming to the curve of -the line, which in that country, the mountains of Colorado, was -probably a necessity of location. - - * * * * * - -Where the direct turning of a line upon itself may not be -necessary, there may and often must be bold work done in the -construction of the road upon a mountain side. It must be supported -where necessary by walls built up from suitable foundations, -often only secured at a great depth below the grade of the road. -Projecting points of rock must be cut through, and any practicable -natural shelf or favorable formation must be made use of, as in the -picture on page 61. In some of the mountain locations, galleries -have been cut directly into the rock, the cliff overhanging the -roadway, and the line being carried in a horizontal cut or niche in -the solid wall. - -[Illustration: Loop and Great Trestle near Hagerman's, on the -Colorado Midland Railway.] - -The Oroya and the Chimbote railways in South America demanded -constant locations of this character. At many points it was -necessary to suspend the persons making the preliminary -measurements from the cliff above. The engineer who made these -locations told the writer that on the Oroya line the galleries -were often from 100 to 400 feet above the base of the cliff, and -were generally reached from above. Rope ladders were used to great -advantage. One 64 feet long and one 106 feet long covered the -usual practice, and were sometimes spliced together. The side -ropes were ¾ and 1¼ inches in diameter, and the rounds of wood 1¼ -inches in diameter, and 16 inches and 24 inches long. These were -notched at the ends and passed through the ropes, to which they -were afterward lashed. These ladders could be rolled up and carried -about on donkeys or mules. When swung over the side of a cliff -and secured at the top, and when practicable at the bottom, they -formed a very useful instrument in location and construction. For -simple examination of the cliff, and for rough or broken slopes -not exceeding 70 to 80 degrees, an active fellow would, after some -experience, walk up and down such a slope simply grasping the -rope in his hands. If required to do any work he would secure the -rope about his body, or wind it around his arm, leaving his hands -comparatively free for light work. - -The boatswain's chair--consisting of a wooden seat 6 inches wide -and two feet long, through the ends of which pass the side ropes, -looped at the top, and having their ends knotted--is a particularly -convenient seat to use where cliffs overhang to a slight degree. -The riggers were generally Portuguese sailors, who seemed to have -more agility and less fear than any other men to be found. At -Cuesta Blanca, on the Oroya, a prominent discoloration on the cliff -served as a triangulation point for locating the chief gallery. -Men were swung over the side of the cliff in a cage about 2½ feet -by 6 feet, open at the top and on the side next the rock. This -was a peculiar cliff about 1,000 feet high, rising from the river -at a general slope of about 70 degrees. The grade line of the -road was 420 feet above the river. The Chileno miners climbed up -a rope ladder to a large seam near the grade, where they lived; -provisions, water, etc., being hoisted up to them. The first men -sent over the cliff to begin the preliminary work were lowered in -a cage and took their dinners with them, for fear they would not -return to the work, and that unless a genuine start was made others -could not be induced to take their places. It is safe to say that -80 per cent. of the sixty odd tunnels on the Oroya and the seven -tunnels on the Chimbote lines were located and constructed on lines -determined by triangulation, and the results were so satisfactory -that the method may be depended upon as the best system for -determining topographical data or for locating and constructing the -lines in any similar locality. - -[Illustration: Denver and Rio Grande Railway Entering the Portals -of the Grand River Cañon, Col.] - -Where the rocks close in together, as in some of the cañons of our -Southwest, the railway curves about them and finds its way often -where one would hardly suppose a decent wagon road could be built. -The portals of the Grand River Cañon, as here shown, present such a -line, passing through narrow gateways of rock rising precipitously -on either side to enormous heights. - -When such a cañon or a narrow valley directly crosses the line of -the road, it must be spanned by a bridge or viaduct. The Kentucky -River Bridge, shown below, is an instance. The Verrugas Bridge, on -the Lima and Oroya Railroad in Peru, is another. This bridge is at -an elevation of 5,836 feet above sea-level. It crosses a ravine at -the bottom of which is a small stream. The bridge is 575 feet long, -in four spans, and is supported by iron towers, the central one -of which is 252 feet in height. The construction was accomplished -entirely from above, the material all having been delivered at the -top of the ravine, and the erection was made by lowering each piece -to its position. This was done by the use of two wire-rope cables, -suspended across the ravine from temporary towers at each end of -the bridge. - -[Illustration: The Kentucky River Cantilever, on the Cincinnati -Southern Railway.] - -On the line of the same Oroya Railroad is a striking example of -the difficulties encountered in such mountain country and of -the method by which they have been overcome. A tunnel reaches a -narrow gorge, a truss is thrown across, and the tunnel continued. -Nature's wildest scenery, the deep ravine, the mountain cliffs, and -the graceful truss carrying the locomotive and train safely over -what would seem an impossible pass, here combine to give a vivid -illustration of an engineering feat. - -[Illustration: Truss over Ravine, and Tunnel, Oroya Railroad, Peru.] - -The location of a part of the Mexican Central Railway through the -cut of Nochistongo is peculiarly interesting. Far underneath the -level of this line of railway there was skilfully constructed, -in 1608, a tunnel which at that period was a very bold piece of -engineering. It was designed to drain the Valley of Mexico, which -has no natural outlet. This tunnel was more than six miles long -and ten feet wide. It was driven through the formation called -_tepetate_, a peculiar earth with strata of sand and marl. It was -finished in eleven months. At first excavated without a lining, it -was afterward faced with masonry. It was not entirely protected -when a great flood came, the dikes above gave way, and the tunnel -became obstructed. The City of Mexico was flooded, and it was -decided that, instead of repairing the tunnel an open cut should be -made. The engineer who had constructed the tunnel, Enrico Martinez, -was put in charge of this enormous undertaking, and others took his -place after his death. The cut is believed to be the largest ever -made in the world. For more than a century the work was continued. -Its greatest depth is now 200 feet. It was cut deeper, but has -partially filled with the washings from the slopes. The cost -was enormous, more than 6,000,000 dollars in silver having been -actually disbursed! Wages for workmen were then from 9 to 12 cents -a day. All convicts sentenced to hard labor were put at work in the -great cut. The loss of life was very great. Writers of the time -state that more than 100,000 Indians perished while engaged in the -work. - -[Illustration: The Nochistongo Cut, Mexican Central Railway.] - -[Illustration: The Mount Washington Rack Railroad.] - -When a line of railway encountered a grade too steep for ascent -by the traction of the locomotive, the earlier engineers adopted -the inclined plane. Such planes were in use at important points -during many years. Notable instances were those by which traffic -was carried across the Alleghany Mountains, connecting on each side -with the Pennsylvania railway lines. These old planes are still -visible from the present Pennsylvania Railroad where it crosses -the summit west of Altoona. The planes were operated by stationary -engines acting upon cables attached to the cars. These cables -passed around drums at the head of the planes, the weight of the -cars on one track partially balancing those on the other. Similar -planes were in use also at Albany, Schenectady, and other places. - -[Illustration: Trestle on Portland and Ogdensburg Railway, Crawford -Notch, White Mountains.] - -Another effective expedient is the central rack rail. No better -or more successful example of this method of construction can be -given than the Mount Washington Railway, illustrated above. The -road was completed in 1869. Its length is 3-1/3 miles and its -total rise 3,625 feet. Its steepest grade is about 1 foot rise in -every 3 feet in length; the average grade is 1 in 4. It is built -of heavy timber, well bolted to the rock. Low places are spanned -by substantial trestle work. The gauge of the road is 4 feet 7½ -inches, and it is provided with the two ordinary rails and also the -central rack rail, which is really like an iron ladder, the sides -being of angle iron and the cross-pieces of round iron 1½ inches in -diameter and 4 inches apart. Into these plays the central cog-wheel -on the locomotive, which thus climbs this iron ladder with entire -safety. Very complete arrangements are made to control the descent -of the train in case of accident to the machinery. The locomotive -is always below the train, and pushes it up the mountain. Many -thousands of passengers have been transported every year without -accident. - -[Illustration: A Series of Tunnels.] - -The rack railroad ascending the Righi, in Switzerland, was -copied after the Mount Washington line. Some improvements in the -construction of the rack rail and attachments have been introduced -upon mountain roads in Germany, and this system seems very -advantageous for use in exceptionally steep locations. - - * * * * * - -When a line of railway meets in its course a barrier of rock, it -is often best to cut directly through. If the grade is not too -far below the surface of the rock, the cut is made like a great -trench with the sides as steep as the nature of the material will -allow. Very deep cuts are, however, not desirable. The rains -bring down upon their slopes the softer material from above, and -the frost detaches pieces of rock which, falling, may result in -serious accidents to trains. Snow lodges in these deep cuts, at -times entirely stopping traffic, as in the blizzard near New York, -in March, 1888. A tunnel, therefore, while perhaps greater in -first cost than a moderately deep cut, is really often the more -economical expedient. - -[Illustration: Tunnel at the Foot of Mount St. Stephen, on the -Canadian Pacific. - -(The glacier 8,200 feet above the Railway.)] - -[Illustration: Peña de Mora - -on the La Guayra and Carácas Railway, Venezuela.] - -And here is as good a place, perhaps, as any other in this chapter, -to say that true engineering is the economical adaptation of -the means and opportunities existing, to the end desired. Civil -engineering was defined, by one of the greatest of England's -engineers, as "the art of directing the great sources of -power in nature for the use and convenience of man," and that -definition was adopted as a fundamental idea in the charter of -the English Institution of Civil Engineers. But the development -of engineering-works in America has been effected successfully by -American engineers only because they have appreciated another side -of the problem presented to them. A past president of the American -Society of Civil Engineers, a man of rare judgment and remarkable -executive ability, the late Ashbel Welch, said, in discussing a -great undertaking proposed by an eminent Frenchman: "That is the -best engineering, not which makes the most splendid, or even the -most perfect, work, but that which makes a work that answers the -purpose well, at the least cost." And it may be remarked, as to -the project which he was then discussing, that after a very large -expenditure and an experience of eight years since that discussion, -the plans of the work were modified and the identical suggestions -made by Mr. Welch of a radical economical change were adopted -in 1888.[8] Another eminent American engineer, whose practical -experience has been gained in the construction and engineering -supervision of more than five thousand miles of railway, said, -in his address as President of the American Society of Civil -Engineers: "The high object of our profession is to consider and -determine the most economic use of time, power, and matter." - -[Illustration: Perspective View of St. Gothard Spiral Tunnels, in -the Alps.] - -That true economy, which finally secures in a completed work the -best results from the investment of capital, in first cost and -continued maintenance, is an essential element in the consideration -of any really great engineering feat. - - * * * * * - -The difficulties involved in the construction of a tunnel, after -the line and dimensions have been determined, depend generally -upon the nature of the material found as the work advances. Solid -rock presents really the fewest difficulties, but it is seldom -that tunnels of considerable length occur without meeting material -which requires special provision for successful treatment. In some -cases great portions of the rock, where the roof of the tunnel is -to be, press downward with enormous weight, being detached from the -adjacent mass by the occurrence of natural seams. - -At other places soft material may be encountered, and the passage -then is attended with great difficulty. Temporary supports, -generally of timber, and of great strength, have often to be used -at every foot of progress to prevent the material from forcing its -way into the excavation already made. - -In long tunnels the ventilation is a difficult problem, although -the use of compressed air drills has aided greatly in its solution. - -[Illustration: Plan of St. Gothard Spiral Tunnels.] - -Among the great tunnels which have been excavated, the St. Gothard -is the most remarkable. It is 9¼ miles long, with a section -26¼ feet wide by 19-2/3 feet high. The work on this tunnel was -continuous, and it required 9¼ years for its completion. - -The Mont Cenis tunnel, 8-1/3 miles in length, was completed in 12 -years. - -[Illustration: Profile of the Same.] - -The Hoosac Tunnel, 4¾ miles in length, 26 feet wide and 21½ feet -high, was not prosecuted continuously; it was completed in 1876. -These tunnels are notable chiefly on account of their great length; -there are others of more moderate extent which have peculiar -features; one, illustrated on the preceding page, is unique. This -tunnel is a portion of the St. Gothard Railway, and not very far -distant from the great tunnel referred to above. In the descent -of the mountain it was absolutely necessary to secure a longer -distance than a straight line or an ordinary curve would give; -the line was therefore doubly curved upon itself. It enters the -mountain at a high elevation, describes a circle through the rock -and, constantly descending, reappears under itself at the side; -still descending, it enters the mountain at another point and -continues in another circular tunnel until it finally emerges -again, under itself, but at a comparatively short horizontal -distance from its first entry, having gained the required descent -by a continued grade through the tunnels. The profile above shows -the descent, upon a greatly reduced scale, the heavy lines marking -where the line is in the tunnel. - -[Illustration: Portal of a Finished Tunnel; showing Cameron's Cone, -Colorado.] - -[Illustration: Portal of a Tunnel in Process of Construction.] - -The remarkable success achieved by engineers in securing suitable -foundations at great depths is, of course, hardly known to the -thousands who constantly see the structures supported on those -foundations, but in any fair consideration of such engineering -achievements this must not be omitted. The beautiful bridge -built by Captain Eads over the Mississippi River at St. Louis, -bold in its design and excellent in its execution, is an object -of admiration to all who visit it, but the impression of its -importance would be greatly magnified if the part below the surface -of the water, which bears the massive towers, and which extends to -a depth twice as great as the height of the pier above the water, -could be visible. - -[Illustration: Railway Pass at Rocky Point in the Rocky Mountains.] - -The simplest and most effective foundation is, of course, on solid -rock. In many localities reliable foundations are built upon -earth, when it exists at a suitable depth and of such a character -as properly to sustain the weight. Foundations under water, when -rock or good material occurs at moderate depth, are constructed -frequently by means of the coffer-dam, which is simply an enclosure -made water-tight and properly connected with the bottom of the -stream. The water is then pumped out and the foundation and -masonry built within this temporary dam. When the material is not -of a character to sustain the weight, the next expedient is the -use of piles, which are driven into the ground, often to a very -considerable depth, and sustain the load placed upon them by the -friction upon the sides of the piles of the material in which they -are driven. It is seldom that dependence is placed upon the load -being transferred from the top to the point of the pile, even -though the point may have penetrated to a comparatively solid -material. Wood is generally used for piles, and where the ground -is permanently saturated there seems to be hardly any known limit -to its durability. The substructure of foundations, where it is -certain that they will always be in contact with water, can be, -and generally is, of wood, and the permanency of such foundations -is well established. An exception to this, however, occurs in -salt-water, particularly in warmer countries, where the ravages -of the minute _Teredo Navalis_, and of the still more minute -_Limnoria Terebrans_, destroy the wood in a very short period of -time. These insects, however, do not work below the ground-line or -bed of the water. In many special cases hollow iron piles are used -successfully. - -[Illustration: Bridge Pier Founded on Piles.] - -The ordinary method of forcing a pile into the ground is by -repeated blows of a hammer of moderate weight; better success -being obtained by frequent blows of the hammer, lifted to a slight -elevation, than results from a greater fall, there being danger -also in the latter case of injuring the material of the pile. The -use of the water-jet for sinking piles, particularly in sand, is -interesting. A tube, generally of ordinary gas-pipe, open at the -lower end, is fastened to the pile; the upper end is connected by -a hose to a powerful pump and, the pile being placed in position -on the surface of the sand, water is forced through the tube and -excavates a passage for the pile, which, by the application of -very light pressure, descends rapidly to the desired depth. The -stream of water must be continuous, as it rises along the side of -the pile and keeps the sand in a mobile state. Immediately upon -the cessation of pumping, the sand settles about the pile, and it -is sometimes quite impossible to afterward move it. The water-jet -is used in sinking iron piles by conducting the water through the -interior of the hollow pile and out of a hole at its point. The -piles of the great iron pier at Coney Island were sunk with great -celerity in this way. The illustration opposite shows one of the -piers of a bridge founded upon wooden piling. - -In many cases it would be impossible to drive piling in such a way -as to insure the durability of the structure above it. This is -particularly true of the foundations of structures crossing many -of our rivers, where the bottom is of material which, in time of -flood, sometimes scours to very remarkable depths; the material -often being replaced when the flood has subsided. The expedient -adopted is the pneumatic tube, or the caisson. Both are merely -applications of the well-known principle of the diving-bell. In -the former case hollow iron tubes, open at the bottom, are sunk to -considerable depths, the water being expelled by air pumped into -the tubes at a pressure sufficient to resist the weight of the -water. Entrance to the tubes is obtained by an air-lock at the top, -the material is excavated from the inside, and sufficient weight -placed upon the tube to force it gradually to the desired depth. -When that depth is attained, the tubes are filled with concrete, -and thus solid pillars of hydraulic concrete, surrounded by -cast-iron tubing, are obtained. - -The pneumatic caisson is an enlargement of this idea of the -diving-bell. The caisson is simply a great chamber or box, open -at the bottom; the outside bottom edges are shod and cased with -iron so as to give a cutting surface; the roof and sides are made -of timber, thoroughly bolted together, and of such strength as to -resist the pressure of the structure to be finally founded upon it. -The chamber in the open bottom is of sufficient height to enable -the laborers to work comfortably in it. This caisson is generally -constructed upon the shore in the vicinity of the structure and -towed to the point where the foundation is to be sunk. Air is -supplied by powerful pumps and is forced into the working chamber. -The pressure of the air of course increases constantly as the -caisson descends; it must always be sufficient to overbalance the -weight of the water and thus prevent the water from entering the -chamber. - -Descent to the caisson is made through a tube, generally of wrought -iron, and having, at a suitable point, an air-lock, which is -substantially an enlargement of the tube, forming a chamber, and of -sufficient size to accommodate a number of men. This air-lock is -provided with doors or valves at the top and at the bottom, both -opening downward, and also with small tubes connecting the air-lock -with the chamber below and with the external air above. Entrance -to the caisson is effected through this air-lock. The lower door, -or valve, being at the bottom, closes and is kept closed by the -pressure of the air in the caisson below. After the air-lock is -entered the upper door or valve is shut, and held shut a few -moments, and the tube connecting with the outer air is closed; a -small valve in the tube connecting with the caisson is then opened -gradually and the pressure in the air-lock becomes the same as -that in the chamber below; as soon as this is effected the valve, -or door, at the bottom of the air-lock falls open and the air-lock -becomes really a part of the caisson. - -[Illustration: Pneumatic Caisson.] - -A sufficient force of men is employed in the chamber to gradually -excavate the material from its whole surface and from under the -cutting edge, and the masonry structure is founded upon the top -of the caisson and built gradually, so as to give constantly a -sufficient weight to carry the whole construction down to its final -location upon the stable foundation, which may be the bed-rock or -may be some strata of permanent character. - -The problem of lighting the chamber was until recently of -considerable difficulty. The rapid combustion under great pressure -made the use of lamps and candles very troublesome, particularly on -account of the dense smoke and large production of lampblack. - -The introduction of the electric light has greatly aided in the -more comfortable prosecution of pneumatic foundation work. - -[Illustration: Transverse Section of Pneumatic Caisson.] - -The removal of rock, or any large mass, from the caisson is -effected through the air-chamber; but the removal of finer -material, as sand or earth, is accomplished by the sand pump or -by the pressure of the air. A tube, extending from the top of -the masonry and kept above the surface by additions, as may be -required, enters the working chamber and is controlled by proper -valves. Lines of tubing and hose extend to all portions of the -chamber. A slight excavation is made and kept filled with water. -The bottom of the tube, or the hose connected with it, is placed in -this excavation, and, the material being agitated so as to be in -suspension in the water, the valve is opened, and the pressure of -the air throws the water and the material held in suspension to the -surface, through the tube, from the end of which it is projected -with great velocity and may be deposited at any desired adjacent -point. This method, however, exhausts the air from the caisson too -rapidly for continuous service. The Eads sand-pump is therefore -generally used. This is an ingenious apparatus, somewhat the same -in principle as the injector which forces water into steam-boilers. -A stream of water is thrown by a powerful pump through a tube -which, at a point near the inlet for the excavated material, is -enlarged so as to surround another tube. The water is forced upward -with great velocity into the second tube, through a conical annular -opening, and, expelling the atmosphere, carries with it to the -surface a continuous stream of sand and water from the bottom of -the excavation. - -This system has been used successfully in the foundations of piers -and abutments of bridges in all parts of the world. The rapidity -of the descent of the caisson varies with the material through -which it has to pass. The speed with which such foundations are -executed is remarkable, when one remembers with what delicacy and -intelligent supervision they have to be balanced and controlled. In -some instances it has been necessary to carry them to great depths, -one at St. Louis being 107 feet below ordinary water level in the -river. - -The pressure of air in caissons at these depths is very great; at -110 feet below the surface of the water it would be 50 pounds to -the square inch. Its effect upon the men entering and working in -the caisson has been carefully noted in various works, and these -effects are sometimes very serious; the frequency of respiration -is increased, the action of the heart becomes excited, and many -persons become affected by what is known as the "caisson disease," -which is accompanied by extreme pain and in some cases results -in more or less complete paralysis. The careful observations of -eminent physicians who have given this disease special attention -have resulted in the formulation of rules which have reduced the -danger to a minimum. - -[Illustration: At Work in a Pneumatic Caisson--fifty feet below the -surface of the water.] - -The execution of work within a deep pneumatic caisson is worth a -moment's consideration. Just above the surface of the water is a -busy force engaged in laying the solid blocks of masonry which are -to support the structure. Great derricks lift the stones and lay -them in their proper position. Powerful pumps are forcing air, -regularly and at uniform pressure, through tubes to the chamber -below. Occasionally a stream of sand and water issues with such -velocity from the discharge pipe that, in the night, the friction -of the particles causes it to look like a stream of living fire. -Far below is another busy force. Under the great pressure and -abnormal supply of oxygen they work with an energy which makes it -impossible to remain there more than a few hours. The water from -without is only kept from entering by the steady action of the -pumps far above and beyond their control. An irregular settlement -might overturn the structure. Should the descent of the caisson -be arrested by any solid under its edge, immediate and judicious -action must be taken. If the obstruction be a log, it must be cut -off outside the edge and pulled into the chamber. Boulders must be -undermined and often must be broken up by blasting. The excavation -must be systematic and regular. A constant danger menaces the lives -of these workers, and the wonderful success with which they have -accomplished what they have undertaken is entitled to notice and -admiration. - -[Illustration: Pier of Hawkesbury Bridge, Australia.] - -Another process, which has succeeded in carrying a foundation to -greater depths than is possible with compressed air, is by building -a crib or caisson, with chambers entirely open at the top, but -having the alternate ones closed at the bottom and furnished with -cutting edges. These closed chambers are weighted with stone or -gravel until the structure rests upon the bottom of the river; -the material is then excavated from the bottom through the open -chambers, by means of dredges, thus permitting the structure -to sink by its weight to the desired depth. When that depth is -reached, the chambers which have been used for dredging are filled -with concrete, and the masonry is constructed upon the top of this -structure. The use of this system has enabled the engineer to place -foundations deeper than has been accomplished by any other device, -one recently built in Australia being 175 feet below the surface of -the water. The illustrations above and on page 76 show this method -of construction. - -[Illustration: Foundation Crib of the Poughkeepsie Bridge.] - -Even more remarkable than the pneumatic caisson is this method -of sinking these great foundations. The removal of material must -be made with such systematic regularity that the structure shall -descend evenly and always maintain its upright position. The dredge -is handled and operated entirely from the surface. The very idea -is startling, of managing an excavation more than a hundred feet -below the operator, entirely by means of the ropes which connect -with the dredge, and doing it with such delicacy that the movement -of an enormous structure, weighing many tons, is absolutely -controlled. This is one of the latest and most interesting advances -of engineering skill. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: Transverse Section of the same.] - -While it is true that the avoidance of large expenditure, when -possible, is a mark of the best engineering, yet great structures -often become absolutely necessary in the development of railway -communication. Wide rivers must be crossed, deep valleys must be -spanned, and much study has been given to the best methods of -accomplishing these results. In the early history of railways -in Europe substantial viaducts of brick and stone masonry were -generally built; and in this country there are notable instances of -such constructions. The approach to the depot of the Pennsylvania -Railroad, in the city of Philadelphia, is an excellent example. -Each street crossed by the viaduct is spanned by a bold arch of -brick. Upon a number of our railways there are heavy masonry arches -and culverts, and at some places these are of a very interesting -character. The arches in the approach to the bridge over the Harlem -Valley (recently completed) are shown above. They are of granite, -having a span of 60 feet. The illustration shows also the method -of supporting the stone work of such arches during construction. -Braced timbers form what is called the centre, and support the -curved frame of plank upon which the masonry is built, which, of -course, cannot be self-supporting until the keystone is in place; -then the centre is lowered by a loosening of the wedges which -support it, and the stone work of the arch is permitted to assume -its final bearing. It is generally considered that where it is -practicable to construct masonry arches under railways there is a -fair assurance of their permanency, but some engineers of great -experience in railway construction advance the theory that the -constant jar and tremor produced by passing railway trains is -really more destructive to masonry work than has been supposed, -and that it may be true that the elements of the best economy will -be found in metal structures rather than in masonry. It is a fact -that repairs and renewals of metal bridges are much more easily -accomplished than of masonry constructions. - -[Illustration: Granite Arched Approach to Harlem River Bridge in -Process of Construction.] - -In this country the wooden bridge has been an important, in fact an -essential element in the successful building of our railways. - -Timber is also used extensively in railroad construction in the -form of trestles; one example of which has been alluded to on -page 50. There were also constructed, years ago, some very bold -viaducts in wood. One of the most interesting is shown above, being -the viaduct at Portage, N. Y. This construction was over 800 feet -long, and 234 feet high from the bed of the river to the rail. The -masonry foundations were 30 feet high, the trestles 190 feet, and -the truss 14 feet; it contained more than a million and a half -feet, board measure, of timber. The timber piers, which were 50 -feet apart, are formed by three trestles, grouped together. It was -framed so that defective pieces could be taken out and replaced -at any time. This bridge was finished in 1852 and was completely -destroyed by fire in 1875. The new metal structure which took -its place is shown on the opposite page, and is an interesting -example of the American method of metal viaduct construction, an -essential feature of that construction being the concentration of -the material into the least possible number of parts. This bridge -has ten spans of 50 feet, two of 100 feet, and one of 118 feet. The -trusses are of what is called the Pratt pattern, and are supported -by wrought-iron columns, two pairs of columns forming a skeleton -tower 20 feet wide and 50 feet long on the top. There are six of -these towers, one of which has a total height from the masonry to -the rail of 203 feet 8 inches. There are over 1,300,000 pounds of -iron in this structure. - -[Illustration: The Old Portage Viaduct, Erie Railway, N. Y.] - -The fundamental idea of a bridge is a simple beam of wood. If metal -is substituted it is still a beam with all superfluous parts cut -away. This results in what is called an I beam. When greater loads -have to be carried, the I beam is enlarged and built up of metal -plates riveted together and thus becomes a plate girder. These are -used for all short railway spans. For greater spans the truss must -be employed. - -[Illustration: The New Portage Viaduct.] - -Before referring, however, to examples of truss bridges, a -description should be given of the Britannia Bridge, built by -Robert Stephenson in 1850, over the Menai Straits. This great -construction carries two lines of rails and is built of two square -tubes, side by side, each being continuous, 1,511 feet long, -supported at each extremity and at three intermediate points, -and having two spans of 460 feet each and two spans of 230 feet -each. The towers which support this structure are of very massive -masonry, and rise considerably above the top of the tubes. These -tubes are each 27 feet high and 14 feet 8 inches wide; they are -built up of plate iron, the top and bottom being cellular in -construction, and the sides of a single thickness of iron. The -tubes for the long spans were built on shore and floated to the -side of the bridge and then lifted by hydraulic presses to their -final position. The rapid current, and other considerations, made -the erection of false works for these spans impracticable. The -beautiful suspension bridge, built by Telford in 1820, over the -Menai Straits, is only a mile away from this Britannia Bridge, but, -at the time of the construction of the latter, it was not deemed -possible by English engineers to erect a suspension bridge of -sufficient strength and stability to accommodate railway traffic. - -[Illustration: The Britannia Tubular Bridge over the Menai Straits, -North Wales.] - -The Victoria Bridge at Montreal is of the same general character -of construction as the Britannia Bridge, but is built only for a -single line of rails; this bridge also was built by Mr. Stephenson, -in 1859. These two structures were enormous works; their strength -is undoubted, but they lack that element of permanent economy which -has been spoken of in this article; their cost was very great, and -the expense of maintenance is also very great. A very large amount -of rust is taken from these tubes every year; they require very -frequent painting, and there are on the Victoria Bridge 30 acres of -iron surface to be thus painted. - -[Illustration: Old Stone Towers of the Niagara Suspension Bridge.] - -A remarkable and interesting contrast to these heavy tubes of -iron is the Niagara Falls railway suspension bridge, completed in -March, 1855. The span of this bridge is 821 feet, and the track -is 245 feet above the water surface. It is supported by 4 cables -which rested on the tops of two masonry towers at each end of -the central span, the ends of the cables being carried to and -anchored in the solid rock. The suspended superstructure has two -floors, one above the other, connected together at each side by -posts and truss rods, inclined in such a manner as to form an open -trussed tube, not intended to support the load, but to prevent -excessive undulations. The floors are suspended from the cables -by wire ropes, the upper floor carrying the railroad track, and -the lower forming a foot and carriage way. Each cable has 3,640 -iron wires. This bridge carried successfully a heavy traffic for -26 years; it was then found that some repairs to the cable were -required at the anchorage, the portions of the cables exposed to -the air being in excellent condition. These repairs were made, -and the anchorage was substantially reinforced. At the same time -it was found that the wooden suspended superstructure was in -bad condition, and this was entirely removed and replaced by a -structure of iron, built and adjusted in such a manner as to secure -the best possible results. For some time it had been noticed that -the stone towers which supported the great cables of the bridge -showed evidences of disintegration at the surface, and a careful -engineering examination in 1885 showed that these towers were in -a really dangerous condition. The reason for this was that the -saddles over which the cables pass on the top of the towers had -not the freedom of motion which was required for the action of the -cables, caused by differences of temperature and by passing loads. -These saddles had been placed upon rollers but, at some period, -cement had been allowed to be put between these rollers, thus -preventing their free motion. The result was a bending strain upon -the towers which was too great for the strength and cohesion of -the stone. A most interesting and successful feat was accomplished -in the substitution of iron towers for these stone towers, without -interrupting the traffic across the bridge. This was accomplished -within a year or two by building a skeleton iron tower outside of -the stone tower, and transferring the cables from the stone to the -iron tower by a most ingenious arrangement of hydraulic jacks. -The stone towers were then removed. Thus, by the renewal of its -suspended structure and the replacing of its towers, the bridge has -been given a new lease of life and is in excellent condition to-day. - -[Illustration: The New Iron Towers of the Same.] - -This Niagara railway suspension bridge has been so long in -successful operation that it is difficult now to appreciate the -general disbelief in the possibility of its success as a railway -bridge, when it was undertaken. It was projected and executed -by the late John A. Roebling. Before it was finished, Robert -Stephenson said to him, "If your bridge succeeds, mine is a -magnificent blunder." The Niagara bridge did succeed. - -[Illustration: Below the Brooklyn Bridge. - -From a painting by J. H. Twachtman.] - -We are so familiar with the great suspension bridge between New -York and Brooklyn, that only a simple statement of some of -its characteristic features will be given. Its clear span is -1,595½ feet. With its approaches its length is 3,455 feet. The -clear waterway is 135 feet high. The towers rise 272 feet above -high water and extend on the New York side down to rock 78 feet -below. The four suspension cables are of steel wire and support -six parallel steel trusses, thus providing two carriage ways, two -lines of railway, and one elevated footway. The cables are carried -to bearing anchorages in New York and in Brooklyn. The cars on the -bridge are propelled by cables, and the amount of travel is now -so great as to demand some radical changes in the methods for its -accommodation, which a few years ago were supposed to be ample. - -Except under special circumstances of location or length of span, -the truss bridge is a more economical and suitable structure for -railway traffic than a suspension bridge. - -The advance from the wood truss to the modern steel structure has -been through a number of stages. Excellent bridges were built -in combinations of wood and iron, and are still advocated where -wood is inexpensive. Then came the use of cast iron for those -portions of the truss subject only to compressive strains, wrought -iron being used for all members liable to tension. Many bridges -of notable spans were built in this way and are still in use. -The form of this combination truss varied with the designs of -different engineers, and the spans extended to over three hundred -feet. The forms bore the names of the designers, and the Fink, the -Bollman, the Pratt, the Whipple, the Post, the Warren, and others -had each their advocates. The substitution of wrought for cast -iron followed, and until quite recently trusses built entirely of -wrought iron have been used for all structures of great span. The -latest step has been made in the use of steel, at first for special -members of a truss and latterly for the whole structure. The art -of railway bridge building has thus, in a comparatively few years, -passed through its age of wood, and then of iron, and now rests in -the application of steel in all its parts. - -Two distinct ways of connecting the different parts of a structure -are in common use, riveting and pin connections. - -In riveted connections the various parts of the bridge are fastened -at all junctions by overlapping the plates of iron or steel and -inserting rivets into holes punched through all the plates to be -connected. The rivets are so spaced as to insure the best result -as to strength. The pieces of metal are brought together, either -in the shop or at the structure during erection, and the rivets, -which are round pieces of metal with a head formed on one end, -are heated and inserted from one side, being made long enough to -project sufficiently to give the proper amount of metal for forming -the other head. This is done while the rivet is still hot, either -by hammering or by the application of a riveting machine, operated -by steam or hydraulic pressure. Ingenious portable machines are -now manufactured which are hung from the structure during erection -and connected by flexible hose with the steam power, by the use of -which the rivet heads can be formed in place with great celerity. -The connections of plates by rivets of proper dimensions and -properly spaced give great strength and stiffness to such joints. - -In pin connections the members of a structure are assembled at -points of junction and a large iron or steel pin inserted in -a pin-hole running through all the members. This pin is made -of such diameter as to withstand and properly transmit all the -strains brought upon it. Joints made with such pin connections -have flexibility, and the strains and stresses can be calculated -with great precision. Eye-bars are forged pieces of iron or steel, -generally flat, and enlarged at the ends so as to give a proper -amount of metal around the pin-hole or eye, formed in those ends. - -Structures connected by pins at their principal junctions have, of -course, many parts in which riveting must be used. - -The elements which are distinctively American in our railway -bridges are the concentration of material in few members and -the use of eye-bars and pin connections in place of riveted -connections. The riveted methods are, however, largely used in -connection with the American forms of truss construction. - -[Illustration: Truss Bridge of the Northern Pacific Railway over -the Missouri River at Bismarck, Dak.--Testing the central span.] - -An excellent example of an American railway truss bridge is shown -on the opposite page. This structure spans the Missouri River at -its crossing by the Northern Pacific Railroad. It has three through -spans of 400 feet each and two deck spans of 113 feet each. The -bottom chords of the long spans are 50 feet above high water, -which at this place is 1,636 feet above the level of the sea. The -foundations of the masonry piers were pneumatic caissons. The -trusses of the through spans, 400 feet long, are 50 feet deep and -22 feet between centres. They are divided into 16 panels of 25 feet -each. The truss is of the double system Whipple type, with inclined -end posts. The bridge is proportioned to carry a train weighing -2,000 pounds per lineal foot, preceded by two locomotives weighing -150,000 pounds in a length of 50 feet. The pins connecting the -members of the main truss are 5 inches in diameter. - -This bridge is a characteristic illustration of the latest type -of American methods. The extreme simplicity of its lines of -construction, the direct transfer of the strains arising from -loads, through the members, to and from the points where those -strains are concentrated in the pin connections at the ends of each -member, are apparent even to the untechnical eye. The apparent -lightness of construction arising from the concentration of the -material in so small a number of members, and the necessarily great -height of the truss, give a grace and elegance to the structure, -and suggest bold and fine development of the theories of mechanics. - -[Illustration: Curved Viaduct, Georgetown, Col.; the Union Pacific -crossing its own Line.] - -An interesting viaduct is shown in the above illustration, where -the railway crosses its own line on a curved truss. - -The truss bridges which have been mentioned as types of the modern -railway bridge are erected by the use of false works of timber, -placed generally upon piling or other suitable foundation, between -the piers or abutments, and made of sufficient strength to carry -each span of the permanent structure until it is completed and all -its parts connected, or, as is technically said, until the span -is swung. Then the false works are removed and the span is left -without intermediate support. But there are places where it would -be impossible or exceedingly expensive to erect any false works. A -structure over a valley of great depth, or over a river with very -rapid current, are instances of such a situation. - -A suspension bridge would solve the problem, but in many cases not -satisfactorily. The method adopted by Colonel C. Shaler Smith at -the Kentucky River Bridge [p. 55] shows ingenuity and boldness -worthy of special remark. The Cincinnati Southern Railroad had -here to cross a cañon 1,200 feet wide and 275 feet deep. The -river is subject to freshets every two months, with a range of 55 -feet and a known rise of 40 feet in a single night. Twenty years -before, the towers for a suspension bridge had been erected at -this point. The design adopted for the railroad bridge was based -upon the cantilever principle. The structure has three spans of -375 feet each, carrying a railway track at a height of 276 feet -above the bed of the river. At the time of its construction this -was the highest railway bridge in the world, and it is still the -highest structure of the kind with spans of over 60 feet in length. -The bridge is supported by the bluffs at its ends and by two -intermediate iron piers resting upon bases of stone masonry. Each -iron pier is 177 feet high, and consists of four legs, having a -base of 71½ × 28 feet, and terminating at its top in a turned pin -12 inches in diameter under each of the two trusses. Each iron pier -is a structure complete in itself, with provision for expansion and -contraction in each direction through double roller beds interposed -between it and the masonry, and is braced to withstand a gale of -wind that would blow a loaded freight-train bodily from the bridge. - -The trusses were commenced by anchoring them back to the old -towers, and were then built out as cantilevers from each bluff to -a distance of one-half the length of the side spans, and at this -point rested upon temporary wooden supports. Thence they were again -extended as cantilevers until the side spans were completed and -rested upon the iron piers. This cantilever principle is simply the -balancing of a portion of the structure on one side of a support by -the portion on the opposite side of the same support. Similarly the -halves of the middle span were built out from the piers, meeting -with exactness in mid-air. The temporary support used first at -the centre of one side span and then at the other, was the only -scaffolding used in erecting the structure, none whatever being -used for the middle span. - -When the junction was made at the centre of the middle span, the -trusses were continuous from bluff to bluff, and, had they been -left in this condition, would have been subjected to constantly -varying strains resulting from the rise and fall of the iron piers -due to thermal changes. This liability was obviated by cutting the -bottom chords of the side spans and converting them into sliding -joints at points 75 feet distant from the iron piers. This done, -the bridge consists of a continuous girder 525 feet long, covering -the middle span of 375 feet, and projecting as cantilevers for 75 -feet beyond each pier, each cantilever supporting one end of a -300-foot span, which completes the distance to the bluff on each -side. - -[Illustration: The Niagara Cantilever Bridge in Progress.] - -A most interesting example of cantilever construction is the -railway bridge built several years ago at Niagara, only a few rods -from the suspension bridge and a short distance below the great -falls. It is shown in the illustrations above and on page 91. The -floor of the bridge is 239 feet above the surface of the water, -which at that point has a velocity in the centre of 16½ miles per -hour and forms constant whirlpools and eddies near the shores. -The total length of the structure is 910 feet, and the clear span -over the river between the towers is 470 feet. The shore arms of -the cantilever, that is to say, those portions of the structure -which extend from the top of the bank to the top of the tower built -from the foot of the bank, are firmly anchored at their shore -ends to a pier built upon the solid rock. These shore-arms were -constructed on wooden false works, and serve as balancing weights -to the other or river arms of the lever, which project out over -the stream. These river-arms were built by the addition of metal, -piece by piece, the weight being always more than balanced by -the shore-arms. The separate members of the river-arms were run -out on the top of the completed part and then lowered from the -end by an overhanging travelling derrick, and fastened in place -by men working upon a platform suspended below. This work was -continued, piece by piece, until the river-arm of each cantilever -was complete, and the structure was then finished by connecting -these river-arms by a short truss suspended from them directly -over the centre of the stream. This whole structure was built in -eight months, and is an example both of a bold engineering work -and of the facility with which a pin-connected structure can be -erected. The materials are steel and iron. The prosecution of this -work by men suspended on a platform, hung by ropes from a skeleton -structure projecting, without apparent support, over the rushing -Niagara torrent, was always an interesting and really thrilling -spectacle. - -[Illustration: The Niagara Cantilever Bridge Completed.] - -The Lachine Bridge recently built over the St. Lawrence near -Montreal, illustrated below, has certain peculiar features. It has -a total length of 3,514 feet. The two channel spans are each 408 -feet in length and are through spans. The others are deck spans. -Through spans are those where the train passes between the side -trusses. Deck spans are those where the train passes over the top -of the structure. These two channel spans and the two spans next -them form cantilevers, and the channel spans were built out from -the central pier and from the adjacent flanking spans without the -use of false works in either channel. A novel method of passing -from the deck to the through spans has been used, by curving the -top and bottom chords of the channel spans to connect with the -chords of the flanking spans. The material is steel. - -[Illustration: The Lachine Bridge, on the Canadian Pacific Railway, -near Montreal, Canada.] - -This structure, light, airy, and graceful, forms a strong contrast -to the dark, heavy tube of the Victoria Bridge just below. - -The enormous cantilever Forth Bridge, with its two spans of 1,710 -feet each, is in steady progress of construction and will when -completed mark a long step in advance in the science of bridge -construction. - -Of entirely different design and principle from all these trusses -are the beautiful steel arches of the St. Louis Bridge [p. 95], the -great work of that remarkable genius, James B. Eads. This structure -spans the Mississippi at St. Louis. Difficult problems were -presented in the study of the design for a permanent bridge at that -point. The river is subject to great changes. The variation between -extreme low and high water has been over 41 feet. The current -runs from 2¾ to 8½ miles per hour. It holds always much matter -in suspension, but the amount so held varies greatly with the -velocity. The very bed of the river is really in constant motion. -Examination by Captain Eads in a diving-bell showed that there was -a moving current of sand at the bottom, of at least three feet in -depth. At low water, the velocity of the stream is small and the -bottom rises. When the velocity increases, a "scour" results and -the river-bed is deepened, sometimes with amazing rapidity. In -winter the river is closed by huge cakes of ice from the north, -which freeze together and form great fields of ice. - -It was decided to be necessary that the foundations should -go to rock, and they were so built. The general plan of the -superstructure, with all its details, was elaborated gradually and -carefully, and the result is a real feat of engineering. There are -three steel arches, the centre one having a span of 520 feet and -each side arch a span of 502 feet. Each span has four parallel -arches or ribs, and each arch is composed of two cylindrical steel -tubes, 18 inches in exterior diameter, one acting as the upper -and the other as the lower chord of the arch. The tubes are in -sections, each about twelve feet long, and connected by screw -joints. The thickness of the steel forming the tubes runs from -1-3/16 to 2-1/8 inches. These upper and lower tubes are parallel -and are 12 feet apart, connected by a single system of diagonal -bracing. The double tracks of the railroad run through the bridge -adjacent to the side arches at the elevation of the highest point -of the lower tube. The carriage road and footpaths extend the full -width of the bridge and are carried, by braced vertical posts, at -an elevation of twenty-three feet above the railroad. The clear -headway is 55 feet above ordinary high water. The approaches on -each side are masonry viaducts, and the railway connects with the -City Station by a tunnel nearly a mile in length. The illustration -shows vividly the method of erection of these great tubular ribs. -They were built out from each side of a pier, the weight on one -side acting as a counterpoise for the construction on the other -side of the pier. They were thus gradually and systematically -projected over the river, without support from below, till they met -at the middle of the span, when the last central connecting tube -was put in place by an ingenious mechanical arrangement, and the -arch became self-supporting. - -The double arch steel viaduct recently built over the Harlem Valley -in the city of New York [p. 97] has a marked difference from the -St. Louis arches in the method of construction of the ribs. These -are made up of immense voussoirs of plate steel, forming sections -somewhat analogous to the ring stones of a masonry arch. These -sections are built up in the form of great I beams, the top and -bottom of the I being made by a number of parallel steel plates -connected by angle pieces with the upright web, which is a single -piece of steel. The vertical height of the I is 13 feet. The span -of each of these arches is 510 feet. There are six such parallel -ribs in each span, connected with each other by bracing. These -great ribs rest upon steel pins of 18 inches diameter, placed at -the springing of the arch. The arches rise from massive masonry -piers, which extend up to the level of the floor of the bridge. -This floor is supported by vertical posts from the arches and is -a little above the highest point of the rib. It is 152 feet above -the surface of the river--having an elevation fifty feet greater -than the well-known High Bridge, which spans the same valley -within a quarter of a mile. The approaches to these steel arches -on each side are granite viaducts carried over a series of stone -arches. The whole structure forms a notable example of engineering -construction. It was finished within two years from the beginning -of work upon its foundations, the energy of its builders being -worthy of special commendation. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: The St. Louis Bridge during Construction.] - -[Illustration: The 510-feet Span Steel Arches of the New Harlem -River Bridge, New York, during construction.] - -In providing for the rapid transit of passengers in great -cities the two types of construction successfully adopted are -represented by the New York Elevated and the London Underground -railways. The New York Elevated is a continuous metal viaduct, -supported on columns varying in height so as to secure easy grades. -The details of construction differ greatly at various parts of the -elevated lines, those more recently built being able to carry much -heavier trains than the earlier portions. The roads have been very -successful in providing the facilities for transit so absolutely -necessary in New York. The citizens of that city are alive to the -present necessity of adding very soon to those facilities, and it -is now only a question of the best method to be adopted to secure -the largest results in a permanent manner. - -The London Underground road has also been very successful. Its -construction was a formidable undertaking. Its tunnels are not -only under streets but under heavy buildings. Its daily traffic is -enormous. The difficult question in its management is, as in all -long tunnels, that of ventilation, but modern science will surely -solve that, as it does so many other problems connected with the -active life of man. - -[Illustration: London Underground Railway Station.] - - * * * * * - -Many broad questions of general policy, and innumerable matters of -detail are involved in the development of railway engineering. In -the determination, for instance, of the location, the relations -of cost and construction to future business, the possibilities -of extensions and connections, the best points for settlements -and industrial enterprises, the merits and defects of alternative -routes must be weighed and decided. - -Where structures are to be built, the amount and delicacy of detail -requisite in their design and execution can hardly be described. -Final pressures upon foundations must be ascertained and provided -for. Accurate calculations of strains and stresses, involving -the application of difficult processes and mechanical theories, -must be made. The adjustment of every part must be secured with -reference to its future duty. Strength and safety must be assured -and economy not forgotten. Every contingency must, if possible, be -anticipated, while the emergencies which arise during every great -construction demand constant watchfulness and prompt and accurate -decision. - -The financial success of the largest enterprises rests upon -such practical application of theory and experience. Even more -weighty still is the fact that the safety of thousands of human -lives depends daily upon the permanency and stability of railway -structures. Such are some of the deep responsibilities which are -involved in the active work of the Civil Engineer. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[8] Reference is made to the substitution of locks in the Panama -Canal for the original project of a canal at the sea-level. - - - - -AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. - -BY M. N. FORNEY. - - The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in 1830--Evolution of the Car - from the Conestoga Wagon--Horatio Allen's Trial Trip--The - First Locomotive used in the United States--Peter Cooper's - Race with a Gray Horse--The "De Witt Clinton," "Planet," and - other Early Types of Locomotives--Equalizing Levers--How Steam - is Made and Controlled--The Boiler, Cylinder, Injector, and - Valve Gear--Regulation of the Capacity of a Locomotive to - Draw--Increase in the Number of Driving Wheels--Modern Types of - Locomotives--Variation in the Rate of Speed--The Appliances by - which an Engine is Governed--Round-houses and Shops--Development - of American Cars--An Illustration from Peter Parley--The Survival - of Stage Coach Bodies--Adoption of the Rectangular Shape--The - Origin of Eight-wheeled Cars--Improvement in Car Coupling--A - Uniform Type Recommended--The Making of Wheels--Relative Merits - of Cast and Wrought Iron, and Steel--The Allen Paper Wheel--Types - of Cars, with Size, Weight, and Price--The Car-Builder's - Dictionary--Statistical. - - -Among the readers of this volume there will be some who have -reached the summit of the "divide" which separates the spring -and summer of life from its autumn and winter, and whose first -information about railroads was received from Peter Parley's "First -Book of History," which was used as a schoolbook forty or fifty -years ago. In his chapter on Maryland, he says: - - But the most curious thing at Baltimore is the railroad. I must - tell you that there is a great trade between Baltimore and the - States west of the Alleghany Mountains. The western people buy a - great many goods at Baltimore, and send in return a great deal of - western produce. There is, therefore, a vast deal of travelling - back and forth, and hundreds of teams are constantly occupied in - transporting goods and produce to and from market.[9] - - Now, in order to carry on all this business more easily, the - people are building what is called a railroad. This consists of - iron bars laid along the ground, and made fast, so that carriages - with small wheels may run along upon them with facility. In this - way, one horse will be able to draw as much as ten horses on a - common road. A part of this railroad is already done, and if you - choose to take a ride upon it, you can do so. You will mount a - car something like a stage, and then you will be drawn along by - two horses, at the rate of twelve miles an hour. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Conestoga Wagon and Team. (From a recent -photograph.)] - -The picture reproduced below (Fig. 2) of a car drawn by horses -was given with the above description of the Baltimore & Ohio -Railroad. The mutilated copy of the book from which the engraving -and extract were copied does not give the date when it was written -or published. It was probably some time between the years 1830 and -1835. That the car shown in the engraving was evolved from the -Conestoga wagon is obvious from the illustrations. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, 1830-35.] - -This engraving and description, made for children, more than -fifty years ago, will give some idea of the state of the art of -railroading at that time; and it is a remarkable fact that the -present wonderful development and the improvements in railroads and -their equipments in this country have been made during the lives of -persons still living. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Boston & Worcester Railroad, 1835.] - -In the latter part of 1827, the Delaware & Hudson Canal Company -put the Carbondale Railroad under construction. The road extends -from the head of the Delaware & Hudson Canal at Honesdale, Pa., to -the coal mines belonging to the Delaware & Hudson Canal Company -at Carbondale, a distance of about sixteen miles. This line was -opened, probably in 1829, and was operated partly by stationary -engines, and partly by horses. The road is noted chiefly for being -the one on which a locomotive was first used in this country. This -was the "Stourbridge Lion," which was built in England under the -direction of Mr. Horatio Allen, who afterward was president of the -Novelty Works in New York, and who is still (1889) living near New -York at the ripe age of eighty-seven. Before the road was opened, -he had been a civil engineer on the Carbondale line. In 1828 Mr. -Allen went to England, the only place where a locomotive was then -in daily operation, to study the subject in all its practical -details. Before leaving this country he was intrusted by the -Delaware & Hudson Canal Company with the commission to have rails -made for that line, and to have three locomotives built on plans -to be decided by him when in England. This, it must be remembered, -was before the celebrated trial of the "Rocket" on the Liverpool -& Manchester Railway, which was not made until 1829. Previous to -that trial, it had not been decided what type of boiler was the -best for locomotives. The result of Mr. Allen's investigations was -to produce in his mind a decided confidence in the multitubular -boiler which is now universally used for locomotives. Other persons -of experience recommended a boiler with small riveted flues of as -small diameter as could be riveted. An order was therefore given -to Messrs. Foster, Rastrick & Co., at Stourbridge, for one engine -whose boiler was to have riveted flues of comparatively large -size, and another order was given to Messrs. Stephenson & Co., of -Newcastle-on-Tyne, for two locomotives with boilers having small -tubes. The engine built by Foster, Rastrick & Co. was named the -"Stourbridge Lion." It was sent to this country and was tried at -Honesdale, Pa., on August 9, 1829. On its trial trip it was managed -by Mr. Allen, to whom belongs the distinction of having run the -first locomotive that was ever used in this country. In 1884 he -wrote the following account of this trip: - - When the time came, and the steam was of the right pressure, - and all was ready, I took my position on the platform of the - locomotive alone, and with my hand on the throttle-valve handle - said: "If there is any danger in this ride it is not necessary - that the life and limbs of more than one should be subjected to - that danger." - - The locomotive, having no train behind it, answered at once to - the movement of the hand; ... soon the straight line was run - over, the curve was reached and passed before there was time - to think as to its not being passed safely, and soon I was - out of sight in the three miles' ride alone in the woods of - Pennsylvania. I had never run a locomotive nor any other engine - before; I have never run one since. - -[Illustration: Horatio Allen.] - -The two engines contracted for with Messrs. Stephenson & Co. were -made by them, and Mr. Allen has informed the writer that they were -built on substantially the same plans that were afterward embodied -in the famous "Rocket." They were shipped to New York and for a -time were stored in an iron warehouse on the east side of the city, -where they were exhibited to the public. They were never sent to -the Delaware & Hudson Canal Company's road, and it is not now known -whatever became of them. If they had been put to work on their -arrival here the use of engines of the "Rocket" type would have -been anticipated on this side the Atlantic. - -The first railroad which was undertaken for the transportation of -freight and passengers in this country, on a comprehensive scale, -was the Baltimore & Ohio. Its construction was begun in 1828. The -laying of rails was commenced in 1829, and in May, 1830, the first -section of fifteen miles from Baltimore to Ellicott's Mills was -opened. It was probably about this time that the animated sketch -of the car given by Peter Parley was made. From 1830 to 1835 many -lines were projected, and at the end of that year there were over a -thousand miles of road in use. - -Whether the motive power on these roads should be horses or steam -was for a long time an open question. The celebrated trial of -locomotives on the Liverpool & Manchester Railway, in England, was -made in 1829. Reports of these trials, and of the use of locomotive -engines on the Stockton & Darlington line, were published in this -country, and, as Mr. Charles Francis Adams says, "The country, -therefore, was not only ripe to accept the results of the Rainhill -contest, but it was anticipating them with eager hope." In 1829 Mr. -Horatio Allen, who had been in England the year before to learn all -that could then be learned about steam locomotion, reported to the -South Carolina Railway Company in favor of steam instead of horse -power for that line. The basis of that report, he says, "Was on the -broad ground that in the future there was no reason to expect any -material improvement in the breed of horses, while, in my judgment, -the man was not living who knew what the breed of locomotives was -to place at command." - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Peter Cooper's Locomotive, 1830.] - -As early as 1829 and 1830, Peter Cooper experimented with a little -locomotive on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad (Fig. 4). At a meeting -of the Master Mechanics' Association in New York, in 1875--at the -Institute which bears his name--he related with great glee how on -the trial trip he had beaten a gray horse, attached to another car. -The coincidence that one of Peter Parley's horses is a gray one -might lead to the inference that it was the same horse that Peter -Cooper beat, a deduction which perhaps has as sound a basis to rest -on as many historical conclusions of more importance. - -The undeveloped condition of the art of machine construction at -that time is indicated by the fact that the flues of the boiler of -this engine were made of gun-barrels, which were the only tubes -that could then be obtained for the purpose. The boiler itself is -described as about the size of a flour-barrel. The whole machine -was no larger than a hand-car of the present day. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.--"South Carolina," 1831, and Plan of its -Running Gear.] - -In the same year that Peter Cooper built his engine, the South -Carolina Railway Company had a locomotive, called the "Best -Friend," built at the West Point Foundry for its line. In 1831 -this company had another engine, the "South Carolina" (Fig. 5), -which was designed by Mr. Horatio Allen, built at the same shop. -It was remarkable in having eight wheels, which were arranged in -two trucks. One pair of driving-wheels, _D D_ and _D′ D′_, and a -pair of leading-wheels, _L L_ and _L′ L′_, were attached to frames, -_c d e f_ and _g h i j_, which were connected to the boiler by -kingbolts, _K K′_, about which the trucks could turn. Each pair of -driving-wheels had one cylinder, _C C′_. These were in the middle -of the engine and were connected to cranks on the axles _A_ and _B_. - -The "De Witt Clinton" (Fig. 6) was built for the Mohawk & Hudson -Railroad, and was the third locomotive made by the West Point -Foundry Association. The first excursion trip was made with -passengers from Albany to Schenectady, August 9, 1831. This is -the engine shown in the silhouette engraving of the "first[10] -railroad train in America" which in recent years has been so widely -distributed as an advertisement. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.--The "De Witt Clinton," 1831.] - -In 1831 the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Company offered a premium -of $4,000 "for the most approved engine which shall be delivered -for trial upon the road on or before the 1st of June, 1831; and -$3,500 for the engine which shall be adjudged the next best." The -requirements were as follows: - - The engine, when in operation, must not exceed three and one-half - tons weight, and must, on a level road, be capable of drawing day - by day fifteen tons, inclusive of the weight of wagons, fifteen - miles per hour. - -In pursuance of this call upon American genius, three locomotives -were produced, but only one of these was made to answer any -useful purpose. This engine, the "York," was built at York, Pa., -and was brought to Baltimore over the turnpike on wagons. It was -built by Davis & Gartner, and was designed by Phineas Davis, -of that firm, whose trade and business was that of a watch and -clock maker. After undergoing certain modifications, it was found -capable of performing what was required by the company. After -thoroughly testing this engine, Mr. Davis built others, which were -the progenitors of the "grasshopper" engines (Fig. 7) which were -used for so many years on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad. It is a -remarkable fact that three of these are still in use on that road, -and have been in continuous service for over fifty years. Probably -there is no locomotive in existence which has had so long an -_active_ life. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.--"Grasshopper" Locomotive. (From an old -photograph.)] - -In August, 1831, the locomotive "John Bull," which was built by -George & Robert Stephenson & Company, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, -was received in Philadelphia, for the Camden & Amboy Railroad & -Transportation Company. This is the old engine which was exhibited -by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company at the Centennial Exhibition -in 1876. After the arrival of the "John Bull" a very considerable -number of locomotives which were built by the Stephensons were -imported from England. Most of them were probably of what was known -as the "Planet" class (Fig. 8), which was a form of engine that -succeeded the famous "Rocket." - -The following quotation is from "The Early History of Locomotives -in this Country," issued by the Rogers Locomotive & Machine Works: - - These locomotives, which were imported from England, doubtless - to a very considerable extent, furnished the types and patterns - from which those which were afterward built here were fashioned. - But American designs very soon began to depart from their - British prototypes, and a process of adaptation to the existing - conditions of the railroads in this country followed, which - afterward "differentiated" the American locomotives more and more - from those built in Great Britain. A marked feature of difference - between American and English locomotives has been the use of a - "truck" under the former. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.--The "Planet."] - -In all of the locomotives which have been illustrated, excepting -the "South Carolina," the axles were held by the frames so that -the former were always parallel to each other. In going around -curves, therefore, there was somewhat the same difficulty that -there would be in turning a corner with an ordinary wagon if both -its axles were held parallel, and the front one could not turn on -the kingbolt. The plan of the wheels and running gear of the "South -Carolina" shows the position that they assumed on a curved track -(Fig. 5). It will be seen that, by reason of their connection to -the boiler by kingbolts, _K K′_, the two pairs of wheels could -adjust themselves to the curvature of the rails. This principle -was afterward applied to cars, and nearly all the rolling-stock in -this country is now constructed on this plan, which was proposed -by Mr. Allen in a report dated May 16, 1831, made to the South -Carolina Canal & Railroad Company; and an engine constructed on -this principle was completed the same year. - -In the latter part of the year 1831 the late John B. Jervis -invented what he called "a new plan of frame, with a -bearing-carriage for a locomotive engine," for the use of the -Mohawk & Hudson Railroad. Jervis's engine is shown by Figure 9. In -a letter published in the _American Railroad Journal_ of July 27, -1833, he described the objects aimed at in the use of the truck as -follows: - - The leading objects I had in view, in the general arrangement - of the plan of the engine, did not contemplate any improvement - in the power over those heretofore constructed by Stephenson & - Company,[11] but to make an engine that would be better adapted - to railroads of less strength than are common in England; that - would travel with more ease to itself and to the rail on curved - roads; that would be less affected by inequalities of the rail, - than is attained by the arrangement in the most approved engines. - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.--John B. Jervis's Locomotive, 1831, and Plan -of its Running Gear.] - -In Jervis's locomotive the main driving-axle, _A_, shown in the -plan of the wheels and running gear, was rigidly attached to the -engine-frame, _a b c d_, and only one truck, or "bearing-carriage," -_e f g h_, consisting of the two pairs of small wheels attached to -a frame, was used. This was connected to the main engine-frame by a -kingbolt, _K_, as in Allen's engine. - -The position of its wheels on a curve, and the capacity of the -truck, or "bearing-carriage," to adapt itself to the sinuosities of -the track are shown in the plan. The effectiveness of the single -truck for locomotives, in accomplishing what Mr. Jervis intended -it for, was at once recognized, and its almost general adoption on -American locomotives followed. - -In 1834, Ross Winans, of Baltimore, patented the application of the -principle which Mr. Allen had proposed and adopted for locomotives -"to passenger and other cars." He afterward brought a number of -actions at law against railroads for infringement of his patent, -which was a subject of legal controversy for twenty years. Winans -claimed that his invention originated as far back as 1831, and was -completed and reduced to practice in 1834. The dispute was finally -carried to the Supreme Court of the United States, and was decided -against the plaintiff, after an expenditure of as much as $200,000 -by both sides. It involved the principle on which nearly all cars -in this country are now and were then built; and, as one of the -counsel for the defendants has said, "It was at one time a question -of millions, to be assured by a verdict of a jury." - -In 1836, Henry R. Campbell, of Philadelphia, patented the use of -two pairs of driving-wheels and a truck, as shown in Figure 10. The -driving-wheels were coupled by rods, as may be seen below. This -plan has since been so generally adopted in this country that it -is now known as the "American type" of locomotive, and is the one -almost universally used here for passenger, and to a considerable -extent for freight, service. An example of a modern locomotive of -this type is represented by Figure 11. - -[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Campbell's Locomotive.] - -From these comparatively small beginnings, the magnificent -equipment of our railroads has grown. From Peter Cooper's -locomotive, which weighed less than a ton, with a boiler the -size of a flour-barrel, and which had difficulty in beating a -gray horse, we now have locomotives which will easily run sixty -and can exceed seventy miles an hour, and others which weigh -seventy-five tons and over. A comparison of the engraving of Peter -Cooper's engine with that of the modern standard express passenger -locomotive (Fig. 11) shows vividly the progress which has been made -since that first experiment was tried--little more than half a -century ago. In that period there have been many modifications in -the design of locomotives to adapt them to the changed conditions -of the various kinds of traffic of to-day. An express train -travelling at a high rate of speed requires a locomotive very -different from one which is designed for handling heavy freight -trains up steep mountain grades. A special class of engines is -built for light trains making frequent stops, as on the elevated -railroads in New York, and those provided for suburban traffic -(Fig. 12)--and still others for street railroads (Fig. 13), for -switching cars at stations (Fig. 14), etc. [Pp. 110 and 113]. The -process of differentiation has gone on until there are now as many -different kinds of these machines as there are breeds of dogs or -horses. - -[Illustration: Fig. 11.--A Typical American Passenger Locomotive.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Locomotive for Suburban Traffic. By the -Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Locomotive for Street Railway. By the -Baldwin Locomotive Works.] - -Nearly all the early locomotives had only four wheels. In some -cases one pair alone was used to drive the engine, and in others -the two pairs were coupled together, so that the adhesion of all -four could be utilized to draw loads. The four-wheeled type is -still used a great deal for moving cars at stations, and other -purposes where the speed is comparatively slow. But to run around -sharp curves the wheels of such engines must be placed near -together, just as they are under an ordinary street-car. This -makes the wheel-base very short, and such engines are therefore -very unsteady at high speeds, so that they are unsuited for any -excepting slow service. They have the advantage, though, that the -whole weight of the machine may be carried on the driving-wheels, -and can thus be useful for increasing their friction, or adhesion -to the rails. This gives such engines an advantage for starting and -moving heavy trains, at stations or elsewhere, which is the kind of -service in which they are usually employed. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Four-wheeled Switching Locomotive. By the -Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia.] - -If the front end of the engine is carried on a truck, as in -Campbell's plan (Fig. 10)--which is the one that has been very -generally adopted in this country--the wheel-base can be extended -and at the same time the front wheels can adjust themselves to -the curvature of the track. This gives the running-gear lateral -flexibility. But as the tractive power of a locomotive is dependent -upon the friction, or adhesion of the wheels to the rails, it is -of the utmost importance that the pressure of the wheels on the -rails should be uniform. For this reason the wheels must be able -to adjust themselves to the vertical as well as the horizontal -inequalities of the track. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Driving Wheels, Frames, Spurs, etc., of -American Locomotive.] - -Figure 15 shows the driving-wheels, axles, journal-boxes, and -part of the frame and springs of an American type of engine--the -circumference of the wheels only being shown. The axles _A A_ each -have journal-boxes or bearings, _B B_, in which they turn. These -boxes are held between the jaws _J J J J_ of the frames, and can -slide vertically in the spaces _c c c c_ between the jaws. The -frames are suspended on springs, _S S_, which bear on the boxes -_B B_. The vertical motion of the boxes and the flexibility of -the springs allow the wheels to adjust themselves to some extent -to the unevenness of the track. But, in order to distribute the -weight equally on the two wheels, the springs _S S_ on each side -of the engine are connected together by an equalizing lever, _E -E_. These levers each have a fulcrum, _F_, in the middle, and are -connected by iron straps or hangers, _h h_, to the springs. It is -evident that any strain or tension on one spring is transferred by -the equalizing lever to the other spring, and thus the weight is -equalized on both wheels. - -But to give perfect vertical adjustment of such an engine to the -track, still another provision must be made. Everyone has observed -that a three-legged stool will always stand firm on any surface, -no matter how irregular, but one with four legs will not. Now if -the back end of a locomotive should rest on the fulcrums of the -equalizing levers, as shown in Figure 15, and the front end should -rest on the two sides of the truck, it would be in the condition -of the four legged stool. Therefore, instead of resting on the two -sides of the truck, locomotives are made to bear on the centre of -it, so that they are carried on it and on the two fulcrums of the -equalizing levers, which gives the machine the adjustability due -to the three-legged principle. When more than four driving-wheels -are used the springs are connected together by equalizing levers, -as shown in Figure 29 (p. 124), which represents a consolidation -engine as it appears before the wheels are put under it. - -Having a vehicle which is adapted to running on a railroad track, -it remains to supply the motive power. This, in all but some very -few exceptional cases, is the expansive power of steam. What -the infant electricity has in store for us it would be rash to -predict, but for locomotives its steps have been thus far weak and -uncertain, and when we want a giant of steel or a race-horse of -iron our only sure reliance is steam. This is the breath of life -to the locomotive, which is inhaled and exhaled to and from the -cylinders, which act as lungs, while the boiler fulfils functions -analogous to the digestive organs of an animal. A locomotive is -as dependent on the action of its boiler for its capacity for -doing work as a human being on that of his stomach. The mechanical -appliances of the one and the mental and physical equipment of the -other are nugatory without a good digestive apparatus. - -[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Longitudinal Section of a Locomotive -Boiler. - -Fig. 17.--Transverse Section.] - -A locomotive boiler consists of a rectangular fireplace or -fire-box, as shown at _A_, in Figure 16, which is a longitudinal -section, and Figure 17 a transverse section through the fire-box. -The fire-box is connected with the smoke-box _B_ by a large number -of small tubes, _a a_, through which the smoke and products of -combustion pass from the fire-box to the smoke-box, and from the -latter they escape up the chimney _D_. The fire-box and tubes are -all surrounded with water, so that as much surface as possible is -exposed to the action of the fire. This is essential on account of -the large amount of water which must be evaporated in such boilers. -To create a strong draught, the steam which is exhausted from the -cylinders is discharged up the chimney through pipes, and escapes -at _e_. This produces a partial vacuum in the smoke-box, which -causes a current of air to flow through the fire on the grate, into -the fire-box, through the tubes, and thence to the smoke-box and up -the chimney. Probably many readers have noticed, that of late years -the smoke-boxes of locomotives have been extended forward in front -of the chimneys. This has been done to give room for deflectors -and wire netting inside to arrest sparks and cinders, which are -collected in the extended front and are removed by a door or spout, -_L_, below. - -[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Rudimentary Injector.] - -To get the water into the boiler against the pressure of steam a -very curious instrument, called an injector, has been devised. -Formerly force-pumps were used, but these are now being abandoned. -The illustration (Fig. 18) shows what may be called a rudimentary -injector. _B_ is a boiler and _E_ a conical tube open at its -lower end--and connected to a water-supply tank by a pipe, _C_. -A pipe, _A_, is connected with the steam-space of the boiler and -terminates in a contracted mouth, _F_, inside of the cone _E_. If -steam is admitted to _A_, it flows through the pipe and escapes at -_F_. In doing so it produces a partial vacuum in _E_, and water -is consequently drawn up the pipe _C_ from the tank. The current -of steam now carries with it the water, and they escape at _G_. -After flowing for a few seconds the water has a high velocity and -the steam, mingling with the water, is condensed. The momentum -of the water soon becomes sufficient to force the valve _H_ down -against the pressure below it, and the jet of water then flows -continuously into the boiler. A very curious phenomenon of this -somewhat mysterious instrument is that if steam of a low pressure -is taken from one boiler it will force water into another against a -higher pressure. Figure 19 is a section of an actual injector used -on locomotives. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Injector used on Locomotives.] - -Having explained how the steam is generated, it remains to show -how it propels a locomotive. It does this very much as a person on -a bicycle propels it--that is, by means of two cranks the wheels -are made to revolve, and the latter must then either slip or the -vehicle will move. In a locomotive the driving-wheels are turned -by means of two cylinders and pistons, which are connected by -rods to the cranks attached to the driving-wheels or axles. These -cranks are placed at right angles to each other, so that when one -of them is at the "dead-point" the piston connected with the other -can exert its maximum power to rotate the wheels. This enables the -locomotive to start with the pistons in any position; whereas, -if one cylinder only was used it would be impossible to turn the -wheels if the crank should stop at one of its dead-points. - -It will probably interest a good many readers to know how the -steam gets into the cylinders and moves the pistons and then gets -out again, and how a locomotive is made to run either backward or -forward at pleasure. - -Figure 20 (p. 118) shows a section of a cylinder, _A A′_, with -the piston _B_ and piston rod _R_. The cylinder has two passages, -_c c_ and _d d_, which connect its ends with a box, _U_, called a -steam-chest, to which steam is admitted from the boiler by a pipe, -_J_. The two passages _c_ and _d_ have another one, _g_, between -them, which is connected with the chimney. These passages are -covered by a slide-valve, _V_, which moves back and forth in the -steam-chest, alternately uncovering the openings _c_ and _d_. When -the valve is in the position shown in Figure 20, obviously steam -can flow into the front end _A_ of the cylinder through the passage -_c_, as indicated by the darts. The valve has a cavity, _H_, -underneath it. When this cavity is over the passage _d_ and _g_, -it is plain that the steam in the back end _A′_ of the cylinder -can flow through _d_ and _g_ and then escape up the chimney. Under -these circumstances the steam in the front end _A_ of the cylinder -will force the piston _B_ to the back end. When it reaches the back -end of the cylinder the valve is moved into the position shown in -Figure 21, and steam can then enter _d_ and will fill the back end -_A′_ while that in the front end escapes through _c_ and _g_. The -piston is then forced to the front end by the pressure of the steam -behind it. It will thus be seen that the steam enters and escapes -to and from the cylinder through the same openings. - -[Illustration: Figs. 20 (above) and 21.--Sections of a Locomotive -Cylinder.] - -From what has been said it is obvious, too, that every time the -piston moves from one end of the cylinder to the other the valve -must also be moved back and forth in the steam-chest. This is done -by what is called an eccentric. - -An "eccentric" is a disk or wheel (Fig. 22) with a hole, _S_, -the size of the axle of the locomotive to which it is attached. -The centre _n_ of the outside periphery of the eccentric is some -distance from _S_, the centre of the shaft. A metal ring, _K K_ -(Fig. 23), made in two halves, embraces the eccentric, and the -latter revolves inside of this ring. A rod, _L_, is attached to -the strap, and is connected with the valve so that the motion of -the eccentric is communicated to it. It is obvious that if the -eccentric revolves it will impart a reciprocating motion to the rod -_L_, which is communicated to the valve. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Eccentric. - -Fig. 23.--Eccentric and Strap.] - -If properly adjusted on the axle the eccentric will run the engine -in one direction. To run the opposite way another eccentric must -be provided. Therefore locomotives always have two eccentrics for -each cylinder. These, _J_ and _K_, are shown in Figure 24, which -represents the "valve-gear" of a locomotive. _S_ is a section of -the main driving-axle, to which the eccentrics are attached by -keys or screws. _C_ is the eccentric rod of the forward-motion -eccentric and _D_ that of the one for running backward. As a -locomotive must be run either backward or forward, and, as the -one eccentric moves the valve to run forward and the other to run -backward, we must be able to connect or disconnect the rods to and -from the valve at will. The eccentric rods of the early locomotives -had hooks on the ends by which they were attached to or detached -from suitable pins connected with the valves. But these hooks were -very uncertain in their action and therefore were abandoned, and -now what is known as the "link-motion" is almost universally used -for the valve-gear of locomotives. It consists of a "link" (_a b_, -Fig. 24) which has a curved opening or slot, _k_, in it in which -a block, _B_, fits accurately, so that it can slide from end to -end of the link. This block has a hole bored in the middle which -receives a pin, _c_, which is attached to the end of the arm _N_ -of the "rocker" _M O N_. The rocker has a shaft, _O_, which can -turn in a suitable bearing, and two arms, _M_ and _N_; the latter, -as explained, is connected to the link by the pin _c_ and block -_B_. The upper arm _M_ has another pin, _V_, on its end, which -is connected by a rod, _v V_, to the main slide-valve _V_. The -rocker-arms, as will be seen, can vibrate about the shaft _O_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 24.--Valve Gear.] - -The link is hung by a pendulous bar, _g h_, to the end _g_ of -the arm _E_, attached to the shaft _A_. This shaft has another -upright arm, _F_, which is connected by a rod or bar, _G G′_, to -a lever, _H I_, called a reverse lever, whose fulcrum is at _I_. -To save room, in the engraving this lever and the cylinder _G_ are -drawn nearer to the main axle _S_ than they would be on an engine. -The lever is located inside the cab of the locomotive, and is -indicated by the numbers 17 17′ in Figure 36 on p. 133, which is a -view looking from the tender at the back end of a locomotive. The -lever has a trigger (_t_, Fig. 24) which is connected by a rod, -_r_, to a latch, _l_, which engages in the notches of the sector _S -S′_. This latch holds the lever in any desired position and can be -disengaged from the notches by grasping the upper end of the lever -and the trigger. - -It is plain that, by moving the upper end of the reverse lever, the -link _a b_ can be raised up or lowered at will. When the link is -down, or in the position represented in the engraving, the forward -eccentric rod imparts its motion to the block _B_, pin _c_, and -thence to the rocker and valve, and the engine will run forward. -If, however, the reverse lever is thrown back into the position -indicated by the dotted line _J I_, the link would then be raised -up so that the end _e_ of the backward-motion rod would be opposite -to the block _B_ and pin _c_ and would communicate its motion to -the rocker and valve, and the wheels would then be turned backward -instead of forward. It will thus be seen how the movement of the -reverse lever effects the reversal of the engine. - -A locomotive is started by admitting steam to the cylinders by -means of what is called the "throttle-valve." This is usually -placed in the upper part of the boiler at _T_ (Fig. 16). The valve -is worked by a lever at _l_, which is also shown at 14, 14′ (Fig. -36). The steam is conveyed to the cylinders by a pipe (_s_, Fig. -16, p. 115). - -If steam is admitted to the cylinders and the wheels are turned, -one of two results must follow: either the locomotive will move -backward or forward according to the direction of revolution, or -the wheels will slip, as they often do, on the rails. That is, if -the resistance of the cars or train is less than the friction or -"adhesion" of the wheels on the rails, the engine and train will be -moved; if the adhesion is less than the resistance the wheels will -turn without moving the train. - -The capacity of a locomotive to draw loads is therefore dependent -on the adhesion, and this is in proportion to the weight or -pressure of the driving-wheels on the rails. The adhesion also -varies somewhat with the weather and the condition of the wheels -and rails. In ordinary weather it is equal to about one-fifth of -the weight which bears on the track; when perfectly dry, if the -rails are clean, it is about one-fourth, and with the rails sanded -about one-third. In damp or frosty weather the adhesion is often -considerably less than a fifth. - -[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Turning Locomotive Tires.] - -It would, then, seem as though all that is needed to increase the -capacity of a locomotive to draw loads would be to add to the -weight on its driving-wheels, and provide engine-power sufficient -to turn them--which is true. But it has been found that if the -weight on the wheels is excessive both the wheels and rails will be -injured. Even when they are all made of steel, they are crushed out -of shape or are rapidly worn if the loads are too great. The weight -which rails will carry without being injured depends somewhat on -their size or weight, but ordinarily from 12,000 to 16,000 pounds -per wheel is about the greatest load which they should carry. - -For these reasons, when the capacity of a locomotive must be -increased beyond a limit indicated by these data, one or more -additional pairs of driving-wheels must be used. Thus, if a more -powerful engine was required than that shown in Figure 14 (p. 113), -another pair of wheels would be added, as shown in Figures 26, -27, and 28. Or, if you wanted a more powerful engine than these, -still another pair of driving-wheels would be provided, as shown -in Figure 30. In this way the Mogul, ten-wheeled and consolidation -engines have been developed from that shown in Figure 14. The Mogul -locomotive (Fig. 27) has three pairs of driving-wheels, but only -one pair of truck-wheels. The engravings shown in Figures 30 and -31 represent consolidation and decapod types of engines which have -four and five pairs of driving-wheels. - -[Illustration: Fig. 26.--Six-wheeled Switching Locomotive. By the -Schenectady Locomotive Works.] - -From the illustrations, Figures 28, 30, and 31, it will be seen -that when so many wheels are used, even if they are of small -diameter, the wheel-base must necessarily be long, so that a limit -is very soon reached beyond which the number of driving-wheels -cannot be increased. - -Improvements in the processes of manufacturing steel, which -resulted in the general use of that material for rails and tires, -have made it possible to nearly double the weight which was carried -on each wheel when they were made of iron. The weight of rails has -also been very much increased since they were first made of steel. -Twenty or twenty-five years ago iron rails weighing 56 pounds per -yard were about the heaviest that were laid in this country. Now -steel rails weighing 72 pounds are commonly used, and some weighing -85 pounds have been laid on American roads, and others weighing 100 -pounds have been laid on the Continent of Europe. - -[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Mogul Locomotive. By the Schenectady -Locomotive Works.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 28.--Ten-wheeled Passenger Locomotive. By the -Schenectady Locomotive Works.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 29.--Consolidation Locomotive (unfinished).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Consolidation Locomotive. By the -Pennsylvania Railroad Company.] - -Of late years urban and suburban traffic has created a demand for -a class of locomotives especially adapted to that kind of service. -One of the conditions of that traffic is that trains must stop and -start often, and therefore, to "make fast time," it is essential -to start quickly. Few persons realize the great amount of force -which must be exerted to start any object suddenly. A cannon-ball, -for example, will fall through 16 feet in a second with no other -resistance than the atmosphere. The impelling force in that case -is the weight of the ball. If we want it to fall 32 feet during -the first second, the force exerted on it must be equal to double -its weight, and for higher speeds the increase of force must be in -the same proportion. This law applies to the movement of trains. -To start in half the time, double the force must be exerted. For -this reason, trains which start and stop often require engines -with a great deal of weight on the driving-wheels. In accordance -with these conditions a class of engines has been designed which -carry all, or nearly all, the weight of the boiler and machinery, -and sometimes the water and fuel, on the driving-wheels. For -suburban traffic, the speed between stops must often be quite -rapid, and consequently the engine must have a long wheel-base -for steadiness, as well as considerable weight on the wheels for -adhesion. Four-wheeled engines (Fig. 14) have all their weight on -the driving-wheels, but the wheel-base is short. - -[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Decapod Locomotive. By the Baldwin -Locomotive Works, Philadelphia.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 32.--"Forney" Tank Locomotive. By the Rogers -Locomotive and Machine Works, Paterson, N. J.] - -To combine the two features, engines have been built with the -driving-wheels and axles arranged as in Figure 32. The frames are -then extended backward, and the water-tank and fuel are placed -on top of the frames, and their weight is carried by a truck -underneath. This arrangement leaves the whole weight of the boiler -and machinery on the driving-wheels, and at the same time gives a -long wheel-base for steadiness. This plan of engine was patented -by the author of this article in 1866, and has come into very -general use--since the expiration of the patent. In some cases a -two-wheeled truck is added at the opposite end, as shown in Figure -33. For street railroads, in which the speed is necessarily slow, -engines such as Figure 13 (p. 110) are used. To hide the machine -from view, and also to give sufficient room inside, they are -enclosed in a cab large enough to cover the whole machine. - -The size and weight of locomotives have steadily been increased -ever since they were first used, and there is little reason for -thinking that they have yet reached a limit, although it seems -probable that some material change of design is impending which -will permit of better proportions of the parts or organs of the -larger sizes. The decapod engines built at the Baldwin Locomotive -Works, in Philadelphia, for the Northern Pacific Railroad, weigh -in working order 148,000 pounds. This gives a weight of 13,300 -pounds on each driving-wheel. Some ten-wheeled passenger engines, -built at the Schenectady Locomotive Works for the Michigan Central -Railroad, weigh 118,000 pounds, and have 15,666 pounds on each -driving-wheel. Some recent eight-wheeled passenger locomotives for -the New York, Lake Erie & Western Railroad weigh 115,000 pounds, -and have 19,500 pounds on each driving-wheel. At the Baldwin Works, -some "consolidation" engines have recently been built which are -still heavier than the decapod engines. - -The following table gives dimensions, weight, price, and price -per pound of locomotives at the present time. If we were to quote -them at 8 to 8¼ cents per pound for heavy engines and 9 to 22¼ for -smaller sizes, it would not be much out of the way. - -_Dimensions, Weights, and Approximate Prices of Locomotives._ - - ---------------+----------+--------+---------+----------+--------+------- - Type. |Cylinders.|Diameter|Weight of|Weight of | Approx-| Price - | | of |engine in|engine and| imate | per - | |driving-| working | tender | price.| pound. - | | wheel. | order, | without | | - | | |exclusive| water or | | - | | |of tender| fuel. | | - ---------------+----------+--------+---------+----------+--------+------- - |Diam. | Inches.| Pounds.| Pounds. | | Cents. - | Stroke. | | | | | - "American" | | | | | | - Passenger | 8 24 |62 to 68| 92,000 | 110,000 | $8,750 | 7.95 - | | | | | | - "Mogul" | | | | | | - Freight | 19 24 |50 to 56| 96,000 | 116,000 | 9,500 | 8.19 - | | | | | | - "Ten-wheel" | | | | | | - Freight | 19 24 | 0 to 58| 100,000 | 118,000 | 9,750 | 8.26 - | | | | | | - "Consolidation"| | | | | | - Freight | 20 24 | 50 | 120,000 | 132,000 | 10,500 | 7.95 - | | | | | | - "Decapod" | | | | | | - Freight | 22 26 | 46 | 150,000 | 165,000 | 13,250 | 8.03 - | | | | | | - Four-wheel Tank| | | | | | - Switching | 15 24 | 50 | 58,000 | 47,000 | 5,500 | 11.70 - | | | | | | - Six-wheel | | | | | | - Switching, | | | | | | - with tender| 18 24 | 50 | 84,000 | 98,000 | 8,500 | 8.89 - | | | | | | - "Forney" N.Y. | | | | | | - Elevated | 11 16 | 42 | 42,000 | 34,000 | 4,500 | 13.23 - | | | | | | - Street-car | | | | | $3,500 | 19.44 - Motor | | | | | to | to - Locomotive | 10 14 | 35 | 22,000 | 18,000 | $4,000 | 22.22 - | | | | | accord-| - | | | | | ing to | - | | | | | design.| - ---------------+----------+--------+---------+----------+--------+------- - -[Illustration: Fig. 33.--"Hudson" Tank Locomotive. By the Baldwin -Locomotive Works.] - -The speed of locomotives, however, has not increased with their -weight and size. There is a natural law which stands in the way -of this. If we double the weight on the driving-wheels, the -adhesion, and consequent capacity for drawing loads, is also -doubled. Reasoning in an analogous way, it might be said that if -we double the circumference of the wheels the distance that they -will travel in one revolution, and consequently the speed of the -engine, will be in like proportion. But, if this be done, it will -require twice as much power to turn the large wheels as was needed -for the small ones; and we then encounter the natural law that -the resistance increases as the square of the speed, and probably -at even a greater ratio at very high velocities. At 60 miles an -hour the resistance of a train is four times as great as it is at -30 miles. That is, the pull on the draw-bar of the engine must be -four times as great in the one case as it is in the other. But at -60 miles an hour this pull must be exerted for a given distance in -half the time that it is at 30 miles, so that the amount of power -exerted and steam generated in a given period of time must be eight -times as great in the one case as in the other. This means that -the capacity of the boiler, cylinders, and the other parts must -be greater, with a corresponding addition to the weight of the -machine. Obviously, if the weight per wheel is limited, we soon -reach a point at which the size of the driving-wheels and other -parts cannot be enlarged; which means that there is a certain -proportion of wheels, cylinders, and boiler which will give a -maximum speed. - -The relative speed of trains here and in Europe has been the -subject of a good deal of discussion and controversy. There appears -to be very little difference in the speed of the fastest trains -here and there; but there are more of them there than we have. From -48 to 53 miles an hour, including stops, is about the fastest time -made by our regular trains on the summer time-tables. - -When this rate of speed is compared with that of sixty or seventy -miles an hour, which is not infrequent for short distances, there -seems to be a great discrepancy. It must be kept in mind, though, -that these high rates of speed are attained under very favorable -conditions. That is, the track is straight and level, or perhaps -descending, and unobstructed. In ordinary traffic it is never -certain that the line is clear. A locomotive-runner must always -be on the look-out for obstructions. Trains, ordinary vehicles, -a fallen tree or rock, cows, and people may be in the way at -any moment. Let anyone imagine himself in responsible charge -of a locomotive and he will readily understand that, with the -slightest suspicion that the line is not clear, he would slacken -the speed as a precautionary measure. For this reason fast time -on a railroad depends as much on having a good signal system to -assure the locomotive-runners that the line is clear, as it does on -the locomotives. If he is always liable to encounter, and must be -on the look-out for, obstructions at frequent grade-crossings of -common roads, or if he is not certain whether the train in front of -him is out of his way or not, the locomotive-runner will be nervous -and be almost sure to lose time. If the speed is to be increased on -American railroads, the first steps should be to carry all streets -and common roads either over or under the lines, have the lines -well fenced, provide abundant side-tracks for trains, and adopt -efficient systems of signals so that locomotive-runners can know -whether the line is clear or not. - -In what may be called the period of adolescence of railroads there -was a very decided predilection on the part of locomotive engineers -for large driving-wheels. Figure 34 represents one of the engines -built as early as 1848 for the Camden & Amboy Railroad, with -driving wheels 8 feet in diameter. Other engines with 6 and 7 feet -wheels were not uncommon. In Europe many engines with very large -wheels were made and are still in use. Here, as well as there, -excessively large wheels have, however, been abandoned, and six -feet in diameter is now about the limit of their size in this -country. - -[Illustration: Fig. 34.--Camden & Amboy Locomotive, 1848.] - -So far as locomotives are concerned, fast time, especially with -heavy trains, is generally dependent more upon the supply of -steam than it is on the size of the wheels. Without steam to turn -them, big wheels are useless; but with an abundant supply there -is no difficulty in turning small wheels at a lively rate. Speed, -therefore, is to a great extent a question of boiler capacity, and -the general maxim has been formulated that "within the limits of -weight and space to which a locomotive boiler must be confined, -it cannot be made too big." But the maximum speed at which a -locomotive can run when an adequate supply of steam is provided -also depends on the perfection of the machinery. At 60 miles an -hour a driving-wheel 5½ feet in diameter revolves five times every -second. The reciprocating parts of each cylinder of a Pennsylvania -Railroad passenger engine, including one piston, piston-rod, -cross-head, and connecting rod, weigh about 650 pounds. These -parts must move back and forth a distance equal to the stroke, -usually two feet, every time the wheel revolves, or in a fifth of -a second. It starts from a state of rest at each end of the stroke -of the piston and must acquire a velocity of 32 feet per second, -in one-twentieth of a second, and must be brought to a state of -rest in the same period of time. A piston 18 inches in diameter -has an area of 254½ square inches. Steam of 150 pounds pressure -per square inch would therefore exert a force on the piston -equal to 38,175 pounds. This force is applied alternately on each -side of the piston, ten times in a second. The control of such -forces requires mechanism which works with the utmost precision -and with absolute certainty, and it is for this reason that the -speed and the economical working of a locomotive depend so much on -the proportions of the valves and the "valve-gear" by which the -"distribution" of steam in the cylinders is controlled. - -[Illustration: Fig. 35.--Interior of a Round-house.] - -The engraving (Fig. 36) on p. 133 represents the cab end of a -locomotive of the New York Central & Hudson River Railroad, looking -forward from the tender, and shows the attachments by which the -engineer works the engine.[12] This gives an idea of the number of -keys on which he has to play in running such a machine. There is -room here for little more than an enumeration of the parts which -are numbered: - - 1. Engine-bell rope. - - 2. Train-bell rope. - - 3. Train-bell or gong. - - 4. Lever for blowing whistle. - - 5. Steam-gauge to indicate pressure in boiler. - - 6. Steam-gauge lamp to illuminate face of gauge. - - 7. Pressure-gauge for air-brake; to show pressure in - air-reservoirs. - - 8. Valve to admit steam to air-brake pump. - - 9. Automatic lubricator for oiling main valves. - - 10. Cock for admitting steam to lubricator. - - 11. Handle for opening valves in sand-box to sand the rails. - - 12. Handle for opening the cocks which drain the water from the - cylinders. - - 13. Valve for admitting steam to the jets which force air into - the fire-box. - - 14, 14′. Throttle-valve lever. This is for opening the valve - which admits steam to the cylinders. - - 15. Sector by which the throttle-lever is held in any desired - position. - - 16. "Lazy-cock" handle. A "lazy-cock" is a valve which regulates - the water-supply to the pumps and is worked by this handle. - - 17, 17′. Reverse lever. - - 18. Reverse-lever sector. - - 19, 19′, 19″. Gauge-cocks for showing the height of the water - in the boiler; 19′ is a pipe for carrying away the water which - escapes when the gauge-cocks are opened. - - 20, 20. Oil-cups for oiling the cylinders.[13] - - 21. Handle for working steam-valve of injector. - - 22. Handle for controlling water-jet of the injector. - - 23. Handle for working water-valve of injector. - - 24. Oil-can shelf. - - 25. Handle for air-brake valve. - - 26. Valve for controlling air-brake. - - 27. Pipe for conducting air to brakes under the cars. - - 28. Pipe connected with air-reservoir. - - 29. Pipe-connection to air-pump. - - 30. Handle for working a valve which admits or shuts off the air - for driving-wheel brakes. - - 31. Valve for driving-wheel brakes. - - 32, 32′. Lever for moving a diaphragm in smoke-box, by which the - draught is regulated. - - 33. Handle for raising or lowering snow-scrapers in front of - truck-wheels. - - 34. Handle for opening cock on pump to show whether it is forcing - water into the boiler. - - 35. Lamp to light the water-gauge, 51, 51. - - 36. Air-hole for admitting air to fire-box. - - 37. Tallow-can for oiling cylinders. - - 38. Oil-can. - - 39. Shelf for warming oil-cans. - - 40. Furnace door. - - 41. Chain for opening and closing the furnace door. - - 42. Handles for opening dampers on the ash-pan. - - 43. Lubricator for air-pump. - - 44. Valve for admitting steam to the chimney to blow the fire - when the engine is standing still. - - 45. Valve for admitting steam to the train-pipes for warming the - cars. - - 46. Valve for reducing the pressure of the steam used for heating - cars. - - 47. Cock which admits steam to the pressure-gauge, 48. - - 48. Pressure-gauge which indicates the steam-pressure in heater - pipes. - - 49. Pipe for conducting steam to the train to heat the cars. - - 50. Cock for water-gauge, 51. - - 51, 51. Glass water-gauge to indicate the height of water in the - boiler. - - 52. Cock for blowing off impurities from the surface of the water - in the boiler. - -Besides being impressive as a triumph of human ingenuity, there -is much about the construction and working of locomotives which -is picturesque. A shop where they are constructed or repaired is -always of interest. An engine-house (Fig. 35) especially at night, -is full of weird suggestions and food for the imagination. - -[Illustration: Fig. 36.--Cab End of a Locomotive and its -Attachments.] - -Figure 37 (p. 135) is an illustration from a photograph taken in -the erecting shops of the Baldwin Locomotive Works in Philadelphia; -and Figure 38 (p. 137) is a view of a similar shop of the -Pennsylvania Railroad at Altoona, which suggests at a glance many -of the processes of construction which go on in these great works. -At Altoona are immense travelling cranes resting on brick arches -and spanning the shop from side to side. These are powerful enough -to take hold of the largest locomotive and lift it bodily from the -rails and transfer it laterally or longitudinally at will. A large -consolidation engine is shown in Figure 38, swung clear of the -rails, and in the act of being moved laterally. The hooks of the -crane are attached to heavy iron beams, from which the locomotive -is suspended by strong bars. Figure 39 (p. 138) is a view in the -blacksmiths' shop of the Baldwin Works, showing a steam hammer and -the operation of forging a locomotive frame. - -It is quite natural that the engineers, or "runners," as they -generally call themselves, who have the care of locomotives should -take a deep interest in and acquire a sort of attachment for them. -In the earlier days of railroading this was much more the case than -it is now. Then each locomotive had an individuality of its own. -It was rare that two engines were exactly alike. Nearly always -there was some difference in their proportions, or one engine had -some device in it which the other had not. Now, many locomotives -are made exactly alike, or as nearly so as the most improved -machinery will permit. There is nothing to distinguish the one -from the other. Therefore Bony Smith can claim no superiority for -his machine which Windy Brown has not the advantage of. In the -old days, too, each engine had its own runner and fireman, and it -seldom fell into the hands of anyone else, and those in charge -of it took as much pride in keeping it bright as the character -in "Pinafore" did "in polishing up the handle of the big front -door." On many roads--particularly the larger ones--engines are -not assigned to special men. The system of "first in first out" -has been adopted; that is, the engines are sent out in the order -in which they come in, and the men take whichever machine happens -to fall to their lot. This naturally results in a loss of personal -attachment to special engines. - -[Illustration: Fig. 37.--View In Locomotive Erecting Shop.] - -Every change in the construction, alteration in the proportions, or -addition to the attachments of locomotives is a subject of intense -interest to the men and a topic of endless discussion at all times -and places. The theories which are propounded, and the yarns which -are spun while sitting around hot stoves in round-houses, or -waiting for passing trains on side-tracks, would fill many books. -Jack never tires of telling what his engine did when "she was -going up Rattlesnake Grade," and Smoky Bill grows excited when he -describes how Ninety-six turned her wheels in making up forty-nine -minutes time in the down run with the "electric express." - -Locomotive engineers and firemen read with avidity everything which -is explanatory of the construction or working of locomotives, but -generally have a contempt for things which have no practical -bearing. They demand "lucidity" in what they read with as much -vehemence as Matthew Arnold did, and some editors and college -professors, whose writing and thinking are foggy, would be greatly -benefited by the criticisms of the Locomotive Brotherhood. - -[Illustration: Fig. 38.--Interior of Erecting Shop, Showing -Locomotive Lifted by Travelling Crane.] - -Much might be written about the duties of locomotive-runners and -firemen, and the qualifications required. It is the general opinion -of locomotive superintendents that it is not essential that the men -who run locomotives should be good mechanics. The best runners or -engineers are those who have been trained while young as firemen -on locomotives. Brunel, the distinguished civil engineer, said -that he never would trust himself to run a locomotive because he -was sure to think of some problem relating to his profession which -would distract his attention from the engine. It is probably a -similar reason which sometimes unfits good mechanics for being good -locomotive-runners. - -[Illustration: Fig. 39.--Forging a Locomotive Frame.] - -It will perhaps interest some readers to know how much fuel a -locomotive burns. This, of course, depends upon the quality of -fuel, work done, speed, and character of the road. With freight -trains consisting of as many cars as a heavy locomotive can draw -without difficulty, the consumption of coal will not exceed from -1 to 1½ pounds of coal per car per mile if the engine is carefully -managed. It takes from 15 to 20 pounds of coal per mile to move -an engine and tender alone, the consumption being dependent upon -the size of the engine, speed, grades, and number of stops. If -this amount of coal is allowed for the engine and tender, and the -balance that is consumed is divided among the cars, it will reduce -the quantity for hauling the cars alone to even less amounts than -those given above. In ordinary average practice the consumption -is from 3 to 5 pounds per freight-car per mile, without making -any allowance for the engine and tender. With passenger trains, -the cars of which are heavier and the speed higher, the coal -consumption is from 10 to 15 pounds per car per mile. A freight -locomotive with a train of 40 cars will burn 40 to 200 pounds of -coal per mile, the amount depending on the care with which it is -managed, quality of the coal, grades, speed, weather, and other -circumstances. - - -AMERICAN CARS. - -Peter Parley's illustration (p. 101) of the Baltimore & Ohio -Railroad represents one of the earliest passenger-cars used in -this country. The accuracy of the illustration may, however, be -questioned. Probably the artist depended upon his imagination and -memory somewhat when he drew it. The engraving below (Fig. 40) -is from a drawing made by the resident engineer of the Mohawk & -Hudson Railroad, and from which six coaches were made by James -Goold for the Mohawk & Hudson Railroad in 1831. It is an authentic -representation of the cars as made at that time. Other old prints -of railroad cars represent them as substantially stage-coach bodies -mounted on four car-wheels, as shown by Figure 41. The next step -in the development of cars was that of joining together several -coach-bodies. This form was continued after the double-truck system -was adopted, as shown by Figure 42, which represents an early -Baltimore & Ohio Railroad car, having three sections, united. It -was soon displaced by the rectangular body, as shown in Figure 43, -which is a reproduction from an old print. - -[Illustration: Fig. 40.--Mohawk & Hudson Car, 1831. (From the -original drawing by the resident engineer.) - -Fig. 41.--Early Car. (From an old print.)] - -[Illustration: Fig. 42.--Early Car on the Baltimore & Ohio -Railroad.] - -Figure 44 is an illustration of a car used for the transportation -of flour on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, while horses were -still used as the motive power. To show how nearly all progress -is a process of evolution, it was asserted, in one of the trials -of the validity of Winans' patent on eight-wheeled cars with two -trucks, that before the date of his patent it was a practice to -load firewood by connecting two such cars with long timbers, which -rested on bolsters attached by kingbolts to the cars. The wood -was loaded on top of these timbers, as shown in Figure 45. An old -car (Fig. 46), which antedated Winans' patent and was used at -the Quincy granite quarries for carrying large blocks of stone, -was also introduced as evidence for the defendants in that suit. -Although Winans was not able to establish the validity of his -patent on eight-wheeled cars with two trucks, he was undoubtedly -one of the first to put it into practical form, and did a great -deal to introduce the system. - -[Illustration: Fig. 43.--Early American Car, 1834.] - -The progress in the construction of cars has been fully as great -as in that of locomotives. If the old stage-coach bodies on wheels -are compared with a vestibule train of to-day the difference will -be very striking. Most of us who are no longer young can recall -the days when sleeping-cars were unknown, when a journey from an -Eastern city to Chicago meant forty-eight hours or more of sitting -erect in a car with thirty or more passengers, and an atmosphere -which was fetid. Happily those days are past, although the -improvement in the ventilation of cars has been very slow, and is -still very imperfect. - -[Illustration: Fig. 44.--Old Car for Carrying Flour on the -Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.] - -Improvement has also lagged in the matter of coupling cars. It -has been shown by statistics and calculations that some hundreds -of persons are killed and some thousands injured in this country -annually in coupling cars. The use of automatic coupling, by which -cars could be connected together without going between them, it -has been supposed, would greatly lessen, if it would not entirely -prevent, this fearful sacrifice of life and limb. To accomplish -this end, though, it is essential that some one form of coupler -shall be generally adopted by all railroads. One of the obstacles -in the way of this has been the mechanical difficulty of finding -a mechanism which will satisfactorily accomplish the purpose for -which it was intended. After thirty or forty years of invention -and experiment, no automatic coupler has been produced, which has -been approved by competent judges with a sufficient degree of -unanimity to justify its general adoption. The patents on that -class of inventions are numbered by thousands, so that it is no -light task to select the best one or even the best kind. Besides -this difficulty, there is the other equally formidable one of -inducing railroad men, of various degrees of knowledge, ignorance, -and prejudice regarding this subject, and who are scattered all -over the continent, to agree in adopting some one form or kind -of automatic coupler. Various cliques had also been organized -on different roads in the interest of some patents, and in such -cases argument and reason addressed to them were generally wasted. -Public indignation was, however, aroused; and the stimulus of -legislation in different States compelled railroad officers to -give serious attention to the subject. After devoting some years -to the investigation, the Master Car-Builders' Association--which -is composed of officers of railroad companies, who are in charge -of the construction and repair of cars on the different lines--has -recommended the adoption of a coupler of the type represented by -Figures 47 to 49, which has been already applied to many cars and -the indications are that it will be very generally adopted for -freight and probably for passenger cars. If it should be, it will -relieve railroad employees of the dangerous duty of going between -cars to couple them. Figure 47 shows a plan looking down on the -couplers with one of the latches, _A_, open; Figure 48 shows it -with the two couplers partly engaged; and Figure 49 shows them when -the coupling is completed. - -[Illustration: Fig. 45.--Old Car for Carrying Firewood on the -Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 46.--Old Car on the Quincy Granite Railroad.] - -One of the first problems which presented itself in the infancy of -railroads was how to keep the cars on the rails. - -Anyone who will stand close to a line of railroad when a train is -rushing by at a speed of forty, fifty, or sixty miles an hour must -wonder how the engine and cars are kept on the track; and even -those familiar with the construction of railroad machinery often -express astonishment that the flanges of the wheels, which are -merely projecting ribs about 1-1/8 inches deep and 1¼ inches thick, -are sufficient to resist the impetus and swaying of a locomotive or -car at full speed. The problem of the manufacture of wheels which -will resist this wear, and will not break, has occupied a great -deal of the attention of railroad managers and manufacturers. - -[Illustration: Fig. 47. - -Fig. 48. - -Fig. 49. - -Janney Car Coupler, showing the Process of Coupling.] - -Locomotive driving-wheels in this country are always made of -cast-iron, with steel tires which are heated and put on the wheels -and then cooled. They are thus contracted and "shrunk" on the -wheel. The tread, that is, the surface which bears on the rail, -and the flange of the tire are then turned off in a lathe, shown -in Figure 25, on p. 121, made especially for the purpose. For -engine-truck, tender, and car-wheels, until within a few years, -"chilled" cast-iron wheels have been used almost exclusively on -American railroads. If the tread and flange of a wheel were made -of ordinary cast-iron they would soon be worn out in service, as -such iron has ordinarily little capacity for resisting the wear -to which wheels are subjected. Some cast-iron, however, has the -singular property which causes it to assume a peculiar, hard -crystalline form if, when it is melted, it is allowed to cool and -solidify in contact with a cold iron mould. The iron which is thus -cooled quickly, or "chilled," becomes very hard, and resists wear -very much better than iron which is not chilled. Car-wheels which -are made of this material are therefore cast in what is called a -chill-mould. Figure 50 represents a section of such a mould and -flask in which wheels are cast. - -[Illustration: Fig. 50.--Mould and Flask in which Wheels are Cast.] - -_A A_ is the wheel, which is moulded in sand in the usual way. The -part _B B_ of the mould, which forms the rim or tread of the wheel, -consists of a heavy cast-iron ring. The melted iron is poured into -this mould and comes in contact with _B B_. This has the effect of -chilling the hot iron, as has been explained. In cooling, the wheel -contracts; and for that reason the part between the rim _C_ and -the hub _D_ is made of a curved form, as shown in the section, so -that if one part should cool more rapidly than another these parts -can yield sufficiently to permit contraction without straining any -portion of the wheels injuriously. For the same reason the ribs on -the back of the wheels, as shown in Figure 51, are also curved. -As an additional safeguard to the unequal contraction in cooling, -the wheels are taken out of the mould while they are red-hot, and -placed in ovens where they are allowed to remain several days so as -to cool very slowly. - -Figure 52, on p. 145, represents a section of the tread and flange -of a chilled wheel, showing the peculiar crystalline appearance of -the chilled iron. - -[Illustration: Fig. 51.--Cast-iron Car Wheels.] - -In making cast-iron wheels the quality of the iron used is of -the utmost importance. The difficulty in making good wheels lies -in the fact that most iron which is ductile and tough will not -chill, whereas hard white iron, which has the chilling property in -a very high degree, is brittle, and wheels which are made of it -are liable to break. There are some kinds of cast-iron produced -in this country which have the two qualities combined, in a very -remarkable degree; that is, they are ductile and tough, and will -also chill. Wheel-founders also mix different qualities of irons to -produce wheels with the required strength, and which will resist -wear; that is, they use a certain amount of hard white iron which -will chill, with that which is ductile and soft. By changing the -proportions, any required amount of chill can be produced. The -danger is that iron which has little strength or ductility will -be fortified with hard chilling iron, and a very weak wheel will -thus be the result. Thousands of such wheels have been bought and -used because they are cheap, and many lamentable accidents are -undoubtedly due to this cause. To guard against this, car-wheels -should always be subjected to rigid tests and inspection. - -In Europe wheels are made of wrought-iron, with tires which were -also made of the same material before the discovery of the improved -processes of manufacturing steel, but since then they have been -made of the latter material. Owing to the breakage of a great many -cast-iron wheels of poor quality, steel-tired wheels are now coming -into very general use on American roads under passenger-cars and -engines. A great variety of such wheels is now made. The "centres" -or parts inside the tires of some of them are cast-iron, and others -are wrought-iron constructed in various ways. - -[Illustration: Fig. 52.--Section of the Tread and Flange of a Car -Wheel.] - -What is known as the Allen paper wheel is used a great deal in this -country, especially under sleeping-cars. A section and front view -of one of these wheels is shown by Figure 53. It consists of a -cast-iron hub, _A_, which is bored out to fit the axle. An annular -disk, _B B_, is made of layers of paper-board glued together and -then subjected to an enormous pressure. The disk is then bored out -to fit the hub, and its circumference is turned off, and the tire -_C C_ is fitted to it. Two wrought-iron plates, _P P_, are then -placed on either side of it, and the disk, plates, tire, and hub -are all bolted together. The paper, it will be seen, bears the -weight which rests on the hub of the axle and the hub of the wheel. - -[Illustration: Fig. 53.--Allen Paper Car Wheel.] - -Steel tires have the advantage that when they become worn their -treads and flanges may be turned off anew, whereas chilled -cast-iron wheels are so hard that it is almost impossible to -cut them with any turning tool. For this reason machines have -been constructed for grinding the tread with a rapidly revolving -emery-wheel. In these the cast-iron wheel is made to turn slowly, -whereas the emery-wheel revolves very rapidly. The emery-wheel is -then brought close to the cast-iron wheel, so that as they revolve -the projections on the latter are cut away, and the tread is thus -reduced to a true circular form. These machines are much used for -"truing-up" wheels which have been made flat by sliding, owing to -the brakes being set too hard. - -It would require a separate article to give even a brief -description of the different kinds of cars which are now used. The -following list could be increased considerably if all the different -varieties were included. - - Baggage-car, - Boarding-car, - Box-car, - Buffet-car, - Caboose or conductor's car, - Cattle- or stock-car, - Coal-car, - Derrick-car, - Drawing-room car, - Drop-bottom car, - Dump-car, - Express-car, - Flat or platform car, - Gondola-car, - Hand-car, - Hay-car, - Hopper-bottom car, - Horse-car, - Hotel-car, - Inspection-car, - Lodging-car, - Mail-car, - Milk-car, - Oil-car, - Ore-car, - Palace-car, - Passenger-car, - Post-office car, - Push-car, - Postal-car, - Refrigerator-car, - Restaurant-car, - Sleeping-car, - Sweeping-car, - Tank-car, - Tip-car, - Tool or wrecking car, - Three-wheeled hand-car. - -The following table gives the size, weight, and price of cars at -the present time. The length given is the length over the bodies -not including the platforms. - - ------------------+-----------+------------------+-------------------- - | Length, | Weight, lbs. | Price. - | feet. | | - ------------------+-----------+------------------+-------------------- - Flat-car | 34 | 16,000 to 19,000 | $380 - ------------------+-----------+------------------+-------------------- - Box-car | 34 | 22,000 to 27,000 | $550 - Refrigerator-car | 30 to 34 | 28,000 to 34,000 | $800 to $1,100 - ------------------+-----------+------------------+-------------------- - Passenger-car | 50 to 52 | 45,000 to 60,000 | $4,400 to $5,000 - Drawing-room car | 50 to 65 | 70,000 to 80,000 | $10,000 to $20,000 - ------------------+-----------+------------------+-------------------- - Sleeping-car | 50 to 70 | 60,000 to 90,000 | $12,000 to $20,000 - Street-car | 16 | 5,000 to 6,000 | $800 to $1,200 - ------------------+-----------+------------------+-------------------- - -[Illustration: Fig. 54.--Modern Passenger-car and Frame.] - -Some years ago the master car-builders of the different railroads -experienced great difficulty in the transaction of their business -from the fact that there were no common names to designate the -parts of cars in different places in the country. What was known -by one name in Chicago had quite a different name in Pittsburg -or Boston. A committee was therefore appointed by the Master -Car-Builders' Association to make a dictionary of terms used -in car-construction and repairs. Such a dictionary has been -prepared, and is a book of 560 pages, and has over two thousand -illustrations. It has some peculiar features, one of which is -described as follows in the preface: "To supply the want which -demanded such a vocabulary, what might be called a double -dictionary is needed. Thus, supposing that a car-builder in -Chicago received an order for a 'journal-box'; by looking in an -alphabetical list of words he could readily find that term and -a description and definition of it. But suppose that he wanted -to order such castings from the shop in Albany, and did not know -their name; it would be impracticable for him to commence at A and -look through to Z, or until he found the proper term to designate -that part." To meet this difficulty the dictionary has very -copious illustrations in which the different parts of cars are -represented and numbered, and the names of the parts designated by -the numbers are then given in a list accompanying the engraving. An -alphabetical list of names and definitions is also given, as in an -ordinary dictionary. The definition usually contains a reference to -a number and a figure in which the object described is illustrated. -In making the dictionary the compilers selected terms from those -in use, where appropriate ones could be found. In other cases -new names were devised. The book is a curious illustration of a -more rapid growth of an art than of the language by which it is -described. - -The following table, compiled from "Poor's Manual of Railroads," -gives the number of locomotives and of different kinds of cars in -this country, beginning with 1876, and for each year thereafter. If -the average length of locomotives and tenders is taken at 50 feet, -those now owned by the railroads would make a continuous train 280 -miles long; and the 1,033,368 cars, if they average 35 feet in -length, would form a train which would be more than 6,800 miles -long. - - -_Statement of the Rolling Stock of Railroads in the United States; -from "Poor's Manual" for 1889._ - - -----+---------+------------++----------------------+---------+--------- - | | || Passenger-train cars.| | - Year.|Miles of |Locomotives.|+----------+-----------+ Freight | Total. - |railroad.| ||Passenger.| Baggage, | cars. | - | | || | mail, and | | - | | || | Express. | | - -----+---------+------------++----------+-----------+---------+--------- - 1876 | 76,305 | 14,562 || -- | -- | 358,101| 358,101 - 1877 | 79,208 | 15,911 || 12,053 | 3,854 | 392,175| 408,082 - 1878 | 80,832 | 16,445 || 11,683 | 4,413 | 423,013| 439,109 - 1879 | 84,393 | 17,084 || 12,009 | 4,519 | 480,190| 496,718 - 1880 | 92,147 | 17,949 || 12,789 | 4,786 | 539,255| 556,930 - 1881 | 103,530 | 20,116 || 14,548 | 4,976 | 648,295| 667,819 - 1882 | 114,461 | 22,114 || 15,551 | 5,566 | 730,451| 751,568 - 1883 | 120,552 | 23,623 || 16,889 | 5,848 | 778,663| 801,400 - 1884 | 125,152 | 24,587 || 17,303 | 5,911 | 798,399| 821,613 - 1885 | 127,729 | 25,937 || 17,290 | 6,044 | 805,519| 828,853 - 1886 | 133,606 | 26,415 || 19,252 | 6,325 | 845,914| 871,491 - 1887 | 147,999 | 27,643 || 20,457 | 6,554 | 950,887| 977,898 - 1888 | 154,276 | 29,398 || 21,425 | 6,827 |1,005,116|1,033,368 - -----+---------+------------++----------+-----------+---------+--------- - -The number of cars, it will be seen, has more than doubled in ten -years, so that if the same rate of increase continues for the next -decade there will be over two millions of them on the railroads of -this country alone. Beyond a certain point, numbers convey little -idea of magnitude. Our railroad system and its equipment seem to -be rapidly outgrowing the capacity of the human imagination to -realize their extent. What it will be with another half-century of -development it is impossible even to imagine. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[9] An engraving of a team and of a "Conestoga" wagon--which was -used in this traffic--taken from a photograph of one which has -survived to the present day, is given opposite (Fig. 1). - -[10] It was not really the first train, as the Baltimore & Ohio and -the South Carolina roads were in operation earlier. - -[11] The truck was first applied by Mr. Jervis to an engine built -by R. Stephenson & Co., of England. - -[12] It should be mentioned that this is not one of the most recent -types of engines. The arrangement of parts in the cab has been -somewhat simplified in later locomotives. - -[13] This engine had two different appliances for oiling the -cylinders, a pair of oil-cups, 20, 20, and an automatic oiler, 9. - - - - -RAILWAY MANAGEMENT. - -BY E. P. ALEXANDER. - - Relations of Railway Management to all Other Pursuits--Developed - by the Necessities of a Complex Industrial Life--How a Continuous - Life is Given to a Corporation--Its Artificial Memory--Main - Divisions of Railway Management--The Executive and Legislative - Powers--The Purchasing and Supply Departments--Importance of - the Legal Department--How the Roadway is Kept in Repair--The - Maintenance of Rolling Stock--Schedule-making--The Handling - of Extra Trains--Duties of the Train-despatcher--Accidents - in Spite of Precautions--Daily Distribution of Cars--How - Business is Secured and Rates are Fixed--The Interstate - Commerce Law--The Questions of "Long and Short Hauls" and - "Differentials"--Classification of Freight--Regulation of - Passenger-rates--Work of Soliciting Agents--The Collection of - Revenue and Statistics--What is a Way-bill--How Disbursements are - Made--The Social and Industrial Problem which Confronts Railway - Corporations. - - -The world was born again with the building of the first locomotive -and the laying of the first level iron roadway. The energies and -activities, the powers and possibilities then developed have -acted and reacted in every sphere of life--social, industrial, -and political--until human progress, after smouldering like a -spark for a thousand years, has burst into a conflagration which -will soon leave small trace of the life and customs, or even the -modes of thought, which our fathers knew. But, in it all, the -railroad remains the most potent factor in every development. By -bringing men more and more closely together, and supplying them -more and more abundantly and cheaply with all the varied treasures -of the earth, stored up for millions of years for the coming of -this generation, it adds continually more fuel to the flame it -originated. And as it is necessarily reacted upon equally by -every new invention or discovery, and by all progress in other -departments of human activity, the demands upon it, and its points -of contact with everyday life, are still increasing in geometrical -progression. - -Hence, in the practical management of railroad affairs, problems -are of constant occurrence which touch almost every pursuit to -which men give themselves, whether of finance, agriculture, -commerce, manufactures, science, or politics; and the methods, -forms, and principles under which current railroad management is -being developed (for it is by no means at a stand-still) are the -result of the necessities imposed by these multiplying problems -acting within the constraints of corporate existences. - -For while the life of a corporation is perpetual, its powers are -constrained, and the individuals exercising them are constantly -changing. It is but an artificial individual existing for certain -purposes only, and, as it lacks some human qualities, all its -methods of doing business are influenced thereby. The business -affairs of an individual, for instance, are greatly simplified -by his memory of his transactions from day to day and from year -to year. But a corporation having no natural memory, all of its -transactions and relations must be minutely and systematically -noted in its archives. Every contract and obligation must be -of record, all property bought or constructed must go upon the -books, and, when expended or used up, must go off in due form; and -especially must an accurate system of checks guard all earnings -and expenditures, and a comprehensive system of book-keeping -consolidate innumerable transactions into the great variety of -boiled-down figures and statistics necessary for officers and -stockholders to fully understand what the property is doing. - -Under such circumstances, then, our railroads and their systems of -organization and management, like the Darwinian Topsy, have not -"been made" but have "growed." - -Naturally, both the direction and extent of the development have -varied in different localities and under different conditions. -Within the limits of this article it would be impossible to -give anything like an exhaustive or complete account of the -organization, distribution of duties, systems of working, and of -checks in the various departments of even a single road. Most roads -publish more or less elaborate small volumes of regulations on such -subjects for the use of their various employees. The task would -also be endless to describe technically the variations of practice -and of nomenclature in different sections and on different systems. -The shades of difference, too, between managers, superintendents, -or masters; comptrollers, auditors, book-keepers, and accountants; -secretaries, cashiers, treasurers, and paymasters in different -localities would be tedious to draw. A technical account of them -would be almost a reproduction of the volumes above-mentioned. I -can only attempt to outline and illustrate very briefly the general -principles which underlie the present practice, and are more or -less elaborated as circumstances may require. - -The principal duties connected with the management of a railroad -may be classified as follows: - -1. The physical care of the property. - -2. The handling of the trains. - -3. The making rates and soliciting business. - -4. The collection of revenue and keeping statistics. - -5. The custody and disbursement of revenue. - -The president is, of course, the executive head of the company, but -in important matters he acts only with the consent and approval -of the Board of Directors, or of an executive committee clothed -with authority of the board, which may be called the legislative -branch of the management. More or less of the executive power -and supervision of the president may be delegated to one or more -vice-presidents. Often all of it but that relating to financial -matters is so delegated, but, as their functions are subdivisions -of those of the president, they have no essential part in a general -scheme of authority. - -Of the five subdivisions of duties indicated above, the first -four are usually confided to a general manager, who may also be -a vice-president, and the fifth is in charge of a treasurer, -reporting directly to the president. - -The special departments under charge of the general manager are -each officered by trained experts: - -A superintendent of roadway or chief engineer has charge of the -maintenance of the track, bridges, and buildings. - -A superintendent of machinery has charge of the construction and -maintenance of all rolling stock. - -A superintendent of transportation makes all schedules, and has -charge of all movements of trains. - -A car accountant keeps record of the location, whereabout, and -movements of all cars. - -A traffic manager has charge of passenger and freight rates, and -all advertising and soliciting for business. - -A comptroller has charge of all the book-keeping by which the -revenue of the company is collected and accounted for. All -statistics are generally prepared in his office. - -A paymaster receives money from the treasurer and disburses, under -the direction of the comptroller, for all expenses of operation. - -All dividend and interest payments are made by the treasurer, under -direction of the president and board. - -There are, besides the above, two general departments with which -all the rest have to do, to a greater or less extent--the legal -department and the purchasing department. The quantity and variety -of articles used and consumed in the operation of a railroad are -so great that it is a measure of much economy to concentrate all -purchases into the hands of a single purchasing agent, rather -than to allow each department to purchase for itself. This agent -has nothing to do but to study prices and markets. His pride is -enlisted in getting the lowest figures for his road, and the large -amount of his purchases enables him to secure the best rates. And -last, but not least, in matters where dishonesty would find so -great opportunities, it is safer to concentrate responsibility than -to diffuse it. - -As I shall not again refer to this department, what remains of -interest for me to say about it will be said here. As an adjunct to -it, storehouses are established at central points in which stocks -of articles in ordinary use are kept on hand. Whenever supplies are -wanted in any other department--as, for instance, a bell-cord and -lantern by a conductor--requisitions are presented, approved by a -designated superior. These requisitions state whether the articles -are to be charged to legitimate wear and tear, and if so, whether -to the passenger or the freight service, and of which subdivision -of the road; or whether they are to be charged to the conductor -for other articles not properly accounted for. Without going -into further detail, it can be readily seen how the comptroller's -office can, at the end of each month, from these requisitions, -have a complete check upon all persons responsible for the care -of property. The purchasing agent, too, from his familiarity with -prices, is usually charged with the sale of all condemned and -worn-out material.[14] - -Before returning to a more detailed review of the operating -departments of a railroad, its legal department requires a few -words. Not only is a railroad corporation, being itself a creation -of the law, peculiarly bound to conform all its actions to legal -forms and tenets, but it is also a favorite target for litigation. -The popular prejudice against corporations, it may be said in -passing, is utterly illogical. The corporation is the poor man's -opportunity. Without it he could never share in the gains and -advantages open to capital in large sums. With it a thousand men, -contributing a thousand dollars each, compete on equal terms with -the millionaire. Its doors are always open to any who may wish to -share its privileges or its prosperity, and no man is denied equal -participation according to his means and inclinations. It is the -greatest "anti-poverty" invention which has ever been produced, -and the most democratic. But, for all that, instead of possessing -the unbounded power usually ascribed to it, no creature of God or -man is so helpless as a corporation before the so-called great -tribunal of justice, the American jury. It may not be literally -true that a Texas jury gave damages to a tramp against a certain -railroad because a section-master's wife gave him a meal which -disagreed with him, but the story can be nearly paralleled from -the experience of many railroads. Hence settlements outside of the -law are always preferred where they are at all possible, and an -essential part of an efficient legal organization is a suitable -man always ready to repair promptly to the scene of any loss or -accident, to examine the circumstances with the eye of a legal -expert on liabilities. - -But the management of claims, and of loss and damage suits, though -a large part, is by no means all of the legal business connected -with a railroad. Every contract or agreement should pass under -scrutiny of counsel, and in the preparation of the various forms -of bonds, mortgages, debentures, preferred stocks, etc., which -the wants of the day have brought forth, the highest legal talent -finds employment. For, as development has multiplied the types of -cars and engines to meet special wants, so have a great variety -of securities been developed to meet the taste and prejudices of -investors of all nations. There is, in fact, a certain fashion in -the forms of bonds, and the conditions incorporated in mortgages, -which has to be observed to adapt any bond to its proposed market. - -[Illustration: (Ploughing snow.)] - -We shall now return to the operating departments under their -respective heads, and glance briefly at the methods and detail -pursued in each. On roads of large mileage the general manager -is assisted by general or division superintendents in charge -of roadway, motive power, and trains of one or more separate -divisions; but for our purposes we may consider the different -departments without reference to these superintendents. - -[Illustration: (Ploughing snow.)] - -The superintendent of roadway or chief engineer comes first, -having charge of track, bridges, and buildings. In his office are -collected maps of all important stations and junction points, -kept up to date with changes and additions; scale drawings of all -bridges and trestles, of all standard depots, tanks, switches, -rails, fastenings, signals, and everything necessary to secure -uniformity of patterns and practice over the entire road. Under -him are supervisors of bridges and supervisors of road, each -assigned to a certain territory. The supervisors of bridges make -frequent and minute examinations of every piece or member of every -bridge and trestle, report in advance all the repairs that become -necessary, and make requisition for the material needed. - -[Illustration: A Type of Snow-plough.] - -Under the bridge supervisor are organized "bridge gangs," each -consisting of a competent foreman with carpenters and laborers -skilled in bridge work and living in "house" or "boarding" cars, -and provided with pile-drivers, derricks, and all appliances for -handling heavy timbers and erecting, tearing down, and repairing -bridges. These cars form a movable camp, going from place to place -as needed, and being side-tracked as near as possible to the work -of the gang. Long experience begets great skill in their special -duties, and the feats which these gangs will perform are often more -wonderful than many of the more showy performances of railroad -engineering. It is an every-day thing with such gangs to take -down an old wooden structure, and erect in its place an iron one, -perhaps with the track raised several feet above the level of the -original, while fifty trains pass every day, not one of which will -be delayed for a moment. - -[Illustration: A Rotary Steam Snow-shovel in Operation. - -(From an instantaneous photograph.)] - -Each of the supervisors of road has his assigned territory -divided into "sections," from five to eight miles in length. -At a suitable place on each section are erected houses for a -resident section-master and from six to twelve hands. These are -provided with hand- and push-cars, and spend their whole time in -keeping their sections in good condition. Upon many roads annual -inspections are made and prizes offered for the best sections. At -least twice a day track-walkers from the section-gangs pass over -the entire line of road. To simplify reports and instructions, -frequently every bridge or opening in the track is numbered, and -the number displayed upon it; and every curve is also posted with -its degree of curvature and the proper elevation to be given to the -outer rail. - -The work of the section-men is all done under regular system. In -the spring construction-trains deliver and distribute ties and -rails on each section, upon requisitions from supervisors. Then the -section-force goes over its line from end to end, putting in first -the new ties and then the new rails needed. Next the track is gone -over with minute care and re-lined, re-surfaced, and re-ballasted, -to repair the damages of frost and wet, the great enemies of a -road-bed. Then ditches, grass, and the right-of-way have attention. -These processes are continually repeated, and especially in the -fall in preparation for winter. During the winter as little -disturbance of track is made as possible, but ditches are kept -clean, and low joints are raised by "shims" on top of joint ties. -Essential parts of the equipment of any large road are snow-ploughs -(pp. 154-5-6) and wrecking cars, with powerful derricks and other -appliances for clearing obstructions. When wrecks or blockades -occur these cars, with extra engines, section-hands, bridge gangs, -and construction-trains, are rushed to the spot, and everything -yields to the work of getting the road clear. - -[Illustration: Railway-crossing Gate.] - -We come next to the superintendent of machinery, whose duty it is -to provide and maintain locomotives and cars of all kinds to handle -the company's traffic. His department is subdivided between a -master mechanic, in charge of locomotives and machine-shops, and a -master car-builder, in charge of car-shops. - -The master mechanic selects and immediately controls all -engine-runners and firemen, and keeps performance sheets of all -locomotives, showing miles run, cars hauled, wages paid, coal and -oil consumed, and other details giving results accomplished by -different runners and firemen, and by different types of engine, -or on different divisions or roads. Premiums are often paid the -runners and firemen accomplishing the best results. - -_Report of Performance of Engines, Repairs, and all other Costs -Incident thereto, for the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1888._ - - [Key for column headings. Column A has been repeated in each Part.] - - A. Number of Engine. - B. Passenger - C. Freight. - D. Gravel or Construction. - E. Switching. - F. Total. - G. Eighth Cords of wood. - H. Bushels Coal. - I. Cost of Fuel. - - [Table--Part 1 of 4] - --+----------------------------------------+------------------------- - | MILES RUN. | FUEL. - +-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+----+--------+----------- - A.| B. | C. | D. | E. | F. | G. | H. | I. - --+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+----+--------+----------- - 1| --| 12,084| 4,253| 64| 16,401| 118| 10,699| $1,090 25 - 2| --| 2,672| 11,779| 954| 15,405| 193| 10,913| 1,131 77 - 3| 5,402| 14,471| 408| 120| 20,407| 189| 10,590| 1,101 08 - 4| 28,643| 4,168| --| --| 32,811| 297| 11,875| 1,212 20 - 5| 28,275| 4,490| --| 72| 32,837| 301| 12,961| 1,335 31 - 6| --| --| --| 32,370| 32,370| 33| 10,360| 1,042 26 - 8| 3,229| 11,799| 4,779| --| 19,807| 150| 13,233| 1,356 30 - 9| 1,050| 23,203| --| --| 24,253| 155| 16,344| 1,663 41 - 10| 874| 24,729| --| 96| 25,699| 158| 17,039| 1,741 67 - 11| --| --| --| 23,609| 23,609| 205| 7,661| 811 00 - 12| 1,527| --| 4,369| 12,060| 17,956| 142| 8,875| 918 75 - 30| 41,345| --| --| --| 41,345| 237| 17,702| 1,821 37 - 31| 37,450| --| --| --| 37,450| 215| 16,695| 1,716 56 - 32| 4,233| 13,516| --| 120| 17,869| 115| 10,918| 1,117 10 - 34| 13,742| 5,217| --| 1,224| 20,183| 149| 6,691| 704 07 - --+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+----+--------+------------ - |165,770|116,349| 25,588| 70,695| 378,402|2657| 182,556| $18,768 13 - --+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+----+--------+------------ - - - A. Number of Engine. - J. Gallons of Engine Oil. - K. Signal Oil. - L. Head-Light Oil. - M. Lbs. of Cyl. Oil. - N. Car Grease. - O. Waste. - P. Packing. - Q. Gallons Kerosene. - - [Table--Part 2 of 4] - --+---------------------------------------------------------------- - | OIL, WASTE AND OTHER STORES. - +---------+--------+--------+----------+-----+-----+---------+--- - A.| J. | K. | L. | M. | N. | O. | P. | Q. - --+---------+--------+--------+----------+-----+-----+---------+--- - 1| 124 | 10 | 29 | 59½ | 45| 347| 72 | -- - 2| 121½ | 13½ | 35½ | 69½ | 69| 466| 102 | 2 - 3| 132½ | 10½ | 38 | 74½ | 69| 350| 61 | -- - 4| 258 | 14 | 49 | 125 | 106| 659| 76 | -- - 5| 256 | 12 | 39 | 99½ | 75| 622| 82½ | -- - 6| 30½ | 12½ | 188½ | 111¼ | --| 298| 160½ | -- - 8| 134 | 10½ | 41 | 65¼ | 60| 327| 98 | -- - 9| 135 | 12½ | 45½ | 73 | 70| 374| 87 | -- - 10| 131½ | 13½ | 63 | 69 | 70| 372| 96 | -- - 11| 136 | 1¾ | 96 | 81 | 40| 354| 81 | 2 - 12| 105 | 9¼ | 58 | 95½ | 20| 360| 75 | -- - 30| 223 | 23¾ | 44½ | 69 | 106| 726| 51 | -- - 31| 243 | 15¼ | 46 | 92 | 110| 660| 68 | 1 - 32| 138 | 10½ | 41 | 71½ | 130| 361| 63 | 7 - 34| 186 | 10 | 32 | 71 | 75| 409| 43 | 2 - --+---------+--------+--------+----------+-----+-----+---------+--- - |2,554 | 179½ | 846 | 1,226½ | 1045| 6685| 1214 | 14 - --+---------+--------+--------+----------+-----+-----+---------+--- - - - A. Number of Engine. - R. Cost of Stores. - S. Wages of Engineer and Fireman. - T. Cost of Cleaning. - U. Labor. - V. Material. - W. Total Cost of Repairs. - X. Total Expenses and Repairs. - - [Table--Part 3 of 4] - --+-------------------+--------+---------+--------+---------+--------- - | | | | COST OF REPAIRS. | - | | | |----------------------------+ - A.| R. | S. | T. | U. | V. | W. | X. - --+--------+----------+--------+---------+--------+---------+--------- - 1|$ 87.64|$ 1,293.80|$ 115.00| $ 223.40|$ 66.32|$ 289.72|$2,876.41 - 2| 106.85| 1,646.90| 82.50| 69.65| 75.14| 144.79| 3,112.81 - 3| 93.85| 1,489.65| 187.50| 178.25| 63.61| 241.86| 3,113.94 - 4| 171.85| 1,719.55| 212.50| 203.95| 100.13| 304.08| 3,620.18 - 5| 144.86| 1,628.80| 202.00| 240.55| 114.98| 355.53| 3,666.50 - 6| 173.92| 1,884.50| 10.00| 172.35| 63.65| 236.00| 3,346.68 - 8| 97.34| 1,593.05| 150.00| 110.75| 106.69| 217.44| 3,414.13 - 9| 108.53| 1,625.80| 200.00| 139.80| 175.48| 315.28| 3,918.02 - 10| 108.38| 1,669.55| 205.00| 207.55| 109.78| 317.33| 4,041.93 - 11| 111.83| 1,126.75| 5.00| 413.95| 89.76| 503.71| 2,558.29 - 12| 106.31| 1,405.10| 25.00| 37.45| 27.17| 64.62| 2,519.78 - 30| 142.71| 1,719.56| 212.50| 144.50| 77.52| 222.02| 4,118.15 - 31| 152.16| 1,554.55| 205.00| 642.50| 432.86| 1,075.36| 4,703.66 - 32| 108.40| 1,186.40 172.00| 1,729.70| 438.40| 2,168.10| 4,752.00 - 34| 108.40| 1,186.40| 137.00| 1,522.10| 781.64| 2,303.74| 4,313.48 - --+--------+----------+--------+---------+--------+---------+--------- - |1,823.80| 22,603.45|2,121.00| 6,036.45|2,723.13| 8,759.58|54,075.96 - --+--------+----------+--------+---------+--------+---------+--------- - - - A. Number of Engine. - Y. Bushel Coal. - Z. Gal. Engine Oil. - AA. Pound of Tallow. - BB. Repairs. - CC. Fuel. - DD. Stores. - EE. Wages E. and F. - FF. Cleaning. - GG. Total. - HH. Car Mileage. - - [Table--Part 4 of 4] - --+----+------+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+---------+ - | M'ls run to one.| COST PER MILE RUN FOR. | | - +-----------------+-----------------------------------------+---------+ - A.| Y. | Z. | AA. | BB. | CC. | DD. | EE. | FF. | GG. | HH. | - --+----+------+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+---------+ - 1| 1.5| 122.3| 34.5| 01.76| 06.64| 00.53| 07.89| 00.61| 17.43| 177,659| - 2| 1.1| 126.8| 27.7| 00.94| 07.34| 00.69| 10.69| 00.53| 20.19| 197,203| - 3| 0.9| 77.7| 17.4| 02.32| 10.58| 00.90| 14.31| 02.04| 30.15| 182,402| - 4| 2.7| 127.2| 32.8| 00.92| 03.69| 05.23| 05.24| 00.64| 15.72| 139,422| - 5| 2.5| 128.2| 41.2| 01.08| 04.06| 00.44| 04.96| 00.61| 11.15| 135,780| - 6| 3.1| 140.4| 36.3| 00.72| 03.22| 00.53| 05.82| 00.03| 10.32| --| - 8| 1.5| 147.8| 37.9| 01.09| 06.84| 00.49| 08.04| 00.76| 17.22| 305,024| - 9| 1.4| 150.0| 48.5| 01.30| 06.88| 00.40| 06.70| 00.82| 16.10| 383,682| - 10| 1.5| 195.4| 46.5| 01.23| 06.77| 00.31| 06.49| 00.79| 15.59| 409,035| - 11| 3.0| 173.6| 36.4| 02.13| 03.43| 00.47| 04.77| 00.02| 10.82| --| - 12| 2.0| 171.0| 23.5| 00.36| 05.11| 00.59| 07.82| 00.14| 14.02| 66,834| - 30| 2.3| 185.4| 74.9| 00.53| 04.40| 00.34| 04.15| 00.51| 09.93| 231,554| - 31| 2.2| 154.1| 50.8| 02.87| 04.58| 00.40| 04.15| 00.54| 12.54| 202,289| - 32| 1.6| 129.5| 31.2| 12.11| 06.25| 00.60| 06.64| 00.96| 26.56| 184,083| - 34| 3.2| 108.5| 35.5| 11.41| 03.48| 00.54| 05.29| 00.67| 21.39| 107,060| - --+----+------+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+---------+ - | 2.5| 148.1| 38.5| 02.31| 04.98| 00.48| 05.97| 00.55| 14.29|2,722,027| - --+----+------+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+---------+ - -The master car-builder has charge of the shops where cars are -built and repaired, and of the car-inspectors who are stationed at -central and junction points to prevent defective cars being put -into the trains. - -Formerly each railroad used its own cars exclusively, and through -freights were transferred at every junction point. This involved -such delay and expense that railroads now generally permit all -loaded cars to go through to destination without transfer, and -allow each other a certain sum for the use of cars. Usually this is -about three-quarters of a cent for each mile which the car travels -on a foreign road. This involves a great scattering of cars, and -an extensive organization to keep record of their whereabouts -and of the accounts between the companies for mileage.[15] This -organization will be referred to more fully in connection with the -department of transportation. But the joint use of each other's -cars makes it necessary that there should be at least enough -similarity in their construction and their coupling appliances to -permit their indiscriminate use upon all roads. And conventions of -master car-builders have recommended certain forms and dimensions -as standards, which are now in general use. - -There is much convenience in this, but one disadvantage. It -requires almost unanimous action to introduce any change of form -or of construction, however advantageous it may be. And to secure -unanimous action in such matters is almost as hard as it would be -to secure unanimity in a change in the spelling of English words. -Still there is progress, though slow, toward several desirable -reforms, the most important of which is the adoption of a standard -automatic coupler (see p. 142). - -Having shown how the property of all kinds is kept in efficient -condition, we next come to its operation. This is called -"conducting transportation," and the officer in charge is usually -called the superintendent of transportation. All train-despatchers, -conductors, train-men, and telegraph operators are under his -immediate control. He makes all schedules and provides all extra -and irregular service that the traffic department makes requisition -for, himself calling upon the superintendent of machinery for -the necessary locomotives, switching engines, and cars. It is his -especial province to handle all trains as swiftly as possible, and -to see that there are no collisions. It is impossible to detail -fully the safeguards and precautions used to this end, but the -general principles observed are as follows: - -First, a general time-table or schedule is carefully made out for -all regular trains upon each division, showing on one sheet the -time of each train at each station. - -This schedule is all that is needed so long as all trains are -able to keep on time, and there are no extras. Trouble begins -when regular trains cannot keep on schedule, or when extra -trains have to be sent out, not provided for on the schedule. A -diagram, or graphic representation of this schedule, upon a board -or large sheet of paper, is an important feature of the office -regulating train-movements. Twenty-four vertical lines divide the -board into equal spaces representing the twenty-four hours of -the day, numbered from midnight to midnight. Horizontal lines at -proportionate distances from the top represent the stations in -their order between the termini, represented by the top and bottom -lines of the diagram. The course of every train can now be plotted -on this diagram in an oblique line joining the points on each -station line corresponding to the time the train arrives at and -leaves that station. The cut on the opposite page will illustrate. -It represents a road 130 miles long from A to N, with intermediate -stations B, C, D, etc., at different distances from each other, and -six trains are shown as follows: - -A passenger train, No. 1, leaving A at 12 midnight and arriving -at N at 4.05 A.M. A fast express, No. 2, leaving N at 12.45 and -arriving at A at 3.30. A local passenger train, No. 4, which leaves -N at 1.15, runs to E by 4 A.M., stops there until 4.10, and returns -to N by 7 A.M.; being called No. 3 on the return, as the direction -is always indicated by the train-number's being odd or even. No. 5 -is a way freight, leaving A at 12.05 and making long stops at each -station. No. 6 is an opposing train of the same character. - -[Illustration: Diagram Used in Making Railway Time-Tables.] - -[Illustration: A lamp swung across the track is the signal to stop.] - -The diagram shows at a glance how, when, and where all these -trains meet and pass each other, and where every train is at any -moment. Should it be desired to send an extra train at any time, a -line drawn or a string stretched on the board will indicate what -opposing trains must be guarded against. For instance, to send -an extra through in three hours, leaving A between 1 and 2 A.M., -a trial line will show that Nos. 5, 2, 4, and 6 must all be met -or passed, and as (on a single-track road) this can only be done -at stations, the extra must leave at 1.35 A.M., pass No. 5 at E, -meet No. 2 at F, No. 4 at I, and No. 6 at J. A dotted line on -the diagram indicates its run, and that No. 2 is held at F for 5 -minutes to let it pass. If the road is double-tracked, only trains -going in the same direction need be regarded.[16] - -[Illustration: A lamp raised and lowered vertically is the signal -to move ahead.] - -But the more usual way of handling extra trains, when circumstances -will permit, is to let them precede or follow a regular train upon -the same schedule. The train is then said to be run in "sections," -and a ten minutes' interval is allowed between them. That opposing -trains may be informed, the leading section (and when there are -more than two all but the last) wears on its locomotive two green -flags by day and two green lights by night, indicating that a train -follows which is to be considered as a part of the train leading, -and having the same rights. - -[Illustration: A lamp swung vertically in a circle across the -track, when the train is standing, is the signal to move back.] - -So far the rules are very simple, and they would be all that is -necessary if all trains could always be kept exactly on time. But -as that cannot be, provision must be made for all the complications -which will result. The first and most important rule is that no -train must ever, under any circumstances, run _ahead_ of time. -The next is that any train making a stop not on its schedule must -immediately send out flagmen with red flags, lights, and torpedoes -to protect it. This rule is a very difficult one to enforce -without rigid discipline, and its neglect is the cause of a large -percentage of the accidents "that will happen." The flagman who -must go to the rear, often a half-mile, at night, across trestles -and in storms, must frequently be left behind, to take his chances -of getting home by being picked up by a following train. There is -no one to watch him, and he will often take chances, and not go as -far back or as fast as he should; and if all goes well no one is -ever the wiser. - -[Illustration: A lamp swung vertically in a circle at arm's length -across the track, when the train is running, is the signal that the -train has parted.] - -Now, when a train is prevented from arriving on time at its -meeting-point, we must have some rules by which the opposing train -may proceed, or all business on the road would be suspended by the -delay of a single train. Only the general principles of these rules -can be stated within limits. They are as follows: - -1. All freight trains must wait indefinitely for all passenger -trains. - -2. When one train only is behind time, the opposing train of the -same class will wait for it a specified time, usually ten minutes, -and five minutes more for possible variation of watches, then go -ahead, keeping fifteen minutes behind its schedule. - -3. But should such a train, running on delayed time, lose more -time, or in any other way should both trains get behind time, -then the one which is bound in a certain direction--for instance, -north--has the right to the track, and the other must lie by -indefinitely. - -[Illustration: The General Despatcher.] - -These principles, duly observed, will prevent collisions, but -they will often cause trains to lose a great deal of time. The -train-despatcher, therefore, has authority to handle extra and -delayed trains by direct telegraphic order. Every possible -precaution is taken to insure that such orders are received and -correctly understood. As there are great advantages following -uniformity of usages and rules among connecting roads, after -years of conference, in conventions and by committees, approved -forms of all running rules and signals have recently been adopted -and are now in very general use over the United States. Yet, -in spite of all possible precautions, accidents will sometimes -happen. Richard Grant White gave a name to a mental habit which, -in train-despatchers, has caused many fatal accidents. It is -"heterophemy," or thinking one thing while saying, hearing, or -reading another. A case within my knowledge, which cost a dozen -lives, was as follows: Two opposing trains were out of time, -and the train-despatcher wished to have them meet and pass at a -certain station we will call "I," as Nos. 1 and 2 are represented -as doing on the diagram (see diagram of schedule board, p. 161). -So he telegraphed the following message, to be delivered to No. 1 -at "H" and to No. 2 at "J": "Nos. 1 and 2 will meet at 'I.'" -This message was correctly received at "J" and delivered to No. -2. But at "H" the operator had just sold a passenger a ticket to -"K," and, getting this name in his head, he wrote out the message: -"Nos. 1 and 2 will meet at 'K.'" But the mistake was not yet -past correction. The operator had to repeat the message back to -the despatcher, that the latter might be sure it was correctly -understood. He repeated it as he had written it--"K." But the -despatcher was also "heterophemous." He _saw_ "K," but he _thought_ -"I," and replied to the operator that the message was O. K. - -[Illustration: Entrance Gates at a Large Station.] - -So it was delivered to No. 1, and that train left "H" at full -speed, expecting to run thirty-five miles to "K" before meeting -No. 2. There was no telegraph office at "I," and there were no -passengers to get off or on, and it passed there without stopping, -and three miles below ran into No. 2 on a curve. - -By one of those strange impulses which seem to come from some -unconscious cerebration, the train-despatcher meanwhile had a -feeling that something was wrong, and looked again at the message -received from "H" and discovered his mistake. But the trains were -then out of reach. He still hoped that No. 2 might arrive at "I" -first, or that they might meet upon a straight portion of road, -and as the time passed he waited at the instrument in a state of -suspense which may be imagined. When the news came he left the -office, and never returned. - -Double tracks make accidents of this character impossible; but -introduce a new possibility, that a derailment from any cause upon -one track may obstruct the other track so closely ahead of an -opposing train that no warning can be given. - -[Illustration: Central Switch and Signal Tower.] - -Where trains become very numerous additional safeguards are added -by multiplying telegraph stations at short intervals, and giving -them conspicuous signals of semaphore arms and lanterns, until -finally the road is divided into a number of so-called "blocks" -of a few miles each; and no train is permitted to enter any block -until the train preceding has passed out. And in the approaches to -some of our great depots, where trains and tracks are multiplied -and confused with cross-overs and switching service, all switches -are set and all movements controlled by signals from a single -central tower. Sometimes, by very expensive and complicated -apparatus, it is made mechanically impossible to open a track for -the movement of a train without previously locking all openings by -which another train might interfere. The illustrations on pages -169, 171, and above will serve to give some general idea of these -appliances.[17] - -[Illustration: Mantua Junction, West Philadelphia, showing a -Complex System of Interlacing Tracks.] - -There remains one other branch of the duties of the master of -transportation--the proper daily distribution of cars to every -station according to its needs, and the keeping record of their -whereabouts. And now that the gauges of all roads are similar, -and competition enforces through shipments, roads are practically -making common property of each other's cars, and the detail and -trouble of keeping record of them become enormous. - -[Illustration: Interior of a Switch-tower, showing the Operation of -Interlocking Switches.] - -The records are made up from daily reports, by every conductor, of -every car, home or foreign, handled in his train, and from every -station-agent of all cars in his yard at certain hours. From these -returns the car accountant reports to their respective owners all -movements of foreign cars and gives the transportation department -information where cars are lying. The honesty of each other's -reports concerning car movements is generally relied upon by -railroads, but "lost car agents" are kept travelling to hunt up -estrays, and to watch how the cars of their roads are being handled. - -It has been suggested that a great step in advance would be to -have all the roads in the United States unite and put all cars -into a common stock and let them be distributed, record kept of -movements, and mileage paid through a general clearing house. -This would practically form a single rolling-stock company owned -by the roads contributing their cars to it. It could gradually -introduce uniform patterns of construction, improved couplers, and -air-brakes, and could concentrate cars in different sections of the -country in large numbers as different crops required movement, thus -avoiding the blockades which often occur in one section while cars -are superabundant in another. Consolidations usually render more -efficient and cheaper service than separate organizations can do, -and this may come about in the course of time.[18] - -We have now seen how the road is maintained and its trains safely -handled. The next step in order is to see how business is secured -and the rates to be charged are fixed. This department may be -controlled by a traffic manager, with two assistants--the general -freight agent and the general passenger agent--or the officers may -report directly to the general manager without the intervention -of a traffic manager. But it would be a more accurate expression -to say, not that these officers "fix" the rates, for if they did -few railroads would ever fail, but that they accept and announce -the rates that are fixed by conditions of competition between -different markets and products, and between different railroads -and water lines. Among these complex forces a railroad freight -agent is nearly as powerless to regulate rates as a professor of -grammar is to regulate the irregularities of English verbs. He -can accept them and use them, or he may let them alone, but the -irregularities will remain, all the same. There is no eccentricity, -for example, more idiotic or indefensible to the ordinary citizen -than a habit railroads have of sometimes charging less money for -a long haul than they charge for a shorter haul. Yet I believe -there is not a railroad line in the United States which will not -be found guilty of this apparent folly of charging "less for -the long haul" if its rates to distant points are followed far -enough. For if followed far enough we shall come to the ocean, -and find the railroad accepting business between two seaports. For -instance, all railroads running westward from New York through -some of their connections finally reach San Francisco, and compete -for freight between these ports. But the rates they are able to -obtain are limited by steamers using the ocean for a highway, -and sailing vessels using the wind for motive power, and able to -carry heavy freights at one-tenth the average cost to railroads -across mountains and deserts. This average cost must fix the -average rates charged by the railroads to intermediate points, -such as to Ogden, in Utah. So the railroad must either charge less -for the long haul to San Francisco, or leave that business to be -done solely by water. Yet it may be profitable to the railroad to -accept the business at such rates as it can obtain; for, as in all -business ventures, manufacturing or mercantile, _new_ business -can be profitably added at less than the average cost. And if -profitable to the railroad its tendency is beneficial, even to the -intermediate points which pay higher rates, as promoting better -service, besides being advantageous to the whole Pacific Coast in -tending to keep down the rates by water. - -But it would lead too far from our subject to follow this and -several other questions which are suggested by it. Only it may -be said briefly that the original Interstate Commerce Bill, -introduced by Mr. Reagan, absolutely prohibited "less for the long -haul." The Senate amended by adding "under similar circumstances -and conditions," and the Interstate Commerce Commission has held -that "water competition" makes dissimilar circumstances and thus -legalizes it. - -And in this connection it may be added that the other Senate -amendment to the Reagan bill, creating an Interstate Commerce -Commission, was, next to the above amendment, the wisest measure -of the bill. It forms a body of experts whose opinions and -decisions must gradually educate the public, on the one hand, to -a better understanding of transportation problems, and restrain -the railroads, on the other, from many of the abuses incident -to unchecked competition among them. For, however theorists may -differ as to the advantages or disadvantages of competition -in manufactures and commerce, either absolutely unchecked or -checked only by high or low tariffs, I think all will agree that -unchecked _railroad_ competition is a great evil, because it -results in fluctuating rates and private rebates to large shippers. -The rebates, to be sure, are forbidden by law, but they can be -disguised past recognition. I have known a case, for instance, -where a receipt was given for 75 barrels of whiskey, when only -73 were shipped. The shipper was to make claim for two barrels -lost and be paid an agreed value as a rebate on his freight bill. -In another case, a road agreed with a certain shipper to pay his -telegraph bills for a certain period in order to control his -shipments. Understating the weight or class of the shipment is -another common device for undercharging or rebating. - -In nearly every foreign country there is either a railroad pool or -a division of territory, to prevent this sort of competition, which -is only pernicious. A merchant needs to feel assured that rates are -stable and uniform to all, and not that he must go shopping for -secret rates, in order to be on an equality with his competitor. -In the United States the railroads had largely resorted to pools -before the Interstate Commerce Law forbade them. The result of -this prohibition has generally been very advantageous to the best -lines, which, under the pool, really paid a sort of blackmail to -the poorer lines to maintain rates. If the penalties of the law -can restrain such lines from rebating and under-billing, to be rid -of the pool will be a great blessing to the well-located roads. If -not, then the roads will be driven into consolidation, for the end -of fighting will be bankruptcy and sale. Fortunately consolidation -has already gone so far in many sections of the country that the -difficulties of abolishing rebates have been greatly reduced. And -as far as it has gone it has proved of much advantage both to the -public and to the stockholders. - -Fortunately, too, the other results attendant upon consolidation -have been sufficiently demonstrated to remove any intelligent -fear of extortion in rates or deterioration of service. Who would -to-day desire to undo the consolidations which have built up the -Pennsylvania Railroad or the New York Central, and call back to -life the numberless small companies which preceded them? The -country has outgrown such service as they could render, and the -local growth and development along the lines of these consolidated -companies certainly indicates improved conditions. In this -connection, too, the improvement in cost and character of service -is instructive. In 1865 the average rate per ton per mile on the -principal Eastern lines was about 2.900 cents; in 1887 it was 0.718 -for a service twice as speedy and efficient. - -There are many other live issues of great interest and importance -in transportation suggested by this subject, such as "re-billing" -or "milling in transit," and "differentials," but space forbids -more than an explanation of the meaning of these two especially -prominent ones. - - A B C - ----------------------------- - -Let A B and B C be two railroads connecting at B. Let the local -rates A to B be 10 cents per 100 lbs. on grain, and B to C also -10 cents. Let the through rate A to C be 18, since longest hauls -are usually cheapest per mile. Let A be a large grain market, such -as Chicago. Now a merchant at C can save 2 cents per 100 lbs. by -buying direct from A instead of buying from a merchant at B. For -the grain will pay less for the single long haul than for the two -short hauls. But perhaps the town of B has for many years enjoyed -the trade of C, and there are large mills and warehouses erected -there. B will then say it is "discriminated against," and will -demand the privilege of "re-billing" or "milling in transit." -That is to say, when a merchant or miller at B ships to C grain, -or flour made of grain, which he received from A, the two roads -consent to make a new way-bill and treat the shipment as a through -shipment from A to C. The road B C charges but 8 cents, and the -road A B gives B C one cent from the 10 it originally collected. -This involves much trouble and a loss of revenue to the roads, -and is, apparently, a discrimination against the home products of -B, but roads frequently do it where there is competition at C by -rival lines, and also at local points along their lines to build up -mills, distilleries, and factories of all kinds in competition with -those located elsewhere. As yet the Interstate Commerce Commission -has not pronounced upon this practice. - -The question of differentials is as follows: Suppose there are -three lines, B, D, and E, between the cities A and C (Diagram, page -176). B, being the shortest, will get most of the business when -rates are the same (10 cents, for instance) by each line. But D -and E insist upon participating, so they demand that B shall allow -them to operate lower or "differential" rates--that is, B must -maintain his rate at 10 while allowing D to charge only 8 and E 6 -cents, on account of their disadvantages. So that a differential is -practically a premium offered for business by an inferior line. - -The foregoing will illustrate how the rivalry of railroads with -each other complicates the making of rates. But even more difficult -to manage is the rivalry of markets, and of products, and of new -methods which threaten property invested in old methods; as, for -instance, the dressed-beef traffic from the West threatens the -investments in slaughter-houses and stock-yards in the East. - -As the roads have found it necessary to act together in -establishing running rules and regulations, so, in spite of -all rivalries, there must also be joint agreements reached in -some way concerning rates. Usually the roads serving a certain -territory form an "association," and their freight agents form -"rate committees," which fix and publish joint rates. A tariff -published by one of the trunk lines from the Eastern cities forms a -good example. As the result of many long and bitter wars and many -compromises, it has been agreed among these roads that the rates -from New York to Chicago shall form a basis for all other rates, -and a scale has been fixed showing the percentage of the Chicago -rate to be used as the rate to each important point in the West. -Thus Pittsburgh, Pa., is 60 per cent. of Chicago rate; Indianapolis -is 93; Vandalia, 116. The tariff above referred to gives an -alphabetical list of some 5,000 towns reached over these roads, and -opposite each town the figure showing its percentage of the Chicago -rate. The list begins with Abanaka, O., 90, and ends with Zoar, O., -74. - -The tariff next gives what is called the "Trunk Line -Classification," which is a list comprising every article known to -commerce, in all the different conditions, shapes, and packages in -which it is offered for transportation, and opposite each article -is given its assigned "class." This particular classification -assigns every article to one of six regular, or two special, -classes, and the present rates to Chicago in cents per 100 lbs. -are given as 75, 65, 50, 35, 30, 25, 26, 21. The list of articles -begins with Acetate of Lime, in car-loads, 5th class; in less -quantities, 4th; and ends with Zinc, in various forms from 1st to -6th--comprising in all nearly 6,000 articles. From these tables any -desired rate readily appears. Thus, 500 pounds of acetate of lime -would cost, from New York to Zoar, O., 74 per cent. of Chicago's -4th class rate, or 74 per cent. of 35--say, 26 cents per 100 lbs., -or $1.30. - -There is also given in the tariff pamphlet a list of some 300 -manufacturing towns in New England, from each of which the same -rates apply as from New York. So, on the whole, the pamphlet gives -rates on about 6,000 articles from 300 points of origin to 5,000 -destinations. - -In different sections of the country different classifications are -in use, some of them embracing twenty or more classes, and allowing -finer shades of difference between articles according to their -value, bulk, or many other varying conditions which determine the -class into which each article is put. - -Great efforts have been made to bring about a uniformity of -classification over the whole United States, and the number of -classifications in extensive use has been reduced from a very large -number to perhaps a dozen. - -But absolute uniformity cannot be obtained under the widely -different conditions which prevail in different sections, without -great loss and sacrifices somewhere. A road, for instance, -competing with a river or canal must adjust the classification of -the particular kinds of freight best adapted to river or canal -transportation so as to secure the traffic in competition with -boats. It must almost entirely disregard bulk, value, and all other -conditions upon which a road not affected by this particular kind -of competition arranges its classification. Uniformity would either -force one of them to lose a legitimate business, or the other to -reduce reasonable rates. - -These rates and classifications are the battle-ground for all the -innumerable rivalries of trade and commerce. Every city is here at -war with every other city, every railroad with every other road, -every industry with those which rival it, and every individual -shipper is a skirmisher for a little special rate, or advantage, -all to himself. State legislatures and commissions, Congress, and -the Interstate Commerce Commission are the heavy artillery which -different combatants manage to bring into the contest. On these -rates probably a million dollars are collected every day, yet it is -very rarely that the _positive_ rates are fought over or complained -of. Their average is considerably below that of the average rates -of any other country in the world, even though other nations have -cheaper labor and denser populations. Fifty cents for carrying -a barrel of flour a thousand miles cannot be called exorbitant, -and, indeed, the retail prices paid for bread and clothing would -probably not be reduced in the slightest were the transportation -of all such articles absolutely free. But the battle is over the -_comparative_ rates to different points, over different routes, and -for different commodities.[19] - -Passenger rates are established in much the same manner as freight -rates. There are passenger-agents' associations and conventions, -and they fight as do the freight men over comparative rates and -differentials, and commissions to agents. The last within a few -years has been a fearful abuse, and is not yet entirely abolished. -This will illustrate: - -[Illustration: (Diagram of railways connecting A to E.)] - -The road A B has two connections, C and D, to reach E. It sells -tickets over each at the same rate, and stands neutral between -them. But C agrees with A's ticket-seller that he will give him a -dollar for every ticket he can sell over C's line. D finds that -he is losing travel, and offers, privately, a larger commission. -Neither knows what the other is doing. The ticket-seller gets his -regular salary from A, and from C and D often enormous sums as -commissions, and is interested, not in sending ignorant travellers -over the line which might suit them best, but over the one paying -him the largest secret commission. This should be held as against -public policy, because it tends to prevent reductions in rates -to the public by robbing the roads of much of their revenue, and -it also demoralizes the officers who handle a business which is -practically but the giving away of large sums of money as bribes. - -There is another practice in the passenger business which is unfair -at the best and is the source of many abuses. It is charging the -same to the man with no baggage as to the man with a Saratoga -trunk. If the baggage service were specially organized as a trunk -express, it could be more efficiently handled and without any -"baggage smashing," while the total cost of travelling to persons -with baggage would be no more than at present, and to those -without, much less. - -As an illustration of the sort of abuses to which it is now liable, -I may cite a single case. I have known a merchant buy a lot of -twenty trunks for his trade, pack them all full of dry-goods, -check them to a city 1,000 miles away by giving a few dollars to -baggage-men, and himself buy a single ticket and go by a different -route. The roads which handled that baggage imagined that it -belonged to their passengers, and were never the wiser. While -the baggage service is free, no efficient checks can be provided -against such frauds. - -Essential parts of both freight and passenger departments are the -soliciting agents. They are like the cavalry pickets and scouts of -an army, scattered far and wide over the country and looking after -the interests of their lines, making personal acquaintances of all -shippers and travellers, advertising in every possible manner, -and reporting constantly all that the enemy--the rival lines--are -doing, and often a great deal that they are not. For the great -railroad wars usually begin in local skirmishes brought on by the -zeal of these pickets when the officers in command would greatly -prefer to live in peace. - -Besides their receipts from freight and passenger traffic, -railroads derive revenue also from the transportation of mails -and express freight on passenger trains, from the sleeping-car -companies, and from news companies for the privilege of selling -upon trains. Of the total revenue about 70 per cent. is usually -derived from freight, 25 per cent. from passengers, and 5 per cent. -from mail, express, sleeping-cars, and privileges. When it is -considered that high speed involves great risks and necessitates -a far more perfect roadway, more costly machinery and appliances, -and a higher grade and a greater number of employees, the fast -passenger, mail, and express traffic hardly seems at present to -yield its due proportion of income. - - * * * * * - -We have now followed the line of organization and management -through the physical maintenance of the road and rolling stock, -the safe handling of the trains, the establishment of rates, and -solicitation of business. It only remains to show how the revenue -is collected, how the expenses of operation are paid, and all -statistics of the business prepared. These duties are usually -united under charge of an officer called the comptroller, general -auditor, or some equivalent title. His principal subordinates, -whose duties are indicated by their titles, are the auditor of -receipts, auditor of disbursements, local treasurer, paymaster, and -clerk of statistics. - -The record of a single shipment of freight will illustrate methods, -so far as limits will permit. A shipper sending freight for -shipment sends with each dray-load a "dray ticket" in duplicate, -showing the articles, weight, marks, and destination. If he has -prepaid the freight, or advanced any charges which are to be -paid at destination, it is also noted on the dray ticket. When -the drayman reaches the outbound freight depot with his load, -he is directed to a certain spot where all freight for the same -destination is being collected for loading. A receiving clerk -checks off his load against the duplicate dray tickets, keeps one -and files it, and gives the drayman the other, receipted. In case -of any loss arising afterward, the original dray ticket, made by -the shipper himself, with his marks and instructions, becomes a -valuable record. When the entire shipment has been delivered at -the loading point, the shipper takes the dray tickets representing -it to the proper desk, and receives "a bill of lading." This bill -of lading is made in triplicate. The original and a duplicate -are given to the shipper. He keeps the last and sends the former -to the consignee. It represents the obligation of the railroad -to transport and deliver the articles named on it to the person -named, or his assignee. It is negotiable, and banks advance money -upon it. But the shipper may still, by a legal process, have the -goods stopped _en route_ should occasion arise, as, for instance, -by the bankruptcy of the consignee. The goods are also liable for -garnishments in certain cases, and there is much railroad and -commercial law which it behooves the officials interested to be -well posted in. When the goods arrive at destination the possession -of the bill of lading is the evidence of the consignee's right to -receive them. - -Now we will return to the shipment itself and see how it is -taken care of. The whole structure of the system of collecting -freight revenue, holding accountable all agents who assess it and -collect it, dividing it in the agreed proportions between all the -railroads, boats, bridges, wharves, and transfer companies who -may handle it in its journeys, even across the continent, and -the tabulating of the immense mass of statistics which are kept -to show, separately, the quantities of freight of every possible -class and variety, by every possible route, and to and from every -possible point of destination and departure--all this system, -neither the magnitude nor the minute elaboration of which can be -adequately described within limits, is founded upon a paper called -the way-bill. - -The theory of the way-bill is that no car must move without one -accompanying it, describing it by its number and the initials -of the road owning it, and showing its points of departure and -destination, its entire contents, with marks and weights of each -package, consignors and consignees, freight and charges prepaid -or to be collected at destination, and the proportion of the same -due to each carrier or transfer in the line. And not only must a -way-bill accompany the car, but a duplicate of it must be sent -immediately and directly, by the office making the original, to -the office of the auditor of freight receipts. If the railroad -is a member of any association, as the Trunk Line Association in -New York, another duplicate is sent to its office, that it may -supervise all rates, and see what each road is doing. The sum of -all the way-bills is the total of a road's freight business. To -facilitate taking copies they are printed with an ink which will -give several impressions on strong, thin tissue-paper, forming -"soft copies," while the "hard copy," or original, goes with the -freight to be checked against it when the car is unloaded. - -And while the original way-bill fulfils its important function of -conducting the freight to destination and delivery, the duplicate -which was forwarded directly to the auditor of freight receipts -has no less important purposes. It is the initial record that -freight has been earned, and it shows which agent of the company -has been charged with its collection. Before making any entries -from it its absolute correctness must be assured. For this purpose -all its figures are first checked by a rate-clerk, who is kept -constantly supplied by the traffic department with all current -rates, classifications, and percentage tables by which through -freights are divided. These way-bills, coming in daily by hundreds -and thousands, are then the grist upon which the office of the -auditor of receipts grinds, and from which come forth the accounts -with every agent, showing his debits for freight received, and the -consolidations showing the freight earnings of the road. Agents -remit the moneys they collect direct to the treasurer, who makes -daily reports of the credits due to each one. A travelling auditor -visits every station at irregular intervals and checks the agent's -accounts, requiring him to justify any difference between his -debits and credits by an exhibit of undelivered freight. - -The passenger earnings are obtained from daily reports by all -conductors of their collections, and by all ticket-sellers of -tickets sold. These reports are also checked by a passenger -rate-clerk, and the travelling auditor frequently examines and -verifies the tickets reported by agents as on hand unsold. - -After the auditor of receipts has finished with the way-bills and -ticket reports, they go to the statistical department, where are -prepared the great mass and variety of statistics required by -different officers to keep themselves thoroughly posted on the -growth or decrease of business of every variety, and from and to -every market reached by the road. Finally, the way-bills are filed -away for reference in case of claims for overcharges, or lost or -damaged goods. - -The auditor of disbursements has supervision of all expenditures of -money, which is only paid out by the paymaster or treasurer upon -vouchers and pay-rolls approved by proper authority. The vouchers -and pay-rolls then form the grist upon which his office works, and -from which are produced the credits to be given all officers and -agents who disburse money, and the classified records of expenses, -and comparison of the same with previous months and years, and -between different divisions. - - * * * * * - -I have thus outlined the skeleton of a railroad organization, and -suggested briefly the relations between its most important parts, -and some of the principles upon which its work is conducted. The -scheme of authority is outlined in the diagram on page 185. But -space is utterly lacking to clothe the skeleton with flesh and -go into the innumerable details and adjustments involved in the -economical and efficient discharge of all of its functions. - -It seems a very simple matter for a railroad to place a barrel of -flour in a car, to carry it to its destination, and to collect -fifty cents for the service. It is done apparently so spontaneously -that even the fifty cents may seem exorbitant, and I have actually -heard appeals for free transportation on the ground that the cars -were going anyhow. So it also seems a very simple matter for a -man to pick up a stone and place it on a wall. But this simple -act involves in the first place the existence of a bony frame, -with joints, sinews, and muscles, sustained by a heart, lungs, and -digestive system, with eyes to see, a brain to direct, nerves to -give effect to the will-power, and a thousand delicate adjustments -of organs and functions without which all physical exertion would -soon cease. Similarly, a railroad organized to respond efficiently -to all the varied demands upon it as a common carrier, by the -public, and as an investment by its owners, becomes almost a living -organism. That the barrel of flour may be safely delivered and -the fifty cents reach the company's treasury, and a part of it -the stockholder's pocket, the whole organization outlined in the -diagram must thrill with life, and every officer and employee, from -president to car-greaser, must discharge his special functions. -All must be coordinated, and the organization must have and use -its eyes and its ears, its muscle, its nerves, and its brain. It -must immediately feel and respond to every demand of our rapidly -advancing civilization. - -Each road usually has its own individuality and methods, and its -employees are animated with an _esprit de corps_, as are the -soldiers in an army. There is much about the service that is -attractive, and, on the whole, the wages paid railroad employees -are probably in excess of the rates for similar talent in any other -industry, although labor in every other industry in the United -States is protected by high tariffs, while in this it is under the -incubus of legislation as oppressive as constitutional limits will -permit. - - PRESIDENT - | - +------------------------+--------------------------+ - | | | - _Secretary and Treasurer_ _General Manager_ _General_ - | _Counsel_ - ------------------------------------+---------------------------------- - | - +----------------------------------+ - | - | {Auditor of Receipts - | {Auditor of Disbursements - +-Comptroller--------{Travelling Auditor - | {Local Treasurers - | {Local Paymasters - | {Clerk of Statistics - | - +-Purchasing Agent--+-Local Storekeepers - | | - | | {Receiving Clerks and Laborers - | | {Loading Clerks and Laborers - | | {Billing Clerks - | ...+-Station Agents--{Discharging Clerks and Laborers - | : | {Delivery Clerks - | : | {Collectors {Yard Engines - | : | {Yard Master----{Switchmen - | : | {Brakemen - | : | - | : | - +-Superintendent of | {Train Despatchers - | Transportation-+-Train Master----{Operators - | | {Conductors - | | {Trainmen - | | - +-Division | {Engine Runners - | Superintendents---+ +-Foreman {Firemen - | | | Machine Shop--{Hostelers and - | | | { Cleaners - +-Superintendent of | | {Mechanics - | Machinery-+-Master Mechanic-+ {Laborers - | | | - | | | {Car Inspectors - | | +-Foreman {Greasers - | | Car Shop----{Mechanics - | | {Laborers - | | - | | - | | {Bridge Foremen - | | +-Supervisors {Watchmen - | | | of Bridges---{Carpenter Gangs - +-Superintendent of | | {Mason Gangs - | Roadway-+-Road Master-----+ - | | {Section Foremen - | +-Supervisors {Gangs and Track - | of Road---{ Walkers - | {Wood and Water - | { Tenders - | {Floating Gangs - | {Construction - | { Trains - +Car Accountant-------Lost Car Agents - | - | +-General {Travelling Agents - | | Passenger Agent---{Local Agents - | | {Rate and Division Clerks - +Traffic Manager----+-Claim Agent - | - +-General {Travelling Agents - Freight Agent-----{Local Agents - {Rate and Division Clerks - - Diagram showing the Skeleton of a Railroad Organization, and Lines of - Responsibility. - -In Europe, where the pooling system practically prevails, the -service is much more stable than in the United States, and in many -instances there are pensions and insurances and disability funds, -and regular rules for promotion and retirement, and provision for -the children of employees being brought into service in preference -to outsiders. Such relations between a company and its employees as -must result from arrangements of this character are surely of great -benefit to both. They are the natural outgrowth of _stability of -business_. Their most advanced form is found in France, where each -road is practically protected from dangerous competition by means -of a division of territory. In the United States we are still in -the midst of a fierce competition for territory and business, and, -as pooling is forbidden, the railroad companies will be in unstable -equilibrium until consolidation takes place. As that goes on, and -large and rich corporations are formed, with prospects of stability -in management and in business, we may hope to see similar relations -established between our companies and their employees. Already -there is a beginning upon some of the largest roads, such as the -Baltimore & Ohio and the Pennsylvania Central. But the ground still -needs preparation also on the employees' side, for our American -spirit is aggressive and is sometimes rather disposed to resent, -as interfering with its independence, any paternal relations with -a corporation. And as we have before found railroad management -in intimate contact with every problem of finance and commerce, -it is here confronted with the social and industrial questions -involved in labor unions and problems of co-operation. As to the -results, we can only say that, as war is destructive, no state of -warfare, even between capital and labor, can be permanent. Peaceful -solutions must prevail in the end, and progress toward stability, -peace, and prosperity in railroad operation and ownership will be -progress toward the happy solution of many vexed social questions. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[14] See "How to Feed a Railway," page 302. - -[15] See "The Freight-car Service," page 275. - -[16] Of course, this "stringing" of an extra train is not always -done in actual operation. Practice and experience will give as -wonderful expertness to a train-despatcher in handling trains "in -his head" as to a mathematician in solving problems, and often all -trains on a road will be handled entirely "by order," or as extras. -But the example given illustrates the principle upon which expert -practice is based. - -[17] See "Safety in Railroad Travel," page 204. - -[18] See "The Freight-car Service," page 288. - -[19] An idea may be gained of the extent and minuteness of the -classification, and of the constant changes and adjustments, -both of rates and classifications, perpetually going on from the -following partial list of subjects submitted to a recent meeting -of the Rate Committee of the Southern Railway and Steamship -Association. - -RATES.--Watermelon rates; canned goods, Richmond to Atlanta; rates -on cement from Eastern cities to Association territory; rates -on sulphuric acid from Atlanta; rates from Atlanta, etc., to -California and Transcontinental terminals; special iron rates from -Cincinnati, etc., to Carolina points; rates on earthenware, East -Liverpool to S. E. territory; rates on cotton bags to Memphis from -Atlanta; rates on fertilizers to Mobile, Ala.; beer rates; rates -on special iron articles from Chattanooga; rates from the West to -Camden, S. C.; rates from Evansville and Cairo, on business from -points between Cairo, Evansville, and Chicago. - -CLASSIFICATION.--Classification of paper twine; beer packages, -empty returned; old machinery returned for repairs; steel car -springs; cotton softener; iron safes or vaults weighing over 12,000 -lbs.; toys, etc.; portable powder magazines; coffee extract; empty -lard tierces returned; bolts and nuts in barrels; box and barrel -material; glass oil bottles in tin jackets; cast-iron radiators; -malleable iron castings; dried beef; sausage; straw paper; burlaps; -tobacco stems; hinges; straw braids; lawn hose reels; excelsior; -car-load rates. - -SUBJECTS NOT ON THE REGULAR LIST.--Demurrage rules; adjustment of -rates as per instructions from the Executive Board; rates from -Cincinnati to Columbus, Eufaula, Opelika, etc.; classification of -iron tanks; classification of whiting; rates to Eufaula, Ala., from -East; rates to Milledgeville, Ga.; classification of cast-iron cane -mills; classification of locomotives and tenders. - - - - -SAFETY IN RAILROAD TRAVEL - -BY H. G. PROUT. - - The Possibilities of Destruction in the Great Speed of - a Locomotive--The Energy of Four Hundred Tons Moving at - Seventy-five Miles an Hour--A Look ahead from a Locomotive at - Night--Passengers Killed and Injured in One Year--Good Discipline - the Great Source of Safety--The Part Played by Mechanical - Appliances--Hand-brakes on Old Cars--How the Air brake Works--The - Electric Brake--Improvements yet to be Made--Engine Driver - Brakes--Two Classes of Signals: those which Protect Points - of Danger, and those which Keep an Interval between Trains - on the Same Track--The Semaphore--Interlocking Signals and - Switches--Electric Annunciators to Indicate the Movements--The - Block Signal System--Protection for Crossings--Gates and - Gongs--How Derailment is Guarded Against--Safety Bolts--Automatic - Couplers--The Vestibule as a Safety Appliance--Car Heating and - Lighting. - - -In 1829, when Ericsson's little locomotive "Novelty," weighing two -and a half tons, ran a short distance at the rate of thirty miles -an hour, a writer of the time said that "it was the most wonderful -exhibition of human daring and human skill that the world had -ever seen." To-day trains weighing four hundred tons thunder by -at seventy-five miles an hour, and we hardly note their passage. -We take their safety as a matter of course, and seldom think of -the tremendous possibilities of destruction stored up in them. But -seventy-five miles an hour is one hundred and ten feet a second, -and the energy of four hundred tons moving at that rate is nearly -twice as great as that of a 2,000-pound shot fired from a 100-ton -Armstrong gun. This is the extreme of weight and speed now reached -in passenger service, and, indeed, is very rarely attained, and -then but for short distances; but sixty miles is a common speed, -and a rate of forty or fifty miles is attained daily on almost -every railroad in the country. We cannot tell from the time-tables -how fast we travel. The schedule times do not indicate the delays -that must be made up by spurts between stations. The traveller -who is curious to know just how fast he is going, and likes the -stimulus of thinking that he is in a little danger, may find -amusement in taking the time between mile-posts; and when these -are not to be seen, he can often get the speed very accurately by -counting the rails passed in a given time. This may be done by -listening attentively at an open window or door. The regular clicks -of the wheels over the rail-joints can usually soon be singled out -from the other noises, and counted. The number of rail-lengths -passed in twenty seconds is almost exactly the number of miles run -in an hour. - -[Illustration: Danger Ahead!] - -But if one wants to get a lively sense of what it means to rush -through space at fifty or sixty miles an hour, he must get on a -locomotive. Then only does he begin to realize what trifles stand -between him and destruction. A few months ago a lady sat an hour -in the cab of a locomotive hauling a fast express train over a -mountain road. She saw the narrow bright line of the rails and -the slender points of the switches. She heard the thunder of the -bridges, and saw the track shut in by rocky bluffs, and new perils -suddenly revealed as the engine swept around sharp curves. The -experience was to her magnificent, but the sense of danger was -almost appalling. To have made her experience complete, she should -have taken one engine ride in a dark and rainy night. In a daylight -ride on a locomotive, we come to realize how slender is the rail -and how fragile its fastenings, compared with the ponderous machine -which they carry. We see what a trifling movement of a switch makes -the difference between life and death. We learn how short the look -ahead must often be, and how close danger sits on either hand. But -it is only in a night ride that we learn how dependent the engineer -must be, after all, upon the faithful vigilance of others. We -lean out of the cab and strain our eyes in vain to see ahead. The -head-light reveals a few yards of glistening rail, and the ghostly -telegraph poles and switch targets. Were a switch open, a rail -taken up, or a pile of ties on the track, we could not possibly see -the danger in time to stop. The friendly twinkle of a signal lamp, -shining faintly, red or white, tells the engineer that the way -is blocked or is clear, and he can only rush along trusting that no -one of a dozen men on whom his life depends has made a mistake. - -When one reflects upon the destructive energy which is contained -in a swiftly moving train, and sees its effects in a wreck; when -he understands how many minute mechanical details, and how many -minds and hands must work together in harmony to insure its safe -arrival at its destination, he must marvel at the safety of -railroad travel. In the year 1887, the passengers killed in train -accidents in the United States were 207; those injured were 916. -The employees killed were 406, and injured 890.[20] These were in -train accidents only, it must be remembered, and do not include -persons killed at crossings, or while trespassing on the track, -or employees killed and injured making up trains. As will be seen -later, the casualties in these two classes are much greater than -those from train accidents. The total passenger movement in 1887 -was equal to one passenger travelling 10,570,306,710 miles. That is -to say, a passenger might have travelled 51,000,000 miles before -being killed, or 12,000,000 miles before being injured. Or he might -travel day and night steadily at the rate of 30 miles an hour for -194 years before being killed. Mark Twain would doubtless conclude -from this that travelling by rail is much the safest profession -that a man could adopt. It is unquestionably true that it is safer -than travelling by coach or on horseback, and probably it is safer -than any other method of getting over the earth's surface that man -has yet contrived, unless it may be by ocean steamer. If one wants -anything safer he must walk. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: Stephenson's Steam Driver-brake. Patented 1833.] - -In considering the means that have been adopted to make railroad -travel safe, it must be remembered that there are very few devices -in use that are purely safety appliances. Nearly everything used on -a railroad has an economic or mechanical value, and if it promotes -safety that is but part of its duty. The great source of safety in -railroad working is good discipline. Of all the train accidents -which have happened in the United States in the last sixteen -years, nearly ten per cent. were due to negligence in operation, -and seventeen per cent. were unexplained. Of these no doubt many -were due to negligence, and many that were attributed to defects of -track and equipment would have been prevented, had men done their -duty. The value of mechanical appliances for safety is perhaps as -often overrated as underrated. Undoubtedly the best, and in the -long run the cheapest, practice will be that which combines in -the highest degree both elements--disciplined intelligence and -perfection of mechanical details. - -[Illustration: Driver-brake on Modern Locomotive.] - -First in importance among the mechanisms which demand attention -here is the brake. From the beginning of railroads the necessity -for brakes was apparent, and in 1833 Robert Stephenson patented a -steam driver-brake (the brake on the driving-wheels). This was but -four years after the Rainhill trials, which settled the question -of the use of locomotives on the Liverpool & Manchester Railroad. -This early brake contained the principle of the driver-brake, -operated by steam or air, which has in late years come into wide -use. The apparatus is so simple that the cut representing it hardly -needs explanation. Admission of steam into the cylinder raised -the piston, which through a lever and rod raised the toggle-joint -between the brake-blocks and forced them against the treads of -the wheels. Essentially the same method of applying the retarding -force can now be seen on most passenger engines, and often, but not -so commonly, on engines for freight service. For various reasons -Stephenson's driver-brake did not come into use. - -[Illustration: English Screw-brake, on the Birmingham and -Gloucester Road, about 1840.] - -Innumerable devices for car-brakes have been invented, but they -divide themselves into two groups: those in which the retarding -force is applied to the circumference of the wheel, and those in -which it is applied to the rail. The class of brakes in which -the retarding force is applied to the rail has been little used, -although various contrivances have been devised to transfer a -portion of the weight of the car from the wheels to runners sliding -on the rails. There are many objections to the principle, and it -will probably never again be seriously considered by railroad men. -The apparatus is necessarily heavy, the power required to apply it -is great, and its action is slow. When brought into action it is -not as efficient as the brake applied to the tread of the wheels, -and the transfer of the load increases the chance of derailment. - -[Illustration: English Foot-brake on the Truck of a Great Western -Coach, about 1840.] - -Many different devices have been used to apply the brake-shoes to -the wheels, and various sources of power. Hand-power brakes have -been used, worked by levers, or by screws, or by winding a chain -on a staff; or, in still other forms, springs wound up by hand are -released and apply the brakes by their pressure. The momentum of -the train has been employed to wind up chains by the rotation of -the axles. This is the principle of the chain-brake, very much used -in England. This same source of power has been utilized by causing -the drawheads, when thrust in as the cars run together, to wind up -the brake-chains. Hydraulic pressure has been used in cylinders -under the cars; and finally air, either under pressure or acting -against a vacuum, has been found to be the most useful of all means -of operating train-brakes. Early forms of hand-brakes are seen in -the illustrations of some old English cars. The coach shows a -hand-brake operated by a screw and system of levers. By turning -a crank the guard puts in operation the system of levers which -apply the brake with great force; but the operation is slow. The -common hand-brake of the United States is too well known to need -illustration. With this brake a chain is wound around the foot of -a staff, and the pull of this chain is transmitted by a rod to the -brake-levers. This apparatus is simple, and when a train is manned -by a sufficient number of smart brakemen it is capable of doing -good service. This simple form of hand-brake will probably be used -in freight-car service until it is replaced by air-brakes, and the -various forms of chain and momentum brakes do not appear likely to -be much more used in the future than they have been in the past. -Therefore, no further space will be given to them. - -The expression, electric brake, is now often heard, and requires -a word of explanation. There are various forms of so-called -electric brakes which are practicable, and even efficient, working -devices. In none of them, however, does electricity furnish -the power by which the brakes are applied; it merely puts in -operation some other power. In one type of electric brake the -active braking force is taken from an axle of each car. A small -friction-drum is made fast to the axle. Another friction-drum -hung from the body of the car swings near the axle. If, when -the car is in motion, these drums are brought in contact, that -one which hangs from the car takes motion from the other, and -may be made to wind a chain on its shaft. Winding in this chain -pulls on the brake-levers precisely as if it had been wound on -the shaft of the hand-brake. The sole function of electricity -in this form of brake is to bring the friction-drums together. -In a French brake which has been used experimentally for some -years with much success, an electric current, controlled by the -engine-driver, energizes an electro-magnet which forms part of -the swinging-frame in which the loose friction-pulley is carried. -This electro-magnet being vitalized, is attracted toward the axle, -thus bringing the friction-drums in contact. In an American brake -lately exhibited on a long freight train, a smaller electro-magnet -is used, but the same end is accomplished by multiplying the -power by the intervention of a lever and wheel. The other type of -so-called electric brake is that in which the motive power is -compressed air, and the function of the electric device is simply -to manipulate the valves under each car, by which the air is let -into the brake-cylinder or allowed to escape, thus putting on or -releasing the brakes. All of these devices have this advantage, -that, whatever the length of the train, the application of the -brakes is simultaneous on all the wheels, and stops can be made -from high speed with little shock. Up to two years ago it seemed -as if this advantage might be a controlling one, and compel the -introduction of electric brakes for freight service. Since then the -new "quick-acting" form of the air-brake has been developed, by -which the brakes are applied on the rear of a fifty-car train in -two seconds, and there is no longer any necessity to turn to other -devices. It is doubtful, therefore, if the additional complication -of electricity is widely introduced into brake mechanism for many -years, if ever. - -It is now universally held that the brake, both for freight and for -passenger service, must be continuous; that is, it must be applied -to every wheel of every car of the train from some one point, and -ordinarily that point must be the engineer's cab. With the valve of -an efficient continuous brake constantly under his left hand, the -engine-driver can play with the heaviest and fastest train. Without -that instrument his work is far more anxious, and much less certain. - -The continuous brake which to-day prevails all over the world, is -the automatic air-brake. In the United States much the largest part -of the rolling stock used in passenger service is equipped with the -Westinghouse automatic brake. A few roads peculiarly situated use -the Eames vacuum-brake. That brake is used on the elevated roads -of New York, and on the Brooklyn bridge roads. The Westinghouse -brake is also largely used in England, on the Continent of Europe, -in India, Australia, and South America. In the United States it is -being rapidly applied to freight cars also. This brake, therefore, -being the highest development of the automatic air-brake, and -the one most widely used, will be briefly described, as best -representing the most approved type of the most important of all -safety appliances. - -The general diagram which is given on pages 196-97 shows all of -the principal parts as applied to a locomotive, a tender, and a -passenger car. The diagram is reduced from one prepared by Mr. M. -N. Forney for a new edition of his "Catechism of the Locomotive." -In the plan view are shown very clearly the hand-wheels, the -chains, the rods, and the levers by which the brake is applied by -hand. In passenger service the hand-wheels are rarely used, but -they are retained for convenience in switching cars in the yard, -and for those rare emergencies in which the air-brakes fail. Under -the middle of the car the ordinary pull-rod of the old hand-brake -is cut and two levers are inserted. One lever is connected with -the brake-cylinder, and the other with the piston which slides in -that cylinder. When air is admitted to the cylinder the piston is -driven out, and the brakes are applied exactly as they would be -were the chains wound up by turning the hand-wheels. Compressed -air is supplied to the cylinder from the reservoir near it, in -which pressure is maintained at from 70 to 80 pounds per square -inch by a pump placed on one side of the locomotive. The pump fills -the main reservoir on the engine, and also the car-reservoirs, by -means of the train-pipe which extends under all the cars. When -the brakes are off there is a full pressure of air in all of the -car-reservoirs and train-pipes. It is a _reduction_ of the pressure -in the train-pipes which causes the brakes to be applied. - -[Illustration: Plan and Elevation of Air-brake -Apparatus.--Reservoirs and piping in solid black; brake gear -shaded.] - -This fact must be borne in mind, for it is on this principle that -the automatic action of the brakes depends. If a train parts, or -if the air leaks out of the train-pipe, the brakes go on. This -automatic principle is a vital one in most safety appliances, -and it is secured in the case of the air-brake by one of the -most ingenious little devices that man ever contrived, that is, -the triple valve, which is placed in the piping system between -the brake-cylinder and the car-reservoir. This triple valve has -passages to the brake-cylinder, to the car-reservoir, to the -train-pipe, and to the atmosphere. Which of these passages are -open and which are closed depends upon the position of a piston -inside of the triple valve, and the position of that piston is -determined by the difference in air-pressure on either side of it. -Thus, when the pressure in the train-pipe is greater than that in -the car-reservoir, the triple valve piston is forced over, say to -the left, a communication is opened from the train-pipe to the -car-reservoir, and the air pressure in the latter is restored from -the main reservoir on the locomotive. At the same time a passage is -opened from the brake-cylinder to the atmosphere, the compressed -air escapes, the brake-piston is driven back by a spring, and -the brakes are released. If the pressure in the train-pipe is -reduced, the triple-valve piston is driven to the right (we will -assume) by the pressure from the car-reservoir, the passage to the -atmosphere is closed, air flows freely from the car-reservoir to -the brake-cylinder, and the brakes are applied. - -The function of the engineer's valve is to control these -operations. Naturally the runner's left hand rests on this -instrument, which is fixed to the back head of the boiler. To apply -the brakes he turns the handle to such a position as to allow air -to escape from the train-pipe; to release, he turns it to allow air -to pass from the main or locomotive reservoir into the train-pipe, -and thence into the car-reservoir. It is hardly necessary to say -that the operation of the brake, which has been described for one -car, is practically simultaneous throughout the train. The brakes -on the driving-wheels of the engine are also automatically applied -at the same time as those of the cars and the tender. - -In the plan on page 197 the several different positions of the -handle of the engineer's valve are indicated, and among them the -service-stop and the emergency-stop positions. The quickness of -the stop can be to some degree controlled by the rapidity with -which the air-pressure in the train-pipe is reduced. To make a -stop in the shortest possible time, the runner moves the throttle -lever with his right hand and shuts off steam, and with his left -hand moves the handle of the engineer's valve to the emergency -position, then pulls the sand-rod handle to let sand down to the -rails, and finally, if the engine is not fitted with driver-brakes, -he must reverse the engine and again open the throttle. These -movements must be made in order and with precision; and to make -them instantly and without mistake in the face of sudden danger -requires coolness and presence of mind. It sometimes happens that -an engine-runner reverses his engine before shutting off steam, in -which case the cylinder-heads will very likely be blown out and the -engine be instantly disabled. Then, if there are no driver-brakes, -the locomotive is worse than useless, for instead of aiding in -making the stop, its momentum adds to the work to be done by the -train-brakes. Again, if the air-pressure in the brake-cylinders -is so high, and the adjustment of the levers such that an instant -application of the full pressure will stop the rotation of the -wheels, and cause them to slide on the rails, the stop will take -longer than if the wheels continued to revolve. The maximum -braking effect is obtained when the pressure on the wheels is -as great as it can be without causing them to slide, and it may -happen that a quicker stop can be made by putting the engineer's -valve to the service-stop position than by trying to make an -emergency-stop. The runner must, therefore, be familiar with the -special conditions of his brakes, and must have that kind of mind -which can be depended upon to work clearly and quickly in a moment -of tremendous responsibility. Fortunately, such minds are not very -rare. The world is full of heroes who want only discipline, habit, -and opportunity. - -The pressure of air in the main reservoir and the train-pipe is -maintained by the air-pump on the locomotive, the speed of which -is automatically regulated by an ingenious governor. It is the -throbbing of this vigilant machine which one hears during short -stops at stations. The air-pressure has been reduced in applying -the brakes, and the governor has set the pump at work. - -All of those parts of the air-brake apparatus which are shown in -the diagram (pp. 196-97) can be easily seen on a train standing -at a station; but the curious traveller must be careful not to -mistake the gas-tank carried under some cars for the car-reservoir. -The gas-tank is about eight feet long; the car-reservoir is about -thirty-three inches. - -Although the air-brake can almost talk, it is still not perfect. -There are several fortunes to be made yet in improving it. For -instance, it is desirable, in descending long and steep grades, -that the brake-pressure should be just sufficient to control the -speed of the train, and should be steadily applied; otherwise -the descent will be by a succession of jerks which may become -dangerous. With the automatic the brakes must be occasionally -released to recharge the reservoirs, or when the speed of the train -is too much reduced; and it is difficult to keep a uniform speed. -So far, the means devised to overcome this difficulty and keep a -constant and light pressure on the wheels have been thought too -costly or complicated for general use. With hand-brakes long trains -are controlled by the brakes of but a few of the cars in any one -train. It follows that in the descent of grades the braked wheels -must often run for miles with the pressure as great as it can be -without sliding the wheels. The rim of the wheel is rapidly heated -by the friction of the brake-shoe, and the unequal expansion of -the heated and the unheated parts of the wheel causes a fracture. -This is why so many broken car-wheels are found at the foot of -grades--of all places the worst for such an accident to happen. -With "straight air," that is, with the pressure from the main -reservoir, or the air-pump, going directly to the brake-cylinder, -the engineer can apply the brakes to all the wheels of his train -simultaneously, and with great delicacy of graduation; and by -turning a three-way cock which is placed in the piping of each -car, the air can be used "straight." This is regularly done on -some mountain-roads. At summits the trains are stopped and the -brakes are changed from "automatic" to "straight." This practice is -dangerous, however, and is not approved by the best brake-experts, -for if a hose bursts, or through some other accident the air in -the train-pipe escapes, the brakes are useless. The automatic -arrangement by which a reduction of air-pressure in the train-pipe -applies the brakes, as previously explained, is much preferred, -although no entirely satisfactory means has yet been devised for -automatically regulating the air-pressure in the brake-cylinder. - -There is not space here to enter into the history of the air-brake. -It was first practically applied to passenger trains in 1868. -The first great epoch in its subsequent development was the -invention, by Mr. George Westinghouse, Jr., of the triple valve. -The introduction of the triple valve at once reduced the time of -full application of the brake for a ten-car train from twenty-five -seconds to about eight seconds. This means, at forty miles an hour, -a reduction by more than one thousand feet in the distance in which -a train can be stopped. The next great epoch in the history of the -air-brake was made by the celebrated Burlington brake-trials of -1886 and 1887. These trials were undertaken by a committee of the -Master Car-builders' Association, to determine whether or not there -was any power-brake fit for freight service. For general freight -service the brake must be capable of arresting a very long train, -with cars loosely coupled, running at a fair average passenger -speed, without producing objectionable shocks in the rear of the -train. The two series of trials were carried out in July, 1886, -and May, 1887. The competing brake-companies brought to the trials -trains of fifty cars each, equipped with their devices. Skilled -mechanical engineers from various railroad and private companies -assisted both years. These trials were most exhaustive, and have -contributed more to the art of braking than any that preceded or -have followed them. The first year's trials developed the fact that -the air-brakes could not be applied on the rear of a fifty-car -train in less than eighteen seconds, whereas the head of a train -moving twenty miles an hour could be completely stopped in fifteen -seconds. The result was that disastrous collisions between the -cars of any one train were produced in the act of stopping. Men in -the rear cars were thrown down and injured, and much damage was -done to the cars. At the end of nineteen days the brake-companies -went home to work another year over the new problem. In 1887 they -reappeared on the same ground, and in eighteen days proved that -no simple air-brakes, as then operated, could prevent disastrous -shocks in a long train; but it was shown that by bringing in -electricity to actuate the air-valves, the application of the -brakes could be made practically simultaneous throughout the train. -Mr. Westinghouse, however, during the summer following, made such -modifications in the triple valve and in the train-pipe that he -succeeded in applying the brakes throughout a fifty-car train in -two seconds. That settled the matter. He at once equipped a train -of fifty cars, and in October and November, 1887, that train made -a journey of about three thousand miles, making exhibition stops -at various cities. The journey was a splendid and conclusive -demonstration that the air-brake is now a thoroughly efficient -and reliable contrivance for freight as well as for passenger -service. The result has been a very rapid application of the new -quick-acting brake to freight cars. The performance of this train -was to railroad men most impressive. A freight train of fifty cars -is about one-third of a mile long. To see such a train, running -forty miles an hour, smoothly stopped in one-third of its own -length, without shock or fuss, was an object-lesson that no one -could fail to understand or to remember. Some of the stops made by -this train will give a fair notion of the relative power of hand- -and air-brakes for quick stops. The following figures are averages -of stops made in six different cities. They give the distances run -in feet from the instant of applying the brakes till the train was -brought to a stand-still: - - Feet. - Hand-brakes, 50 cars, 20 miles an hour 794 - Air-brakes, 50 cars, 20 miles an hour 166 - Air-brakes, 50 cars, 40 miles an hour 581 - Air-brakes, 20 cars, 20 miles an hour 99 - -With twenty cars at twenty miles an hour even shorter stops were -made than those recorded above. In the Burlington trials the -hand-brake stops, with fifty-car trains at forty miles an hour, -were made in from two thousand five hundred to three thousand feet. - -[Illustration: Dwarf Semaphores and Split Switch.] - -The air-brake is somewhat complicated, but the complicated -mechanism is strong, has little movement, and is securely protected -from dirt and the elements. It is therefore little liable to -derangement. It is, however, becoming better understood that -brake-gear must be good, and employees carefully instructed in -the care and use of the air-brake to get its best results; and in -recent years two or three elaborate instruction-cars have been -fitted up for the education of the enginemen and trainmen. - -Space does not permit more than an allusion to driver-brakes, -which are operated by steam and by air. The forms in constant use -are made by the Eames, the American, the Westinghouse, and the -Beals companies. Nor can much be said here of the water-brake, -used to some extent on locomotives working heavy grades. It -consists of a simple arrangement of admitting a little hot water, -instead of steam, to the cylinders. The engine is reversed and the -cylinder-cocks are opened to the air. The cylinders then act as -air-pumps, and the retarding effect is due to the back pressure. -The use of the water is to prevent overheating of the parts. - -[Illustration: Semaphore Signal with Indicators. - -(One arm governs several tracks. The number of the track which is -clear is shown on the indicator disk.)] - -If it is important to have efficient means of stopping trains, -it is scarcely less important to have timely information of the -need of stopping them. To give such information is the function -of signals, which, among safety appliances, must stand next after -brakes. Signals fall naturally into two great classes: Those which -protect points of danger and govern the movements of engines in -yards, and those which keep an interval of space between two trains -running on one track. For the protection of switches, crossings, -junctions, and the like, signals in immense variety have been used, -and, unfortunately, are still used; but in the last ten or fifteen -years the semaphore signal has become the general standard in the -United States, as it long has been in England. This consists of a -board, called the blade or arm, pivoted on the post, and back of -the pivot is a heavy casting which carries a colored glass lens, -either green or red. On the post is hung a lantern. The danger -position is with the blade horizontal. In this position the lens is -in front of the lamp, and the light shows red or green, as the case -may be. The safety position is with the blade hanging about sixty -degrees from the horizontal. In this position the light of the -lantern shows white. Red is the universal danger color, and green -the color of caution. Therefore, a semaphore signal at a point -of danger shows by day a blade painted red, with the end of the -blade cut square. At night it shows a red light. At a position some -distance from the point of actual danger, but where it is desirable -to warn an engine-runner that he is likely to find the danger -signal against him, a caution signal is placed. This is a semaphore -blade painted green, with the end notched in a V-shape, or, as it -is called, a fish-tail. At night this signal shows a green light. -There is nothing very remarkable about a piece of board arranged to -wag up and down on a pin stuck through a post, but it is wonderful -how much of good brains and good breath have been expended in -getting these boards to wag harmoniously, and in getting railroad -officers to understand that a plain board, having two possible -positions, is a better signal than any more complicated form. - -[Illustration: Section of Saxby & Farmer Interlocking Machine. - -(Showing two levers and locking mechanism. _A_ is normal, _B_ is -reversed.)] - -The arrangement of a group of signals and switches in such a way -that their movements are made mutually dependent one upon the -other, and so that it is impossible to make these movements in -any but prearranged sequences, is called, in railroad vernacular, -"interlocking," and in this sense the word will be used here. -Interlocking has become a special art. The objects which it is -sought to accomplish by interlocking, and the admirable way in -which those objects are attained, may best be understood from an -actual example. For that purpose we shall take a double-track -junction completely equipped with signals, facing-point locks, and -derailing switches (p. 205). - -A general view of an interlocking frame was given on page 171 of -this volume. Two levers from such a frame are here shown. The -normal position of the levers is forward, as lever _A_. When pulled -back, as lever _B_, the lever is said to be reversed. - -Let it be supposed that a main-line train is to be passed eastward -in the direction of the arrow _B_. The first movement of the -signalman in the signal-tower would naturally be to lower signals -1 and 2. He attempts to pull over lever 1, but cannot move it, -and, in spite of any effort or ingenuity on his part, that signal -remains at danger. The reason is that lever 2 when normal locks -lever 1 normal. The logic of this will be at once apparent. -Clearing signal 1 is an indication to the engineer that the way -is clear, and that he may pass the junction at speed. So long as -this signal (which, it must be remembered, is a _caution_ signal) -stands at danger he knows that he may pass it, but must be ready to -stop before he reaches No. 2, the home-signal. Therefore No. 1 must -never be lowered till all is arranged for passing the junction at -speed. As the signalman cannot lower signal 1, he attempts to lower -signal 2. Again he finds that he cannot budge the lever. It is -locked by lever No. 3. This lever works a facing-point lock, which -must be described just at this point (p. 206). - -[Illustration: Diagram of a Double-track Junction with Interlocked -Switches and Signals. - -_A_ is the west-bound main line track; _B_, the east-bound; _C_ and -_D_ are the west-bound and east-bound branch-tracks. Nos. 1, 10, -and 12 are distant signals; Nos. 2, 9, and 11, home signals; Nos. -3, 6, and 8, facing-point locks; and Nos. 4, 5, and 7 are switches. -The levers which move all of these parts are placed side by side -in a frame in the signal-tower. It will be noticed that No. 7 is a -switch designed merely to derail an engine on track A. A similar -switch is provided on track _C_, and is worked by the same lever -which works junction switch No. 5. In the sketch all levers are -supposed to stand in their "normal" position, all signals are at -danger, and the switches are set for the main line. The switches -themselves are not locked in this position of the facing-point lock -levers.] - -The front rod of the switch, that is, the rod which connects the -points of the two moving rails of the switch, is pierced with -two holes placed a distance apart just equal to the throw of the -switch. In front of these holes is a bolt which is worked by a -lever in the signal-tower. After the switch is set the lock-lever -is reversed and the bolt enters one of the holes, thus securely -locking the switch in position. There is one other interesting -feature of this facing-point lock. It has happened very often -that a switch has been thrown under a moving train, splitting the -train and derailing more or less of it. This class of accidents is -especially likely to happen when train movements are very frequent, -and may be prevented by the use of the "detector-bar." This is a -bar about forty feet long, placed alongside the rail, and carried -on swinging links, like those of a parallel ruler, in such a way -that any effort to move the bar lengthwise of the rail must raise -it above the top of the rail. This bar is moved by the same lever -which moves the locking-bolt. So long as there is a wheel on the -rail above the detector-bar it cannot be moved, therefore the -locking-bolt cannot be withdrawn, and the switch cannot be moved -until the train has passed completely off it. - -[Illustration: Split Switches with Facing-point Locks and -Detector-bars. - -(The rod on the right of the track is the mechanical connection to -the lever in the signal-tower by which the locks and detector-bars -are moved.)] - -[Illustration: Derailing Switch.] - -We left the signalman trying to lower signal No. 2; vainly, because -No. 3 lever was still normal and the switch unlocked (Diagram, -p. 205). Probably he would not have begun his operations in the -bungling way that has been supposed, but would have first reversed -lever 3. That locks the switch by the facing-point lock, and locks -also switch-lever 4 in the frame in the signal-tower and releases -lever 2. Then he reverses lever 2. That locks lever 3 and releases -lever 1. Then he reverses lever 1, which locks lever 2. Now the way -is made for a train to pass east on the main line, and the signals -are clear. The last signal could not have been lowered until the -chain of operations was complete; none of the levers can now be -moved until lever 1 is again put normal and signal 1 made to show -danger. There is one point of great danger in this particular -train-movement which has not been mentioned; that is, the crossing -of main-line east-bound track _B_ by the branch-line west-bound -track _C_. It will be noticed that with the levers normal, -derailing switch 5 is open, and it is impossible for a locomotive -to pass beyond it. Lever 5 is interlocked in the tower with lever -4 in such a way that, before 5 can be reversed to let a train pass -west from _C_, lever 4 must be reversed to trap any train on _B_ -and turn it down the branch _D_. It must not be understood that the -use of "derailers" is universal. In fact, they are not recommended -by the best signal engineers, except in special conditions. In the -absence of derailer No. 5, signals 11 and 12 would be interlocked -with switch 4, so that, so long as that switch stands open for the -main line a clear signal cannot be given to a train coming west -on _C_. It will be noticed that signal 2 carries two semaphores -on one post. The upper one is for the main line and the lower one -for the branch. Both are operated by one lever, 2, and whether -reversing lever 2 lowers the main-line signal or the branch signal -depends on the position of the switch. The switch is made to pick -out its signal by an ingenious but very simple little arrangement, -called a selector, which is placed somewhere in the line of ground -connections. - -It would be an interesting study, were there space, to follow -the possible and proper combinations of movements to pass trains -over the various tracks. It will be seen that, by concentrating -the levers which move switches and signals in one place and -interlocking them, it is made mechanically impossible for a -signalman to give a signal which would lead to a collision or a -derailment within the region under his control. The only danger -at such points is that an engineer may overrun the signals. This -description of the objects and the capacity of the system of -interlocking is no fancy sketch. The system has been in use for -many years, doing just what has been here described, and more. A -recent close estimate gave the number of interlocked levers now in -use in the United States as about eight thousand, and the number -is rapidly increasing. Recent official reports showed that in -Great Britain and Ireland there were thirty-eight thousand cases -in which a passenger line was connected with or crossed by another -line, siding, or cross-over. In eighty-nine per cent. of these -cases the levers operating the switches and protecting signals were -interlocked. - -The example of interlocking which has been given is one of the -simplest; the principle is capable of almost indefinite expansion, -and any one lever may be made to lock any one or more levers among -hundreds in the same frame. The greatest number of levers assembled -in any one signal-tower in this country is one hundred and sixteen, -at the Grand Central Station in New York. In the London Bridge -tower there are two hundred and eighty levers. This is probably the -greatest number in any one tower in the world. All of these levers -may be more or less interlocked. The same principle is applied to -the locking of two levers at a single switch, and to the protection -of drawbridges and highway crossings. - -The mechanism by which the interlocking is done is strong and -comparatively simple, but a detailed description of it seems out -of place here. Two levers from a Saxby & Farmer machine are shown -on page 204, with lever _A_ normal and _B_ reversed. The locking -mechanism is in front of the levers, and is actuated not by the -levers themselves, but by their catch-rods. It follows that it is -not the actual movement of a signal which prevents the movement of -other signals, or of switches, but it is the intention to move that -signal. This principle of "preliminary locking" is one of great -importance. - -Switches and signals are often worked at such distances from the -tower that it is impossible for the operator to know whether or -not the movement contemplated has taken place. The British Board -of Trade does not permit switches to be worked more than 750 feet -away. In this country there is no limit, but probably 800 feet is -very rarely exceeded. Signals are worked in England up to 3,000 or -3,500 feet very commonly, and they are even worked a mile away, -but not satisfactorily. This is with direct mechanical connection, -by rod or wire, from the levers. It is obvious that a break in the -connections between the lever and the switch or signal might take -place, and the lever be pulled over, without having produced the -corresponding movement at the far end. The locking mechanism in the -tower would not be affected by such an accident, and consequently -conflicting signals might be given. Even this contingency is -provided against with almost perfect safety. If a signal connection -breaks, the signal is counter-weighted to go to danger. The worst -that can happen is to delay traffic. If a switch connection breaks, -the locking-bolt, in the latest form of facing-point lock, will not -enter the hole in the switch-rod, and consequently warning is given -in the tower that the switch has not moved. Electric annunciators -are often placed in the signal-tower, to show on a board before the -operator whether or not the movements of switches and signals have -taken place. - -Considerable work must be done in the movement of each lever. -The ground connections must be put down with great care, as -nearly straight and level as may be, well drained, and protected -from ice and snow. All of these difficulties have been overcome -in a beautiful pneumatic interlocking apparatus which has been -introduced within the last two or three years. In this system -the motive power is compressed air. Near each switch is a small -cylinder, containing a piston which is attached directly to the -switch movement. Compressed air admitted to one side or the other -of this piston moves the switch one way or the other. But, as it -would take some time for the necessary quantity of air to flow -from the signal-tower to a distant switch, a small reservoir -is placed near the switch, and the air from this reservoir is -admitted to one end or the other of the switch cylinder according -to the position of a valve. For transmitting the motion from the -tower to the valve compressed air might be used, but, as air is -elastic, a quicker movement is got by using in the pipes some -liquid which does not readily freeze, and which, being practically -non-compressible, transmits an impulse given at one end almost -instantly to the other. The signals are worked in essentially the -same manner as the switches, except that the pneumatic valves are -moved by electricity. The tower apparatus of a pneumatic system in -the yard of the Pennsylvania Railroad at Pittsburg is shown in the -engraving opposite. In the front of the apparatus is seen a rank -of small handles, which can be turned from side to side with as -much ease as the keys of a piano can be depressed. Turning one of -these handles admits compressed air to the end of a pipe containing -liquid. Instantly the pressure is transmitted 500 or 1,000 feet -to the valve at the switch to be moved. The small levers are -interlocked perfectly, and in that particular perform the duties of -the ordinary machine. A model of the tracks controlled is placed -before the operator, showing the switches and signals, and when -a movement is made on the ground it is at once repeated back by -electricity and duplicated on the model. This beautiful system is -due to the same genius that gave us the perfected air-brake and the -triple valve, and is the greatest improvement that has been made in -interlocking in the last dozen years. - -[Illustration: Interlocking Apparatus for Operating Switches and -Signals by Compressed Air, Pittsburg Yards, Pennsylvania Railroad. - -(A model of the track is shown above the levers, on which the -movements of the switches and signals are electrically indicated -after they are completed.)] - -[Illustration: Torpedo Placer. - -(The torpedo is carried forward by the plunger and exploded by the -depression of the hammer shown near the rail.)] - -If the reader has grasped the full significance of interlocking, he -understands that it makes it impossible to give a signal that would -lead to a collision or to a derailment at a misplaced switch. The -worst that a stupid, or drunken, or malicious signalman could do -would be to delay traffic, if the signals were obeyed. Here comes -in the failing case. The brake-power may be insufficient to stop a -train after a danger signal is given. That is a rare occurrence, -but may happen. The engineer may not see the danger signal because -of fog, or he may carelessly run past it. Provision against a -failure to see and to obey a signal may be made by placing on the -track a torpedo, which will explode with a loud report when struck -by a wheel. The use of hand-torpedoes in fogs, and for emergencies -in places unprovided with fixed signals, is very common. These are -little disks filled with a detonating powder, and provided with -tin straps that are bent down to clasp over the top of the rail. -A simple and very efficient torpedo machine, which has been used -for some years on the Manhattan Elevated and elsewhere, is here -shown. This machine has a magazine holding five torpedoes. It is -connected to a signal-lever in such a way that, when the signal is -put to danger, one torpedo is placed in a position to be exploded -by the first passing wheel. When the signal returns to the clear -position the torpedo, if unexploded, is withdrawn to the magazine. -If the torpedo is exploded another one takes its place at the next -movement of the signal-lever. One of these machines on the Elevated -Road moves about five thousand times every day. In such a case a -torpedo would soon be worn out if it was not exploded or frequently -changed. When this apparatus is in operation, an unmistakable -alarm is at once given to the engineer and to others if a danger -signal is passed. On the Manhattan Elevated lines an engineman who -overruns a danger signal and can show no good reason for it is -suspended for the first offence, and discharged for the second. The -torpedo makes it impossible for him to escape detection. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: Old Signal Tower on the Philadelphia & Reading, at -Phœnixville.] - -The second great class of signals comprises those which are -intended to keep fixed intervals of space between trains running -on the same track. These are block signals. The block system is -used on a few of the railroads of the United States which have -the heaviest and fastest traffic. Much the most common practice -in this country, however, is to run trains by time intervals, and -under the constant control of the train despatcher. In England the -block system is almost universal. About ninety per cent. of all the -passenger lines of that country are worked under the absolute block -system. - -When the block system is not used, it is quite common to protect -particularly dangerous points, such as curves and deep cuts, by -stationing watchmen there with flags or with some form of fixed -signal. The watchman can notify an approaching engine-runner that -a preceding train has or has not passed beyond his own range of -vision; or can notify him that it has been gone a certain time. -Travellers by the Philadelphia & Reading must have noticed the -queer structures, with revolving vanes on top, looking like a -feeble sort of windmill, which appear in positions to command a -view of cuts, curves, etc. These are examples of the devices for -local protection. The non-automatic block signal develops naturally -from the protection of scattered points. Instead of placing -watchmen at points of especial danger, they are placed at regular -intervals of one mile, two miles, or five miles. Instead of the -watchman looking to see that a train has disappeared from his field -of vision before he lets another train pass, he uses the eyes of -the next watchman ahead, who telegraphs back that the train has -passed his station. Suppose A, B, and C to be three block-signal -stations placed at intervals of two miles. When a train passes A, -the operator at that point at once puts a signal to danger behind -it. This signal stands at danger until the train passes B, and -the operator puts his signal to danger, and telegraphs back to A -to announce that train No. 1 has passed out of the block A B, and -is protected by the signal at B. Then, and not until then, the -operator clears the signal at A and allows train No. 2 to enter -the block. Meanwhile train No. 1 is proceeding through the block -B C, its rear protected at B; and the same sequence of events -happens when it arrives at C as happened at B. This is the simplest -form of block signalling. In the more elaborate form there are at -each block-station three signals--the distant, the home, and the -starting. The signals are often electrically interlocked, from -one station to another, in such a way that it is mechanically -impossible for the operator at A to give a signal for a train to -pass that station until the signal at B has been put to danger -behind the preceding train. - - A B C - ----------------------------- - -It is seen that no two trains can be in the same block and on the -same track at the same time. If all run at a uniform speed, they -will be kept just the length of a block apart. If No. 2 is faster -than No. 1, it will arrive at B before No. 1 gets to C, but will -have to wait there. The block system, therefore, while it gives -security, does not always facilitate traffic. The longer the blocks -the greater will be the delay to trains; but the shorter the -blocks, the greater the cost of establishment, maintenance, and -operation. - -Various systems have been contrived to have block signals displayed -automatically by the passage of trains. This, if it can be done -reliably, will do away with the wages of part of the operators, and -will also eliminate the dangers arising from human carelessness. -But there are very great objections to relying solely upon the -automatic action of signals, and automatic block signals are little -used except as auxiliary to a system employing operators also. -So used, they are of decided advantage, as they make sure that a -danger signal is set behind every train in spite of the operator, -and that it cannot be again set to the all-clear position till the -train has passed out of the block. All this is accomplished by -electricity. - -Brakes, interlocking, and the apparatus of signalling have been -considered at length because they are very much the most important -of all the appliances which go to increase the safety of operating -railroads. They act chiefly to prevent collisions, but often -prevent or mitigate accidents from derailments and other causes. -Of all train-accidents happening in the last sixteen years, over -one-third have been from collisions, and more than one-half from -derailments. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: Crossing Gates worked by Mechanical Connection from -the Cabin.] - -After brakes and signals, the devices next in importance as means -of saving life are those for the protection of highway crossings -at the grade of railroads. In years to come, as wealth increases -and as traffic becomes more crowded, we may suppose there will -be few such crossings; but their abolition must be slow, and -meantime the loss of life at them is great. The most accurate and -complete statistics bearing on this matter are those collected -by the Railroad Commissioners of Massachusetts. In 1888, of all -those killed in the operation of the railroads of the State, seven -per cent. were passengers, thirty-three per cent. were employees, -and sixty per cent. were others. The others include trespassers, -forty-seven per cent.; and killed at grade crossings, eleven per -cent. More trespassers were killed than any other class; but the -deaths at highway crossings considerably exceeded those among -passengers. The difficulty of preventing this class of accidents -is strikingly shown by the fact that, of all crossing accidents, -forty-two per cent. were due to the victims' disregard of warnings -given by closed gates or flags. It is evident that the efforts of -the railroad companies to save people's lives at crossings are -largely nullified by the carelessness of the public, and the lack -of proper laws to punish those who venture upon railroad tracks -when they should keep off them. Still, it remains the duty and -the policy of the railroads to protect street crossings by all -practicable means. The best protection is afforded by gates with -watchmen, and of all forms of gate the most common, because it -is the simplest and most convenient to operate, is the familiar -arm-gate. This is usually worked by a man turning a crank, but it -is also worked by compressed air. On this page is shown a group of -gates worked from an elevated cabin by a mechanical connection. A -bell fixed at a crossing, to be rung by an approaching train, is a -very useful auxiliary to gates and to watchmen with flags, and is -considerably used where the traffic does not warrant the expense -of maintaining a watchman. There are several good devices of this -sort, either electric or magneto-electric. One of the latter class -has a lever alongside the rail, which is depressed by each wheel -that passes over it. This lever is geared to a fly-wheel, which -is set rapidly revolving and causes an armature to revolve in the -field of a magnet, and thus generates a current and rings a gong, -precisely as is done with the familiar magnetic bell used with the -telephone. - -[Illustration: Some Results of a Butting Collision--Baggage and -Passenger Cars Telescoped.] - -[Illustration: Wreck at a Bridge.] - -About thirteen per cent. of the train-accidents in the United -States, in the last sixteen years, were derailments due to defects -of road. These include not only defective rails, switches, and -frogs, but bridge wrecks. There are, however, few devices used in -the track, other than those already mentioned, that can be called -safety appliances. This class of accidents is to be provided -against only by good material, good workmanship, and unceasing -care. Many so-called safety switches and safety frogs are offered -to railroad officers, but those actually in wide use are confined -to a very few standard forms. The split-switch, which is shown in -the engravings on pages 206 and 207, has gradually replaced the old -stub-switch, as well as most of the "safety" switches that have -been from time to time introduced; although the stub-switch is -still in considerable use in yards where movements are slow, and -in the main tracks of the less progressive roads. It consists of a -pair of moving rails the ends of which are brought opposite to the -ends of the main-line rails, or to those of the turnout, as the -case may be. It follows that but one of these tracks is continuous -at any one time, and a train reaching the switch by the other -track must be derailed. The distressing accident which happened at -Rio, Wis., in 1886, where seventeen people lost their lives, was -a derailment of this sort. Since that time the railroad on which -the accident happened has taken out all stub-switches on thousands -of miles of main-line track. The split-switch provides against -such derailments, for if the switch is set for the turnout, and a -train approaches it from the main line in the "trailing" direction, -the flanges of the wheels move the switch-rails to make the track -continuous. The terms "facing" and "trailing," as applied to -switches, are almost self-explanatory. If a train approaches toward -the points of the moving rails, the switch is said to be facing. If -it runs through the switch from the rear of the moving rails, the -switch is said to be trailing. This will be made clear by reference -to the illustration on page 206. If a train were coming from the -bridge, the first switch reached by it would be a trailing and -the second a facing switch. In the newspaper reports an accident -will very often be assigned to one of two causes, failure of the -air-brakes or spreading of the rails. The chances are that it will -be found on investigation to be due to neither of these causes. -Those interested to maintain the credit of the air-brake or of the -track department are not often on the ground when the reporter -gets his information, and the temptation is always great to shift -the responsibility to the shoulders of the absent. Probably -the displacement of the rail will have taken place after the -derailment; but rails do sometimes spread. Loose spikes and rotten -ties allow the outer edge of the rail-flange to sink into the wood, -and the rail to roll outward enough to let the wheels drop. Sound -ties are the first safeguard against such accidents. Metal plates -under the rails are useful also; but one of the most efficient -means of preventing displacement of the rails is the interlocking -bolt shown above. These bolts cross in the timber, and slots cut -in the two bolts engage with each other in such a way that when -the nuts are screwed down on the rail-flange it is impossible to -pull the bolts out. They can only be moved by tearing through the -wood contained in the angle between them. This bolt is much used -on bridges and trestles, where it is of vital importance that the -rails should be held in place and no part of the floor broken. - -[Illustration: New South Norwalk Drawbridge. Rails held by safety -bolts.] - -In 1853 an express train went through an open draw at South -Norwalk, Conn., and forty-six lives were lost. This, one of the -most serious railroad accidents that ever happened, is still -remembered as an historical calamity. The bridge which stands on -the same site is shown opposite. In May, 1888, a west-bound express -train, consisting of an engine and seven cars, was derailed just as -it was entering the draw-span. The train ran three hundred feet on -the sleepers before it was stopped. Then it was found that all of -the driving-wheels of the engine had regained the rails, but all -the other wheels were off, except those of two sleeping-cars in the -rear. This was a remarkable escape from a bad accident, and much -of the credit of it has been given to the interlocking bolts with -which the rails were fastened. They are supposed to have prevented -the rails being crowded aside, and thus to have made possible the -rerailing of the engine. Besides, they helped the oak guard-timbers -to hold the ties in place. The destruction of a bridge in an -accident frequently begins by the ties bunching in front of the -wheels and allowing the wheels to drop through and strike the -floor-beams below. For this reason guard-timbers, notched down over -the ties, should always be used. - -[Illustration: Engines Wrecked during the Great Wabash Strike.] - -The traveller will have noticed, on all bridges of various roads, -two rails placed inside the track-rails, and curved to meet in -a point at either end of the bridge. These are known as inside -guard-rails, and their function is to keep derailed trucks in line -till the train can be stopped. Besides the bunching of the ties, -there is danger in a bridge derailment that a truck may swing -around and strike one of the trusses. Then the bridge is very -likely to be wrecked. A further provision for the protection of -bridges is the rerailing frog invented by the late Charles Latimer, -whose name is dear to railroad men all over America. This consists -of a pair of castings combined with inside guard-rails, designed -to raise the derailed wheels and guide them on to the rails. There -is no doubt that it has prevented several wrecks, although it has -never been widely used. The subject of bridges should not be left -without a word of explanation of the stout timber-posts often seen -at either end placed in line with the trusses. These are designed -to stop any derailed vehicle which might otherwise strike against -and destroy a truss. - - * * * * * - -There is one track-fixture that has no duty or value except as -it promotes safety. It helps only one humble class of railroad -employees. That device is the foot-guard. At all places where two -rails cross or approach each other, as at frogs and guard-rails, -dangerous boot-jacks are formed by the rail-heads. The overhang of -the heads of the rail makes it easy for one to so fasten his foot -in one of those boot-jacks that it is hard to get it out. If a man -finds himself in this position in front of an approaching train, he -sometimes has the alternative of standing up to be struck by the -engine or lying down and having his foot cut off. Fortunately this -class of accidents is comparatively rare; probably not more than -two or three per cent. of all deaths and injuries to passengers -and employees is caused in this way. Nevertheless, the means of -guarding against accidents of this class is so cheap that it should -be more generally adopted than it is. It consists simply in partly -filling the space between the rail-heads by putting in wooden -blocks or strips of metal, or even packing with cinders, gravel, or -any sort of ballast. Various wooden and metal foot-guards have been -patented. They are all too simple to require description. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: Link-and-pin Coupler.] - -Of all accidents to employees the most numerous are those which -arise in coupling and uncoupling cars. In Massachusetts, in 1888, -the employees killed and injured were 391; of these casualties -154 occurred in coupling accidents. The commissioners of other -States, especially of Iowa, have for years published statistics -showing nearly the same ratio. Fortunately accidents of this class, -although numerous, are not proportionately fatal. Far the greater -part of them result in the loss of part of a hand; but they are -so frequent as to have caused much discussion, legislation, and -invention. Several States have, one time and another, passed laws -requiring the use of automatic couplers; and two or three years -ago there were on record in the United States over four thousand -coupler patents. The laws have been futile because impracticable; -and most of the patents have been worthless for the same reason. -It was obvious that the business of supplying couplers for the -one million freight cars of the country could not be put into -the hands of some one patentee unless his device was manifestly -and pre-eminently superior to all others. It became important, -therefore, to select as a standard some type of coupler general -enough to include the patents of various men, and at the same time -so definite that all couplers made to conform to the standard -could work together interchangeably. Those who read Mr. Voorhees' -story[21] of the wanderings of a freight car will understand -that any one freight car in the United States or Canada should -be prepared to run in the same train with any other car. A few -years ago a committee of the Master Car-builders' Association was -appointed to choose and recommend a type of coupler to be adopted -as the standard of the association. After prolonged and careful -study of the subject, the committee recommended the type of which -the Janney is the best known example, and that has now become the -standard of the association. This action does not give a monopoly -to the Janney company, as there are already half a dozen couplers -which conform to the type. This coupler is shown by diagrams in the -article by M. N. Forney, page 142. A perspective view is herewith -given. This device couples automatically, and thus does away with -the necessity for the brakeman going between the cars. It can also -be unlocked by the rod shown extending to the side of the car, -and the locking device can be set not to couple, to facilitate -switching and yard work. The mechanical principles of this coupler -are a great and important improvement upon any form of link-and-pin -coupler; and the coupler question has now come to this point: A -type of coupler has been selected by a technical body representing -most of the railroads of the United States. It is general enough to -avoid the evils of a patent monopoly. It promises to be economical -in operation, and will certainly do away with the terrible loss -of life and limb which results from the use of the non-automatic -coupler. The railroads are adopting it with reasonable speed, -perhaps, but not as rapidly as simple considerations of humanity -would dictate. - -[Illustration: Janney Automatic Coupler applied to a Freight Car.] - -Closely related to the coupler is the vestibule, which within -the last two years has become so fashionable. The vestibule -is not merely a luxury, but has a certain value as a safety -device.[22] The full measure of this value has not yet been proved. -Occasionally lives are lost by passengers falling from or being -blown from the platforms of moving trains. Such accidents the -vestibule will prevent, and, further, it decreases the oscillation -of the cars, and thus to some degree helps to prevent derailment. -It is also some protection against telescoping. A few months ago a -coal train on a double-track road was derailed, and four cars were -thrown across in front of a solid vestibule train of seven Pullman -cars approaching on the other track. The engine of the vestibuled -train was completely wrecked. Even the sheet-iron jacket was -stripped off it. The engineer and fireman were instantly killed, -but not another person on the train was injured. They escaped -partly because the cars were strong, and partly, doubtless, because -the vestibules helped to keep the platforms on the same level and -in line, and thus to prevent crushing of the ends of the cars. - -[Illustration: Signals at Night.] - -The number of passengers burned in wrecks is greatly exaggerated -in the public mind; but that fate is so horrible that it is -not wonderful that "the deadly car-stove" should be the object -of persistent and energetic attacks by the press and in State -legislatures. The result has been the development, in the last -three years, of the entirely new business of inventing and -trying to sell systems of heating by steam or hot water from the -locomotive, and even by electricity. In fact, the manufacture of -such apparatus has already become an industry of some importance, -several thousand cars being equipped with it. This whole matter -of steam-heating is still in a somewhat crude state, and it -does not seem desirable to force it by legislation. It has been -demonstrated that it is the cheapest way of heating trains, and the -most easily regulated; and it has become a good advertisement to -attract passengers. Consequently the whole subject may be safely -left in the hands of the railroad companies, and allowed to develop -itself naturally in a business way. There is not yet any system -of continuous heating so perfected that a railroad company could -without hardship be compelled to adopt it for all its passenger -equipment. - -Fires in wrecked trains have originated probably quite as often -from kerosene lamps as from the stoves. The danger of fire from -this source, and the desire to give passengers the luxury of -sufficient light, have led to methods of lighting by gas and, -more recently by electricity. Lighting by compressed gas ceased -years ago to be an experiment. In Germany it is almost universal, -but in this country it has been brought into use very slowly. The -system is almost absolutely safe, not unreasonably expensive, and -may be made to give satisfactory and even brilliant illumination; -but the ideal light for railroad trains will probably be found in -electricity. It is even safer than gas, and is the most adaptable -of any known method of lighting. Some sleeping-cars that have -been recently put in service on the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul -Railway are provided with small electric lamps in the sides of the -car, between each two adjoining seats, so that the occupants can -read comfortably either when sitting in their seats or lying in -their berths. - - * * * * * - -It is not to be supposed that so large a subject as that of safety -appliances can be exhaustively treated within the limits of one -article. It has been thought best, therefore, to give most of the -space available to the two or three devices of greatest and most -useful application. There remain various others that are in daily -use, and that have important offices, which have not even been -mentioned. If the reader has gleaned from these very incomplete -notes some clearer notions than he had before of the means by which -the power of the locomotive is guided into safe and useful paths, -the writer's object has been accomplished. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[20] The statistics of train accidents used in this article are -those collected and published monthly for many years by the -_Railroad Gazette_. In the nature of things such statistics cannot -be absolutely accurate, but no others are in existence for the -whole country. These are sufficiently accurate for all practical -purposes. - -[21] See "The Freight-car Service," page 267. - -[22] See "Railway Passenger Travel," page 249. - - - - -RAILWAY PASSENGER TRAVEL. - -BY HORACE PORTER. - - The Earliest Railway Passenger Advertisement--The First - Time-table Published in America--The Mohawk and Hudson - Train--Survival of Stage-coach Terms in English Railway - Nomenclature--Simon Cameron's Rash Prediction--Discomforts - of Early Cars--Introduction of Air-brakes, Patent Buffers - and Couplers, the Bell-cord, and Interlocking Switches--The - First Sleeping-cars--Mr. Pullman's Experiments--The - "Pioneer"--Introduction of Parlor and Drawing-room - Cars--The Demand for Dining-cars--Ingenious Devices for - Heating Cars--Origin of Vestibule-cars--An Important Safety - Appliance--The Luxuries of a Limited Express--Fast Time in - America and England--Sleeping-cars for Immigrants--The Village - of Pullman--The Largest Car-works in the World--Baggage-checks - and Coupon Tickets--Conveniences in a Modern Depot--Statistics - in Regard to Accidents--Proportion of Passengers in Various - Classes--Comparison of Rates in the Leading Countries of the - World. - - -From the time when Puck was supposed to utter his boast to put a -girdle round about the earth in forty minutes to the time when -Jules Verne's itinerant hero accomplished the task in twice that -number of days, the restless ingenuity and energy of man have -been unceasingly taxed to increase the speed, comfort, and safety -of passenger travel. The first railway on which passengers were -carried was the "Stockton & Darlington," of England, the distance -being 12 miles. It was opened September 27, 1825, with a freight -train, or, as it is called in England, a "goods" train, but which -also carried a number of excursionists. An engine which was the -result of many years of labor and experiment on the part of -George Stephenson was used on this train. Stephenson mounted it -and acted as driver; his bump of caution was evidently largely -developed, for, to guard against accidents from the recklessness of -the speed, he arranged to have a signalman on horse-back ride in -advance of the engine to warn the luckless trespasser of the fate -which awaited him if he should get in the way of a train moving -with such a startling velocity. The next month, October, it was -decided that it would be worth while to attempt the carrying of -passengers, and a daily "coach," modelled after the stage-coach -and called the "Experiment," was put on, Monday, October 10, 1825, -which carried six passengers inside and from fifteen to twenty -outside. The engine with its light load made the trip in about two -hours. The fare from Stockton to Darlington was one shilling, and -each passenger was allowed fourteen pounds of baggage. The limited -amount of baggage will appear to the ladies of the present day as -niggardly in the extreme, but they must recollect that the bandbox -was then the popular form of portmanteau for women, the Saratoga -trunk had not been invented, and the muscular baggage-smasher of -modern times had not yet set out upon his career of destruction. -The advertisement which was published in the newspapers of the day -is here given, and is of peculiar interest as announcing the first -successful attempt to carry passengers by rail. - -[Illustration: Stockton & Darlington Engine and Car.] - -[Illustration: (Sign for S. & D. Railway Coach)] - -The Liverpool & Manchester road was opened in 1829. The first -train was hauled by an improved engine called the "Rocket," -which attained a speed of 25 miles an hour, and some records put -it as high as 35 miles. This speed naturally attracted marked -attention in the mechanical world, and first demonstrated the -superior advantages of railways for passenger travel. Only four -years before, so eminent a writer upon railways as Wood had said: -"Nothing can do more harm to the adoption of railways than the -promulgation of such nonsense as that we shall see locomotives -travelling at the rate of 12 miles an hour." - -America was quick to adopt the railway system which had had its -origin in England. In 1827 a crude railway was opened between -Quincy and Boston, but it was only for the purpose of transporting -granite for the Bunker Hill Monument. It was not until August, -1829, that a locomotive engine was used upon an American railroad -suitable for carrying passengers. This road was constructed by the -Delaware & Hudson Canal Company, and the experiment was made near -Honesdale, Pa. The engine was imported from England and was called -the "Stourbridge Lion." - -In May, 1830, the first division of the Baltimore & Ohio road was -opened. It extended from Baltimore to Ellicott's Mills, a distance -of 15 miles. There being a scarcity of cars, the regular passenger -business did not begin till the 5th of July following, and then -only horse-power was employed, which continued to be used till the -road was finished to Frederick, in 1832. The term Relay House, -the name of a well-known station, originated in the fact that the -horses were changed at that place. - -The following notice, which appeared in the Baltimore newspapers, -was the first time-table for passenger railway trains published in -this country: - - -RAILROAD NOTICE. - - A sufficient number of cars being now provided for the - accommodation of passengers, notice is hereby given that the - following arrangements for the arrival and departure of carriages - have been adopted, and will take effect on and after Monday - morning next the 5th instant, viz.: - - A brigade of cars will leave the depot on Pratt St. at 6 and 10 - o'clock A. M., and at 3 to 4 o'clock P. M., and will leave the - depot at Ellicott's Mills at 6 and 8½ o'clock A. M., and at 12½ - and 6 P. M. - - Way passengers will provide themselves with tickets at the office - of the Company in Baltimore, or at the depots at Pratt St. and - Ellicott's Mills, or at the Relay House, near Elk Ridge Landing. - - The evening way car for Ellicott's Mills will continue to leave - the depot, Pratt St., at 6 o'clock P. M. as usual. - - N. B. Positive orders have been issued to the drivers to receive - no passengers into any of the cars without tickets. - - P. S. Parties desiring to engage a car for the day can be - accommodated after July 5th. - -It will be seen that the word train was not used, but instead the -schedule spoke of a "brigade of cars." - -The South Carolina Railroad was begun about the same time as the -Baltimore & Ohio, and ran from Charleston to Hamburg, opposite -Augusta. When the first division had been constructed, it was -opened November 2, 1830. - -Peter Cooper, of New York, had before this constructed a locomotive -and made a trial trip with it on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, on -the 28th of August, 1830, but, not meeting the requirements of the -company, it was not put into service. - -[Illustration: Mohawk & Hudson Train.] - -A passenger train of the Mohawk & Hudson Railroad which was put -on in October, 1831, between Albany and Schenectady, attracted -much attention. It was hauled by an English engine named the "John -Bull," and driven by an English engineer named John Hampson. This -is generally regarded as the first fully equipped passenger train -hauled by a steam-power engine which ran in regular service in -America. During 1832 it carried an average of 387 passengers daily. -The accompanying engraving is from a sketch made at the time. - -It was said by an advocate of mechanical evolution that the -modern steam fire-engine was evolved from the ancient leathern -fire-bucket; it might be said with greater truth that the modern -railway car has been evolved from the old-fashioned English -stage-coach. - -England still retains the railway carriage divided into -compartments, that bear a close resemblance inside and outside -to stage-coach bodies with the middle seat omitted. In fact, -the nomenclature of the stage-coach is in large measure still -preserved in England. The engineer is called the driver, the -conductor the guard, the ticket-office is the booking-office, the -cars are the carriages, and a rustic traveller may still be heard -occasionally to object to sitting with his back to the horses. The -earlier locomotives, like horses, were given proper names, such -as Lion, North Star, Fiery, and Rocket; the compartments in the -round-houses for sheltering locomotives are termed the stalls, and -the keeper of the round-house is called the hostler. The last two -are the only items of equine classification which the American -railway system has permanently adopted. - -[Illustration: English Railway Carriage, Midland Road. First and -Third Class and Luggage Compartments.] - -America, at an early day, departed not only from the nomenclature -of the turnpike, but from the stage-coach architecture, and adopted -a long car in one compartment and containing a middle aisle which -admitted of communication throughout the train. The car was carried -on two trucks, or bogies, and was well adapted to the sharp -curvature which prevailed upon our railways. - -The first five years of experience showed marked progress in the -practical operation of railway trains, but even after locomotives -had demonstrated their capabilities and each improved engine had -shown an encouraging increase in velocity, the wildest flights of -fancy never pictured the speed attained in later years. - -[Illustration: One of the Earliest Passenger Cars Built in this -Country; used on the Western Railroad of Massachusetts (now the -Boston & Albany).] - -When the roads forming the line between Philadelphia and -Harrisburg, Pa., were chartered in 1835, and town meetings were -held to discuss their practicability, the Honorable Simon Cameron, -while making a speech in advocacy of the measure, was so far -carried away by his enthusiasm as to make the rash prediction that -there were persons within the sound of his voice who would live to -see a passenger take his breakfast in Harrisburg and his supper in -Philadelphia on the same day. A friend of his on the platform said -to him after he had finished: "That's all very well, Simon, to tell -to the boys, but you and I are no such infernal fools as to believe -it." They both lived to travel the distance in a little over two -hours. - -[Illustration: Bogie Truck.] - -The people were far from being unanimous in their advocacy of the -railway system, and charters were not obtained without severe -struggles. The topic was the universal subject of discussion in -all popular assemblages. Colonel Blank, a well-known politician -in Pennsylvania, had been loud in his opposition to the new means -of transportation. When one of the first trains was running over -the Harrisburg & Lancaster road, a famous Durham bull belonging -to a Mr. Schultz became seized with the enterprising spirit of -Don Quixote, put his head down and tail up, and made a desperate -charge at the on-coming locomotive, but his steam-breathing -opponent proved the better butter of the two and the bull was -ignominiously defeated. At a public banquet held soon after in that -part of the State, the toast-master proposed a toast to "Colonel -Blank and Schultz's bull--both opposed to railroad trains." The -joke was widely circulated and had much to do with completing the -discomfiture of the opposition in the following elections. - -[Illustration: Rail and Coach Travel in the White Mountains.] - -The railroad was a decided step in advance, compared with the -stage-coach and canal-boat, but, when we picture the surroundings -of the traveller upon railways during the first ten or fifteen -years of their existence, we find his journey was not one to -be envied. He was jammed into a narrow seat with a stiff back, -the deck of the car was low and flat, and ventilation in winter -impossible. A stove at each end did little more than generate -carbonic oxide. The passenger roasted if he sat at the end of the -car, and froze if he sat in the middle. Tallow candles furnished a -"dim religious light," but the accompanying odor did not savor of -cathedral incense. The dust was suffocating in dry weather; there -were no adequate spark-arresters on the engine, or screens at -the windows, and the begrimed passenger at the end of his journey -looked as if he had spent the day in a blacksmith-shop. Recent -experiments in obtaining a spectrum-analysis of the component parts -of a quantity of dust collected in a railway car show that minute -particles of iron form a large proportion, and under the microscope -present the appearance of a collection of tenpenny nails. As iron -administered to the human system through the respiratory organs in -the form of tenpenny nails mixed with other undesirable matter is -not especially recommended by medical practitioners, the sanitary -surroundings of the primitive railway car cannot be commended. -There were no double tracks, and no telegraph to facilitate the -safe despatching of trains. The springs of the car were hard, the -jolting intolerable, the windows rattled like those of the modern -omnibus, and conversation was a luxury that could be indulged in -only by those of recognized superiority in lung power. The brakes -were clumsy and of little service. - -[Illustration: From an Old Time-table (furnished by the "A B C -Pathfinder Railway Guide").] - -The ends of the flat-bar rails were cut diagonally, so that when -laid down they would lap and form a smoother joint. Occasionally -they became sprung; the spikes would not hold, and the end of the -rail with its sharp point rose high enough for the wheel to run -under it, rip it loose, and send the pointed end through the floor -of the car. This was called a "snake's head," and the unlucky being -sitting over it was likely to be impaled against the roof. So that -the traveller of that day, in addition to his other miseries, was -in momentary apprehension of being spitted like a Christmas turkey. - -[Illustration: Old Boston & Worcester Railway Ticket (about 1837).] - -Baggage-checks and coupon tickets were unknown. Long trips had -to be made over lines composed of a number of short independent -railways; and at the terminus of each the bedevilled passenger -had to transfer, purchase another ticket, personally pick out his -baggage, perhaps on an uncovered platform in a rain-storm, and take -his chances of securing a seat in the train in which he was to -continue his weary journey. - -After the principal companies had sent agents to Europe to gather -all the information possible regarding the progress made there, -they soon began to aim at perfecting what may justly be called the -American system of railways. The roadbed, or what in England is -called the "permanent way," was constructed in such a manner as to -conform to the requirements of the new country, and the equipment -was adapted to the wants of the people. In no branch of industry -has the inventive genius of the race been more skilfully or more -successfully employed than in the effort to bring railway travel -to its present state of perfection. Every year has shown progress -in perfecting the comforts and safety of the railway car. In 1849 -the Hodge hand-brake was introduced, and in 1851 the Stevens brake. -These enabled the cars to be controlled in a manner which added -much to the economy and safety of handling the trains. In 1869 -George Westinghouse patented his air-brake, by which power from the -engine was transmitted by compressed air carried through hose and -acting upon the brakes of each car in the train.[23] It was under -the control of the engineer, and its action was so prompt and its -power so effectual that a train could be stopped in an incredibly -short time, and the brakes released in an instant. In 1871 the -vacuum-brake was devised, by means of which the power was applied -to the brakes by exhausting the air. - -[Illustration: Obverse and Reverse of a Ticket Used in 1838, on the -New York & Harlem Railroad.] - -A difficulty under which railways suffered for many years was -the method of coupling cars. The ordinary means consisted of -coupling-pins inserted into links attached to the cars. There was -a great deal of "slack," the jerking of the train in consequence -was very objectionable, and the distance between the platforms of -the cars made the crossing of them dangerous. In collisions one -platform was likely to rise above that of the adjoining car, and -"telescoping" was not an uncommon occurrence. - -The means of warning passengers against standing on the platform -were characteristic of the dangers which threatened, and were often -ingenious in the devices for attracting attention. On a New Jersey -road there was painted on the car-door a picture of a new-made -grave, with a formidable tombstone, on which was an inscription -announcing to a terrified public that it was "Sacred to the memory -of the man who had stood on a platform." - -The Miller coupler and buffer was patented in 1863, and obviated -many of the discomforts and dangers arising from the old methods of -coupling. This was followed by the Janney coupler[24] and a number -of other devices, the essential principle of all being an automatic -arrangement by which the two knuckles of the coupler when thrust -together become securely locked, and a system of springs which keep -the buffers in close contact and prevent jerking and jarring when -the train is in motion. - -The introduction of the bell-cord running through the train and -enabling conductors to communicate promptly by means of it with -the engineer, and signal him in case of danger, constitutes -another source of safety, but is still a wonder to Europeans, who -cannot understand why passengers do not tamper with it, and how -they can resist the temptation to give false signals by means of -it. The only answer is that our people are educated up to it, -and being accustomed to govern themselves, they do not require -any restraint to make them respect so useful a device. Aside -from the inconveniences which used to arise occasionally from a -rustic mistaking the bell-cord for a clothes-rack, and hanging his -overcoat over it, or from an old gentleman grabbing hold of it to -help him climb into an upper berth in a sleeping-car, it has been -singularly exempt from efforts to pervert it to unintended uses. - -The application of the magnetic telegraph to railways wrought -the first great revolution in despatching trains, and introduced -an element of promptness and safety in their operation of which -the most sanguine of railroad advocates had never dreamed. The -application of electricity was gradually availed of in many -ingenious signal devices for both day and night service, to direct -the locomotive engineer in running his train, and interpose -precautions against accidents. Fusees have also been called into -requisition, which burn with a bright flame a given length of -time; and when a train is behind time and followed by another, by -igniting one of these lights, and leaving it on the track, the -train following can tell by noting the time of burning about how -near it is the preceding train. Torpedoes left upon the track, -which explode when passed over by the wheels of a following train -and warn it of its proximity to a train ahead, are also used. - -In the early days more accidents arose from switches than from any -other cause; but improvement in their construction has progressed -until it would seem that the dangers have been effectually -overcome. The split-rail switch prevents a train from being thrown -off the track in case the switch is left open, and the result is -that in such an event the train is only turned on another track. -The Wharton switch, which leaves the main line unbroken, marks -another step in the march of improvement. Among other devices is -a complete interlocking-switch system, by means of which one man -standing in a switch-tower, overlooking a large yard with numerous -tracks, over which trains arrive and depart every few minutes, can, -by moving a system of levers, open any required track and by the -same motion block all the others, and prevent the possibility of -collisions or other accidents resulting from trains entering upon -the wrong track.[25] - -The steam-boats on our large rivers had been making great progress -in the comforts afforded to passengers. They were providing berths -to sleep in, serving meals in spacious cabins, and giving musical -entertainments and dancing parties on board. The railroads soon -began to learn a lesson from them in adding to the comforts of the -travelling public. - -The first attempt to furnish the railway passenger a place to sleep -while on his journey was made upon the Cumberland Valley Railroad -of Pennsylvania, between Harrisburg and Chambersburg. In the winter -season the east-bound passengers arrived at Chambersburg late at -night by stage-coach, and as they were exhausted by a fatiguing -trip over the mountains and many wished to continue their journey -to Harrisburg to catch the morning train for Philadelphia, it -became very desirable to furnish sleeping accommodations aboard -the cars. The officers of this road fitted up a passenger car with -a number of berths, and put it into service as a sleeping-car in -the winter of 1836-37. It was exceedingly crude and primitive in -construction. It was divided by transverse partitions into four -sections, and each contained three berths--a lower, middle, and -upper berth. This car was used until 1848 and then abandoned. - -About this time there were also experiments made in fitting up cars -with berths something like those in a steam-boat cabin, but these -crude attempts did not prove attractive to travellers. There were -no bedclothes furnished, and only a coarse mattress and pillow -were supplied, and with the poor ventilation and the rattling and -jolting of the car there was not much comfort afforded, except a -means of resting in a position which was somewhat more endurable -than a sitting posture. - -Previous to the year 1858 a few of the leading railways had put on -sleeping-cars which made some pretensions to meet a growing want of -the travelling public, but they were still crude, uncomfortable, -and unsatisfactory in their arrangements and appointments. - -In the year 1858 George M. Pullman entered a train of the Lake -Shore Railroad at Buffalo, to make a trip to Chicago. It happened -that a new sleeping-car which had been built for the railroad -company was attached to this train and was making its first -trip. Mr. Pullman stepped in to take a look at it, and finally -decided to test this new form of luxury by passing the night -in one of its berths. He was tossed about in a manner not very -conducive to the "folding of the hands to sleep," and he turned -out before daylight and took refuge upon a seat in the end of -the car. He now began to ponder upon the subject, and before the -journey ended he had conceived the notion that, in a country of -magnificent distances like this, a great boon could be offered to -travellers by the construction of cars easily convertible into -comfortable and convenient day or night coaches, and supplied -with such appointments as would give the occupants practically -the same comforts as were afforded by the steam-boats. He began -experiments in this direction soon after his arrival in Chicago, -and in 1859 altered some day-cars on the Chicago & Alton Railroad, -and converted them into sleeping-cars which were a marked step -in advance of similar cars previously constructed. They were -successful in meeting the wants of passengers at that time, but Mr. -Pullman did not consider them in any other light than experiments. -One night, after they had made a few trips on the line between -Chicago and St. Louis, a tall, angular-looking man entered one of -the cars while Mr. Pullman was aboard, and after asking a great -many intelligent questions about the inventions, finally said he -thought he would try what the thing was like, and stowed himself -away in an upper berth. This proved to be Abraham Lincoln. - -[Illustration: The "Pioneer." First complete Pullman Sleeping-car.] - -[Illustration: (Railwayman in uniform.)] - -In 1864 Mr. Pullman perfected his plans for a car which was to be -a marked and radical departure from any one ever before attempted, -and that year invested his capital in the construction of what may -be called the father of the Pullman cars. He built it in a shed -in the yard of the Chicago & Alton Railroad at a cost of $18,000, -named it the "Pioneer," and designated it by the letter "A." It -did not then occur to anyone that there would ever be enough -sleeping-cars introduced to exhaust the whole twenty-six letters of -the alphabet. The sum expended upon it was naturally looked upon -as fabulous at a time when such sleeping-cars as were used could -be built for about $4,500. The constructor of the "Pioneer" aimed -to produce a car which would prove acceptable in every respect to -the travelling public. It had improved trucks and a raised deck, -and was built a foot wider and two and a half feet higher than any -car then in service. He deemed this necessary for the purpose of -introducing a hinged upper berth, which, when fastened up, formed a -recess behind it for stowing the necessary bedding in the daytime. -Before that the mattresses had been piled in one end of the car, -and had to be dragged through the aisle when wanted. It was known -to him that the dimensions of the bridges and station-platforms -would not admit of its passing over the line, but he was singularly -confident in the belief that an attractive car, constructed upon -correct principles, would find its way into service against all -obstacles. It so happened that soon after the car was finished, -in the spring of 1865, the body of President Lincoln arrived -at Chicago, and the "Pioneer" was wanted for the funeral train -which was to take it to Springfield. To enable the car to pass -over the road, the station-platforms and other obstructions were -reduced in size, and thereafter the line was in a condition to put -the car into service. A few months afterward General Grant was -making a trip West to visit his home in Galena, Ill., and as the -railway companies were anxious to take him from Detroit to his -destination in the car which had now become quite celebrated, the -station-platforms along the line were widened for the purpose, and -thus another route was opened to its passage. - -The car was now put into regular service on the Alton road. Its -popularity fully realized the anticipations of its owner, and its -size became the standard for the future Pullman cars as to height -and width, though they have since been increased in length. - -The railroad company entered into an agreement to have this car, -and a number of others which were immediately built, operated upon -its lines. They were marvels of beauty, and their construction -embraced patents of such ingenuity and originality that they -attracted marked attention in the railroad world and created a new -departure in the method of travel. - -In 1867 Mr. Pullman formed the Pullman Car Company and devoted -it to carrying out an idea which he had conceived, of organizing -a system by which passengers could be carried in luxurious cars -of uniform pattern, adequate to the wants of both night and day -travel, which would run through without change between far-distant -points and over a number of distinct lines of railway, in charge of -responsible through agents, to whom ladies, children, and invalids -could be safely intrusted. This system was especially adapted to -a country of such geographical extent as America. It supplied an -important want, and the travelling public and the railways were -prompt to avail themselves of its advantages. - -Parlor or drawing-room cars were next introduced for day runs, -which added greatly to the luxury of travel, enabling passengers -to secure seats in advance, and enjoy many comforts which were -not found in ordinary cars. Sleeping and parlor cars were soon -recognized as an essential part of a railway's equipment and became -known as "palace cars." - -The Wagner Car Company was organized in the State of New York, and -was early in the field in furnishing this class of vehicles. It has -supplied all the cars of this kind used upon the Vanderbilt system -of railways and a number of its connecting roads. Several smaller -palace-car companies have also engaged in the business at different -times. A few roads have operated their own cars of this class, but -the business is generally regarded as a specialty, and the railway -companies recognize the advantages and conveniences resulting from -the ability of a large car-company to meet the irregularities -of travel, which require a large equipment at one season and a -small one at another, to furnish an additional supply of cars for -a sudden demand, and to perform satisfactorily the business of -operating through cars in lines composed of many different railways. - -[Illustration: Pullman Parlor Car.] - -Next came a demand for cars in which meals could be served. Why, -it was said, should a train stop at a station for meals any more -than a steam-boat tie up to a wharf for the same purpose? The -Pullman Company now introduced the hotel-car, which was practically -a sleeping-car with a kitchen and pantries in one end and portable -tables which could be placed between the seats of each section and -upon which meals could be conveniently served. The first hotel-car -was named the "President," and was put into service on the Great -Western Railway of Canada, in 1867, and soon after several popular -lines were equipped with this new addition to the luxuries of -travel. - -[Illustration: Wagner Parlor Car.] - -After this came the dining-car, which was still another step beyond -the hotel-car. It was a complete restaurant, having a large kitchen -and pantries in one end, with the main body of the car fitted up as -a commodious dining-room, in which all the passengers in the train -could enter and take their meals comfortably. The first dining-car -was named the "Delmonico," and began running on the Chicago & Alton -Railroad in the year 1868. - -The comforts and conveniences of travel by rail on the main lines -now seemed to have reached their culmination in America. The heavy -T-rails had replaced the various forms previously used; the -improved fastenings, the reductions in curvature, and the greater -care exercised in construction had made the trip delightfully -smooth, while the improvements in rolling-stock had obviated the -jerking, jolting, and oscillation of the cars. The roadbeds had -been properly ditched, drained, and ballasted with broken stone or -gravel, the dust overcome, the sparks arrested, and cleanliness, -that attribute which stands next to godliness, had at last been -made possible, even on a railway train. - -[Illustration: Dining-car (Chicago, Burlington, & Quincy Railroad.)] - -The heating of cars was not successfully accomplished till a method -was devised for circulating hot water through pipes running near -the floor. The suffering from that bane of the traveller--cold -feet--was then obviated and many a doctor's bill saved. The loss -of human life from the destruction of trains by fires originating -from stoves aroused such a feeling throughout the country that the -legislatures of many States have passed laws within the last three -years prohibiting the use of stoves, and the railway managers have -been devising plans for heating the trains with steam furnished -from the boiler of the locomotive. The inventive genius of the -people was at once brought into requisition, and several ingenious -devices are now in use which successfully accomplish the purpose -in solid trains with the locomotive attached, but the problem of -heating a detached car without some form of furnace connected with -it is still unsolved. - -But notwithstanding the high standard of excellence which had been -reached in the construction and operation of passenger trains, -there was one want not yet supplied, the importance of which did -not become fully recognized until dining-cars were introduced, -and men, women, and children had to pass across the platforms of -several cars in order to reach the one in which the meals were -served. An act which passengers had always been cautioned against, -and forbidden to undertake--the crossing of platforms while the -train is in motion--now became necessary, and was invited by the -railway companies. - -It was soon seen that a safe covered passageway between the cars -must be provided, particularly for limited express trains. Crude -attempts had been made in this direction at different times. As -early as the years 1852 and 1855 patents were taken out for devices -which provided for diaphragms of canvas to connect adjoining cars -and form a passageway between them. These were applied to cars on -the Naugatuck Railroad, in Connecticut, in 1857, but they were used -mainly for purposes of ventilation, to provide for taking in air at -the head of the train, so as to permit the car windows to be kept -shut, to avoid the dust that entered through them when they were -open. These appliances were very imperfect, did not seem to be of -any practical advantage, even for the limited uses for which they -were intended, and they were abandoned after a trial of about four -years. - -In the year 1886 Mr. Pullman went practically to work to devise -a perfect system for constructing continuous trains, and at the -same time to provide for sufficient flexibility in connecting the -passageways to allow for the motion consequent upon the rounding -of curves. His efforts resulted in what is now known as the -"vestibuled" train. - -[Illustration: Pullman Vestibuled Cars.] - -[Illustration: End View of a Vestibuled Car.] - -This invention, which was patented in 1887, succeeded not only in -supplying the means of constructing a perfectly enclosed vestibule -of handsome architectural appearance between the cars, but it -accomplished what is even still more important, the introduction -of a safety appliance more valuable than any yet devised for the -protection of human life in case of collisions. The elastic -diaphragms which are attached to the ends of the cars have steel -frames, the faces or bearing surfaces of which are pressed firmly -against each other by powerful spiral springs, which create -a friction upon the faces of the frames, hold them firmly in -position, prevent the oscillation of the cars, and furnish a -buffer extending from the platform to the roof which precludes -the possibility of one platform "riding" the other and producing -telescoping in case of collision. The first of the vestibuled -trains went into service on the Pennsylvania Railroad in June, -1886, and they are rapidly being adopted by railway companies. -The vestibuled limited trains contain several sleeping-cars, a -dining-car, and a car fitted up with a smoking saloon, a library -with books, desks, and writing materials, a bath-room, and a -barber-shop. With a free circulation of air throughout the -train, the cars opening into each other, the electric light, the -many other increased comforts and conveniences introduced, the -steam-heating apparatus avoiding the necessity of using fires, the -great speed, and absence of stops at meal-stations, this train -is the acme of safe and luxurious travel. An ordinary passenger -travels in as princely a style in these cars as any crowned head in -Europe in a royal special train. - -The speed of passenger trains has shown steady improvement from -year to year. In the month of June in our Centennial year, 1876, -a train ran from New York to San Francisco, a distance of 3,317 -miles, in 83 hours and 27 minutes actual time, thus averaging -about 40 miles an hour, but during the trip it crossed four -mountain-summits, one of them over 8,000 feet high. This train ran -from Jersey City to Pittsburg over the Pennsylvania Railroad, a -distance of 444 miles, without making a stop. In 1882 locomotives -were introduced which made a speed of 70 miles per hour. - -[Illustration: Pullman Sleeper on a Vestibuled Train.] - -In July, 1885, an engine with a train of three cars made a trip -over the West Shore road which is the most extraordinary one on -record. It started from East Buffalo, N. Y., at 10.04 A.M., and -reached Weehawken, N. J., at 7.27 P.M. Deducting the time consumed -in stops, the actual running time was 7 hours and 23 minutes, or -an average of 56 miles per hour. Between Churchville and Genesee -Junction this train attained the unparalleled speed of 87 miles per -hour, and at several other parts of the line a speed of from 70 to -80 miles an hour. The superior physical characteristics of this -road were particularly favorable for the attainment of the speed -mentioned. - -The trains referred to were special or experimental trains, and -while American railways have shown their ability to record the -highest speed yet known, they do not run their trains in regular -service as fast as those on the English railways. The meteor-like -names given to our fast trains are somewhat misleading. When one -reads of such trains as the "Lightning," the "Cannonball," the -"Thunderbolt," and the "G--whiz-z," the suggestiveness of the -titles is enough to make one's head swim, but, after all, the names -are not as significant of speed as the British "Flying Scotchman" -and the "Wild Irishman;" for the former do not attain an average -rate of 40 miles an hour, while the latter exceed 45 miles. A -few American trains, however, those between Jersey City and -Philadelphia, for instance, make an average speed of over 50 miles -per hour. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: Immigrant Sleeping-car (Canadian Pacific Railway.)] - -The transportation of immigrants has recently received increased -facilities for its accommodation upon the principal through lines. -Until late years economically constructed day-cars were alone used, -but in these the immigrants suffered great discomfort in long -journeys. An immigrant sleeper is now used, which is constructed -with sections on each side of the aisle, each section containing -two double berths. The berths are made with slats of hard wood -running longitudinally; there is no upholstery in the car, and -no bedding supplied, and after the car is vacated the hose can be -turned in upon it, and all the wood-work thoroughly cleansed. The -immigrants usually carry with them enough blankets and wraps to -make them tolerably comfortable in their berths; a cooking stove -is provided in one end of the car, on which the occupants can cook -their food, and even the long transcontinental journeys of the -immigrants are now made without hardship. - -[Illustration: View of Pullman, Ill.] - -The manufacture of railway passenger cars is a large item of -industry in the country. The tendency had been for many years to -confine the building of ordinary passenger coaches to the shops -owned by the railway companies, and they made extensive provision -for such work; but recently they have given large orders for that -class of equipment to outside manufacturers. This has resulted -partly from the large demand for cars, and partly on account of -the excellence of the work supplied by some of the manufacturing -companies. In 1880 the Pullman Company erected the most extensive -car-works in the world at Pullman, fourteen miles south of Chicago; -and, besides its extensive output of Pullman cars and freight -equipment, it has built for railway companies large numbers of -passenger coaches. The employees now number about 5,000, and an -idea of the capacity and resources of the shops may be obtained -from the fact that one hundred freight cars, of the kind known -as flat cars, have been built in eight hours. The business -of car-building has therefore given rise to the first model -manufacturing town in America, and it is an industry evidently -destined to increase as rapidly as any in the country. - -The transportation of baggage has always been a most important -item to the traveller, and the amount carried seems to increase in -proportion to the advance in civilization. The original allowance -of fourteen pounds is found to be increased to four hundred when -ladies start for fashionable summer-resorts. - -America has been much more liberal than other countries to the -traveller in this particular, as in all others. Here few of the -roads charge for excess of baggage unless the amount be so large -that patience with regard to it ceases to be a virtue. - -The earlier method, of allowing each passenger to pick out his own -baggage at his point of destination and carry it off, resulted in -a lack of accountability which led to much confusion, frequent -losses, and heavy claims upon the companies in consequence. -Necessity, as usual, gave birth to invention, and the difficulty -was at last solved by the introduction of the system known as -"checking." A metal disk bearing a number and designating on its -face the destination of the baggage was attached to each article -and a duplicate given to the owner, which answered as a receipt, -and upon the presentation and surrender of which the baggage could -be claimed. Railways soon united in arranging for through checks -which, when attached to baggage, would insure its being sent safely -to distant points over lines composed of many connecting roads. The -check system led to the introduction of another marked convenience -in the handling of baggage--the baggage express or transfer -company. One of its agents will now check trunks at the passenger's -own house and haul them to the train. Another agent will take up -the checks aboard the train as it is nearing its destination, and -see that the baggage is delivered at any given address. - -The cases in which pieces go astray are astonishingly rare, and -some roads found the claims for lost articles reduced by five -thousand dollars the first year after adopting the check system, -not to mention the amount saved in the reduced force of employees -engaged in assorting and handling the baggage. Its workings are -so perfect and its conveniences so great that an American cannot -easily understand why it is not adopted in all countries; but he is -forced to recognize the fact that it seems destined to be confined -to his own land. The London railway managers, for instance, give -many reasons for turning their faces against its adoption. They say -that there are few losses arising from passengers taking baggage -that does not belong to them; that most of the passengers take a -cab at the end of their railway journey to reach their homes, and -it costs but little more to carry their trunk with them; that in -this way it gets home as soon as they, while the transfer company, -or baggage express, would not deliver it for an hour or two later; -that the cab system is a great convenience, and any change which -would diminish its patronage would gradually reduce the number of -cabs, and these "gondolas of London" would have to increase their -charges or go out of business. It is very easy to find a stick when -one wants to hit a dog, and the European railway officials seem -never to be at a loss for reasons in rejecting the check system. - -Coupon tickets covering trips over several different railways -have saved the traveller all the annoyance once experienced in -purchasing separate tickets from the several companies representing -the roads over which he had to pass. Their introduction -necessitated an agreement among the principal railways of the -country and the adoption of an extensive system of accountability -for the purpose of making settlements of the amounts represented by -the coupons. - -[Illustration: In a Baggage-room.] - -Like every other novelty the coupon ticket, when first introduced, -did not hit the mark when aimed at the understanding of certain -travellers. A United States Senator-elect had come on by sea from -the Pacific Coast who had never seen a railroad till he reached the -Atlantic seaboard. With a curiosity to test the workings of the new -means of transportation, of which he had heard so much, he bought -a coupon ticket and set out for a railway journey. He entered a -car, took a seat next to the door, and was just beginning to get -the "hang of the school-house" when the conductor, who was then -not uniformed, came in, cried "Tickets!" and reached out his hand -toward the Senator. "What do you want of me?" said the latter. -"I want your ticket," answered the conductor. Now it occurred to -the Senator that this might be a very neat job on the part of an -Eastern ticket-sharp, but it was just a little too thin to fool -a Pacific Coaster, and he said: "Don't you think I've got sense -enough to know that if I parted with my ticket right at the start I -wouldn't have anything to show for my money during the rest of the -way? No, sir, I'm going to hold on to this till I get to the end of -the trip." - -"Oh!" said the conductor, whose impatience was now rising to fever -heat, "I don't want to take up your ticket, I only want to look at -it." - -[Illustration: Railway Station at York, England, built on a curve.] - -The Senator thought, after some reflection, that he would risk -letting the man have a peep at it, anyhow, and held it up before -him, keeping it, however, at a safe distance. The conductor, with -the customary abruptness, jerked it out of his hand, tore off the -first coupon, and was about to return the ticket, when the Pacific -Coaster sprang up, threw himself upon his muscle, and delivered -a well-directed blow of his fist upon the conductor's right eye, -which landed him sprawling on one of the opposite seats. The other -passengers were at once on their feet, and rushed up to know the -cause of the disturbance. The Senator, still standing with his arms -in a pugnacious attitude, said: - -"Maybe I've never ridden on a railroad before, but I'm not going to -let any sharper get away with me like that." - -[Illustration: Outside the Grand Central Station, New York.] - -"What's he done?" cried the passengers. - -"Why," said the Senator, "I paid seventeen dollars and a half for -a ticket to take me through to Cincinnati, and before we're five -miles out that fellow slips up and says he wants to see it, and -when I get it out, he grabs hold of it and goes to tearing it up -right before my eyes." Ample explanations were soon made, and the -new passenger was duly initiated into the mysteries of the coupon -system. - -The uniforming of railway employees was a movement of no little -importance. It designated the various positions held by them, added -much to the neatness of their appearance, enabled passengers to -recognize them at a glance, and made them so conspicuous that it -impressed them with a greater sense of responsibility and aided -much in effecting a more courteous demeanor to passengers. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: Boston Passenger Station, Providence Division, Old -Colony Railroad.] - -Many conveniences have been introduced which greatly assist the -passenger when travelling upon unfamiliar roads. Conspicuous -clock-faces stand in the stations with their hands set to the hour -at which the next train is to start, sign-boards are displayed with -horizontal slats on which the stations are named at which departing -way-trains stop, and employees are stationed to call out necessary -information and direct passengers to the proper entrances, exits, -and trains. A "bureau of information" is now to be seen in large -passenger-stations, in which an official sits and with a Job-like -patience repeats to the curiously inclined passengers the whole -railway catechism, and successfully answers conundrums that would -stump an Oriental pundit. - -The energetic passenger-agent spares no pains to thrust information -directly under the nose of the public. He uses every means known to -Yankee ingenuity to advertise his regular trains and his excursion -business, including large newspaper head-lines, corner-posters, -curb-stone dodgers, and placards on the breast and back of the -itinerant human sandwich who perambulates the streets. - -Railway accidents have always been a great source of anxiety to the -managers, and the shocks received by the public when great loss of -life occurs from such causes deepen the interest which the general -community feels in the means taken to avoid these distressing -occurrences. - -American railway officials have made encouraging progress in -reducing the number and the severity of accidents, and while the -record is not so good on many of our cheaply constructed roads, our -first-class roads now show by their statistics that they compare -favorably in this respect with the European companies. - -The statistics regarding accidents[26] are necessarily unreliable, -as railway companies are not eager to publish their calamities -from the house-tops, and only in those States in which prompt -reports are required to be made by law are the figures given at -all accurately. Even in these instances the yearly reports lead to -wrong conclusions, for the State Railroad Commissioners become more -exacting each year as to the thoroughness of the reports called -for, and the results sometimes show an increase compared with -previous years, whereas there may have been an actual decrease. - -In 1880, the last census year, an effort was made to collect -statistics of this kind covering all the railways in the United -States, with the following result: - - ------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+------- - | Through causes | Through | | - To whom | beyond their | their own | Aggregate. | Total - happened. | control. | carelessness. | | acci- - +-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+ dents. - |Killed.|Injured.|Killed.|Injured.|Killed.|Injured.| - ------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+------- - Passengers | 61 | 331 | 82 | 213 | 143 | 544 | 687 - Employees | 261 | 1,004 | 663 | 2,613 | 924 | 3,617 | 4,541 - All others | 43 | 103 | 1,429 | 1,348 | 1,472 | 1,451 | 2,923 - Unspecified | | | | | 3 | 62 | 65 - +-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+------- - Total | 365 | 1,438 | 2,174 | 4,174 | 2,542 | 5,674 | 8,216 - ------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+------- - -[Illustration: "Show Your Tickets!" - -(Passenger Station, Philadelphia.)] - -Mulhall, in his "Dictionary of Statistics," an English work, uses -substantially these same figures and makes the following comparison -between European and American railways: - -_Accidents to Passengers, Employees, and Others._ - - ---------------+---------+----------+--------+------------- - | | | | Per million - | Killed. | Wounded. | Total. | passengers. - ---------------+---------+----------+--------+------------- - United States | 2,349 | 5,867 | 8,216 | 41.1 - United Kingdom | 1,135 | 3,959 | 5,094 | 8.1 - Europe | 3,213 | 10,859 | 14,072 | 10.8 - ---------------+---------+----------+--------+------------- - -That the figures given above are much too high as regards the -United States, there can be no doubt. For the fiscal year 1880-81 -the data compiled by the Railroad Commissioners of Massachusetts -and published in their reports give as the total number of persons -killed and injured in the United States 2,126, as against 8,216 -upon which the comparisons in the above table are based. If we -substitute in this table the former number for the latter, it would -reduce the number of injured per million passengers in the United -States to 10.6, about the same as on the European railways. - -Edward Bates Dorsey gives the following interesting table of -comparisons in his valuable work, "English and American Railroads -Compared:" - -_Passengers Killed and Injured from Causes beyond their own Control -on all the Railroads of the United Kingdom and those of the States -of New York and Massachusetts in 1884._ - - -----------------+---------+---------------------------+-------+------ - | Total | | | - | length | Total mileage. | | In- - | of line +-------------+-------------+Killed.|jured. - |operated.| Train. | Passengers. | | - -----------------+---------+-------------+-------------+-------+------ - United Kingdom | 18,864 | 272,803,220 |6,042,659,990| 31 | 864 - New York | 7,298 | 85,918,677 |1,729,653,620| 10 | 124 - Massachusetts | 2,852 | 32,304,333 |1,007,136,376| 2 | 42 - -----------------+---------+-------------+-------------+-------+------ - In | | | | | - 1,000,000,000 | | | | | - passengers | | | | | - transported | | | | | - 1 mile. | | | | | - | | | | | - United Kingdom | | | | 5.15 | 143 - New York | | | | 5.78 | 70 - Massachusetts | | | | 2.00 | 42 - -----------------+---------+-------------+-------------+-------+------ - - --------------------------------------------------+------------ - | Miles. - +------------ - The average number of miles { United Kingdom | 194,892,255 - a passenger can travel without { New York | 172,965,362 - being killed. { Massachusetts | 503,568,188 - | - The average number of miles { United Kingdom | 6,992,662 - a passenger can travel without { New York | 13,940,754 - being injured. { Massachusetts | 23,955,630 - --------------------------------------------------+------------ - -From this it will be seen that in the United Kingdom the average -distance a passenger may travel before being killed is about equal -to twice the distance of the Earth from the Sun. In New York he may -travel a distance greater than that of Mars from the Sun; and in -Massachusetts he can comfort himself with the thought that he may -travel twenty-seven millions of miles farther than the distance of -Jupiter to the Sun before suffering death on the rail. - -The most encouraging feature of these statistics is the fact that -the number of railway accidents per mile in the United States has -shown a marked decrease each year. Taking the figures adopted by -the Massachusetts commissions, the number of persons injured in -the year 1880-81 was 2,126, and in 1886-87, 2,483, while in the -same time the number of miles in operation increased from 93,349 to -137,986. - -The amounts paid annually by railways in satisfaction of claims for -damages to passengers are serious items of expenditure, and in the -United States have reached in some years nearly two millions of -dollars. About half of the States limit the amount of damages in -case of death to $5,000, the States of Virginia, Ohio, and Kansas -to $10,000, and the remainder have no statutory limit. - -In the year 1840 the number of miles of railway per 100,000 -inhabitants in the different countries named was as follows: United -States, 20; United Kingdom, 3; Europe, 1; in the year 1882, United -States, 210; United Kingdom, 52; Europe, 34. - -In the year 1886 the total number of miles in the United States was -137,986; the number of passengers carried, 382,284,972; the number -carried one mile, 9,659,698,294; the average distance travelled per -passenger, 25.27 miles. - -In Europe the first-class travel is exceedingly small and the -third class constitutes the largest portion of the passenger -business, while in America almost the whole of the travel is first -class, as will be seen from the following table: - - ---------------+-------------------------------------------- - | Percentage of passengers carried. - +--------------+---------------+------------- - | First Class. | Second Class. | Third Class. - ---------------+--------------+---------------+------------- - United Kingdom | 6 | 10 | 84 - France | 8 | 32 | 60 - Germany | 1 | 13 | 86 - United States | 99 | ½ of 1 | ½ of 1 - ---------------+--------------+---------------+------------- - -The third-class travel in this country is better known as immigrant -travel. The percentages given in the above table for the United -States are based upon an average of the numbers of passengers of -each class carried on the principal through lines. If all the roads -were included, the percentages of the second- and third-class -travel would be still less. - -That which is of more material interest to passengers than anything -else is the rate of fare charged. - -The following table gives an approximate comparison between the -rates per mile in the leading countries in the world: - - ---------------+--------------+---------------+------------- - | First Class. | Second Class. | Third Class. - ---------------+--------------+---------------+------------- - | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. - United Kingdom | 4.42 | 3.20 | 1.94 - France | 3.86 | 2.88 | 2.08 - Germany | 3.10 | 2.32 | 1.54 - United States | 2.18 | -- | -- - ---------------+--------------+---------------+------------- - -The rates above given for the United Kingdom, France, and Germany -are the regular schedule-rates. An average of all the fares -received, including the reduced fares at excursion rates, would -make the figures somewhat less. - -The rate named as the first-class fare for the railways in -the United States is, strictly speaking, the average earnings -per passenger per mile, and includes all classes; but as the -first-class passengers constitute about ninety-nine per centum -of the travel the amount does not differ materially from the -actual first-class fare. In the State of New York the first-class -fare does not exceed two cents, which is not much more than the -third-class fare in some countries of Europe, and heat, good -ventilation, ice-water, toilet arrangements, and free carriage of -a liberal amount of baggage are supplied, while in Europe few of -these comforts are furnished. - -On the elevated railroads of New York a passenger can ride in a -first-class car eleven miles for 5 cents, or about one-half cent a -mile, and on surface-roads the commutation rates given to suburban -passengers are in some cases still less. - -The berth-fares in sleeping-cars in Europe largely exceed those in -America, as will be seen from the following comparisons, stated in -dollars: - - --------------------+-------------------+------------ - Route. | Distance in Miles.| Berth fare. - --------------------+-------------------+------------ - Paris to Rome | 901 | $12.75 - New York to Chicago | 912 | 5.00 - Paris to Marseilles | 536 | 11.00 - New York to Buffalo | 440 | 2.00 - Calais to Brindisi | 1,373 | 22.25 - Boston to St. Louis | 1,330 | 6.50 - --------------------+-------------------+------------ - -While it would seem that the luxuries of railway travel in America -have reached a maximum, and the charges a minimum, yet in this -progressive age it is very probable that in the not far distant -future we shall witness improvements over the present methods which -will astonish us as much as the present methods surprise us when we -compare them with those of the past. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[23] See "Safety in Railroad Travel," page 195. - -[24] See "Safety in Railroad Travel," page 224; also, "American -Locomotives and Cars," page 142. - -[25] See "Safety in Railroad Travel," page 204. - -[26] See "Safety in Railroad Travel," page 191. - - - - -THE FREIGHT-CAR SERVICE. - -BY THEODORE VOORHEES. - - Sixteen Months' Journey of a Car--Detentions by the - Way--Difficulties of the Car Accountant's Office--Necessities - of Through Freight--How a Company's Cars are Scattered--The - Question of Mileage--Reduction of the Balance in Favor of - Other Roads--Relation of the Car Accountant's Work to the - Transportation Department--Computation of Mileage--The Record - Branch--How Reports are Gathered and Compiled--Exchange of - "Junction Cards"--The Use of "Tracers"--Distribution of - Empty Cars--Control of the Movement of Freight--How Trains - are Made Up--Duties of the Yardmaster--The Handling of - Through Trains--Organization of Fast Lines--Transfer Freight - Houses--Special Cars for Specific Service--Disasters to Freight - Trains--How the Companies Suffer--Inequalities in Payment for Car - Service--The Per Diem Plan--A Uniform Charge for Car Rental--What - Reforms might be Accomplished. - - -I. - -THE WANDERINGS OF A CAR. - - -On the 14th of December, 1886, there was loaded in Indianapolis a -car belonging to one of the roads passing through that city. It -was loaded with corn consigned to parties in Boston. The car was -delivered to the Lake Shore road at Cleveland on the 16th; but, -owing to bad weather and various other local causes, it did not -reach East Buffalo until December 28th. It was turned over by the -New York Central & Hudson River Railroad to the West Shore road -the next day, and by this company was taken to Rotterdam Junction, -and there delivered on December 31st to the Western Division of -the Fitchburg Railroad, or what was then known as the Boston, -Hoosac Tunnel & Western. They took it promptly through to Boston. -After a few days the corn was sold by the consignees for delivery -in Medfield, on the New York & New England Railway. The car was -delivered to this road on January 24, 1887, and taken down to -Medfield. There it remained among a large number of other cars, -until it suited the convenience of the purchaser to put the corn -into his elevator. - -On the 17th of March the car was unloaded, taken back to Boston, -and delivered to the Fitchburg road to be sent West, homeward. That -company took it promptly, but instead of delivering it to the West -Shore road at Rotterdam Junction, as would have been the regular -course, either through some mistake of a yardmaster at the junction -station, or in pursuance of general instructions to load all -Western cars home whenever practicable, the car was not delivered -to the West Shore, but was turned over to the Delaware & Hudson -Canal Co's. Railroad, taken down to the coal regions, and on March -31st delivered to the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad, by -whom it was loaded with coal for Chicago. That company promptly -delivered it to the Grand Trunk at Buffalo, and on April 10th the -car reached Chicago. It was immediately reconsigned by the local -agents of the coal company to a dealer in the town of Minot, 523 -miles west of St. Paul, on the St. Paul, Minneapolis & Manitoba -Railroad. To reach that point, it was delivered to the Chicago, -Rock Island & Pacific on April 10th, then to the Burlington, Cedar -Rapids & Northern, Minneapolis & St. Louis, St. Paul & Duluth, St. -Paul, Minneapolis & Manitoba, arriving at its destination on the -14th of April. - -Winter still reigned in that locality, and the car was promptly -unloaded, and returned to St. Paul, where it was loaded with wheat -consigned to New York. It left St. Paul on the 26th of April, was -promptly moved through to Chicago, and delivered to the Grand -Trunk. Coming east, in Canada, the train of which this car formed -a part, while passing through a small station, in the night ran -into an open switch. The engine dashed into a number of loaded -cars standing on the siding, and the cars behind it were piled -up in bad confusion, a number of them being destroyed, and the -freight scattered in all directions. Our car, whose history we are -tracing, suffered comparatively slight damage. The drawheads were -broken, and some castings on one truck, not sufficient to affect -in any way the loading of the car. It was sent to the shops of the -road; and it became necessary for them, on examination, to send -to the owners of the car for a casting to replace that broken on -the truck. This resulted in serious detention. The requisition for -this casting had to be approved by the Superintendent and by the -General Manager, and was forwarded, after a considerable delay, to -the officers of the road owning the car. There it was sent through -a number of offices before it finally reached the hands of the -man who was able to supply the required casting. This in turn was -sent by freight, and passed over the intervening territory at a -slow rate; the whole involving a detention which held the car from -April 28th, when it was delivered at Chicago to the Grand Trunk, -until July 18th, when finally the Grand Trunk delivered it to the -Delaware, Lackawanna & Western at Buffalo. It came through promptly -to New York, the grain was put in an elevator, the car was sent -back once more to the mines at Scranton, and again loaded with coal -for Chicago. On August 9th the record says the car was delivered by -the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western to the Grand Trunk, and on the -12th of August it was in Chicago. - -About this time the owners of the car began to make vigorous -appeals to the various roads, urging them to send the car home. One -of these tracers reached the Grand Trunk road while they still held -the car in their possession; so that orders were sent that the coal -must be unloaded at once, and the car returned. In order to unload -it, it was necessary to switch it to the Illinois Central for some -local consignee, and it was unloaded within four days and delivered -back to the Grand Trunk at Chicago. This was on August 16th. -During the few days that had elapsed since the order was given to -send this car home, there had been an active demand for cars, and -knowing that this one had to be sent to Buffalo in order to be -delivered to the Lake Shore road, from which it had originally been -received, the car was loaded for that point. This again resulted -in detention, for we find that the car was held on the Grand Trunk -tracks at Black Rock, awaiting the pleasure of the consignee to -unload the freight, until the 27th of September; and then, instead -of being unloaded and delivered to the Lake Shore road, as had been -the intention of the Grand Trunk officials, the consignee sold the -wheat in the car to a local dealer on the line of the Erie Railway, -and the car was sent down on that road on October 1st, and not -returned to the Grand Trunk again until the 10th day of October. - -Unfortunately, the Erie was as anxious at that time to load cars -west with coal as the other roads, and when they brought the car -back to the Grand Trunk, they brought it once more filled with -coal, and back the car went to Chicago, reaching there on the 13th -of October. - -It had now been away from home and diverted from its legitimate -uses for nine months, and apparently was as far from home as ever. -The delivery of the coal this time at Chicago put the car in the -hands of the Louisville, New Albany & Chicago Railway, and they -promptly gave it a lading by the southern route to Newport News; -for we find the car delivered by the Louisville, New Albany & -Chicago to the Chesapeake & Ohio route on October 28th, and at -Newport News on the 10th of November. The owners of the car were -meanwhile not idle. The occasional stray junction cards which came -in notified them of the passage of the car by different junction -points, giving them clews to work by, and they were in vigorous -correspondence with the various roads over which the car had gone, -urging, begging, and imploring the railway officers to make all -efforts in their power to get the car back to its home road. - -On its last trip from Chicago to Newport News, the car passed -through Indianapolis, the very point from which it began its long -journey and many wanderings. Unfortunately, however, it passed -there loaded, without detention, and the owners of the car did not -discover until it had been for some time at Newport News, that the -car had been anywhere near its home territory. By the time they -made this discovery the car had been unloaded, and had started west -once more. The records of the movement of the car here become dim. -It was apparently diverted from its direct route back, which would -have taken it once more to Indianapolis, and so home, for we find, -after waiting at Newport News for some time to be unloaded, it was -delivered to the Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis, next on the -Western & Atlantic, and so down into Georgia and South Carolina. -Again, on January 14, 1888, the car was reported on the Richmond -& Danville. They sent it once more down into South Carolina and -Georgia. From there it was loaded down to Selma, Ala., on the -Atlanta & West Point Railroad. They returned it promptly to -Atlanta, and so to the Central Railroad of Georgia; and the car, -after being used backward and forward between Montgomery and -Atlanta and Macon, finally appeared at Augusta, Ga., where it stood -on February 11, 1888. Here the car remained for some time, long -enough for the owners to get advices as to its whereabouts, and -communicate with the road on whose territory the car was, before -it was again moved. An urgent representation of the case having -been laid before the proper authorities, they agreed, if possible, -to load it in such a way that it should go back to Indianapolis. -This could not be done at once, however; but about the 12th of -March the car was sent to a near-by point in South Carolina loaded, -and worked back over the Georgia road and the Western Atlantic, -delivered to the Louisville & Nashville on April 3d, and finally, -after its many and long wanderings, was by that road delivered to -the home road at Cincinnati on the 17th of April; having been away -from home sixteen months and one day. - -This is a case taken from actual records, and is one that could be -duplicated probably by any railroad in the country. - - -II. - -THE CAR ACCOUNTANT'S OFFICE. - - THE WINNIPEG & ATHABASKA LAKE RAILWAY CO., - _General Superintendent's Office_, - WINNIPEG, December 31, 1888. - - TO JOHN SMITH, ESQ., - _Supt. of Trans'n, L. & N. R. R. Co., Louisville, Ky._ - - SIR: Our records show forty-five of our box-cars on your line, - some of which have been away from home over three weeks. I give - below the numbers of those which have been detained over thirty - days, viz.: - - Nos. 28542 34210 34762 29421 28437 29842 - 34628 34516 29781 28274 34333 28873 - - There is at this time a strong demand for cars for the movement - of the wheat crop, and I must beg that you will send home - promptly all that you have on your line. - - I remain, - Yours very truly, - THOMAS BROWN. - - - LOUISVILLE & NORFOLK R. R. CO., - _Office of Superintendent of Transportation_, - LOUISVILLE, KY., Jan'y 3, 1889. - - TO THOMAS BROWN, ESQ., - _Gen'l Supt., W. & A. L. R. W. Co., Winnipeg, Canada_. - - SIR: Your favor of the 31st ulto. was duly received and contents - noted. - - I call your attention to the enclosed mem. from our Car - Accountant, which shows that we have but seven of your cars now - on our road; of these but three are bad cases, Nos. 28437, 34516, - and 28873. One of these cars was crippled, and is in the shops; - the other two are loaded with wheat consigned "to order." - - The necessary instructions have been given our agents, and we - will do all in our power to hurry the return of your cars. - - I am, - Very truly yours, - JOHN SMITH. - - (Mem. enclosed.) - - MEMORANDUM. - - W. & A. L. Nos. - - 28542 to Ohio Northern, Dec. 5th. - 34210 " Ohio Northern, Dec. 10th. - 34762 " Kanawha Junc., 12/15 crippled. - 29421 " Elmwood, 12/15 unloading. - 28437 " Norfolk Shops, Dec. 6th. - 34628 " No account. - 34516 " Blue Ridge, 12/4 ordered out. - 29781 to Ohio Northern, Nov. 27th. - 28274 " Niantic, Dec. 12th, loading home. - 34333 " Louisville Belt, Dec. 8th. - 29842 " Brockton, Dec. 14th, empty, will load home. - 28873 " Blue Ridge, Nov. 18th, ordered out. - - -This is but an example of a correspondence that is constantly -being exchanged between the officials who are in charge of the -Transportation Department of the various railways of the country. - -The demands of trade necessitate continually the transportation of -all manner of commodities over great distances. - -Thus, wheat is brought from the Northwest to the seaboard, corn -from the Southwest, cotton from the South, fruit comes from -California, black walnut from Indiana, and pine from Michigan. -In the opposite direction, merchandise and manufactured articles -are sent from the East to all points in the West, the North, and -Southwest. The interchange is constant and steadily increasing in -all directions. - -In the early period of railways in this country, when they were -built chiefly to promote local interests, and the movement -of either freight or passengers over long distances was a -comparatively small portion of the traffic, it was customary for -all roads to do their business in their own cars, transferring -any freight destined to a station on a connecting road at the -junction or point of interchange of the two roads. While this -system had the advantage of keeping at home the equipment of each -road, it resulted in a very slow movement of the freight. As the -volume of traffic grew, and the interchange of commodities between -distant points increased, this slow movement became more and -more vexatious. Soon the railway companies found it necessary to -allow their cars to run through to the destination of the freight -without transfer, or they would be deprived of the business by more -enterprising rivals. So that to-day a very large proportion of the -freight business of the country is done without transfer; the same -car taking the load from the initial point direct to destination. -The result of this is, however, that a considerable share of all -the business of any railway is done in cars belonging to other -companies, for which mileage has to be paid; while, in turn, the -cars of any one company may be scattered all over the country from -Maine to California, Winnipeg to Mexico. - -The problem that constantly confronts the general superintendent of -a railway is, how to improve the time of through freight, thereby -improving the service and increasing the earnings of the company; -and, at the same time, how to secure the prompt movement of cars -belonging to the company, getting them home from other roads, and -reducing as far as possible upon his own line the use of foreign -cars, and the consequent payment of mileage therefor. - -By common consent the mileage for the use of all eight-wheel -freight cars has been fixed at three-quarters of a cent per mile -run; four-wheel cars being rated at one-half this amount, or -three-eighths of a cent. This amount would at first sight appear -to be insignificant, yet in the aggregate it comes to a very -considerable sum. In the case of some of the more important roads -in the country, even those possessing a large equipment, the -balance against them for mileage alone often amounts to nearly half -a million annually. - -It becomes therefore of the first importance to reduce to a minimum -the use of foreign cars, thereby reducing the mileage balance; -at the same time avoiding any action that will interfere with or -impede in any way the prompt movement of traffic. - -The first step toward accomplishing this result is to organize -and fully equip the Car Accountant's Department. The importance of -this office has been recognized only of late years. Formerly, and -on many lines even now, the Car Accountant was merely a subordinate -in the Auditing Department of the company. His duties were confined -strictly to computing the mileage due to other roads. This he -did from the reports of the freight-train conductors, often in a -cumbrous and mechanical manner, making no allowance for possible -errors. At the same time, he received reports of foreign roads -without question and without check. He was not interested in any -way in the operations of the Transportation Department; and, as a -consequence, it never occurred to him to make inquiries as to the -proper use of the cars belonging to his own company. That he left -entirely to the Superintendent. The latter, on the other hand, his -time incessantly filled with many duties, could give but scant -attention to his cars. - -The Superintendent of a railway in this country who has, let us -say, three hundred miles of road in his charge, has perhaps as -great a variety of occupation, and as many different questions -of importance depending upon his decision, as any other business -or professional man in the community. Fully one-half of his time -will be spent out-of-doors looking after the physical condition -of his track, masonry, bridges, stations, buildings of all kinds. -Concerning the repair or renewal of each he will have to pass -judgment. He must know intimately every foot of his track and, -in cases of emergency or accident, know just what resources he -can depend upon, and how to make them most immediately useful. -He will visit the shops and round houses frequently, and will -know the construction and daily condition of every locomotive, -every passenger and baggage car. He will consult with his Master -Mechanic, and often will decide which car or engine shall and -which shall not be taken in for repair, etc. He has to plan and -organize the work of every yard, every station. He must know the -duties of each employee on his pay-rolls, and instruct all new men, -or see that they are properly instructed. He must keep incessant -and vigilant watch on the movement of all trains, noting the -slightest variation from the schedules which he has prepared, and -looking carefully into the causes therefor, so as to avoid its -recurrence. The first thing in the morning he is greeted with a -report giving the situation of business on the road, the events of -the night, movement of trains, and location and volume of freight -to be handled. The last thing at night he gets a final report of -the location and movement of important trains; and he never closes -his eyes without thinking that perhaps the telephone will ring and -call him before dawn. During the day in his office he has reports -to make out, requisitions to approve, a varied correspondence, not -always agreeable, to answer. Added to this, frequent consultations -with the officers of the Traffic Department, or with those of -connecting lines, in reference to the movement of through or local -business, completely fill his time. - -It is not to be wondered at that such a man gives but slight -attention in many cases to the matter of car mileage. He frequently -satisfies himself by arranging a system of reports from his -agents to his office that give a summary each twenty-four hours -of the cars of every kind on hand at each station; and leaves the -distribution and movement of the cars in the hands of his agents. -He will give some attention to the matter whenever he goes over his -road on other and more pressing duties. Occasionally he will even -take a day or two and visit every station, inquiring carefully as -to each car he finds; why it is being held, for what purpose, and -how long it has stood. Then, satisfied with having, as he says, -"shaken up the boys," he will turn his attention to other matters, -and let the cars take care of themselves. When the monthly or -quarterly statements are made up, and he sees the amount of balance -against his road for car mileage, he gives it but little thought, -regarding it as one of the items like taxes, important, of course, -but hardly one for which he is responsible. - -His General Manager, however, will note the car-mileage balance -with more concern; and, looking into the matter carefully, he will -discover that the remedy is to put the Car Accountant into the -Transportation Department; thus at once interesting him in the -economical use of the equipment, and also placing in the hands of -the Superintendent the machinery he needs to enable him to promptly -control and direct the use of all cars. - -The Car Accountant's Office may properly be divided into two main -branches--mileage and record. The computation of mileage is made -in most cases directly from the reports of each train. These -reports are made by the train conductors, and give the initials and -number of each car in their train, whether loaded or empty, and the -station whence taken and where left. To facilitate the computation -of mileage of each car, the stations on the road are consecutively -numbered, beginning at nought--each succeeding station being -represented by a number equivalent to the number of miles it is -distant from the initial station; excepting divisional and terminal -stations, where letters are used, to reduce the work in recording. -The conductors report the stations between which each car moves by -their numbers or letters. So that all that is necessary for the -mileage clerk to do is to take the difference between the station -numbers in each case, and he has the miles travelled by that car. -The mileage of each car having been so noted on the conductor's -report, it is then condensed, the mileage of all cars of any given -road or line being added together, and the results entered into the -ledgers. At the close of the month these books are footed, and a -report is rendered to each road in the country of the mileage and -amount in money due therefor, in each case; and settlements are -made accordingly, either in full or by balance. This is purely the -accounting side of the Car Accountant's Office. - -There remains the record branch, equally important, and to the -operating department far more interesting. This consists broadly -in a complete record being kept of the daily movement and location -of every car upon the road, local or foreign. At first sight this -may seem to be a difficult and complicated operation, but, in -fact, it is simple. The record is first divided between local and -foreign; local cars being all cars owned by the home road, foreign -being all those owned by other roads. The local books are of large -size, ruled in such a way as to allow space for the daily movement -or location of each car for one month, and admit of twenty-five -or fifty cars being recorded upon each page. The record books for -foreign cars are similarly ruled, a slight change being necessary -to allow for the numbers and initials of the foreign cars, which -cannot well be arranged for in advance. - -The train conductors' reports are placed in the hands of the record -clerks, each one recording the movements of certain initials, or -series of numbers, under the date as shown by the report; the -reports being handed from one to another until every car has been -entered and the report checked. - -[Illustration: A Page from the Car Accountant's Book.[27]] - -In addition to the conductors' train reports, the Car Accountant -receives reports from all junction stations daily, showing all cars -received from or delivered to connecting roads, whether loaded or -empty, and the destination of each. He also has reports from all -stations showing cars received and forwarded, from midnight to -midnight, cars remaining on hand loaded or empty; and if loaded, -contents and consignee, and also cars in process of loading or -unloading, and reports from shops or yards showing cars undergoing -repairs, or waiting for the same. In fine, he endeavors to get -complete reports showing every car that either may be in motion or -standing at any point on his road. All of these are entered on his -record books. The station reports check those of the conductor, and -_vice versa_. It will thus be seen that the record gives a complete -history of the movement and daily use of each car on the road. - -In case of stock and perishable freight, or freight concerning -whose movements quick time is of the utmost importance, this -record is kept not only by days but by hours; that is, the actual -time of each movement is entered on the record. This is done by a -simple system of signs, so that an exact account of the movement, -giving date and hour of receipt and delivery, can be taken from the -record. This is frequently of the greatest value. - -In addition to this, it is customary now for nearly all roads to -exchange what are known as "junction cards." They are reports from -one to another giving the numbers of all cars of each road passing -junction stations. These junction reports when received are also -carefully noted in the record, so that an account is kept in a -measure of the movement of home cars while on foreign roads, and -their daily location. - -It would be difficult, and beyond the scope of this article, to -tell of the great variety of uses these records are put to. They -serve as a check upon reports of the mileage clerks, insuring their -accuracy. The junction reports serve also in a measure to check -the reports of foreign roads. Then, at frequent intervals, a clerk -will go over the record and note every car that is not shown to -have moved within, say, five days, putting down on a "detention -report" for each station the car number and date of its arrival. -These reports are sent to the agents for explanation, and then -submitted to the Superintendent. In a similar manner reports will -be made showing any use locally of foreign cars. From the record -can be shown almost at a glance the location of all idle cars, -information that is often very valuable, and that when wanted is -wanted promptly. Also, from the record, reports are constantly -being made out--"tracers," as they are termed--showing the location -and detention of home cars on foreign roads. In turn, foreign -tracers are taken to the record, and the questions therein asked -are readily answered by the Car Accountant. - -Whenever possible, the distribution of empty cars upon the line -should be under the direct supervision of the Car Accountant. -Where this matter is left to a clerk in the Superintendent's -office, or, as has often been the case, is left to the discretion -of yardmasters and agents, the utmost waste in the use of cars -is inevitable. An agent at a local station will want a car for -a particular shipment. If he has none at his station suitable -he will ask some neighboring agent; failing there, he will ask -the Superintendent's office, and frequently also the nearest -yardmaster. Some other agent at a distant station may want the -same kind of car; orders in this way become duplicated, and the -road will not only have to haul twice the number of cars needed, -but very often haul the same kind of cars empty in opposite -directions at the same time. This is no uncommon occurrence even on -well-managed roads, and, it is needless to say, is most expensive. - -Where the cars are distributed under the direct supervision of the -Car Accountant, he has the record at hand constantly, and knows -exactly where all cars are, and the sources of supply to meet every -demand. Not only that, but every improper use of cars is at once -brought to light and corrected. - -The _theory_ of the use of foreign cars is that they are permitted -to run through to destination with through freight, on condition -that they shall be promptly unloaded on arrival at destination; -that they shall be returned at once to the home road, being loaded -on the return trip if suitable loading is available; but by no -means allowed to be used in local service, or loaded in any other -direction than homeward. - -The _practice_ of many agents, and many roads, too, unfortunately, -is hardly in keeping with this theory. Agents, especially if not -closely watched, are prone to put freight into any car that is at -hand, regardless of ownership, being urged to such course by the -importunities of shippers and, at times, by the scarcity of cars. -Frequently such irregularities are the result of pure carelessness, -agents using foreign cars for local shipments, simply because they -are on hand, rather than call for home cars which it may take -some trouble and delay to procure. In this way at times a large -amount of local business may be going on on one part of the road in -foreign cars, while but a few miles distant the company's cars may -be standing idle. The Car Accountant from his record can at once -put a stop to this, and prevent its recurrence. - -[Illustration: Freight Pier, North River, New York.] - -Another valuable use to which the Car Accountant's Office may be -put is to trace and keep a record of the movement of freight, -locating delays, and tracing for freight lost or damaged. By a -moderate use of the telegraph wire the Car Accountant can keep -track of the movement of special freight-trains concerning which -time is important, and so insure regularity and promptness in their -despatch and delivery. From the mileage records may be obtained -the work of each engine in freight service, the miles run, the -number of loaded and empty cars hauled; and by considering two, -or perhaps three, empty cars as equivalent to one loaded car, the -average number of loaded cars hauled per mile is obtained. The -information is often valuable, as on many roads the ability of a -Superintendent is measured to a considerable extent by the amount -of work performed by the engines at his command. - -In many other ways the resources of the Car Accountant's office -will be found of the greatest value to the Superintendent. When the -office is once fully organized and systematized, and all in good -working order, the Superintendent will find that his capacity for -control of his cars has been more than doubled, while the demands -on his time for their care has been really lessened. He has all the -information he needs supplied at his desk, far more accurate than -any he was ever able to secure before, and in the most condensed -form; while, at the same time, he will find his freight improving -in time over his line, his agents will have cars more promptly -and in greater abundance than ever, and last, and most gratifying -of all, his monthly balance-sheets will show a steady decrease in -the amount his road pays for foreign-car mileage, until probably -the balance will be found in his favor, although his business and -consequent tonnage may have increased meanwhile. - - -III. - -USE AND ABUSE OF CARS. - -A package of merchandise can be transported from New York to -Chicago in two days and three nights. This is repeated day after -day with all the regularity of passenger service. So uniform is -this movement, that shippers and consignees depend upon it and -arrange their sales and stocks of goods in accordance therewith. -Any deviation or irregularity brings forth instant complaint and -a threatened withdrawal of patronage. This is true of hundreds -of other places and lines of freight service. To accomplish it, -there is necessary, first, a highly complicated and intricate -organization, and, next, incessant watchfulness. - -[Illustration: Hay Storage Warehouses, New York Central & Hudson -River Railroad, West Thirty-third Street, New York.] - -The shipper delivers the goods at the receiving freight-house -of the railway company. His cartman gets a receipt from the -tallyman. This receipt may be sent direct to the consignee, or -more frequently is exchanged for a bill of lading. There the -responsibility of the shipper ends. His goods are in the hands of -the railway company, which to all intents and purposes guarantees -their safe and prompt delivery to the consignee. - -The tallyman's receipt is taken in duplicate. The latter is kept -in the freight-house until the freight is loaded in a car, and is -then marked with the initials and number of the car into which the -freight has been loaded. After that it is taken to the bill clerk -in the office, and from it and others is made the waybill or bills -for that particular car. - -Where the volume of freight received at a given station is large, -it is customary to put all packages for a common destination, as -far as possible, in a car by themselves, thus making what are -termed "straight" cars. This is not always possible, however, or if -attempted would lead to loading a very large number of cars with -but light loads. So that it becomes necessary to group freight for -contiguous stations in one car, and again often to put freight for -widely distant cities in the same car. These latter are known as -"mixed" cars. - -We will assume the day's receipt of freight finished, and most of -the cars loaded. About 6 P.M. the house will be "pulled," that -is, those cars already loaded will be taken away, and an empty -"string" of cars put in their place. An hour later, this "string" -will in turn be loaded and taken out, and the operation repeated, -until all the day's receipt of freight is loaded. Meanwhile other -freight will have been loaded direct from the shippers' carts on to -cars on the receiving tracks. For all cars, there is made out in -the freight-office a running slip or memorandum bill, which gives -simply the car number, initials, and destination. These are given -to the yardmaster or despatcher, and from them he "makes up" the -trains. - -To a very great degree, the good movement of freight depends -upon the vigilance of the yardmasters and the care with which -they execute their duties. In an important terminal yard, the -yardmaster may have at all times from one to two thousand cars, -loaded and empty. He must know what each car contains, what is its -destination, and on what track it is. To enable him to do this, -he has one or more assistants, day and night. They, in turn, will -have foremen in charge of yard crews, each of the latter having -immediate charge of one engine. The number of engines employed will -vary constantly with the volume of the freight handled, but it -is safe to assume that there will be at all times nearly as many -engines employed in shifting in the various yards and important -stations on a line as there are road engines used in the movement -of the freight traffic. - -The work of the yard goes on without intermission day and night, -Sundays as well as week-days. The men there employed know no -holidays, get no vacations. The loaded cars are coming from the -freight-houses all day long, in greater numbers perhaps in the -afternoon and evening, but the work of loading and moving cars -goes on somewhere or other, at nearly all times. As often as the -yardmaster gets together a sufficient number of cars for a common -destination to make up a train, he gathers them together, orders a -road engine and crew to be ready, and despatches them. In the make -up of "through" trains, care has to be exercised to put together -cars going to the same point, and to "group" the trains so that -as little shifting as possible may be required at any succeeding -yard or terminal, where the trains may pass. To accomplish this, -a thorough knowledge of all the various routes is necessary, and -minute acquaintance with the various intermediate junction yards -and stations. - -The train once "made up" and in charge of the road crew, its -progress for the next few hours is comparatively simple. It will -go the length of the "run" at a rate of probably twenty miles per -hour, subject only to the ordinary vicissitudes of the road. At -the end of the division, if a through train, it will be promptly -transferred to another road crew with another engine, and so on. -Each conductor takes the running slip for each car in his train. -He also makes a report, giving the cars in his train by numbers -and initials, whether loaded or empty, how secured; and detailed -information in regard to any car out of order, or any slight mishap -or delay to his train. These reports go to the Car Accountant. -The running slips stay with the cars, being transferred from hand -to hand until the cars reach their destination. At junction yards -where one road terminates and connects with one or more foreign -roads, a complete record is kept, in a book prepared especially -for the purpose, of every car received from and delivered to each -connecting road. A copy of this information is sent daily to the -Car Accountant. - -[Illustration: Freight Yards of the New York Central & Hudson River -Railroad, West Sixty-fifth Street, New York.] - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: "Dummy" Train and Boy on Hudson Street, New York.] - -A road is expected to receive back from a connecting line any car -that it has previously delivered loaded. It becomes very necessary -to know just what cars have been so delivered. Without such a -record a road is at the mercy of its connections, and may be forced -to receive and move over its length empty foreign cars that it -never had in its possession before, thus paying mileage and being -at the expense of moving cars that brought it no revenue whatever. -The junction records put a complete check on such errors, and by -their use thousands of dollars are saved annually. - - * * * * * - -To still more expedite the movement of through freight, very -many so-called fast freight lines exist in this country, as, for -example, the Traders' Despatch, the Star Union, the Merchants' -Despatch Transportation Company, the Red, the White, the Blue, the -National Despatch, etc. Some of these lines are simply co-operative -lines, owned by the various railway companies whose roads are -operated in connection with one another. Their organization is -simple. A number of companies organize a line, which they put in -charge of a general manager. Each company will assign to the line a -number of cars, the quota of each being in proportion to its miles -of road. The general manager has control of the line cars. He has -agents who solicit business and employees who watch the movement -of his line cars, and report the same to him. He keeps close -record of his business, and reports promptly to the transportation -officer of any road in his line any neglect or delinquency he may -discover. The earnings of the line and its expenses are all divided -_pro rata_ among the roads interested. Such a line is simply an -organization to insure prompt service and secure competitive -business, and the entire benefit goes to the railway companies. - -[Illustration: (Logo on a box-car)] - -Other lines are in the nature of corporations, being owned by -stockholders and operating on a system of roads in accordance with -some agreement or contract. Others, again, are organized for some -special freight, and are owned wholly by firms or individuals, such -as the various dressed-beef lines and some lines of live-stock -cars. These are put in service simply for the mileage received for -their use, and in many cases the railway companies have no interest -in them whatever. - -The movement of "straight" cars and "solid" trains is comparatively -simple. But there is a very large amount of through freight, -particularly of merchandise, that cannot be put into a "straight" -car. A shipper in New York can depend on his goods going in a -straight car to St. Louis, Denver, St. Paul, etc., but he can -hardly expect a straight car to any one of hundreds of intermediate -cities and towns. Still less is it possible for a road at a small -country-town, where there are perhaps but one or two factories, to -load straight cars to any but a very few places. To overcome this -difficulty, transfer freight-houses have to be provided. These are -usually located at important terminal stations. - -[Illustration: Coal Car, Central Railroad of New Jersey.] - -To them are billed all mixed cars containing through freight. These -cars are unloaded and reloaded, and out of a hundred "mixed" cars -will be made probably eighty straight and the balance local. This -necessarily causes some delay, but it is practically a gain in time -in the end, as otherwise every car would have to be reloaded, and -held at every station for which it contained freight. - -[Illustration: (Logo on a box-car)] - -The variety of articles that is offered to a railway company for -transportation is endless. Articles of all sizes and weights are -carried, from shoe-pegs by the carload to a single casting that -weighs thirty tons. The values also vary as widely. Some cars will -carry kindling wood or refuse stone that is worth barely the cost -of loading and carrying a few miles, while others will be loaded -with teas, silks, or merchandise, where perhaps the value of a -single carload will exceed twenty-five or thirty thousand dollars. -The great bulk of all freight is carried in the ordinary box-cars, -coal in cars especially planned for it, and coarse lumber and stone -on flat or platform cars. But very many cases arise that require -especial provision to be made for each. Chicago dressed beef has -made the use of the refrigerator cars well known. These cars are -also used for carrying fruit and provisions. They are of many -kinds, built under various patents, but all with a common purpose; -that is, to produce a car wherein the temperature can be maintained -uniformly at about 40 degrees. On the other hand, potatoes in -bulk are brought in great quantities to the Eastern seaboard in -box-cars, fitted with an additional or false lining of boards, and -in the centre an ordinary stove in which fire is kept up during the -time the potatoes are in transit. - -An improvement on this plan is afforded by the use of cars known -as the Eastman Heater Cars. They are provided with an automatic -self-feeding oil-stove, so arranged that fire can be kept up under -the car for about a fortnight without attention. These are largely -used in the fruit trade. - -[Illustration: Unloading a Train of Truck-wagons, Long Island -Railroad.] - -For carrying milk, special cars have to be provided, as particular -attention has to be given to the matter of ventilation in -connection with a small amount of cooling for the proper carrying -of the milk. Not only the cars but the train service has to be -especially arranged for in particular cases. - -[Illustration: Freight from all Quarters--Some Typical Trains.] - -As an instance, the Long Island Railroad Company makes a specialty -of transporting farmers' truck-wagons to market. For this purpose -they have provided long, low, flat cars, each capable of carrying -four truck-wagons. The horses are carried in box-cars, and one -farmer or driver is carried with each team, a coach being provided -for their use. During the fall of the year, they frequently carry -from 45 to 50 wagons on one train, charging a small sum for each -wagon, and nothing for the horses or men. These trains run three -times weekly, and are arranged so as to arrive in the city about -midnight, returning the next day at noon. The trains by themselves -are not very remunerative, but by furnishing this accommodation, -farmers who are thirty or forty miles out on Long Island can have -just as good an opportunity for market-gardening as those who live -within driving distance of the city. This builds up the country -farther out on the island, which in turn gives the road other -business. - - * * * * * - -The movement of freight is not always successfully accomplished. In -spite of good organization, every facility, incessant watchfulness, -accidents will occur, freight will be delayed, cars will break -down, trains will meet with disaster. The consequences sometimes -fall heavily on the railway companies. The loss is frequently out -of all proportion to the revenue. The following instance is from -the writers own experience: - -Some carpenters repairing a small low trestle left chips and -shavings near one of the bents. A passing train dropped some -ashes. The shavings caught fire and burnt one or two posts in one -bent. The section-men failed to notice the fire. Toward evening a -freight train came to the trestle, the burnt bent gave way, and -the train was derailed. Two men were killed, one severely injured, -and eighteen freight cars were burned. The resulting loss to the -railroad company was $56,113. Of this amount, the loss paid on -freight was $39,613.12. As a matter of interest, and to show the -disparity between the value of the commodities and the earnings -from freight charges received by the railway company, the amount of -each is given here in detail, taken from the actual records of the -case: - - ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------ - Property destroyed. | Amount paid by |Freight charges on - |railroad company.| the same. - ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------ - Butter, 200 pounds at 35 cents| $70.00 | $0.50 - Ore, 75.9 tons at $3.50 | 265.80 | 56.91 - Paper, 4,600 pounds | 269.10 | 8.74 - Pulp, 10,400 pounds | 160.00 | 12.65 - Shingles, 85 M | 192.50 | 11.00 - Horsenails | 2,986.06 | 37.44 - Lumber | 252.00 | 18.40 - Apples, 159 barrels | 508.80 | 15.26 - Hops, 209 bales, 37,014 pounds| 34,908.86 | 59.22 - ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------ - | $39,613.12 | $220.12 - ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------ - -This was during the fall of 1882, when hops sold in New York for -over $1 per pound. - -The plan of payment for car service by the mile run, -without reference to time, has the merit of simplicity and -long-established usage. It is, however, in reality, crude and -unscientific, and has brought with it, in its train, numerous -disadvantages. - -The owner of a car is entitled, first, to the proper interest -in his investment, that is, on the value of the car; second, to -a proper amount for wear and tear or for repairs. The life of a -freight car may be reasonably estimated at ten years, so that ten -per cent. on its value would be a fair interest-charge. The average -amount for repairs varies directly as to the distance the car -moves, and may be put at one-half cent per mile run. - -It will be seen that by the ordinary method of payment the -car-owner is compensated for interest at the rate of ¼ of a cent -for the time that the car is in motion, but receives nothing for -all the time the car is at rest. If cars could be kept in motion -for any considerable portion of each twenty-four hours, this would -prove ample. But in practice it is found that few roads succeed -in getting an average movement of all cars for more than one -hour and a half in each twenty-four. This gives about five per -cent. interest on the value of the car, only one-half of what is -generally conceded to be a fair return. Still further, there is no -inducement to the road on which a foreign car is standing to hasten -its return home. On the contrary, there is a direct advantage in -holding the car idle until a proper load can be found for it, -rather than return it home empty. The most serious abuses of the -freight business of the country have grown from this state of -affairs. It costs nothing but the use of the track to hold freight -in cars; consequently freight is held in cars instead of being put -in storehouses, frequently for weeks and months at a time. - -There is but little earnest attempt made to urge consignees to -remove freight; on the contrary, the consignees consider that -they can leave their freight as long as they choose, and that the -railroad companies are bound to hold it indefinitely. - -One special practice has grown up as a result of this condition, -that of shippers sending freight to distant points to their own -order. This practice is most prolific of detention to cars, and yet -is so strongly rooted in the traffic arrangements of the country -that it is most difficult to put an end to it. Cars "to order" will -frequently stand for weeks before the contents are sold and the -consignee is discovered, during which time the cars accumulate, -stand in the way, occupy valuable space, and have to be handled -repeatedly by the transportation department of the road, all at the -direct cost of handling to the road itself, and loss of interest to -the owner of the car. - -[Illustration: Floating Cars, New York Harbor.] - -Only two methods have so far been suggested to abate or put an end -to the evils which have been but slightly indicated above. The -first is a change in the method of payment for car service to a -compensation based upon time as well as mileage, which is commonly -known as the "per diem plan." - -This plan consists in paying for the use of all foreign cars a -fixed sum per mile run, based on the supposed cost of repairs of -the car, and a price per day based upon what is estimated to be a -fair return for the interest on its value. This plan was originally -suggested by a convention of car accountants, and was brought -up and advocated by Mr. Fink, the Chairman of the Trunk Line -Commission, in New York, in the fall of 1887. At his suggestion, -and largely through his influence, it was tried by a few of the -roads (the Trunk Lines and some of their immediate connections) -during the early part of the year 1888; the amounts as then fixed -being one-half cent per mile run, and fifteen cents per day. The -results of this experiment, while they were quite satisfactory -to the friends of the proposed change, yet were not sufficiently -conclusive to demonstrate the value of the plan to those who were -indifferent or hostile to it. - -For various reasons, chiefly local to the roads in question, the -plan was discontinued after a few months' trial. The experiment -resulted, however, in the collection of a large mass of statistics -and other data, the study of which has led many to believe that -the plan is the proper solution of the difficulties experienced, -and, if adjusted so as not to add too much to the burden of those -railway companies who are borrowers of cars, that it would meet -with the approval of the railway companies throughout the country. -It certainly provided a strong inducement to all roads to promptly -handle foreign cars, and in that particular it proved a great -advance over the existing methods of car service. The charge per -day of fifteen cents was found too high in practice. Ten cents -per day and a half-cent per mile would produce a net sum to the -car-owner very slightly in excess of three-fourths of a cent per -mile run. While this appears but small, yet it would be quite -sufficient to amount in the aggregate to a considerable sum, and -would serve to urge all railway companies to promptly unload and -send home foreign cars. This plan would result, if generally -adopted, in largely increasing the daily movement or mileage of all -cars, or, what would be equivalent, would practically amount to a -very considerable increase in the equipment of the country. - -The plan has recently been approved by the General Time Convention, -and there is strong probability that it will be very extensively -adopted and given a trial by all the railways during the year 1890. - -The second method of remedying the existing evils of car service -is in a uniform and regular charge for demurrage, or car rental, -to be collected by all railroad companies with the same regularity -and uniformity that they now collect freight charges. This car -rental, or demurrage charge, would not be in any sense a revenue -to the car-owner; the idea of it being that it is a rental to the -delivering company, not only for the use of the car but for the -track on which it stands, and the inconvenience and actual cost -that the company is put to in repeated handling a car that is held -awaiting the pleasure of the consignee to unload. The difficulty -in the way of making such a charge has been the unwillingness of -any railroad company to put any obstacle in the way of the free -movement of freight to its line, and the fear that an equivalent -charge would not be made by some one of its competitors. Of late, -however, the serious disadvantages resulting from the privileges -given to consignees at competing points, by allowing them to hold -cars indefinitely, have led the different railway companies to come -together and agree upon a uniform system of demurrage charges at -certain competing points. - -If these two plans could be put into operation simultaneously, a -fair and uniform method of charging demurrage, coupled with the per -diem and mileage plan for car service, the results would be most -satisfactory not only to the railway companies and car-owners, but -also to the community. - - * * * * * - -The matter of freight transportation is a vast one, and whole -chapters might be written on any one of the various topics that -have been but slightly mentioned in this sketch. - -The subject is fraught with difficulties; new complications arise -daily which, each in its turn, have to be met and mastered. The -publicity recently given to the various phases of the railway -problem has done much to enlighten the public mind in regard to -these difficulties. - -The result has already been evident in the growing spirit of mutual -forbearance and good-will between the railway companies and the -public. Let us hope that this will continue, and that as time goes -on their relations will steadily improve, so that the public, while -yielding nothing of their legitimate demand for safe, prompt, and -convenient service, will at the same time see that this can only -be secured by allowing the railways a fair return for the services -rendered; while the railways will learn that their true interest -lies in the best service possible at moderate, uniform rates. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[27] EXPLANATION. Each connecting road at each junction station is -assigned a number, and when a car is received from a connection -the record is shown by entering the road number in the upper space -of the block under the proper date, followed by the character × -if loaded; or, if empty, together with the time, as for example: -Car 29421 is shown as received, Dec. 2d, from the Amherst & -Lincoln Ry. at Port Chester (10), loaded (×), at 21 o'clock, or 9 -P.M. A similar entry in the lower space of the block indicates a -_delivery_ to connecting line. The middle space of the block is -used for the car movement, the first number or letter showing the -station from which the car moved. The character × as a prefix to -a station number indicates that the car is being loaded at that -station. The --, when used as a prefix, shows that the car is being -unloaded; as an _affix_ it indicates a movement empty, or on hand -empty. When the -- is used _under_ a station number it indicates -a change date record, that is, leaving a station on one date and -arriving at another on the following date. Station numbers or -letters without other characters show that the car is loaded. - -The sign (B) is used when a car is left at a station for repairs, -while in transit. The sign (T) denotes that the lading was -transferred to another car, a transfer record being kept showing -to what car transferred; the sign (R), when a car is on hand at a -station or yard for repairs. Shops are assigned numbers with an O -prefix; the upper and lower spaces being used to show delivery to, -or receipt from the shop, similar to the interchange record. - -For convenience the twenty-four hour system is used for recording -time, and is shown in quarter-hours; thus, 10, 12^1, 18^2, 21^3, -representing 10 A.M., 12.15 P.M., 6.30 P.M., and 9.45 P.M. This, -used in the movement record, shows the running time on each -division, or detention at train terminals. - -The "transfer" column shows the station at which the car was -reported on the last day of the previous month, and the _arriving -date_; also from what road received, with date. - - - - -HOW TO FEED A RAILWAY. - -BY BENJAMIN NORTON. - - The Many Necessities of a Modern Railway--The Purchasing and - Supply Departments--Comparison with the Commissary Department of - an Army--Financial Importance--Immense Expenditures--The General - Storehouse--Duties of the Purchasing Agent--The Best Material the - Cheapest--Profits from the Scrap-heap--Old Rails Worked over into - New Implements--Yearly Contracts for Staple Articles--Economy - in Fuel--Tests by the Best Engineers and Firemen--The - Stationery Supply--Aggregate Annual Cost of Envelopes, Tickets, - and Time-tables--The Average Life of Rails--Durability of - Cross-ties--What it Costs per Mile to Run an Engine--The - Paymaster's Duties--Scenes during the Trip of a Pay-car. - - -The commissary or supply department of a railroad is not unlike -that of a large army. Like a vast army, its necessities are many, -and the various departments which make up the whole system must be -provided with their necessary requirements in order to accomplish -the end for which it is operated. - -If, again, we regard a railroad as a huge animal, the quantity -of supplies needed to fill its capacious maw is something -overwhelming. It is always hungry, and the daily bill of fare -(which includes pretty much everything known to trade) is gone -through with an appetite as vigorous and healthy at the end as -it exhibits in the beginning. Yet how few there are who realize -the important part this one feature plays in the operation of -the thousands of miles of railroad throughout the world! Upon -the proper conduct of this department depends very largely the -success of any road, so far as its relation to the stockholders -is concerned; for while, as has been the case in the past, -combinations and pools have aided in maintaining rates, and have -served to increase the income, and attention has been paid to -securing additional business in every possible way, the "out-goes" -have often been overlooked, to the detriment of dividends and the -general welfare of the property. - -The supplies must be furnished in any event, in order that the -various departments may perform their allotted duties--coal for -the engines, stationery for the clerks, ties and rails for the -tracks, oils for the lubrication of the thousands of axles daily -turning, passage-tickets for the travellers, and a thousand and one -things which are absolutely necessary for the safe and efficient -conduct of every railroad in active operation. Each item serves its -purpose, and, properly assimilated, keeps alive all the functions -of one vast and complicated system. It is easy to see, then, the -importance, first, of proper economy in buying, and then a correct -and systematic distribution of all supplies. On the Philadelphia & -Reading Railroad, for instance, the annual supply bills aggregate -more than $3,000,000, covering such supplies as those just -mentioned, and, in fact, everything which is purchased and used in -the operation of the road; so that on a large system like that, -the commissary department requires no end of detail, both in the -purchase and the distribution of all material. - -The expenditure for lubricating oils, waste, and greases alone -amounts to more than $150,000 per annum, while the outlay for fuel -represents about $1,200,000, and this is comparatively a small -sum, since that road is a coal road, so called, and the cost for -fuel, as a matter of course, is reduced to a minimum. There the -store-room system, which has now been pretty generally adopted by -many of the larger roads, is fully exemplified. With a General -Store-keeper in charge, all supplies purchased are accounted for -through him, and distributions are made daily among the sub-store -rooms, which are located at convenient points; and they in turn -distribute among the various departments, for consumption, all -accounting daily to the General Store-keeper at Reading. - -To give an idea as to the quantity of material required in the -service on such a road, it may be stated that from twelve to -fifteen car-loads of supplies per day are shipped to various -points. When we consider that an ordinary car will carry from -fifteen to twenty tons of freight, we find that the annual -requirements will average about four thousand car-loads, or, say, -about fifty thousand tons, and if all the cars were made up into -one solid train they would occupy fully twenty-five miles of -track, and consume an hour and a half passing a given point running -at the ordinary speed of freight-trains. - -To account carefully for all this requires necessarily a large -army of clerks and other assistants, though, with the fundamental -principles correct, it is no more difficult to account for large -quantities than for small. The supplies are purchased in the first -instance, delivered at the General Storehouse, are there weighed or -measured and receipted for, are then distributed on requisition, -and finally delivered to the several departments when needed; are -charged out to the various accounts, after consumption, and all -returns and records are finally kept on the books of the General -Store-keeper. - -It would be a large army indeed which would require so much for -its maintenance; and, remembering the hundreds of roads, small and -large, throughout the country, the measure of one's comprehension -is nearly reached in estimating the amount of money and the -thousands of tons of material represented. - -If the buyer of railroad stocks for investment, besides looking -into the returns of freight and passenger business for his -decision, would investigate carefully the method adopted for the -purchase and distribution of supplies on any road in which he may -be interested, he might get information enough to satisfy himself -that a large portion of the earnings were dribbling out through -this department, and that, as a result, his stock might eventually -cease to be a dividend payer. - -In the matter of buying, the result depends entirely upon the -purchasing agent, and this position must necessarily be occupied -by a man of honor and integrity, coupled with a reasonable amount -of shrewdness and aptitude for such business. As this department -covers to a greater or less degree pretty much all the known -branches of trade, the buyer cannot, under ordinary circumstances, -thoroughly master the whole field as an expert; but he can -nevertheless inform himself in the most important articles of -manufacture to the extent of preventing deception or fraud. The -field is extensive, and the sooner railroad companies realize that -the purchasing agent is not a mere order clerk, the sooner they -will discover that their disbursements for supplies are very much -less, and that the chief part of the leakage has found its source -in this very department. - -Exactly the same principles are involved in this matter as in the -case of a thrifty proprietor of a country-store, whose profits each -year depend materially upon the closeness and care with which his -stock in trade is purchased from the wholesale dealers in a large -city. A purchasing agent's experience is varied in the extreme, -dealing as he does with all classes of salesmen and business -houses. There is no end to the operations which skilful salesmen -go through in offering their stock; but after some experience a -sharp buyer will be able to fortify himself against the best of -them--even against the clever vender of varnishes who disposed of -one hundred barrels of his wares in small lots to different buyers, -on a sample of maple-sirup. On the other hand, a salesman who, -when a buyer asked him if his oil gummed, replied that "it gummed -beautifully," lost the chance of ever selling any goods in that -quarter. - -As has been said, the ordinary or general supplies consumed in the -operation of the average railroad include almost everything known -to trade. Tobacco, for the gratification of the taste of a gang -of men out on the road with the snow-plough, is not outside the -list; and even pianos, for some trains (since the days of absolute -comfort and possible extravagance have begun) for the benefit of -passengers setting out on long journeys; nor do we lose sight of -books, bath-tubs, and barbers. The practical feature involved, -however, calls for an endless variety of expensive as well as -inexpensive materials. - -It is a safe rule to follow that anything which goes into the -construction either of track, equipment, or buildings, should be -the best. Care should always be exercised against the use of any -material the failure of which might be the cause of loss of life, -and consequently result in heavy damages to the company. Iron alone -enters so extensively into railroad construction and operation -that it is safe to say three-fourths of all manufactured in this -country is consumed directly or indirectly in this way; and besides -its use in rails and fastenings (the latter including spikes, -fish-plates, and bolts and nuts), and in the many thousand tons of -car-wheels and axles annually required, there must be reckoned the -almost unlimited number of castings daily required in the way of -brake-shoes, pedestals, draw-heads, grate-bars, etc. The lumber and -timber for buildings, bridges, platforms, and crossings, and the -large quantity of glass which is necessary, are among other large -items of expenditure. - -Lubricating and illuminating oils, paints and varnishes, soaps, -chalk, bunting, hardware, lamps, cotton and woollen waste, clocks, -brooms, and such metals as copper, pig tin, and antimony are only a -few of the many articles of diet which a railroad requires to keep -body and soul together, and give it strength to perform the great -duty it owes to commerce and the public. After they have all served -their purposes, such as cannot be worked over again in the shops, -and are not entirely consumed, are consigned to the scrap-heap -under the head of "old material"--an all-important consideration in -the economical management of any road. On many roads very little -attention is paid to the sale of scrap. As a general rule, the -purchasing agent has charge of it, and if he shows any shrewdness -in buying, he will exercise more or less ingenuity in selling. Most -railroad scrap has a fixed value in the market. Quotations for old -rails, car-wheels, and wrought iron are found in all the trade -journals; but as in buying one can usually buy of someone at prices -less than market price, so in selling he can often find a buyer who -is willing to pay more than the regular quotation. As it is found -not wise in the long run to purchase ahead on some prospective -rise, so in selling it is equally true that holding scrap over upon -the possibility of a rise in prices is not always for the best -advantage. - -There has always been a demand for old iron rails, and recently -use for old steel rails has been found. They are worked over at -the rolling mills into crowbars and shovels, spikes, fish-plates, -bolts, and other necessary things to be employed in construction -and maintenance. Not long since an experiment with old steel rails -was successfully performed, whereby they were melted and poured -into moulds for use as brake-shoes. The result showed a casting -of unusual hardness which would outwear three ordinary cast-iron -shoes. This opens up an entirely new field in railroad economy, -for with ordinary foundry appliances accumulations of old steel -rails can be worked over and cast into all sorts of shapes and -patterns to better advantage than selling them at a nominal price -to outside buyers. While worn-out car-wheels will generally bring -more money from wheel manufacturers than they command in the open -market, it has not always been found the best policy to compel the -mill from which the new wheels are purchased to take too many of -them. It is apt to encourage the use of too much old material in -the manufacture of the new; and while the company may consider that -it is realizing much more money on sales of the old wheels than -the market price, it does not take into account the inferior stock -it is getting back, or the fact that possibly when the mileage -is reckoned the wheels have signally failed to run as long as -they ought. In the aggregate about ten per cent. of the original -cost of all supplies purchased is realized out of the sales of -old material. From cast-iron wheels and old rails, however, the -percentage is much larger, for while at present new passenger -car-wheels of this class, weighing about five hundred and fifty -pounds, are worth about ten dollars each, they will bring in the -market, when worn out after running say fifty thousand miles, about -twenty dollars per ton. Four wheels go to the ton, which represents -five dollars per wheel, or fifty per cent. of the original cost. -With old rails the percentage is even higher, in the present -condition of the rail market. Old iron rails are worth within four -or five dollars of the price of new steel, and the old steel about -seventy per cent. of the price of the new. These high percentages -assist in making up for the materials which are entirely consumed -in the service, and which never form a part of the ordinary -scrap-heap, such as oils, waste, and paints. - -While the majority of general supplies just mentioned briefly may -be arranged for as required and purchased from month to month upon -regular requisitions, there are certain staple articles which are -provided for in advance by contract. Among them principally are -the engine-coal, rails and ties, stationery, passage-tickets, and -time-tables. More money is expended for such supplies than for any -others, and contracts with responsible business houses, for their -delivery at fixed prices for the limit of at least a year, are -generally made to insure, in the first place, the lowest market -rates and, again, to make the delivery certain. - -Locomotive fuel is the largest single item of expense in the -operation of any road, the consumption of it running up as high as -a million tons per annum on some large roads; and while there are -a few exceptional cases where wood is used as fuel, coal is the -necessary element in nearly every case in America to-day. - -Of the two general varieties--bituminous or soft, and anthracite -or hard--it is safe to say that bituminous coal is the more -economical, assuming that the grade employed is the best, this -economy lying both in the original cost and the fact that the bulk -of it goes to serve its purpose, there being comparatively little -waste in the way of ashes; while the anthracite produces many ashes -and clinkers, requires much more care and attention on the part of -the stoker or fireman, and costs, as a general rule, about thirty -per cent. more. Economy, however, should not be carried too far in -any branch of the service, and if the passenger traffic be heavy -the use of soft coal may be a great detriment. To a traveller -there can be nothing more disagreeable than the smoke and cinders -emanating from it; and if, besides this, the road be an especially -dusty one, the combination of dust, smoke, and cinders will be -quite sufficient to turn the tide of travel in some other direction -and over another route. - -For freight service bituminous coal is decidedly the best, and -perhaps might not be out of place on short local passenger trains; -but the company that provides hard-coal-burning engines for -passenger trains, and soft-coal burners for freight, does about -the right thing, and economizes as far as practicable in this -particular. In making contracts for this important commodity the -necessity of careful tests in advance is very apparent, and such -trials are generally left with the best engineers and firemen; -otherwise it might be difficult to get at all the qualifications. -On some roads inducements offered to firemen have brought the -consumption of fuel down to the most economical point, and it is -surprising how much depends upon their good judgment in this matter. - -Now that heating cars direct from the engines is coming into -general use, and State legislatures have given the subject their -consideration, the consumption of the domestic sizes of coal as -fuel in cars is growing less; but this, too, is still a very -important matter. - -Stationery is not only a very significant item, but also an -expensive one. This includes all the forms and blanks used in -the conduct of the freight and passenger business, and there is -an endless variety of them--the inks, pens, pencils, mucilage, -sealing-wax, and envelopes, besides many other odds and ends. -Perhaps the envelopes represent one of the largest single items of -expense in this line. The hundreds of thousands of them used in -the course of a year, even at low prices, mean an outlay of many -thousands of dollars. Agents must send in daily reports, there -must be covers for all the correspondence passing between the -different departments, while the daily average amount of outside -correspondence is very considerable. It is surprising how many -dollars might be saved in this direction, not only by a judicious -contract, but by a careful use of the supply. - -When a railroad company takes up the question of time-tables, it -has a matter of importance to handle which on many roads receives -very little consideration. When the passenger traffic is heavy, the -number of travellers during the year running into the millions, -the demand for time-tables is very large. This refers directly to -the time-table sheets or folders, which every company must keep -on hand at its stations, and in other public places and hotels, -for the convenience of the traveller, in addition to the printed -schedules which are framed and hung up conspicuously on the walls -of its waiting-rooms. A neat and attractive folder for general -circulation is very desirable, particularly if competition is very -strong. There is more virtue in a neatly made up schedule of trains -than one would suppose. One in doubt is apt to reason that the road -is kept up in a corresponding condition, and that the trains are -made up on the same plan, and consequently would prefer to go by -that route rather than by one whose trains were advertised on cheap -leaflets. - -Fifteen thousand to twenty thousand dollars per annum for envelopes -alone is spent on some roads, and twice as much more perhaps for -time-tables. - -Passage-tickets, including all varieties of regular and special -tickets, such as mileage books or coupons, family trip-books, -and school-tickets are also an item of large expense, the annual -consumption covering many tons, which once used are of no value -save as waste paper; yet they are absolutely indispensable in -the operation of the road. Yearly contracts for these are made, -and while the actual cost of a single ticket may not exceed _one -mill_, the aggregate on a road carrying fifteen millions to twenty -millions or more passengers per annum is considerable. - -To induce the public to travel, and encourage shippers to send -their freight to market over any road, attention must first be paid -to the condition of the track and rolling stock. - -It is not economy to allow anything to be out of repair, on -the supposition that it is less expensive than it would be to -spend comparatively little from day to day to keep it up. The -day of reckoning will come in the end, and the sacrifice will -be considerable. As the track is the fundamental feature, the -cross-ties or sleepers and rails should be the best. Iron rails are -practically out of date, and it is fair to assume that the time -is approaching when wooden ties will be things of the past. Where -the traffic is light, heavy steel rails may not be necessary; but -it has been generally found economical to put in use rails which -do not weigh less than sixty-seven or seventy pounds to the yard; -an even greater weight than this is not ill-advised--they require -fewer cross-ties to the mile, and in consequence the force of men -required to keep the track in condition is less. Light rails are -soon worn and battered out on a road over which heavy engines are -run and large trains are hauled. The powerful locomotives now built -require a well-kept track and a solid and substantial road-bed. -Heavier and faster trains have tended to reduce the average life of -rails, even though the weight of the rails has also been steadily -increasing. Circumstances vary on the different roads, but it is -safe to say that eight to ten per cent. of all rails in the track -must be renewed every year. This brings the average life of the -steel rails down to about twelve years, under ordinary conditions. -On some divisions, however, where the traffic is frequent, and in -yards where a good deal of switching is done, and the rails are -under pressure constantly, the average is, of course, very much -less--even as low as two or three years. - -Aside from the durability of the timber employed, plenty of face -for the rail bearings, and uniform thickness and length, are -very important requirements in contracts for ties. While white -oak is generally considered the most durable for this purpose, -the growth of this timber is limited except in certain sections -of the country, so that cedar, cypress, chestnut, and yellow -pine are more commonly used than any other class. The millions -of them used for renewals and new roads each year are gradually -reducing our forests; and, like some of the European roads, we -shall some day fall back upon metal, which (while its life may not -be measured) will make so rigid a track that the traveller over -long distances will be worn out with his journey, and the rolling -stock will require frequent repairs and overhauling. The practice -of creosoting cross-ties is growing rapidly, and this tends to -increase their durability three or four times. While the first -cost of such ties may be double that for the unprepared timbers, -the result in the end is economical, for the labor alone required -to take out an old tie and put in a new one costs at least twelve -cents. - -The general store-room is properly the intermediate stage, so far -as supplies are concerned, between the different departments of -the road and the Auditor, who charges up all material used to the -different accounts into which his system is divided. Properly, -everything in the nature of material, however small, directly or -indirectly passes through the Store-keeper's books. An account is -kept with each locomotive, station agent, switchman, and flagman, -so that to a penny everything consumed in the operation of a road -is accurately known. To accomplish this the Store-keeper, of -course, must be a good accountant, and at the same time be more -or less of an expert in railroad material. Under an economical -administration of his affairs he is able to save a great deal of -money for his company. By his system, with the aid of data from -the mechanical department, he can tell the average number of miles -run during the year to a pint of oil or a ton of coal; the number -of pounds of coal consumed per mile run, as well as the number of -pints of oil for the same distance. He can give in detail the cost -in cents per mile run for all the oil, tallow, and waste, fuel, -and other supplies consumed, and can account to a nicety for all -the lanterns, brooms, hardware, and other material which he has -received and distributed. - -The following statement of averages represents fairly what it costs -to run a locomotive under ordinary conditions: - - -_Averages._ - - Number of miles run to pint of oil 15.32 - Number of miles run to ton of coal 46.17 - Number of pounds of coal per mile run 48.62 - Number of pints of oil per mile run 0.06 - - -_Cost in Cents per Mile Run._ - - Cents. - For oil, tallow, and waste 0.32 - For fuel 7.42 - For engineers 3.60 - For firemen 1.79 - For wipers and watchmen 1.25 - For water supply 0.49 - For supplies (miscellaneous) 0.10 - For repairs 2.40 - ----- - Total 17.37 - -He will find that some engineers and firemen are more extravagant -than others, and that some station agents and flagmen do not -perform their respective duties with near so much regard for -economy as others do under exactly similar circumstances. In such -cases a report is made and a reminder from the Superintendent -follows, calling attention to such carelessness. The result is -apparent at the next monthly comparison. - -Prompt payment of all supply bills helps to insure economy, and any -company unable to make its payments promptly and regularly, suffers -to a greater or less extent always; for a firm not able to know -whether its accounts are to be settled in thirty or ninety days -cannot afford to allow all the discounts which it otherwise might, -and this may mean an extra expense every year of many thousands of -dollars. - - * * * * * - -So far as the employees are concerned, it is for the best interests -of the company to have a fixed time for the pay-day. They need -their money and should get it regularly. Any road on which the men -are paid at uncertain times may be subject to incalculable losses. -It is apt to provoke dishonesty and carelessness. The road which -is bankrupt and forced to pass its pay-day to some indefinite time -is always hampered by some of the most inferior class of servants -in the market. Except in some instances where special laws have -been passed requiring railroad companies to meet their pay-rolls -oftener, once each month is generally recognized as pay-time, and -on large roads it would be simply out of the question for the -pay-rolls to be made up correctly and the men paid off sooner. -The paymaster is the wage-distributing medium, and by virtue of -his generosity will command as much respect as the President of -the road. No officer's face is more familiar than his, and surely -no one connected with the institution is looked for with more -eagerness by the hard-working employees. It is no easy task he has -to perform, and the responsibility for the millions of dollars -paid out in this way annually is very great. This responsibility, -however, has been very much reduced on some roads, where wages -are paid by checks entirely. Under some circumstances this system -will not work satisfactorily, especially on a road running through -a sparsely settled country. The employees may have to stand a -good round discount to some store-keeper or tradesman in order -to secure their money. The best and most satisfactory return for -services can be nothing less than solid cash; it encourages better -attention to business and relieves the men from possible annoyance -and inconvenience. The Paymaster's car, which is virtually a -moving bank or cashier's office, and arranged conveniently for the -payment of money to the men as they pass through, is generally -run "special," upon notice in advance to all foremen or heads of -departments, either by telegraph or, as on some roads, by the -display of special signal flags, which are carried on the front -end of the locomotive of some regular train the day before the car -is run over any division. In this way all men employed along the -line of the road, whether at or between stations, are notified of -the Paymaster's coming, and it does not usually require any other -inducement than this to bring them all out. There is nothing that -will prompt them to jump higher and run faster than the whistle of -the pay-train as it comes around the curve to the station. Men have -been known to forget their names, and do other foolish things under -the excitement of drawing their month's pay. The fellow who said -he could not write all his name when requested by the Paymaster to -sign the pay-roll, but offered to write as much of it as he could, -after some deliberation made a cross on the sheet with all the care -and nicety he could muster. Others who could not write have been -very slow to admit it, and have pleaded haste as an excuse for -not doing so. So far as Italians are concerned (and what railroad -service is now complete without its gang of Italian laborers?), -they are usually designated by numbers, and in some cases their -foremen have thought it well to name them after prominent statesmen -or other public men, or possibly some of the head officials of the -company. To run across twenty-five or thirty Daniel Websters on -the same road is not surprising, and the President of the company -himself is liable to have a half-dozen namesakes throughout the -different divisions of his road. A cage of jabbering monkeys is -not a more amusing spectacle than some gangs of Italian laborers -receiving their month's pay. - -The pay-department can be made very systematic, and to promote -economy and accuracy it is absolutely necessary that it should -be. The Paymaster is not simply a medium through whom wages are -distributed. He may be one of the most important officers of his -company, and ferret out frauds and dishonesty which otherwise might -never be discovered. He knows all the men, and they, of course, -know him. In fact, he is the only one connected with the road whose -recognition among all the employees is absolutely certain. - -Some idea of the enormous amount of money earned annually by the -railroad men in this country may be formed from the statement that -it requires about $1,000,000 per month to pay twenty thousand -men, and there are a good many roads on which the average monthly -pay-roll embraces from fifteen thousand to twenty thousand names; -in some cases even more. - -When the pay-rolls are all turned over to the Paymaster, -properly approved by each head of department, he notifies the -Superintendent or Trainmaster of his proposed trip, mapping out -in detail the route, which is usually the same each month. The -signals or telegrams are sent ahead to the various foremen, and -the car is ordered ready for the journey. The funds are arranged -in denominations to suit the circumstances, with plenty of small -change, and enough money for a day or two only at a time is -provided. The pay for the flagmen at crossings, and switchmen on -the road, as well as for the agents at small stations, is generally -done up in envelopes, and, as the train speeds by, the packages -are handed or thrown out at the proper places; and sometimes, to -warrant a safe delivery, a forked stick is used, into which the -envelope is put, thus giving it plenty of weight and saving it from -being tumbled about promiscuously on the ground. Much time is saved -in this way, and the pay-train is able to keep well out of the way -of any regular train which may be following. So the pay-car flies -along, only stopping at some large station where the number of -employees engaged is sufficient to warrant it. These are quickly -paid off, however, and the journey is continued. Perhaps at some -junction a freight crew is met; and as these fellows have to get -their money when they can, a stop is made on the road to give them -a chance to do it. At some stations are found two or three gangs -of section or track men, a watchman, an agent and his assistant, a -pumper, and possibly a mail-carrier. Perhaps a discharged trainman -will turn up also, who may have part of a month's pay coming to him. - -Later in the day it may be a shop gang of five hundred or one -thousand men, consisting of carpenters, painters, machinists, -and boiler-makers, and these are paid in order, each set of men -by itself. There is no noise or disturbance, everything goes -like clock-work, as all pass through in regular order, each gang -or class preceded by its foreman, and the men arranged in line -in the order in which their names appear on the pay-rolls. When -night comes, and two or three hundred miles of road have been -covered, the balance of the funds is carefully locked up in the -safe on board, the car run in upon some convenient siding, and -the engine housed for a wiping and a thorough preparation for the -next day's run. The car is generally provided with comfortable -beds for the Paymaster and his clerks, and during the paying-off -time they practically live in the car. This insures early starts -in the morning, and on large roads the necessity for haste is very -apparent, where possibly two or three weeks are consumed each month -in paying off the rolls. - - * * * * * - -The average traveller, spinning across the country at forty miles -an hour, is not apt to think of the countless details involved in -the make-up of the train in which he rides or the track over which -he is wheeled; but when he considers how safely the millions of -passengers are annually carried over the one hundred and fifty -thousand miles or more of railroad in this country alone, he may -be brought to realize that quite as much depends upon the quality -of the material entering into the construction of the train and -tracks as upon the efficiency of the engineer in the cab, or the -conductor, brakeman, switchmen, and train-despatcher who perform -their respective responsible duties in connection therewith. -Feeding a railroad, then, means a great deal more than the majority -of mankind supposes. - - - - -THE RAILWAY MAIL SERVICE. - -BY THOMAS L. JAMES. - - An Object Lesson in Postal Progress--Nearness of the Department - to the People--The First Travelling Post-Office in the United - States--Organization of the Department in 1789--Early Mail - Contracts--All Railroads made Post-routes--Compartments for - Mail Clerks in Baggage-cars--Origin of the Present System in - 1862--Important Work of Colonel George S. Bangs--The "Fast Mail" - between New York and Chicago--Why it was Suspended--Resumption - in 1877--Present Condition of the Service--Statistics--A - Ride on the "Fast Mail"--Busy Scenes at the Grand Central - Depot--Special Uses of the Five Cars--Duties of the Clerks--How - the Work is Performed--Annual Appropriation for Special Mail - Facilities--Dangers Threatening the Railway Mail Clerk's Life--An - Insurance Fund Proposed--Needs of the Service--A Plea for Radical - Civil Service Reform. - - -At the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia, in the Post-Office -exhibit, was a double picture showing the postal service at the -beginning of the century and as it is to-day. On one side was a -postman--perhaps Franklin--on horseback, jogging over a corduroy -road, "through the forest primeval," making a mile or two an hour; -and on the other a representation of the fast mail train, the -"catcher" taking a pouch from the "crane" as it passes at the rate -of fifty miles an hour! Standing in the foreground is the pretty -daughter of the village postmaster with the mail pouch just thrown -from the car in her hand, a group of rustics, with ill-concealed -admiration in their eyes, watching her as the swiftly passing train -goes on its journey. This picture is not, perhaps, a work of art, -but it is an "object lesson," giving at a glance the progress that -our country has made in a hundred years. - -[Illustration: Postal Progress, 1776-1876. - -(Facsimile of a print in the Post-Office Department.)] - -Of all the executive departments of the Government, the Post-Office -is the one nearest the people, and the one with which they -are the most familiar. In addition to its work of collecting, -transporting, and delivering legitimate mail matter, viz., -letters, newspapers, and magazines, it is the greatest express -company of the continent, since it has an office at almost every -cross-roads, even carrying merchandise cheaper (considering the -distance) than its rivals. Its registration system affords a means -of forwarding valuable packages, at a slight additional cost, with -almost absolute security. It is the greatest banking institution -on this side of the Atlantic. The transactions of its money-order -system, not only in our own country, but with almost every nation -in the civilized world (Russia and Spain excepted), run up to -wellnigh fabulous sums. Its drafts are easily obtained and cheap. -Its notes are "gilt edged," and have never been repudiated. With -the creation of the Postal Savings Bank system, the working -people's department in its organization will approach perfection. - -The first mention of a travelling post-office occurs in a memorial -addressed to Congress in November, 1776, by Ebenezer Hazard, -Postmaster-General under the Continental Congress, in which he -states that, owing to the frequent removals of the Continental -Army, he was subjected to extraordinary expense, difficulties, and -fatigues, "having paid an exorbitant price for every necessary of -life, and having been obliged, for want of a horse--which could not -be procured--to follow the army on foot." - -Directly after the inauguration of General Washington, in April, -1789, the organization of the Post-Office Department followed, and -Samuel Osgood, of Massachusetts, was appointed Postmaster-General. -That the people might derive the greatest possible advantage from -an institution peculiarly their own, this gigantic monopoly--for it -is nothing else--was created, and all competition forbidden. The -Postmaster-General had then but one clerk, and there were but 75 -post-offices and 1,875 miles of post-roads in the United States; -the cost of mail transportation being $22,081, the total revenue, -$37,935, the total expenditures, $32,140; leaving a surplus of -$5,795. From this time until 1836 the contracts made for the -transportation of the mails do not mention any kind of service -on post-roads except stages, sulkies, four-horse post-coaches, -horseback, packets, and steam-boats. - -[Illustration: The Pony Express--The Relay.] - -The growth of the Railway Mail Service has been coincident with -that of the railway itself, and the importance of both cannot -be underestimated in considering the future development of the -country. Almost as soon as a railroad is fully organized it becomes -a mail contractor with the Department. - -The Act of Congress constituting every railroad in the United -States a post-route was approved July 7, 1838. Postmaster-General -Barry, in his annual report for 1836, speaks of the multiplication -of railroads in many parts of the country, and suggests it as a -subject worthy of inquiry, whether measures may not be taken to -secure the transportation of the mail on them, and adds: "Already -have the railroads between Frenchtown, in Maryland, and Newcastle, -in Delaware, and between Camden and South Amboy, in New Jersey, -afforded great and important facilities to the transmission of the -great eastern mail." At this time a railroad between Washington and -New York was in process of construction, and Postmaster-General -Barry dwelt in his report on the importance of the facilities -that would be afforded for speedy service between the two cities, -predicting that the run between them would probably be made in -sixteen hours. The service is now performed in about five hours. - -[Illustration: The Overland Mail Coach--A Star Route.] - -At first the facilities for mail services were very limited. -Postmaster-General Kendall, in 1835, suggested that the Baltimore -& Ohio Railroad Company might be asked to close in some portion of -their baggage-cars, a strong lock being placed on the apartment, to -which only the postmasters at Washington and Baltimore should have -keys. In the same report he adds: "If wheels can be constructed -which can be used alike upon the railroads and the streets of the -cities respectively, the Department will furnish an entire car -containing the mail to be delivered at one depot, and received at -the other, asking nothing of the company but to haul it." It was -even proposed at this time that the Government should have its own -locomotives, everything else on the road giving the right of way -to the mail train. This proposition was not adopted. The fear was -expressed, however, that if the Department did not have absolute -control over the road, the people would have to depend on stage -or other horse transportation for mail service. All these early -troubles in time passed away, and, through concessions on both -sides, the railways soon became the most important agent of the -Post-Office Department. - -[Illustration: Mail Carrying in the Country.] - -This, of course, was not accomplished without many trials and -tribulations. It seems strange, in the light of the present, to -read in an official report a remonstrance from route agents that -nearly every night dead bodies were placed in the mail crates -between Philadelphia and New York, and the mails packed around the -coffins. This breach of good order disappeared after that time, and -with it came to an end the freight methods and the old stage-coach -ideas of dealing with the mails. - -A separate compartment in a baggage-car, fitted up with few -conveniences necessary for the distribution of local way-mail, was -the beginning of the system which has developed into the luxurious -postal cars of the present time. As a matter of history, however, -it is only fair to say that the system which we then adopted had -been in use for some time by our northern neighbors of Canada, who -had taken it from the mother country. - -The credit of suggesting the first step toward the present system -has generally been given to Colonel G. B. Armstrong, who in 1864 -was Assistant Postmaster at Chicago. This is incorrect; Mr. W. -A. Davis, a clerk of the St. Joseph, Mo., Post-Office, where the -overland mail was made up, conceived the idea, in 1862, that if the -letters and papers could be assorted on the cars between Quincy and -St. Joseph, the overland mail could start promptly on time. He was -given permission to carry out this idea, and there are vouchers on -file in the Department at Washington showing that he was paid for -that specific work. In 1864 Colonel Armstrong was authorized and -encouraged by the Hon. Montgomery Blair, then Postmaster-General, -to undertake the difficult task of arranging and introducing the -service. On August 31, 1864, he wrote: "To-day I commenced the new -distribution." Subsequently, Colonel Armstrong became the first -General Railway Mail Superintendent, and held this office until -ill-health compelled him to resign, in 1871. To Colonel George S. -Bangs, of Illinois, and his successors, Theodore N. Vail, William -B. Thompson, and John Jameson, is due the excellence of the present -system. Colonel Bangs was a thoroughly equipped post-office man, -energetic, courageous, and progressive. Brimful of ideas, he -was ever on the lookout for improvement. Never satisfied with -old ways, he was constantly striving to simplify and better the -service. He forgot himself in his work, and died a martyr to his -duty, leaving the Travelling Post-Office of to-day a monument to -his memory. While to Colonel Armstrong is due the credit for the -skeleton of the system, it was the genius of Colonel Bangs that -clothed the bones with flesh, developed the sinew, put the blood -in circulation, and breathed into its body the breath of life. -Colonel Bangs found, in 1871, that everything was disjointed, -disconnected, and sluggish. There was no attempt at "certainty, -security, or celerity." It was a "go-as-you-please" condition of -affairs. He grappled at once with it and brought order out of -chaos. He introduced a system of emulation among the employees, -rewarding those who displayed proficiency by promotion over the -sluggish, and thus, in fact, was probably the father of what -is now known as Civil Service Reform. In 1874 he discussed the -propriety of establishing a fast and exclusive mail train between -New York and Chicago, "this train" (quoting his report to the -Postmaster-General) "to be under the control of the Department, -so far as it is necessary for the purposes designed, and to run -the distance in about twenty-four hours. It is conceded by railway -officials that this can be done. The importance of a line like -this cannot be overestimated. It would reduce the actual time of -mail between the east and west from twelve to twenty-four hours. -As it would necessarily be established upon one or more of the -trunk lines, having an extended system of connections, its benefit -would be in no case confined, but extended through all parts of the -country alike." - -This report met with the approval of Postmaster-General Jewell, -who ordered Bangs to negotiate with the New York Central & Hudson -River Railroad and the Lake Shore Railroad for a fast mail train, -leaving New York at four o'clock in the morning, and arriving -at Chicago in about twenty-four hours. It was the old story of -making bricks without straw. The Post-Office Department had no -appropriation to pay for such facilities, hence it had to depend at -first on the public spirit of the railroad authorities. Commodore -Vanderbilt, the president of the companies whose lines were to be -used, had had dealings with the Department, and was perhaps not -altogether sanguine as to the practical issue of the experiment, -or in respect to the countenance it would receive from Congress; -but Mr. William H. Vanderbilt, the vice-president, lent a willing -ear to Mr. Bangs's proposition, and did his utmost to aid him -in putting it into effect. There being no special appropriation -available for the purpose in hand, "the devil was whipped around -the stump" by Colonel Bangs stipulating that if Mr. Vanderbilt -would have twenty cars built and the service performed, all matter -originating at or coming into the New York Post-Office, which -could reach its destination at the same time by this line, should -be sent by this train, and that the railway companies could have -the right to demand a weighing of the mail matter at will, all -railroads being paid according to weight. When the details of the -plan were communicated to Commodore Vanderbilt, he is reported to -have said to his son: "If you want to do this, go ahead, but I know -the Post-Office Department, and you will, too, within a year." Mr. -Vanderbilt did "go ahead." He constructed and equipped the finest -mail train ever seen on the planet, ran it for ten months, never -missed a connection at Chicago, and was always on time at New -York. He did not have to wait a year, however, for a realization of -the sagacious old commodore's prophecy. Within three weeks, despite -the indignant protest of Colonel Bangs, the mails of three States -were ordered to be taken from this and given to another route. A -grosser and more wanton breach of plighted faith it would be hard -to find, and its results were far-reaching and disastrous. - -This train was a marvel of completeness and efficiency. It was -manned by picked men, and the only complaint ever made against it -was that it ran so fast that the clerks had not time to sort the -mails for the post-offices between New York and Poughkeepsie. To -obviate this, Colonel Bangs requested the postmaster at New York -to have two hundred mail-bags dyed red, which should contain the -mail for those offices nearest together, so that the crew in the -train could distribute them first. There was no complaint after -that. But when the dyer's bill was sent by the postmaster to the -Department, it was disallowed by a clerk of the Second Assistant -Postmaster-General, who, in a letter announcing the fact, said that -there was no necessity for the outlay if the postal clerks did -their duty. Bangs, who had just arrived at the post-office from a -day and night's ride on his favorite train, was lying on a sofa -half asleep in the postmaster's private office, as that official -was opening his mail. When he came to that letter he handed it to -Bangs. He was wide-awake in an instant. "Mr. Postmaster," said he, -"do you know the man who signed this letter? He is a wheezy priest, -a fool, and a Baptist, at that. Give me the letter." The bill was -allowed as soon as Bangs reached the Department. He was wrong, -however, in crediting the subordinate to the Baptist faith. He was -an ornament of another persuasion. - -So carefully had the project been considered and adapted that the -service on the Central, from the start, moved with the precision -of clock-work, and was an immediate success. It is proper to say -that word of what was going on between the Department and the -Vanderbilt system reached the Hon. Thomas A. Scott, President of -the Pennsylvania Railroad, and he at once made up his mind that the -corporation under his management could not afford to be behind its -great rival. One Saturday morning he telegraphed to J. D. Layng -(now General Manager of the West Shore and President of the C. C. -C. & I.), then General Manager of the Pennsylvania lines west of -Pittsburg, to know if by the following Monday week, the date on -which the train was to start, four postal cars could be built and -the first one be in Chicago ready to start on its eastern trip. -The answer came back, "Yes." The order was given to the Allegheny -shops on Saturday afternoon, and on the following Saturday the -first of the cars, complete and equipped for mail service, started -for Chicago, and began its east-bound trip on Monday morning. -The second and third cars were finished on Monday night, and the -fourth--thus fully equipping the line--on Tuesday. - -Thus had been established two splendid fast trains, and the outlook -was bright for the future, when Congress, in spite of the efforts -of the Post-Office Department, passed an Act reducing the already -inadequate compensation to the trunk lines, for the carrying of the -mails. This action brought official notice from Messrs. Vanderbilt -and Scott of the discontinuance of the fast mail trains between New -York City and Chicago, and that service ended. - -[Illustration: At a Way-station--The Postmaster's Assistant.] - -Colonel Bangs was greatly mortified at this result, but he stood -his ground and remained at his post until the close of the year. -Then, worn out with never-ending toil, and disheartened by the -action of Congress, he tendered his resignation and insisted on -its acceptance. Parted from the Post-Office, President Grant, -knowing his worth and wishing to recognize his services, appointed -him Assistant Treasurer of the United States at Chicago. He -lived to perform the duties of this office only a few months, as -death overtook him suddenly, while on a visit to Washington on -official business, December, 1876. His work, however, was not -permitted to drop. He had left in the service three assistants, -Theodore N. Vail, William B. Thompson--afterward Second Assistant -Postmaster-General--and John Jameson, who were fully imbued with -the ideas of their late chief and were fully loyal to them. They, -in the order named, became his successors, and never permitted -opportunities to escape wherein there was a possible benefit -to the service to be secured. Although the fast mail service -was suspended for lack of support from Congress, its usefulness -and practicability had been so thoroughly demonstrated that an -appropriation of $150,000 was made in March, 1877, for its -resumption on the trunk lines. This victory was not reached -without untiring efforts on the part of Mr. Vail, and by generous -support in both houses of Congress; in the Senate by the Hon. -Hannibal Hamlin and James G. Blaine, of Maine, and in the House of -Representatives by such broad and liberal statesmen as Mr. Waddell, -of North Carolina, Mr. Randall, of Pennsylvania, and Mr. Cox, of -New York. - -Since then, Messrs. Thompson and Jameson have watched the progress -of the work with jealous eyes, and have succeeded in extending it -practically to the whole country. The present service is due not -alone to the liberality of Congress, because the appropriations -have been parsimonious, but to the generosity of the railways, -which have performed a valuable work for a price which in many -cases does not pay the expense of the necessary additional labor -involved. - -The Railway Mail Service at the close of the fiscal year ending -June 30, 1888, gave employment to 5,094 clerks. Matter was -distributed on 126,310 miles of railway, and on 17,402 miles -additional closed pouches were carried. There were also operated 41 -inland steam-boat lines on which postal clerks were employed. The -postal clerks travelled (in crews) 122,031,104 miles by railway, -and 1,767,649 miles by steam-boats. They distributed 6,528,772,060 -pieces of ordinary mail matter, and handled 16,001,059 registered -packages and cases, and 1,103,083 through registered pouches and -inner registered sacks. The service is in charge of one General -Superintendent, who has his headquarters at Washington, and it is -divided into eleven divisions with a superintendent in charge of -each. - -The majority of people who travel on railways (and how many -Americans are there who do not?) have paid passing attention to the -railway mail cars as they have stood at the station preparatory -to the starting of the train, and have glanced through the open -doors with more or less curiosity at the scene of energy and -bustle witnessed within. At such a moment, no matter how great -the curiosity, it is not feasible to investigate closely, for -the workers must not be hampered by the prying public, however -praiseworthy the motive. To supply this pardonable desire to know -how it is done, I invite my readers to accompany me in spirit on a -visit to the Grand Central Station, to witness the preparations -for the departure of train No. 11, known in railway parlance as -"the New York and Chicago Fast Mail," which leaves New York every -night at nine o'clock. - -[Illustration: Loading for the Fast Mail, at the General -Post-Office, New York.] - -It must not be supposed that everything has been left until the -last moment, and that the mail matter has been tumbled into the -cars on the eve of departure, to be handled as best it may in the -short run to Albany; for under such conditions the task would -be an impossibility even to an army of trained hands. Work has -been in progress since four o'clock in the afternoon, and it has -been steady, hard labor every minute of the time. The five cars -have been backed down to the tracks opposite Forty-fifth Street, -and have been so placed that they are convenient of access to -the big lumbering mail wagons which are familiar sights in the -streets of the metropolis. The crew of nineteen men, skilled in -the handling of mail matter, and thorough experts in the geography -of the country, reported to the chief clerk and took up their -stations in the various cars at the hour named. At the same time -the wagons began arriving from the General Post-Office with their -tons of matter which had "originated" in New York, and were soon -transferring their loads to the cars, where agile hands were in -waiting to receive them. Since the removal of the deadly stoves -from the railway trains the occupants of the postal cars have -suffered to no small extent owing to the lack of heat. These cars -are provided with steam-heating apparatus which is worked from the -engine, but they are occupied for five hours before the engine -comes near them, and in cold weather the hands of the men employed -in distributing letters become numb with cold. This is a matter -which should receive prompt attention. - -[Illustration: At the Last Moment.] - -Before we deal with the mail matter, let us look at the cars and -the men who occupy them. The train, as it leaves New York, is made -up of five cars which are placed immediately behind the engine, and -are followed by express and baggage cars and one passenger coach. -The car next to the engine is devoted entirely to letter mail, and -the four following it to papers and packages. The letter car is -fifty feet in length, while those for the newspaper mail are ten -feet longer. All are uniform in width, nine feet eight inches, -and are six feet nine inches high in the clear. When newly built, -before long and hard service had told on their appearance, their -outsides were white in color, with cream-tinted borderings and gilt -ornamentations, and were highly varnished. Midway on the outside, -and below; the windows of each car, is a large oval gilt-finished -frame within which is painted the name of the car, with the words, -"United States Post Office" above and below. The cars used by -the New York Central are named for the Governors of the State -and the members of President Garfield's cabinet. Along the upper -edge and centre are painted in large gilt letters the words, "The -Fast Mail Train," while on a line with these letters at the -other end, in a square, are the words, in like lettering, "New -York Central" and "Lake Shore." The frieze and minute trimmings -around the windows are of gilt finish. The body of the car also -contains other ornamentation, including the coat-of-arms of the -United States. The running gear is of the most approved pattern. -The platforms are enclosed by swinging doors which, when opened, -afford a protected passage between the cars. This arrangement no -doubt suggested the modern improvement now known as the vestibuled -train. The letter car is provided with a "mail catcher," which is -placed at a small door through which mail pouches are snatched from -conveniently placed posts at wayside stations where stops are not -made. Each car is divided into three sections, all fitted up alike -with conveniences for the service to be performed. The letter car, -however, is somewhat differently arranged from the others, to -meet the requirements of that particular branch of the work. - -[Illustration: Transfer of Mail at the Grand Central Station, New -York.] - -[Illustration: Pouching the Mail in the Postal Car.] - -In the first section of the letter car are received the pouches -from the General Post-Office, which when opened are found to -contain letters done up in packages of about a hundred, marked -for Michigan, Indiana, New York, Ohio, Western Pennsylvania, -Montana, Dakota, and California. When this mass of matter has -been emptied out of the pouches and, in the vernacular of the -service, "dumped up" preparatory to distribution, the section is -clear for the registered mail which is worked in it. Before this -is accomplished, however, much work is done; in fact, a sort of -rough distribution is made. All packages which are directed to one -office are distributed into pouches, which are afterward stored -away until the towns are reached. The other packages are carried -into the letter department for distribution, where a rack, similar -to those seen in almost every post-office, although space is -thoroughly economized, is used for the purpose. To give a slight -idea of the work done in this section, it may be mentioned that -the distribution for New York State alone requires 325 boxes. -Still there is plenty of space, otherwise the third section of the -car would not be used, as it is, for the distribution of Montana -and Dakota newspapers. How closely everything is packed, and -all available space utilized, may be imagined when it is stated -that for this newspaper mail ninety-five pouches are hung in the -section, and that there is still sufficient room for the storage of -pouches locked up and ready for delivery, and also for the sealed -registered mail. A separation of the California mail is also made -in this car, so that when it reaches Chicago the pouches into which -the matter is placed are transferred without delay, thus saving -twenty-four hours on the time to the Pacific Coast, not by any -means an unimportant accomplishment. - -There have been received in this car before it moves out of the -Grand Central Station between 1,000 and 1,500 packages of letters -and, in addition, forty or fifty sacks of Dakota and Montana -papers. To handle this mass of correspondence there are six men in -addition to the chief clerk, or superintendent. This official is -not assigned to any particular duty, but he supervises the general -work and lends aid where it is most required. The second clerk -handles letters for Ohio, Dakota, and Montana; the third clerk -takes charge of those for New York State; the fourth, Illinois; the -fifth opens all pouches labelled, "New York and Chicago Railway -Post-Office," distributes their contents, and afterward works on -Dakota and Montana papers; the sixth, Michigan State letters, -and the seventh, California letter mail. The salaries of these -men, intrusted with so much responsibility and of whom so much is -expected, range from $900 per annum for the lowest grade to $1,300 -per annum for the superintendent. - -The second, or "Illinois Car," is devoted, as are the others which -follow it, to the newspaper and periodical mail. In it are handled -papers for Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, New York, Oregon, and Wyoming. -Two clerks and two assistants man this car. The first assistant, -who "faces up" papers ready to be distributed, draws mails from -stalls to case, and removes boxes as fast as they are filled, has -gained the sobriquet of the "Illinois derrick," owing to the heavy -nature of his duties. The second, who lends what aid he can in the -heavy work on the run between New York and Albany, has become known -on the train as "the short stop." The third section of the car is -used for storing the bags of assorted matter. - -[Illustration: A Very Difficult Address--known as a "sticker."] - -The third car is used for storing through mail for San Francisco, -Omaha, and points west of Chicago. In it are also carried stamped -envelopes from the manufacturer at Hartford, Conn., to postmasters -in the West. This car is frequently fully loaded with matter from -the New York office when the journey is begun, and it is then -found necessary to add a similar car to the train on its arrival -at Albany for the accommodation of matter taken on by the way and -bound for the same destination. - -[Illustration: Distributing the Mail by States and Routes.] - -[Illustration: Sorting Letters in Car No. 1--The Fast Mail.] - -The Michigan paper car is the fourth. In it are handled papers for -Michigan, Iowa, and the mixed Western States. In the first section -are piled the Iowa pouches and those for points out of Utica, which -have been distributed in the centre section, and in the third -section the distribution for Michigan, Nebraska, and Minnesota, -as well as for points reached from Buffalo, is made. Two men -perform the work of the car, one of whom has already handled the -registered mail and Indiana letters in the first car. - -[Illustration: Pouching Newspapers for California--in Car No. 5.] - -The fifth, or California paper car, is the last mail coach on the -train, as it is made up when leaving the Grand Central Station. -Besides the papers for the Golden State the car carries through -registered pouches to Chicago and the West, which have been made -up in the New York office, and, as a usual thing, a large lot of -stamped envelopes for postmasters in the West. The California -letter man from the first car looks after the papers for the same -State, and has an eye to the safety of the car. On reaching Albany -another car is added to the train, making six in all from that -point. This last addition comes from Boston, brings the morning -mail from Bangor, Me., and is manned by four men. - -The run to Chicago for post-office purposes is divided into three -divisions: from New York to Syracuse, from Syracuse to Cleveland, -and from Cleveland to Chicago. Each division has its own crew, so -that the men leaving New York are relieved at Syracuse by others, -and these in turn at Cleveland. The New York crew go to work, as -has been said, at 4 P.M., and if the train is on time at Syracuse, -as it usually is, they arrive there at 5.35 A.M., after thirteen -and a half hours of as hard work as men are called upon to do. The -same evening at 8.40 they relieve the east-bound crew, and are in -New York again at six o'clock on the following morning. Half an -hour later they are to be found on the top floor of the General -Post-Office building, comfortably ensconced in bunks and in a -large and airy room, provided as a dormitory for their use by the -postmaster of New York at the time of the inauguration of the fast -mail service. Each crew makes three round trips and is then laid -off for six days, but its members are all this time subject to -extra duty, which they are called upon to perform with unpleasant -frequency, particularly in holiday times. - -After leaving New York, the first stop the train makes is at -Poughkeepsie, but no mail is taken on there. At Albany the second -halt is made, and there twenty minutes are spent in taking on -the mail from New England and northeastern New York. At Palatine -Bridge there is a brief stop, and after that comes Utica, where -the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western, the Ontario & Western, and -the Rome, Watertown & Ogdensburg roads exchange mail matter. At -Syracuse more mails come, this time from the Oswego, Binghamton -& Syracuse, and the Auburn & Rochester branch of the New York -Central. Here also comes welcome relief for the crew which left -New York. Those who follow have much to keep them busy, but the -heaviest part of the work has been already performed. - -From Syracuse to Cleveland there are several distributing points -where mail matter is also received on the train, and the routine is -continued much as already described until the crew is relieved at -Cleveland. There the men of the Western Division take charge and -continue the work until Elkhart, Ind., is reached. There a special -force from Chicago meets the train, takes possession of a portion -of the letter car, and makes the distribution for the main office -and stations of the city of Chicago, thus saving much time. When -the train arrives in Chicago, it makes connection with a fast mail -train on the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, as also on a like train -on the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul. The former train arrives at -Council Bluffs about 7 P.M., and there overtakes the train which -left Chicago on the previous evening. The Pacific Coast mail is -thus expedited just twenty-four hours. A similar train on the St. -Paul road also saves twenty-four hours' time on the trip to the -northwestern portion of the Pacific Coast. - -The appropriation for special facilities for the year ending June -30, 1889, was $295,987.53. The uses to which the appropriation -referred to is put are explained in the following table. - - -----------------------+--------------------------+------+----------- - Termini. | Railroad Company. |Miles.| Pay. - -----------------------+--------------------------+------+----------- - New York to |New York, New Haven | | - Springfield | & Hartford |136 | $17,647.06 - 4.35 A.M. train |New York Central & | | - | Hudson River |144 | 25,000.00 - Philadelphia to |Philadelphia, Wilmington | | - Bay View | & Baltimore | 91.80| 20,000.00 - Bay View to Quantico |Baltimore & Potomac | 79.80| 21,900.00 - Quantico to Richmond |Richmond, Fredericksburg | | - | & Potomac | 81.50| 17,419.26 - Richmond to Petersburg |Richmond & Petersburg | 23.39| 4,268.67 - Petersburg to Weldon |Petersburg | 64 | 11,680.00 - Weldon to Wilmington |Wilmington & Weldon |162.07| 29,541.27 - Wilmington to Florence |Wilmington, Columbia | | - | & Augusta |110 | 20,075.00 - Florence to Charleston | | | - Junction |Northeastern | 95 | 17,337.50 - Charleston Junction | | | - to Savannah |Charleston & Savannah |108 | 19,710.00 - Savannah to |Savannah, Florida | | - Jacksonville | & Western |171.50| 31,309.70 - Baltimore to | | | - Hagerstown |Western Maryland | 86.60| 15,804.50 - Jacksonville to Tampa |Jacksonville, Tampa & Key | | - | West & South Florida |242.57| 43,962.42 - -----------------------+--------------------------+------+----------- - Total |$295,655.38 - ---------------------------------------------------------+----------- - -A careful perusal of this table develops the fact that the greater -portion of this money is expended south of Philadelphia, the -railroad companies in that section not having sufficient weight of -mails to warrant fast trains without some additional compensation. -It will also be noted that with the exception of the sum of $25,000 -for a special train to Poughkeepsie, which leaves New York City at -4.35 in the morning, the New York Central receives no compensation -except that earned by them as common carriers of so many pounds of -freight-mail matter carried, being paid for in accordance with its -weight. It will also be observed that the Pennsylvania Railroad, on -its trunk line, is not even so fortunate as its great rival. - -There may be more dangerous pursuits in life than that of the -railway post-office clerk, but there are not many so, and there are -few in which the risk to life and limb is so constant. The everyday -citizen who is called upon occasionally to make a railroad journey -of a few hundred miles feels it to be incumbent upon himself on -such occasions to make special provision for those dependent on him -in case injury or death should come while riding in the thoroughly -appointed and luxurious coach placed in a portion of the train -least likely to suffer from accident. But too little thought is -devoted to the safety of those poorly paid but efficient servants -of the State, in the forward cars, without whose services the -business of the country, as conducted to-day, would come to a -stand-still. To show that the importance of this service is not -here exaggerated, it is only necessary to recall the condition -of affairs in New York City, and other cities as well, in March, -1888, when the great blizzard fell upon the land. There were then -no mails for several days, and the prostration which came upon -the community is too well remembered to need comment. The danger -to those within the postal cars, however, is recognized by the -railway people, and efforts have been made in the way of providing -safety appliances, but it is, of course, impossible to lessen the -danger to any great extent. All that American ingenuity suggests -in the way of construction, both inside and outside of the cars, -is provided. The body of the car is most substantially built, the -platforms and couplings are of the most approved patterns, the -trucks are similar to those used under the best passenger coaches, -and the air-brakes and other safety apparatus are all brought into -requisition. Within the cars are saws, axes, hammers, and crowbars -conveniently placed in case of wreck, and safety-bars extend the -length of the cars overhead to which the clerks may cling when -the cars leave the track and roll down embankments, as they often -do. In the year ending June, 1888, there were 248 accidents to -trains upon which postal clerks were employed. In these wrecks four -clerks were killed; sixty-three were seriously, several of the -number permanently, and forty-five slightly injured. The official -report of the accidents shows that the majority of them resulted -from collisions, while others were due to the spreading of the -rails, the failure of air-brakes to work at critical moments, and -obstructions on the track. - -In every case where cars were wrecked the postal car was among the -number. - -In many instances the cars were telescoped, and on such occasions -the clerks were found buried in the wreckage or pinned under the -engine or its tender. And many times true heroism was shown by the -injured men. Over and over again the General Superintendent reports -that, notwithstanding severe injuries received by the clerks, the -scattered mail matter was collected by them and transferred either -to another train or to the nearest post-office. Several times -trains in the West were held up by robbers, who, after sacking the -express car, visited the postal car, introducing themselves with -pistol-shots. One clerk was seriously wounded in the shoulder. -An instance of self-possession is reported in Arkansas, where -the robbers, before visiting the postal car, had secured $10,000 -from the express safe. When they came to clerk R. P. Johnson he -suggested that they had secured booty enough, and that under the -circumstances they might let the mail matter alone. The masked men -agreed with him, and did not molest the mails. - -[Illustration: Catching the Pouch from the Crane.] - -In view of the dangers to which employees of the Railway Mail -Service are exposed, it may be permitted to quote from the last -annual report of General Superintendent Bancroft on the subject -of insurance. No action, he points out, has ever been taken by -Congress toward providing for the care of clerks permanently -injured in the service, or those dependent upon them in case of -death, notwithstanding frequent recommendations by the Department. -He attributes this to insurmountable objections on the part of the -people's representatives to the creation of anything of the nature -of a civil pension-roll. He therefore suggests that there shall -be deducted from the pay of each and every railway postal clerk -ten cents per month, to be paid into "The Railway Postal Clerks' -Insurance Fund," the custodian of which is to be the United States -Treasury. In case of death from injuries while on duty, $1,000 is -to be paid to the clerk's heirs. While this proposition is in the -right direction, it hardly goes far enough. Provision should be -made for the disabled, and to do so, the clerks doubtless would not -object to an assessment of double the amount suggested. That they -should be compelled to resort to such a mode of relief, however, is -a reflection upon the Government of the United States. - -The first great need of the Railway Mail Service is an adequate -appropriation by Congress to extend its usefulness, and to keep -it up to the demands and the needs of the public. Where speed -is required to make connections, the Department should have the -cash on hand to buy what is necessary. The railways are business -institutions, managed as such, and when the Department desires -extra facilities it should be prepared to pay in coin and not in -talk. In this connection it is a pleasant duty for the writer of -this very imperfect sketch to say that during his term of service -in the post-office at New York, and at the Department, he always -found Mr. William H. Vanderbilt, Mr. Cornelius Vanderbilt, Mr. -J. H. Rutter, of the New York Central; Mr. John Newell, of the -Lake Shore; Mr. George B. Roberts, Mr. A. J. Cassatt, and Mr. -Frank Thomson, of the Pennsylvania system; Mr. R. R. Bridgers -and Mr. H. B. Plant, of the Atlantic Coast Line, ready to grant -any reasonable request for the improvement and extension of the -service. Time after time Mr. Roberts has run a special train with -the Australian transcontinental mail from Pittsburg to New York, -that it might catch an outgoing steamer; and he and Mr. Vanderbilt -practically re-established the fast mail, by taking letters on -their limited trains. Mr. Roberts gave, in addition, an extra mail -train from Philadelphia west at four o'clock in the morning, and -Mr. Vanderbilt placed a postal car on the 4 P.M. train from New -York, receiving in return--what they had a right to demand--an -extra weighing of the mails, and, what was not a matter of surprise -to them, unmeasured abuse on the floor of Congress for giving these -additional facilities to the people of the country. - -The last and greatest need of the postal service is the total -and complete elimination of partisan considerations as affecting -appointments and removals in the working force. The spoils method -invariably brings into the service a lot of do-nothings or a race -of experimenters, whose performances never fail to breed disaster -and to crush out substantial progress. - -There is no position in the Government more exacting than that -of a postal clerk, and none that has so many requirements. He -must not only be sound "in wind and limb," but possessed of more -than ordinary intelligence, and a retentive memory. His work is -constant, and his only recreation, study. He must not only be -proficient in his own immediate work, but he must have a general -knowledge of the entire country, so that the correspondence he -handles shall reach its destination at the earliest possible -moment. He must know no night and no day. He must be impervious -to heat or cold. Rushing along at a rate of forty or fifty miles -an hour, in charge of that which is sacred--the correspondence -of the people--catching his meals as he may; at home only -semi-occasionally, the wonder is that men competent to discharge -the duties of so high a calling can be found for so small a -compensation, and for so uncertain a tenure of official life. They -have not only to take the extra-hazardous risks of their toilsome -duties, but they are at the mercy of the practical politicians -who believe that "to the victor belong the spoils." There are no -public offices which are so emphatically "public trusts" as those -whose duties comprise that of handling the correspondence of the -people, because upon the proper and skilful performance of that -duty depend--to a far greater degree than in the care of any other -function accomplished through government agency--the business and -social welfare of the entire community. The effects of ignorance, -carelessness, and dishonesty in any other branch of the public -service, although to be deplored, are not to be compared to those -which follow the existence of such evils in the Post-Office. -Can there be a more flagrant abuse of a "public trust" than the -perversion of a branch of the public service into an agency for -furthering the ambitious ends of local politicians and their -partisans by allowing them to distribute its "patronage" as rewards -for party services among those who, by reason of inexperience--if -for no graver cause--are incompetent to replace the skilled -workman who must be routed out in order to give them room? This -evil should be corrected at once. The Railway Mail Service must no -longer be left at the mercy of the local partisans. The reform is -not only a present necessity, but it was one in the past and will -be in the future, until the force of public sentiment shall compel -acquiescence in the reasonable demand that what was so eminently -meant for mankind shall not be given up to party; that the -non-political business of letter-carrying, which the Government has -monopolized, shall be conducted by it solely with a view to prompt -and expeditious carrying of mail matter, and not with the object of -bolstering up local "statesmen" or carrying elections. - -At the coming in of Mr. Cleveland's administration, William B. -Thompson was Second Assistant Postmaster-General--in charge of -the contract office--and John Jameson was General Railway Mail -Superintendent. Both of these gentlemen had worked their way from -the ranks by sheer merit. In private business the value of their -services would have been so highly appreciated that, no matter -who became senior partner of the firm, under no circumstances -would they have been permitted to retire. The case of these -gentlemen is mentioned now simply to illustrate an idea and not -to found a complaint. On the incoming of the new administration, -General Thompson, in accordance with precedent, promptly tendered -his resignation, and it was as promptly accepted; while General -Superintendent Jameson struggled along doing his work until, -to relieve his chief from embarrassment, he, too, tendered his -resignation. The country was thus deprived of the services of two -men who were experts in their profession, simply to give place -to others, of high character, no doubt, but with no knowledge -and special aptitude for the great trust that was committed to -them. And now, in the first year of another administration, the -experience that many valuable officials have gained has counted -for nothing, and they have been rotated out. In no other civilized -country would such an atrocity be possible. An attempt to remove, -for similar reasons, such postal authorities as Messrs. Rich, of -Liverpool, Johnston, of Manchester, or Hubson, of Glasgow, all of -whom, under a sound, logical, just, and economical business system, -have reached their present positions by merit and efficiency from -more or less inferior places, would hurl an administration in -Great Britain from power, and justly too. The possession of the -immense patronage of the Government did not save the Republican -party from defeat in 1884, or keep the Democratic party in power in -1888. Ideas are stronger than "soap," and principles more potent -than spoils. It is due to President Cleveland to state that toward -the close of his administration he recognized the importance of -permanency in the Railway Mail Service, and that he made a long -step in advance by approving a series of rules submitted by the -Civil Service Commission having for its object the removal of the -service from the influences of politicians. It needs more than -this, however; it needs the sanctity of the statute law, declaring -that the clerks should not only keep their offices during good -behavior, but that after twenty years of faithful and efficient -service, or before that time, if injured in the discharge of -their duty, they should retire on half-pay. In case of death from -accident while on duty, proper provision should be made for the -family of the official. Whenever justice is done by Congress in -these particulars, the United States will have the best and most -efficient Railway Mail Service in the world. - - - - -THE RAILWAY IN ITS BUSINESS RELATIONS. - -BY ARTHUR T. HADLEY. - - Amount of Capital Invested in Railways--Important Place in - the Modern Industrial System--The Duke of Bridgewater's - Foresight--The Growth of Half a Century--Early Methods of - Business Management--The Tendency toward Consolidation--How - the War Developed a National Idea--Its Effect on Railroad - Building--Thomson and Scott as Organizers--Vanderbilt's Capacity - for Financial Management--Garrett's Development of the Baltimore - & Ohio--The Concentration of Immense Power in a Few Men--Making - Money out of the Investors--Difficult Positions of Stockholders - and Bondholders--How the Finances are Manipulated by the Board - of Directors--Temptations to the Misuse of Power--Relations of - Railroads to the Public who Use Them--Inequalities in Freight - Rates--Undue Advantages for Large Trade Centres--Proposed - Remedies--Objections to Government Control--Failure of - Grangerism--The Origin of Pools--Their Advantages--Albert - Fink's Great Work--Charles Francis Adams and the Massachusetts - Commission--Adoption of the Interstate Commerce Law--Important - Influence of the Commission--Its Future Functions--Ill-judged - State Legislation. - - -The railroads of the world are to-day worth from twenty-five to -thirty thousand million dollars. This probably represents one-tenth -of the total wealth of civilized nations, and one-quarter, if not -one-third, of their invested capital. It is doubtful whether the -aggregate plant used in all manufacturing industries can equal it -in value. The capital engaged in banking is but a trifle beside it. -The world's whole stock of money of every kind--gold, silver, and -paper--would purchase only a third of its railroads. - -Yet these facts by no means measure the whole importance of the -railroad in the modern industrial system. The business methods -of to-day are in one sense the direct result of improved means -of transportation. The railroad enables the large establishment -to reach the markets of the world with its products; it enables -the large city to receive its food-supplies, if necessary, from -a distance of hundreds or thousands of miles. And while it thus -favors the concentration of capital, it is in itself an extreme -type of this concentration. Almost every distinctive feature of -modern business, whether good or bad, finds in railroad history at -once its chief cause and its fullest development. - -[Illustration: George Stephenson.] - -As befits a nineteenth century institution, the railroad dates -from 1801. In that year Benjamin Outram built in the suburbs of -London a short line of horse railroad--or tramroad, as it was -named in honor of the inventor. Other works of the same kind -followed in almost every succeeding year. They were recognized as -a decided convenience, but nothing more. It was hard to imagine -that a revolution in the world's transportation methods could -grow out of this beginning. Least of all could such a result be -foreseen in England, whose admirable canal system seemed likely -to defy competition for centuries to come. And yet, curiously -enough, it was a man wholly identified with canal business who -first foresaw the future importance of the railroad. The Duke of -Bridgewater had built canals when they were regarded as a hazardous -speculation; but they proved a success, and in the early years -of the century he was reaping a rich reward for his foresight. -One of his fellow-shareholders took occasion to congratulate the -Duke on the fact that their property was now the surest monopoly -in the land, and was startled by the reply, "I see mischief in -these--tramroads." The prophecy is all the more striking as coming -from an enemy. Like Balaam, the Duke of Bridgewater had a pecuniary -interest in cursing, but was so good a prophet that he had to tell -the truth in spite of himself, even though his curse was thereby -turned into a blessing. - -It is hardly necessary to tell in detail how this prediction -was realized. Thanks to the skill and perseverance of George -Stephenson, the difficulties in the use of steam as a mode of -propulsion were rapidly overcome. What was a doubtful experiment -as late as 1815 had become an accomplished fact in 1830. The -successful working of the Liverpool & Manchester Railway gave an -impulse to similar enterprises all over the world. In 1835 there -were 1,600 miles of railroad in operation--more than half of it in -the United States. In 1845 the length of the world's railroads had -increased to more than 10,000 miles; in 1855 it was 41,000 miles; -in 1865, 90,000; in 1875, 185,000; in 1885, over 300,000. - -There were perhaps a few men who foresaw this growth; there were -almost none who foresaw the changes in organization and business -methods with which it was attended. People at first thought of the -railroad as merely an improved highway, which should charge tolls -like a turnpike or canal, and on which the public should run cars -of its own, independent of the railroad company itself. In many -cases, especially in England, long sheets of tolls were published, -based on the model of canal charters, and naming rates under which -the use of the road-bed should be free to all. This plan soon -proved impracticable. If independent owners tried to run trains -over the same line, it involved a danger of collision and a loss -of economy. The former evil could perhaps be avoided; the latter -could not. The advantages of unity of management were so great that -a road running its own trains could do a much larger business at -lower rates than if ownership and carriage were kept separate. The -old plan was as impracticable as it would be for a manufacturing -company to own the buildings and engines, while each workman owned -the particular piece of machinery which he handled. Almost all the -technical advantages of the new methods would be lost for lack of -system. The railroad company, to serve the public well, could not -remain in the position of a turnpike or canal company, but must -itself do the work of carriage. - -This was not all. The same economy which resulted from the union -of road and rolling-stock under one management was still further -subserved by the consolidation of connecting lines. This change -did not come about so suddenly as the other. Half a century had -elapsed before it was fully carried out. At first there was no need -of it. The early railroads were chiefly built for local traffic, -and especially for the carriage of local passengers. They were -like the horse railroads of the present day in the simplicity -of their organization and the shortness of their lines. England -in 1847 had chartered 700 companies, with an average authorized -length of hardly fifteen miles each. The line from Albany to -Buffalo and Niagara Falls was in the hands of a dozen independent -concerns. These were but types of what existed all over the world. -As through traffic, and especially through freight traffic, grew -in importance, this state of things became intolerable. Frequent -transshipment was at once an expense to the railroad and a burden -to the public. Even when this could be avoided, there was a -multiplication of offices and a loss of responsibility. The system -of ownership and management had to adapt itself to the technical -necessities of the business. The change was not the result of -legislation; nor was it, except in a limited sense, the work of men -like Vanderbilt or Scott. It occurred in all parts of the world -at about the same time. It was the result of business necessity, -strong enough to shape legislation, and to find administrative -leaders who could meet its demands. - -From the very first there were some men who felt the importance -of the railroads as national lines of communication. The idea was -present in the minds of the projectors of the Baltimore & Ohio, of -the Erie, and of the Boston & Albany. But it was not until 1850 -that it became a controlling one; nor was it universally accepted -even then. As late as 1858 we find that there was a violent popular -agitation in the State of New York to prohibit the New York Central -from carrying freight in competition with the Erie Canal. It was -gravely urged that the railroad had no business to compete with the -canal; that the latter had a natural right to the through traffic -from the West, with which the railroads must not interfere. It is -less than thirty years since a convention at Syracuse, representing -no small part of the public sentiment of New York, formally -recommended "the passage of a law by the next Legislature which -shall confine the railroads of this State to the business for which -they were originally created." - -But matters had gone too far for effective action of this kind. -Besides the New York Central, the Erie and the Pennsylvania were in -condition to handle the through traffic which Western connections -were furnishing. These connections themselves were rapidly growing -in importance. Prior to 1850 there were very few railroads west of -the Alleghanies. In 1857 there were thousands of miles. The policy -of land-grants acted as an artificial stimulus to the building of -such roads; and a land-grant road, when once built, was almost -necessarily dependent on through traffic for its support. It -could not be operated locally; it was forced into close traffic -arrangements which paved the way for actual consolidation. - -The war brought this development to a stand-still for the time -being; but it was afterward resumed with renewed vigor. It is -probable that the final effect of the war was to hasten rather -than to retard the growth of large systems. In the first place, -it familiarized men's minds with national ideas instead of those -limited to their own State. It is hard for us to realize that our -business ideas were ever thus confined by artificial boundaries; -but if we wish proof, we have only to look at the original location -of the Erie Railway from Piermont to Dunkirk. Both were unnatural -and undesirable terminal points; but people were willing to submit -to inconvenience and to actual loss in order that the railroad -might run as far as the New York State limits would allow, and not -one whit farther. Similar instances can be found in other States. -Hard as it is to understand, there seems to have been a positive -jealousy of interstate traffic. The war did much to remove this -by making the different sections of the country feel their common -interest and their mutual dependence. It also had more direct -effects. It produced special legislation for the Pacific railroads -as a measure of military necessity; and this was but the beginning -of a renewal of the land-grant policy, no longer through the medium -of the States, but in the Territories and by the direct action of -Congress. All the results in the way of extension or consolidation -which had been noted in the first land-grant period were more -intensely felt in the second. Never was there a time when business -foresight and administrative power were more needed or more richly -rewarded than in railroad management during the third quarter of -the century. - -[Illustration: J. Edgar Thomson.] - -In 1847 J. Edgar Thomson, an engineer of experience, entered the -service of the Pennsylvania Railroad, of which he afterward became -president. Three years later, a young man without experience in -railroad business applied to him for a position as clerk in the -station at Duncansville, and was, with some hesitation, accepted. -Not long after--so runs the story--an influential shipper entered -the station, and demanded that some transfers should be made in -a manner contrary to the rules of the company. This the clerk -refused to do; and when the influential shipper tried to attend -to the matter himself, he was forcibly ejected from the premises. -Indignant at this, he complained to the authorities, demanding that -the obnoxious employee be removed from his position. He was--and -was promoted to a much higher one. This is said to have been the -beginning of the railroad career of Thomas Alexander Scott. Edgar -Thomson was a sufficiently able man to appreciate Scott's talent at -its full worth, and took every opportunity to make it useful in the -service of the company. Both before and after the war the system -was extended in every direction; and the man who in 1850 had need -of all his nerve to defy a single influential shipper was a quarter -of a century later at the head of 7,000 miles of the most valuable -railroad in the country. - -[Illustration: Thomas A. Scott.] - -As an enterprising and active railroad organizer, Scott was -probably unrivalled--especially when aided by the soberer judgment -of Thomson; nor has the operating department of any other railroad -in the country reached the standard established on the Pennsylvania -by Scott and Thomson and the men trained up under their eyes. -But in business sagacity and those qualities which pertain to -the financial management of property, Scott was surpassed by -Vanderbilt. The work of the two men was so totally different in -character that it is hard to compare them. Vanderbilt was not so -distinctively a railroad man as Scott. He had already made his mark -as a ship-owner before he went into railroads. But he was a man -who was bound to take the lead in the business world; and he saw -that the day for doing it with steamships was passing away, and -that the day of railroads was come. He therefore presented his best -steamship to the United States Government in a time when it was -sorely needed, disposed of the others in whatever way he could, and -turned his undivided attention to railroads. - -In 1863 Vanderbilt began purchasing Harlem stock on a large scale. -The road was unprofitable, but he at once improved its management -and made it pay. Speculators on the other side of the market had -not foreseen the possibility of this course of action, and were -badly deceived in their calculations. Vanderbilt had begun buying -at as low a figure as 3; within little more than a year he had -forced some of its opponents to buy it of him at 285. He soon -extended his operations to Hudson River, and somewhat later to -New York Central. Defeated in an attempt to gain control of Erie, -he turned his attention farther west; and was soon in virtual -possession of a system which, in his hands at any rate, was fully a -match for all competitors. - -These systems did not long remain without rivals. The Baltimore -& Ohio, whose development had been interrupted by the war, -soon resumed, under the leadership of John W. Garrett, its old -commanding position in the railroad world. Farther west, in the -years succeeding, systems were developed and consolidated which -surpassed their eastern connections in aggregate mileage. The -combined Wabash and Missouri Pacific system in its best days -included about 10,000 miles of line under what was virtually -a single management. The Southern Pacific, the Atchison, the -Northwestern, and the St. Paul systems control each of them in -one way or another decidedly over 5,000 miles; and a half-dozen -others might be named, scarcely inferior either in magnitude or in -commercial power. - -The result of all this was to place an enormous and almost -irresponsible power in the hands of a few men. The directors of -such a system stand for thousands of investors, tens of thousands -of employees, and hundreds of thousands of shippers. They have -the interests of all these parties in their hands for good or -ill. If they are fit men for their places, they will work for the -advantage of all. A man like Vanderbilt gave higher profits, larger -employment, and lower rate as the result of his railroad work. But -if the head of such a system is unfit for his trust intellectually -or morally, the harm which he can do is almost boundless. - -[Illustration: Cornelius Vanderbilt.] - -Of intellectual unfitness the chance is perhaps not great. The -intense competition of the modern business world makes sure that -any man, to maintain his position, must have at least some of the -qualities of mind which it exacts. But of moral unfitness the -danger is all the greater, because some of the present conditions -of business competition directly tend to foster it. A German -economist has said that the so-called survival of the fittest in -modern industry is really a double survival, side by side, of the -most talented on the one hand and the most unscrupulous on the -other. The truth of this is already apparent in railroad business. -A Vanderbilt on the Central meets a Fisk on the Erie. In spite of -his superior power and resources he is virtually beaten in the -contest--beaten, as was said at the time, because he could not -afford to go so close to the door of State's prison as his rival. - -The manager of a large railroad system has under his control a -great deal of property besides his own--the property of railroad -investors which has been placed in his charge. Two lines of action -are open to him. He may make money _for_ the investors, and thereby -secure the respect of the community; or he may make money _out_ of -the investors, and thereby get rich enough to defy public opinion. -The former course has the advantage of honesty, the latter of -rapidity. It is a disgrace to the community that the latter way is -made so easy, and so readily condoned. A man has only to give to -charitable objects a little of the money obtained by violations of -trust, and a large part of the world will extol him as a public -benefactor. Nay, more; it seems as if some of our financial -operators really mistook the _vox populi_ for the _vox Dei_, and -believed that a hundred thousand dollars given to a theological -seminary meant absolution for the past and plenary indulgence for -the future. It is charged that one financier, when he undertook any -large transaction which was more than usually questionable, made a -covenant that if the Lord prospered him in his undertaking he would -divide the proceeds on favorable terms. But--as Wamba said of the -outlaws and "the fashion of their trade with Heaven"--"when they -have struck an even balance, Heaven help them with whom they next -open the account!" - -A word or two as to the methods by which such operations are -carried on, and the system which makes them possible. From the very -first, railroads have been built and operated by corporations. -A number of investors, too large to attend personally to the -management of the enterprise, took shares of stock and elected -officers to represent them. These officers had almost absolute -power; but while matters were in this simple stage, there was no -great opportunity for its abuse. The losses of investors were -due to _bona fide_ errors of judgment rather than to misuse of -power. But soon the corporations found it convenient to borrow -money by mortgaging their property. We then had two classes of -investors--stockholders and bondholders, the former taking the -risks and having the full control of the property, the latter -receiving a relatively sure though perhaps smaller return, but -having no control over the management as long as their interest was -regularly paid. - -Of course there is always some danger when the men who furnish -the money do not have much control of the enterprise; but as long -as the relations of stock and bonds were in practice what they -pretended to be in theory, the resulting evils were not very -great. Matters soon reached another stage. The amount of money -furnished by the bondholders increased out of all proportion to -that furnished by the stockholders. Sometimes the nominal amount of -stock was unduly small; more commonly only a very small part of the -nominal value was ever paid in.[28] The stock was nearly all water, -simply issued by the directors as a means of keeping control of the -property. After the crisis of 1857, people had become shy of buying -railroad stock; but they bought railroad bonds because they thought -they were safe. This was the case only when there was an actual -investment of stockholders behind them; without this assurance, -bonds were more unsafe than stock had been, because the bondholders -had still less immediate control over the directors and officials. -If there was money to be made at the time, the directors made it; -if there was loss in the end, it fell upon the bondholders. - -Let us take a specific case. An inside ring issues stock -certificates to the value of a million dollars, on which perhaps -a hundred thousand is paid in. They then publish their prospectus -and place on the market two million of bonds with which the road is -to be built. They sell the bonds at 80, reimburse themselves for -the $100,000 advanced by charging the moderate commission of 5 per -cent. for services in placing the loan, and have at their disposal -$1,500,000 cash. These same directors now appear as a construction -company, and award themselves a contract to pay $1,500,000 for work -which is worth $1,200,000 only. The road is finished, and probably -does not pay interest on its bonds. It passes into the hands of a -receiver. Possibly the old management may have an influence in his -appointment. At the worst, they have got back all the money they -put in, _plus_ the profits of the construction company; in the case -supposed, 300 per cent. The bondholders, on the other hand, have -paid $1,600,000 for a $1,200,000 road. - -[Illustration: John W. Garrett.] - -But the troubles of the bondholders and the advantages of the old -directors by no means end here. When the receiver takes possession -he discovers that valuable terminals, necessary for the successful -working of the road, are not the property of the company, but of -the old directors. He finds that the road owns a very inadequate -supply of rolling-stock, and that the deficiency has been made up -by a car-trust--also under the control of the old directors. Each -of these things, and perhaps others, must be made the subject of a -fight or of a compromise. The latter is often the only practicable -alternative, and almost always the cheaper one; by its terms the -ring perhaps secures hundreds of thousands more, at the expense of -the actual investors. - -These are but a few of the many ways in which a few years' control -of property may be made profitable to the officials at the expense -of legitimate interests. In a case like this, all depends upon the -possibility of selling bonds. It is usually impossible to place the -whole loan before construction; and if the market-price falls below -the cost of the work undertaken, as was the case with the West -Shore, the loss falls upon the construction company. Such accidents -were for a long time rare. It took the public nearly twenty years -to learn the true character of imperfectly secured railroad bonds. -Within the past five years it seems to have become a trifle wiser. -The crisis of 1873 was insufficient to teach the lesson; but that -of 1885 has been at least partially successful in this respect. - -In cases like the one just described the bondholders are largely to -blame for their own folly. But sometimes the loss falls on those -who are in no way responsible for it. A railroad may be built as a -blackmailing job. If a company is sound and prosperous, speculators -may be tempted to build a parallel road, not with the idea of -making it pay, but because they can so damage the business of the -old road as to force it to buy them out. They build the road to -sell. - -It is but fair to say that operations as bad as those just -described are the exception rather than the rule. But the fact that -they can exist at all is by no means creditable to our financial -methods. The whole system by which directors can use their -positions of trust to make contracts in which they are personally -interested puts a premium on dishonesty. Such contracts are -forbidden in England. It may be true, as is urged by many railroad -officials of undoubted honesty, that it would be inconvenient to -apply the same law here; but on the whole, the gain would far -outweigh the loss. - -At the very best, a railroad president is subject to temptations -to misuse his financial powers, all the more dangerous because it -is impossible to draw the line between right and wrong. He knows -the probable value of his railroad and of the property affected -by its action a great deal better than any outsider possibly can. -The published figures of earnings of the road are the result of -estimates by himself and his subordinates. Out of the current -earnings he pays current expenses, and probably charges permanent -expenditures to capital account. But what expenditures are current -and what are permanent? This division is itself the result of -an estimate, and a very doubtful one at that. There are some -well-established general principles, but none which will apply -themselves automatically. With the best will in the world he cannot -make his annual reports give a thoroughly clear idea of what has -been done. Is he to be forbidden to buy stock when it seems too -low, or sell it when it is high? Shall we refuse him the right -to invest in other property which he sees will advance in value? -Apparently not; and yet, if we allow this, we open the door for -some of the worst abuses of power which have occurred in railroad -history. The line between good faith and bad faith in these matters -is a narrow one, and the average conscience cannot be trusted to -locate it with accuracy. - -But the relations to the investors cover but a small part either -of the work or of the responsibility of the railroad authorities. -They are managing not merely a piece of property, but a vast and -complicated organization of men, and an instrument of public -service. In all these capacities their cares are equally great. -The operating and the traffic departments are not less important -than the financial department. The relations of the railroad to its -employees, and to the business community at large, are even more -perplexing than its relations to the investors. - -Of the questions arising between the railroad and its employees we -are just beginning to realize the full importance. They are not -matters to be settled by private agreement or private war. If they -involve a serious interruption of the business of the community -they concern public interests most vitally. The community cannot -afford to have its business interrupted by railroad strikes. On -the other hand, it cannot allow the men to make this public duty -of the railroads a means of enforcing their own will on every -occasion, to the detriment of all discipline and responsibility, or -in disregard of investors' rights. How to compromise between these -two conflicting requirements is one of the most serious problems of -the immediate future.[29] Little progress in this direction has as -yet been made, or even systematically attempted. - -The questions arising from the relations of the railroads to those -who use them are wider and older. From the very outset attempts -were made to regulate railroad charges by law in various ways. -The fear at that time was that they might be made unreasonably -high. This fear proved groundless. From the outset the rates were -rather lower than had been expected, and much lower than by many -of the means of transportation which railroads superseded. These -low rates caused a great development in business; and this, in -turn, gave a chance for such economy in handling it that rates -went still lower. Each new invention rendered it easier to do a -large business at cheap rates. The substitution of steel rails -for iron, which began shortly after the close of the war, had an -enormous influence in this respect. This was not merely due to the -direct saving in repairs, which, though appreciable, was moderate -in amount. It was due still more to improvements in transportation -which followed. It was found that steel rails would bear heavier -rolling-stock. Instead of building ten-ton cars to carry ten tons -of cargo, companies built twelve-ton cars to carry twenty tons of -cargo, or fourteen-ton cars to carry thirty tons; and they made the -locomotives heavy enough to handle correspondingly larger trains. -A given amount of fuel was made to haul more weight; and of the -weight thus hauled, the freight formed a constantly increasing -proportion as compared with the rolling-stock itself. The system -of rates was adopted to meet the new requirements. Charges were -made incredibly low in order to fill cars that would otherwise -go empty, or to use the road as nearly as possible to its full -capacity. In the twenty years following the introduction of steel -rails the traffic of the New York Central increased from less than -400,000,000 ton-miles to decidedly over 2,000,000,000; while the -average rates fell from 3.09 cents per ton per mile in 1866 to 0.76 -cent in 1886. This is but a single instance of a process which has -gone on all over the country. The average freight charge on all -railroads of the country to-day is a little over one cent per ton -a mile: less than half what would have been deemed possible on any -railroad a few years ago. - -The progress of railroad consolidation contributed greatly to -this economy. It saved multiplication of offices; it saved -re-handling of freight; it enabled long-distance business to -be done systematically. So great were its advantages that -co-operation between connecting lines was carried far beyond -the limits of actual consolidation. Through traffic was handled -without transshipment, sometimes by regularly incorporated express -companies or freight companies on the same plan, but more commonly -by what are known as fast-freight lines.[30] These are little more -than combinations for keeping account of through business; they are -by no means ideal in their working, but they have the advantage of -few expenses and no income, so that the temptation to steal, which -is the bane of such organizations, is here reduced to a minimum. - -But all these things, while they increased the efficiency of the -service, also increased the power of the railroad authorities -and rendered the shipper more helpless. The very cheapness of -rates only made a recourse to other means of transportation more -difficult. If _A_ was charged 30 cents while his competitor _B_ was -paying only 20 cents for the same service, he was worse off than -when they were both paying a dollar; and the fact that no other -means of conveyance could be found to do the work for less than a -dollar simply put _A_ all the more completely at the mercy of the -railroad freight-agent. In other words, the fact that rates were so -low made any inequality in rates all the more dangerous. The lower -the rate and the wider the monopoly, the less was the chance of -relief. - -Such inequalities existed on a large scale: and they were all the -more difficult to deal with because there was a certain reason -for some of them arising from the nature of railroad business. -The expenses of a railroad are of two kinds. Some, like train and -station service, locomotive fuel, or repairs of rolling-stock, are -pretty directly chargeable to the different parts of the traffic. -It costs a certain amount in wages and in materials to run a -particular train; if that train is taken off, that part of the -expense is saved. But there is another class of items, known as -fixed charges, that do not vary with the amount of business done. -Interest on bonds must be paid, whether the volume of traffic -be large or small. The services of track-watchmen must be paid -for, whether there be a hundred trains daily or only a dozen. In -short, most of the expenses for interest and maintenance of way -are chargeable to the business as a whole, but not to particular -pieces of work done. The practical inference from this is obvious. -In order that the railroad as a whole may be profitable, the fixed -charges must be paid somehow. The railroad manager will try to get -them as he can from different parts of his traffic. But if, for any -reason, a particular piece of business cannot or will not pay its -share of the fixed charges, it is better to secure it at any price -above the bare expense of loading and hauling, without regard to -the fixed charges. For if the business is lost, these charges will -run on just the same, without any added means of meeting them. - -The consequence is that there is no natural standard of rates; -or, rather, that there are two standards, so far apart that the -difference between the two is quite sufficient to build up one -establishment or one locality and ruin another, in case of an -arbitrary exercise of power on the part of the freight-agent. -In the use of such a power it was inevitable that there should -be a great many mistakes, and some things which were worse than -mistakes. Colbert once cynically defined taxation as "the art of -so plucking the goose as to secure the largest amount of feathers -with the least amount of squealing." Some of our freight-agents -have taken Colbert's tax theories as a standard, and have applied -them only too literally. It is this short-sighted policy which -has made the system of charging "what the traffic will bear" a -synonyme for extortion. Interpreted rightly, this phrase represents -a sound principle of railroad policy--putting the burden of the -fixed charges on the shipments that can afford to pay them. But -practically--in the popular mind at least--it has come to mean -almost exactly the opposite. - -The points which got the benefit of the lowest rates were the -large trade centres, which had the benefit of competing lines of -railroad, and often of water competition also. The threat to ship -goods by a rival route was the surest way of making a freight-agent -give low rates. The result was that the growth of such places was -specially stimulated. In addition to their natural advantages they -had an artificial one due to the policy of competing lines of -railroad. It may well be the case, as is argued by railroad men, -that sound railroad economy demands that goods in large masses -should be carried much more cheaply than those which are furnished -in smaller quantities. But it is certain the practice went far -beyond the limits of any such justification. There was a time -when cattle were carried from Chicago to New York at a dollar a -car-load; and many other instances, scarcely less marked, could be -cited from the history of trunk-line competition. The fact was, -that in an active railroad war freight-agents would generally -accede to a demand for reduced rates at a competing point, whether -well founded or not, and would almost always turn a deaf ear to -similar demands from local shippers, however strongly supported by -considerations of far-sighted business policy. - -But this was not the worst. Inequalities between different places -might after some hardship correct themselves; differences of -treatment between individuals could not be thus adjusted. And the -system of making rates by special bargain almost always led to -differences between individuals, where favors were too often given -to those who needed or deserved them least. The fluctuation of -rates was first taken advantage of by the unscrupulous speculator. -Often, if he controlled large sources of shipment, he might receive -the benefit of a secret agreement by which he could obtain lower -rates than his rivals under all circumstances. A more effective -means for destroying straightforwardness in business dealings than -the old system of special rates was never devised. Sometimes, where -one competitor was overwhelmingly strong, the pretence of secrecy -was thrown aside, and the railroad companies so far forgot their -public duties as almost openly to assist one concern in crushing -its rivals. The state of things in this respect twelve or fifteen -years ago was so bad that it is painful to dwell upon; but the -reformation to-day is not so complete that we can wash our hands of -past sins. - -Less was said or felt of similar evils in passenger traffic, -because the passenger business of the country generally is of much -less importance than its freight business, either to the railroad -investors or to the producers themselves. But there was the same -fluctuation in passenger rates; and there was an outrageous form -of discrimination in the development of the free-pass system; a -practice which would have fully deserved the name of systematic -bribery, had it not become so universal that most men hardly -recognized any personal obligation connected with the acceptance -of a pass. Officials and other citizens of influence had come to -regard it as a right; it was not so much bribery on the part of the -companies as blackmail levied against them. - -The remedies proposed for all these evils have been various. From -the very beginning until now there have been some who held that -such abuses could be avoided only by State railroad ownership. -Such experiments in the United States have not gone far enough -to furnish conclusive evidence either way; but the experience of -other countries indicates that State railroads, as such, do not -avoid these evils. Where they have been worked in competition with -other lines, they have been as deeply involved in these abuses as -their private competitors--perhaps more so. Where the government -has obtained control of all the railroads of the country, and made -such arrangements with the water-routes as to render competition -impossible, the abuses have vanished, because there was no longer -any conceivable motive to continue them. But this was the result -of the monopoly, not of the State ownership; and the advantage was -purchased by a sacrifice of all the stimulus of competition toward -the development of new facilities. - -Many people assume that, because the government represents the -nation as a whole, therefore government officials will not be -under the same temptations to act unjustly which are felt by the -representatives of a private corporation. This is a mistake. It -is not as representatives of the investor that railroad agents do -much injustice; this motive has practically nothing to do with -it. Most of the abuses complained of are positively injurious to -the investor in the long run. When officials really represent -the interests of the property with wise foresight, they, as a -rule, give the public no ground to complain. The question reduces -itself to this: Will the State choose better representatives and -agents than a private corporation? Will it secure a higher grade -of officials, more competent, more honest, and more enterprising? -The difference between state and private railroads is not so much -on matters of policy as on methods of administration. The success -of government administration varies with different countries. In -Prussia, where it is seen at its best, the results are in some -respects remarkably good; yet even here the roads are not managed -on anything like the American standard of efficiency, either in -amount of train service, in speed, or in rapidity of development. -And what is barely successful in Prussia, with its trained civil -service on the one hand and its less intense industrial demands -on the other, can hardly be considered possible or desirable in -America. No one who has watched the workings of a government -contract can desire to have the whole trade of the country put -to the expense of supporting such methods in its transportation -business. - -A more easy method of trying to regulate railroad charges has been -by forced reductions in rates. This was tried on the largest scale -in the Granger movement fifteen years ago. A fall in the price of -wheat had rendered it difficult for the farmers to make money. The -Patrons of Husbandry, in investigating the causes, saw that the -larger trade centres, where there was competition, were getting -lower rates than the local producer. They reasoned that if all the -farmers could get such low rates, they could make money; and that, -if the roads could afford to make these low rates for any points, -they could afford to do it for all. The railroad agents, instead of -foreseeing the storm and trying to prevent it, assumed a defiant -attitude. The result was that legislatures of the States in the -upper Mississippi Valley passed laws of more or less rigidity, -scaling down all rates to the general level of competitive ones. -After a period of some doubt, the right of the States to do this -was admitted by the courts. But before the legal possibility had -been decided, the practical impossibility of such a course had -been shown. If all rates were reduced to the level of competitive -ones, it left nothing to pay fixed charges. On such terms, foreign -capital would not come into the State; nor could it be enticed by -such a clumsy effort as that of one of the States, which provided -"that no road _hereafter constructed_ shall be subject to the -provisions of this act." The goose which laid the golden eggs was -not such a goose as to be deceived by this. The untimely death of -several of her species meant more than any promises of immunity to -those who should follow in her footsteps. In those States which had -passed the most severe laws capital would not invest; railroads -could not pay interest, their development stopped, and the growth -of the community was seriously checked thereby. The most obnoxious -laws were either repealed or allowed to remain in abeyance. Where -the movement was strongest in 1873 it had practically spent its -force in 1876. There have been many similar attempts in all parts -of the country since that time; just now they are peculiarly -active; but nothing which approaches in recklessness some of the -legislation of 1873 and 1874. The lesson was at least partly -learned. - -We had hardly passed the crisis of the effort to level down, when -some of the more intelligent railroad men made an effort to level -up. Recognizing that discriminations and fluctuating rates were -an evil, they sought to avoid it by common action with regard to -the business at competing points. A mere agreement as to rates to -be charged was not enough to secure this end. Such an agreement -was sure to be violated. Even if the leading authorities meant -to observe it, their agents could always evade its requirements -to some extent. Such evasion was favored by loose arrangements -between connecting roads, and by the somewhat irresponsible system -of fast freight lines. Wherever it existed, it gave rise to mutual -suspicion. _A_ believed that his road did it because he could not -help it, but that _B_ and _C_ were allowing their roads to do -it maliciously; while _B_ and _C_ had the same consciousness of -individual rectitude and the same unkind suspicions with regard to -_A_. It was at best a rather hollow truce, which did not really -accomplish its purpose, and which might change to open war on very -slight provocation. - -To avoid this difficulty a pool, or division of traffic, was -arranged. It is a fact that, whatever wars of rates there may be, -the percentage of traffic carried by the different lines varies -but little. If an arbitrator can examine the books and decide what -these percentages have been in the past, he can make an award for -the future, under which the competitive traffic of the different -roads may be fairly divided. The arrangements for doing this are -various. Sometimes the roads carry such traffic as may happen to -be offered, and settle the differences with one another by money -balances; sometimes they actually divert traffic from one line to -another. But the advantage of either of these arrangements over a -mere agreement to maintain rates is that they cannot be violated -without direct action on the part of the leading authorities of -the roads concerned--either in open withdrawal, or in actual -bad faith. The ordinary irregularities of agents do not, under -a pooling system, give rise to much suspicion, because they do -not benefit the road in whose behalf they are undertaken. Its -percentage being fixed there is no motive for rate-cutting. So -great is this advantage that pooling is accepted in almost all -other countries as a natural means of maintaining equality of -rates; the state railroads of Central Europe entering into such -contracts with competing private lines and even with water-routes. -In America itself, pools have had a longer and wider history than -is generally supposed. In New England they arose and continued to -exist on a moderate scale without attracting much attention. In the -Mississippi Valley, the Chicago-Omaha pool was arranged as early as -1870, and formed the model for a whole system of such arrangements -extending as far as the Pacific Coast. But, as involving wider -questions of public policy, the activity of the Southern and the -Trunk Line Associations has attracted chief attention. - -The man whose name is most prominently identified with both these -systems is Albert Fink. A German by birth and education, his long -experience as a practical railroad engineer did not deprive him of -a taste for studying traffic problems on their theoretical side. As -Vice-President of the Louisville & Nashville, he had given special -attention to the economic conditions affecting the Southern roads; -and when, in the years 1873-75, a traffic association was formed by -a number of these roads to secure harmony of action on matters of -common interest, he became the recognized leader. His success in -arrangements for through traffic was so conspicuous that when, in -1877, the trunk lines were exhausted with an unusually destructive -war of rates, they looked to him as the only man who could deliver -them from their trouble. In some lines, division of traffic had -already been resorted to; but it was in the hands of outside -parties, like the Standard Oil Company or the cattle eveners, -and was made a means of oppression against shippers not in the -combination itself. - -[Illustration: Albert Fink.] - -The conditions were not favorable; the result of Fink's efforts to -bring order out of chaos was slow and by no means uninterrupted. -Yet on the whole, as was admitted even by opponents of the pooling -system, it contributed to steadiness and equality of rates. The -arrangement of these agreements was hampered by their want of -legal status. While the law did not at that time actually prohibit -them, it refused to enforce them. Existing thus on sufferance, -they depended on the good will of the contracting parties. None -but a man of Fink's unimpeached integrity and high intellectual -power could have kept matters running at all; and even he could -not prevent the adoption of a policy of making hay while the sun -shines, more or less regardless of the future. The results of the -trunk-line pool were unsatisfactory--most of all to those who -believed in pools as a system; but it is fair to attribute a large -part of this failure to the absence of legal recognition, which -in a manner compelled the agreements to be arranged to meet the -demands of the day rather than of the future. - -Meantime an equally important contribution to the solution of the -railroad question was being worked out in another quarter. In the -year 1869 the Massachusetts Railroad Commission was established. -Its powers were so slight that it was not regarded as likely to -be an influential public agency. Fortunately it numbered among -its members Charles Francis Adams, Jr.; a man whose efficiency -more than made up for any want of nominal powers. In his hands the -mere power to report became the most effective of all weapons. -Representing at once enlightened public judgment and far-sighted -railroad policy, he did much to bring the two into harmony and -protect the legitimate interests on both sides from short-sighted -misuse for the benefit of either party. The detail of his work is -matter of past history; perhaps its most prominent result was to -introduce to State legislation the idea of a railroad commission -as an administrative body. Those States which had no stringent -laws appointed commissions to take their place; those which had -overstringent ones appointed commissions to use discretion in -applying them. In either case, the existence of a body of men -representing the State, but possessing the technical knowledge -to see what the exigencies of railroad business demanded, was a -protection to all parties concerned. - -[Illustration: Charles Francis Adams.] - -But matters were rapidly passing beyond the sphere of State -legislation. Each new consolidation of systems, each additional -development of through traffic, made it more impossible to control -railroad policy by the action of individual States. It could only -be done by a development of the law in the United States courts or -by Congressional legislation. The former result was necessarily -slow; each year showed an increased demand for special action on -the part of Congress. But such action was hindered by divergence of -opinion in that body itself. One set of men wished a moderate law, -prohibiting the most serious abuses of railroad power, and enforced -under the discretionary care of a commission. These men were for -the most part not unwilling to see pools legalized if their members -could thereby be held to a fuller measure of responsibility. On the -other hand, the extremists wished to prescribe a system of equal -mileage rates; they would hear of no such thing as a commission, -and hated pools as an invention of the adversary. Between the two -lay a large body of members who had no convictions on the matter, -but were desirous to please everybody and offend nobody--a hard -task in this particular case. It was nearly nine years from the -time Mr. Reagan introduced his first bill when a compromise was -finally effected--largely by the influence of Senator Cullom. -As compromises go, it was a tolerably fair one. The extremists -sacrificed their opposition to a commission, but secured the -prohibition of pools; the disputed points with regard to rates were -left in such a shape that no man knew what the law meant, and each -was, for the time being, able to interpret it to suit the wishes of -his Congressional district. - -The immediate effects of the law were extremely good. There -were certain sections of it, like those which secured publicity -of rates and equal treatment for different persons in the same -circumstances, whose wisdom was universally admitted. Indeed it was -rather a disgrace, both to the railroad agents and to the courts, -that we had to wait for an act of Congress to secure these ends; -and most of the railroads made up for past remissness in this -respect by quite a spasm of virtue. In some instances it was even -thought that they "stood up so straight as to lean over backward." -But this was not the only part of the law which proved efficient. -The very vagueness of the clause concerning the relative rates for -through and local traffic, which under other circumstances might -have proved fatal, put a most salutary power into the hands of the -Interstate Commerce Commission, and one which they were not slow to -use. - -[Illustration: Thomas M. Cooley.] - -The President was fortunate in his selection of commissioners; -above all in the chairman, Judge T. M. Cooley, of Michigan, a -man whose character, knowledge of public law, and technical -familiarity with railroad business made him singularly well fitted -for the place. The work of the Interstate Commission, like that -of its Massachusetts prototype, shows how much more important is -personal power than mere technical authority. It was supposed at -first that the commission would be a purely administrative body, -with discretion to suspend the law. Instead of this, they have -enforced and interpreted it; and in the process of interpretation -have virtually created a body of additional law, which is read and -quoted as authority. With but little ground for expecting it from -the letter of the act, they have become a judicial body of the -highest importance. Their existence seems to furnish a possibility -for an elastic development of transportation law, neither so weak -as to be ineffective nor so strong as to break by its own rigidity. - -But the final test of their success is yet to come. They have laid -down a few principles as to the cases when competition justifies -through rates lower than those at intermediate points. But the -application of these principles is as yet far from settled; and -it is rendered doubly hard by the clause against pools, which -does much to hamper the roads in any attempt to secure common -action on the matter of through rates. Each ill-judged piece of -State legislation, and each reckless attempt to attack railroad -profits, increases the difficulty. There was a time when the -powers of railroad managers were developed without corresponding -responsibility. In many parts of the country we are now going -to the other extreme--increasing the responsibility of railroad -authorities toward shipper and employees, State law and national -commission, and at the same time striving to restrict their powers -to the utmost. Such a policy cannot be continued indefinitely -without a disastrous effect upon railroad service, and, indirectly, -upon the business of the country as a whole. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[28] In 1886 the capital stock and the indebtedness of the -railroads of the United States amounted to about four thousand -million dollars each. Most of the debt represents money actually -paid in; but a very large fraction of the stock is a merely -nominal liability on which no payments have been made. Some was -issued as here described merely as a means of keeping control of -the property; some, as the easiest method of balancing unequal -values in reorganization; some, to represent increased value of -the property, so as to be able to divide all the current earnings -without calling public attention too prominently to the very -profitable character of the business. On the other hand, some stock -on which money was actually paid has been wiped out of existence; -and something has been paid out of earnings for capital account -without corresponding issue of securities. The net amount of -"water," or excess of nominal liabilities over actual investments, -in the capital account of the railroads of the country can only be -made the subject of guesswork. Estimates of responsible authorities -vary all the way from nothing to $4,000,000,000. - -[29] See following article on "The Prevention of Railway Strikes." - -[30] See "The Freight-car Service," page 287. - - - - -THE PREVENTION OF RAILWAY STRIKES.[31] - -BY CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS. - - Railways the Largest Single Interest in the United - States--Some Impressive Statistics--Growth of a Complex - Organization--Five Divisions of Necessary Work--Other Special - Departments--Importance of the Operating Department--The Evil - of Strikes--To be Remedied by Thorough Organization--Not the - Ordinary Relation between Employer and Employee--Of what the - Model Railway Service Should Consist--Temporary and Permanent - Employees--Promotion from One Grade to the Other--Rights - and Privileges of the Permanent Service--Employment during - Good Behavior--Proposed Tribunal for Adjusting Differences - and Enforcing Discipline--A Regular Advance in Pay for - Faithful Service--A Fund for Hospital Service, Pensions, and - Insurance--Railroad Educational Institutions--The Employer - to Have a Voice in Management through a Council--A System of - Representation. - - -In 1836--fifty years ago--there were but a little more than 1,000 -miles of railroad on the American continents, representing an -outlay of some $35,000,000, and controlled by a score or so of -corporations. There are now (1886) about 135,000 miles in the -United States alone, capitalized at over eight thousand millions of -dollars. - -The railroad interest is thus the largest single interest in the -country. Probably 600,000 men are in its employ as wage-earners. It -is safe to say that over two millions of human beings are directly -dependent upon it for their daily support. The Union Pacific, -as a single and by no means the largest member of this system, -controls 5,150 miles of road, represented by stock and bonds to -the amount of $275,000,000. More than 15,000 names are borne upon -its pay-rolls. Its yearly income has exceeded $29,000,000, and -in 1885 was $26,000,000. Large as these aggregates sound, there -are other corporations which far exceed the Union Pacific both in -income and in capitalization, and not a few exceed it in mileage. -The Pennsylvania, for instance, either owns or directly controls -7,300 miles of road. It is represented by a capitalization of -$670,000,000; its annual income is $93,000,000; it carries 75,000 -names on its pay-rolls. - -This has been the outgrowth of a single half-century. The vast -and intricate organization implied in the management of such an -interest had, as it were, to be improvised. The original companies -were small and simple affairs. Some retired man of business -held, as a rule, the position of president; while another man, -generally a civil engineer, and as such supposed to be more or -less acquainted with the practical working of railroads, acted as -superintendent. The superintendent, in point of fact, attended -to everything. He was the head of the commercial department; the -head of the operating department; the head of the construction -department; and the head of the mechanical department. But -there is a limit to what any single man can do; and so, as the -organization developed, it became necessary to relieve the railroad -superintendent of many of his duties. Accordingly, the working -management naturally subdivided itself into separate departments, -at the head of which men were placed who had been trained all their -lives to do the particular work required in each department. In -the same way, the employees of the company--the wage-earners, as -they are called--originally few in number, held toward the company -relations similar to those which the employees in factories, shops, -or on farms, held to those who employed them. In other words, there -was in the railroad system no organized service. As the employees -increased until they were numbered by hundreds, better organization -became a necessity. The community was absolutely dependent upon its -railroad service for continued existence, for the running of trains -is to the modern body politic very much what the circulation of -blood is to the human being. An organized system, therefore, had -to grow up. This fact was not recognized at first; and, indeed, -is only imperfectly recognized yet. Still the fact was there; and -inasmuch as it was there and was not recognized, trouble ensued. -No rationally organized railroad service--that is, no service in -which the employer and employed occupy definite relations toward -each other, recognized by each, and by the body politic--no such -service exists. Approaches to it only have been made. A discussion, -therefore, of the form that such a service would naturally take if -it were organized, cannot be otherwise than timely. - -It has already been noticed that in the process of organization the -railroad, following the invariable law, naturally subdivides itself -into different departments.[32] In the case of every corporation of -magnitude there are of these departments, whether one man is at the -head of one or several of them, at least five. These are: - -1st. The financial department, which provides the ways and means. - -2d. The construction department, which builds the railroad after -the means to build it are provided. - -3d. The operating department, which operates the road after it is -built. - -4th. The commercial department, which finds business for the -operated road to do, and regulates the rates which are to be -charged for doing it. - -5th. The legal department, which attends to all the numerous -questions which arise in the practical working of everyone of the -other departments. - -These five divisions of necessary work exist in the organization of -every company, no matter how small it may be, or how few officers -it may employ. In the larger companies the need is found for yet -other special departments. In the case of the Union Pacific, for -instance, there are two such: First, the comptroller's department, -which establishes and is responsible for the whole method of -accounting; second, a department which is responsible for all -the numerous interests which a large railroad company almost of -necessity develops outside of its strict, legitimate work as a -common carrier. - -When it comes to dealing with the employees of the company, it -will be found that the vast majority of those whose names are on -the pay-rolls belong to the operating department. This department -is responsible not only for the running of trains and, usually, -for the maintenance of the permanent way, but also for the repairs -of rolling stock. All the train-hands, all the section-men and -bridge-gangs, and all the mechanics in the repair shops thus belong -to the operating department. The accounting department employs -only clerks. The same is true of the commercial department, though -the commercial department has also agents at different business -centres who look after the company's interests and secure traffic -for it. The construction department is in the hands of civil -engineers, and the force employed by it depends entirely upon the -amount of building which may at any time be going on. As a rule, -the bulk of the employees in the construction department are paid -by contractors, and not directly by the railroad company. The legal -department consists only of lawyers and the few clerks necessary to -aid them in transacting their business. - -In the operating department of the Union Pacific at the present -time (1886) about 14,000 names are carried upon the pay-roll. The -number varies according to the season of the year and the pressure -of traffic. In January, and during the winter months, the average -will fall to 12,000, while in June and during the summer it rises -to 14,000. - -Of these, 2,800, or 20 per cent., are engaged in train movement; -4,200, or 30 per cent, are in the machine-shops and in charge -of motive power and rolling-stock; 7,000, or 50 per cent., are -employed in various miscellaneous ways, as flag-men, section-hands, -station agents, switch-men, etc., etc. - -So far as the wage-earner is concerned, it is, therefore, this -portion of the force of a railroad company which may be called -distinctively "the service." If good relations exist between the -men employed in its operating department and the company no -serious trouble can ever arise in the operation of the road. -The clerks in the financial department, or the engineers in the -construction department, might leave the company's employ in a -body, and their places could soon be filled. In point of fact, -they never do leave it; but should they do so, the public would -experience no inconvenience. The inconvenience--and it would -be very considerable--would be confined to the office of the -company, and their work would fall into arrears. It is not so with -the operating department. So far as the community at large is -concerned, whatever difficulties arise in the working of railroads -develop themselves here. All serious railroad strikes take place -among those engaged in the shops, on the track, or in handling -trains. That these difficulties should be reduced to a minimum is -therefore a necessity. They can be reduced to a minimum only when -the railroad service is thoroughly organized. - -How then can this service be better organized than it is? It is -usually maintained that only the ordinary relation of employer -and employed should exist between the railroad company and the -men engaged in operating its road. If the farmer is dissatisfied -with his hands, he can dismiss them. In like manner, if the -laborer is dissatisfied with the farmer, he can leave his employ. -It is argued that exactly the same relation should exist between -the great railroad corporation and the tens of thousands of men -in its operating department. The proposition is not tenable. -The circumstances are different. In the first place, it is of -no practical consequence to the community whether difficulties -which prevent the work of the farm from going on arise or do not -arise between an individual farmer and his laborers. The work of -innumerable other farms goes on all the same, and it is a matter -of indifference what occurs in the management of the particular -farm. So it is even with large factories, machine-shops--in fact, -with all industrial concerns which do not perform immediate -public functions. A railroad company does perform immediate -public functions. The community depends upon it for the daily -and necessary movements of civilized existence. This fact has to -be recognized. For a railroad to pause in its operation implies -paralysis to the community which it serves. - -Such being the fact, it is futile to argue that the ordinary -relations of employer and employed should obtain in the railroad -service. Something else is required; and because something -else is required but has not yet been devised we have had the -numerous difficulties which have taken place during the present -year--difficulties which have occasioned the community much -inconvenience and loss. - -The model railroad service, therefore, is now to be considered. -Of what would it consist? At present, there is practically no -difference between individuals in the employ of a great railroad -corporation. All the wage-earners in its pay stand in like position -toward it. There should be a difference among them; and a marked -difference, due to circumstances which should receive recognition. -Take again the case of the Union Pacific. The Union Pacific, it has -already been mentioned, numbers 14,000 employees in its operating -department as a maximum, and 12,000 as a minimum. They vary with -the season of the year, increasing in summer and diminishing -in winter. Consequently there is a large body of men who are -permanently in its employ; and there is a smaller body, although -a very considerable portion of the whole, who are in its employ -only temporarily. Here is a fact, and facts should be recognized. -If this particular fact is recognized, the service of the company -should be organized accordingly, and each of the several divisions -of the operating department would have on its rolls two classes of -men: First, those who have been admitted into the permanent service -of the company; and, second, those who for any cause are only -temporarily in that service. And no man should be admitted into -the permanent service until after he has served an apprenticeship -in the temporary service. In other words, admission into the -permanent service would be in the nature of a promotion from an -apprenticeship in the temporary service. - -Those in the temporary service need not, therefore, be at present -considered. They hold to the companies only the ordinary relation -of employee to employer. They may be looked upon as candidates for -admission into the permanent service--they are on probation. So -long as they are on probation they may be engaged and discharged at -pleasure. The permanent service alone is now referred to. - -The permanent service of a great railroad company should in many -essential respects be very much like a national service, that of -the army or navy, for instance, except in one particular, and a -very important particular: to wit, those in it must of necessity -always be at liberty to resign from it--in other words, to leave -it. The railroad company can hold no one in its employ one moment -against his will. Meanwhile, to belong to the permanent service -of a railroad company of the first class, so far as the employee -is concerned, should mean a great deal. It should carry with it -certain rights and privileges which would cause that service to be -eagerly sought. In the first place, he who had passed through his -period of probation and whose name was enrolled in the permanent -service would naturally feel that his interests were to a large -extent identified with those of the company; and that he on the -other hand had rights and privileges which the company was bound -to respect. It has been a matter of boast in France that every -private soldier in the French army carried the possibility of -the field-marshal's baton in his knapsack. It should be the same -with every employee in the permanent service of a great American -railroad company. The possibility of his rising to any position in -that service for which he showed himself qualified should be open -before him and constantly present in his mind. Many of the most -remarkable and successful men who have handled railroads in the -United States began their active lives as brakemen, as telegraph -operators, even as laborers on the track. Such examples are of -inestimable value. They reveal possibilities open to all. - -Beyond this, the man who is permanently enrolled should feel that, -though he may not rise to a high position, yet, as a matter of -right, he is entitled to hold the position to which he has risen -just so long as he demeans himself properly and does his duty well. -He should be free from fear of arbitrary dismissal. In order that -he may have this security, a tribunal should be devised before -which he would have the right to be heard in case charges of -misdemeanor are advanced against him. - -No such tribunal has yet been provided in the organization of any -railroad company; neither, as a rule, has the suggestion of such a -tribunal been looked upon with favor either by the official or the -employee. The latter is apt to argue that he already has such a -tribunal in the executive committee of his own labor organization; -and a tribunal, too, upon which he can depend to decide always in -his favor. The official, on the other hand, contends that if he is -to be responsible for results he must have the power of arbitrarily -dismissing the employee. Without it he will not be able to maintain -discipline. The two arguments, besides answering each other, divide -the railroad service into hostile camps. The executive committees -of the labor organizations practically cannot save the members of -those organizations from being got rid of, though they do in many -cases protect them against summary discharge; and, on the other -hand, the official, in the face of the executive committee, enjoys -only in theory the power of summary discharge. The situation is -accordingly false and bad. It provokes hostility. The one party -boasts of a protection which he does not enjoy; the other insists -upon a power which he dares not exercise. The remedy is manifest. A -system should be devised based on recognized facts; a system which -would secure reasonable protection to the employee, and at the -same time enable the official to enforce all necessary discipline. -This a permanent service, with a properly organized tribunal to -appeal to, would bring about. Meanwhile the winnowing process would -be provided for in the temporary service. Over that the official -would have complete control, and the idle, the worthless, and the -insubordinate would be kept off. The wheat would there be separated -from the chaff. Until such a system is devised the existing chaos, -made up of powerless protection and impotent power, must apparently -continue. None the less it is a delusion on the one side and a -mockery on the other. - -How the members of such a court as has been suggested would be -appointed and by whom is matter for consideration. It would, -of course, be essential that the appointees should command the -confidence of all in the company's service, whether officials -or employees. The possible means of reaching this result will -presently be discussed. - -Not only should permanent employees be entitled to retain their -position during good behavior, but they should also look forward -to the continual bettering of their condition. That is, apart -from promotion, seniority in the service should carry with it -certain rights and privileges. Take the case of conductors, -brakemen, engineers, machinists, and the like; there seems to be -no reason why length of faithful service should not carry with it -a stipulated increase of pay. If conductors, for example, have -a regular pay of $100 a month, there seems no good reason why -the pay should not increase by steps of $5 with each five years' -service, so that when the conductor has been twenty-five years in -the service his pay should be increased by one-quarter, or $25 a -month. The increase might be more or less. The figures suggested -merely illustrate. So also with the engineer, the brakeman, the -section-man, the machinist. A certain prospect of increased pay, if -a man demeans himself faithfully, is a great incentive to faithful -demeanor. This is another fact which it would be well not to lose -sight of. - -There ought likewise to be connected with every large railroad -organization certain funds, contributed partly by the company and -partly by the voluntary action of employees, which would provide -for hospital service, retiring pensions, sick pensions, and -insurance against accident and death. Every man whose name has once -been enrolled in the permanent employ of the company should be -entitled to the benefit of these funds; and he should be deprived -of it only by his own voluntary act, or as the consequence of some -misdemeanor proved before a tribunal. At present the railroad -companies of this country are under no inducement to establish -these mutual insurance societies, or to contribute to them. Their -service, in principle at least, is a shifting service; and so long -as it is shifting the elaborate organizations which are essential -to the safe management of the funds referred to cannot be called -into existence. A tie-up, as it might be called, between the -companies and their employees is a condition precedent. Were this -once effected the rest would follow by steps both natural and easy. -For a company like the Union Pacific to contribute $100,000 a year -to a hospital fund and retiring pension and insurance associations -would be a small matter, if the thing could be so arranged that -the permanent employees themselves would contribute a like sum; -and permanent employees only would contribute at all. Once let -the growth of associations like these begin, and it proceeds with -almost startling rapidity. At the end of ten years the accumulated -capital on the basis of contribution suggested would probably -amount to millions. Every man who was so fortunate as to become -a permanent employee of the company would then be assured of -provision in case of sickness or disability, and his family would -be assured of it in case of his death. - -The moment a permanent service was thus established it would also -involve further provision of an educational nature. That is, the -companies must continually provide a stock of men for the future. -Where a boy--the son of an employee--grows up always looking -forward to entering the company's service, he becomes to that -company very much what a cadet at West Point or Annapolis is to -the army or the navy of the United States; the idea of loyalty -to the company and of pride in its service grows up with him. -Railroad educational institutions of this sort have already been -created by at least one corporation in the country, and they should -be created by all railroad corporations of the first class. The -children of employees would naturally go into these schools, and -the best of them would at the proper age be sent out upon the -road to take their places in the shops, on the track, or at the -brake. From those thus educated the higher positions in the company -would thereafter be filled. The cost of maintaining these schools, -at least in part, would become a regular item in the operating -expenses of the road. Properly handled, a vast economy would be -effected through them. The morale of the service would gradually -be raised, and the morale of a railroad is, if properly viewed, no -less important than the morale of an army or navy. It is invaluable. - -But it is futile to suppose that such a service as that outlined -could be organized, in America at least, unless those concerned in -it were allowed a voice in its management. Practically the most -important feature of the whole is therefore yet to be considered. -How is the employee to be assured a voice in the management of -these joint interests, without bringing about demoralization? -No one has yet had the courage to face this question; and yet -it is a question which must be faced if a solution of existing -difficulties is to be found. If the employees contribute to the -insurance and other funds, it is right that they should have a -voice in the management of those funds. If an employee holds his -situation during good behavior, he has a right to be heard in the -organization of the board which, in case of his suspension for -alleged cause, is to pass upon his behavior. No system will succeed -which does not recognize these rights. In other words, it will be -impossible to establish perfectly good faith and the highest morale -in the service of the companies until the problem of giving this -voice to employees, and giving it effectively, is solved. It can be -solved in but one way: that is, by representation. To solve it may -mean industrial peace. - -It is, of course, impossible to dispose of these difficult matters -in town-meeting. Nevertheless, the town-meeting must be at the base -of any successful plan for disposing of them. The end in view is to -bring the employer--who in this case is the company, represented by -its president and board of directors--and the employees into direct -and immediate contact through a representative system. When thus -brought into direct and immediate contact, the parties must arrive -at results through the usual method: that is, by discussion and -rational agreement. It has already been noticed that the operating -department of a great railroad company naturally subdivides itself -into those concerned in the train movement, those concerned in -the care of the permanent way, and those concerned in the work -of the mechanical department. It would seem proper, therefore, -that a council of employees should be formed, of such a number -as might be agreed on, containing representatives from each of -these departments. In order to make an effective representation, -the council would have to be a large body. For present purposes, -and for the sake of illustration merely, it might be supposed -that, in the case of the Union Pacific, each department in a -division of the road would elect its own members of the employees' -council. There are five of these divisions and three departments -in every division. The operating-men, the yard and section-men, -and the machinists of the division would, therefore, under this -arrangement choose a given number of representatives. If one -such representative was chosen to each hundred employees in the -permanent service those thus selected would constitute a division -council. To perfect the organization, without disturbing the -necessary work of the company, each of these division councils -would then select certain (say, for example, three) of their -number, representing the mechanical, the operating, and the -permanent way departments, and these delegates from each of the -departments would, at certain periods of the year, to be provided -for by the articles of organization, all meet together at the -head-quarters of the company in Omaha. The central council, under -the system here suggested, would consist of fifteen men; that -is, one representing each of the three departments of the five -several divisions. These fifteen men would represent the employees. -It would be for them to select a board of delegates, or small -executive committee, to confer directly with the president and -board of directors. Here would be found the organization through -which the voice of the employees would make itself heard and felt -in matters which directly affect the rights of employees, including -the appointment of a tribunal to pass upon cases of misdemeanor, -and the management of all institutions, whether financial or -educational, to which the employees had contributed and in which -they had a consequent interest. - -There is no reason whatever for supposing that, within the -limits which have been indicated, such an organization would -lead to difficulty. On the contrary, where it did not remove a -difficulty it might readily be made to open a way out of it. The -employees, feeling that they too had rights which the company -frankly recognized and was bound to respect, would in all cases -of agitation proceed through the regular machinery, which brought -them into easy and direct contact with the highest authority in -the company's service. They would not, therefore, be driven into -outside organizations. Meanwhile, on the other hand, the highest -officers of the company, including the president and the board -of directors, would be brought into immediate relations with the -representatives of the employees on terms of equality. Each would -have an equal voice in the management of common interests; and it -would only remain to make provision for arriving at a solution of -questions in case of deadlock. This would naturally be done by the -appointment of a permanent arbitrator, who would be selected in -advance. - -The organization suggested includes, it will be remembered, only -those employees whose names are on the permanent rolls of the -operating department. For reasons which have been sufficiently -referred to, those whose names are on the rolls of the other -four departments have not been considered. But there would be -no difficulty in making provision for them also, should it be -found expedient or desirable so to do. Through the system of -representation the organization could in fact be made to include -every employee in the permanent service of the company, not -excepting the president, the general manager, or the general -counsel. Each employee included would have one vote, and each -division and department its representatives. The organization in -other words is elastic. No matter how large it might be it would -never become unwieldy so long as it resulted in the small committee -which met in direct conference face to face with the board of -directors. - -Could such a system as that which has been suggested be devised -and put in practical operation there is reason to hope that the -difficulties which have hitherto occurred between the great -railroad companies and those in their pay would not occur in -future. The movement is the natural and necessary outcome of the -vast development referred to in the opening paragraphs of this -paper. It is based on a simple recognition of acknowledged facts, -and follows the lines of action with which the people of this -country are most familiar. The path indicated is that in which for -centuries they have been accustomed to tread. It has led them out -of many difficulties. Why not out of this difficulty? - -FOOTNOTES: - -[31] NOTE.--The following paper was prepared for a special purpose -in June, 1886, and then submitted to several of the leading -officials directly engaged in the local management of the lines -operated by the Union Pacific Railway Company, of which the writer -had been president for two years. It drew forth from them various -criticisms, which led to the belief that the publication of the -paper at that time might easily result in more harm than good. It -was accordingly laid aside, and no use made of it. - -Nearly three years have since elapsed, and the events of the year -1888--with its strike of engineers on the Chicago, Burlington & -Quincy--seem to indicate that the relations of railroad employees -to the railroad companies have undergone no material change since -the year 1886, when the strike on the Missouri Pacific took place. -The same unsatisfactory condition of affairs apparently continues. -There is a deep-seated trouble somewhere. - -No sufficient reason, therefore, exists for longer suppressing this -paper. Provided the suggestions contained in it have any value at -all, they may at least be accepted as contributions to a discussion -which of itself has an importance that cannot be either denied or -ignored. - -The paper is printed as it was prepared. The figures and statistics -contained in it have no application, therefore, to the present -time; nor has it been thought worth while to change them, inasmuch -as they have little or no bearing upon the argument. That is just -as applicable to the state of affairs now as it was to that which -existed then. The only difference is that the course of events -during the three intervening years has demonstrated that the paper, -if it does no good, will certainly do no harm. - - BOSTON, February 4, 1889. - C. F. A. - - -[32] See "Railway Management," page 151. - - - - -THE EVERY-DAY LIFE OF RAILROAD MEN. - -BY B. B. ADAMS, JR. - - The Typical Railroad Man--On the Road and at Home--Raising the - Moral Standard--Characteristics of the Freight Brakeman--His Wit - the Result of Meditation--How Slang is Originated--Agreeable - Features of his Life in Fine Weather--Hardships in - Winter--The Perils of Hand-brakes--Broken Trains--Going back - to Flag--Coupling Accidents--At the Spring--Advantages of - a Passenger Brakeman--Trials of the Freight Conductor--The - Investigation of Accidents--Irregular Hours of Work--The - Locomotive Engineer the Hero of the Rail--His Rare Qualities--The - Value of Quick Judgment--Calm Fidelity a Necessary Trait--Saving - Fuel on a Freight Engine--Making Time on a Passenger - Engine--Remarkable Runs--The Spirit of Fraternity among - Engineers--Difficult Duties of a Passenger-train Conductor--Tact - in Dealing with Many People--Questions to be Answered--How - Rough Characters are Dealt with--Heavy Responsibilities--The - Work of a Station Agent--Flirtation by Telegraph--The - Baggage-master's Hard Task--Eternal Vigilance Necessary in a - Switch-tender--Section-men, Train Despatchers, Firemen, and - Clerks--Efforts to Make the Railroad Man's Life Easier. - - -The typical railroad man "runs on the road;" he is not the one -whose urbane presence adorns the much-heralded offices of the -railroad companies on Broadway, where the gold letters on the front -window are each considerably larger than the elbow-room allowed -the clerks inside; nor, indeed, is he, generally speaking, the one -with whom the public or the public's drayman comes in contact when -visiting a large city station to ship or receive freight. These and -others, whose part in the complex machinery of transportation is -in a degree auxiliary, are indeed largely imbued with the _esprit -de corps_ which originates in the main body of workers; but their -duties are such that their interest is not especially lively. Even -the men employed at stations in villages and large towns acquire -a share of their railroad spirit at second hand, as life on a -train is necessary to get the experience which embodies the true -fascination which so charms Young America. - -The railroad man's home-life is not specially different from other -people's. There have been Chesterfields among conductors, and -mechanical geniuses have grown up among the locomotive engineers, -but these were products of an era now past. Station-men are a part -of the communities where their duties place them. Trainmen and -their families occupy a modest though highly respectable place in -the society they live in. Trainmen who live in a city generally -receive the same pay that is given to their brothers, doing the -same work, whose homes are in the country. The families of the -latter therefore enjoy purer air, lessened expenses, and other -advantages which are denied the former. - -On most railroads the freight trainmen--engineers, conductors, -brakemen, and firemen--are the most numerous and prominent class, -as the number of freight trains is generally larger than that of -passenger trains; and among these men there are more brakemen than -anything else, because there are two or more on every train, while -there is but one of each of the other classes. And as the ranks -of the passenger-train service are generally recruited from the -freight trainmen, it follows that the _freight brakeman_ impresses -his individuality quite strongly upon not only the circles in which -he moves but the whole train-service as well. Freight conductors -are promoted brakemen, and most (though not by any means all) -passenger conductors are promoted freight conductors; so that -the brakeman's prominent traits of character continue to appear -throughout the several grades of the service. As he is promoted he -of course improves. The general character of the _personnel_ of -the freight-train service has undergone a considerable change in -the last twenty years. Whiskey drinkers have been weeded out, and -pilferers with them. Improved discipline has effected a general -toning up, raising the moral standard perceptibly. One reforming -superintendent, a few years ago, on undertaking an aggressive -campaign found himself compelled to discharge three-fifths of all -his brakemen before he could regard the force as reasonably cleared -of the rowdy element. - - * * * * * - -The brakeman, like the "drummer," is a characteristic American -product. Each has his wits sharpened by peculiar experiences, -and, while important lines of intellectual training are almost -wholly neglected, there is contact with the world in various -directions, which develops qualities that tend to elevate the -individual in many ways. Although freight brakemen do not have -any intercourse with the public, they somehow learn the ways of -the world very quickly, and the brightest ones among them need -very little training to fit them for a place on a passenger train -where they are expected to deal with gentle ladies and fastidious -millionaires, and bear themselves with the grace of a hotel clerk. -Perhaps one reason why brakemen impress their characteristics on -the whole _personnel_ of the service is because they have abundance -of opportunity for meditation. Many of them have a superfluity -of hours and half-hours when they have nothing to do but ride on -the top of a car and keep a general watch of the train, and they -have ample time to think twice before speaking once. Even a circus -clown or the vender of shoestrings or ten-cent watches has to study -the arts of expression; why should not the intelligent trainman, -who wishes to let people know that he is of some account in the -world? If he wants a favor from a superior he knows just the best -way of approach to secure success. If he deems it worth while to -complain of anything, he formulates his appeal in a way that is -sure to be telling. Everyone knows the old story of the brakeman -who was refused a free pass home on Saturday night with the -argument that his employer, if a farmer, could not be reasonably -expected to hitch up a horse and buggy for such a purpose. The -reply that, admitting this, the farmer who had his team already -harnessed up and was going that way with an empty seat would be -outrageously mean to refuse his hired man a ride, is none too 'cute -to be characteristic. The brakeman who is not able to puncture -the sophistries of narrow-souled or disingenuous superiors is the -exception and not the rule. - -The brakeman gives the prevailing tone to the "society" of -despatchers' lobbies and other lounging places which he frequents. -If he be profane or fault-finding or sour, he can easily spread the -influence of these unpleasant traits. A lazy brakeman becomes more -lazy, because his work is in many respects easy. Having little to -do he demands still less. A foul-mouthed one gives himself free -rein because many usual restraints are absent. The prevalence of -profanity, which, aside from the question of sinfulness, hampers a -man in any aspirations he may have toward more elevating society, -is perhaps the worst blot on the reputation of brakemen as a -class. Many worthy men among them, and especially among conductors -and engineers, have, however, done much to improve the tone of -conversation in trainmen's haunts, and on the better disciplined -roads decorum is the rule, and rowdyism the exception. There is -abundance of humor and spirit, however. The brakeman originates -whatever slang may be deemed necessary to give spice to the talk -of the caboose and round-house. He calls a gravel train a "dust -express," and refers to the pump for compressing air for the -power-brakes as a "wind-jammer." The fireman's prosaic labors -are lightened by being poetically mentioned as the "handling of -black diamonds," and the mortification of being called into the -superintendent's office to explain some dereliction of duty is -disguised by referring to the episode as "dancing on the carpet." - -[Illustration: "Dancing on the Carpet."] - -The disagreeable features of a freight brakeman's life are chiefly -those dependent upon the weather. If he could perform his duties -in Southern California or Florida in winter, and in the Northern -States in summer, his lot would ordinarily be a happy one, though -the annoyance of tramps is almost universal in mild climates, and -in many cases takes the shape of positive danger. These vagabonds -persist in riding on or in the cars, while the faithful trainman -must, according to his instructions, keep them off. In some -sections of the country they will board a train in gangs of a -dozen, armed with pistols, and dictate where a train shall carry -them. Not long ago in Chicago a conductor, while ejecting a tramp -from the caboose, was shot and killed by the ruffian. - -[Illustration: Trainman and Tramps.] - -The hardships of cold and stormy weather are serious, both because -of the test of endurance involved and the added difficulties in -handling a train. The Westinghouse automatic air-brake, which -has served so admirably on passenger trains for the past fifteen -years, has only recently been adapted and cheapened so as to make -it available for long freight trains, but it is now so perfected -that in a few years the brakeman who now has to ride on the outside -of cars in a freezing condition for an hour at a time will be -privileged to sit comfortably in his caboose while the speed of the -train is governed by the engineer through the instantaneous action -of the air-brake. On the steep roads of the Rocky Mountains, and a -few other lines, this brake is already in use. - -[Illustration: Braking in Hard Weather.] - -But "braking by hand" is still the rule. In running on ascending -grades or at slow speeds, the brakemen can ride under cover, but in -descending grades, or on levels when the speed is high, they must -be on the tops of the cars ready to instantly apply the brakes, -for the reason that there are generally only three or four men -to a long train weighing from 500 to 1,000 tons, whose momentum -cannot be arrested very quickly. In descending steep grades, only -the most constant and skilful care prevents the train from rushing -at breakneck speed to the foot of the incline, or to a curve, -where it would be precipitated over an embankment and crushed into -splinters. One of the mountain roads in Colorado which now uses -air-brakes is said to be lined its whole length with the ruins of -cars lying in the gorges, where they were wrecked in the former -days of hand-brakes. Even on grades much less steep than those in -Colorado the danger of this sort of disaster is one that has to -be constantly guarded against. Take the case of a 40-car train -descending a 1½ per cent. grade (79-2/10 feet per mile). Before all -of the cars have passed over the summit and commenced to descend, -the forward part of the train will have increased its velocity -very perceptibly and will thus by its weight exert a strong pull -on the rear portion, "yanking" it very roughly sometimes, and -if one of the couplings between the cars chances to be weak it -breaks, separating the train into two parts. Mishaps of this kind -are frequent, and two or more breakages often occur at the same -time, dividing the train so that one of the parts--between the -two end portions--is perhaps left with no brakeman upon it. The -engineman then has the choice of slackening his speed and allowing -the unmanageable cars to violently collide with his portion, or -of increasing his own speed to such a rate that he is soon in -danger of suddenly overtaking a train ahead of him. To avoid this -breaking-in-two the brakemen must be wide awake on the instant -and see that their brakes are tightened before the speed even -begins to elude control. As soon as the whole train has got beyond -the summit, and the speed is reduced to a proper rate by the -application of the brakes on, say, one-third or one-half the cars, -it will perhaps be found that one or two brakes too many have been -put on and that the train is running too slowly. Some of them -must then be loosened. Or perhaps some are set so tightly that the -friction heats the wheels unduly or causes them to slide along -the track instead of rolling; then those brakes must be released -and some on other cars applied instead; and all this must be done -(sometimes for an hour) when the temperature is 20 degrees below -zero, or the wind is blowing a gale, just as under more favorable -circumstances. A train moving at 20 miles an hour against a wind -with a velocity of 30 miles increases the latter to 50, so far as -the brakeman is concerned; and if rain or sleet is falling, the -force of it on his hands and face is very severe. If we add to -this the danger attendant upon stepping from one car to another -over a gap of 27 to 30 inches, in a dark night, when the cars are -constantly moving up and down on their springs and are swaying -to one side or the other every few seconds, we get some idea of, -though we cannot realize, the sensations that must at such times -fill the minds of the men whose pleasant berth seems so enjoyable -on a mild summer's day. And this is not an overdrawn picture or -the worst that might be given; for rain and snow combined often -coat the roofs of cars so completely and solidly that they are -worse than the smoothest skating-pond, and moving upon them is -attended with danger at every step. Jumping--it cannot be called -walking--from one car to another is in such cases positively -reckless. The brake-apparatus will in a snow-storm be coated with -ice so rapidly that vigorous action is required to keep it in -working condition. Even a wind alone, in dry weather, sometimes -compels the men to _crawl_ from one car to another, grasping such -projections as they may. The brakeman who forgets to take his -rubber coat and overalls sometimes suffers severely from sudden -changes of temperature. In spring or fall a lively shower will be -encountered in a sheltered valley, and the clothing be completely -drenched, and then within perhaps half an hour the ascent of a few -hundred feet brings the train into an atmosphere a few degrees -below the freezing point, so that with the aid of the wind, fanned -by the speed of the train, the clothes are very soon frozen stiff. - -[Illustration: Flagging in Winter.] - -Another feature which often involves discomfort, and occasionally -positive suffering and danger, is "going back to flag." When a -train is unexpectedly stopped upon the road, the brakeman at the -rear end must immediately take his red flag or lantern and go back -a half-mile or more to give the "stop" signal to the engine-men of -any train that may be following. This rule is sometimes disregarded -in clear weather on straight lines, and is even evaded by lazy or -unfaithful brakemen where the neglect is positively dangerous, -but still many a faithful man has to go out and stand for a long -time in a severe snow-storm or risk his life in walking several -miles to a station. The record of individual perils and heroisms -in the New York blizzard of March, 1888, are paralleled, or at -least repeated, on a slightly milder scale, by brakemen every -winter. Even in the blizzard country of the Northwest, where a half -hour's exposure is often fatal, the system of train-running is -such that the stopping of a train at an unexpected place involves -danger of collision if the brakeman does not at once go back and -_stay back_. A "tail-end" brakeman has various anxieties, which -cannot be detailed here. Often there is a possibility that the -advancing engineer will not see his red lantern. One brakeman in -New Brunswick several years ago ignominiously deserted his post, -leaving his train to look out for itself, because of a visit from -a huge bear whose residence was in the woods near the point on the -railroad where the brakeman was keeping his lonely night-vigil. - -[Illustration: Coupling.] - -The danger of sudden accidental death or maiming is constant -and great, and the bare record of the numerous cases is acutely -suggestive of inexpressible suffering; but, strange to say, it does -not worry the average brakeman much. Though probably a thousand -trainmen are killed in this country every year, and four or five -thousand injured, by collisions and derailments, in coupling cars, -falling off trains, striking low overhead bridges, and from other -causes, not one brakeman, from what he sees in his own experience, -realizes the danger very vividly. As in other dangers which are -constant but inevitable, familiarity breeds carelessness which is -closely akin to contempt. Falling from trains is really a serious -danger, because the most ceaseless caution--next to impossible for -the average man to maintain--is necessary to avoid missteps. This -will be practically abolished when the long-wished-for air-brake -comes into use, as that will obviate the necessity of riding on the -tops of the cars. - -Coupling accidents are practically unavoidable because, although -the necessary manipulations _can_ be made without going between -the cars or placing the hands in dangerous situations, the men -as a general thing prefer to take the risk of the more dangerous -method. With the ordinary freight-car apparatus (which, however, -is destined to be superseded by an automatic coupler) the link by -which the cars are connected is retained by a pin in the drawbar of -either car; as one car approaches another at considerable speed, -this link, which hangs loosely down at an angle of thirty degrees, -must be lifted and guided into the opening in the opposite -drawbar. This operation must, according to the regulations of most -roads, be performed by the aid of a short stick; but, disregarding -the regulation, partly to save time and partly because of fear of -the ridicule that would be called out by the exhibition of a lack -of dexterity, the average brakeman uses his fingers. He must lift -the link and hold it horizontally until the end enters the opening, -and then withdraw his hand before the heavy drawbars come together. -A delay of a fraction of a second would crush the hand or finger -as under a trip-hammer. And, in point of fact, this delay does, -for various reasons, frequently happen, and the number of trainmen -with wounded hands to be found in every large freight-yard is sad -evidence of the fact. But again, assuming that this part of the -operation is accomplished in safety, there is another and worse -danger in the possibility of being crushed bodily. Cars are built -with projecting timbers on their ends at or near the centre, for -the purpose of keeping the main body of each car twelve or fifteen -inches from its neighbor; but cars of dissimilar pattern sometimes -meet in such a way that the projections on one lap past those on -the other, and the space which should afford room for the man to -stand in safety is not maintained. If the brakeman, in the darkness -of night or the hurry of his work, fails to note the peculiarities -of the cars, he is mercilessly crushed, the ponderous vehicles -often banging together with a force of many tons. A constant danger -in coupling and uncoupling is the liability to catch the feet in -angles in the track.[33] Freight conductors are peculiarly liable -to this, as the duty of uncoupling (pulling out the coupling-pin) -generally devolves upon them, and must be done while the train is -in motion. Walking rapidly along, in the dark, with the right hand -holding a lantern and grasping the car, while the left is tugging -at a pin which sticks, involves perplexities wherein a moment's -hesitation may prove fatal. - -The dangers here recounted are those which only brakemen (or those -acting as brakemen) have to meet. The liability of all trainmen to -be killed by the cars tumbling down a bank, colliding with another -train, and a hundred other conditions, is also considerable. The -horror which the public feels on the occurrence of such a disaster -as that at Chatsworth, Ill., in the summer of 1887, or the -half-dozen other terrible ones within the past few years, could -reasonably be repeated every month if railroad employees instead -of passengers were considered. There are no accurate official -statistics kept of the train accidents in the country, but the -accounts compiled monthly by the _Railroad Gazette_ always show -a large number of casualties to railroad men from causes _beyond -their own control_ (collisions, running off the track, etc.), no -mention being made of the larger number resulting from the victims' -own want of caution. In the month of March, 1887, in which occurred -the terrible Bussey Bridge disaster, near Boston, 25 passengers -were killed in the United States; but the same month recorded 34 -employees killed. At Chatsworth 80 passengers were killed; but in -that and the following month the number of employees killed in the -country reached 97. In both of these comparisons the number of -passengers is exceptional, while that of employees is ordinary. -But, as already intimated, these dangers and discouragements are -distributed over such a large territory and among such a large -number of individuals that the general serenity of the brakeman's -life is not much disturbed by them. In spite of them all, he enjoys -his work and, if he is adapted to the calling, he sticks to it. - -[Illustration: The Pleasant Part of a Brakeman's Life.] - -The brakeman must be on hand promptly at the hour of his train's -preparation for departure, and generally he must do his part in 15, -30, or 60 minutes' lively work in assembling cars from different -tracks, changing them from the front to the rear or middle of -the train, and setting aside those that are broken or disabled; -but, once on the road, by far the greater portion of his time is -his own, for his own enjoyment, almost as fully as that of the -passenger who travels for the express purpose of entertaining -himself. In mild weather and in daylight, life on the top of a -freight train is almost wholly devoid of unpleasant features, and -it takes on the nature of work only for the same reason that any -routine becomes more or less irksome after a time. Much of the time -there are a few bushels of cinders from the engine flying in the -air, which a novice can get into his eyes with great facility, but -the brakeman gets used to them. He sees every day (on many roads) -the beauties of nature in great variety. Much of the scenery of -the adjoining country is 500 per cent. more enjoyable from the -brakeman's perch on the roof than from the car windows, for the -reason that the increased height gives such an enlarged horizon. -This education from nature is an element in railroad men's lives -not to be despised. The trainman whose daily trips take him past -the panoramic charms of the Connecticut Valley in summer, through -the gorgeous-hued mountain-foliage along the Erie in autumn, or the -perennial grandeur of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado, certainly -enjoys a privilege for which many a city worker would gladly make -large sacrifices. But to trainmen the refining influence of these -surroundings is often an unconscious influence, and with the -majority of them is perhaps generally so, because of the prosaic -round of every-day thoughts filling their minds. There are also -some other advantages, not wholly unæsthetic, which a millionaire -might almost envy the freight trainman. Every twenty miles or so -the engine must stop for water, and it often happens that this -is in a cool place where the men can at the same time refresh -themselves with spring water whose sparkling purity is unknown in -New York or Chicago. Though brakemen who love beer are not by any -means scarce, an accessible spring or well of pure water along the -line always finds appreciative users during warm weather; and the -Kentuckian who sojourned six months in Illinois without thinking to -try the water there is not represented in the ranks of level-headed -brakemen. A certain railroad president regales himself in summer on -spring water brought in jugs from 100 miles up the road by trainmen -who find in this service an opportunity to "make themselves solid" -at headquarters. Freight trainmen get all the delicious products -of the soil at first hands. In their stops at way-stations they -get acquainted with the farmers, and can make their selection of -the best things at low prices, thus (if they keep house) living on -fruits, vegetables, etc., of a quality fit for a king. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: At the Spring.] - -The passenger-train brakeman differs from the freight trainman -chiefly in the fact that he must deal with the public, and so -must have a care for his personal appearance and behavior, and -in the fact that he is _not a brakeman_, the universal air-brake -relieving him of all work in this line. His chief duties are those -of a porter, though the wide-awake American brakeman, with an eye -to future promotion to a conductorship, maintains his dignity and -is not by any means the servile call-boy that the English railway -porter is. The wearing of uniforms has been introduced here from -England and is, in the main, a good feature, though some roads, -whose discipline is otherwise quite good, allow their men to -appear in slovenly and even ragged clothes. Superintendents should -give more care to this matter, as it is not an unimportant one. -It affects the men's self-respect and influences their usefulness -in other ways. The frugal brakeman cannot wear his blue suit on -Sunday or a-visiting, and his Sunday suit when old cannot be used -up by week-day wear, so he naturally concludes that his employer -is guilty of a little undue severity toward him. Brakemen on -the modern "limited" trains (a three hours' run without a stop -constituting a day's work) have in some respects too easy a task, -and their minds are more likely to rust out than to wear out. -They have a constant care, to be sure, and sometimes must "go -back to flag," the same as a freight trainman, but, in the main, -their berth would about fill the ideal of the Irish shoveller who -confided to his fellow-workman that "for a nice, clane, aisy job" -he would like to be a bishop. - -Brakemen have had the reputation of doing a good deal of flirting, -and many a country-girl has found a worthy husband among them; -but there is not so much of this method of diversion as formerly; -both passenger and freight men now have to attend more strictly to -business, and they cannot conveniently indulge in side play. There -are still, however, enough short branch-lines and slow-going roads -in backwoods districts to insure that flirting shall not become a -lost art in this part of the world. - -The freight conductor is simply a high grade of brakeman. His work -is almost wholly supervisory and clerical, and so, after several -years' service, he becomes more sober and business-like in his -bearing, the responsibilities of his position being sufficient -to effect this change; but he generally retains his sympathies -with his old associates who have become subordinates. His duties -are to keep the record of the train, the time, numbers of cars, -etc.; to see that the brakemen regulate the speed when necessary, -and to keep a general watch. The calculations necessary to make -a 75-mile trip and get over the line without wasting time are -often considerable, and an inexperienced conductor can easily -keep himself in a worry for the whole trip. Often he cannot go -more than ten miles after making way for a passenger train before -another overtakes him; so that he must spend a good share of his -time sitting in his caboose with the time-table in one hand and -his watch in the other, calculating where and when to side-track -the train. On single-track roads perplexities of this kind are -generally more numerous than on double lines, because trains both -in front and behind must be guarded against, and because the -regulations are frequently modified by telegraphic instructions -from headquarters. A mistake in reading these instructions, -which are written in pencil, often by a slovenly penman, and on -tissue-paper, may, and occasionally does, cause a disastrous -collision. These duties of conductors are especially characteristic -of trains that must keep out of the way of passenger trains, so -that in this particular line it will be seen that the passenger -conductor has much the easier berth. The freight and "work-train" -conductor must really be a better calculator, in many ways, than -the wearer of gilt badges and buttons, though the latter receives -the higher pay. - -The _bête noire_ of the freight conductor is an investigation -at headquarters concerning delinquencies in which the blame is -divided. A typical case of this kind is that of a freight train -which has stopped at some unusual place and been run into by a -following train, doing some hundreds of dollars damage, if not -killing or injuring persons. "Strict adherence to rules will avert -all such accidents," the code says; but they do happen, and the -inquiry as to whether the conductor used due diligence in sending a -man with a red flag to warn the oncoming train, or the engineer of -the latter was heedless, or what was the trouble, is the occasion -of much anxiety. - -Conductors, concerning whose life I have only noted a few of -the duties and perplexities, are not so much subject to the -vicissitudes of cold and wet weather, and therefore have in many -respects better opportunities than the brakemen to avail themselves -of the enjoyments of a trainman's life. The risk to life and limb -from coupling cars, etc., is also somewhat less, though many a -faithful conductor has lost his life in the performance of a -dangerous duty which he had assumed out of generous consideration -for an inexperienced or overworked subordinate. The beneficial -influences on health, mind, and morals coming from contact with -nature are, as before remarked, largely unconscious influences, -because of the counteracting effect of the immediate surroundings. -The irregular hours are unfavorable to health. The crews run in -turn; if there are forty crews and forty trains daily, each crew -will start out at about the same hour each day. But if on Monday -there are forty trains, on Tuesday thirty, and on Wednesday fifty, -it will be seen that the starting time must be very irregular. -Ten of the crews which worked on Monday will have nothing to do -on Tuesday, but on Wednesday or Thursday will have to do double -service. The first trip will be all in the daytime, and the next -all in the night, perhaps. This irregularity is constant, and -it is impossible to tell on Monday morning where one will be on -Wednesday. All the week's sleep may have to be taken in the daytime -or all at night. There may be five days' work to do between Monday -morning and the following Monday morning, or there may be nine. -The trainman has to literally board in his "mammoth" dinner-pail, -and his wife or boarding mistress knows less about his whereabouts -than if he were on an Arctic whaling vessel. - - * * * * * - -The locomotive engineer is the popular "hero of the rail," and the -popular estimate in this respect is substantially just. Others have -to brave dangers and perform duties under trying circumstances; but -the engine-runner has to ride in the most dangerous part of the -train, take charge of a steam-boiler that may explode and blow him -to atoms, and of machinery that may break and kill him, and try -to keep up a vigilance which only a being more than human could -successfully maintain. He must be a tolerably skilful machinist--he -cannot be too good--and have nerves that will remain steady under -the most trying circumstances. If running a fast express through -midnight darkness over a line where a similar train has been tipped -off a precipice (and a brother runner killed) by train-wreckers -the night before, he must dash forward with the same confidence -that he would feel in broad daylight on an open prairie. But he -does not "heroically grasp the throttle" in the face of danger, -when the throttle has been already shut, nor does he "whistle down -brakes," in order to add a stirring element to the reporter's tale, -when by the magic of the air-brake he can, with a turn of his hand, -apply every brake in the train with the grip of a vise in less time -than it would take him to reach the whistle-pull. When there is -danger ahead there is generally just one thing to do, and that is -to stop as soon as possible. An instant suffices for shutting off -the steam and applying the brake. With modern trains this is all -that is necessary or can be done. Reversing the engine is necessary -on many engines, and formerly was on all; this would, in fact, be -done instinctively by old runners, in any case, but this also is -done in a second. After taking these measures there is nothing -for the engineman to do but look out for his own safety. In some -circumstances, as in the case of a partially burned bridge which -may possibly support the train even in a weakened condition, it may -be best to put on all steam. The runner is then in a dilemma, and -a right decision is a matter of momentary inspiration. Many lives -have been saved by quick-witted runners in such cases, but there -is no ground for censure of the engineer who, in the excitement -of the moment, decides to slacken instead of quicken his speed. -The rare cases of this kind are what show the value of experience, -and of men of the right temperament and degree of intelligence to -acquire experience-lessons readily. The writer recalls an instance -several years ago where an alert, steady, and experienced runner -found himself on the crossing of another railroad with a heavy -train rushing toward him on the transverse track at uncontrollable -speed. It was too late to retreat, and in less than ten seconds the -oncoming train would crash broadside into his cars, filled with -passengers. A frantic effort to increase the speed and clear the -crossing would have either broken the weak couplings then in use or -would have simply whirled the driving-wheels with such excessive -force as to slacken the speed of the train rather than accelerate -it. In point of fact, the rear car just escaped being struck by -the ponderous engine bearing down upon it at the rate of twenty -or thirty feet a second; and the preservation of the lives of the -passengers was due to the fact that the engineer was well-balanced, -quick to act, and not excitable. What did he do? He instantly put -on more steam, but with unerring judgment opened the valve just far -enough and no more. - -But the terrible cloud constantly hanging over the engineer -and fireman of a fast train is the chance of encountering an -obstacle which cannot possibly be avoided, and which leaves them -no alternative but to jump for their lives, if, indeed, it does -not take away even that. To the fact that this cloud is no larger -than it is, and that these men have sturdy and courageous natures, -must be attributed the lightness with which it rests upon them. On -one road or another, from a washout, or inefficient management, -or a collision caused by an operator's forgetfulness, or some one -of a score of other causes, there are constantly occurring cases -of men heroically meeting death under the most heart-rending -circumstances. Every month records a number of such, though happily -they are not frequent on any one road. The case of Engineer Kennar, -a year or more ago, is a typical one. Precipitated with his engine -into a river by a washout which the roadmaster's vigilance had -failed to discover, his first thought, as zealous hands tried -to rescue him, was for the safety of his train; and, forgetting -his own anguish, he warned those about him to attend first to -the sending of a red lantern to warn a following train against a -collision. The significance of facts like this is not so much in -the service to humanity done at the time, or even in the example -set for those who shall meet such crises in the future, but rather -in the evidence they give of the firm and lofty conscientiousness -that inspires the every-day conduct of thousands of engineers all -over the land. As has already been said, the critical occasions -on which engineers are supposed to be heroic often allow them no -chance at all to be either heroic or cowardly, and their heroism -must be, and is, manifested in the calm fidelity with which they, -day after day and year after year, perform their exacting and -often monotonous round of duties while all the time knowing of the -possibilities before them. - -On the best of roads a freight train wrecked by a broken wheel -under a borrowed car may be thrown in the path of a passenger train -on another track, just as the latter approaches. This has happened -more than once lately. No amount of fidelity or forethought -(except in the maker of the wheels) can prevent this kind of -disaster. There is constant danger, on most roads, of running off -the track at misplaced switches, many switches being located at -points where the runner can see them only a few seconds before he -is upon them; but the chance is so small--perhaps one in ten or -a hundred thousand--that the average runner forgets it, and it -is only by severe self-discipline that he can hold himself up to -compliance with the rule which requires him to be on the watch for -every switch-target as long before reaching it as he possibly can. -He finds the switches all right and the road perfectly clear so -regularly, day after day and month after month, that he may easily -fall into the snare of thinking that they will always be so. But, -like other trainmen, the engineman finds enough more agreeable -thoughts to fill his mind, and reflects upon the hazards of his -vocation perhaps too little. - -[Illustration: Just Time to Jump.] - -The freight engineman's every-day thoughts are largely about the -care of his engine and the perplexities incident to getting out -of it the maximum amount of work with the minimum amount of fuel. -The constant aim of his superiors is to have the engine draw every -pound it possibly can. To haul a train up a long and steep grade -when the cars are so heavily loaded that a single additional one -would bring the whole to a dead stand-still requires a knack that -can be appreciated only by viewing the performance on the spot. -Failure not only wastes time and fuel (it may necessitate a return -to the foot of the hill or going to the top with only half the -load), but it raises a suspicion that some other runner might have -succeeded better. The runner whose engine "lays down on the road" -(fails to draw its load because of insufficient fire and consequent -low steam-pressure) is liable to the jeers of his comrades on his -return home, if not to some sharp inquiries from his superior. - -The passenger runner's greatest concern is to "make time." Some -trains are scheduled so that the engineman must keep his locomotive -up to its very highest efficiency over every furlong of its -journey in order to arrive at his destination on time. A little -carelessness in firing, in letting cold water into the boiler -irregularly, or in slackening more than is necessary where the -right to the track is in doubt for a few rods; these and a score of -similar circumstances may make five minutes' delay in the arrival -at the terminus and necessitate an embarrassing interview with the -trainmaster. A trip on a crowded line may involve watching for -danger-signals every quarter of a mile and the maintenance of such -high speed that they must be obeyed the instant they are espied in -order to avoid the possibility of collision.[34] - -The passenger runner finds himself now and then with a disabled -engine on his hands, and two or three hundred passengers standing -around apparently ready to eat him up if he does not remedy the -difficulty in short order. Often in such cases he is in doubt -himself whether the repairs necessary to enable his engine to -proceed will occupy fifteen minutes or an hour. This, with the -knotty question of where the nearest relief engine is, causes the -brow to knit and the sweat to start, and to the young runner proves -an experience which he long remembers. - -[Illustration: A Breakdown on the Road.] - -Stories of fast running are common but unreliable; and when -truthful, important considerations are often omitted. There are -so many elements to be considered, that usually the verdict can -be justly rendered only after a careful comparison with previous -records. Most regular runs include a number of stops, and are -subject to numerous slackenings of the speed, thus dimming the -lustre of the record of the trip as a whole. Frequently, quick -runs which have been reported as noteworthy have had favoring -circumstances not told of. The most remarkable single run on -record was that of Jarrett & Palmer's special train chartered to -carry their theatrical company from New York to San Francisco -(Jersey City to Oakland), June 1-4, 1876, which is well known to -all Americans. Perhaps the fastest long run ever made in this -country was that of a special train over the West Shore Railroad -from East Buffalo to Frankfort, N. Y., two hundred and one miles, -on July 9, 1885, which ran this distance in four hours, including -several stops. This train ran thirty-six miles in thirty minutes, -and ran many single miles in forty-three seconds each. An engine -with two cars ran over the Canada Southern Division of the Michigan -Central from St. Clair Junction to Windsor, Ont., on November 16, -1886, a distance of one hundred and seven miles, in ninety-seven -minutes; and this included two or three stops. The average rate -of speed was about sixty-nine miles an hour, and in places it -rose to seventy-five and over. The engineers and their firemen, -and all connected with the handling of the trains, certainly -deserve credit for performances like these, and they receive it; -but the supplying of the perfect machine, the smooth and safe -roadway comparatively clear of other trains, and other conditions, -is so manifestly beyond their control, while at the same time -constituting such an important factor in the result, that -praise should be given discriminatingly. An engineer who makes a -specially quick trip feels proud of his engine, and of the honor -of having been chosen for an important run, and he shares with the -passengers the exhilaration produced by such a triumph of science -and skill in annihilating space; but in the matter of credit to -himself for experience and judgment, patience and forethought, he -feels and knows that many a trip in his every-day service is worthy -of greater recognition. Many a runner has to urge his engine, day -after day, with a load twenty-five per cent. heavier than it was -designed for, over track that is fit only for low speeds, at a -rate which demands the most constant care. He must run fast enough -over the better portions of the track to allow of slackening where -prudence demands slackening. The tracks of many roads are rendered -so uneven by the action of frost in winter that with an unskilful -runner the passengers would be half-frightened by the unsteady -motion of the cars. This condition is not common on the important -trunk-lines, of course; but it does prevail on roads that carry a -great many passengers, nevertheless; and engineers who guide trains -over such difficult journeys, gently luring the passengers, with -the aid of the excellent springs under the cars, into the belief -that they are riding over a track of uniform smoothness, should not -be forgotten in any estimate of the fraternity as a whole. - -[Illustration: Timely Warning.] - -The engineer whose humanity is not hardened has his feelings -harrowed occasionally by pedestrians who risk their lives on the -track. Tramps and other careless persons are so numerous that the -casual passenger in a locomotive cab generally cannot ride fifty -miles without seeing what seems to him a hair-breadth escape, but -which is nevertheless treated by the engineer as a commonplace -occurrence. These heedless wayfarers do, however, occasionally -carry their indifference to danger too far, and they are tossed in -the air like feathers.[35] Doubtless there are those who, like the -fireman who talked with the tender-hearted young lady, regret the -killing of a man chiefly "because it musses up the engine so;" but, -taking the fraternity as a whole, warmth of heart and tenderness -of feeling may be called not only well-developed but prominent -traits of character. The great strike on the Chicago, Burlington & -Quincy road in 1888, which proved to have been ill-advised, would -have been possible only in a body of men actuated by the most -loyal friendship. Undoubtedly a large conservative element in the -Brotherhood of Engineers believed the move injudicious, but they -joined in it out of an intense spirit of fidelity to their brethren -and leaders. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: The Passenger Conductor.] - -The passenger-train conductor has in many respects the most -difficult position in the railroad ranks. He should be a -first-class freight conductor and a polished gentleman to boot. But -in his long apprenticeship on a freight train he has very likely -been learning how _not_ to fulfil the additional requirements of -a passenger conductorship. In that service he could be uncouth -and even boorish, and still fill his position tolerably well; now -he feels the need of a life-time of tuition in dealing with the -diverse phases of human nature met with on a passenger train. He -must now manage his train in a sort of automatic way, for he has -his mind filled with the care of his passengers and the collection -of tickets. He must be good at figures, keeping accounts, and -handling money, though the freight-train service has given him no -experience in this line. Year by year the clerical work connected -with the taking up of tickets and collecting of cash fares has been -increased until now, on many roads, an expert bank clerk would -be none too proficient for the duties imposed. The conductor who -grumblingly averred that "it would take a Philadelphia lawyer with -three heads" to fill his shoes was not far out of the way. Every -day, and perhaps a number of times a day, he must collect fares of -fifty or a hundred persons in less time than he ought to have for -ten. Of that large number a few will generally have a complaint -to make, or an objection to offer, or an impudent assertion -concerning a fault of the railroad company which the conductor -cannot remedy and is not responsible for. A woman will object to -paying half-fare for a ten-year-old girl or to paying full rates -for one of fifteen. A person whose income is ten times larger -than he deserves will argue twenty minutes to avoid paying ten -cents more (in cash) than he would have been charged for a ticket. -Passengers with legitimate questions to ask will couch them in -vague and backhanded terms, and those with useless ones will take -inopportune times to propound them. These are not occasional but -every-day experiences. The very best and most intelligent people in -the community (excepting those who travel much) are among those who -oftenest leave their wits at home when they take a railroad trip. -All these people must be met in a conciliatory manner, but without -varying the strict regulations in the least degree. The officers -of the revenue department are inexorable masters, and passengers -offended by alleged uncivil treatment are likely to make absurd -complaints at the superintendent's office. A conductor dreads an -investigation of this sort, however unreasonable the passengers' -complaints may be, because it may tend to show that he lacked tact -in handling the case. But after becoming habituated to this sort of -dealings, there are still left the occasional disturbances which no -amount of philosophy can make pleasant. These are the encounters -with drunken and disorderly passengers. The conductor, starting -at the forward end of his train, finds, perhaps, in the first car -one or two "toughs" who refuse payment of fare and are spoiling -for a fight. Care must be taken with this sort of character not to -punish him or use the least bit of unnecessary severity, for he -will, when sobered off, quite likely be induced by a sharp lawyer -to sue the railroad company for damages by assault. The conductor, -however, if he be one who has (in his freight-train experience) -dealt with tramps, is able to cope with his customer and confine -him to the baggage-car or put him off the train. But a tussle of -this kind is at best far from soothing to the temper, and the very -next car may contain the wife of a nabob, who will expect the most -genteel treatment and critically object to any behavior on the part -of the conductor which is not fully up to the highest drawing-room -standard. Experiences of this kind, it can be readily imagined, are -exceedingly trying. The conductor cannot give himself up completely -to learning gentility, for he still has need for his old severity. - -The difficulty of always finding the ideal person when wanted has -led to the employment of men of good address who have had little or -no training on freight trains; so that we find some conductors who -are able to deal with all sorts of passengers with a good degree -of success, but who are far from brilliant as managers of trains, -technically speaking; while others, who from their early experience -have first-class executive ability, are slow in discarding the -somewhat rough habits of the freight train. While there are not -wanting those who strive faithfully to reach the ideal, and succeed -admirably, it may be said that the average conductor retains -more of the severe than of the gentle side of his character, at -least so far as outward behavior goes. The rigid requirements of -his financial superiors, which compel him to actually fight for -his rights with dishonest and stingy passengers, make it almost -impossible that he should be otherwise. Ignorant foreigners, poor -women and girls who have lost their way, and other unfortunates -are, however, encountered often enough to preclude the conductor's -forgetting how to be compassionate. - -The heroic element is not wholly lacking in the conductor's -life. The temporary guardianship of several hundred people is -an important trust even in smooth sailing, but the conductor's -possibilities are entirely different from the engineer's. He has so -much to do to attend to the petty wants of passengers that their -remoter but more important interests are not given much thought. -The anxieties of a hundred nervous passengers who terribly dread -the loss of an hour by a missed connection are much more likely to -weigh down a conductor's mind than any thoughts of his duty to them -in a possible emergency that will happen only once in five years. -And yet the last-mentioned contingency is a real one. Only last -year, in the great Eastern blizzard, conductors risked their lives -in protecting their passengers. One spent three or four hours in -travelling a mile and a half to a telegraph-office; in consequence -of the six feet of snow, the blinding storm, and the darkness, he -had to constantly hug a barbed-wire fence to avoid losing his way, -and was on the point of exhaustion when he reached the station. - - * * * * * - -The term "station-agent" means, practically, the person in charge -of a small or medium-sized station. When one of these men is -promoted to the charge of a large city station, either freight or -passenger, he becomes really a local superintendent, his duties -then consisting very largely in the supervision of an army of -clerks and laborers who must, each in his place, be as capable -as the agent himself. The agent at a small station has a great -multiplicity of duties to perform. He must sell tickets, be a good -book-keeper, and a faithful switch-tender. He generally must be -a telegraph-operator and must be vigorous physically. He must be -ready, like the conductor, to submit to some abuse from ill-bred -customers, and should be the peer of the business men of his town. -He often encounters almost as great a variety of knotty problems -as the superintendent himself, though he has the advantage that -he can generally turn them over to a superior if he feels unequal -to them. The practical difficulties that most beset him are those -incident to doing everything in a hurry. People who buy tickets -wait until the train is about to start before presenting themselves -at the office. Then the agent has a dozen other things to attend -to, and must therefore detect counterfeit ten-dollar bills with -the expertness of a Washington treasury-clerk. Just as a train -reaches his station the train despatcher's click is heard on the -wires, and he must drop everything and receive (for the conductor) -a telegram in which an error of a single word would very likely -involve the lives of passengers. At a very small station the -checking of baggage devolves on the agent, his overburdened back -being thus loaded with one more straw. He is in many cases agent -for the express company, and so must count, seal, superscribe, and -way-bill money packages and handle oyster-kegs and barrels of beer -at a moment's notice. Women with wagon-loads of loose household -effects to go by freight, and shippers of car-loads of cattle, for -which a car must be specially fitted up, will appear just as the -distracted station-man is receiving a telegram with one side of -his brain and selling a ticket with the other. The household goods -must be weighed and tagged, the sewing-machine tied up, and tables -repaired; the cattle-shipper must be given a short lecture on the -legal bearings of the bargain for transportation which he is about -to make, and his demand that his live-stock shall be carried 500 -miles more quickly than human animals are taken over the same road -is to be gently repressed. It is not every day that a small station -is enlivened by this sort of excitement, yet it is common, and is -familiar to every station agent. The variety in the duties of this -position is, however, a great advantage to the ambitious young -man, because it serves to give him a good lift toward a valuable -business education. He can learn about the methods and knacks and -tricks of many different kinds of business, and can profit by -the knowledge thus gained. Thomas J. Potter, the lately deceased -vice-president of the Union Pacific Railway, whose memory it is -proposed to perpetuate by a bronze statue, began his railroad -career as agent at a small station in Iowa. Others of equal ability -and perfection of character have risen from similar places and by -the same means. - -[Illustration: In the Waiting Room of a Country Station.] - -The agent at a small station catches his breath between trains. -There is then generally ample time for calming the nerves and -preparing for the next onslaught. If he is a telegraph-operator he -can chat with the operators at other stations--a common resource -if the wires are not occupied with more important affairs. In the -class periodicals of operators and railroad men, reference to -this phase of their life may be constantly seen, and incidents -of even romantic interest are not infrequent. Many of the men at -small stations are young and unmarried, while at places where the -business has increased enough to warrant the employment of an -assistant, a young woman to do the telegraphing is frequently the -first helper engaged. With this combination it is unnecessary to -tell what follows. If iron bars and stone walls are things which -Cupid holds in contempt, an electric telegraph wire is the thing -which makes him "snicker right out," if we may use the language -of the circus ring. A distance of 100 miles, instead of being a -barrier, is, under these circumstances, an advantage. There is, -to be sure, a slight disadvantage in the fact that any tender -communication confided to the wires will be liable to fall on -the ears of unfeeling persons at intermediate offices, but the -overcoming of this obstacle provides the agreeable incidental -excitement which is always necessary in genuine love-making. Young -persons (or old, either) can study each other's characters, in -important phases at least, at a distance better than at short -range. The telegraphic mode of sending communications discloses -one's disposition far better than does handwriting. Working on -the same wire with another for a few months enables one to form -judgments of that other's generosity or narrowness, serenity or -excitability, industry or laziness, refinement or boorishness, -kindliness of heart or otherwise, which are quite sure to be -correct judgments. Judgments ripen into attachments, and romances -of the wire are common. - -At the railroad station next larger in size, the work is more -divided. One man sells tickets, another attends to the freight -office, another to the baggage, and so on. The ticket-seller must -make five-cent bargains with the same urbanity that is given to a -$100 trade, and must be able to toss off the latter in two minutes -if occasion requires, or to spend an hour in helping the passenger -choose the best route among a score of possible ones. The fusillade -of questions that must be met by the ticket-seller every time he -opens his window is familiar to everyone who has ever watched a -place of the kind for ten minutes. The inexperienced traveller -wants to be fully posted as to the exact hour of departure of a -tri-weekly stage with which he is to connect at a railroad station -a thousand miles away, and the more intelligent ones demand an -oral time-table covering the trains for the ensuing week on all -railroads within a radius of 50 miles. Those who cannot read or -understand the time-tables are too modest to ask aid, and their -misfortune is disclosed only after their train has gone and they -are found in tears; while those who can read the table ignore it -and ask questions simply to be sociable. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: The Trials of a Baggage-master.] - -[Illustration: Station Gardening.] - -The station baggage-master has an important but rather thankless -place. He must handle 200-pound trunks with as much ease as though -they contained feathers, and, if he break a moulding off one, -must meet the reproaches of the owner, who imagines that the time -available for handling the trunk was five minutes instead of two -seconds. He must handle much dirty and otherwise unpleasant stuff, -and on the whole pursue a very unpoetic life. He has little to -do with train-handling, but he "keeps in with" the trainmen and -furnishes them with a share of their entertainment. They lounge -in his room sometimes and he keeps on tap a supply of jokes such -as that about the new brakeman who sent to headquarters for a -supply of red oil for his red lantern, and the engineer who lost -time with an excursion train on the Fourth of July because the -extremely hot weather had elongated the rails and thus materially -increased the distance to be travelled over. When "hot boxes" -(friction-heated axles) are given as the cause of a delay the -real cause of which is concealed (by the conductor who is ashamed -of it), the baggage-master gently punctures the deception by -suggesting that perhaps a hot _fire_-box (in the engine) is what -is meant. Whether the roguish clerk of an inexperienced general -manager, who slyly induced his chief to issue an order to station -agents directing that "all freight cars standing for any length of -time on side tracks must be occasionally moved a short distance in -order to prevent flattening of the wheels," had formerly been a -baggage-master, history does not state. - -[Illustration: In the Yard at Night.] - - * * * * * - -The switch-tender, whose momentary carelessness has many a -time caused terrible disaster, but whose constant faithfulness -outweighs a million-fold even that painful record, is one of the -essential figures around a station. Nothing but eternal vigilance -will suffice to keep switches always in safe position, and the -conscientious custodian of these always possible death-traps -often takes his burden of care to his pillow. The mishaps which -do occur strikingly illustrate the practical impossibility of -holding the human brain always to the highest pitch. A conductor -in New Jersey (trainmen have to set switches at many places where -no switchmen are employed) recently caused a slight collision by -misplacing a switch, and on seeing the consequences exclaimed, "I -deserve to be discharged; my mistake was inexcusable." And yet an -honest man of that type is the kind demanded for such a place. The -interlocking of switches and signals (the arrangement in a frame -of the levers moving the switches and those moving signals in such -a way that the signal which tells the engineer to come on _cannot -be given_ until the switch is actually in proper position) is one -of the notable improvements of the last twenty years, and is a -great boon to switchmen, as well as to passengers and the owners -of railroads.[36] By the aid of this apparatus and its distant -signals, connected by wire ropes, the switchman's anxieties are -reduced immeasurably. By concentrating the levers of a number of -switches in a single room one man can do the work of several, and -to the looker-on the perplexities of the position seem to have been -increased instead of diminished. But the switchman's task now is -of a different sort. Under the old plan he was constantly on guard -lest he make a mistake and throw an engine or car off the track. -Under the new, his calculations are chiefly about saving time and -facilitating the work of the trainmen. Questions of danger rarely -come up, being provided against by the perfection of the machinery. -By long familiarity with the ground and the ways of handling the -trains, the switch-tender in an "interlocking tower" is enabled to -safely conduct a score of trains through a labyrinth of switches -in the time that the novice would take to make the first move for -a single train. Without this admirable apparatus, and skilful and -experienced attendants, the business of great stations like the -Grand Central at New York would be impossible in the space allowed. - -[Illustration: A Track-walker on a Stormy Night.] - - * * * * * - -One of the habitués of every station is the section-master, who -looks after three, five, or ten miles of track and a gang of from -five to twenty-five men who keep it in repair. He is not much -seen, because he is out on the road most of the time; and his -duties are not of a kind that the reader could study, on paper, -to much advantage; but he deserves mention because his place is -a really important one. Railroad tracks cannot be made, like a -bridge, five times as strong as is necessary, and thus a large -margin be allowed for deterioration; they must be constantly -watched to see that they do not fall even a little below their -highest standard. This care-taking can be intrusted only to one who -has had long experience at the work. In violent rain-storms the -trackman must be on duty night and day and patrol the whole length -of his division to see that gravel is not washed over the track or -out from under it. Though roughly dressed and sunburnt, he is an -important personage in the eye of the engineer of a fast express -train, and if he be the least bit negligent, even to the extent of -letting a few rails get a quarter of an inch lower than they ought -to, he hears a prompt appeal from the engine-runner. The latter -could not feel the confidence necessary to guide his 50-ton giant -over the road at lightning speed with its precious human freight if -he had not a trusty trackman every few miles; and passengers who -feel like expressing gratitude for a safe railroad journey should -never forget this unseen guardian. - -A number of classes of men in the railroad service must be turned -off with a word for lack of space. The train despatcher, with -his constant burden of care, deserves a chapter. The locomotive -fireman, who has not been directly alluded to, is practically an -apprentice to the engineer, and, like apprentices in some other -callings, has a good deal of hard work to do. He generally has -longer hours than the engineer, as he has to clean a portion of -the polished brass- and iron-work of the engine. He has to throw -into the fire-box several tons of coal a day, and gets so black -that his best friends would not know him when washed up. Those who -begin young and are intelligent, and conserve their strength, are -at length promoted to be engineers. The fireman's twin brother is -the "hostler," who is employed at the larger termini to get the -iron horse out of its stable, lead it to the watering place and -feed-trough (coal-bin), and harness it to the train. - -The clerk in the freight office has almost as much variety of work -as the ticket-seller, and is by no means a mere book-keeper. The -workmen at the freight station are not common laborers. Their work -requires peculiar skill and experience, and they have diversions -worth telling of, if there were space. The men in the shops, and -those who go out with derricks and chains to pick up wrecks, are an -important class by themselves, and bridge-builders, gate-tenders, -and various others bring up the rear. - -[Illustration: A Crossing Flagman.] - -In conclusion, railroad men as a body are industrious, sober when -at work, and lively when at play, using well-trained minds, in -their sphere, and possessing capacity for a high degree of further -training. The public is not without its duty toward the million -or so of men in the railroad service. The liability to death or -maiming from accident is such a real factor in railroad men's -lives that the public, and especially shareholders in railroads, -are bound to not only uphold officers in providing every possible -appliance and regulation for safety, but to demand the introduction -of such devices. Some of the State railroad commissioners have -done and are doing noble service in this direction, and should be -vigorously supported by their constituencies. The demands of the -public, re-enforced by the exigencies of competition, have made -Sunday trains in many localities almost as common as on week-days, -so that many train and station men work seven days in the week. -In addition to this, holidays oftener increase their work than -diminish it, so that there is room for a considerable reform in -this regard. - -[Illustration: A Little Relaxation.] - -The general moral welfare of railroad men has received much -attention in late years, and affords a wide field for work by all -who will. Many railroads have co-operated with the Young Men's -Christian Association branches, started by a few of the employees, -in building and equipping reading-rooms, libraries, etc., and the -companies give many hundred dollars annually toward the support of -these resorts, which serve to keep many a young trainman away from -loafing places of a questionable character or worse. Mr. Cornelius -Vanderbilt, whose millions came largely out of the profits of the -New York Central & Hudson River Railroad, has set a good example -to other railroad millionaires in the erection of a building for -the employees of that road in New York City, whose luxuriousness -is an evidence that he loves his neighbor as himself, even if -that neighbor be a plain brakeman earning but low wages. That the -resorts provided for railroad men are appreciated is evidenced by -their records. Of the trainmen who regularly come into the Grand -Central Station in New York, 46 per cent. are members of the -Association occupying the building given by Mr. Vanderbilt, and 65 -per cent. make use of the rooms more or less regularly. Rooms in -numerous other cities also make encouraging showings. - -Railroad officers, with their great advantages for enlightenment, -owe it to themselves and their men to see that the thousands under -them have fair opportunities for rising in the world, and that the -owners of the immense corporations which stand as masters of such -vast armies fully understand their measure of responsibility in the -premises. Science and invention, machinery and improved methods, -have effected great changes in the railroad art, but the American -nation, which travels more than any other, still recognizes the -fact that faithful and efficient _men_ are an essential factor -in the prosecution of that art. People desire to deal with a -personality, and therefore wish to see the _personnel_ of the -railroad service fostered and perfected. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[33] See "Safety in Railroad Travel," page 222. - -[34] The New York elevated roads run 3,500 trains a day, each -one passing signals (likely to indicate danger) every hundred -rods, almost. Who can expect engineers never to blunder in such -innumerable operations? - -[35] Mr. Porter King, of Springfield, Mass., who has run an engine -on the Boston & Albany road for forty-five years, and who served on -the Mohawk & Hudson, the Long Island, and the New Jersey Railroads -in 1833-44, when horses were the motive power and the reverse lever -consisted of a pair of reins, ran until December, 1887, before his -engine ever killed a person. - -[36] See "Safety in Railroad Travel," page 204. - - - - -STATISTICAL RAILWAY STUDIES.[37] - -BY FLETCHER W. HEWES. - - Railway Mileage of the World--Railway Mileage of the United - States--Annual Mileage and Increase--Mileage Compared with - Area--Geographical Location of Railways--Centres of Mileage - and of Population--Railway Systems--Trunk Lines Compared: - By Mileage; Largest Receipts; Largest Net Results--Freight - Traffic--Reduction of Freight Rates--Wheat Rates--The Freight - Haul--Empty Freight Trains--Freight Profits--Passenger - Traffic--Passenger Rates--Passenger Travel--Passenger - Profits--General Considerations--Dividends--Net Earnings per - Mile and Railway Building--Ratios of Increase--Construction and - Maintenance--Employees and their Wages--Rolling Stock--Capital - Invested. - - -Although the United States was the second nation to open a line of -railway, it operates to-day nearly half the mileage of the world, -and it has so many miles of double, triple, and quadruple track -that, were the data of trackage available, such a comparison would -undoubtedly show it to more than equal all the rest of the world -combined. - -Below is given a chart comparing the mileage of the principal -railway countries. The list contains all countries having a mileage -of over ten thousand kilometers. - - Principal Railway Countries, 1887. - +-------------+-------+ - | Countries. |Kilo- | - | |meters.| - +-------------+-------+ 25,000 Kilometers - |Italy | 11,759|»» | 50,000 - |Australia | 15,297|»»» | | 75,000 - |Canada | 19,883|»»»»| | | 100,000 - |British India| 22,665|»»»»| | | | 125,000 - |Austria- | | | | | | | 150,000 - | Hungary | 24,432|»»»»| | | | | | 175,000 - |Russia | 28,517|»»»»|» | | | | | | 200,000 - |France | 31,208|»»»»|»» | | | | | | | 225,000 - |Great Britain| 31,521|»»»»|»» | | | | | | | |250,000 - |Germany | 39,785|»»»»|»»» | | | | | | | | | - |United States|241,210|»»»»|»»»»|»»»»|»»»»|»»»»|»»»»|»»»»|»»»»|»»»»|»»» | - +-------------+-------+ - -The most prominent fact is impressed by the very long line -representing the mileage of the United States. A second impressive -fact is that the United States has more than six times the mileage -of any other country. A third, that there are but five other -countries that have even a tenth as much railway. - - -RAILWAY MILEAGE OF THE UNITED STATES. - -_Total Annual Mileage and Increase._--On page 429 is given a -chart which, beginning with the 23 miles of 1830 and ending with -the 156,082 miles of 1888, delineates our ever-increasing total -mileage. It also portrays the fluctuations in the number of -miles built annually. This latter study is the more interesting, -especially during the last twenty-five years, which cover the -periods of extreme activity. - -_Mileage Compared with Area._--The shaded map on the same page -pictures the railway mileage of each State as compared with its -total area. The eleven States bearing the deepest shade (5) are -those having the larger proportions of mileage to area. Of these, -New Jersey stands first, having almost exactly one-fourth of a -mile of railroad for each square mile of land. The proportion of -total area occupied by this mileage is measured to the eye by the -accompanying diagram. - -[Illustration: Mileage to Area in New Jersey.] - -The entire square stands for one square mile of land, and the space -at the upper left-hand corner stands for that part of the square -mile which the railroad occupies, counting from fence to fence -on each side of the road. This comparison is made on the basis -of one hundred feet for the "right of way" (the width allowed in -government grants), and is useful in connection with the study of -the historical maps, especially those of 1880 and 1889, on which -the area of some of the States seems to be nearly all taken up with -roads, owing to the small scale of the maps. Iowa has the smallest -proportion of any in Group 5. The figures show her proportion to -be a little over one-seventh of a mile of road to one square mile -of area. (Nevada has the smallest proportion of all the States and -Territories, viz., a trifle over 1/117 of a mile of line to one -square mile.) - -That part of the map bearing the deepest shade shows at a glance -that an unbroken belt, averaging some two hundred miles wide, -stretching from Cape Cod to beyond the Mississippi River, is that -part of the country best supplied with railways. - -The lighter shades grouped on either side of this belt show how the -mileage grades away north and south. - - -GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF RAILWAYS. - -On pages 430 to 433 is a series of historical maps showing the -location of railway lines at each census-year from 1830 to 1880, -and in 1889. Charts comparing and ranking the mileage by States -accompany the maps of 1870, 1880, and 1889. These maps and charts -give a better idea of the location and extent of progress than -could be given by a dozen pages of description and a hundred -columns of figures. - -_Centre of Mileage and of Population._--The space for notes on the -maps permits the bare mention of the meaning of the series of stars -in the 1889 map (page 433), which mark the centres of mileage and -of population. It is well to state the manner of determining the -centres of mileage, that it may have its proper bearing in any -study of the subject into which the showing may enter. - -The locations are necessarily approximate. Each centre was -determined by selecting, on the proper map, a line running east and -west which seemed, to the eye, to nearly divide the mileage into -equal parts. The sum of the mileage of the States north, was then -compared with that of the States south of the line. By this means -the position of the line chosen by the eye was corrected and the -right parallel determined. The meridian dividing the total mileage -into equal parts was ascertained in like manner. The point of -intersection of the parallel and meridian is marked in the map by a -star, having the proper date printed to the right of it. - -The upper series of stars locates the centres of railway mileage, -and the lower series the centres of population, as given by the -returns of the census of 1880. - -The following table describes the several locations thus -ascertained: - -_Centres of Railway Mileage._ - - -----+----------+----------+-------------------------------------------- - Date.| Latitude.|Longitude.| Approximate location by towns. - -----+----------+----------+-------------------------------------------- - 1840 |40° 50′ N.|76° 10′ W.|Twenty miles west of Mauch Chunk, Pa. - 1850 |41° 30′ N.|77° 27′ W.|Twenty-five miles northwest of Williamsport, - | | | Lycoming County, Pa. - 1860 |40° 40′ N.|82° 30′ W.|Ten miles south of Mansfield, O. - 1870 |41° 10′ N.|84° 35′ W.|Paulding, Paulding County, O. - 1880 |41° 05′ N.|86° 50′ W.|Thirty miles northwest of Logansport, Ind. - 1888 |39° 50′ N.|88° 40′ W.|Pontiac, Ill., about ninety miles S. S. W. - | | | of Chicago. - -----+----------+----------+-------------------------------------------- - -The remarkable movement of the centre of mileage from 1850 to -1860 is easily understood when one turns to the maps of those -dates (page 430) and locates the fields of activity. The wonderful -increase in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa gave the -Western impulse, while the growth in Tennessee and the States south -of it furnishes the principal explanation of the southerly motion. - -Although the study of this period is the most interesting of the -series, in the space passed over, yet each period has its points of -special interest, which the reader will easily solve by referring -to the proper maps on pages 430 to 433. - -_Railway Systems._--The consolidation of separate lines under -central controlling interests has resulted in several "systems" of -great extent. Five such are mapped on pages 434 and 435. The roads -controlled by them are printed in broad lines, while all others -are printed in narrow lines. It needs but a glance to see whether -any of them has so far absorbed the roads of a given region as to -be able to control rates. The systems selected are believed to be -representative ones, and the mapping of a dozen others would not -tell the story any more plainly. - - -TRUNK LINES COMPARED. - -_Compared by Mileage._--At present there are twenty-four -corporations reporting over one thousand miles of line each. A -comparison of these roads by mileage is profitless, as it furnishes -no just clew to their importance in point of business transacted. -Several of the shorter of these twenty-four lines largely exceed -some of the longer ones in the volume of business transacted. As -an example of the little value of comparison by mileage, the New -York Central & Hudson River Road, with but 1,421 miles of line, -reports $63,132,920 receipts, while the Union Pacific, with 6,288 -miles, reports but $19,898,817. Two of the twenty-four roads, viz., -the Southern Pacific Railroad (5,931 miles) and the Richmond, West -Point & Terminal Railroad (6,869 miles) report neither gross or net -earnings. The remaining twenty-two report both, and these reports -furnish a satisfactory basis for study. - - -[Illustration: Railway Mileage of the United States. - - Compared with Area, 1888. - - =Explanatory.=--The horizontal black lines below interpret the - right-hand column of figures, and therefore picture the annual - total mileage of railways operated.--The color below interprets - the left-hand column, and therefore pictures the fluctuations in - the number of miles built annually. - - The =Key= explains the shades on the map. The lightest shade - indicates an average of less than one-fiftieth of a mile of - railway for each square mile of land. The second shade, from - one-fiftieth to one-twentieth of a mile of railway, for each - square mile of land, etc. - - KEY TO SHADES - ON THE MAP. - - Less than 1/50 m. to 1 sq. m. =1= - 1/50 m. - 1/20 m. " " " " =2= - 1/20 m. - 1/15 m. " " " " =3= - 1/15 m. - 1/8 m. " " " " =4= - 1/8 m. and over, per " " =5= ] - - Total and Increase. - - +------+------------------+ - | | Miles. | - | Years+--------+---------+ - | | Built | Operated| - +------+--------+---------+ - | 1830 | -- | 23 | - | 1831 | 72 | 95 | - | 1832 | 134 | 229 | - | 1833 | 151 | 380 | - | 1834 | 253 | 633 | - | 1835 | 465 | 1,098 | - | 1836 | 175 | 1,273 | - | 1837 | 224 | 1,497 | - | 1838 | 416 | 1,913 | - | 1839 | 389 | 2,302 | - | 1840 | 516 | 2,818 | - | 1841 | 717 | 3,535 | - | 1842 | 491 | 4,026 | - | 1843 | 159 | 4,185 | - | 1844 | 192 | 4,377 | - | 1845 | 256 | 4,633 | - | 1846 | 297 | 4,930 | - | 1847 | 668 | 5,598 | - | 1848 | 398 | 5,996 | - | 1849 | 1,369 | 7,365 | - | 1850 | 1,656 | 9,021 | - | 1851 | 1,961 | 10,982 | - | 1852 | 1,926 | 12,908 | - | 1853 | 2,452 | 15,360 | - | 1854 | 1,360 | 16,720 | - | 1855 | 1,654 | 18,374 | - | 1856 | 3,642 | 22,016 | - | 1857 | 2,487 | 24,503 | - | 1858 | 2,465 | 26,963 | - | 1859 | 1,821 | 28,789 | - | 1860 | 1,846 | 30,635 | - | 1861 | 651 | 31,286 | - | 1862 | 834 | 32,120 | - | 1863 | 1,050 | 33,170 | - | 1864 | 738 | 33,908 | - | 1865 | 1,177 | 35,085 | - | 1866 | 1,716 | 36,801 | - | 1867 | 2,249 | 39,250 | - | 1868 | 2,979 | 42,229 | - | 1869 | 4,615 | 46,844 | - | 1870 | 6,070 | 52,914 | - | 1871 | 7,379 | 60,293 | - | 1872 | 5,878 | 66,171 | - | 1873 | 4,097 | 70,268 | - | 1874 | 2,117 | 72,385 | - | 1875 | 1,711 | 74,096 | - | 1876 | 2,712 | 76,808 | - | 1877 | 2,280 | 79,088 | - | 1878 | 2,679 | 81,767 | - | 1879 | 4,817 | 86,584 | - | 1880 | 6,712 | 93,296 | - | 1881 | 9,847 | 103,143 | - | 1882 | 11,569 | 114,712 | - | 1883 | 6,743 | 121,455 | - | 1884 | 3,924 | 125,379 | - | 1885 | 2,930 | 128,309 | - | 1886 | 8,100 | 136,409 | - | 1887 | 12,872 | 149,281 | - | 1888 | 6,801 | 156,082 | - +------+--------+---------+ - - -[Illustration: Railways in the United States, 1830-1860. - -(From Scribner's Statistical Atlas.) - - =Note.=--These maps are reductions of larger maps referred to - in the titles. This makes it possible to bring them within - very convenient space for comparison, and compensates for any - indistinctness of lettering in the maps. - - The railways of 1830 are pointed out by red arrows. Those of the - other maps are easily seen. The growth by decades is thus quickly - located. In 1840, one continuous line stretched from New York - to Washington, D. C. Another considerable line was that from - Fredericksburg, Va., to Wilmington, N. C. In 1850, one could not - go by direct railway from New York to either Albany or Boston. In - 1860, several direct routes stretched from New York to far west - of the Mississippi. - - _=Note.=_--In 1860 there was also in California, a railway from - Sacramento to Folsom City (22 miles).] - - -[Illustration: Railways in the United States. 1870 - -(From Scribner's Statistical Atlas.) - - Railway Mileage by States, 1870. - - +----+--------+-------+ - |Rank| State | Miles | - +----+--------+-------+ - | 41 | Dak. | 65 |» - | 40 | R.I. | 136 |» - | 39 | Colo. | 157 |»» - | 38 | Oreg. | 159 |»» - | 37 | Del. | 197 |»» - | 36 | Ark. | 256 |»»» - | 35 | Utah | 257 |»»» - | 34 | W. Va. | 387 |»»»» 1,000 Miles - | 33 | Fla. | 446 |»»»» | - | 32 | La. | 450 |»»»» | - | 31 | Wyo. | 459 |»»»» | - | 30 | Nev. | 593 |»»»»» | - | 29 | Vt. | 614 |»»»»» | - | 28 | *Md. | 671 |»»»»»» | - | 27 | Nebr. | 705 |»»»»»»» | - | 26 | Tex. | 711 |»»»»»»» | 2,000 - | 25 | N.H. | 736 |»»»»»»» | | - | 24 | Conn. | 742 |»»»»»»» | | - | 23 | Me. | 786 |»»»»»»» | | 3,000 - | 22 | Cal. | 925 |»»»»»»»»| | | - | 21 | Miss. | 990 |»»»»»»»»| | | - | 20 | Ky. | 1,017 |»»»»»»»»| | | - | 19 | Minn. | 1,092 |»»»»»»»»|» | | - | 18 | N.J. | 1,125 |»»»»»»»»|» | | 4,000 - | 17 | S.C. | 1,139 |»»»»»»»»|» | | | - | 16 | Ala. | 1,157 |»»»»»»»»|»» | | | - | 15 | N.C. | 1,178 |»»»»»»»»|»» | | | - | 14 | Mass. | 1,480 |»»»»»»»»|»»» | | | 5,000 - | 13 | Va. | 1,488 |»»»»»»»»|»»»» | | | | - | 12 | Tenn. | 1,492 |»»»»»»»»|»»»» | | | | - | 11 | Kans. | 1,501 |»»»»»»»»|»»»» | | | | - | 10 | Wis. | 1,525 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»» | | | | - | 9 | Mich. | 1,638 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»» | | | | - | 8 | Ga. | 1,845 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»» | | | | - | 7 | Mo. | 2,000 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»» | | | | - | 6 | Iowa | 2,683 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»» | | | - | 5 | Ind. | 3,177 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»» | | - | 4 | Ohio | 3,538 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»» | | - | 3 | N.Y. | 3,924 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»» | | - | 2 | Pa. | 4,658 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»» | - | 1 | Ill. | 4,823 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»» | - +----+--------+-------+ | | | | | - - * Includes District of Columbia. - - In 1850 Chicago had one short road. In 1860 she had several main - lines, reaching hundreds of miles.--east, west, north, and south. - In 1850, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois were open fields. In 1860 - they were crossed and recrossed many times A similar change had - taken place in the south east. The 1860 map marks the condition - at the breaking out of the Civil War.--In 1870 there does not - appear to have been much change except in the north-west, and the - completion of the first Pacific line, and yet there were 22,296 - more miles than in 1860, nearly 700 miles more than the 1850-1860 - growth, but being spread over a wider area it does not appear - as clearly. A little careful study shows that many States had - added considerably to their mileage.--The names in the maps are - given mainly to mark terminal points.--While the map locates the - mileage, the chart at the left accurately measures and compares - it State by State. - - Before turning to the 1880 map, let the eye go carefully over the - 1870 lines, that the comparison may be the more properly made.] - - -[Illustration: Railways in the United States. 1880 - -(From Scribner's Statistical Atlas.) - - Railway Mileage by States, 1880. - - +----+-------+-------+ - |Rank| State | Miles | - +----+-------+-------+ - | 47 | Mont. | 106 |» - | 46 | Ida. | 206 |» - | 45 | R.I. | 210 |» - | 44 | Del. | 275 |»» - | 43 | Wash. | 289 |»» - | 42 | I. T. | 289 |»» - | 41 | Ariz. | 349 |»» - | 40 | Oreg. | 508 |»»» - | 39 | Wyo. | 512 |»»» - | 38 | Fla. | 518 |»»» - | 37 | La. | 652 |»»»» - | 36 | W. Va.| 691 |»»»» - | 35 | Nev. | 739 |»»»» - | 34 | N.Mex.| 758 |»»»» - | 33 | Utah | 842 |»»»»» - | 32 | Ark. | 859 |»»»»» - | 31 | Vt. | 914 |»»»»» - | 30 | Conn. | 923 |»»»»» - | 29 | Me. | 1,005 |»»»»»» - | 28 | N.H. | 1,015 |»»»»»» 2,000 Miles - | 27 |*Md. | 1,040 |»»»»»» | - | 26 | Miss. | 1,127 |»»»»»» | - | 25 | Dak. | 1,225 |»»»»»» | - | 24 | S.C. | 1,427 |»»»»»»» | - | 23 | N.C. | 1,486 |»»»»»»» | - | 22 | Ky. | 1,530 |»»»»»»» | - | 21 | Colo. | 1,570 |»»»»»»» | - | 20 | N.J. | 1,684 |»»»»»»»» | - | 19 | Tenn. | 1,843 |»»»»»»»» | - | 18 | Ala. | 1,843 |»»»»»»»» | - | 17 | Va. | 1,893 |»»»»»»»»»| - | 16 | Mass. | 1,915 |»»»»»»»»»| 4,000 - | 15 | Nebr. | 1,953 |»»»»»»»»»| | - | 14 | Cal. | 2,195 |»»»»»»»»»|» | - | 13 | Ga. | 2,459 |»»»»»»»»»|»» | - | 12 | Minn. | 3,151 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»» | - | 11 | Wis. | 3,155 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»» | - | 10 | Tex. | 3,244 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»» | - | 9 | Kans. | 3,400 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»» | - | 8 | Mich. | 3,938 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»| 6,000 - | 7 | Mo. | 3,965 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»| | - | 6 | Ind. | 4,373 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»» | 8,000 - | 5 | Iowa | 5,400 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»» | | - | 4 | Ohio | 5,792 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»» | | 10,000 - | 3 | N.Y. | 5,991 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»» | | | - | 2 | Pa. | 6,191 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|» | | - | 1 | Ill. | 7,851 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»» | | - +----+-------+-------+ | | | | | - - * Includes District of Columbia. - - It is difficult to believe that so many roads could have been - added in ten years. All the 1870 area north of the Ohio River - seems crowded at nearly every point, and the network of advance - westward, in the States of Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas, - Nebraska, and Dakota, is equally surprising. The growth in Texas - was also very large, and many new lines appear in other Southern - States. The total increase of the ten years was over forty - thousand miles (40,374). - - It would not seem possible that this rate of building could be - longer maintained, and yet the 1889 map shows a still greater - growth. At the close of 1888 (only eight years), the increase was - 62,785 miles.] - - -[Illustration: Railways in the United States, 1889 - -(From the "Scribner-Black Atlas of the World.") - - Railway Mileage by States, - Dec. 31, 1888. - - +----+-------+-------+ - |R'k |States | Miles | - +----+-------+-------+ - | 48 | D.C. | 21 |» - | 47 | R.I. | 214 |»» - | 46 | Del. | 315 |»»» - | 45 | Ida. | 868 |»»»» - | 44 | Wyo. | 902 |»»»» - | 43 | Nev. | 948 |»»»»» - | 42 | Vt. | 959 |»»»»» - | 41 | I. T. | 973 |»»»»» - | 40 | Conn. | 1,006 |»»»»» - | 39 | N.H. | l,079 |»»»»» - | 38 | Ariz. | 1,095 |»»»»» - | 37 | Utah | 1,133 |»»»»»» - | 38 | Md. | 1,162 |»»»»»» - | 35 | W. Va.| 1,281 |»»»»»»» 2,000 Miles - | 34 | Wash. | 1,319 |»»»»»»» | - | 33 | Me. | 1,321 |»»»»»»» | - | 32 | N.Mex.| 1,321 |»»»»»»» | - | 31 | Oreg. | 1,412 |»»»»»»» | - | 30 | La. | 1,505 |»»»»»»» | - | 29 | Mont. | 1,804 |»»»»»»»» | - | 28 | N.J. | 1,981 |»»»»»»»»»| - | 27 | Ark. | 2,046 |»»»»»»»»»|» - | 26 | Mass. | 2,074 |»»»»»»»»»|» - | 25 | N.C. | 2,084 |»»»»»»»»»|» - | 24 | Miss. | 2,218 |»»»»»»»»»|»» - | 23 | Fla. | 2,250 |»»»»»»»»»|»» - | 22 | Tenn. | 2,488 |»»»»»»»»»|»»» 4,000 - | 21 | N.C. | 2,529 |»»»»»»»»»|»»» | - | 20 | Ky. | 2,585 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»» | - | 19 | Va. | 2,931 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»» | - | 18 | Ala. | 2,986 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»» | - | 17 | Ga. | 3,928 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»| - | 16 | Colo. | 4,038 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»| - | 15 | Cal. | 4,128 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|» - | 14 | Dak. | 4,465 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»» 6,000 - | 13 | Nebr. | 4,980 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»» | - | 12 | Wis. | 5,330 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»» | - | 11 | Minn. | 5,375 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»» | - | 10 | Ind. | 5,890 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»» | - | 9 | Mo. | 5,901 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»| - | 8 | Mich. | 6,490 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»» 8,000 - | 7 | N.Y. | 7,598 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»» | - | 6 | Ohio | 7,636 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»» | - | 5 | Tex. | 8,211 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|» 10,000 - | 4 | Pa. | 8,225 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|» | - | 3 | Iowa | 8,365 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»» | - | 2 | Kans. | 8,755 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»» | - | 1 | Ill. | 9,901 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»| - +----+-------+-------+ | | | | | - - The figures in the two charts show that four States alone claim - more than one-fourth of the growth (Kansas, 5,354; Texas, - 4,967; Dakota, 8,240 and Nebraska, 3,207 miles; total, 16,768 - miles.) Six other States (Iowa, Mich., Col., Minn., Wis., and - Penn.) had each an increase of over 2,000 miles.--The charts - give Illinois the longest line from 1870, but the position of - Texas in the three charts seems to prophesy that Illinois must - soon yield. In 1860, Ohio led; in 1850, New York, and in 1840, - Pennsylvania.--The upper series of stars in the 1880 map locate - the center of railway mileage. See page 427, preceding.] - - -[Illustration: Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul System, 1889.] - -[Illustration: Chicago, Burlington and Quincy System, 1889.] - -[Illustration: Chicago and Northwestern System, 1889.] - -[Illustration: Pennsylvania System, 1889.] - -[Illustration: Vanderbilt System, 1889.] - - -[Illustration: Largest Receipts, 1888. - -(See page 437, following) - - +--+----------------+-----------+ - |R.| Corporation | Receipts | $10M - +--+----------------+-----------+ | - |15|Ill. Cent. |$13,660,245|»»»»»»|»» - |14|Mich. Cent. | 13,770,593|»»»»»»|»» $20M - |13|A. T. & St. F. | 15,612.913|»»»»»»|»»» | - |12|N. Pacific | 15,846,328|»»»»»»|»»» | - |11|L. & N. | 17,122,026|»»»»»»|»»»» | $30M - |10|L. S. & M. S. | 18,029,627|»»»»»»|»»»»» | | - | 9|U. Pacif. | 19,898,817|»»»»»»|»»»»»»| | - | 8|B. & O. | 20,353,492|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|» | $40M - | 7|C. B. & Q. | 23,789,168|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»» | | - | 6|C. M. & St. P. | 24,867,730|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»» | | - | 5|C. & N. W. | 26,697,559|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»» | | $50M - | 4|N. Y. L. E. & W.| 27,217,990|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»» | | | - | 3|N. Y. C. & H. R.| 36,139,920|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»» | | - | 2|Penn. W. of P. | 37,894,370|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»» | | - | 1|Penn. E. of P. | 58,172,078|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»» - +--+----------------+-----------+ - - -Largest Net Results, 1888. - -(See page 437, following) - - +--+----------------+-----+ - |R.| Corporation |Net %| 10% 20% 30% - +--+----------------+-----+ | | | - |15|N. Y. C. & H. R.|31.85|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»» - |14|Penn. E. of P. |33.39|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»» - |13|D. & R. G. |33.43|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»» - |12|A. T. & St. F. |33.47|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»» - |11|N. Y. L. E. & W.|33.85|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»» - |10|Ill. Cent. |34.41|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»» - | 9|C. R. I. & P. |35.29|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»» - | 8|E. T. V. & G. |36.06|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»» - | 7|L. & N. |36.11|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»» 40% - | 6|L. S. & M. S. |37.27|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»» | - | 5|C. & N. W. |37.56|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»» | - | 4|U. Pacif. |40.80|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|» - | 3|N. Pacif. |41.52|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»» - | 2|St. L. & San F. |41.88|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»» - | 1|St. P. M. & M. |46.08|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»» - +--+----------------+-----+ -] - - -[Illustration: AVERAGE CHARGE PER MILE FOR EACH TON OF FREIGHT -HAULED. - - TRUNK LINES. 1870--1889 - Chicago and Northwestern - Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul - Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific - =Av. of 6 Lines West of Chicago= - Chicago, Burlington and Quincy - Illinois Central - Chicago and Alton - Boston and Albany - Michigan Central - New York Central - =Av. of 7 Lines East of Chicago= - Pennsylvania - Lake Shore and Michigan Southern - New York, Lake Erie and Western - Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago - - =Explanatory.=--The upper edge of the deep shade marks the - fluctuations of the average rate charged by the seven lines - east of Chicago.--The upper edge of the light shade marks the - fluctuations of the average rate charged by the six lines west - of Chicago.--Each particular road has a distinctive line, which - makes it easy to trace it among other lines.--All Western lines - are accompanied by lines of color, to distinguish them plainly - from the Eastern lines, and to make their relation to their own - average more easily discovered. The Boston and Albany is the only - Eastern line whose rate places it near the Western lines, but the - absence of color prevents it from being taken for a Western line, - which it might otherwise be, especially during the last three - years, in its journey through and above them all.--The C. B. & - Q. Road makes no report later than 1879.--The Chicago and Alton - report begins at 1874. - - =Explanatory.=--The diagram upon which the rates are charted - (like all such diagrams) is constructed of perpendicular and - horizontal lines. Each line, and each space between lines, has - a particular meaning. The perpendicular spaces represent years, - indicated by the figures at the top of each space. The horizontal - spaces represent money values, each space representing .2c (two - mills). Each horizontal line represents a particular money value, - marked by the figures at the end of the line. Each black dot - represents the average annual rate of some particular road. For - example, take the Boston and Albany Road. Starting with the name - and following the tracing line, the 1870 dot is found just below - the 2.2c (2 cents and 2 mills) line. This indicates that the - average rate charged by that road in 1870 was a trifle less than - 2.2c. Following the line leading from the 1870 dot into the 1871 - space, the 1871 dot is found a little below the center of the - space between the 2c line and the 2.2c line, indicating a rate of - a little less than 2 cents and 1 mill for 1871. The next year it - is lower still. In this way the history of any road is quickly - traced.] - -_Largest Receipts._--A comparison on the basis of gross receipts -gives the best means of judging of the financial importance of the -several roads, for it measures the volume of business done. On -page 435 is given such a comparison of the fifteen roads (of the -twenty-two referred to above) reporting the largest gross receipts. - -_Largest Net Results._--While the gross receipts measure the volume -of business they may not give any indication of net results. A -chart, immediately under that comparing gross receipts, compares -the net receipts of the fifteen roads (of the same twenty-two) -which report the highest per centages. - -Of the ten reporting largest net results, seven are west of -Chicago. This fact, coupled with the desire of the great western -systems to possess new territory in advance of others, suggests a -reason for the large railway growth in that part of the country. - - -FREIGHT TRAFFIC. - -The gross traffic receipts of the railways of the United States are -divided between freight and passenger business in very nearly the -proportion of three to one in favor of the freight traffic. For -this reason, and because the data are still more largely available -on the same side, the freight service receives herein the fuller -treatment. - -_Reduction of Freight Rates._--On the opposite page is a chart -delineating the fluctuations in freight rates since 1870. To one -not familiar with the subject the picture presented is a most -remarkable one. It looks as though the roads are all in a mad -scramble to see which can reach the bottom of the hill first. To -railway managers the picture is a painful reminder of a serious -struggle, the end of which no one can yet predict. - -The lines selected are representative lines of the east and west -divisions of the country, north of the Ohio River, where the great -number of competing roads has induced sharp competition. - -The history of the _averages_ is very clear, and it is easy to see -that they are steadily approaching common ground, for while in 1870 -the eastern average marked almost exactly one cent six mills, the -western marked two cents four mills, a separation of eight mills; -in 1888 they recorded seven mills and a trifle over nine mills, a -separation of about one-quarter of the 1870 record. - -_Wheat Rates._--The chart below repeats the lesson of the larger -chart as to reduction of rates. The persistency with which water -rates have kept below rail rates, emphasizes the fact that wherever -water-ways exist, they are stubborn competitors for such freight -traffic as will not suffer by the longer time required for the -journey. - -[Illustration: Average Freight Rates per Bushel of Wheat from -Chicago to New York.] - -_The Freight Haul._--It costs as much to load and unload a train -that hauls its freight ten miles as it does one that carries it a -thousand miles. In other words, the longer the haul the less the -proportional cost to the carriers. The great extension of long -lines westward in the last few years naturally raises the question -whether the average freight haul has increased. The largely -diminished rates suggest that probably producers have been led -thereby to ship both agricultural and manufactured products greater -distances to market. One or both of these conditions may have -operated favorably for some roads, but, plausible as the theories -seem, the facts prove that neither of them is supported in a study -of the average haul of the country. The available figures permit us -to go back only to 1882. Within that period the little chart given -herewith delineates the fluctuations, but indicates no permanency -in either direction. It is a matter of regret that in this, as in -many other studies, the history is not available for earlier years, -as the more extended the view the better the judgment of such -questions becomes. - -[Illustration: Average Number of Miles each Ton of Freight was -Hauled.] - -_Empty Freight Trains._--One of the considerable items of expense -in the freight traffic is that of returning empty cars to their -point of starting. Just how large an item this is depends chiefly -upon the demands of the population at either end of the operating -line for the product of the population at the opposite end. Thus -the carriage of the great agricultural product of the West to -feed the denser population of the East, and for export to foreign -countries, may or may not be met by the demand of the western -people for the manufactures of the East and the imports from -foreign countries arriving at the eastern seaboard. It is scarcely -probable that any line, short or long, running east and west or -north and south, finds its traffic in opposite directions balanced. - -[Illustration: Percentage of East-Bound and West-Bound Freight -carried by the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway Co.] - -An interesting study of this problem is presented in the -accompanying chart, the road selected for the illustration being -one of the large carriers between Chicago and Buffalo. The upper -chart-line marks the proportion of freight carried from west to -east, while the lower line (at the top of the shaded part of the -diagram) marks the portion carried from east to west. It is readily -seen that in 1877 the west-bound freight was less than half as -much as the east-bound, for they stand 30.8 per cent, and 69.2 per -cent., respectively; and in 1878 the difference is still greater. -From that year, however, there has been great improvement, so that -now it would appear that there is on that road a much diminished -need for hauling empty cars. The history of the Pennsylvania Road -is similar to that shown in the chart, but the ratios have not come -so nearly together. That of the New York Central & Hudson River -Road shows very little change in the ratios since 1870, and all -the time both these roads report a very large excess of east-bound -freight. - -[Illustration: Profit per Ton per Mile.] - -_Freight Profits._--The change in rates are of great moment to the -producer; that of profits is the important one to the carrier. -No matter how great the reduction of rates, if the reduction of -expense is as great, the profits are not disturbed. This question -can be studied best by examining the figures which measure the -actual profits. But few corporations furnish such figures, and the -two whose history is delineated on the accompanying chart are among -those giving the most readily available data. It will be seen that -the reduction of profits is no less remarkable than the reduction -of rates, which shows that the reduction of rates has far exceeded -that of expense of carriage; for, had the reduction of expenses -kept pace with that of rates, the profits would have remained -level. As it is, the reduction of profits in the history of these -roads, as shown, is from about six mills per ton per mile in 1870, -to about two mills in 1888. These two roads are probably good -representatives of the experience of the general freight service -of all railways north of the Ohio River. If so, the prospect of the -future of freight traffic is not cheerful. - - -PASSENGER TRAFFIC. - -The study of passenger traffic is less satisfactory than that of -freight traffic. Fewer lines furnish a history of their passenger -rates, and ordinarily those histories cover shorter periods. The -study is therefore confined to narrower limits and its lessons are -necessarily less conclusive. - -[Illustration: Passenger Rates per Mile.] - -_Passenger Rates._--Below is given a chart interpreting the -available data of six representative lines. The first lesson -impressed is that no such reduction marks the history of passenger -rates as is shown in freight rates, although the general trend -of the chart-lines is plainly downward. The line indicating the -average rate for all the roads in the country (marked U. S. in the -chart) shows a reduction of over one-fourth of a cent per passenger -per mile since 1882. - -Certain features of this chart attract special attention. The -reduction of rates by the Pennsylvania, and the New York Central & -Hudson River roads in 1876, and that by the same roads in 1885, are -suggestive. Equally noticeable are the reductions of the Illinois -Central in 1871, 1872, 1880, and 1888. - -This chart would seem to indicate that competition has not operated -as sharply on passenger as on freight traffic. - -_Passenger Travel._--The average distance that passengers ride is -not as important an element of railway business as is the average -freight haul, for the passengers load and unload themselves; so -that, whether they ride few or many miles, the cost of loading and -unloading is neither increased nor diminished. On the contrary, -if a thousand tons of freight, once loaded, is to be hauled one -hundred miles instead of fifty, the proportional cost of loading -and unloading is reduced one-half. - -[Illustration: Average Number of Miles each Passenger was Carried.] - -Still, the average distance passengers ride is important; for, -if the number of passengers remains the same and their ride is -shorter, the receipts are diminished. The returns show that while -the number of passengers has increased since 1882 about fifty-six -per cent., the total miles travelled have not increased quite fifty -per cent., marking a falling off in the average number of miles -each passenger rode. The reduction is graphically shown in the -little chart given herewith. This result is no doubt largely due to -the great increase of suburban travel which has developed about our -large cities within the past few years. - -It is necessary to state, however, that the figures embraced in -this study do not include the traffic of the elevated roads of New -York and Brooklyn. - -_Passenger Profits._--Again a marked difference between freight and -passenger traffic appears in comparing the chart given below with -the corresponding chart on page 440. - -[Illustration: Profit per Passenger per Mile.] - -The study covers the history of the same roads in each case. The -history of freight profits shows a persistent falling off, which -in the nineteen years amounts to four mills per ton per mile, a -loss of two-thirds of the six mills of 1870. The history delineated -on this chart shows the average profit of the two roads to be -almost exactly at the same point that it was in 1870, while the -profits for most of the intervening years have been much greater. - -Were this the record of the freight traffic, it would be much more -gratifying to the managers of the roads, for the New York Central -& Hudson River Railway receives about twice as much, and the -Pennsylvania Railway receives four times as much, from freights as -from passengers. Attention is invited to the opposite results of -the same policy on these two roads in 1876. The chart of passenger -rates on page 441 marks a decided reduction of rates by the -Pennsylvania Road, and a slight reduction by the New York Central & -Hudson River Road. The chart of profits records an increase for the -former and a decrease for the latter. This year (1876) is the date -of the Centennial World's Fair at Philadelphia. The Pennsylvania -Road had an enormous increase of passenger traffic (double that -of the following year), a record which it did not equal until -1887. The New York Central & Hudson River Road had but a slightly -increased traffic, the record of which it passed in 1881. - - -GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. - -_Dividends._--While many readers are probably not holders of -railway stocks, yet a look at the dividends received by those who -are will not be without interest. The little chart given below -tells an interesting, although a not over-attractive story. - -[Illustration: Average Dividend Paid on Total Capital Stock.] - -It shows that, comparing the aggregate of all the railroad stocks -of the country with the aggregate of all dividends paid, the -holders of stock realized an average of 3.03% on their investment -in 1876. In 1878 it had fallen to less than 2½%. From that date to -1885 the record makes a curve ending just above 2%. A slight rally -is indicated for 1886 and 1887, but 1888 carries it down to 1.81%. -The stock of many roads has paid no dividend whatever these later -years, and the lines whose stock proves a good investment at par -are very few. - -[Illustration: Net Earnings and Mileage Built.] - -_Net Earnings per Mile._--Although the studies of the financial -question already made undoubtedly point out the true drift of -railway business, yet one more comparison is worth making, both -for its bearing on the question of profits and the study of the -influence of profits on railway building. The upper one of the -two charts given herewith is the record of net earnings per mile -of road in operation, and is based on the reported net earnings -less the interest-charge. It therefore shows the average number of -dollars each mile had earned, after paying all expenses and the -interest on its debt. This money, then, is the clear amount each -mile could apply each year to pay the principal of its debt and the -dividends on its capital stock, or to use for improvements, such as -rolling stock, stations, better road-bed, new rails, or any other -betterments which might seem advisable. - -In 1876 this sum was $1,264; in 1880 it was $1,798, since which -time it has suffered a serious decline, until in 1888 it was only -$650. It is the story of the previous studies repeated, and needs -no further reiteration. - -_Railway Building._--The larger chart given on page 429, gives the -history of railway building from 1831 to 1888. The lower chart of -the two given together on page 444, repeats the annual record from -1876, for the purpose of studying the influence of profits on the -progress of building. The net earnings per mile show a reduction -in 1877. The following year shows an increase of earnings, and the -building responded somewhat feebly the same year. The next two -years (1879 and 1880) show great gains in net earnings, and the -impetus given thereby to building, carries its increase steadily -forward even two years beyond the turning-point of the earnings. -The decline is then mutual to 1885. In 1886 the advance in earnings -was responded to by such a remarkable increase in building that -the stimulus is to be sought for partly outside of the increase -of earnings, and is undoubtedly found in the desire to occupy the -newly opening fields of western settlement; for the records mark -unparalleled activity among the great trunk lines of the West in -pushing their advances in Dakota, Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado, -in 1886 and 1887. This is graphically shown in the map of 1889, -when compared with that of 1880 (pages 432 and 433). - -_Ratios of Increase._--It is difficult to obtain a just impression -of values when expressed by figures alone. It is easy when these -values are expressed in lines or colors. The greater difficulties -come in the effort to compare values expressed in differing terms. -To read that the increase of population was 23,400,000 from 1870 -to 1888; and that of railway mileage was 62,785 miles; and that of -freight traffic was nearly 30,000,000,000 tons, in the same period, -and then to attempt the comparison of increase without further aid, -is a hopeless task. - -As a study of financial economy the comparison is worth making, -for evidence of the over-development of an industry or a financial -interest, rightly considered, may prevent suicidal development. -The chart given on the next page makes the comparison easy. The -actual increase in each instance is reduced to percentages, and -the several chart-lines measure the progress. The increase of -population is estimated on the basis of 62,000,000 persons in 1888. -(So far as the lesson conveyed by the chart is concerned, the -estimate might as well have been 60,000,000, the variation in the -location of the line would be trifling.) - -It appears, then, that railway mileage has increased nearly -two hundred per cent. and that the rate of increase of freight -traffic (as measured by ton-miles[38]) has been enormously larger, -considering the history of the thirteen trunk lines as indicative -of the whole. It further appears that the freight traffic of the -West has developed much more rapidly than that of the East, during -the last eight years. - -[Illustration: Ratios of Increase.] - -_Construction and Maintenance._--The tabulated statistics of these -subjects are not of special interest, as the annual variation of -cost is slight. In both these elements the wage-question is so -large a factor that a comparative level is maintained from year -to year. The available figures touching these subjects are few. -The first table on the opposite page gives the average cost of -construction per mile of the _total mileage of the country_; and -the cost of maintenance per mile as reported by the New York, -Lake Erie & Western Road. The second table furnishes interesting -_details_ of the cost of maintenance. - - -_Construction and Maintenance for Ten Years._ - - ------+----------------------+-------------------- - Years.| Cost of construction | Cost of maintenance - | per mile. | per mile. - ------+----------------------+-------------------- - 1879 | $57,730 | $1,671 - 1880 | 58,624 | 1,371 - 1881 | 60,645 | 1,448 - 1882 | 61,303 | 1,335 - 1883 | 61,800 | 1,533 - 1884 | 61,400 | 1,281 - 1885 | 61,400 | 1,082 - 1886 | 61,098 | 1,496 - 1887 | 58,603 | 1,533 - 1888 | 60,732 | 1,226 - ------+----------------------+-------------------- - -_Comparative Statement of Maintenance of Way of the Illinois -Central Road for Ten Years._ - - [Table--Part 1 of 2] - -----+--------+----------------------------------------------------+ - | Miles | MAINTENANCE OF WAY. | - Year.|of road +----------+---------------------+-------------------+ - | at end | Labor on | New rails. | Cross-ties. | - |of year.| track. | | | - -----+--------+----------+---------------------+-------------------+ - | | $ | Tons. $ |Number. $ | - 1879 |1,286.72|297,363.40| 9,276.00 125,062.70|264,520 93,107.51| - 1880 |1,320.35|343,982.23| 9,767.49 215,365.32|260,116 93,330.32| - 1881 |1,320.35|411,018.91|10,098.47 169,718.80|345,260 127,279.76| - 1882 |1,908.65|690,112.59| 8,438.00 128,521.48|604,096 201,648.26| - 1883 |1,927.99|742,476.20| 8,191.79 183,239.65|425,627 153,739.00| - 1884 |2,066.35|706,751.86| 6,342.73 93,446.25|462,665 154,083.19| - 1885 |2,066.35|749,254.19| 8,747.31 87,331.95|508,756 176,835.69| - 1886 |2,149.07|705.553.82| 6,376.40 63,238.84|492,524 174,515.72| - 1887 |2,355.12|760,093.33| 6,092.66 79,917.84|573,898 197.989.47| - 1888 |2,552.55|847,806.67| 8,172.36 106,372.94|654,141 214,130.73| - -----+--------+----------+---------------------+-------------------+ - - [Table--Part 2 of 2] - -----+----------------------------------+--------+----------+------------ - | MAINTENANCE OF WAY. |Expense | |Repairs of - Year.+----------+-----------------------+per mile|Repair of |station - | Repair of| Other | Total. |run by | fences. |building and - | bridges. | items. | |engines.| |water-works. - -----+----------+----------+------------+--------+----------+------------ - | $ | $ | $ | Cents. | $ | $ - 1879 | 73,119.56|125,041.92| 640,575.53| 11.73 |$33,416.86| 45,755.09 - 1880 |105,551.62| 49,399.09| 807,628.58| 12.39 | 36,981.94| 80,887.34 - 1881 |114,193.18| 30,399.46| 852,610.11| 12.16 | 36,690.33| 70,699.58 - 1882 |174,826.24| 17,277.34|1,212,385.91| 11.87 | 31,032.57| 87,588.26 - 1883 |121,101.03| 72,294.71|1,272,850.59| 11.89 | 30,084.49| 87,291.93 - 1884 |173,831.23|107,236.13|1,235,348.66| 12.20 | 21,394.71| 94,122.03 - 1885 |164,586.39| 88,126.28|1,266,134.50| 11.27 | 21,932.48| 94,518.19 - 1886 |172,144.65| 63,976.69|1,179,429.72| 10.15 | 26,668.91| 123,519.83 - 1887 |250,337.47| 61,441.88|1,349.779.99| 9.95 | 31,905.46| 129,526.76 - 1888 |310,908.42|115,898.04|1,595,116.80| 10.74 | 40,423.39| 170,023.85 - -----+----------+----------+------------+--------+----------+------------ - -_Employees._--This item is also one touching which railways make -few reports. The New York Central & Hudson River Road reports as -follows: "Average number of employees, 20,659, being at the rate of -14.54 per mile of road worked; aggregate wages, $12,460,708.89, -or $603.16 each. Payments in wages equalled 50.60 per cent. of -the total working expenses, against 51.90 per cent. in 1886-87." -Reckoning that each employee's wages supports an average of three -persons, we have a total of 61,977 persons clothed, housed, and fed -by this one corporation. - -"Poor's Manual" discusses this subject at some length, but mainly -on theoretical ground. - -_Rolling Stock._--A table showing the history of the growth of the -rolling stock of the country is given on page 148; it is therefore -unnecessary to repeat it here. - -_Capital Invested._--It is folly for the human mind to attempt to -grasp the immensity of the financial interest expressed in the -statement, that the combined capital invested in the railways of -the United States is $9,369,398,954. No more can it comprehend that -this vast aggregate has been the growth of about fifty years in a -single interest, in a single country. - -_Capital Invested._ - - ------+---------------- - Year. | Capital. - ------+---------------- - 1876 | $4,468,592,000 - 1877 | 5,106,202,000 - 1878 | 4,772,297,000 - 1879 | 4,872,017,000 - 1880 | 5,402,038,000 - 1881 | 6,278,565,000 - 1882 | 7,016,750,000 - 1883 | 7,477,866,000 - 1884 | 7,676,399,000 - 1885 | 7,842,533,000 - 1886 | 8,163,149,000 - 1887 | 8,673,187,000 - 1888 | 9,369,399,000 - ------+---------------- - -The first date in the table marks the close of the first century -of our national life. Since that time the investment has more than -doubled; an increase of nearly five billion dollars in twelve -years--an average of over four hundred million dollars per year. -More exactly expressed, this means $1,118,906 per day, or $46,621 -for every hour, day and night, during the first twelve years of our -second century. - -It is safe to say that no other financial interest shows a total of -such wonderful magnitude. And with greater emphasis may it be said, -that the finances of the world, record, in all the ages, to the -present day, no such astounding increase of investment. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[37] Data drawn from "Poor's Manual of Railroads," 1889, and the -"Statistical Abstract of the United States," 1888, and carefully -revised, form, in large part, the basis of the several studies; and -the writer hereby expresses obligation to Mr. John P. Meany, editor -of the "Manual," for kindly aid in his work. - -[38] A ton-mile means a ton of freight hauled one mile; ten -ton-miles, a ton of freight hauled ten miles, or two tons hauled -five miles. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Accidents, chances of, 191 - at crossings, 408 - from coupling cars, 223, 392 - investigation of, 399 - to railway bridges, 26 - South Norwalk, 221 - statistics of, 260 - to trainmen, 393 - to trains, origin of, 167 - - Adams, Charles Francis, 104, 367 - - Air-brake, 193, 195 - - Allen, Horatio, 2, 4, 102 - - Arbitration between railways and their employees, 376, 381 - - Armstrong, Colonel G. G., 316 - - Atkinson, Edward, 43 - - Auditor's duties, 180, 183 - - - Baggage-check system, 253 - - Baggage-master, work of, 416 - - Baggage service, abuses in, 179 - - Baggage transportation, 253 - - Baldwin Locomotive Works, 132 - - Ballast of a railway, 37 - - Baltimore & Ohio, the, 103 - cars, 139 - early passenger-trains, 230 - in 1830, 101 - - Bangs, George S., 317 - - Bell-cord train-signal, 237 - - Bessemer, Sir Henry, 37 - - Bessemer steel, invention of, 37 - - Blaine, James G., 323 - - Blair, Montgomery, 317 - - Block-signal, automatic, 215 - system, 168, 213 - - Boilers, construction of, 114 - - Bonds and stock, relative position of, 354 - - Brake, air-, 193, 195 - advantages of air-, 387 - improvements suggested to air-, 199 - American, 202 - and coupler, 237 - Beals, 202 - chain, 193 - continuous, 195 - early forms of, 192 - electric, 194 - hand, 193; - perils of, 387; - how to manage, 388 - hydraulic, 193 - steam driver-, 192 - trials at Burlington, 200 - vacuum, 193, 195 - water, 202 - Westinghouse air-, 193, 195 - - Brakemen, characteristics of, 384 - duties of, 394 - life, agreeable and disagreeable features of, 386, 389 - passenger-train, advantages of, 396 - pleasures of, 394 - wit of, the result of meditation, 385 - - Bridges, railway, accidents to, 26 - American iron, 28 - American, development of, 27; - length of, 24, 26 - American wooden, 27 - and culverts, how built, 22 - Bismarck, 86 - Britannia, 79 - builders, 423 - cantilever, 33, 88 - connecting two tunnels, 55 - connections, types of, 85 - foundations by crib or open caisson, 75 - - Bridges, foundations by pneumatic caisson, 69 - foundations, how made, 32, 67 - foundations under water, 67 - gangs, work of, 155 - great, over cañons and valleys, 55 - guard-rails and frogs for, 221 - Hawkesbury River, 32 - Howe truss, 27 - how to build safe, 31 - Kentucky River, 34, 55, 88 - Kinzua, 30 - Lachine, 92 - masonry arch, 76 - Niagara cantilever, 34, 90 - Portage, 78 - Poughkeepsie, 32, 34 - steel truss, development of, 85 - strength of, 29 - St. Louis, 93 - trusses, types of, 86 - tubular, 80 - typical American truss, 86 - Verrugas, 55 - Victoria, 80 - Washington, over Harlem River, 77, 94 - wooden, 78 - wood, stone, and iron, 25, 26 - - Bridgers, R. R., 340 - - Bridgewater, Duke of, 345 - - Broken trains, dangers of, 388 - - Burr & Wernwag, 27 - - - Caissons for bridge foundations, how made, 32, 69 - open, 75 - pneumatic, 69 - - Camden & Amboy locomotives, 106 - - Cameron, Simon, prediction of, 232 - - Campbell, Henry R., 109 - - Cantilever bridges, 33, 88 - - Capital invested in railways, 344, 448 - - Car-accountant, and the transportation department, 275 - office of, 271 - - Car-accounting, benefits of a good system, 280 - - Car-builders' dictionary, 147 - - Car-couplers, imperfections of, 140 - need of uniformity in, 141 - - Car-coupling, accidents from, 223, 392 - - Cars, American and English, 7 - American, evolution of, 139 - Baltimore & Ohio freight-, 139 - different kinds of, 146 - old, discomforts of, 234 - distribution of, 171, 279 - empty, distribution of, 279 - first American passenger-, 139 - first sleeping-, 140 - for special uses, 289 - freight-, wanderings of a, 267 - heating by gas, 226 - heating by steam, 226 - heating, methods of, 245 - lighting safely, 226 - mileage and records, 158 - mileage charges, 273 - Mohawk & Hudson passenger-, 139 - number of, in the United States, 148 - records of movement, 171 - service charges, per diem plan, 29 - service of, payment for, 293 - service records and reports, 276 - tracers for, 279 - trucks, 7; - invention of, 108 - use and abuse of, 281 - - Car-wheels, European, 144 - how made, 142 - paper, 145 - - Cassatt, A. J., 340 - - Check system for baggage, 253 - - Chief engineer, duties of, 154 - - Chimbote Railway in the Andes, 50, 53 - - Civil service reform in the mail service, 340 - - Classifications of freight, 176 - - Clerks, railway, 422 - - Coffer-dam foundations for bridges, 67 - - Commissions to passenger agents, 179 - - Competing points and pools, 364 - - Concentration of power, 351 - - Conducting transportation, 159 - - Conductors, freight, trials of, 398 - heroism of, 411 - passenger, 408 - - Consolidation, effects of, 351 - tendency to, 346 - - Construction companies, 355 - - Contractors, railway, work of, 21 - - Conveniences at stations, 259 - - Cooley, Judge Thomas M., 368 - - Cooper, Peter, 104, 231 - - Council, proposed railway, 380 - - Couplers and brakes, 237 - imperfections of, 140 - uniform automatic, 223 - - Coupling cars, accidents from, 223, 392 - - Coupon tickets, 254 - misunderstood, 254 - - Cox, S. S., 323 - - Cranes, large travelling, in locomotive shops, 132 - - Crib foundations for bridge piers, 75 - - Crises of 1873 and 1885, effects of, 356 - - Crossings, accidents at, 408 - protection for, 216 - - Cullom, Senator S. M., 368 - - Culverts, building of, 22 - log, 25 - masonry, 76 - on American railways, 24, 26 - - Curves, American and European railway, 8 - least, 8 - - Cutting, largest ever made, 56 - - Cylinders, locomotive, construction of, 117 - - - Darwin, Erasmus, 2 - - Davis & Gartner, 106 - - Davis, Phineas, 106 - - Davis, W. A., 317 - - Death and accident provisions for postal clerks, 343 - - Delays in a long journey, 267 - - Delaware & Hudson Canal Company, 101 - - Demurrage charges, 296 - - Derailing switches, use of, 207 - - Derailments of trains, causes of, 218 - - Destructive force of a locomotive at high speed, 187 - - Detector-bar for switches, 205 - - Differentials, 175 - - Dining-cars, introduction of, 243 - - Discipline necessary on a railway, 377 - - Distribution of cars, 171, 279 - - Dividends, average, on railway stock, 443 - - Drawbridge accidents, 221 - - Driving-wheels, large and small, 128 - - - Eads, Captain James B., 64, 93 - - Eames vacuum brake, 195 - - Eccentric, operation of, 118 - - Educational institutions for railway employees, 379 - - Electric annunciator for signals, 209 - - Electric lights for cars, 226 - - Electricity applied to brakes, 194 - - Elevated Railroad, New York, 97 - - Employees, railway, benefit funds, 378 - permanent and temporary, 375 - promotion of, 376 - number of, in the United States, 43, 370 - permanency of service during good behavior, 376 - relations of, to the railway, 357 - representative system for, 380 - rights and privileges of permanent, 376 - to have a voice in management, 379 - wages of, 448 - - Engineer, the, as a public benefactor, 46 - civil, qualifications of, 15 - responsibilities and duties of, 98 - - Engineering, good, true test of, 60 - - Ericsson, John, 2 - - - Facing and trailing point switches, 219 - - Facing-point locks, 205 - - Fast freight lines, 287 - - Fast mail service, appropriations for, 337 - - Fast mail train, trip with, 323 - - Fast runs, remarkable instances, 404 - - Fast time on railways, conditions of, 128 - - Field & Hayes, 34 - - Fink, Albert, 365 - - Fisk, James, Jr., 353 - - Flagging trains, 390 - - Foot-guard for frogs, 222 - - Foreign cars, theory and practice in their use, 279 - - Foster, Rastrick & Company, 102 - - Free-pass system, 362 - - Freight-car wanderings, 267 - classifications and rates, 176 - conductor and his trials, 398 - department, organization of, 282 - engines, saving fuel on, 402 - empty trains of, 439 - handlers at stations, 423 - movement, accidents in, 293; - cost of delays in, 293 - - Freight profits, 440 - rates, reduction of, 358, 438 - traffic, 437; - how handled, 180 - - Freight trains, air-brakes for, 200 - transportation, needs of the service, 297 - - Fuel, saving, on freight-engines, 402 - - - Garrett, John W., 351 - - Gate-tenders on the railway, 423 - - General Freight Agent, 172 - - General Manager, duties of, 154 - - General Passenger Agent, 172 - - Geographical location of railways in the United States, 427 - - Goold, James, 139 - - Grades, limit of, 8 - - Grand Central Station interlocking signals, 208 - - Grand River cañon, 54 - - Granger movement, 363 - - Guard-rails and frogs for bridges, 221 - - - Hamlin, Hannibal, 323 - - Hampson, John, 231 - - Harrison, Joseph, Jr., 4 - - Hawkesbury River bridge, 32 - - Heater-cars, Eastman, 289 - - Heating cars, 245 - - Highway crossing accidents, 216 - crossing gates, 217 - - Holley, Alexander L., 37 - - Hoosac Tunnel, 63 - - Hospital funds for railway employees, 378 - - Hotel-cars, 244 - - Howe truss bridges, 27 - - - Immigrant sleeping-cars, 251 - - Inclined planes for overcoming elevations, 58 - - Injectors, principle of, 116 - - Insurance funds for railway employees, 378 - - Interchange of cars, methods of, 272 - - Interlocking bolts, uses of, 221 - signals and switches, 204 - - Interstate commerce law, 173, 368 - Commerce Commission and its work, 368 - - Investigation of accidents, 399 - - Investors and managers, relations of, 357 - difficult position of, 354 - - Irregular hours of work, 399 - - - Jameson, John, 317, 323, 342 - - Janney car-coupler, 237 - - Jervis, John B., 4, 107 - - Johnson, R. P., 339 - - Judgment, value of, in a locomotive-runner, 407 - - Junction-cards and car-reports, 278 - - - Kentucky River cantilever bridge, 34, 55, 88 - - King, Porter, 408 - - Kinzua Bridge, 30 - - - Lachine Bridge, 92 - - Latimer, Charles, 221 - - Latrobe, Benjamin H., 8 - - Layng, J. D., 319 - - Legal department of a railway, duties of, 152 - - Lighting cars, safe methods, 226 - - Lincoln, Abraham, in the first sleeping-car, 240 - - Link motion for locomotive valves, 119 - - Location, approximate, 15 - final, 18 - how governed, 16 - in old and new countries, 17 - importance of, 15 - - Locomotives, ability to climb grades, 8 - American type, origin of, 109 - Baltimore & Ohio "grasshopper," 106 - boiler construction, 115 - cab, what is in it, 131 - capacity to draw loads, 120 - consolidation, 122 - cost of running, 307 - cylinders, how supplied with steam, 117 - decapod, 122 - destructive force of, at high speed, 187 - "DeWitt Clinton," 105 - driving-wheels, how made, 142 - earliest American, 2 - early eight-wheeled, 105 - engineer, the duties and qualifications of, 137; - peculiarities of, 134; - duties and dangers of, 400; - spirit of fraternity of, 408 - English type of, 3 - equalizing levers, 4 - fireman, 422 - first trial of, in America, 103 - fuel, 303; - consumption, 135 - hostler, 422 - how to start and stop, 120 - "John Bull," 106 - Mogul, 122 - number of, in the United States, 148 - Peter Cooper's, 104 - prize offered for, by the Baltimore & Ohio, 105 - pumps and injectors, 116 - "Rocket," 1 - running, systems of, 134; - cost of, 158, 159 - running gear, adjustment of, 114; - flexible, 113 - shops, 132 - size, weight, and price, 126 - speed, law of, 127 - suburban traffic, 124 - ten-wheeled, 122 - trials, Liverpool & Manchester Railway, 2, 3 - truck, invention of, 4, 107 - types of, 109 - valve motion, 118 - - London Underground Railway, 97 - - "Long and short haul," 173 - - - Mail service, railway, civil service reform in, 340 - - Mail train, fast, 317 - - Managers and investors, relations of, 357 - - Masonry arch bridges, 76 - - Massachusetts Railroad Commission and traffic questions, 367 - - Master Car Builders' Association brake-trials, 200 - type of car-coupler, 223 - - Master car-builder's duties, 158 - - Master mechanic's work, 157 - - Master of transportation, duties of, 159, 171 - - Mexican Central Railway, 56 - - Mileage balances, reduction of, 273 - - Miller coupler and buffer, 237 - - Miller, Ezra, 237 - - Milling in transit, 175 - - Model railway service, 375 - - Mohawk & Hudson passenger-cars, 139 - - Mont Cenis Tunnel, 63 - - Moral standard on the railway, improvement in, 384 - - Mount Washington Railway, 58 - - Mountain climbing by rack railways, 58 - railways, 49 - - - National regulation of railways, 367 - - Newell, John, 340 - - New York Elevated Railways, 97 - - Niagara cantilever bridge, 34, 90 - suspension bridge, 81 - - Nochistongo cut, 56 - - - Operating department of a railway, importance of, 373 - - Oroya Railway in the Andes, 50, 53 - - Outram, Benjamin, 345 - - - Paper car-wheels, 145 - - Passenger advertisement, first, 229 - brakeman, 396 - burned in wrecks, 225 - cars, early, 231; - English and American, 232; - first American, 139; - manufacture of, 252; - Mohawk & Hudson, 139 - conductor, 408 - fares, comparative rates, 265 - profits, 442 - rates and commissions, 17 - tickets, old, 236 - traffic, 442 - trains, first, 228; - early American, 230; - making time on, 403 - travel, 362; - amount of, 264; - safety of, in England and America, 260; - speed of, 249 - - Pay-car, trip of the, 309 - - Pay, increase of, for faithful service, 378 - - Paymaster's work, 308 - - Parallel roads, 356 - - Pensions for railway employees, 378 - - Pennsylvania Railroad shops at Altoona, 132 - maintenance of track, 41 - system, 371 - - Permanent service of a railway, 375 - - Pile-driver, work of a, 22 - - Pile foundations for bridges, 68 - - Plant, H. B., 340 - - Pneumatic caissons for bridge foundations, 69 - interlocking apparatus, 210 - - Pœtsch method of building foundations for bridge piers, 32 - - Pooling rates, 184 - - Pools and competing points, 364 - railway, origin and nature of, 364 - - Pope, Thomas, 33 - - Portage Bridge, 78 - - Postal cars, 325 - first used, 316 - provision against accident in, 338 - - Postal clerks, accidents to, 338 - - Postal progress, object lesson in, 312 - - Postal service, early history, 313 - - Potter, Thomas J., 412 - - Poughkeepsie cantilever bridge, 32, 34 - - Predecessors of the railway, 101 - - Premiums to section-men, 41 - - Promotion of employees, 376 - - Pullman, George M., 239 - Palace Car Company, 242 - sleeper, first, 241 - - Purchasing agent's varied duties and experience, 300 - - - Rails, development of, 47 - increased weight of, 122 - iron, first used, 1, 37 - joints for, 37 - steel, first introduction, 37 - supply and renewal of, 306 - weight which they will carry, 121 - - Railroading fifty years ago, 100 - - Railways, American, key to the development of, 3; - rolling stock of, 148; - and English, essential differences, 10 - amount of capital invested in, 344 - and their employees, nature of relations, 374 - and democracy, 45 - and their customers, 358 - beginning of, 345 - building, cost of, 43; - example of rapid, 44; - history of, 445 - competition of, 174; - with canals, 347 - consolidation, 174, 346 - council, proposed, 380 - division of expenses on, 359 - earnings, average net, per mile, 444 - earliest, 1; - in America, 103 - early systems of management, 346 - economic view of, 45 - educational institutions, 379 - employees, permanent and temporary, 375; - general characteristics of, 423; - moral welfare of, 423; - a typical, 383; - wages of, 448 - growth of, 346 - income, sources of, 180 - influence on the world, 149 - mail first carried on, 314 - mail service, growth of, 314; - importance of, 323; - needs of, 341; - organization of, 323; - party injury to, 341 - management, development of, 150; - in Europe, 184; - organization and division of authority, 151; - results expected from, 184; - special departments of, 372; - stability of, 184; - subdivisions of, 372 - men's building in New York, 424 - mileage, comparative, of the principal countries, 425; - of the United States, 426 - national idea developed by, 348 - national regulation, 367 - officers' duties and responsibilities, 151 - organization analyzed, 185; - complex, 183; - growth of, 371 - personnel, importance of, 424 - place in the modern industrial system, 344 - postal clerks' dangers, 337; - just claims, 343; - need of provision against disability, 339; - work, 334 - relations of, to their employees, 357 - shop-men, 423 - State ownership of, 362 - statistics of, 425 - systems, 428 - the largest single industrial interest, 370 - United States, extent of, 43 - "wars" between, 361 - - Randall, Samuel J., 323 - - Rates and rebates, 173 - causes of reduction, 358 - combinations and adjustments, 176 - forced reductions, 363 - how made and regulated, 176 - inequalities of, 359 - passenger, and commissions, 178 - plans for regulating, 362 - special, wars over, 177 - without a natural standard, 360 - - Reagan, John H., 368 - - Reconnoissance, 13 - - Refrigerator cars, 289 - - Representation for railway employees, 380 - - Restriction of railways, tendency to, 369 - - Ride on a locomotive at night, 188 - - Righi Railway, 59 - - Road-bed of a railway, how made, 21 - - Roadway department of a railway, 154 - - Roberts, George B., 340 - - Roebling, John A., 82 - - Rolling stock, growth of, 448 - - Routine of the railway mail service, 325 - - Rutter, J. H., 340 - - - Safety appliances, railway, 191 - devices needed, 423 - - St. Gothard Tunnel and spirals, 63 - - St. Louis Bridge, 64, 93 - - Schneider, C. C., 34 - - Scott, Thomas Alexander, 319, 349 - - Scrap-heap, value of, 302 - - Section-master's duties, 421 - - Section-men's work, 156 - - Semaphore signals, 203 - - Shepard, General D. C., 44 - - Signals and switches, interlocking, 168, 204 - automatic block, 215 - block system, 168, 213 - semaphore, 203 - torpedo, 213 - - Sleeping-car rates, comparative, 266 - - Sleeping-cars, first experiments, 239 - immigrant, 251 - Pullman, 239, 242 - - Smith, Colonel C. Shaler, 34, 88 - - Snow-sheds and fences, 18 - - South American mountain-railways, 50 - - South Carolina Railway, 104 - early passenger trains, 231 - - Special rates, 177, 361 - - Spoils system, how it works in the railway mail service, 342 - - Spreading of rails, 220 - - State ownership of railways, 362 - - State regulation of railways, 362, 363 - - Station agent's duties, 411 - - Station indicators, 259 - - Station, large, work at, 415 - small, work at, 411 - - Stationery and blanks, quantity used on a railway, 304 - - Statistics, railway, 425 - - Steam driver-brake, 192 - how distributed to the cylinders, 117 - shovel, work of, 21 - supply and speed, relations of, 129 - - Steel bridges, 29 - - Steel rails, first introduction, 37 - - Steel truss-bridges, development of, 85 - - Stephenson, George, 1, 2, 3, 228, 346 - Robert, 1, 2, 3, 79, 192 - - Stock and bonds, relative position, 354 - - Storekeeper's duties on a railway, 307 - - Stockton & Darlington passenger train, 228 - - "Stourbridge Lion," 102 - - Strikes, evils of, 374 - - Superintendent, duties of, 274 - of machinery, powers and duties, 157 - - Supply department, 298 - importance of, 311 - - Supplies, aggregate of, on a railway, 299 - variety required for a railway, 301 - - Surveying party, life of, 13 - from a rope ladder, 50 - - Surveys, preliminary, 13 - - Suspension bridges, 81 - - Switchbacks and loops, 8; - types of, 9, 10 - - Switches, interlocking, 420 - stub, accidents caused by, 218 - - Switch-tender's work, 420 - - - Telegraph in railroading, 238 - - Thompson, William B., 317, 322, 342 - - Thomson, Frank, 43, 340 - - Thomson, J. Edgar, 349 - - Through and local freight, 288 - - Through lines, growth of, 348 - - Tickets, cost of, on a railway, 305 - coupon, 254 - old, 236 - sales and reports, 182 - - Ties and timber supplies, 306 - - Time, fast, instances of, 404 - making, on passenger trains, 403 - - Time-tables, cost of, 305 - earliest American, 235 - how made, 160 - - Torpedo signals, 213 - - Track, early experiments with, 36, 37 - how laid, 36 - how maintained and kept in order, 38 - inspection on the Pennsylvania Railroad, 41 - laid on stone, 36 - standards of excellence, 41 - - Trackmen's duties, 38 - organization and officers, 41 - - Track-walker's duties and trials, 422 - - Trade centres, advantages of, 360 - - Traffic, how influenced and secured, 172 - manager, duties of, 172 - questions and the Massachusetts Railroad Commission, 367 - receipts, how returned and accounted for, 182 - - Train despatcher and his work, 163, 422 - - Train despatching, 162 - old and new, 187 - - Train orders and rules, 164 - - Train signals, bell-cord and other, 237 - - Train work, irregularity of, 399 - - Trainmen, accidents to, 393 - and tramps, 386 - - Trains, rules for running, 162 - - Tramways, Roman, of stone, 1 - - Transfer freight stations, 288 - - Transportation, cost of, 43 - conducting, 159 - department and the car-accountant, 275 - - Trestles, wooden, 78 - - Trevithick, Richard, 2 - - Tribunal, proposed, for adjusting differences between railways and - their employees, 376 - - Trucks for cars, 7, 108 - for locomotives, 4, 107, 109 - - Trunk lines compared, 428 - - Trunk-line pool, origin and history, 365 - - Truss-bridge, typical American, 86 - - Tubular bridges, 80 - - Tunnels, 59 - American, 23 - connected by a bridge, 55 - difficulties of construction, 62 - great, 62 - how avoided, 23 - located by triangulation, 53 - Mont Cenis, 63 - St. Gothard, 63 - - - Underground Railway, London, 97 - - Union Pacific Railway system, extent of, 370 - - - Vacuum-brake, 193, 195 - - Vail, Theodore N., 317, 322 - - Valleys, how crossed by a railway, 49 - - Valve-motion arrangements, 118 - - Vanderbilt business methods, 351 - - Vanderbilt, Commodore, 318, 340 - - Vanderbilt, Cornelius, 350, 424 - - Vanderbilt, William H., 318, 340 - - Verrugas Viaduct, 55 - - Vestibule train, luxury of, 248 - as a safety device, 224 - - Viaducts, American metal, 79 - - Victoria Bridge, 80 - - - Waddell, A., 323 - - Wagner Palace Car Company, 242 - - Wagon cars, 290 - - War, the late, effect of, on railway growth, 348 - - Washington Bridge over the Harlem River, 77, 94 - - Waste and saving in supplies, 302 - - Water-jet method of sinking piles, 68 - - Watt, James, 1 - - Way-bill and its theory, 181 - - Westinghouse air-brake, 195, 196 - - Westinghouse, George, Jr., 200, 237 - - West Point Foundry as a locomotive shop, 104 - - Whipple, Squire, 28 - - Winans, Ross, 7, 108 - - - Yardmaster's duties, 283 - - Young Men's Christian Association, Railway Department, 424 - - - - - TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE - - Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. - - Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=. - - A superscript is denoted by ^x for example 12^1. - - Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been - corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within - the text and consultation of external sources. - - Basic fractions are displayed as ½ ¼ ¾; other fraction are shown in - the form a/b as 1/117 or 39-2/10 for example. - - A large dense table spanning two pages in the original book (page 158 - and 159) has been split into 4 parts, with column #1 (engine number) - being repeated in each part. The vertical column headings have been - replaced by a key, A B etc, with an explanation of the keys at the - beginning of each part. Some cell values were unclear in the scanned - image and a best guess of the digit has been made. - - Another large table at page 447 has been split into 2 parts. - - In several tables with dollar.cent values the decimal point is faint - or missing. For consistency the decimal point has been inserted in - all cases. - - Footnote #31 had no anchor; this has been added in the chapter title. - - Nine consecutive full-page illustrations placed after page 428 - have detailed maps and Gantt charts and many have large amounts of - text on them. Most of this text, and the Gantt chart information, - have been copied and placed under the illustration as part of the - caption. - - In the organization chart on page 185, it is very likely that the - Train Master and the Station Agents were all intended to report - to the Superintendant of Transportation. The missing connecting - line has been inserted using a dotted line to indicate this - insertion. - - Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, - and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. 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