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+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #54383 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/54383)
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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The American Railway, by 
-Thomas Curtis Clarke and Theodore Voorhees and John Bogart and and others
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-
-
-Title: The American Railway
-       Its Construction, Development, Management, and Appliances
-
-Author: Thomas Curtis Clarke
-        Theodore Voorhees
-        John Bogart
-        and others
-
-Release Date: March 18, 2017 [EBook #54383]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AMERICAN RAILWAY ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Chris Curnow, John Campbell and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
-file was produced from images generously made available
-by The Internet Archive)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-  TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE
-
-  Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.
-
-  Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=.
-
-  A superscript is denoted by ^x for example 12^1.
-
-  Details on minor changes can be found at the end of the book.
-
-
-
-
-THE AMERICAN RAILWAY
-
-[Illustration: THE LAST SPAN--READY TO JOIN.]
-
-
-
-
-  THE AMERICAN RAILWAY
-
-  _ITS CONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT,_
-  _MANAGEMENT, AND APPLIANCES_
-
-  BY
-
-  THOMAS CURTIS CLARKE
-  JOHN BOGART
-  M. N. FORNEY
-  E. P. ALEXANDER
-  H. G. PROUT
-  HORACE PORTER
-  THEODORE VOORHEES
-  BENJAMIN NORTON
-  ARTHUR T. HADLEY
-  THOMAS L. JAMES
-  CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS
-  B. B. ADAMS, JR.
-
-  WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY
-
-  THOMAS M. COOLEY
-
-  CHAIRMAN OF INTERSTATE COMMERCE COMMISSION
-
-
-  _WITH MORE THAN 200 ILLUSTRATIONS_
-
-
-  NEW YORK
-
-  CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
-
-  1889
-
-
-
-
-  COPYRIGHT, 1888, 1889, BY
-
-  CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
-
-
-  TROW'S
-  PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING COMPANY,
-  NEW YORK.
-
-
-
-
-CONTENTS.
-
-
-                                                                  PAGE
-  _INTRODUCTION_                                                   xxi
-
-  BY THOMAS M. COOLEY,
-  _Chairman Interstate Commerce Commission_.
-
-
-  THE BUILDING OF A RAILWAY                                          1
-
-  BY THOMAS CURTIS CLARKE,
-  _Civil Engineer_.
-
-  Roman Tramways of Stone--First Use of Iron Rails--The Modern
-  Railway created by Stephenson's "Rocket" in 1830--Early
-  American Locomotives--Key to the Evolution of the American
-  Railway--Invention of the Swivelling Truck, Equalizing Beams,
-  and the Switchback--Locating a Road--Work of the Surveying
-  Party--Making the Road-bed--How Tunnels are Avoided--More
-  than Three Thousand Bridges in the United States--Old Wooden
-  Structures--The Howe Truss--The Use of Iron--Viaducts of
-  Steel--The American System of Laying Bridge Foundations
-  under Water--Origin of the Cantilever--Laying the Track--How
-  it is Kept in Repair--Premiums for Section Bosses--Number
-  of Railway Employees in the United States--Rapid Railway
-  Construction--Radical Changes which the Railway will Effect.
-
-
-  FEATS OF RAILWAY ENGINEERING                                      47
-
-  BY JOHN BOGART,
-  _State Engineer of New York_.
-
-  Development of the Rail--Problems for the Engineer--How
-  Heights are Climbed--The Use of Trestles--Construction on a
-  Mountain Side--Engineering on Rope Ladders--Through the Portals
-  of a Cañon--Feats on the Oroya Railroad, Peru--Nochistongo
-  Cut--Rack Rails for Heavy Grades--Difficulties in Tunnel
-  Construction--Bridge Foundations--Cribs and Pneumatic
-  Caissons--How Men work under Water--The Construction of Stone
-  Arches--Wood and Iron in Bridge-building--Great Suspension
-  Bridges--The Niagara Cantilever and the enormous Forth
-  Bridge--Elevated and Underground Roads--Responsibilities of the
-  Civil Engineer.
-
-
-  AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS                                    100
-
-  BY M. N. FORNEY,
-  _Author of "The Catechism of the Locomotive," Editor "Railroad
-  and Engineering Journal," New York_.
-
-  The Baltimore & Ohio Railroad in 1830--Evolution of the Car
-  from the Conestoga Wagon--Horatio Allen's Trial Trip--The
-  First Locomotive used in the United States--Peter Cooper's
-  Race with a Gray Horse--The "De Witt Clinton," "Planet," and
-  other Early Types of Locomotives--Equalizing Levers--How Steam
-  is Made and Controlled--The Boiler, Cylinder, Injector, and
-  Valve Gear--Regulation of the Capacity of a Locomotive to
-  Draw--Increase in the Number of Driving Wheels--Modern Types of
-  Locomotives--Variation in the Rate of Speed--The Appliances by
-  which an Engine is Governed--Round-houses and Shops--Development
-  of American Cars--An Illustration from Peter Parley--The Survival
-  of Stage Coach Bodies--Adoption of the Rectangular Shape--The
-  Origin of Eight-wheeled Cars--Improvement in Car Coupling--A
-  Uniform Type Recommended--The Making of Wheels--Relative Merits
-  of Cast and Wrought Iron, and Steel--The Allen Paper Wheel--Types
-  of Cars, with Size, Weight, and Price--The Car-Builder's
-  Dictionary--Statistical.
-
-
-  RAILWAY MANAGEMENT                                               149
-
-  BY GEN. E. P. ALEXANDER,
-  _President of the Central Railroad and Banking Company of Georgia_.
-
-  Relations of Railway Management to all Other Pursuits--Developed
-  by the Necessities of a Complex Industrial Life--How a Continuous
-  Life is Given to a Corporation--Its Artificial Memory--Main
-  Divisions of Railway Management--The Executive and Legislative
-  Powers--The Purchasing and Supply Departments--Importance of
-  the Legal Department--How the Roadway is Kept in Repair--The
-  Maintenance of Rolling Stock--Schedule-making--The Handling
-  of Extra Trains--Duties of the Train-despatcher--Accidents
-  in Spite of Precautions--Daily Distribution of Cars--How
-  Business is Secured and Rates are Fixed--The Interstate
-  Commerce Law--The Questions of "Long and Short Hauls" and
-  "Differentials"--Classification of Freight--Regulation of
-  Passenger-rates--Work of Soliciting Agents--The Collection of
-  Revenue and Statistics--What is a Way-bill--How Disbursements are
-  Made--The Social and Industrial Problem which Confronts Railway
-  Corporations.
-
-
-  SAFETY IN RAILROAD TRAVEL                                        187
-
-  BY H. G. PROUT,
-  _Editor "Railroad Gazette," New York_.
-
-  The Possibilities of Destruction in the Great Speed of
-  a Locomotive--The Energy of Four Hundred Tons Moving at
-  Seventy-five Miles an Hour--A Look ahead from a Locomotive at
-  Night--Passengers Killed and Injured in One Year--Good Discipline
-  the Great Source of Safety--The Part Played by Mechanical
-  Appliances--Hand-brakes on Old Cars--How the Air-brake Works--The
-  Electric Brake--Improvements yet to be Made--Engine Driver
-  Brakes--Two Classes of Signals: those which Protect Points
-  of Danger, and those which Keep an Interval between Trains
-  on the Same Track--The Semaphore--Interlocking Signals and
-  Switches--Electric Annunciators to Indicate the Movements--The
-  Block Signal System--Protection for Crossings--Gates and
-  Gongs--How Derailment is Guarded Against--Safety Bolts--Automatic
-  Couplers--The Vestibule as a Safety Appliance--Car Heating and
-  Lighting.
-
-
-  RAILWAY PASSENGER TRAVEL                                         228
-
-  BY GEN. HORACE PORTER,
-  _Vice-President Pullman Palace-Car Company_.
-
-  The Earliest Railway Passenger Advertisement--The First
-  Time-table Published in America--The Mohawk & Hudson
-  Train--Survival of Stage-coach Terms in English Railway
-  Nomenclature--Simon Cameron's Rash Prediction--Discomforts
-  of Early Cars--Introduction of Air-brakes, Patent Buffers
-  and Couplers, the Bell-cord, and Interlocking Switches--The
-  First Sleeping-cars--Mr. Pullman's Experiments--The
-  "Pioneer"--Introduction of Parlor and Drawing-room
-  Cars--The Demand for Dining-cars--Ingenious Devices for
-  Heating Cars--Origin of Vestibule-cars--An Important Safety
-  Appliance--The Luxuries of a Limited Express--Fast Time in
-  America and England--Sleeping-cars for Immigrants--The Village
-  of Pullman--The Largest Car-works in the World--Baggage-checks
-  and Coupon Tickets--Conveniences in a Modern Depot--Statistics
-  in Regard to Accidents--Proportion of Passengers in Various
-  Classes--Comparison of Rates in the Leading Countries of the
-  World.
-
-
-  THE FREIGHT-CAR SERVICE                                          267
-
-  BY THEODORE VOORHEES,
-  _Assistant-General Superintendent, New York Central Railroad_.
-
-  Sixteen Months' Journey of a Car--Detentions by the
-  Way--Difficulties of the Car Accountant's Office--Necessities
-  of Through Freight--How a Company's Cars are Scattered--The
-  Question of Mileage--Reduction of the Balance in Favor of
-  Other Roads--Relation of the Car Accountant's Work to the
-  Transportation Department--Computation of Mileage--The Record
-  Branch--How Reports are Gathered and Compiled--Exchange of
-  "Junction Cards"--The Use of "Tracers"--Distribution of
-  Empty Cars--Control of the Movement of Freight--How Trains
-  are Made Up--Duties of the Yardmaster--The Handling of
-  Through Trains--Organization of Fast Lines--Transfer Freight
-  Houses--Special Cars for Specific Service--Disasters to Freight
-  Trains--How the Companies Suffer--Inequalities in Payment for Car
-  Service--The Per Diem Plan--A Uniform Charge for Car Rental--What
-  Reforms might be Accomplished.
-
-
-  HOW TO FEED A RAILWAY                                            298
-
-  BY BENJAMIN NORTON,
-  _Second Vice-President, Long Island Railroad Company_.
-
-  The Many Necessities of a Modern Railway--The Purchasing and
-  Supply Departments--Comparison with the Commissary Department of
-  an Army--Financial Importance--Immense Expenditures--The General
-  Storehouse--Duties of the Purchasing Agent--The Best Material the
-  Cheapest--Profits from the Scrap-heap--Old Rails Worked over into
-  New Implements--Yearly Contracts for Staple Articles--Economy
-  in Fuel--Tests by the Best Engineers and Firemen--The
-  Stationery Supply--Aggregate Annual Cost of Envelopes, Tickets,
-  and Time-tables--The Average Life of Rails--Durability of
-  Cross-ties--What it Costs per Mile to Run an Engine--The
-  Paymaster's Duties--Scenes during the Trip of a Pay-car.
-
-
-  THE RAILWAY MAIL SERVICE                                         312
-
-  BY THOMAS L. JAMES,
-  _Ex-Postmaster General_.
-
-  An Object Lesson in Postal Progress--Nearness of the Department
-  to the People--The First Travelling Post-Office in the United
-  States--Organization of the Department in 1789--Early Mail
-  Contracts--All Railroads made Post-routes--Compartments for
-  Mail Clerks in Baggage-cars--Origin of the Present System in
-  1862--Important Work of Colonel George S. Bangs--The "Fast Mail"
-  between New York and Chicago--Why it was Suspended--Resumption
-  in 1877--Present Condition of the Service--Statistics--A
-  Ride on the "Fast Mail"--Busy Scenes at the Grand Central
-  Depot--Special Uses of the Five Cars--Duties of the Clerks--How
-  the Work is Performed--Annual Appropriation for Special Mail
-  Facilities--Dangers Threatening the Railway Mail Clerk's Life--An
-  Insurance Fund Proposed--Needs of the Service--A Plea for Radical
-  Civil Service Reform.
-
-
-  THE RAILWAY IN ITS BUSINESS RELATIONS                            344
-
-  BY ARTHUR T. HADLEY,
-  _Professor of Political Science in Yale College, Author of
-  "Railroad Transportation_."
-
-  Amount of Capital Invested in Railways--Important Place in
-  the Modern Industrial System--The Duke of Bridgewater's
-  Foresight--The Growth of Half a Century--Early Methods of
-  Business Management--The Tendency toward Consolidation--How
-  the War Developed a National Idea--Its Effect on Railroad
-  Building--Thomson and Scott as Organizers--Vanderbilt's Capacity
-  for Financial Management--Garrett's Development of the Baltimore
-  & Ohio--The Concentration of Immense Power in a Few Men--Making
-  Money out of the Investors--Difficult Positions of Stockholders
-  and Bondholders--How the Finances are Manipulated by the Board
-  of Directors--Temptations to the Misuse of Power--Relations of
-  Railroads to the Public who Use Them--Inequalities in Freight
-  Rates--Undue Advantages for Large Trade Centres--Proposed
-  Remedies--Objections to Government Control--Failure of
-  Grangerism--The Origin of Pools--Their Advantages--Albert
-  Fink's Great Work--Charles Francis Adams and the Massachusetts
-  Commission--Adoption of the Interstate Commerce Law--Important
-  Influence of the Commission--Its Future Functions--Ill-judged
-  State Legislation.
-
-
-  THE PREVENTION OF RAILWAY STRIKES                                370
-
-  BY CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS,
-  _President of the Union Pacific Railroad_.
-
-  Railways the Largest Single Interest in the United
-  States--Some Impressive Statistics--Growth of a Complex
-  Organization--Five Divisions of Necessary Work--Other Special
-  Departments--Importance of the Operating Department--The Evil
-  of Strikes--To be Remedied by Thorough Organization--Not the
-  Ordinary Relation between Employer and Employee--Of what the
-  Model Railway Service Should Consist--Temporary and Permanent
-  Employees--Promotion from one Grade to the Other--Rights
-  and Privileges of the Permanent Service--Employment during
-  Good Behavior--Proposed Tribunal for Adjusting Differences
-  and Enforcing Discipline--A Regular Advance in Pay for
-  Faithful Service--A Fund for Hospital Service, Pensions, and
-  Insurance--Railroad Educational Institutions--The Employer
-  to Have a Voice in Management through a Council--A System of
-  Representation.
-
-
-  THE EVERY-DAY LIFE OF RAILROAD MEN                               383
-
-  BY B. B. ADAMS, JR.,
-  _Associate Editor, "Railroad Gazette," New York_.
-
-  The Typical Railroad Man--On the Road and at Home--Raising the
-  Moral Standard--Characteristics of the Freight Brakeman--His Wit
-  the Result of Meditation--How Slang is Originated--Agreeable
-  Features of his Life in Fine Weather--Hardships in
-  Winter--The Perils of Hand-brakes--Broken Trains--Going back
-  to Flag--Coupling Accidents--At the Spring--Advantages of
-  a Passenger Brakeman--Trials of the Freight Conductor--The
-  Investigation of Accidents--Irregular Hours of Work--The
-  Locomotive Engineer the Hero of the Rail--His Rare Qualities--The
-  Value of Quick Judgment--Calm Fidelity a Necessary Trait--Saving
-  Fuel on a Freight Engine--Making Time on a Passenger
-  Engine--Remarkable Runs--The Spirit of Fraternity among
-  Engineers--Difficult Duties of a Passenger-train Conductor--Tact
-  in Dealing with Many People--Questions to be Answered--How
-  Rough Characters are Dealt with--Heavy Responsibilities--The
-  Work of a Station Agent--Flirtation by Telegraph--The
-  Baggage-master's Hard Task--Eternal Vigilance Necessary in a
-  Switch-tender--Section-men, Train Despatchers, Firemen, and
-  Clerks--Efforts to Make the Railroad Man's Life Easier.
-
-
-  STATISTICAL RAILWAY STUDIES                                      425
-
-  ILLUSTRATED WITH THIRTEEN MAPS AND NINETEEN CHARTS.
-
-  BY FLETCHER W. HEWES,
-  _Author of "Scribner's Statistical Atlas_."
-
-  Railway Mileage of the World--Railway Mileage of the United
-  States--Annual Mileage and Increase--Mileage Compared with
-  Area--Geographical Location of Railways--Centres of Mileage
-  and of Population--Railway Systems--Trunk Lines Compared:
-  By Mileage; Largest Receipts; Largest Net Results--Freight
-  Traffic--Reduction of Freight Rates--Wheat Rates--The Freight
-  Haul--Empty Freight Trains--Freight Profits--Passenger
-  Traffic--Passenger Rates--Passenger Travel--Passenger
-  Profits--General Considerations--Dividends--Net Earnings per
-  Mile and Railway Building--Ratios of Increase--Construction and
-  Maintenance--Employees and their Wages--Rolling Stock--Capital
-  Invested.
-
-
-  _INDEX_                                                          449
-
-
-
-
-LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
-
-
-FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS.
-
-  _Title._                                   _Designer._         _Page_
-
-  THE LAST SPAN (Frontispiece)               A. B. Frost                 v
-
-  ALPINE PASS. AVOIDANCE OF A TUNNEL         _From a photograph_     5
-
-  BIG LOOP, GEORGETOWN BRANCH OF THE UNION
-    PACIFIC, COLORADO                        _From a photograph_    11
-
-  SNOW-SHEDS, SELKIRK MOUNTAINS, CANADIAN
-    PACIFIC                                  J. D. Woodward         19
-
-  RAIL MAKING                                Walter Shirlaw         39
-
-  LOOP AND GREAT TRESTLE NEAR HAGERMAN'S,
-    ON THE COLORADO MIDLAND RAILWAY          J. D. Woodward         51
-
-  PORTAL OF A TUNNEL IN PROCESS OF
-    CONSTRUCTION                             Otto Stark             65
-
-  AT WORK IN A PNEUMATIC CAISSON--FIFTY
-    FEET BELOW THE SURFACE OF THE WATER      Walter Shirlaw         73
-
-  BELOW THE BROOKLYN BRIDGE                  J. H. Twachtman        83
-
-  THE ST. LOUIS BRIDGE DURING CONSTRUCTION   M. E. Sands
-                                               & R. Blum            95
-
-  A TYPICAL AMERICAN PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVE    _From a photograph_   111
-
-  INTERIOR OF A ROUND-HOUSE                  M. J. Burns           130
-
-  VIEW IN LOCOMOTIVE ERECTING SHOP           J. D. Woodward
-                                               & R. Blum           135
-
-  DIAGRAM USED IN MAKING RAILWAY TIME-TABLES                       161
-
-  THE GENERAL DESPATCHER                     M. J. Burns           165
-
-  MANTUA JUNCTION, WEST PHILADELPHIA,
-     SHOWING A COMPLEX SYSTEM OF
-     INTERLACING TRACKS                      W. C. Fitler          169
-
-  DANGER AHEAD!                              A. B. Frost           189
-
-  INTERLOCKING APPARATUS FOR OPERATING
-     SWITCHES AND SIGNALS BY COMPRESSED
-     AIR, PITTSBURG YARDS, PENNSYLVANIA
-     RAILROAD                                _From a photograph_   211
-
-  PULLMAN VESTIBULED CARS                    _From a photograph_   247
-
-  IN A BAGGAGE-ROOM                          W. C. Broughton       255
-
-  "SHOW YOUR TICKETS!"                       Walter Shirlaw        261
-
-  FREIGHT YARDS OF THE NEW YORK CENTRAL &
-    HUDSON RIVER RAILROAD, WEST SIXTY-FIFTH
-    STREET, NEW YORK                         W. C. Fitler          285
-
-  FREIGHT FROM ALL QUARTERS--SOME TYPICAL
-  TRAINS                                     W. C. Fitler          291
-
-  AT A WAY-STATION--THE POSTMASTER'S
-    ASSISTANT                                Herbert Denman        321
-
-  TRANSFER OF MAIL AT THE GRAND CENTRAL
-     STATION, NEW YORK                       Herbert Denman        327
-
-  SORTING LETTERS IN CAR NO. 1--THE
-    FAST MAIL                                Herbert Denman        333
-
-  A BREAKDOWN ON THE ROAD                    A. B. Frost           405
-
-  IN THE WAITING ROOM OF A COUNTRY STATION   A. B. Frost           413
-
-  THE TRIALS OF A BAGGAGE-MASTER             A. B. Frost           417
-
-
-
-
-ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT.
-
-
-                                                                  PAGE
-  First Locomotive                                                   2
-
-  Locomotive of To-day                                               3
-
-  A Sharp Curve--Manhattan Elevated Railway, 110th Street,
-    New York                                                         7
-
-  A Steep Grade on a Mountain Railroad                               8
-
-  A Switchback                                                       9
-
-  Plan of Big Loop                                                  10
-
-  Profile of the Same                                               10
-
-  Engineers in Camp                                                 14
-
-  Royal Gorge Hanging Bridge, Denver and Rio Grande, Colorado       16
-
-  Veta Pass, Colorado                                               17
-
-  Sections of Snow-sheds (3 cuts)                                   18
-
-  Making an Embankment                                              21
-
-  Steam Excavator                                                   21
-
-  Building a Culvert                                                22
-
-  Building a Bridge Abutment                                        22
-
-  Rock Drill                                                        23
-
-  A Construction and Boarding Train                                 24
-
-  Bergen Tunnels, Hoboken, N. J.                                    25
-
-  Beginning a Tunnel                                                26
-
-  Old Burr Wooden Bridge                                            28
-
-  Kinzua Viaduct; Erie Railway                                      30
-
-  Kinzua Viaduct                                                    31
-
-  View of Thomas Pope's Proposed Cantilever (1810)                  34
-
-  Pope's Cantilever in Process of Erection                          35
-
-  General View of the Poughkeepsie Bridge                           36
-
-  Erection of a Cantilever                                          37
-
-  Spiking the Track                                                 38
-
-  Track Laying                                                      41
-
-  Temporary Railway Crossing the St. Lawrence on the Ice            44
-
-  View Down the Blue from Rocky Point, Denver, South Park and
-    Pacific Railroad; showing successive tiers of railway           49
-
-  Denver and Rio Grande Railway Entering the Portals of the
-    Grand River Cañon, Colorado                                     54
-
-  The Kentucky River Cantilever, on the Cincinnati Southern
-    Railway                                                         55
-
-  Truss over Ravine, and Tunnel, Oroya Railroad, Peru               56
-
-  The Nochistongo Cut, Mexican Central Railway                      57
-
-  The Mount Washington Rack Railroad                                58
-
-  Trestle on Portland and Ogdensburg Railway, Crawford Notch,
-    White Mountains                                                 58
-
-  A Series of Tunnels                                               59
-
-  Tunnel at the Foot of Mount St. Stephen, on the Canadian
-    Pacific                                                         60
-
-  Peña de Mora on the La Guayra and Carácas Railway, Venezuela      61
-
-  Perspective View of St. Gothard Spiral Tunnels, in the Alps       62
-
-  Plan of St. Gothard Spiral Tunnels                                63
-
-  Profile of the Same                                               63
-
-  Portal of a Finished Tunnel; showing Cameron's Cone, Colorado     64
-
-  Railway Pass at Rocky Point in the Rocky Mountains                67
-
-  Bridge Pier Founded on Piles                                      68
-
-  Pneumatic Caisson                                                 70
-
-  Transverse Section of Pneumatic Caisson                           71
-
-  Pier of Hawkesbury Bridge, Australia                              75
-
-  Foundation Crib of the Poughkeepsie Bridge                        76
-
-  Transverse Section of the Same                                    76
-
-  Granite Arched Approach to Harlem River Bridge in Process
-    of Construction                                                    77
-
-  The Old Portage Viaduct, Erie Railway, N. Y.                      78
-
-  The New Portage Viaduct                                           79
-
-  The Britannia Tubular Bridge over the Menai Straits,
-    North Wales                                                     80
-
-  Old Stone Towers of the Niagara Suspension Bridge                 82
-
-  The New Iron Towers of the Same                                   82
-
-  Truss Bridge of the Northern Pacific Railway over the Missouri
-    River at Bismarck, Dak.--Testing the Central Span               87
-
-  Curved Viaduct, Georgetown, Col.; the Union Pacific Crossing
-    its own Line                                                    88
-
-  The Niagara Cantilever Bridge in Progress                         90
-
-  The Niagara Cantilever Bridge Completed                           91
-
-  The Lachine Bridge, on the Canadian Pacific Railway, near
-    Montreal, Canada                                                92
-
-  The 510-feet Span Steel Arches of the New Harlem River Bridge,
-    New York, during Construction                                   97
-
-  London Underground Railway Station                                98
-
-  Conestoga Wagon and Team                                         101
-
-  Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, 1830-35                               101
-
-  Boston & Worcester Railroad, 1835                                102
-
-  Horatio Allen                                                    103
-
-  Peter Cooper's Locomotive, 1830                                  104
-
-  "South Carolina," 1831, and Plan of its Running Gear             105
-
-  The "De Witt Clinton," 1831                                      105
-
-  "Grasshopper" Locomotive                                         106
-
-  The "Planet"                                                     107
-
-  John B. Jervis's Locomotive, 1831, and Plan of its
-    Running Gear                                                   108
-
-  Campbell's Locomotive                                            109
-
-  Locomotive for Suburban Traffic                                  110
-
-  Locomotive for Street Railway                                    110
-
-  Four-wheeled Switching Locomotive                                113
-
-  Driving Wheels, Frames, Spurs, etc., of American Locomotive      114
-
-  Longitudinal Section of a Locomotive Boiler                      115
-
-  Transverse Section                                               115
-
-  Rudimentary Injector                                             116
-
-  Injector Used on Locomotives                                     117
-
-  Sections of a Locomotive Cylinder                                118
-
-  Eccentric                                                        118
-
-  Eccentric and Strap                                              118
-
-  Valve Gear                                                       119
-
-  Turning Locomotive Tires                                         121
-
-  Six-wheeled Switching Locomotive                                 122
-
-  Mogul Locomotive                                                 123
-
-  Ten-wheeled Passenger Locomotive                                 123
-
-  Consolidation Locomotive (unfinished)                            124
-
-  Consolidation Locomotive                                         124
-
-  Decapod Locomotive                                               125
-
-  "Forney" Tank Locomotive                                         126
-
-  "Hudson" Tank Locomotive                                         127
-
-  Camden & Amboy Locomotive, 1848                                  129
-
-  Cab End of a Locomotive and its Attachments                      133
-
-  Interior of Erecting Shop, showing Locomotive Lifted by
-    Travelling Crane                                               137
-
-  Forging a Locomotive Frame                                       138
-
-  Mohawk & Hudson Car, 1831                                        139
-
-  Early Car                                                        139
-
-  Early Car on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad                       140
-
-  Early American Car, 1834                                         140
-
-  Old Car for Carrying Flour on the Baltimore &
-    Ohio Railroad                                                  141
-
-  Old Car for Carrying Firewood on the Baltimore &
-    Ohio Railroad                                                  141
-
-  Old Car on the Quincy Granite Railroad                           141
-
-  Janney Car Coupler, showing the Process of Coupling              142
-
-  Mould and Flask in which Wheels are Cast                         143
-
-  Cast-iron Car Wheels                                             144
-
-  Section of the Tread and Flange of a Car Wheel                   145
-
-  Allen Paper Car Wheel                                            145
-
-  Modern Passenger-car and Frame                                   147
-
-  Snow-plough at Work                                              154
-
-  A Type of Snow-plough                                            155
-
-  A Rotary Steam Snow-shovel in Operation                          156
-
-  Railway-crossing Gate                                            157
-
-  Signal to Stop                                                   162
-
-  Signal to Move Ahead                                             162
-
-  Signal to Move Back                                              163
-
-  Signal that the Train has Parted                                 163
-
-  Entrance Gates at a Large Station                                167
-
-  Central Switch and Signal Tower                                  168
-
-  Interior of a Switch-tower, showing the Operation of
-    Interlocking Switches                                          171
-
-  Stephenson's Steam Driver-brake, patented 1833                   192
-
-  Driver-brake on Modern Locomotive                                192
-
-  English Screw-brake, on the Birmingham and Gloucester Road,
-    about 1840                                                     193
-
-  English Foot-brake on the Truck of a Great Western Coach,
-    about 1840                                                     193
-
-  Plan and Elevation of Air-brake Apparatus                        196
-
-  Dwarf Semaphores and Split Switch                                202
-
-  Semaphore Signal with Indicators                                 203
-
-  Section of Saxby & Farmer Interlocking Machine                   204
-
-  Diagram of a Double-track Junction with Interlocked
-    Switches and Signals                                           205
-
-  Split Switches with Facing-point Locks and Detector-bars         206
-
-  Derailing Switch                                                 207
-
-  Torpedo Placer                                                   213
-
-  Old Signal Tower on the Philadelphia & Reading, at
-    Phœnixville                                                    214
-
-  Crossing Gates worked by Mechanical Connection from
-    the Cabin                                                      217
-
-  Some Results of a Butting Collision--Baggage and Passenger
-    Cars Telescoped                                                218
-
-  Wreck at a Bridge                                                219
-
-  New South Norwalk Drawbridge. Rails held by Safety Bolts         220
-
-  Engines Wrecked during the Great Wabash Strike                   222
-
-  Link-and-pin Coupler                                             224
-
-  Janney Automatic Coupler applied to a Freight Car                224
-
-  Signals at Night                                                 225
-
-  Stockton & Darlington Engine and Car                             229
-
-  Mohawk & Hudson Train                                            231
-
-  English Railway Carriage, Midland Road. First and Third
-    Class and Luggage Compartments                                 232
-
-  One of the Earliest Passenger Cars Built in this Country;
-    used on the Western Railroad of Massachusetts (now the
-    Boston & Albany)                                               233
-
-  Bogie Truck                                                      233
-
-  Rail and Coach Travel in the White Mountains                     234
-
-  Old Time Table, 1843                                             235
-
-  Old Boston & Worcester Railway Ticket (about 1837)               236
-
-  Obverse and Reverse of a Ticket used in 1838, on the New
-    York & Harlem Railroad                                         236
-
-  The "Pioneer." First Complete Pullman Sleeping-car               240
-
-  A Pullman Porter                                                 241
-
-  Pullman Parlor Car                                               243
-
-  Wagner Parlor Car                                                244
-
-  Dining-car (Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad)               245
-
-  End View of a Vestibuled Car                                     249
-
-  Pullman Sleeper on a Vestibuled Train                            250
-
-  Immigrant Sleeping-car (Canadian Pacific Railway)                251
-
-  View of Pullman, Ill.                                            252
-
-  Railway Station at York, England, built on a Curve               257
-
-  Outside the Grand Central Station, New York                      258
-
-  Boston Passenger Station, Providence Division, Old
-    Colony Railroad                                                259
-
-  A Page from the Car Accountant's Book                            277
-
-  Freight Pier, North River, New York                              280
-
-  Hay Storage Warehouses, New York Central & Hudson River
-    Railroad, West Thirty-third Street, New York                   282
-
-  "Dummy" Train and Boy on Hudson Street, New York                 287
-
-  Red Line Freight-car Mark                                        288
-
-  Star Union Freight-car Mark                                      288
-
-  Coal Car, Central Railroad of New Jersey                         289
-
-  Refrigerator-car Mark                                            289
-
-  Unloading a Train of Truck-wagons, Long Island Railroad          290
-
-  Floating Cars, New York Harbor                                   295
-
-  Postal Progress, 1776-1876                                       313
-
-  The Pony Express--The Relay                                      314
-
-  The Overland Mail Coach--A Star Route                            315
-
-  Mail Carrying in the Country                                     316
-
-  Loading for the Fast Mail, at the General Post-Office,
-    New York                                                       324
-
-  At the Last Moment                                               326
-
-  Pouching the Mail in the Postal Car                              329
-
-  A Very Difficult Address--known as a "Sticker."                  331
-
-  Distributing the Mail by States and Routes                       332
-
-  Pouching Newspapers for California--in Car No. 5                 335
-
-  Catching the Pouch from the Crane                                339
-
-  George Stephenson                                                345
-
-  J. Edgar Thomson                                                 349
-
-  Thomas A. Scott                                                  350
-
-  Cornelius Vanderbilt                                             352
-
-  John W. Garrett                                                  355
-
-  Albert Fink                                                      366
-
-  Charles Francis Adams                                            367
-
-  Thomas M. Cooley                                                 369
-
-  "Dancing on the Carpet"                                          386
-
-  Trainman and Tramps                                              387
-
-  Braking in Hard Weather                                          389
-
-  Flagging in Winter                                               391
-
-  Coupling                                                         392
-
-  The Pleasant Part of a Brakeman's Life                           395
-
-  At the Spring                                                    397
-
-  Just Time to Jump                                                403
-
-  Timely Warning                                                   407
-
-  The Passenger Conductor                                          409
-
-  Station Gardening                                                416
-
-  In the Yard at Night                                             419
-
-  A Track-walker on a Stormy Night                                 421
-
-  A Crossing Flagman                                               423
-
-  A Little Relaxation                                              424
-
-
-
-
-MAPS.
-
-
-  Mileage compared with Area                                       429
-
-  Railways, 1830, 1840, 1850, and 1860                             430
-
-  Railways, 1870                                                   431
-
-  Railways, 1880                                                   432
-
-  Railways, 1889                                                   433
-
-  Five Railway Systems                                        434, 435
-
-
-
-
-CHARTS.
-
-
-  Principal Railway Countries                                      425
-
-  Mileage to Area in New Jersey                                    426
-
-  Total Mileage and Increase, 1830-1888                            429
-
-  Mileage by States, 1870                                          431
-
-  Mileage by States, 1880                                          432
-
-  Mileage by States, 1888                                          433
-
-  Largest Receipts, 1888                                           435
-
-  Largest Net Results, 1888                                        435
-
-  Freight Rates of Thirteen Trunk Lines, 1870-1888                 436
-
-  Wheat Rates, by Water and by Rail, 1870-1888                     438
-
-  The Freight Haul, 1882-1888                                      439
-
-  East-bound and West-bound Freight, 1877-1888                     439
-
-  Freight Profits, 1870-1888                                       440
-
-  Passenger Rates, 1870-1888                                       441
-
-  Passenger Travel, 1882-1888                                      442
-
-  Passenger Profits, 1870-1888                                     442
-
-  Average Dividends, 1876-1888                                     443
-
-  Net Earnings and Mileage Built, 1876-1888                        444
-
-  Increase of Population, Mileage, and Freight Traffic,
-    1870-1888                                                      446
-
-
-
-
-INTRODUCTION.
-
-BY THOMAS M. COOLEY.
-
-
-The railroads of the United States, now aggregating a hundred
-and fifty thousand miles and having several hundred different
-managements, are frequently spoken of comprehensively as the
-railroad system of the country, as though they constituted a unity
-in fact, and might be regarded and dealt with as an entirety,
-by their patrons and by the public authorities, whenever the
-conveniences they are expected to supply, or the conduct of
-managers and agents, come in question. So far, however, is this
-from being the case, that it would be impossible to name any other
-industrial interest where the diversities are so obvious and the
-want of unity so conspicuous and so important. The diversities
-date from the very origin of the roads; they have not come into
-existence under the same laws nor subject to the same control. It
-was accepted as an undoubted truth in constitutional law from the
-first that the authority for the construction of railroads within
-a State must come from the State itself, which alone could empower
-the promoters to appropriate lands by adversary proceedings for
-the purpose. The grant of corporate power must also come from the
-State, or, at least, have State recognition and sanction; and where
-the proposed road was to cross a State boundary, the necessary
-corporate authority must be given by every State through or into
-which the road was to run. It was conceded that the delegated
-powers of the General Government did not comprehend the granting
-of charters for the construction of these roads within the States,
-and even in the Territories charters were granted by the local
-legislatures. The case of the transcontinental roads was clearly
-exceptional; they were to be constructed in large part over the
-public domain, and subsidies were to be granted by Congress for
-the purpose. They were also, in part at least, to be constructed
-for governmental reasons as national agencies; and invoking State
-authority for the purpose seemed to be as inconsistent as it would
-be inadequate. But, though these were exceptional cases, the
-magnitude and importance of the Pacific roads are so immense that
-the agency of the General Government in making provision for this
-method of transportation must always have prominence in railroad
-history and railroad statistics.
-
-Not only have the roads been diverse in origin, but the
-corporations which have constructed them have differed very
-greatly in respect to their powers and rights, and also to the
-obligations imposed by law upon them. The early grants of power
-were charter-contracts, freely given, with very liberal provisions;
-the public being more anxious that they be accepted and acted upon
-than distrustful of their abuse afterward. Many of them were not
-subject to alteration or repeal, except with the consent of the
-corporators; and some of them contained provisions intended to
-exclude or limit competition, so that, within a limited territory,
-something in the nature of a monopoly in transportation would be
-created. The later grants give evidence of popular apprehension of
-corporate abuses; the legislature reserves a control over them, and
-the right to multiply railroads indefinitely is made as free as
-possible, under the supposition that in this multiplication is to
-be found the best protection against any one of them abusing its
-powers. In very many cases the motive to the building of a new road
-has been antagonism to one already in existence, and municipalities
-have voted subsidies to the one in the hope that, when constructed,
-it would draw business away from the other. The anomaly has thus
-been witnessed of distrust of corporate power being the motive
-for increasing it; and the multiplication of roads has gone on,
-without any general supervision or any previous determination
-by competent public authority that they were needed, until the
-increase has quite outrun in some sections any proper demand for
-their facilities.
-
-Roads thus brought into existence, without system and under diverse
-managements, it was soon seen were capable of being so operated
-that the antagonism of managers, instead of finding expression in
-legitimate competition, would be given to the sort of strife that
-can only be properly characterized by calling it, as it commonly
-is called, a war. From such a war the public inevitably suffers.
-The best service upon the roads is only performed when they are
-operated as if they constituted in fact parts of one harmonious
-system; the rates being made by agreement, and traffic exchanged
-with as little disturbance as possible, and without abrupt break at
-the terminals. But when every management might act independently,
-it sometimes happened that a company made its method of doing
-business an impediment instead of a help to the business done over
-other roads, recognizing no public duty which should preclude
-its doing so, provided a gain to itself, however indirect or
-illegitimate, was probable. Many consolidations of roads have had
-for their motive the getting rid of this power to do mischief on
-the part of roads absorbed.
-
-In nothing is the want of unity so distinctly and mischievously
-obvious as in the power of each corporation to make rates
-independently. It may not only make its own local rates at
-discretion, but it may join or refuse to join with others in
-making through rates; so that an inconsiderable and otherwise
-insignificant road may be capable of being so used as to throw
-rates for a large section of the country into confusion, and to
-render the making of profit by other roads impossible. It is
-frequently said in railroad circles that roads are sometimes
-constructed for no other reason than because, through this power of
-mischief, it will be possible to levy contributions upon others, or
-to compel others, in self-protection, to buy them up at extravagant
-prices. Cases are named in which this sort of scheming is supposed
-to have succeeded, and others in which it is now being tried.
-
-Evils springing from the diversities mentioned have been cured, or
-greatly mitigated, by such devices as the formation of fast-freight
-lines to operate over many roads; by allowing express companies to
-come upon the roads with semi-independence in the transportation
-of articles, where, for special reasons, the public is content to
-pay an extra price for extra care or speed; and by arrangements
-with sleeping-car companies for special accommodations in luxurious
-cars to those desiring them. These collateral arrangements,
-however, have not been wholly beneficial; and had all the roads
-been constructed as parts of one system and under one management,
-some of them would neither have been necessary nor defensible. They
-exist now, however, with more or less reason for their existence;
-and they tend to increase the diversities in railroad work.
-
-The want of unity which has been pointed out tended to breed abuses
-specially injurious to the public, and governmental regulation was
-entered upon for their correction. Naturally the first attempts
-in this direction were made by separate States, each undertaking
-to regulate for itself the transportation within its own limits.
-Such regulation would have been perfectly logical, and perhaps
-effectual, had the roads within each State formed a system by
-themselves; but when State boundaries had very little importance,
-either to the roads themselves or to the traffic done over them,
-unless made important by restrictive and obstructive legislation,
-the regulation by any State must necessarily be fragmentary and
-imperfect, and diverse regulation in different States might
-be harmful rather than beneficial. It must be said for State
-regulation that it has in general been exercised in a prudent and
-conservative way, but it is liable to be influenced by a sensitive
-and excitable public opinion; and as nothing is more common than
-to find gross abuses in the matter of railroad transportation
-selfishly defended in localities, and even in considerable
-sections, which are supposed to receive benefits from them, it
-would not be strange if the like selfishness should sometimes
-succeed in influencing the exercise of power by one State in a
-manner that a neighboring State would regard as unfriendly and
-injurious.
-
-The Federal Government recently undertook the work of regulation,
-and in doing so accepted the view upon which the States had acted,
-and so worded its statute that the transportation which does not
-cross State lines is supposed to be excluded. The United States
-thus undertakes to regulate interstate commerce by rail, and the
-States regulate, or may regulate, that which is not interstate.
-It was perhaps overlooked at first that, inasmuch as Government
-control may embrace the making of classifications, prescribing
-safety and other appliances, and naming rates, any considerable
-regulation of State traffic and interstate traffic separately must
-necessarily to some extent cause interference. The two classes of
-traffic flow on together over the same lines in the same vehicles
-under the management of the same agencies, with little or no
-distinction based on State lines; the rates and the management
-influenced by considerations which necessarily are of general
-force, so that separate regulation may without much extravagance be
-compared to an attempt in the case of one of our great rivers to
-regulate the flow of the waters in general, but without, in doing
-so, interfering with an independent regulation of such portion
-thereof as may have come from the springs and streams of some
-particular section. This is one of many reasons for looking upon
-all existing legislation as merely tentative.
-
-No doubt the time will come when the railroads of the country will
-constitute, as they do not now, a system. There are those who think
-this may, sufficiently for practical purposes, be accomplished by
-the legalization of some scheme of pooling; but this is a crude
-device, against which there is an existing prejudice not easily to
-be removed. Others look for unity through gradual consolidations,
-the tendency to which is manifest, or through something in the
-nature of a trust, or by means of more comprehensive and stringent
-national control. Beyond all these is not infrequently suggested a
-Government ownership.
-
-Of the theories that might be advanced in this direction, or the
-arguments in their support, nothing further will be said here;
-the immediate purpose being accomplished when it is shown how
-misleading may be the term _system_, when applied to the railroads
-of the country as an aggregate, as now owned, managed, and
-controlled.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-Every man in the land is interested daily and constantly in
-railroads and the transportation of persons and property over them.
-The price of whatever he eats, or wears, or uses, the cost and
-comfort of travel, the speed and convenience with which he shall
-receive his mail and the current intelligence of the day, and even
-the intimacy and extent of his social relations, are all largely
-affected thereby. The business employs great numbers of persons,
-and the wages paid them affect largely the wages paid in other
-lines of occupation. The management of the business in some of its
-departments is attended by serious dangers, and thousands annually
-lose their lives in the service. Other thousands annually are
-either killed or injured in being transported; the aggregate being
-somewhat startling, though unquestionably this method of travel
-is safer than any other. The ingenuity which has been expended
-in devices to make the transportation rapid, cheap, and safe may
-well be characterized as marvellous, and some feats in railroad
-engineering are the wonder of the world. With all these facts and
-many others to create a public interest in the general subject, the
-editor of _Scribner's Magazine_, some little time ago, applied to
-writers of well-known ability and competency to prepare papers for
-publication therein upon the various topics of principal interest
-in the life and use of railroads, beginning with the construction,
-and embracing the salient facts of management and service. He
-was successful in securing a series of papers of high value,
-the appearance of which has been welcomed from month to month,
-beginning with June, 1888, with constant and increasing interest.
-These papers have a permanent value; and, in obedience to a demand
-for their separate publication in convenient form for frequent
-reference, the publishers now reproduce them with expansions and
-additions. A reference to the several titles will convince anyone
-at all familiar with the general subject that the particular topic
-is treated in every instance by an expert, entitled as such to
-speak with authority.
-
-
-
-
-THE BUILDING OF A RAILWAY.
-
-BY THOMAS CURTIS CLARKE.
-
-  Roman Tramways of Stone--First Use of Iron Rails--The Modern
-  Railway created by Stephenson's "Rocket" in 1830--Early
-  American Locomotives--Key to the Evolution of the American
-  Railway--Invention of the Swivelling Truck, Equalizing Beams,
-  and the Switchback--Locating a Road--Work of the Surveying
-  Party--Making the Road-bed--How Tunnels are Avoided--More
-  than Three Thousand Bridges in the United States--Old Wooden
-  Structures--The Howe Truss--The Use of Iron--Viaducts of
-  Steel--The American System of Laying Bridge Foundations
-  under Water--Origin of the Cantilever--Laying the Track--How
-  it is Kept in Repair--Premiums for Section Bosses--Number
-  of Railway Employees in the United States--Rapid Railway
-  Construction--Radical Changes which the Railway will Effect.
-
-
-The world of to-day differs from that of Napoleon Bonaparte more
-than his world differed from that of Julius Cæsar; and this change
-has chiefly been made by railways.
-
-Railways have been known since the days of the Romans. Their tracks
-were made of two lines of cut stones. Iron rails took their place
-about one hundred and fifty years ago, when the use of that metal
-became extended. These roads were called tram-roads, and were used
-to carry coal from the mines to the places of shipment. They were
-few in number and attracted little attention.
-
-The modern railway was created by the Stephensons in 1830, when
-they built the locomotive "Rocket." The development of the
-railway since is due to the development of the locomotive. Civil
-engineering has done much, but mechanical engineering has done more.
-
-The invention of the steam-engine by James Watt, in 1773, attracted
-the attention of advanced thinkers to a possible steam locomotive.
-Erasmus Darwin, in a poem published in 1781, made this remarkable
-prediction:
-
-      "Soon shall thy arm, unconquered steam! afar
-      Drag the slow barge, or drive the rapid car."
-
-[Illustration: First Locomotive.]
-
-The first locomotive of which we have any certain record was
-invented, and put in operation on a model circular railway in
-London, in 1804, by Richard Trevithick, an erratic genius, who
-invented many things but perfected few. His locomotive could
-not make steam, and therefore could neither go fast nor draw a
-heavy load. This was the fault of all its successors, until the
-competitive trial of locomotives on the Liverpool and Manchester
-Railway, in 1829. The Stephensons, father and son, had invented the
-steam blast, which, by constantly blowing the fire, enabled the
-"Rocket," with its tubular boiler, to make steam enough to draw ten
-passenger cars, at the rate of thirty-five miles an hour.
-
-Then was born the modern giant, and so recent is the date of his
-birth that one of the unsuccessful competitors at that memorable
-trial, Captain John Ericsson, was until the present year (1889)
-living and actively working in New York. Another engineer, Horatio
-Allen, who drove the first locomotive on the first trip ever made
-in the United States, in 1831, still lives, a hale and hearty old
-man, near New York.
-
-The earlier locomotives of this country, modelled after the
-"Rocket," weighed five or six tons, and could draw, on a level,
-about 40 tons. After the American improvements, which we shall
-describe, were made, our engines weighed 25 tons, and could draw,
-on a level, some sixty loaded freight cars, weighing 1,200 tons.
-This was a wonderful advance, but now we have the "Consolidation"
-locomotive, weighing 50 tons, and able to draw, on a level, a
-little over 2,400 tons.
-
-And this is not the end. Still heavier and more powerful engines
-are being designed and built, but the limit of the strength of the
-track, according to its present forms, has nearly been reached. It
-is very certain we have not reached the limit of the size and power
-of engines, or the strength of the track that can be devised.
-
-After the success of the "Rocket," and of the Liverpool and
-Manchester Railway, the authority of George Stephenson and his
-son Robert became absolute and unquestioned upon all subjects
-of railway engineering. Their locomotives had very little side
-play to their wheels, and could not go around sharp curves. They
-accordingly preferred to make their lines as straight as possible,
-and were willing to spend vast sums to get easy grades. Their lines
-were taken as models and imitated by other engineers. All lines in
-England were made with easy grades and gentle curves. Monumental
-bridges, lofty stone viaducts, and deep cuts or tunnels at every
-hill marked this stage of railway construction in England, which
-was imitated on the European lines.
-
-[Illustration: Locomotive of To-day.]
-
-As it was with the railway, so it was with the locomotive. The
-Stephenson type, once fixed, has remained unchanged (in Europe),
-except in detail, to the present day. European locomotives have
-increased in weight and power, and in perfection of material and
-workmanship, but the general features are those of the locomotives
-built by the great firm of George Stephenson & Son, before 1840.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-When we come to the United States we find an entirely different
-state of things. The key to the evolution of the American railway
-is the contempt for authority displayed by our engineers, and the
-untrammelled way in which they invented and applied whatever they
-thought would answer the best purpose, regardless of precedent.
-When we began to build our railways, in 1831, we followed English
-patterns for a short time. Our engineers soon saw that unless vital
-changes were made our money would not hold out, and our railway
-system would be very short. Necessity truly became the mother of
-invention.
-
-The first, and most far-reaching, invention was that of the
-swivelling truck, which, placed under the front end of an engine,
-enables it to run around curves of almost any radius. This enabled
-us to build much less expensive lines than those of England, for
-we could now curve around and avoid hills and other obstacles at
-will. The illustration opposite shows a railroad curving around a
-mountain and supported by a retaining wall, instead of piercing
-through the mountain with a tunnel, as would have been necessary
-but for the swivelling truck. The swivelling truck was first
-suggested by Horatio Allen, for the South Carolina Railway, in
-1831; but the first practical use of it was made on the Mohawk and
-Hudson Railroad, in the same year. It is said to have been invented
-by John B. Jervis, Chief Engineer of that road.
-
-The next improvement was the invention of the equalizing beams or
-levers, by which the weight of the engine is always borne by three
-out of four or more driving-wheels. They act like a three-legged
-stool, which can always be set level on any irregular spot. The
-original imported English locomotives could not be kept on the
-rails of rough tracks. The same experience obtained in Canada when
-the Grand Trunk Railway was opened, in 1854-55. The locomotives of
-English pattern constantly ran off the track; those of American
-pattern hardly ever did so. Finally, all their locomotives were
-changed by having swivelling trucks put under their forward ends,
-and no more trouble occurred. The equalizing levers were patented
-in 1838, by Joseph Harrison, Jr., of Philadelphia.
-
-[Illustration: Alpine Pass. Avoidance of a Tunnel.]
-
-These two improvements, which are absolutely essential to the
-success of railways in new countries, and have been adopted
-in Canada, Australia, Mexico, and South America,[1] to the
-exclusion of English patterns, are also of great value on the
-smoothest and best possible tracks. The flexibility of the American
-machine increases its adhesion and enables it to draw greater loads
-than its English rival. The same flexibility equalizes its pressure
-on the track, prevents shocks and blows, and enables it to keep
-out of the hospital and run more miles in a year than an English
-locomotive.[2]
-
-[Illustration: A Sharp Curve--Manhattan Elevated Railway, 110th
-Street, New York.]
-
-Equally valuable improvements were made in cars, both for
-passengers and freight. Instead of the four-wheeled English car,
-which on a rough track dances along on three wheels, we owe to Ross
-Winans, of Baltimore, the application of a pair of four-wheeled
-swivelling trucks, one under each end of the car, thus enabling it
-to accommodate itself to the inequalities of a rough track and to
-follow its locomotive around the sharpest curves. There are, on
-our main lines, curves of less than 300 feet radius, while, on the
-Manhattan Elevated, the largest passenger traffic in the world is
-conducted around curves of less than 100 feet radius. There are few
-curves of less than 1,000 feet radius on European railways.
-
-[Illustration: A Steep Grade on a Mountain Railroad.]
-
-The climbing capabilities of a locomotive upon smooth rails were
-not known until, in 1852, Mr. B. H. Latrobe, Chief Engineer of the
-Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, tried a temporary zigzag gradient
-of 10 per cent.--that is 10 feet rise in 100 feet length, or 528
-feet per mile--over a hill about two miles long, through which the
-Kingwood Tunnel was being excavated. A locomotive weighing 28 tons
-on its drivers took one car weighing 15 tons over this line in
-safety. It was worked for passenger traffic for six months. This
-daring feat has never been equalled. Trains go over 4 per cent.
-gradients on the Colorado system, and there is one short line, used
-to bring ore to the Pueblo furnaces, which is worked by locomotives
-over a 7 per cent. grade. These are believed to be the steepest
-grades worked by ordinary locomotives on smooth rails.
-
-Another American invention is the switchback. By this plan
-the length of line required to ease the gradient is obtained
-by running backward and forward in a zigzag course, instead of
-going straight up the mountain. As a full stop has to be made at
-the end of every piece of line, there is no danger of the train
-running away from its brakes. This device was first used among the
-hills of Pennsylvania over forty years ago, to lower coal cars
-down into the Nesquehoning Valley. It was afterwards used on the
-Callao, Lima, and Oroya Railroad in Peru, by American engineers,
-with extraordinary daring and skill. It was employed to carry the
-temporary tracks of the Cascade Division of the Northern Pacific
-Railroad over the "Stampede" Pass, with grades of 297 feet per
-mile, while a tunnel 9,850 feet long was being driven through the
-mountains.
-
-[Illustration: A Switchback.]
-
-With the improvement of brakes and more reliable means of stopping
-trains upon steep grades, came a farther development of the above
-device, which was first applied on the Denver and Rio Grande
-Railroad in Colorado, and has since been applied on a grand scale
-on the Saint Gothard road, the Black Forest railways of Germany,
-and the Semmering line in the Tyrol. This device is to connect the
-two lines of the zigzag by a curve at the point where they come
-together, so that the train, instead of going alternately backward
-and forward, now runs continuously on. It becomes possible for the
-line to return above itself in spiral form, sometimes crossing over
-the lower level by a tunnel, and sometimes by a bridge. A notable
-instance of this kind of location is seen on the Tehachapi Pass
-of the Southern Pacific, where the line ascends 2,674 feet in 25
-miles, with eleven tunnels, and a spiral 3,800 feet long.
-
-[Illustration: Plan of Big Loop.]
-
-The "Big Loop," as it is called, on the Georgetown branch of the
-Union Pacific, in Colorado, between Georgetown and a mining camp
-called Silver Plume, has been chosen to illustrate this point. The
-direct distance up the valley is 1¼ miles and the elevation 600
-feet, requiring a gradient of 480 feet per mile. But by curving
-the line around in a spiral, the length of the line is increased
-to 4 miles and the gradient reduced to 150 feet per mile. Zigzags
-were used first for foot-paths, then for common roads, lastly for
-railways. Their natural sequence, spirals, was a railway device
-entirely, and confirms the saying of one of our engineers: "Where
-a mule can go, I can make a locomotive go." This may be called the
-poetry of engineering, as it requires both imagination to conceive
-and skill to execute.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-[Illustration: Profile of the Same.]
-
-There is one thing more which distinguishes the American railway
-from its English parent, and that is the almost uniform practice
-of getting the road open for traffic in the cheapest manner and in
-the least possible time, and then completing it and enlarging its
-capacity out of its surplus earnings, and from the credit which
-these earnings give it.
-
-[Illustration: Big Loop, Georgetown Branch of the Union Pacific,
-Colorado.]
-
-The Pennsylvania Railroad between Philadelphia and Harrisburg
-is a notable example of this. Within the past few years it has
-been rebuilt on a grand scale, and in many places relocated, and
-miles of sharp curves and heavy gradients, originally put in to
-save expense, have been taken out. This system has been followed
-everywhere, except on a few branch lines, and upon one monumental
-example of failure--the West Shore Railroad, of New York. The
-projectors of that line attempted in three years to build a
-double-track railroad up to the standard of the Pennsylvania road,
-which had been forty years in reaching its present excellence.
-Their money gave out, and they came to grief.
-
-
-II.
-
-We have thus briefly reviewed the development of our railways to
-show what they are, and how they came to be what they are, before
-describing the processes of building, in order that the reasons may
-be clearly understood why we do certain things, and why we fail to
-do other things which we ought to do.
-
-In the building of a railway the first thing is to make the surveys
-and locate the position of the intended road upon the ground, and
-to make maps and sections of it, so that the land may be bought and
-the estimates of cost be ascertained. The engineer's first duty
-is to make a survey by eye without the aid of instruments. This
-is called the "reconnoissance." By this he lays down the general
-position of the line, and where he wants it to go if possible.
-Great skill, the result of long experience, or equally great
-ignorance may be shown here. After the general position of the
-line, or some part of it, has been laid down upon the pocket map,
-the engineer sends his party into the field to make the preliminary
-survey with instruments.
-
-In an old-settled country the party may live in farm-houses
-and taverns, and be carried to their daily work by teams. But
-a surveying party will make better progress, be healthier and
-happier, if they live in their own home, even if that home be a
-travelling camp of a few tents. With a competent commissary the
-camp can be well supplied with provisions, and be pitched near
-enough to the probable end of the day's work to save the tired
-men a long walk. When they get to camp and, after a wash in
-the nearest creek, find a smoking-hot supper ready--even though
-it consist of fried pork and potatoes, corn-bread and black
-coffee--their troubles are all forgotten, and they feel a true
-satisfaction which the flesh-pots of Delmonico's cannot give. One
-greater pleasure remains--to fill the old pipe, and recline by the
-camp-fire for a jolly smoke.
-
-[Illustration: Engineers in Camp.]
-
-A full surveying party consists of the front flag-man, with his
-corps of axe-men to cut away trees and bushes; the transit-man,
-who records the distances and angles of the line, assisted by his
-chain-men and flag-men; and lastly the leveller, who takes and
-records the levels, with his rod-men and axe-men. The chief of the
-party exercises a general supervision over all, and is sometimes
-assisted by a topographer, who sketches in his book the contours of
-the hills and direction and size of the watercourses.
-
-One tent contains the cook, the commissary, and the provisions;
-another tent or two the working party, and another the superior
-engineers, with their drawing instruments and boards. In a properly
-regulated party the map and profile of the day's work should be
-plotted before going to bed, so as to see if all is right. If it
-turns out that the line can be improved and easier grades got, or
-other changes made, now is the time to do it.
-
-After the preliminary lines have been run, the engineer-in-chief
-takes up the different maps and lays down a new line, sometimes
-coinciding with that surveyed, and sometimes quite different. The
-parties then go back into the field and stake out this new line,
-called the "approximate location," upon which the curves are all
-run in. In difficult country the line may be run over even a third
-or fourth time; or in an easy country, the "preliminary" surveys
-may be all that is wanted.
-
-The life of an engineer, while making surveys, is not an easy one.
-His duties require the physical strength of a drayman and the
-mental accuracy of a professor, both exerted at the same time, and
-during heat and cold, rain and shine.
-
-An engineer, once on a time, standing behind his instrument, was
-surrounded by a crowd of natives, anxious to know all about it. He
-explained his processes, using many learned words, and flattered
-himself that he had made a deep impression upon his hearers. At
-last, one old woman spoke up, with an expression of great contempt
-on her face, "Wall! If I knowed as much as you do, I'd quit
-ingineerin' and keep a grocery!"
-
-A large part of the financial difficulties of our railways results
-from not taking time enough to properly locate the line. It must
-be remembered that a cheaply constructed line can be rebuilt, but
-with a badly located line nothing can be done except to abandon it
-entirely.
-
-[Illustration: Royal Gorge Hanging Bridge, Denver and Rio Grande,
-Colorado.]
-
-It is well therefore to consider carefully what is the true problem
-of location. It is so to place and build a line of railway that
-it shall get the greatest amount of business out of the country
-through which it passes, and at the same time be able to do that
-business at the least cost, including both expenses of operating
-and the fixed charges on the capital invested. The mere statement
-of this problem shows that it is not an easy one. Its solution
-is different in a new and unsettled country from that in an
-old-settled region. In the new country, the shortest, cheapest, and
-straightest line possible, consistent with the easiest gradients
-that the topography of the land will allow, is the best. The towns
-will spring up after the road is built, and will be built on its
-line, and generally at the places where stations have been fixed.
-
-[Illustration: Veta Pass, Colorado.]
-
-In a mountainous country, like Colorado, the problem is how to
-reach the important mining camps, regardless of the crookedness
-and increased length given to the line. The Denver and Rio Grande
-has been compared to an octopus. This is really a compliment to
-its engineers. It sucks nutriment from every place where nutriment
-is to be found. To do this it has been forced to climb mountains,
-where it was thought locomotives could never climb. In one place,
-called the Royal Gorge, the difficulties of blasting a road-bed
-into the side of the mountain were so great that it was thought
-expedient to carry the track upon a bridge, and this bridge was
-hung from two rafters, braced against the sides of the gorge. In
-surveying some parts of the lines the engineers were suspended by
-ropes from the top of the mountains and made their measurements
-swinging in mid-air.
-
-The problem of location is different in an old-settled country,
-where the position of the towns as trade-centres has been fixed
-by natural laws that cannot be overruled. In this case the best
-thing the engineer can do is to get the easiest gradient possible
-consistent with the topography of the country, and let the curves
-take care of themselves; always to strike the important towns, even
-if the line is made more crooked and longer thereby; to so place
-the line in these towns as to accommodate the public, and still
-be able to buy plenty of land; also to locate for under or over,
-rather than grade crossings.
-
-[Illustration: Sections of Snow-sheds.]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-In all countries, old and new, mountainous and level, the rule
-should be to keep the level of track well above the surface of
-the ground, in order to insure good drainage and freedom from
-snow-drifts.
-
-The question of avoidance of obstruction by snow is a very
-serious one upon the Rocky Mountain lines, and they could not
-be worked without the device of snow-sheds--another purely
-American invention. There are said to be six miles of stanchly
-built snow-sheds on the Canadian Pacific and sixty miles on
-the Central Pacific Railway. The quantity of snow falling is
-enormous, sometimes amounting to 250,000 cubic yards, weighing
-over 100,000 tons, in one slide. It is stated by the engineers of
-the Canadian Pacific, that the force of the air set in motion by
-these avalanches has mown down large trees, not struck by the snow
-itself. Their trunks, from one to two feet in diameter, remain,
-split as if struck by lightning.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-[Illustration: Snow-sheds, Selkirk Mountains, Canadian Pacific. The
-winter track under cover; the outer track for summer use.]
-
-After the railway line has been finally located, the next duty of
-the engineers is to prepare the work for letting. Land-plans are
-made, from which the right of way is secured. From the sections,
-the quantities are taken out. Plans of bridges and culverts are
-made; and a careful specification of all the works on the line is
-drawn up.
-
-[Illustration: Making an Embankment.]
-
-The works are then let, either to one large contractor or to
-several smaller ones, and the labor of construction begins.
-The duties of the engineers are to stake out the work for the
-contractors, make monthly returns of its progress, and see that
-it is well done and according to the specifications and contract.
-The line is divided into sections, and an engineer, with his
-assistants, is placed in charge of each. Where the works are heavy,
-the contractors build shanties for their men and teams near the
-heavy cuttings or embankments. It is the custom to take out heavy
-cuttings by means of the machine called a steam shovel, which will
-dig as many yards in a day as 500 men.
-
-[Illustration: Steam Excavator.]
-
-On the prairies of the West the road-bed is thrown up from
-ditches on each side, either by men with wheelbarrows and carts,
-or by means of a ditching-machine, which can move 3,000 yards
-of earth daily. In this case the track follows immediately
-after the embankment, and the men live in cars fitted up as
-boarding-shanties, and moved forward as fast as required. If the
-country contains suitable stone, the culverts and bridge abutments
-are built by gangs of masons and stone-cutters, who move from
-point to point. But the general practice is to put in temporary
-trestle-work of timber resting upon piles, which trestle-work is
-renewed in the shape of stone culverts covered by embankments, or
-iron bridges resting on stone abutments and built after the road is
-running.
-
-[Illustration: Building a Culvert.]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The pile-driver plays a very important part therefore in the
-construction of our railroads, and has been brought to great
-perfection. It is worked by a small boiler and engine, and gives
-its blows with great rapidity. It drags the piles up to leaders
-and lifts them into place by steam-power, so that it is worked
-by a small gang of men. Finally, it is as portable as a pedler's
-cart, and as soon as it has finished one job it is taken to pieces,
-packed upon wagons, and moved on to the next job.
-
-[Illustration: (Rock Drill.)]
-
-Tunnels are neither so long nor so frequent upon American railways
-as upon those of Europe. The longest are from two to two and a half
-miles long, except one, the Hoosac, about four miles. Sometimes
-they are unavoidable. The ridge called Bergen Hill, west of
-Hoboken, N. J., is a case in point. This is pierced by the tunnels
-of the West Shore, of the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western, and of
-the Erie, the last two of which, as shown on page 25, are placed at
-different levels to enable one road to pass over the other.
-
-[Illustration: Rock Drill.]
-
-It is by our system of using sharp curves that we avoid tunnels. It
-may be said, in general terms, that American engineers have shown
-more skill in avoiding the necessity of tunnels than could possibly
-be shown in constructing them. When we are obliged to use tunnels,
-or to make deep cuttings in rocks, our labors are greatly assisted
-by the use of power-drills worked by compressed air and by the use
-of high explosives, such as dynamite, giant powder, rend-rock,
-etc. Rocks can now be removed in less than half the time formerly
-required, when ordinary blasting-powder was used in hand-drilled
-holes.[3]
-
-[Illustration: A Construction and Boarding Train.]
-
-
-III.
-
-From data furnished by Mr. D. J. Whittemore, chief engineer of the
-Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul system (which had a total length
-of 5,688 miles on January 1, 1888), the length of open bridges on
-these lines was 115-91/100 miles, and of culverts covered over with
-embankment, 39-2/10 miles. "Everything," says Mr. Whittemore, "not
-covered with earth, except cattle guards, be the span 10 or 400
-feet, is called a bridge. Everything covered with earth is called
-a culvert. Wherever we are far removed from suitable quarries, we
-build a wooden culvert in preference to a pile bridge, if we can
-get six inches of filling over it. These culverts are built of
-roughly squared logs, and are large enough to draw an iron pipe
-through them of sufficient diameter to take care of the water.
-We do this because we believe that we lessen the liability to
-accident, and that the culvert can be maintained after decay has
-begun, much longer than a piled bridge with stringers to carry the
-track. Had we good quarries along our line, stone would be cheaper.
-Many thousands of dollars have been spent by this company in
-building masonry that after twenty to twenty-five years shows such
-signs of disintegration that we confine masonry work now only to
-stone that we can procure from certain quarries known to be good."
-
-[Illustration: Bergen Tunnels, Hoboken, N. J.]
-
-Mr. Whittemore is an engineer of great experience, skill, and
-judgment, and there is food for much reflection in these words of
-his: First--that it is better to use temporary wooden structures,
-to be afterward renewed in good stone, rather than to build of the
-stone of the locality, unless first-class. Second--that a structure
-covered with earth is much safer than an open bridge; which, if
-short and apparently insignificant, may be, through neglect, a most
-serious point of danger, as was shown in the dreadful accident of
-1887 on the Toledo, Peoria, and Western road in Illinois, where
-one hundred and fifty persons were killed and wounded, and by the
-equally avoidable accident on the Florida and Savannah line, in
-March, 1888. Had these little trestles been changed to culverts
-covered with earth, many valuable lives would not have been lost.
-
-[Illustration: Beginning a Tunnel.]
-
-It was safely estimated that there were, in 1888, 208,749 bridges
-of all kinds, amounting in length to 3,213 miles, in the United
-States.[4]
-
-The wooden bridge and the wooden trestle are purely American
-products, although they were invented by Leonardo da Vinci in the
-sixteenth century. From the above statistics it will be seen how
-much our American railways owe to them, for without them over
-150,000 miles could never have been built.
-
-The art of building wooden truss-bridges was developed by Burr &
-Wernwag, two Pennsylvania carpenters, some of whose works are still
-in use after eighty years of faithful duty (p. 28). A bridge built
-by Wernwag across the Delaware in 1803 was used as a highway bridge
-for forty-five years, was then strengthened and used as a railway
-bridge for twenty-seven years more, and was finally superseded by
-the present iron bridge in 1875.
-
-These old bridge-builders were very particular about the quality of
-their timber, and never put any into a bridge less than two years
-old. But when we began to build railways, everything was done in a
-hurry, and nobody could wait for seasoned timber. This led to the
-invention of the Howe truss, by the engineer of that name, which
-had the advantage of being adjustable with screws and nuts, so that
-the shrinkage could be taken up, and which had its parts connected
-in such a way that they were able to bear the heavy concentrated
-weight of locomotives without crushing. This bridge was used on
-all railways, new and old, from 1840 to about 1870. Had it been
-free from liability to decay and burn up, we should probably not be
-building iron and steel bridges now, except for long spans of over
-200 feet; and as the table opposite shows, the largest number of
-our spans are less than 100 feet long.
-
-The Howe truss forms an excellent bridge, and is still used in the
-West on new roads, with the intention of substituting iron trusses
-after the roads are opened.
-
-After 1870, the weights both of locomotives and other rolling
-stock began to be increased very rapidly. This, together with
-the development of the manufacture of iron, and especially the
-invention of rolled beams and of eye-bars, gave a great impetus to
-the construction of iron bridges. At first cast-iron was used for
-the compression members, but the development of the rolling-mill
-soon enabled us to make all parts of rolled iron sections at no
-greater cost, and rolled iron, being a less uncertain material,
-has replaced cast-iron entirely. Iron bridges came in direct
-competition with the less costly Howe truss, and during the first
-decade of their construction every attempt was made to build them
-with as few pounds of iron as would meet the strains.
-
-[Illustration: Old Burr Wooden Bridge.]
-
-S. Whipple, C.E., published a book in 1847 which was the first
-attempt ever made to solve the mathematical questions upon which
-the due proportioning of iron truss-bridges depends. This work
-bore fruit, and a race of bridge designers sprang up. The first
-iron bridges were modelled after their wooden predecessors, with
-high trusses and short panels. Riveted connections were avoided,
-and every part was so designed that it might be quickly and easily
-erected upon staging or false works, placed in the river. This was
-very necessary, for our rivers are subject to sudden freshets,
-and if we had adopted the English system of riveting together all
-the connections, the long time required before the bridge became
-self-sustaining would have been a serious element of danger.
-
-Following the practice of wooden bridge building, iron bridges
-were contracted for by the foot, and not by the pound as is now
-the custom. To this accidental circumstance is greatly due the
-development of the American iron bridge. The engineer representing
-the railway company fixed the lengths of spans, and other general
-dimensions, and also the loads to be carried and the maximum
-strains to be allowed. The contracting engineer was left perfectly
-free to design his bridge, and he strained every nerve to find the
-form of truss and the arrangement of its parts that should give the
-required strength with the least number of pounds weight per foot,
-so that he could beat his competitors. When the different plans
-were handed in, an expert examined them and rejected those whose
-parts were too small to meet the strains. Of those found to be
-correctly proportioned, the lowest bid took the work.
-
-By the rule of the survival of the fittest all badly designed forms
-of trusses disappeared and only two remained: one the original
-truss designed by Mr. Whipple, and the other, the well-known
-triangular, or "Warren" girder, so called after its English
-inventor.
-
-It speaks well for the skill and honesty of American bridge
-engineers that many of their old bridges are still in use, designed
-for loads of 2,500 pounds per lineal foot, and now daily carrying
-loads of 4,000 pounds and over per foot. Sometimes the floor has
-been replaced by a stronger one, but the trusses still remain and
-do good service. The writer may be permitted to point to the bridge
-over the Mississippi River at Quincy, Ill., built in 1869, as an
-example. Most bridge-accidents can be traced to derailed trains
-striking the trusses and knocking them down. Engineers (both those
-specially connected with bridge works, and those in charge of
-railways) know much better now what is wanted, and the managers of
-railways are willing to pay for the best article. The introduction
-of mild steel is a great step in advance. This material has an
-ultimate strength, in the finished piece, of 63,000 to 65,000
-pounds per square inch, or forty per cent. more than iron, and it
-is tough enough to be tied in a knot, or punched into the shape of
-a bowl, while cold. With this material it is as easy to construct
-spans of 500 feet as it was spans of 250 feet in iron.
-
-Bridges are now designed to carry much heavier loads than formerly.
-The best practice adopts riveted connections except at the junction
-of the chord-bars and the main diagonals, where pins and eyes
-are still very properly used. Plate girders below the track are
-preferred up to 60 or 70 feet long, then riveted lattice up
-to 125 feet. The wind strains also are now provided for with a
-considerable excess of material, amounting in very long spans to
-nearly as much as the strains due to gravity. Observing the rule
-that no bridge can be stronger than its weakest part, a vast deal
-of care and skill has been applied in perfecting the connections
-of the parts of a truss, and many valuable experiments have been
-made which have greatly enlarged our knowledge of this difficult
-subject. The introduction of riveting by the power of steam or
-compressed air is another very great improvement.[5]
-
-[Illustration: Kinzua Viaduct; Erie Railway.]
-
-Valleys and ravines are now crossed by viaducts of iron and steel,
-of which the Kinzua viaduct, illustrated here, is an example. A
-branch line from the Erie, connecting that system with valuable
-coal-fields, strikes the valley of the Kinzua, a small creek,
-about 15 miles southwest of Bradford, Pa. At the point suitable
-for crossing, this ravine is about half a mile wide and over 300
-feet deep. At first it was proposed to run down and cross the creek
-at a low level by some of the devices heretofore illustrated in
-this article. But finally the engineering firm of Clarke, Reeves &
-Co. agreed to build the viaduct, shown above, for a much less sum
-than any other method of crossing would have cost. This viaduct
-was built in four months. It is 305 feet high and about 2,400 feet
-long. The skeleton piers were first erected by means of their
-own posts, and afterward the girders were placed by means of a
-travelling scaffold on the top, projecting over about 80 feet. No
-staging of any kind was used, nor even ladders, as the men climbed
-up the diagonal rods of the piers, as a cat will run up a tree.
-
-[Illustration: Kinzua Viaduct.]
-
-The Manhattan Elevated Railway, about 34 miles long, is nothing but
-a long viaduct, and is as strong and durable as iron viaducts on
-railways usually are, while from the slower speed of its trains it
-is much safer.
-
-It may not be out of place for the writer to state here what, in
-his belief, is the next series of steps to be taken to insure
-safety in travelling over our bridges: Replace, wherever possible,
-all temporary trestles by wood or stone culverts covered with
-earth. Where this cannot be done, build strong iron or steel
-bridges and viaducts with as short spans as possible and having
-no trusses above the track where it can possibly be helped. Cover
-these and all new bridges with a solid deck of rolled-steel
-corrugated plates, coated with asphalt to prevent rusting. Place
-on this broken stone ballast, and bed the ties in it as in the
-ordinary form of road-bed.
-
-By this means the usual shock felt in passing from the elastic
-embankment to the comparatively solid bridge will be done away.
-Has a crack formed in a wheel or axle, this shock generally
-develops it into a break, the car or engine is derailed, and if it
-strikes the truss the bridge is wrecked. The cost of this proposed
-safety floor is insignificant, compared with the security resulting
-from it.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-The improvements in the processes of putting in the foundations of
-bridges have been as great as those above water. All have shortened
-greatly the time necessary, and have made the results more certain.
-The American system may briefly be described as an abandonment of
-the old engineering device of coffer-dams, by which the bed of the
-river is enclosed by a water-tight fence and the water pumped out.
-For this we substitute driving piles and sawing them off under
-water; or sinking cribs down to a hard bottom through the water. In
-both cases we sink the masonry, built in a great water-tight box
-(called a caisson) with a thick bottom of solid timber, until it
-finally rests on the heads of the piles sawn to a level, or on the
-top of a crib which is filled with stone, dumped out of a barge.
-Sometimes it is filled with concrete lowered through the water by
-special apparatus.[6]
-
-Another process, developed within the last twenty years, is to
-sink cribs through soft or unreliable material to a harder stratum
-by compressed air. This is an improvement on the old diving-bell.
-The air, forced into the bell-shaped cavity, expels the water and
-allows the men to work and remove the material, which is taken up
-by a device called an air-lock. The crib slowly sinks, carrying the
-masonry on its top.
-
-By this means the foundations of the Brooklyn bridge and of the St.
-Louis bridge were sunk a little over 100 feet below water. A recent
-invention is that of a German engineer, Herr Poetsch, who freezes
-the sand by inserting tubes filled with a freezing mixture, and
-then excavates it as if it were solid rock.
-
-The process of sinking open cribs through the water by weighting
-them and dredging out the material was followed at the new bridge
-recently built over the Hudson at Poughkeepsie, where the cribs
-were sunk 130 feet below water, and at the bridge building over the
-Hawkesbury River, in Australia. The Hawkesbury piers are sunk to
-a depth of 175 feet below water, and are the deepest foundations
-yet put in. The writer (who derives his knowledge from being one of
-the designing and executive engineers of both these bridges) sees
-no difficulty in putting down foundations by this process of open
-dredging to even much greater depths. The compressed-air process is
-limited to about 110 feet in depth.
-
-
-IV.
-
-The most notable invention of latter days in bridge construction
-is that of the cantilever bridge, which is a system devised to
-dispense with staging, or false works, where from the great depth,
-or the swift current, of the river, this would be difficult, or,
-as in the case of the Niagara River, impossible to make. The word
-cantilever is used in architecture to signify the lower end of a
-rafter, which projects beyond the wall of a building, and supports
-the roof above. It is from an Italian word, taken from the Latin
-_cantilabrum_ (used by Vitruvius), meaning the _lip of the rafter_.
-If two beams were pushed out from the shores of a stream until they
-met in the centre, and these two beams were long enough to run back
-from the shores until their weight, aided by a few stones, held
-them down, we should have a primitive form of the cantilever, but
-one which in principle would not differ from the actual cantilever
-bridges. This is another American invention, although it has been
-developed by British engineers--Messrs. Fowler & Baker--in their
-huge bridge now building across the Forth, in Scotland, of a size
-which dwarfs everything hitherto done in this country, the Brooklyn
-bridge not excepted.
-
-The first design of which we have any record was that of a bridge
-planned by Thomas Pope, a ship carpenter of New York, who, in 1810,
-published a book giving his designs for an arched bridge of timber
-across the North River at Castle Point, of 2,400 feet span. Mr.
-Pope called this an arch, but his description clearly shows it to
-have been what we now call a cantilever. As was the fashion of the
-day, he indulged in a poetical description:
-
-      "Like half a Rainbow rising on yon shore,
-      While its twin partner spans the semi o'er,
-      And makes a perfect whole that need not part
-      Till time has furnish'd us a nobler art."
-
-[Illustration: View of Thomas Pope's Proposed Cantilever (1810).]
-
-The first railway cantilever bridge in the world was built by the
-late C. Shaler Smith, C.E., one of our most accomplished bridge
-engineers. This was a bridge over the deep gorge of the Kentucky
-River.[7] The next was a bridge on the Canadian Pacific, in British
-Columbia, designed by C. C. Schneider, C.E. A very similar bridge
-is that over the Niagara River, designed by the same engineer in
-conjunction with Messrs. Field & Hayes, Civil Engineers. This
-bridge was the first to receive the distinctive name of cantilever.
-
-The new bridge at Poughkeepsie has three of these cantilevers,
-connected by two fixed spans, as shown in the illustration (pg.
-36). The fixed spans have horizontal lower chords, and really
-extend beyond each pier and up the inclined portions, to where the
-bottom chord of the cantilever is horizontal. At these points the
-junctions between the spans are made, and arranged in such a way,
-by means of movable links, that expansion and contraction due to
-changes of temperature can take place. The fixed spans are 525 feet
-long. Their upper chord, where the tracks are placed, is 212 feet
-above water. These spans required stagings to build them upon.
-These stagings were 220 feet above water, and rested on piles,
-driven through 60 feet of water and 60 feet of mud, making the
-whole height of the temporary staging 332 feet, or within 30 feet
-of the height of Trinity Church steeple, in New York. The time
-occupied in building one of these stagings and then erecting the
-steel-work upon it was about four months.
-
-The cantilever spans were erected, as shown in the illustration on
-page 37, without any stagings at all below, and entirely from the
-two overhead travelling scaffolds, shown in the engraving. These
-scaffolds were moved out daily from the place of beginning over
-the piers, until they met in the centre. The workmen hoisted up
-the different pieces of steel from a barge in the river below and
-put them into place, using suspended planks to walk upon. The time
-saved by this method was so great that one of these spans of 548
-feet long was erected in less than four weeks, or one-seventh of
-the time which would have been required if stagings had been used.
-
-[Illustration: Pope's Cantilever in Process of Erection. (From his
-"Treatise on Bridge Architecture.")]
-
-At the Forth Bridge, all the projecting cantilevers will be built
-from overhead scaffolds, 360 feet above the water. It contains two
-spans of 1,710 feet each. When spans of this length are used, the
-rivets become very long--seven inches--and it would be impossible
-to make a good job by hand riveting. Hence a power-riveter is used
-in riveting the work upon the staging. A steam-engine raises up a
-heavy mass of cast-iron, called "the accumulator;" the weight of
-this in descending is transmitted through tubes of water, and its
-power increased by contracting the area of pressure, until some
-twenty tons can be applied to the head of each rivet. One rivet per
-minute can be put in with this tool.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-It will be seen that most of the great saving of time in modern
-construction of bridges and other parts of railways is due to
-improved machinery. The engineer of to-day is probably not more
-skilful than his ancestor, who, in periwig and cue, breeches
-and silk stockings, is represented in old prints supervising a
-gang of laborers, who slowly lift the ram of a pile-driver by
-hauling on one end of a rope passed over a pulley-wheel. The
-modern engineer has that useful servant, steam, and the history
-of modern engineering is chiefly the history of those inventions
-by which steam has been able to supersede manual labor--such as
-pile-drivers, steam-shovels, steam-dredges, and other similar tools.
-
-[Illustration: General View of the Poughkeepsie Bridge.]
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-After the road-bed of a railway is completed and covered with a
-good coat of gravel or stone-ballast, and after all the temporary
-structures have been replaced by permanent ones, that part of the
-work may be said to be done, requiring only that the damages of
-storms should be repaired. But the track of a railway is never
-done. It is always wearing out and always being replaced.
-
-[Illustration: Erection of a Cantilever.]
-
-Some of the early English engineers, not appreciating this,
-endeavored to lay down solid stone walls coped with stone cut to a
-smooth surface, on which they laid their rails. They called this
-"permanent way," as distinguished from the temporary track of rails
-and cross-ties used by contractors in building the lines. But
-experience soon showed that the temporary track, if supported by
-a bed of broken stone, always kept itself drained and was always
-elastic, and remained in much better order than the more expensive
-so-called "permanent way." When the increase in the weight of our
-rolling stock began to take place, dating from about 1870, iron
-rails were found to be wearing out very fast. Some railway men
-declared that the railway system had reached its full development.
-But in this world the supply generally equals the demand. When a
-thing is very much wanted, it is sure to come, sooner or later.
-The process of making steel invented by, and named after, Henry
-Bessemer, of England, and perfected by A. L. Holley, of this
-country, gave us a steel rail which at the present time costs
-less than one of iron, and has a life five or six times as long,
-even under the heavy loads of to-day. We are now approaching very
-near the limit of what the rail will carry, while the joints are
-becoming less able to do their duty. Bad joints mean rough track.
-Rough track means considerably greater expenditure both for its
-maintenance and that of all the rolling stock, as the blows and
-shocks do reciprocal damage, both to the rails and to that which
-runs on them. Hence all railway managers are now devoting more care
-and attention to their tracks.
-
-In laying track on a new railway, if it be in an old-settled
-country where other railroads are near and the highways good,
-the ties are delivered in piles along the line where wanted, and
-the haul of the rails is comparatively short. The ties are laid
-down, spaced and bedded, adzed off to a true bearing, and the
-rails laid upon them; the workmen being divided into gangs, each
-doing a different part of the work. After the track is laid, the
-ballast-trains come along and cover the roadbed with gravel. The
-track is raised, the gravel tamped well under the ties, and the
-track is ready for use.
-
-[Illustration: Spiking the Track.]
-
-[Illustration: Rail Making.]
-
-The road is then divided into sections about five miles long. On
-each section there is a section-boss, with four to six laborers.
-Their duty is to pass over the track at least twice a day in their
-hand-car, to examine every joint, and where one is found low or out
-of line, to bring it back to its true position by tamping gravel
-under it and moving the track. They have also to see that all
-ditches are kept clear of water, a most essential point, as without
-good drainage the ground under gravel ballast becomes soft, and the
-mud is churned up into the gravel, and the whole soon gets into bad
-order.
-
-They have to see that the fences are all right, that trees and
-telegraph poles do not fall across the track, that wooden bridges
-do not burn down, that iron and stone bridges are not undermined by
-freshets, and always to set up danger signals to warn the trains.
-
-[Illustration: Track Laying.]
-
-It is admitted by competent judges, that the track of the
-Pennsylvania Railroad is the best in this country, and one of the
-best in the world. It is kept up to its high standard of excellence
-by a system of competitive examinations.
-
-About the first of November, in each year, after the season's work
-has been done, a tour of inspection is made over all the lines, on
-a train of cars expressly prepared, consisting of two or more cars
-not unlike ordinary box cars with the front end taken out. Each car
-is pushed in front of an engine, and goes slowly over the line, by
-daylight only, so that the inspecting party may have a full view of
-the road.
-
-The Pennsylvania road is divided into Grand Divisions,
-Superintendents' Divisions, of about 100 miles long, Supervisors'
-Divisions, of about 30 miles, and Subdivisions, of 2½ miles.
-
-The examining committee for each Supervisor's Division consists of
-the supervisors of other divisions. As they pass along, they mark
-on a card. One sub-committee marks the condition of the alignment
-and surfacing of the rails; another the condition of the joints
-and the spacing of the ties; another the ballast, switches, and
-sidings; another the ditches, road-crossings, station grounds.
-The marks range from 0 to 10, 0 being very bad, 5 medium, and 10
-perfection. When the trip is done these reports are all collected
-and the average is taken for each division.
-
-As an inducement to the supervisors and the foremen of the
-Subdivisions to excel on their division, premiums are given as
-follows:
-
-  $100 to the supervisor having the best yard on his Grand Division.
-
-  $100 each to the supervisors having the best Supervisor's
-  Division on each Superintendent's Division of 100 miles.
-
-  $75 to the foreman having the best subdivision of 2½ miles on
-  each Grand Division.
-
-  $60 to each foreman having the best subdivision on his
-  Superintendent's Division, including yards.
-
-  $50 to the foreman having the best subdivision on each
-  Supervisor's Division.
-
-In addition to the above there are two premiums of honor given by
-the general manager, which bring into competition with each other
-those parts of the main line lying on either side of Philadelphia,
-viz.:
-
-  $100 to the supervisor having the best line and surface between
-  Pittsburg and Jersey City.
-
-  $50 to the second best ditto.
-
-If a supervisor or foreman of subdivision receives one of the
-higher premiums, he is not allowed to be a competitor for any
-others premiums, except the premiums of honor.
-
-The advantages of these inspections and premiums are these: Every
-man knows exactly what the standard of excellence is, and strives
-to have his section reach it. Under the old system, a man never got
-off of his own section, and had no means of comparison, and like
-all untravelled persons, became conceited.
-
-The standard of excellence becomes higher and higher every year.
-Perfect fairness prevails, as the men themselves are the judges.
-The officers of the road make no marks, but usually look on and see
-that there is fair play.
-
-This brings the officers and men nearer together, and shows the men
-how all are working for the common good. An agreeable break is made
-in the monotony of the men's lives. They have something to look
-forward to better than a spree.
-
-It is by the adoption of such methods as these that strikes will be
-prevented in the future. It encourages an _esprit de corps_ among
-the men, and educates them in every way.
-
-This system was first devised and put in operation on the
-Pennsylvania Railroad in 1879, by Mr. Frank Thomson, General
-Manager, to whom the credit of it is justly due.
-
-
-V.
-
-I have thus endeavored to trace the history of the building of
-a railway; and it must have been seen, from what has been said,
-that the evolution of the railway and of its rolling stock follows
-the same laws which govern the rest of the world: adaptation to
-circumstances decides what is fittest, and that alone survives. The
-scrap-heap of a great railway tells its own story.
-
-Our railways have now reached a development which is wonderful. The
-railways of the United States, if placed continuously, would reach
-more than half-way to the moon. Their bridges alone would reach
-from New York to Liverpool. Notwithstanding the number of accidents
-that we read of in the daily papers, statistics show that less
-persons are killed annually on railways than are killed annually by
-falling out of windows.
-
-Railways have so cheapened the cost of transportation that, while
-a load of wheat loses all of its value by being hauled one hundred
-miles on a common road, meat and flour enough to supply one man a
-year can, according to Mr. Edward Atkinson, be hauled 1,500 miles
-from the West to the East for one day's wages of that man, if he
-be a skilled mechanic. If freight charges are diminished in the
-future as in the past, this can soon be done for one day's wages of
-a common laborer.
-
-The number of persons employed in constructing, equipping, and
-operating our railways is about two millions.
-
-The combined armies and navies of the world, while on peace
-footing, will draw from gainful occupations 3,455,000 men.
-
-Those create wealth--these destroy it. Is it any wonder that
-America is the richest country in the world?
-
-The rapidity with which it is possible to build railways over the
-prairies of the West is extraordinary. It is true that the amount
-of earth necessary to be moved is much less than on the railways
-of the East. In Iowa and Wisconsin, the amount runs from 20,000 to
-25,000 yards per mile, while in Dakota it is only 12,000 to 15,000
-yards per mile. After making all due allowance for this, the result
-is still remarkable.
-
-[Illustration: Temporary Railway Crossing the St. Lawrence on the
-Ice.]
-
-The Manitoba system was extended in 1887 through Dakota and
-Montana, a distance of 545 miles. A small army of 10,000 men, with
-about 3,500 teams, commanded by General D. C. Shepard, of St. Paul,
-a veteran engineer and contractor, did it all between April 2 and
-October 19. All materials and subsistence had to be hauled to the
-front, from the base of supplies. The army slept in its own tents,
-shanties, and cars. The grading was cast up from the side ditches,
-sometimes by carts, and sometimes by the digging machine.
-
-Everything was done with military organization, except that what
-was left behind was a railway and not earth-work lines of defence.
-Assuming that this railway, ready for its equipment, cost $15,100
-per mile, or $8,175,000, and if it be true, as statisticians tell
-us, that every dollar expended in building railways in a new
-country adds ten to the value of land and other property, then this
-six months' campaign shows a solid increase of the wealth of our
-country of over eighty millions of dollars. Had it been necessary
-for our Government to keep an army of observation of the same size
-on the Canadian frontier, there would have been a dead loss of over
-eight millions of dollars, and the only result would have been a
-slight reduction of the Treasury surplus.
-
-It must be remembered that this railway was built after the
-American system: when the rails were laid, so as to carry trains,
-it was not much more than half finished; the track had to be
-ballasted, the temporary wooden structures replaced by stone and
-iron, and many buildings and miles of sidings were yet to be
-constructed. But it began to earn money from the very day the last
-rail was laid, and out of its earnings, and the credit thereby
-acquired, it will complete itself.
-
-And this is only one instance out of many. The armies of peace are
-working all over our country, increasing our wealth, and binding
-all parts into a common whole. We have here the true answer to the
-Carlyles and the Ruskins who ask: "What is the use of all this? Is
-a man any better who goes sixty miles an hour than one who went
-five miles an hour?" "Were we not happier when our fields were
-covered with their golden harvests, than now, when our wheat is
-brought to us from Dakota?"
-
-The grand function of the railway is to change the whole basis of
-civilization from military to industrial. The talent, the energy,
-the money, which is expended in maintaining the whole of Europe
-as an armed camp is here expended in building and maintaining
-railways, with their army of two millions of men. Without the
-help of railways the rebellion of the Southern States could never
-have been put down, and two great standing armies would have
-been necessary. By the railways, aided by telegraphs, it is easy
-to extend our Federal system over an entire continent, and thus
-dispense forever with standing armies.
-
-The moral effect of this upon Europe is great, but its physical
-effect is still greater. American railways have nearly abolished
-landlordism in Ireland, and they will one day abolish it in
-England, and over the continent of Europe. So long as Europe was
-dependent for food upon its own fields, the owner of those fields
-could fix his own rental. This he can no longer do, owing to the
-cheapness of transportation from Australia and from the prairies
-of America, due to the inventions of Watt, the Stephensons,
-Bessemer, and Holley.
-
-With the wealth of the landlord his political power will pass
-away. The government of European countries will pass out of the
-hands of the great landowners, but not into those of the rabble,
-as is feared. It will pass into the same hands that govern America
-to-day--the territorial democracy, the owners of small farms, and
-the manufacturers and merchants. When this comes to pass, attempts
-will be made to settle international disputes by arbitration
-instead of war, following the example of the Geneva arbitration
-between the two greatest industrial nations of the world. Whether
-our Federal system will ever extend to the rest of the world,
-no one knows, but we do know that without railways it would be
-impossible.
-
-When we consider the effects of all these wonderful changes upon
-the sum of human happiness, we must admit that the engineer should
-justly take rank with statesmen and soldiers, and that no greater
-benefactors to the human race can be named than the Stephensons and
-their American disciples--Allen, Rogers, Jervis, Winans, Latrobe,
-and Holley.
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[1] It is proper here to say that English engineers now appreciate
-the merits of the American swivelling truck or bogie. In the
-article on Railways in the last edition of the "Encyclopædia
-Britannica," speaking of locomotives, the author of the article,
-who is an English engineer of high authority, says: "American
-practice, many years since, arrived at two leading types of
-locomotive for passenger, and for goods traffic. The passenger
-locomotive has eight wheels, of which four in front are framed in
-a bogie, and the four wheels behind are coupled drivers. _This is
-the type to which English practice has been approximating._" The
-italics are ours.
-
-[2] The statistics of ten leading English and ten leading American
-lines, given by Dorsey, show the following results: 1. The cost
-per year of the rations, wages, fuel of an American locomotive
-is $5,590; of an English locomotive, $3,080. 2. Average yearly
-number of train-miles run by American locomotive, 23,928; English
-locomotive, 17,539. 3. Yearly earnings: American locomotive,
-$14,860; English locomotive, $10,940, although the English freight
-charges are much greater than those of the United States.
-
-[3] The writer has obtained many of the statistics used in this
-article from A. M. Wellington's "Economic Theory of Railway
-Location," a perfect mine of valuable information upon all such
-matters.
-
-[4] The amount of permanent wood and iron truss bridges, and of
-temporary wooden trestles on the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul
-is as follows:
-
-  Truss bridges,   700 spans,   average 93 feet,   12-4/5 miles.
-  Trestle  "     7,196   "         "    77  "     103-1/10  "
-                ------                            --------
-        Total,   7,896                            115-9/10  "
-
-The approximate total number of bridges in the United States was in
-1888:
-
-  Iron and wood truss bridges,   61,562 spans,   1,086 miles.
-  Wooden trestles,              147,187          2,127   "
-                               --------         ------
-      Total,                    208,749          3,213   "
-
-Probably three-fourths of the truss bridges are now of iron
-or steel, and may be considered perfectly safe so long as the
-trains remain upon the rails and do not strike the side trusses.
-The wooden trestles are a constant source of danger from decay
-or burning or from derailed trains, and should be replaced by
-permanent structures as fast as time and money will allow.
-
-[5] See following article on "Feats of Railroad Engineering," page
-86.
-
-[6] For fuller description of work in a caisson see "Feats of
-Railway Engineering," page 69.
-
-[7] See "Feats of Railway Engineering," page 55.
-
-
-
-
-FEATS OF RAILWAY ENGINEERING.
-
-BY JOHN BOGART.
-
-  Development of the Rail--Problems for the Engineer--How
-  Heights are Climbed--The Use of Trestles--Construction on a
-  Mountain Side--Engineering on Rope Ladders--Through the Portals
-  of a Cañon--Feats on the Oroya Railroad, Peru--Nochistongo
-  Cut--Rack Rails for Heavy Grades--Difficulties in Tunnel
-  Construction--Bridge Foundations--Cribs and Pneumatic
-  Caissons--How Men work under Water--The Construction of Stone
-  Arches--Wood and Iron in Bridge-building--Great Suspension
-  Bridges--The Niagara Cantilever and the enormous Forth
-  Bridge--Elevated and Underground Roads--Responsibilities of the
-  Civil Engineer.
-
-
-There are one hundred and fifty thousand miles of railway in the
-United States: three hundred thousand miles of rails--in length
-enough to make twelve steel girdles for the earth's circumference.
-This enormous length of rail is wonderful--we do not really grasp
-its significance. But the rail itself, the little section of steel,
-is an engineering feat. The change of its form from the curious and
-clumsy iron pear-head of thirty years ago to the present refined
-section of steel is a scientific development. It is now a beam
-whose every dimension and curve and angle are exactly suited to the
-tremendous work it has to do. The loads it carries are enormous,
-the blows it receives are heavy and constant, but it carries the
-loads and bears the blows and does its duty. The locomotive and the
-modern passenger and freight cars are great achievements; and so is
-the little rail which carries them all.
-
-The railway to-day is one of the matter-of-fact associations of
-our active life. We use it so constantly that it requires some
-little effort to think of it as a wonderful thing; a creation
-of man's ingenuity, which did not exist when our grandfathers
-were young. Its long bridges, high viaducts, and dark tunnels may
-be remarked and remembered by the traveller, but the narrow way
-of steel, the road itself, seems but a simple work. And yet the
-problem of location, the determination, foot by foot and mile by
-mile, of where the line must go, calls in its successful solution
-for the highest skill of the engineer, whose profession before the
-railway was created hardly existed at all. Locomotives now climb
-heights which a few years ago no vehicle on wheels could ascend.
-The writer, with some engineer friends, was in the mountains
-of Colorado during the summer of 1887, and saw a train of very
-intelligent donkeys loaded with ore from the mines, to which no
-access could be had but by those sure-footed beasts. Within a year
-one of that party of engineers had located and was building a
-railway to those very mines. No heights seem too great to-day, no
-valleys too deep, no cañons too forbidding, no streams too wide; if
-commerce demands, the engineer will respond and the railways will
-be built.
-
-The location of the line of a railway through difficult country
-requires the trained judgment of an engineer of special experience,
-and the most difficult country is not by any means that which might
-at first be supposed. A line through a narrow pass almost locates
-itself. But the approach to a summit through rolling country is
-often a serious problem. The rate of grade must be kept as light
-as possible, and must never exceed the prescribed maximum. The
-cuttings and the embankments must be as shallow as they can be
-made--the quantities of material taken from the excavations should
-be just about enough to make adjacent embankments. The curves must
-be few and of light radius--never exceeding an arranged limit.
-The line must always be kept as direct as these considerations
-will allow--so that the final location will give the shortest
-practicable economical distance from point to point. Many a mile
-of railway over which we travel now at the highest speed has been
-a weary problem to the engineer of location, and he has often
-accomplished a really greater success by securing a line which
-seems to closely fit the country over which it runs without marking
-itself sharply upon nature's moulding, than if he had with apparent
-boldness cut deep into the hills and raised embankments and
-viaducts high over lowlands and valleys.
-
-[Illustration: View Down the Blue from Rocky Point, Denver, South
-Park and Pacific Railroad; showing successive tiers of railway.]
-
-But roads must run through many regions where very different
-measures must be taken to secure a location practicable for
-traffic. For instance, a line at a high elevation approaches a wide
-valley which it must cross. The rate of descent is fixed by the
-established maximum grade, and the sides of the valley are much
-steeper than that rate. Then the engineer must gain distance--that
-is to say, he must make the line long enough to overcome the
-vertical height. This can often be accomplished by carrying it
-up the valley on one side and down on the other. Tributary
-valleys can be made use of if necessary, and the desired crossing
-thus accomplished. But at times even these expedients will not
-suffice. Then the line is made to bend upon itself and wind down
-the hillside upon benches cut into the earth, or rock, curving at
-points where nature affords any sort of opportunity, and reaching
-the valley at last in long convolutions like the path of a great
-serpent on the mountain side. These lines often show several tiers
-of railway, one directly above the other, as may be seen in the
-illustrations on pages 49 and 51.
-
-The long trestle shown in the illustration opposite is an
-example of an expedient often of the greatest service in railway
-construction. These trestles are built of wood, simply but strongly
-framed together, and are entirely effective for the transport of
-traffic for a number of years. Then they must be renewed, or, what
-is better, be replaced by embankment, which can be gradually made
-by depositing the material from cars on the trestle itself. The
-trestle illustrated is interesting as conforming to the curve of
-the line, which in that country, the mountains of Colorado, was
-probably a necessity of location.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-Where the direct turning of a line upon itself may not be
-necessary, there may and often must be bold work done in the
-construction of the road upon a mountain side. It must be supported
-where necessary by walls built up from suitable foundations,
-often only secured at a great depth below the grade of the road.
-Projecting points of rock must be cut through, and any practicable
-natural shelf or favorable formation must be made use of, as in the
-picture on page 61. In some of the mountain locations, galleries
-have been cut directly into the rock, the cliff overhanging the
-roadway, and the line being carried in a horizontal cut or niche in
-the solid wall.
-
-[Illustration: Loop and Great Trestle near Hagerman's, on the
-Colorado Midland Railway.]
-
-The Oroya and the Chimbote railways in South America demanded
-constant locations of this character. At many points it was
-necessary to suspend the persons making the preliminary
-measurements from the cliff above. The engineer who made these
-locations told the writer that on the Oroya line the galleries
-were often from 100 to 400 feet above the base of the cliff, and
-were generally reached from above. Rope ladders were used to great
-advantage. One 64 feet long and one 106 feet long covered the
-usual practice, and were sometimes spliced together. The side
-ropes were ¾ and 1¼ inches in diameter, and the rounds of wood 1¼
-inches in diameter, and 16 inches and 24 inches long. These were
-notched at the ends and passed through the ropes, to which they
-were afterward lashed. These ladders could be rolled up and carried
-about on donkeys or mules. When swung over the side of a cliff
-and secured at the top, and when practicable at the bottom, they
-formed a very useful instrument in location and construction. For
-simple examination of the cliff, and for rough or broken slopes
-not exceeding 70 to 80 degrees, an active fellow would, after some
-experience, walk up and down such a slope simply grasping the
-rope in his hands. If required to do any work he would secure the
-rope about his body, or wind it around his arm, leaving his hands
-comparatively free for light work.
-
-The boatswain's chair--consisting of a wooden seat 6 inches wide
-and two feet long, through the ends of which pass the side ropes,
-looped at the top, and having their ends knotted--is a particularly
-convenient seat to use where cliffs overhang to a slight degree.
-The riggers were generally Portuguese sailors, who seemed to have
-more agility and less fear than any other men to be found. At
-Cuesta Blanca, on the Oroya, a prominent discoloration on the cliff
-served as a triangulation point for locating the chief gallery.
-Men were swung over the side of the cliff in a cage about 2½ feet
-by 6 feet, open at the top and on the side next the rock. This
-was a peculiar cliff about 1,000 feet high, rising from the river
-at a general slope of about 70 degrees. The grade line of the
-road was 420 feet above the river. The Chileno miners climbed up
-a rope ladder to a large seam near the grade, where they lived;
-provisions, water, etc., being hoisted up to them. The first men
-sent over the cliff to begin the preliminary work were lowered in
-a cage and took their dinners with them, for fear they would not
-return to the work, and that unless a genuine start was made others
-could not be induced to take their places. It is safe to say that
-80 per cent. of the sixty odd tunnels on the Oroya and the seven
-tunnels on the Chimbote lines were located and constructed on lines
-determined by triangulation, and the results were so satisfactory
-that the method may be depended upon as the best system for
-determining topographical data or for locating and constructing the
-lines in any similar locality.
-
-[Illustration: Denver and Rio Grande Railway Entering the Portals
-of the Grand River Cañon, Col.]
-
-Where the rocks close in together, as in some of the cañons of our
-Southwest, the railway curves about them and finds its way often
-where one would hardly suppose a decent wagon road could be built.
-The portals of the Grand River Cañon, as here shown, present such a
-line, passing through narrow gateways of rock rising precipitously
-on either side to enormous heights.
-
-When such a cañon or a narrow valley directly crosses the line of
-the road, it must be spanned by a bridge or viaduct. The Kentucky
-River Bridge, shown below, is an instance. The Verrugas Bridge, on
-the Lima and Oroya Railroad in Peru, is another. This bridge is at
-an elevation of 5,836 feet above sea-level. It crosses a ravine at
-the bottom of which is a small stream. The bridge is 575 feet long,
-in four spans, and is supported by iron towers, the central one
-of which is 252 feet in height. The construction was accomplished
-entirely from above, the material all having been delivered at the
-top of the ravine, and the erection was made by lowering each piece
-to its position. This was done by the use of two wire-rope cables,
-suspended across the ravine from temporary towers at each end of
-the bridge.
-
-[Illustration: The Kentucky River Cantilever, on the Cincinnati
-Southern Railway.]
-
-On the line of the same Oroya Railroad is a striking example of
-the difficulties encountered in such mountain country and of
-the method by which they have been overcome. A tunnel reaches a
-narrow gorge, a truss is thrown across, and the tunnel continued.
-Nature's wildest scenery, the deep ravine, the mountain cliffs, and
-the graceful truss carrying the locomotive and train safely over
-what would seem an impossible pass, here combine to give a vivid
-illustration of an engineering feat.
-
-[Illustration: Truss over Ravine, and Tunnel, Oroya Railroad, Peru.]
-
-The location of a part of the Mexican Central Railway through the
-cut of Nochistongo is peculiarly interesting. Far underneath the
-level of this line of railway there was skilfully constructed,
-in 1608, a tunnel which at that period was a very bold piece of
-engineering. It was designed to drain the Valley of Mexico, which
-has no natural outlet. This tunnel was more than six miles long
-and ten feet wide. It was driven through the formation called
-_tepetate_, a peculiar earth with strata of sand and marl. It was
-finished in eleven months. At first excavated without a lining, it
-was afterward faced with masonry. It was not entirely protected
-when a great flood came, the dikes above gave way, and the tunnel
-became obstructed. The City of Mexico was flooded, and it was
-decided that, instead of repairing the tunnel an open cut should be
-made. The engineer who had constructed the tunnel, Enrico Martinez,
-was put in charge of this enormous undertaking, and others took his
-place after his death. The cut is believed to be the largest ever
-made in the world. For more than a century the work was continued.
-Its greatest depth is now 200 feet. It was cut deeper, but has
-partially filled with the washings from the slopes. The cost
-was enormous, more than 6,000,000 dollars in silver having been
-actually disbursed! Wages for workmen were then from 9 to 12 cents
-a day. All convicts sentenced to hard labor were put at work in the
-great cut. The loss of life was very great. Writers of the time
-state that more than 100,000 Indians perished while engaged in the
-work.
-
-[Illustration: The Nochistongo Cut, Mexican Central Railway.]
-
-[Illustration: The Mount Washington Rack Railroad.]
-
-When a line of railway encountered a grade too steep for ascent
-by the traction of the locomotive, the earlier engineers adopted
-the inclined plane. Such planes were in use at important points
-during many years. Notable instances were those by which traffic
-was carried across the Alleghany Mountains, connecting on each side
-with the Pennsylvania railway lines. These old planes are still
-visible from the present Pennsylvania Railroad where it crosses
-the summit west of Altoona. The planes were operated by stationary
-engines acting upon cables attached to the cars. These cables
-passed around drums at the head of the planes, the weight of the
-cars on one track partially balancing those on the other. Similar
-planes were in use also at Albany, Schenectady, and other places.
-
-[Illustration: Trestle on Portland and Ogdensburg Railway, Crawford
-Notch, White Mountains.]
-
-Another effective expedient is the central rack rail. No better
-or more successful example of this method of construction can be
-given than the Mount Washington Railway, illustrated above. The
-road was completed in 1869. Its length is 3-1/3 miles and its
-total rise 3,625 feet. Its steepest grade is about 1 foot rise in
-every 3 feet in length; the average grade is 1 in 4. It is built
-of heavy timber, well bolted to the rock. Low places are spanned
-by substantial trestle work. The gauge of the road is 4 feet 7½
-inches, and it is provided with the two ordinary rails and also the
-central rack rail, which is really like an iron ladder, the sides
-being of angle iron and the cross-pieces of round iron 1½ inches in
-diameter and 4 inches apart. Into these plays the central cog-wheel
-on the locomotive, which thus climbs this iron ladder with entire
-safety. Very complete arrangements are made to control the descent
-of the train in case of accident to the machinery. The locomotive
-is always below the train, and pushes it up the mountain. Many
-thousands of passengers have been transported every year without
-accident.
-
-[Illustration: A Series of Tunnels.]
-
-The rack railroad ascending the Righi, in Switzerland, was
-copied after the Mount Washington line. Some improvements in the
-construction of the rack rail and attachments have been introduced
-upon mountain roads in Germany, and this system seems very
-advantageous for use in exceptionally steep locations.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-When a line of railway meets in its course a barrier of rock, it
-is often best to cut directly through. If the grade is not too
-far below the surface of the rock, the cut is made like a great
-trench with the sides as steep as the nature of the material will
-allow. Very deep cuts are, however, not desirable. The rains
-bring down upon their slopes the softer material from above, and
-the frost detaches pieces of rock which, falling, may result in
-serious accidents to trains. Snow lodges in these deep cuts, at
-times entirely stopping traffic, as in the blizzard near New York,
-in March, 1888. A tunnel, therefore, while perhaps greater in
-first cost than a moderately deep cut, is really often the more
-economical expedient.
-
-[Illustration: Tunnel at the Foot of Mount St. Stephen, on the
-Canadian Pacific.
-
-(The glacier 8,200 feet above the Railway.)]
-
-[Illustration: Peña de Mora
-
-on the La Guayra and Carácas Railway, Venezuela.]
-
-And here is as good a place, perhaps, as any other in this chapter,
-to say that true engineering is the economical adaptation of
-the means and opportunities existing, to the end desired. Civil
-engineering was defined, by one of the greatest of England's
-engineers, as "the art of directing the great sources of
-power in nature for the use and convenience of man," and that
-definition was adopted as a fundamental idea in the charter of
-the English Institution of Civil Engineers. But the development
-of engineering-works in America has been effected successfully by
-American engineers only because they have appreciated another side
-of the problem presented to them. A past president of the American
-Society of Civil Engineers, a man of rare judgment and remarkable
-executive ability, the late Ashbel Welch, said, in discussing a
-great undertaking proposed by an eminent Frenchman: "That is the
-best engineering, not which makes the most splendid, or even the
-most perfect, work, but that which makes a work that answers the
-purpose well, at the least cost." And it may be remarked, as to
-the project which he was then discussing, that after a very large
-expenditure and an experience of eight years since that discussion,
-the plans of the work were modified and the identical suggestions
-made by Mr. Welch of a radical economical change were adopted
-in 1888.[8] Another eminent American engineer, whose practical
-experience has been gained in the construction and engineering
-supervision of more than five thousand miles of railway, said,
-in his address as President of the American Society of Civil
-Engineers: "The high object of our profession is to consider and
-determine the most economic use of time, power, and matter."
-
-[Illustration: Perspective View of St. Gothard Spiral Tunnels, in
-the Alps.]
-
-That true economy, which finally secures in a completed work the
-best results from the investment of capital, in first cost and
-continued maintenance, is an essential element in the consideration
-of any really great engineering feat.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-The difficulties involved in the construction of a tunnel, after
-the line and dimensions have been determined, depend generally
-upon the nature of the material found as the work advances. Solid
-rock presents really the fewest difficulties, but it is seldom
-that tunnels of considerable length occur without meeting material
-which requires special provision for successful treatment. In some
-cases great portions of the rock, where the roof of the tunnel is
-to be, press downward with enormous weight, being detached from the
-adjacent mass by the occurrence of natural seams.
-
-At other places soft material may be encountered, and the passage
-then is attended with great difficulty. Temporary supports,
-generally of timber, and of great strength, have often to be used
-at every foot of progress to prevent the material from forcing its
-way into the excavation already made.
-
-In long tunnels the ventilation is a difficult problem, although
-the use of compressed air drills has aided greatly in its solution.
-
-[Illustration: Plan of St. Gothard Spiral Tunnels.]
-
-Among the great tunnels which have been excavated, the St. Gothard
-is the most remarkable. It is 9¼ miles long, with a section
-26¼ feet wide by 19-2/3 feet high. The work on this tunnel was
-continuous, and it required 9¼ years for its completion.
-
-The Mont Cenis tunnel, 8-1/3 miles in length, was completed in 12
-years.
-
-[Illustration: Profile of the Same.]
-
-The Hoosac Tunnel, 4¾ miles in length, 26 feet wide and 21½ feet
-high, was not prosecuted continuously; it was completed in 1876.
-These tunnels are notable chiefly on account of their great length;
-there are others of more moderate extent which have peculiar
-features; one, illustrated on the preceding page, is unique. This
-tunnel is a portion of the St. Gothard Railway, and not very far
-distant from the great tunnel referred to above. In the descent
-of the mountain it was absolutely necessary to secure a longer
-distance than a straight line or an ordinary curve would give;
-the line was therefore doubly curved upon itself. It enters the
-mountain at a high elevation, describes a circle through the rock
-and, constantly descending, reappears under itself at the side;
-still descending, it enters the mountain at another point and
-continues in another circular tunnel until it finally emerges
-again, under itself, but at a comparatively short horizontal
-distance from its first entry, having gained the required descent
-by a continued grade through the tunnels. The profile above shows
-the descent, upon a greatly reduced scale, the heavy lines marking
-where the line is in the tunnel.
-
-[Illustration: Portal of a Finished Tunnel; showing Cameron's Cone,
-Colorado.]
-
-[Illustration: Portal of a Tunnel in Process of Construction.]
-
-The remarkable success achieved by engineers in securing suitable
-foundations at great depths is, of course, hardly known to the
-thousands who constantly see the structures supported on those
-foundations, but in any fair consideration of such engineering
-achievements this must not be omitted. The beautiful bridge
-built by Captain Eads over the Mississippi River at St. Louis,
-bold in its design and excellent in its execution, is an object
-of admiration to all who visit it, but the impression of its
-importance would be greatly magnified if the part below the surface
-of the water, which bears the massive towers, and which extends to
-a depth twice as great as the height of the pier above the water,
-could be visible.
-
-[Illustration: Railway Pass at Rocky Point in the Rocky Mountains.]
-
-The simplest and most effective foundation is, of course, on solid
-rock. In many localities reliable foundations are built upon
-earth, when it exists at a suitable depth and of such a character
-as properly to sustain the weight. Foundations under water, when
-rock or good material occurs at moderate depth, are constructed
-frequently by means of the coffer-dam, which is simply an enclosure
-made water-tight and properly connected with the bottom of the
-stream. The water is then pumped out and the foundation and
-masonry built within this temporary dam. When the material is not
-of a character to sustain the weight, the next expedient is the
-use of piles, which are driven into the ground, often to a very
-considerable depth, and sustain the load placed upon them by the
-friction upon the sides of the piles of the material in which they
-are driven. It is seldom that dependence is placed upon the load
-being transferred from the top to the point of the pile, even
-though the point may have penetrated to a comparatively solid
-material. Wood is generally used for piles, and where the ground
-is permanently saturated there seems to be hardly any known limit
-to its durability. The substructure of foundations, where it is
-certain that they will always be in contact with water, can be,
-and generally is, of wood, and the permanency of such foundations
-is well established. An exception to this, however, occurs in
-salt-water, particularly in warmer countries, where the ravages
-of the minute _Teredo Navalis_, and of the still more minute
-_Limnoria Terebrans_, destroy the wood in a very short period of
-time. These insects, however, do not work below the ground-line or
-bed of the water. In many special cases hollow iron piles are used
-successfully.
-
-[Illustration: Bridge Pier Founded on Piles.]
-
-The ordinary method of forcing a pile into the ground is by
-repeated blows of a hammer of moderate weight; better success
-being obtained by frequent blows of the hammer, lifted to a slight
-elevation, than results from a greater fall, there being danger
-also in the latter case of injuring the material of the pile. The
-use of the water-jet for sinking piles, particularly in sand, is
-interesting. A tube, generally of ordinary gas-pipe, open at the
-lower end, is fastened to the pile; the upper end is connected by
-a hose to a powerful pump and, the pile being placed in position
-on the surface of the sand, water is forced through the tube and
-excavates a passage for the pile, which, by the application of
-very light pressure, descends rapidly to the desired depth. The
-stream of water must be continuous, as it rises along the side of
-the pile and keeps the sand in a mobile state. Immediately upon
-the cessation of pumping, the sand settles about the pile, and it
-is sometimes quite impossible to afterward move it. The water-jet
-is used in sinking iron piles by conducting the water through the
-interior of the hollow pile and out of a hole at its point. The
-piles of the great iron pier at Coney Island were sunk with great
-celerity in this way. The illustration opposite shows one of the
-piers of a bridge founded upon wooden piling.
-
-In many cases it would be impossible to drive piling in such a way
-as to insure the durability of the structure above it. This is
-particularly true of the foundations of structures crossing many
-of our rivers, where the bottom is of material which, in time of
-flood, sometimes scours to very remarkable depths; the material
-often being replaced when the flood has subsided. The expedient
-adopted is the pneumatic tube, or the caisson. Both are merely
-applications of the well-known principle of the diving-bell. In
-the former case hollow iron tubes, open at the bottom, are sunk to
-considerable depths, the water being expelled by air pumped into
-the tubes at a pressure sufficient to resist the weight of the
-water. Entrance to the tubes is obtained by an air-lock at the top,
-the material is excavated from the inside, and sufficient weight
-placed upon the tube to force it gradually to the desired depth.
-When that depth is attained, the tubes are filled with concrete,
-and thus solid pillars of hydraulic concrete, surrounded by
-cast-iron tubing, are obtained.
-
-The pneumatic caisson is an enlargement of this idea of the
-diving-bell. The caisson is simply a great chamber or box, open
-at the bottom; the outside bottom edges are shod and cased with
-iron so as to give a cutting surface; the roof and sides are made
-of timber, thoroughly bolted together, and of such strength as to
-resist the pressure of the structure to be finally founded upon it.
-The chamber in the open bottom is of sufficient height to enable
-the laborers to work comfortably in it. This caisson is generally
-constructed upon the shore in the vicinity of the structure and
-towed to the point where the foundation is to be sunk. Air is
-supplied by powerful pumps and is forced into the working chamber.
-The pressure of the air of course increases constantly as the
-caisson descends; it must always be sufficient to overbalance the
-weight of the water and thus prevent the water from entering the
-chamber.
-
-Descent to the caisson is made through a tube, generally of wrought
-iron, and having, at a suitable point, an air-lock, which is
-substantially an enlargement of the tube, forming a chamber, and of
-sufficient size to accommodate a number of men. This air-lock is
-provided with doors or valves at the top and at the bottom, both
-opening downward, and also with small tubes connecting the air-lock
-with the chamber below and with the external air above. Entrance
-to the caisson is effected through this air-lock. The lower door,
-or valve, being at the bottom, closes and is kept closed by the
-pressure of the air in the caisson below. After the air-lock is
-entered the upper door or valve is shut, and held shut a few
-moments, and the tube connecting with the outer air is closed; a
-small valve in the tube connecting with the caisson is then opened
-gradually and the pressure in the air-lock becomes the same as
-that in the chamber below; as soon as this is effected the valve,
-or door, at the bottom of the air-lock falls open and the air-lock
-becomes really a part of the caisson.
-
-[Illustration: Pneumatic Caisson.]
-
-A sufficient force of men is employed in the chamber to gradually
-excavate the material from its whole surface and from under the
-cutting edge, and the masonry structure is founded upon the top
-of the caisson and built gradually, so as to give constantly a
-sufficient weight to carry the whole construction down to its final
-location upon the stable foundation, which may be the bed-rock or
-may be some strata of permanent character.
-
-The problem of lighting the chamber was until recently of
-considerable difficulty. The rapid combustion under great pressure
-made the use of lamps and candles very troublesome, particularly on
-account of the dense smoke and large production of lampblack.
-
-The introduction of the electric light has greatly aided in the
-more comfortable prosecution of pneumatic foundation work.
-
-[Illustration: Transverse Section of Pneumatic Caisson.]
-
-The removal of rock, or any large mass, from the caisson is
-effected through the air-chamber; but the removal of finer
-material, as sand or earth, is accomplished by the sand pump or
-by the pressure of the air. A tube, extending from the top of
-the masonry and kept above the surface by additions, as may be
-required, enters the working chamber and is controlled by proper
-valves. Lines of tubing and hose extend to all portions of the
-chamber. A slight excavation is made and kept filled with water.
-The bottom of the tube, or the hose connected with it, is placed in
-this excavation, and, the material being agitated so as to be in
-suspension in the water, the valve is opened, and the pressure of
-the air throws the water and the material held in suspension to the
-surface, through the tube, from the end of which it is projected
-with great velocity and may be deposited at any desired adjacent
-point. This method, however, exhausts the air from the caisson too
-rapidly for continuous service. The Eads sand-pump is therefore
-generally used. This is an ingenious apparatus, somewhat the same
-in principle as the injector which forces water into steam-boilers.
-A stream of water is thrown by a powerful pump through a tube
-which, at a point near the inlet for the excavated material, is
-enlarged so as to surround another tube. The water is forced upward
-with great velocity into the second tube, through a conical annular
-opening, and, expelling the atmosphere, carries with it to the
-surface a continuous stream of sand and water from the bottom of
-the excavation.
-
-This system has been used successfully in the foundations of piers
-and abutments of bridges in all parts of the world. The rapidity
-of the descent of the caisson varies with the material through
-which it has to pass. The speed with which such foundations are
-executed is remarkable, when one remembers with what delicacy and
-intelligent supervision they have to be balanced and controlled. In
-some instances it has been necessary to carry them to great depths,
-one at St. Louis being 107 feet below ordinary water level in the
-river.
-
-The pressure of air in caissons at these depths is very great; at
-110 feet below the surface of the water it would be 50 pounds to
-the square inch. Its effect upon the men entering and working in
-the caisson has been carefully noted in various works, and these
-effects are sometimes very serious; the frequency of respiration
-is increased, the action of the heart becomes excited, and many
-persons become affected by what is known as the "caisson disease,"
-which is accompanied by extreme pain and in some cases results
-in more or less complete paralysis. The careful observations of
-eminent physicians who have given this disease special attention
-have resulted in the formulation of rules which have reduced the
-danger to a minimum.
-
-[Illustration: At Work in a Pneumatic Caisson--fifty feet below the
-surface of the water.]
-
-The execution of work within a deep pneumatic caisson is worth a
-moment's consideration. Just above the surface of the water is a
-busy force engaged in laying the solid blocks of masonry which are
-to support the structure. Great derricks lift the stones and lay
-them in their proper position. Powerful pumps are forcing air,
-regularly and at uniform pressure, through tubes to the chamber
-below. Occasionally a stream of sand and water issues with such
-velocity from the discharge pipe that, in the night, the friction
-of the particles causes it to look like a stream of living fire.
-Far below is another busy force. Under the great pressure and
-abnormal supply of oxygen they work with an energy which makes it
-impossible to remain there more than a few hours. The water from
-without is only kept from entering by the steady action of the
-pumps far above and beyond their control. An irregular settlement
-might overturn the structure. Should the descent of the caisson
-be arrested by any solid under its edge, immediate and judicious
-action must be taken. If the obstruction be a log, it must be cut
-off outside the edge and pulled into the chamber. Boulders must be
-undermined and often must be broken up by blasting. The excavation
-must be systematic and regular. A constant danger menaces the lives
-of these workers, and the wonderful success with which they have
-accomplished what they have undertaken is entitled to notice and
-admiration.
-
-[Illustration: Pier of Hawkesbury Bridge, Australia.]
-
-Another process, which has succeeded in carrying a foundation to
-greater depths than is possible with compressed air, is by building
-a crib or caisson, with chambers entirely open at the top, but
-having the alternate ones closed at the bottom and furnished with
-cutting edges. These closed chambers are weighted with stone or
-gravel until the structure rests upon the bottom of the river;
-the material is then excavated from the bottom through the open
-chambers, by means of dredges, thus permitting the structure
-to sink by its weight to the desired depth. When that depth is
-reached, the chambers which have been used for dredging are filled
-with concrete, and the masonry is constructed upon the top of this
-structure. The use of this system has enabled the engineer to place
-foundations deeper than has been accomplished by any other device,
-one recently built in Australia being 175 feet below the surface of
-the water. The illustrations above and on page 76 show this method
-of construction.
-
-[Illustration: Foundation Crib of the Poughkeepsie Bridge.]
-
-Even more remarkable than the pneumatic caisson is this method
-of sinking these great foundations. The removal of material must
-be made with such systematic regularity that the structure shall
-descend evenly and always maintain its upright position. The dredge
-is handled and operated entirely from the surface. The very idea
-is startling, of managing an excavation more than a hundred feet
-below the operator, entirely by means of the ropes which connect
-with the dredge, and doing it with such delicacy that the movement
-of an enormous structure, weighing many tons, is absolutely
-controlled. This is one of the latest and most interesting advances
-of engineering skill.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-[Illustration: Transverse Section of the same.]
-
-While it is true that the avoidance of large expenditure, when
-possible, is a mark of the best engineering, yet great structures
-often become absolutely necessary in the development of railway
-communication. Wide rivers must be crossed, deep valleys must be
-spanned, and much study has been given to the best methods of
-accomplishing these results. In the early history of railways
-in Europe substantial viaducts of brick and stone masonry were
-generally built; and in this country there are notable instances of
-such constructions. The approach to the depot of the Pennsylvania
-Railroad, in the city of Philadelphia, is an excellent example.
-Each street crossed by the viaduct is spanned by a bold arch of
-brick. Upon a number of our railways there are heavy masonry arches
-and culverts, and at some places these are of a very interesting
-character. The arches in the approach to the bridge over the Harlem
-Valley (recently completed) are shown above. They are of granite,
-having a span of 60 feet. The illustration shows also the method
-of supporting the stone work of such arches during construction.
-Braced timbers form what is called the centre, and support the
-curved frame of plank upon which the masonry is built, which, of
-course, cannot be self-supporting until the keystone is in place;
-then the centre is lowered by a loosening of the wedges which
-support it, and the stone work of the arch is permitted to assume
-its final bearing. It is generally considered that where it is
-practicable to construct masonry arches under railways there is a
-fair assurance of their permanency, but some engineers of great
-experience in railway construction advance the theory that the
-constant jar and tremor produced by passing railway trains is
-really more destructive to masonry work than has been supposed,
-and that it may be true that the elements of the best economy will
-be found in metal structures rather than in masonry. It is a fact
-that repairs and renewals of metal bridges are much more easily
-accomplished than of masonry constructions.
-
-[Illustration: Granite Arched Approach to Harlem River Bridge in
-Process of Construction.]
-
-In this country the wooden bridge has been an important, in fact an
-essential element in the successful building of our railways.
-
-Timber is also used extensively in railroad construction in the
-form of trestles; one example of which has been alluded to on
-page 50. There were also constructed, years ago, some very bold
-viaducts in wood. One of the most interesting is shown above, being
-the viaduct at Portage, N. Y. This construction was over 800 feet
-long, and 234 feet high from the bed of the river to the rail. The
-masonry foundations were 30 feet high, the trestles 190 feet, and
-the truss 14 feet; it contained more than a million and a half
-feet, board measure, of timber. The timber piers, which were 50
-feet apart, are formed by three trestles, grouped together. It was
-framed so that defective pieces could be taken out and replaced
-at any time. This bridge was finished in 1852 and was completely
-destroyed by fire in 1875. The new metal structure which took
-its place is shown on the opposite page, and is an interesting
-example of the American method of metal viaduct construction, an
-essential feature of that construction being the concentration of
-the material into the least possible number of parts. This bridge
-has ten spans of 50 feet, two of 100 feet, and one of 118 feet. The
-trusses are of what is called the Pratt pattern, and are supported
-by wrought-iron columns, two pairs of columns forming a skeleton
-tower 20 feet wide and 50 feet long on the top. There are six of
-these towers, one of which has a total height from the masonry to
-the rail of 203 feet 8 inches. There are over 1,300,000 pounds of
-iron in this structure.
-
-[Illustration: The Old Portage Viaduct, Erie Railway, N. Y.]
-
-The fundamental idea of a bridge is a simple beam of wood. If metal
-is substituted it is still a beam with all superfluous parts cut
-away. This results in what is called an I beam. When greater loads
-have to be carried, the I beam is enlarged and built up of metal
-plates riveted together and thus becomes a plate girder. These are
-used for all short railway spans. For greater spans the truss must
-be employed.
-
-[Illustration: The New Portage Viaduct.]
-
-Before referring, however, to examples of truss bridges, a
-description should be given of the Britannia Bridge, built by
-Robert Stephenson in 1850, over the Menai Straits. This great
-construction carries two lines of rails and is built of two square
-tubes, side by side, each being continuous, 1,511 feet long,
-supported at each extremity and at three intermediate points,
-and having two spans of 460 feet each and two spans of 230 feet
-each. The towers which support this structure are of very massive
-masonry, and rise considerably above the top of the tubes. These
-tubes are each 27 feet high and 14 feet 8 inches wide; they are
-built up of plate iron, the top and bottom being cellular in
-construction, and the sides of a single thickness of iron. The
-tubes for the long spans were built on shore and floated to the
-side of the bridge and then lifted by hydraulic presses to their
-final position. The rapid current, and other considerations, made
-the erection of false works for these spans impracticable. The
-beautiful suspension bridge, built by Telford in 1820, over the
-Menai Straits, is only a mile away from this Britannia Bridge, but,
-at the time of the construction of the latter, it was not deemed
-possible by English engineers to erect a suspension bridge of
-sufficient strength and stability to accommodate railway traffic.
-
-[Illustration: The Britannia Tubular Bridge over the Menai Straits,
-North Wales.]
-
-The Victoria Bridge at Montreal is of the same general character
-of construction as the Britannia Bridge, but is built only for a
-single line of rails; this bridge also was built by Mr. Stephenson,
-in 1859. These two structures were enormous works; their strength
-is undoubted, but they lack that element of permanent economy which
-has been spoken of in this article; their cost was very great, and
-the expense of maintenance is also very great. A very large amount
-of rust is taken from these tubes every year; they require very
-frequent painting, and there are on the Victoria Bridge 30 acres of
-iron surface to be thus painted.
-
-[Illustration: Old Stone Towers of the Niagara Suspension Bridge.]
-
-A remarkable and interesting contrast to these heavy tubes of
-iron is the Niagara Falls railway suspension bridge, completed in
-March, 1855. The span of this bridge is 821 feet, and the track
-is 245 feet above the water surface. It is supported by 4 cables
-which rested on the tops of two masonry towers at each end of
-the central span, the ends of the cables being carried to and
-anchored in the solid rock. The suspended superstructure has two
-floors, one above the other, connected together at each side by
-posts and truss rods, inclined in such a manner as to form an open
-trussed tube, not intended to support the load, but to prevent
-excessive undulations. The floors are suspended from the cables
-by wire ropes, the upper floor carrying the railroad track, and
-the lower forming a foot and carriage way. Each cable has 3,640
-iron wires. This bridge carried successfully a heavy traffic for
-26 years; it was then found that some repairs to the cable were
-required at the anchorage, the portions of the cables exposed to
-the air being in excellent condition. These repairs were made,
-and the anchorage was substantially reinforced. At the same time
-it was found that the wooden suspended superstructure was in
-bad condition, and this was entirely removed and replaced by a
-structure of iron, built and adjusted in such a manner as to secure
-the best possible results. For some time it had been noticed that
-the stone towers which supported the great cables of the bridge
-showed evidences of disintegration at the surface, and a careful
-engineering examination in 1885 showed that these towers were in
-a really dangerous condition. The reason for this was that the
-saddles over which the cables pass on the top of the towers had
-not the freedom of motion which was required for the action of the
-cables, caused by differences of temperature and by passing loads.
-These saddles had been placed upon rollers but, at some period,
-cement had been allowed to be put between these rollers, thus
-preventing their free motion. The result was a bending strain upon
-the towers which was too great for the strength and cohesion of
-the stone. A most interesting and successful feat was accomplished
-in the substitution of iron towers for these stone towers, without
-interrupting the traffic across the bridge. This was accomplished
-within a year or two by building a skeleton iron tower outside of
-the stone tower, and transferring the cables from the stone to the
-iron tower by a most ingenious arrangement of hydraulic jacks.
-The stone towers were then removed. Thus, by the renewal of its
-suspended structure and the replacing of its towers, the bridge has
-been given a new lease of life and is in excellent condition to-day.
-
-[Illustration: The New Iron Towers of the Same.]
-
-This Niagara railway suspension bridge has been so long in
-successful operation that it is difficult now to appreciate the
-general disbelief in the possibility of its success as a railway
-bridge, when it was undertaken. It was projected and executed
-by the late John A. Roebling. Before it was finished, Robert
-Stephenson said to him, "If your bridge succeeds, mine is a
-magnificent blunder." The Niagara bridge did succeed.
-
-[Illustration: Below the Brooklyn Bridge.
-
-From a painting by J. H. Twachtman.]
-
-We are so familiar with the great suspension bridge between New
-York and Brooklyn, that only a simple statement of some of
-its characteristic features will be given. Its clear span is
-1,595½ feet. With its approaches its length is 3,455 feet. The
-clear waterway is 135 feet high. The towers rise 272 feet above
-high water and extend on the New York side down to rock 78 feet
-below. The four suspension cables are of steel wire and support
-six parallel steel trusses, thus providing two carriage ways, two
-lines of railway, and one elevated footway. The cables are carried
-to bearing anchorages in New York and in Brooklyn. The cars on the
-bridge are propelled by cables, and the amount of travel is now
-so great as to demand some radical changes in the methods for its
-accommodation, which a few years ago were supposed to be ample.
-
-Except under special circumstances of location or length of span,
-the truss bridge is a more economical and suitable structure for
-railway traffic than a suspension bridge.
-
-The advance from the wood truss to the modern steel structure has
-been through a number of stages. Excellent bridges were built
-in combinations of wood and iron, and are still advocated where
-wood is inexpensive. Then came the use of cast iron for those
-portions of the truss subject only to compressive strains, wrought
-iron being used for all members liable to tension. Many bridges
-of notable spans were built in this way and are still in use.
-The form of this combination truss varied with the designs of
-different engineers, and the spans extended to over three hundred
-feet. The forms bore the names of the designers, and the Fink, the
-Bollman, the Pratt, the Whipple, the Post, the Warren, and others
-had each their advocates. The substitution of wrought for cast
-iron followed, and until quite recently trusses built entirely of
-wrought iron have been used for all structures of great span. The
-latest step has been made in the use of steel, at first for special
-members of a truss and latterly for the whole structure. The art
-of railway bridge building has thus, in a comparatively few years,
-passed through its age of wood, and then of iron, and now rests in
-the application of steel in all its parts.
-
-Two distinct ways of connecting the different parts of a structure
-are in common use, riveting and pin connections.
-
-In riveted connections the various parts of the bridge are fastened
-at all junctions by overlapping the plates of iron or steel and
-inserting rivets into holes punched through all the plates to be
-connected. The rivets are so spaced as to insure the best result
-as to strength. The pieces of metal are brought together, either
-in the shop or at the structure during erection, and the rivets,
-which are round pieces of metal with a head formed on one end,
-are heated and inserted from one side, being made long enough to
-project sufficiently to give the proper amount of metal for forming
-the other head. This is done while the rivet is still hot, either
-by hammering or by the application of a riveting machine, operated
-by steam or hydraulic pressure. Ingenious portable machines are
-now manufactured which are hung from the structure during erection
-and connected by flexible hose with the steam power, by the use of
-which the rivet heads can be formed in place with great celerity.
-The connections of plates by rivets of proper dimensions and
-properly spaced give great strength and stiffness to such joints.
-
-In pin connections the members of a structure are assembled at
-points of junction and a large iron or steel pin inserted in
-a pin-hole running through all the members. This pin is made
-of such diameter as to withstand and properly transmit all the
-strains brought upon it. Joints made with such pin connections
-have flexibility, and the strains and stresses can be calculated
-with great precision. Eye-bars are forged pieces of iron or steel,
-generally flat, and enlarged at the ends so as to give a proper
-amount of metal around the pin-hole or eye, formed in those ends.
-
-Structures connected by pins at their principal junctions have, of
-course, many parts in which riveting must be used.
-
-The elements which are distinctively American in our railway
-bridges are the concentration of material in few members and
-the use of eye-bars and pin connections in place of riveted
-connections. The riveted methods are, however, largely used in
-connection with the American forms of truss construction.
-
-[Illustration: Truss Bridge of the Northern Pacific Railway over
-the Missouri River at Bismarck, Dak.--Testing the central span.]
-
-An excellent example of an American railway truss bridge is shown
-on the opposite page. This structure spans the Missouri River at
-its crossing by the Northern Pacific Railroad. It has three through
-spans of 400 feet each and two deck spans of 113 feet each. The
-bottom chords of the long spans are 50 feet above high water,
-which at this place is 1,636 feet above the level of the sea. The
-foundations of the masonry piers were pneumatic caissons. The
-trusses of the through spans, 400 feet long, are 50 feet deep and
-22 feet between centres. They are divided into 16 panels of 25 feet
-each. The truss is of the double system Whipple type, with inclined
-end posts. The bridge is proportioned to carry a train weighing
-2,000 pounds per lineal foot, preceded by two locomotives weighing
-150,000 pounds in a length of 50 feet. The pins connecting the
-members of the main truss are 5 inches in diameter.
-
-This bridge is a characteristic illustration of the latest type
-of American methods. The extreme simplicity of its lines of
-construction, the direct transfer of the strains arising from
-loads, through the members, to and from the points where those
-strains are concentrated in the pin connections at the ends of each
-member, are apparent even to the untechnical eye. The apparent
-lightness of construction arising from the concentration of the
-material in so small a number of members, and the necessarily great
-height of the truss, give a grace and elegance to the structure,
-and suggest bold and fine development of the theories of mechanics.
-
-[Illustration: Curved Viaduct, Georgetown, Col.; the Union Pacific
-crossing its own Line.]
-
-An interesting viaduct is shown in the above illustration, where
-the railway crosses its own line on a curved truss.
-
-The truss bridges which have been mentioned as types of the modern
-railway bridge are erected by the use of false works of timber,
-placed generally upon piling or other suitable foundation, between
-the piers or abutments, and made of sufficient strength to carry
-each span of the permanent structure until it is completed and all
-its parts connected, or, as is technically said, until the span
-is swung. Then the false works are removed and the span is left
-without intermediate support. But there are places where it would
-be impossible or exceedingly expensive to erect any false works. A
-structure over a valley of great depth, or over a river with very
-rapid current, are instances of such a situation.
-
-A suspension bridge would solve the problem, but in many cases not
-satisfactorily. The method adopted by Colonel C. Shaler Smith at
-the Kentucky River Bridge [p. 55] shows ingenuity and boldness
-worthy of special remark. The Cincinnati Southern Railroad had
-here to cross a cañon 1,200 feet wide and 275 feet deep. The
-river is subject to freshets every two months, with a range of 55
-feet and a known rise of 40 feet in a single night. Twenty years
-before, the towers for a suspension bridge had been erected at
-this point. The design adopted for the railroad bridge was based
-upon the cantilever principle. The structure has three spans of
-375 feet each, carrying a railway track at a height of 276 feet
-above the bed of the river. At the time of its construction this
-was the highest railway bridge in the world, and it is still the
-highest structure of the kind with spans of over 60 feet in length.
-The bridge is supported by the bluffs at its ends and by two
-intermediate iron piers resting upon bases of stone masonry. Each
-iron pier is 177 feet high, and consists of four legs, having a
-base of 71½ × 28 feet, and terminating at its top in a turned pin
-12 inches in diameter under each of the two trusses. Each iron pier
-is a structure complete in itself, with provision for expansion and
-contraction in each direction through double roller beds interposed
-between it and the masonry, and is braced to withstand a gale of
-wind that would blow a loaded freight-train bodily from the bridge.
-
-The trusses were commenced by anchoring them back to the old
-towers, and were then built out as cantilevers from each bluff to
-a distance of one-half the length of the side spans, and at this
-point rested upon temporary wooden supports. Thence they were again
-extended as cantilevers until the side spans were completed and
-rested upon the iron piers. This cantilever principle is simply the
-balancing of a portion of the structure on one side of a support by
-the portion on the opposite side of the same support. Similarly the
-halves of the middle span were built out from the piers, meeting
-with exactness in mid-air. The temporary support used first at
-the centre of one side span and then at the other, was the only
-scaffolding used in erecting the structure, none whatever being
-used for the middle span.
-
-When the junction was made at the centre of the middle span, the
-trusses were continuous from bluff to bluff, and, had they been
-left in this condition, would have been subjected to constantly
-varying strains resulting from the rise and fall of the iron piers
-due to thermal changes. This liability was obviated by cutting the
-bottom chords of the side spans and converting them into sliding
-joints at points 75 feet distant from the iron piers. This done,
-the bridge consists of a continuous girder 525 feet long, covering
-the middle span of 375 feet, and projecting as cantilevers for 75
-feet beyond each pier, each cantilever supporting one end of a
-300-foot span, which completes the distance to the bluff on each
-side.
-
-[Illustration: The Niagara Cantilever Bridge in Progress.]
-
-A most interesting example of cantilever construction is the
-railway bridge built several years ago at Niagara, only a few rods
-from the suspension bridge and a short distance below the great
-falls. It is shown in the illustrations above and on page 91. The
-floor of the bridge is 239 feet above the surface of the water,
-which at that point has a velocity in the centre of 16½ miles per
-hour and forms constant whirlpools and eddies near the shores.
-The total length of the structure is 910 feet, and the clear span
-over the river between the towers is 470 feet. The shore arms of
-the cantilever, that is to say, those portions of the structure
-which extend from the top of the bank to the top of the tower built
-from the foot of the bank, are firmly anchored at their shore
-ends to a pier built upon the solid rock. These shore-arms were
-constructed on wooden false works, and serve as balancing weights
-to the other or river arms of the lever, which project out over
-the stream. These river-arms were built by the addition of metal,
-piece by piece, the weight being always more than balanced by
-the shore-arms. The separate members of the river-arms were run
-out on the top of the completed part and then lowered from the
-end by an overhanging travelling derrick, and fastened in place
-by men working upon a platform suspended below. This work was
-continued, piece by piece, until the river-arm of each cantilever
-was complete, and the structure was then finished by connecting
-these river-arms by a short truss suspended from them directly
-over the centre of the stream. This whole structure was built in
-eight months, and is an example both of a bold engineering work
-and of the facility with which a pin-connected structure can be
-erected. The materials are steel and iron. The prosecution of this
-work by men suspended on a platform, hung by ropes from a skeleton
-structure projecting, without apparent support, over the rushing
-Niagara torrent, was always an interesting and really thrilling
-spectacle.
-
-[Illustration: The Niagara Cantilever Bridge Completed.]
-
-The Lachine Bridge recently built over the St. Lawrence near
-Montreal, illustrated below, has certain peculiar features. It has
-a total length of 3,514 feet. The two channel spans are each 408
-feet in length and are through spans. The others are deck spans.
-Through spans are those where the train passes between the side
-trusses. Deck spans are those where the train passes over the top
-of the structure. These two channel spans and the two spans next
-them form cantilevers, and the channel spans were built out from
-the central pier and from the adjacent flanking spans without the
-use of false works in either channel. A novel method of passing
-from the deck to the through spans has been used, by curving the
-top and bottom chords of the channel spans to connect with the
-chords of the flanking spans. The material is steel.
-
-[Illustration: The Lachine Bridge, on the Canadian Pacific Railway,
-near Montreal, Canada.]
-
-This structure, light, airy, and graceful, forms a strong contrast
-to the dark, heavy tube of the Victoria Bridge just below.
-
-The enormous cantilever Forth Bridge, with its two spans of 1,710
-feet each, is in steady progress of construction and will when
-completed mark a long step in advance in the science of bridge
-construction.
-
-Of entirely different design and principle from all these trusses
-are the beautiful steel arches of the St. Louis Bridge [p. 95], the
-great work of that remarkable genius, James B. Eads. This structure
-spans the Mississippi at St. Louis. Difficult problems were
-presented in the study of the design for a permanent bridge at that
-point. The river is subject to great changes. The variation between
-extreme low and high water has been over 41 feet. The current
-runs from 2¾ to 8½ miles per hour. It holds always much matter
-in suspension, but the amount so held varies greatly with the
-velocity. The very bed of the river is really in constant motion.
-Examination by Captain Eads in a diving-bell showed that there was
-a moving current of sand at the bottom, of at least three feet in
-depth. At low water, the velocity of the stream is small and the
-bottom rises. When the velocity increases, a "scour" results and
-the river-bed is deepened, sometimes with amazing rapidity. In
-winter the river is closed by huge cakes of ice from the north,
-which freeze together and form great fields of ice.
-
-It was decided to be necessary that the foundations should
-go to rock, and they were so built. The general plan of the
-superstructure, with all its details, was elaborated gradually and
-carefully, and the result is a real feat of engineering. There are
-three steel arches, the centre one having a span of 520 feet and
-each side arch a span of 502 feet. Each span has four parallel
-arches or ribs, and each arch is composed of two cylindrical steel
-tubes, 18 inches in exterior diameter, one acting as the upper
-and the other as the lower chord of the arch. The tubes are in
-sections, each about twelve feet long, and connected by screw
-joints. The thickness of the steel forming the tubes runs from
-1-3/16 to 2-1/8 inches. These upper and lower tubes are parallel
-and are 12 feet apart, connected by a single system of diagonal
-bracing. The double tracks of the railroad run through the bridge
-adjacent to the side arches at the elevation of the highest point
-of the lower tube. The carriage road and footpaths extend the full
-width of the bridge and are carried, by braced vertical posts, at
-an elevation of twenty-three feet above the railroad. The clear
-headway is 55 feet above ordinary high water. The approaches on
-each side are masonry viaducts, and the railway connects with the
-City Station by a tunnel nearly a mile in length. The illustration
-shows vividly the method of erection of these great tubular ribs.
-They were built out from each side of a pier, the weight on one
-side acting as a counterpoise for the construction on the other
-side of the pier. They were thus gradually and systematically
-projected over the river, without support from below, till they met
-at the middle of the span, when the last central connecting tube
-was put in place by an ingenious mechanical arrangement, and the
-arch became self-supporting.
-
-The double arch steel viaduct recently built over the Harlem Valley
-in the city of New York [p. 97] has a marked difference from the
-St. Louis arches in the method of construction of the ribs. These
-are made up of immense voussoirs of plate steel, forming sections
-somewhat analogous to the ring stones of a masonry arch. These
-sections are built up in the form of great I beams, the top and
-bottom of the I being made by a number of parallel steel plates
-connected by angle pieces with the upright web, which is a single
-piece of steel. The vertical height of the I is 13 feet. The span
-of each of these arches is 510 feet. There are six such parallel
-ribs in each span, connected with each other by bracing. These
-great ribs rest upon steel pins of 18 inches diameter, placed at
-the springing of the arch. The arches rise from massive masonry
-piers, which extend up to the level of the floor of the bridge.
-This floor is supported by vertical posts from the arches and is
-a little above the highest point of the rib. It is 152 feet above
-the surface of the river--having an elevation fifty feet greater
-than the well-known High Bridge, which spans the same valley
-within a quarter of a mile. The approaches to these steel arches
-on each side are granite viaducts carried over a series of stone
-arches. The whole structure forms a notable example of engineering
-construction. It was finished within two years from the beginning
-of work upon its foundations, the energy of its builders being
-worthy of special commendation.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-[Illustration: The St. Louis Bridge during Construction.]
-
-[Illustration: The 510-feet Span Steel Arches of the New Harlem
-River Bridge, New York, during construction.]
-
-In providing for the rapid transit of passengers in great
-cities the two types of construction successfully adopted are
-represented by the New York Elevated and the London Underground
-railways. The New York Elevated is a continuous metal viaduct,
-supported on columns varying in height so as to secure easy grades.
-The details of construction differ greatly at various parts of the
-elevated lines, those more recently built being able to carry much
-heavier trains than the earlier portions. The roads have been very
-successful in providing the facilities for transit so absolutely
-necessary in New York. The citizens of that city are alive to the
-present necessity of adding very soon to those facilities, and it
-is now only a question of the best method to be adopted to secure
-the largest results in a permanent manner.
-
-The London Underground road has also been very successful. Its
-construction was a formidable undertaking. Its tunnels are not
-only under streets but under heavy buildings. Its daily traffic is
-enormous. The difficult question in its management is, as in all
-long tunnels, that of ventilation, but modern science will surely
-solve that, as it does so many other problems connected with the
-active life of man.
-
-[Illustration: London Underground Railway Station.]
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-Many broad questions of general policy, and innumerable matters of
-detail are involved in the development of railway engineering. In
-the determination, for instance, of the location, the relations
-of cost and construction to future business, the possibilities
-of extensions and connections, the best points for settlements
-and industrial enterprises, the merits and defects of alternative
-routes must be weighed and decided.
-
-Where structures are to be built, the amount and delicacy of detail
-requisite in their design and execution can hardly be described.
-Final pressures upon foundations must be ascertained and provided
-for. Accurate calculations of strains and stresses, involving
-the application of difficult processes and mechanical theories,
-must be made. The adjustment of every part must be secured with
-reference to its future duty. Strength and safety must be assured
-and economy not forgotten. Every contingency must, if possible, be
-anticipated, while the emergencies which arise during every great
-construction demand constant watchfulness and prompt and accurate
-decision.
-
-The financial success of the largest enterprises rests upon
-such practical application of theory and experience. Even more
-weighty still is the fact that the safety of thousands of human
-lives depends daily upon the permanency and stability of railway
-structures. Such are some of the deep responsibilities which are
-involved in the active work of the Civil Engineer.
-
-FOOTNOTE:
-
-[8] Reference is made to the substitution of locks in the Panama
-Canal for the original project of a canal at the sea-level.
-
-
-
-
-AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS.
-
-BY M. N. FORNEY.
-
-  The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in 1830--Evolution of the Car
-  from the Conestoga Wagon--Horatio Allen's Trial Trip--The
-  First Locomotive used in the United States--Peter Cooper's
-  Race with a Gray Horse--The "De Witt Clinton," "Planet," and
-  other Early Types of Locomotives--Equalizing Levers--How Steam
-  is Made and Controlled--The Boiler, Cylinder, Injector, and
-  Valve Gear--Regulation of the Capacity of a Locomotive to
-  Draw--Increase in the Number of Driving Wheels--Modern Types of
-  Locomotives--Variation in the Rate of Speed--The Appliances by
-  which an Engine is Governed--Round-houses and Shops--Development
-  of American Cars--An Illustration from Peter Parley--The Survival
-  of Stage Coach Bodies--Adoption of the Rectangular Shape--The
-  Origin of Eight-wheeled Cars--Improvement in Car Coupling--A
-  Uniform Type Recommended--The Making of Wheels--Relative Merits
-  of Cast and Wrought Iron, and Steel--The Allen Paper Wheel--Types
-  of Cars, with Size, Weight, and Price--The Car-Builder's
-  Dictionary--Statistical.
-
-
-Among the readers of this volume there will be some who have
-reached the summit of the "divide" which separates the spring
-and summer of life from its autumn and winter, and whose first
-information about railroads was received from Peter Parley's "First
-Book of History," which was used as a schoolbook forty or fifty
-years ago. In his chapter on Maryland, he says:
-
-  But the most curious thing at Baltimore is the railroad. I must
-  tell you that there is a great trade between Baltimore and the
-  States west of the Alleghany Mountains. The western people buy a
-  great many goods at Baltimore, and send in return a great deal of
-  western produce. There is, therefore, a vast deal of travelling
-  back and forth, and hundreds of teams are constantly occupied in
-  transporting goods and produce to and from market.[9]
-
-  Now, in order to carry on all this business more easily, the
-  people are building what is called a railroad. This consists of
-  iron bars laid along the ground, and made fast, so that carriages
-  with small wheels may run along upon them with facility. In this
-  way, one horse will be able to draw as much as ten horses on a
-  common road. A part of this railroad is already done, and if you
-  choose to take a ride upon it, you can do so. You will mount a
-  car something like a stage, and then you will be drawn along by
-  two horses, at the rate of twelve miles an hour.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Conestoga Wagon and Team. (From a recent
-photograph.)]
-
-The picture reproduced below (Fig. 2) of a car drawn by horses
-was given with the above description of the Baltimore & Ohio
-Railroad. The mutilated copy of the book from which the engraving
-and extract were copied does not give the date when it was written
-or published. It was probably some time between the years 1830 and
-1835. That the car shown in the engraving was evolved from the
-Conestoga wagon is obvious from the illustrations.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, 1830-35.]
-
-This engraving and description, made for children, more than
-fifty years ago, will give some idea of the state of the art of
-railroading at that time; and it is a remarkable fact that the
-present wonderful development and the improvements in railroads and
-their equipments in this country have been made during the lives of
-persons still living.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Boston & Worcester Railroad, 1835.]
-
-In the latter part of 1827, the Delaware & Hudson Canal Company
-put the Carbondale Railroad under construction. The road extends
-from the head of the Delaware & Hudson Canal at Honesdale, Pa., to
-the coal mines belonging to the Delaware & Hudson Canal Company
-at Carbondale, a distance of about sixteen miles. This line was
-opened, probably in 1829, and was operated partly by stationary
-engines, and partly by horses. The road is noted chiefly for being
-the one on which a locomotive was first used in this country. This
-was the "Stourbridge Lion," which was built in England under the
-direction of Mr. Horatio Allen, who afterward was president of the
-Novelty Works in New York, and who is still (1889) living near New
-York at the ripe age of eighty-seven. Before the road was opened,
-he had been a civil engineer on the Carbondale line. In 1828 Mr.
-Allen went to England, the only place where a locomotive was then
-in daily operation, to study the subject in all its practical
-details. Before leaving this country he was intrusted by the
-Delaware & Hudson Canal Company with the commission to have rails
-made for that line, and to have three locomotives built on plans
-to be decided by him when in England. This, it must be remembered,
-was before the celebrated trial of the "Rocket" on the Liverpool
-& Manchester Railway, which was not made until 1829. Previous to
-that trial, it had not been decided what type of boiler was the
-best for locomotives. The result of Mr. Allen's investigations was
-to produce in his mind a decided confidence in the multitubular
-boiler which is now universally used for locomotives. Other persons
-of experience recommended a boiler with small riveted flues of as
-small diameter as could be riveted. An order was therefore given
-to Messrs. Foster, Rastrick & Co., at Stourbridge, for one engine
-whose boiler was to have riveted flues of comparatively large
-size, and another order was given to Messrs. Stephenson & Co., of
-Newcastle-on-Tyne, for two locomotives with boilers having small
-tubes. The engine built by Foster, Rastrick & Co. was named the
-"Stourbridge Lion." It was sent to this country and was tried at
-Honesdale, Pa., on August 9, 1829. On its trial trip it was managed
-by Mr. Allen, to whom belongs the distinction of having run the
-first locomotive that was ever used in this country. In 1884 he
-wrote the following account of this trip:
-
-  When the time came, and the steam was of the right pressure,
-  and all was ready, I took my position on the platform of the
-  locomotive alone, and with my hand on the throttle-valve handle
-  said: "If there is any danger in this ride it is not necessary
-  that the life and limbs of more than one should be subjected to
-  that danger."
-
-  The locomotive, having no train behind it, answered at once to
-  the movement of the hand; ... soon the straight line was run
-  over, the curve was reached and passed before there was time
-  to think as to its not being passed safely, and soon I was
-  out of sight in the three miles' ride alone in the woods of
-  Pennsylvania. I had never run a locomotive nor any other engine
-  before; I have never run one since.
-
-[Illustration: Horatio Allen.]
-
-The two engines contracted for with Messrs. Stephenson & Co. were
-made by them, and Mr. Allen has informed the writer that they were
-built on substantially the same plans that were afterward embodied
-in the famous "Rocket." They were shipped to New York and for a
-time were stored in an iron warehouse on the east side of the city,
-where they were exhibited to the public. They were never sent to
-the Delaware & Hudson Canal Company's road, and it is not now known
-whatever became of them. If they had been put to work on their
-arrival here the use of engines of the "Rocket" type would have
-been anticipated on this side the Atlantic.
-
-The first railroad which was undertaken for the transportation of
-freight and passengers in this country, on a comprehensive scale,
-was the Baltimore & Ohio. Its construction was begun in 1828. The
-laying of rails was commenced in 1829, and in May, 1830, the first
-section of fifteen miles from Baltimore to Ellicott's Mills was
-opened. It was probably about this time that the animated sketch
-of the car given by Peter Parley was made. From 1830 to 1835 many
-lines were projected, and at the end of that year there were over a
-thousand miles of road in use.
-
-Whether the motive power on these roads should be horses or steam
-was for a long time an open question. The celebrated trial of
-locomotives on the Liverpool & Manchester Railway, in England, was
-made in 1829. Reports of these trials, and of the use of locomotive
-engines on the Stockton & Darlington line, were published in this
-country, and, as Mr. Charles Francis Adams says, "The country,
-therefore, was not only ripe to accept the results of the Rainhill
-contest, but it was anticipating them with eager hope." In 1829 Mr.
-Horatio Allen, who had been in England the year before to learn all
-that could then be learned about steam locomotion, reported to the
-South Carolina Railway Company in favor of steam instead of horse
-power for that line. The basis of that report, he says, "Was on the
-broad ground that in the future there was no reason to expect any
-material improvement in the breed of horses, while, in my judgment,
-the man was not living who knew what the breed of locomotives was
-to place at command."
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Peter Cooper's Locomotive, 1830.]
-
-As early as 1829 and 1830, Peter Cooper experimented with a little
-locomotive on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad (Fig. 4). At a meeting
-of the Master Mechanics' Association in New York, in 1875--at the
-Institute which bears his name--he related with great glee how on
-the trial trip he had beaten a gray horse, attached to another car.
-The coincidence that one of Peter Parley's horses is a gray one
-might lead to the inference that it was the same horse that Peter
-Cooper beat, a deduction which perhaps has as sound a basis to rest
-on as many historical conclusions of more importance.
-
-The undeveloped condition of the art of machine construction at
-that time is indicated by the fact that the flues of the boiler of
-this engine were made of gun-barrels, which were the only tubes
-that could then be obtained for the purpose. The boiler itself is
-described as about the size of a flour-barrel. The whole machine
-was no larger than a hand-car of the present day.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 5.--"South Carolina," 1831, and Plan of its
-Running Gear.]
-
-In the same year that Peter Cooper built his engine, the South
-Carolina Railway Company had a locomotive, called the "Best
-Friend," built at the West Point Foundry for its line. In 1831
-this company had another engine, the "South Carolina" (Fig. 5),
-which was designed by Mr. Horatio Allen, built at the same shop.
-It was remarkable in having eight wheels, which were arranged in
-two trucks. One pair of driving-wheels, _D D_ and _D′ D′_, and a
-pair of leading-wheels, _L L_ and _L′ L′_, were attached to frames,
-_c d e f_ and _g h i j_, which were connected to the boiler by
-kingbolts, _K K′_, about which the trucks could turn. Each pair of
-driving-wheels had one cylinder, _C C′_. These were in the middle
-of the engine and were connected to cranks on the axles _A_ and _B_.
-
-The "De Witt Clinton" (Fig. 6) was built for the Mohawk & Hudson
-Railroad, and was the third locomotive made by the West Point
-Foundry Association. The first excursion trip was made with
-passengers from Albany to Schenectady, August 9, 1831. This is
-the engine shown in the silhouette engraving of the "first[10]
-railroad train in America" which in recent years has been so widely
-distributed as an advertisement.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 6.--The "De Witt Clinton," 1831.]
-
-In 1831 the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Company offered a premium
-of $4,000 "for the most approved engine which shall be delivered
-for trial upon the road on or before the 1st of June, 1831; and
-$3,500 for the engine which shall be adjudged the next best." The
-requirements were as follows:
-
-  The engine, when in operation, must not exceed three and one-half
-  tons weight, and must, on a level road, be capable of drawing day
-  by day fifteen tons, inclusive of the weight of wagons, fifteen
-  miles per hour.
-
-In pursuance of this call upon American genius, three locomotives
-were produced, but only one of these was made to answer any
-useful purpose. This engine, the "York," was built at York, Pa.,
-and was brought to Baltimore over the turnpike on wagons. It was
-built by Davis & Gartner, and was designed by Phineas Davis,
-of that firm, whose trade and business was that of a watch and
-clock maker. After undergoing certain modifications, it was found
-capable of performing what was required by the company. After
-thoroughly testing this engine, Mr. Davis built others, which were
-the progenitors of the "grasshopper" engines (Fig. 7) which were
-used for so many years on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad. It is a
-remarkable fact that three of these are still in use on that road,
-and have been in continuous service for over fifty years. Probably
-there is no locomotive in existence which has had so long an
-_active_ life.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 7.--"Grasshopper" Locomotive. (From an old
-photograph.)]
-
-In August, 1831, the locomotive "John Bull," which was built by
-George & Robert Stephenson & Company, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
-was received in Philadelphia, for the Camden & Amboy Railroad &
-Transportation Company. This is the old engine which was exhibited
-by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company at the Centennial Exhibition
-in 1876. After the arrival of the "John Bull" a very considerable
-number of locomotives which were built by the Stephensons were
-imported from England. Most of them were probably of what was known
-as the "Planet" class (Fig. 8), which was a form of engine that
-succeeded the famous "Rocket."
-
-The following quotation is from "The Early History of Locomotives
-in this Country," issued by the Rogers Locomotive & Machine Works:
-
-  These locomotives, which were imported from England, doubtless
-  to a very considerable extent, furnished the types and patterns
-  from which those which were afterward built here were fashioned.
-  But American designs very soon began to depart from their
-  British prototypes, and a process of adaptation to the existing
-  conditions of the railroads in this country followed, which
-  afterward "differentiated" the American locomotives more and more
-  from those built in Great Britain. A marked feature of difference
-  between American and English locomotives has been the use of a
-  "truck" under the former.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 8.--The "Planet."]
-
-In all of the locomotives which have been illustrated, excepting
-the "South Carolina," the axles were held by the frames so that
-the former were always parallel to each other. In going around
-curves, therefore, there was somewhat the same difficulty that
-there would be in turning a corner with an ordinary wagon if both
-its axles were held parallel, and the front one could not turn on
-the kingbolt. The plan of the wheels and running gear of the "South
-Carolina" shows the position that they assumed on a curved track
-(Fig. 5). It will be seen that, by reason of their connection to
-the boiler by kingbolts, _K K′_, the two pairs of wheels could
-adjust themselves to the curvature of the rails. This principle
-was afterward applied to cars, and nearly all the rolling-stock in
-this country is now constructed on this plan, which was proposed
-by Mr. Allen in a report dated May 16, 1831, made to the South
-Carolina Canal & Railroad Company; and an engine constructed on
-this principle was completed the same year.
-
-In the latter part of the year 1831 the late John B. Jervis
-invented what he called "a new plan of frame, with a
-bearing-carriage for a locomotive engine," for the use of the
-Mohawk & Hudson Railroad. Jervis's engine is shown by Figure 9. In
-a letter published in the _American Railroad Journal_ of July 27,
-1833, he described the objects aimed at in the use of the truck as
-follows:
-
-  The leading objects I had in view, in the general arrangement
-  of the plan of the engine, did not contemplate any improvement
-  in the power over those heretofore constructed by Stephenson &
-  Company,[11] but to make an engine that would be better adapted
-  to railroads of less strength than are common in England; that
-  would travel with more ease to itself and to the rail on curved
-  roads; that would be less affected by inequalities of the rail,
-  than is attained by the arrangement in the most approved engines.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 9.--John B. Jervis's Locomotive, 1831, and Plan
-of its Running Gear.]
-
-In Jervis's locomotive the main driving-axle, _A_, shown in the
-plan of the wheels and running gear, was rigidly attached to the
-engine-frame, _a b c d_, and only one truck, or "bearing-carriage,"
-_e f g h_, consisting of the two pairs of small wheels attached to
-a frame, was used. This was connected to the main engine-frame by a
-kingbolt, _K_, as in Allen's engine.
-
-The position of its wheels on a curve, and the capacity of the
-truck, or "bearing-carriage," to adapt itself to the sinuosities of
-the track are shown in the plan. The effectiveness of the single
-truck for locomotives, in accomplishing what Mr. Jervis intended
-it for, was at once recognized, and its almost general adoption on
-American locomotives followed.
-
-In 1834, Ross Winans, of Baltimore, patented the application of the
-principle which Mr. Allen had proposed and adopted for locomotives
-"to passenger and other cars." He afterward brought a number of
-actions at law against railroads for infringement of his patent,
-which was a subject of legal controversy for twenty years. Winans
-claimed that his invention originated as far back as 1831, and was
-completed and reduced to practice in 1834. The dispute was finally
-carried to the Supreme Court of the United States, and was decided
-against the plaintiff, after an expenditure of as much as $200,000
-by both sides. It involved the principle on which nearly all cars
-in this country are now and were then built; and, as one of the
-counsel for the defendants has said, "It was at one time a question
-of millions, to be assured by a verdict of a jury."
-
-In 1836, Henry R. Campbell, of Philadelphia, patented the use of
-two pairs of driving-wheels and a truck, as shown in Figure 10. The
-driving-wheels were coupled by rods, as may be seen below. This
-plan has since been so generally adopted in this country that it
-is now known as the "American type" of locomotive, and is the one
-almost universally used here for passenger, and to a considerable
-extent for freight, service. An example of a modern locomotive of
-this type is represented by Figure 11.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Campbell's Locomotive.]
-
-From these comparatively small beginnings, the magnificent
-equipment of our railroads has grown. From Peter Cooper's
-locomotive, which weighed less than a ton, with a boiler the
-size of a flour-barrel, and which had difficulty in beating a
-gray horse, we now have locomotives which will easily run sixty
-and can exceed seventy miles an hour, and others which weigh
-seventy-five tons and over. A comparison of the engraving of Peter
-Cooper's engine with that of the modern standard express passenger
-locomotive (Fig. 11) shows vividly the progress which has been made
-since that first experiment was tried--little more than half a
-century ago. In that period there have been many modifications in
-the design of locomotives to adapt them to the changed conditions
-of the various kinds of traffic of to-day. An express train
-travelling at a high rate of speed requires a locomotive very
-different from one which is designed for handling heavy freight
-trains up steep mountain grades. A special class of engines is
-built for light trains making frequent stops, as on the elevated
-railroads in New York, and those provided for suburban traffic
-(Fig. 12)--and still others for street railroads (Fig. 13), for
-switching cars at stations (Fig. 14), etc. [Pp. 110 and 113]. The
-process of differentiation has gone on until there are now as many
-different kinds of these machines as there are breeds of dogs or
-horses.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 11.--A Typical American Passenger Locomotive.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Locomotive for Suburban Traffic. By the
-Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Locomotive for Street Railway. By the
-Baldwin Locomotive Works.]
-
-Nearly all the early locomotives had only four wheels. In some
-cases one pair alone was used to drive the engine, and in others
-the two pairs were coupled together, so that the adhesion of all
-four could be utilized to draw loads. The four-wheeled type is
-still used a great deal for moving cars at stations, and other
-purposes where the speed is comparatively slow. But to run around
-sharp curves the wheels of such engines must be placed near
-together, just as they are under an ordinary street-car. This
-makes the wheel-base very short, and such engines are therefore
-very unsteady at high speeds, so that they are unsuited for any
-excepting slow service. They have the advantage, though, that the
-whole weight of the machine may be carried on the driving-wheels,
-and can thus be useful for increasing their friction, or adhesion
-to the rails. This gives such engines an advantage for starting and
-moving heavy trains, at stations or elsewhere, which is the kind of
-service in which they are usually employed.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Four-wheeled Switching Locomotive. By the
-Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia.]
-
-If the front end of the engine is carried on a truck, as in
-Campbell's plan (Fig. 10)--which is the one that has been very
-generally adopted in this country--the wheel-base can be extended
-and at the same time the front wheels can adjust themselves to
-the curvature of the track. This gives the running-gear lateral
-flexibility. But as the tractive power of a locomotive is dependent
-upon the friction, or adhesion of the wheels to the rails, it is
-of the utmost importance that the pressure of the wheels on the
-rails should be uniform. For this reason the wheels must be able
-to adjust themselves to the vertical as well as the horizontal
-inequalities of the track.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Driving Wheels, Frames, Spurs, etc., of
-American Locomotive.]
-
-Figure 15 shows the driving-wheels, axles, journal-boxes, and
-part of the frame and springs of an American type of engine--the
-circumference of the wheels only being shown. The axles _A A_ each
-have journal-boxes or bearings, _B B_, in which they turn. These
-boxes are held between the jaws _J J J J_ of the frames, and can
-slide vertically in the spaces _c c c c_ between the jaws. The
-frames are suspended on springs, _S S_, which bear on the boxes
-_B B_. The vertical motion of the boxes and the flexibility of
-the springs allow the wheels to adjust themselves to some extent
-to the unevenness of the track. But, in order to distribute the
-weight equally on the two wheels, the springs _S S_ on each side
-of the engine are connected together by an equalizing lever, _E
-E_. These levers each have a fulcrum, _F_, in the middle, and are
-connected by iron straps or hangers, _h h_, to the springs. It is
-evident that any strain or tension on one spring is transferred by
-the equalizing lever to the other spring, and thus the weight is
-equalized on both wheels.
-
-But to give perfect vertical adjustment of such an engine to the
-track, still another provision must be made. Everyone has observed
-that a three-legged stool will always stand firm on any surface,
-no matter how irregular, but one with four legs will not. Now if
-the back end of a locomotive should rest on the fulcrums of the
-equalizing levers, as shown in Figure 15, and the front end should
-rest on the two sides of the truck, it would be in the condition
-of the four legged stool. Therefore, instead of resting on the two
-sides of the truck, locomotives are made to bear on the centre of
-it, so that they are carried on it and on the two fulcrums of the
-equalizing levers, which gives the machine the adjustability due
-to the three-legged principle. When more than four driving-wheels
-are used the springs are connected together by equalizing levers,
-as shown in Figure 29 (p. 124), which represents a consolidation
-engine as it appears before the wheels are put under it.
-
-Having a vehicle which is adapted to running on a railroad track,
-it remains to supply the motive power. This, in all but some very
-few exceptional cases, is the expansive power of steam. What
-the infant electricity has in store for us it would be rash to
-predict, but for locomotives its steps have been thus far weak and
-uncertain, and when we want a giant of steel or a race-horse of
-iron our only sure reliance is steam. This is the breath of life
-to the locomotive, which is inhaled and exhaled to and from the
-cylinders, which act as lungs, while the boiler fulfils functions
-analogous to the digestive organs of an animal. A locomotive is
-as dependent on the action of its boiler for its capacity for
-doing work as a human being on that of his stomach. The mechanical
-appliances of the one and the mental and physical equipment of the
-other are nugatory without a good digestive apparatus.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Longitudinal Section of a Locomotive
-Boiler.
-
-Fig. 17.--Transverse Section.]
-
-A locomotive boiler consists of a rectangular fireplace or
-fire-box, as shown at _A_, in Figure 16, which is a longitudinal
-section, and Figure 17 a transverse section through the fire-box.
-The fire-box is connected with the smoke-box _B_ by a large number
-of small tubes, _a a_, through which the smoke and products of
-combustion pass from the fire-box to the smoke-box, and from the
-latter they escape up the chimney _D_. The fire-box and tubes are
-all surrounded with water, so that as much surface as possible is
-exposed to the action of the fire. This is essential on account of
-the large amount of water which must be evaporated in such boilers.
-To create a strong draught, the steam which is exhausted from the
-cylinders is discharged up the chimney through pipes, and escapes
-at _e_. This produces a partial vacuum in the smoke-box, which
-causes a current of air to flow through the fire on the grate, into
-the fire-box, through the tubes, and thence to the smoke-box and up
-the chimney. Probably many readers have noticed, that of late years
-the smoke-boxes of locomotives have been extended forward in front
-of the chimneys. This has been done to give room for deflectors
-and wire netting inside to arrest sparks and cinders, which are
-collected in the extended front and are removed by a door or spout,
-_L_, below.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Rudimentary Injector.]
-
-To get the water into the boiler against the pressure of steam a
-very curious instrument, called an injector, has been devised.
-Formerly force-pumps were used, but these are now being abandoned.
-The illustration (Fig. 18) shows what may be called a rudimentary
-injector. _B_ is a boiler and _E_ a conical tube open at its
-lower end--and connected to a water-supply tank by a pipe, _C_.
-A pipe, _A_, is connected with the steam-space of the boiler and
-terminates in a contracted mouth, _F_, inside of the cone _E_. If
-steam is admitted to _A_, it flows through the pipe and escapes at
-_F_. In doing so it produces a partial vacuum in _E_, and water
-is consequently drawn up the pipe _C_ from the tank. The current
-of steam now carries with it the water, and they escape at _G_.
-After flowing for a few seconds the water has a high velocity and
-the steam, mingling with the water, is condensed. The momentum
-of the water soon becomes sufficient to force the valve _H_ down
-against the pressure below it, and the jet of water then flows
-continuously into the boiler. A very curious phenomenon of this
-somewhat mysterious instrument is that if steam of a low pressure
-is taken from one boiler it will force water into another against a
-higher pressure. Figure 19 is a section of an actual injector used
-on locomotives.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Injector used on Locomotives.]
-
-Having explained how the steam is generated, it remains to show
-how it propels a locomotive. It does this very much as a person on
-a bicycle propels it--that is, by means of two cranks the wheels
-are made to revolve, and the latter must then either slip or the
-vehicle will move. In a locomotive the driving-wheels are turned
-by means of two cylinders and pistons, which are connected by
-rods to the cranks attached to the driving-wheels or axles. These
-cranks are placed at right angles to each other, so that when one
-of them is at the "dead-point" the piston connected with the other
-can exert its maximum power to rotate the wheels. This enables the
-locomotive to start with the pistons in any position; whereas,
-if one cylinder only was used it would be impossible to turn the
-wheels if the crank should stop at one of its dead-points.
-
-It will probably interest a good many readers to know how the
-steam gets into the cylinders and moves the pistons and then gets
-out again, and how a locomotive is made to run either backward or
-forward at pleasure.
-
-Figure 20 (p. 118) shows a section of a cylinder, _A A′_, with
-the piston _B_ and piston rod _R_. The cylinder has two passages,
-_c c_ and _d d_, which connect its ends with a box, _U_, called a
-steam-chest, to which steam is admitted from the boiler by a pipe,
-_J_. The two passages _c_ and _d_ have another one, _g_, between
-them, which is connected with the chimney. These passages are
-covered by a slide-valve, _V_, which moves back and forth in the
-steam-chest, alternately uncovering the openings _c_ and _d_. When
-the valve is in the position shown in Figure 20, obviously steam
-can flow into the front end _A_ of the cylinder through the passage
-_c_, as indicated by the darts. The valve has a cavity, _H_,
-underneath it. When this cavity is over the passage _d_ and _g_,
-it is plain that the steam in the back end _A′_ of the cylinder
-can flow through _d_ and _g_ and then escape up the chimney. Under
-these circumstances the steam in the front end _A_ of the cylinder
-will force the piston _B_ to the back end. When it reaches the back
-end of the cylinder the valve is moved into the position shown in
-Figure 21, and steam can then enter _d_ and will fill the back end
-_A′_ while that in the front end escapes through _c_ and _g_. The
-piston is then forced to the front end by the pressure of the steam
-behind it. It will thus be seen that the steam enters and escapes
-to and from the cylinder through the same openings.
-
-[Illustration: Figs. 20 (above) and 21.--Sections of a Locomotive
-Cylinder.]
-
-From what has been said it is obvious, too, that every time the
-piston moves from one end of the cylinder to the other the valve
-must also be moved back and forth in the steam-chest. This is done
-by what is called an eccentric.
-
-An "eccentric" is a disk or wheel (Fig. 22) with a hole, _S_,
-the size of the axle of the locomotive to which it is attached.
-The centre _n_ of the outside periphery of the eccentric is some
-distance from _S_, the centre of the shaft. A metal ring, _K K_
-(Fig. 23), made in two halves, embraces the eccentric, and the
-latter revolves inside of this ring. A rod, _L_, is attached to
-the strap, and is connected with the valve so that the motion of
-the eccentric is communicated to it. It is obvious that if the
-eccentric revolves it will impart a reciprocating motion to the rod
-_L_, which is communicated to the valve.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Eccentric.
-
-Fig. 23.--Eccentric and Strap.]
-
-If properly adjusted on the axle the eccentric will run the engine
-in one direction. To run the opposite way another eccentric must
-be provided. Therefore locomotives always have two eccentrics for
-each cylinder. These, _J_ and _K_, are shown in Figure 24, which
-represents the "valve-gear" of a locomotive. _S_ is a section of
-the main driving-axle, to which the eccentrics are attached by
-keys or screws. _C_ is the eccentric rod of the forward-motion
-eccentric and _D_ that of the one for running backward. As a
-locomotive must be run either backward or forward, and, as the
-one eccentric moves the valve to run forward and the other to run
-backward, we must be able to connect or disconnect the rods to and
-from the valve at will. The eccentric rods of the early locomotives
-had hooks on the ends by which they were attached to or detached
-from suitable pins connected with the valves. But these hooks were
-very uncertain in their action and therefore were abandoned, and
-now what is known as the "link-motion" is almost universally used
-for the valve-gear of locomotives. It consists of a "link" (_a b_,
-Fig. 24) which has a curved opening or slot, _k_, in it in which
-a block, _B_, fits accurately, so that it can slide from end to
-end of the link. This block has a hole bored in the middle which
-receives a pin, _c_, which is attached to the end of the arm _N_
-of the "rocker" _M O N_. The rocker has a shaft, _O_, which can
-turn in a suitable bearing, and two arms, _M_ and _N_; the latter,
-as explained, is connected to the link by the pin _c_ and block
-_B_. The upper arm _M_ has another pin, _V_, on its end, which
-is connected by a rod, _v V_, to the main slide-valve _V_. The
-rocker-arms, as will be seen, can vibrate about the shaft _O_.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 24.--Valve Gear.]
-
-The link is hung by a pendulous bar, _g h_, to the end _g_ of
-the arm _E_, attached to the shaft _A_. This shaft has another
-upright arm, _F_, which is connected by a rod or bar, _G G′_, to
-a lever, _H I_, called a reverse lever, whose fulcrum is at _I_.
-To save room, in the engraving this lever and the cylinder _G_ are
-drawn nearer to the main axle _S_ than they would be on an engine.
-The lever is located inside the cab of the locomotive, and is
-indicated by the numbers 17 17′ in Figure 36 on p. 133, which is a
-view looking from the tender at the back end of a locomotive. The
-lever has a trigger (_t_, Fig. 24) which is connected by a rod,
-_r_, to a latch, _l_, which engages in the notches of the sector _S
-S′_. This latch holds the lever in any desired position and can be
-disengaged from the notches by grasping the upper end of the lever
-and the trigger.
-
-It is plain that, by moving the upper end of the reverse lever, the
-link _a b_ can be raised up or lowered at will. When the link is
-down, or in the position represented in the engraving, the forward
-eccentric rod imparts its motion to the block _B_, pin _c_, and
-thence to the rocker and valve, and the engine will run forward.
-If, however, the reverse lever is thrown back into the position
-indicated by the dotted line _J I_, the link would then be raised
-up so that the end _e_ of the backward-motion rod would be opposite
-to the block _B_ and pin _c_ and would communicate its motion to
-the rocker and valve, and the wheels would then be turned backward
-instead of forward. It will thus be seen how the movement of the
-reverse lever effects the reversal of the engine.
-
-A locomotive is started by admitting steam to the cylinders by
-means of what is called the "throttle-valve." This is usually
-placed in the upper part of the boiler at _T_ (Fig. 16). The valve
-is worked by a lever at _l_, which is also shown at 14, 14′ (Fig.
-36). The steam is conveyed to the cylinders by a pipe (_s_, Fig.
-16, p. 115).
-
-If steam is admitted to the cylinders and the wheels are turned,
-one of two results must follow: either the locomotive will move
-backward or forward according to the direction of revolution, or
-the wheels will slip, as they often do, on the rails. That is, if
-the resistance of the cars or train is less than the friction or
-"adhesion" of the wheels on the rails, the engine and train will be
-moved; if the adhesion is less than the resistance the wheels will
-turn without moving the train.
-
-The capacity of a locomotive to draw loads is therefore dependent
-on the adhesion, and this is in proportion to the weight or
-pressure of the driving-wheels on the rails. The adhesion also
-varies somewhat with the weather and the condition of the wheels
-and rails. In ordinary weather it is equal to about one-fifth of
-the weight which bears on the track; when perfectly dry, if the
-rails are clean, it is about one-fourth, and with the rails sanded
-about one-third. In damp or frosty weather the adhesion is often
-considerably less than a fifth.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Turning Locomotive Tires.]
-
-It would, then, seem as though all that is needed to increase the
-capacity of a locomotive to draw loads would be to add to the
-weight on its driving-wheels, and provide engine-power sufficient
-to turn them--which is true. But it has been found that if the
-weight on the wheels is excessive both the wheels and rails will be
-injured. Even when they are all made of steel, they are crushed out
-of shape or are rapidly worn if the loads are too great. The weight
-which rails will carry without being injured depends somewhat on
-their size or weight, but ordinarily from 12,000 to 16,000 pounds
-per wheel is about the greatest load which they should carry.
-
-For these reasons, when the capacity of a locomotive must be
-increased beyond a limit indicated by these data, one or more
-additional pairs of driving-wheels must be used. Thus, if a more
-powerful engine was required than that shown in Figure 14 (p. 113),
-another pair of wheels would be added, as shown in Figures 26,
-27, and 28. Or, if you wanted a more powerful engine than these,
-still another pair of driving-wheels would be provided, as shown
-in Figure 30. In this way the Mogul, ten-wheeled and consolidation
-engines have been developed from that shown in Figure 14. The Mogul
-locomotive (Fig. 27) has three pairs of driving-wheels, but only
-one pair of truck-wheels. The engravings shown in Figures 30 and
-31 represent consolidation and decapod types of engines which have
-four and five pairs of driving-wheels.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 26.--Six-wheeled Switching Locomotive. By the
-Schenectady Locomotive Works.]
-
-From the illustrations, Figures 28, 30, and 31, it will be seen
-that when so many wheels are used, even if they are of small
-diameter, the wheel-base must necessarily be long, so that a limit
-is very soon reached beyond which the number of driving-wheels
-cannot be increased.
-
-Improvements in the processes of manufacturing steel, which
-resulted in the general use of that material for rails and tires,
-have made it possible to nearly double the weight which was carried
-on each wheel when they were made of iron. The weight of rails has
-also been very much increased since they were first made of steel.
-Twenty or twenty-five years ago iron rails weighing 56 pounds per
-yard were about the heaviest that were laid in this country. Now
-steel rails weighing 72 pounds are commonly used, and some weighing
-85 pounds have been laid on American roads, and others weighing 100
-pounds have been laid on the Continent of Europe.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Mogul Locomotive. By the Schenectady
-Locomotive Works.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 28.--Ten-wheeled Passenger Locomotive. By the
-Schenectady Locomotive Works.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 29.--Consolidation Locomotive (unfinished).]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Consolidation Locomotive. By the
-Pennsylvania Railroad Company.]
-
-Of late years urban and suburban traffic has created a demand for
-a class of locomotives especially adapted to that kind of service.
-One of the conditions of that traffic is that trains must stop and
-start often, and therefore, to "make fast time," it is essential
-to start quickly. Few persons realize the great amount of force
-which must be exerted to start any object suddenly. A cannon-ball,
-for example, will fall through 16 feet in a second with no other
-resistance than the atmosphere. The impelling force in that case
-is the weight of the ball. If we want it to fall 32 feet during
-the first second, the force exerted on it must be equal to double
-its weight, and for higher speeds the increase of force must be in
-the same proportion. This law applies to the movement of trains.
-To start in half the time, double the force must be exerted. For
-this reason, trains which start and stop often require engines
-with a great deal of weight on the driving-wheels. In accordance
-with these conditions a class of engines has been designed which
-carry all, or nearly all, the weight of the boiler and machinery,
-and sometimes the water and fuel, on the driving-wheels. For
-suburban traffic, the speed between stops must often be quite
-rapid, and consequently the engine must have a long wheel-base
-for steadiness, as well as considerable weight on the wheels for
-adhesion. Four-wheeled engines (Fig. 14) have all their weight on
-the driving-wheels, but the wheel-base is short.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Decapod Locomotive. By the Baldwin
-Locomotive Works, Philadelphia.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 32.--"Forney" Tank Locomotive. By the Rogers
-Locomotive and Machine Works, Paterson, N. J.]
-
-To combine the two features, engines have been built with the
-driving-wheels and axles arranged as in Figure 32. The frames are
-then extended backward, and the water-tank and fuel are placed
-on top of the frames, and their weight is carried by a truck
-underneath. This arrangement leaves the whole weight of the boiler
-and machinery on the driving-wheels, and at the same time gives a
-long wheel-base for steadiness. This plan of engine was patented
-by the author of this article in 1866, and has come into very
-general use--since the expiration of the patent. In some cases a
-two-wheeled truck is added at the opposite end, as shown in Figure
-33. For street railroads, in which the speed is necessarily slow,
-engines such as Figure 13 (p. 110) are used. To hide the machine
-from view, and also to give sufficient room inside, they are
-enclosed in a cab large enough to cover the whole machine.
-
-The size and weight of locomotives have steadily been increased
-ever since they were first used, and there is little reason for
-thinking that they have yet reached a limit, although it seems
-probable that some material change of design is impending which
-will permit of better proportions of the parts or organs of the
-larger sizes. The decapod engines built at the Baldwin Locomotive
-Works, in Philadelphia, for the Northern Pacific Railroad, weigh
-in working order 148,000 pounds. This gives a weight of 13,300
-pounds on each driving-wheel. Some ten-wheeled passenger engines,
-built at the Schenectady Locomotive Works for the Michigan Central
-Railroad, weigh 118,000 pounds, and have 15,666 pounds on each
-driving-wheel. Some recent eight-wheeled passenger locomotives for
-the New York, Lake Erie & Western Railroad weigh 115,000 pounds,
-and have 19,500 pounds on each driving-wheel. At the Baldwin Works,
-some "consolidation" engines have recently been built which are
-still heavier than the decapod engines.
-
-The following table gives dimensions, weight, price, and price
-per pound of locomotives at the present time. If we were to quote
-them at 8 to 8¼ cents per pound for heavy engines and 9 to 22¼ for
-smaller sizes, it would not be much out of the way.
-
-_Dimensions, Weights, and Approximate Prices of Locomotives._
-
-  ---------------+----------+--------+---------+----------+--------+-------
-     Type.       |Cylinders.|Diameter|Weight of|Weight of | Approx-| Price
-                 |          |   of   |engine in|engine and|  imate |  per
-                 |          |driving-| working |  tender  |  price.| pound.
-                 |          | wheel. |  order, |  without |        |
-                 |          |        |exclusive| water or |        |
-                 |          |        |of tender|   fuel.  |        |
-  ---------------+----------+--------+---------+----------+--------+-------
-                 |Diam.     | Inches.|  Pounds.|  Pounds. |        | Cents.
-                 |  Stroke. |        |         |          |        |
-  "American"     |          |        |         |          |        |
-     Passenger   |  8  24   |62 to 68|  92,000 |  110,000 | $8,750 |  7.95
-                 |          |        |         |          |        |
-  "Mogul"        |          |        |         |          |        |
-     Freight     | 19  24   |50 to 56|  96,000 |  116,000 |  9,500 |  8.19
-                 |          |        |         |          |        |
-  "Ten-wheel"    |          |        |         |          |        |
-      Freight    | 19  24   | 0 to 58| 100,000 |  118,000 |  9,750 |  8.26
-                 |          |        |         |          |        |
-  "Consolidation"|          |        |         |          |        |
-      Freight    | 20  24   |   50   | 120,000 |  132,000 | 10,500 |  7.95
-                 |          |        |         |          |        |
-  "Decapod"      |          |        |         |          |        |
-      Freight    | 22  26   |   46   | 150,000 |  165,000 | 13,250 |  8.03
-                 |          |        |         |          |        |
-  Four-wheel Tank|          |        |         |          |        |
-      Switching  | 15  24   |   50   |  58,000 |   47,000 |  5,500 | 11.70
-                 |          |        |         |          |        |
-  Six-wheel      |          |        |         |          |        |
-      Switching, |          |        |         |          |        |
-      with tender| 18  24   |   50   |  84,000 |   98,000 |  8,500 |  8.89
-                 |          |        |         |          |        |
-  "Forney" N.Y.  |          |        |         |          |        |
-      Elevated   | 11  16   |   42   |  42,000 |   34,000 |  4,500 | 13.23
-                 |          |        |         |          |        |
-  Street-car     |          |        |         |          | $3,500 | 19.44
-      Motor      |          |        |         |          |   to   |   to
-      Locomotive | 10  14   |   35   |  22,000 |   18,000 | $4,000 | 22.22
-                 |          |        |         |          | accord-|
-                 |          |        |         |          | ing to |
-                 |          |        |         |          | design.|
-  ---------------+----------+--------+---------+----------+--------+-------
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 33.--"Hudson" Tank Locomotive. By the Baldwin
-Locomotive Works.]
-
-The speed of locomotives, however, has not increased with their
-weight and size. There is a natural law which stands in the way
-of this. If we double the weight on the driving-wheels, the
-adhesion, and consequent capacity for drawing loads, is also
-doubled. Reasoning in an analogous way, it might be said that if
-we double the circumference of the wheels the distance that they
-will travel in one revolution, and consequently the speed of the
-engine, will be in like proportion. But, if this be done, it will
-require twice as much power to turn the large wheels as was needed
-for the small ones; and we then encounter the natural law that
-the resistance increases as the square of the speed, and probably
-at even a greater ratio at very high velocities. At 60 miles an
-hour the resistance of a train is four times as great as it is at
-30 miles. That is, the pull on the draw-bar of the engine must be
-four times as great in the one case as it is in the other. But at
-60 miles an hour this pull must be exerted for a given distance in
-half the time that it is at 30 miles, so that the amount of power
-exerted and steam generated in a given period of time must be eight
-times as great in the one case as in the other. This means that
-the capacity of the boiler, cylinders, and the other parts must
-be greater, with a corresponding addition to the weight of the
-machine. Obviously, if the weight per wheel is limited, we soon
-reach a point at which the size of the driving-wheels and other
-parts cannot be enlarged; which means that there is a certain
-proportion of wheels, cylinders, and boiler which will give a
-maximum speed.
-
-The relative speed of trains here and in Europe has been the
-subject of a good deal of discussion and controversy. There appears
-to be very little difference in the speed of the fastest trains
-here and there; but there are more of them there than we have. From
-48 to 53 miles an hour, including stops, is about the fastest time
-made by our regular trains on the summer time-tables.
-
-When this rate of speed is compared with that of sixty or seventy
-miles an hour, which is not infrequent for short distances, there
-seems to be a great discrepancy. It must be kept in mind, though,
-that these high rates of speed are attained under very favorable
-conditions. That is, the track is straight and level, or perhaps
-descending, and unobstructed. In ordinary traffic it is never
-certain that the line is clear. A locomotive-runner must always
-be on the look-out for obstructions. Trains, ordinary vehicles,
-a fallen tree or rock, cows, and people may be in the way at
-any moment. Let anyone imagine himself in responsible charge
-of a locomotive and he will readily understand that, with the
-slightest suspicion that the line is not clear, he would slacken
-the speed as a precautionary measure. For this reason fast time
-on a railroad depends as much on having a good signal system to
-assure the locomotive-runners that the line is clear, as it does on
-the locomotives. If he is always liable to encounter, and must be
-on the look-out for, obstructions at frequent grade-crossings of
-common roads, or if he is not certain whether the train in front of
-him is out of his way or not, the locomotive-runner will be nervous
-and be almost sure to lose time. If the speed is to be increased on
-American railroads, the first steps should be to carry all streets
-and common roads either over or under the lines, have the lines
-well fenced, provide abundant side-tracks for trains, and adopt
-efficient systems of signals so that locomotive-runners can know
-whether the line is clear or not.
-
-In what may be called the period of adolescence of railroads there
-was a very decided predilection on the part of locomotive engineers
-for large driving-wheels. Figure 34 represents one of the engines
-built as early as 1848 for the Camden & Amboy Railroad, with
-driving wheels 8 feet in diameter. Other engines with 6 and 7 feet
-wheels were not uncommon. In Europe many engines with very large
-wheels were made and are still in use. Here, as well as there,
-excessively large wheels have, however, been abandoned, and six
-feet in diameter is now about the limit of their size in this
-country.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 34.--Camden & Amboy Locomotive, 1848.]
-
-So far as locomotives are concerned, fast time, especially with
-heavy trains, is generally dependent more upon the supply of
-steam than it is on the size of the wheels. Without steam to turn
-them, big wheels are useless; but with an abundant supply there
-is no difficulty in turning small wheels at a lively rate. Speed,
-therefore, is to a great extent a question of boiler capacity, and
-the general maxim has been formulated that "within the limits of
-weight and space to which a locomotive boiler must be confined,
-it cannot be made too big." But the maximum speed at which a
-locomotive can run when an adequate supply of steam is provided
-also depends on the perfection of the machinery. At 60 miles an
-hour a driving-wheel 5½ feet in diameter revolves five times every
-second. The reciprocating parts of each cylinder of a Pennsylvania
-Railroad passenger engine, including one piston, piston-rod,
-cross-head, and connecting rod, weigh about 650 pounds. These
-parts must move back and forth a distance equal to the stroke,
-usually two feet, every time the wheel revolves, or in a fifth of
-a second. It starts from a state of rest at each end of the stroke
-of the piston and must acquire a velocity of 32 feet per second,
-in one-twentieth of a second, and must be brought to a state of
-rest in the same period of time. A piston 18 inches in diameter
-has an area of 254½ square inches. Steam of 150 pounds pressure
-per square inch would therefore exert a force on the piston
-equal to 38,175 pounds. This force is applied alternately on each
-side of the piston, ten times in a second. The control of such
-forces requires mechanism which works with the utmost precision
-and with absolute certainty, and it is for this reason that the
-speed and the economical working of a locomotive depend so much on
-the proportions of the valves and the "valve-gear" by which the
-"distribution" of steam in the cylinders is controlled.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 35.--Interior of a Round-house.]
-
-The engraving (Fig. 36) on p. 133 represents the cab end of a
-locomotive of the New York Central & Hudson River Railroad, looking
-forward from the tender, and shows the attachments by which the
-engineer works the engine.[12] This gives an idea of the number of
-keys on which he has to play in running such a machine. There is
-room here for little more than an enumeration of the parts which
-are numbered:
-
-  1. Engine-bell rope.
-
-  2. Train-bell rope.
-
-  3. Train-bell or gong.
-
-  4. Lever for blowing whistle.
-
-  5. Steam-gauge to indicate pressure in boiler.
-
-  6. Steam-gauge lamp to illuminate face of gauge.
-
-  7. Pressure-gauge for air-brake; to show pressure in
-  air-reservoirs.
-
-  8. Valve to admit steam to air-brake pump.
-
-  9. Automatic lubricator for oiling main valves.
-
-  10. Cock for admitting steam to lubricator.
-
-  11. Handle for opening valves in sand-box to sand the rails.
-
-  12. Handle for opening the cocks which drain the water from the
-  cylinders.
-
-  13. Valve for admitting steam to the jets which force air into
-  the fire-box.
-
-  14, 14′. Throttle-valve lever. This is for opening the valve
-  which admits steam to the cylinders.
-
-  15. Sector by which the throttle-lever is held in any desired
-  position.
-
-  16. "Lazy-cock" handle. A "lazy-cock" is a valve which regulates
-  the water-supply to the pumps and is worked by this handle.
-
-  17, 17′. Reverse lever.
-
-  18. Reverse-lever sector.
-
-  19, 19′, 19″. Gauge-cocks for showing the height of the water
-  in the boiler; 19′ is a pipe for carrying away the water which
-  escapes when the gauge-cocks are opened.
-
-  20, 20. Oil-cups for oiling the cylinders.[13]
-
-  21. Handle for working steam-valve of injector.
-
-  22. Handle for controlling water-jet of the injector.
-
-  23. Handle for working water-valve of injector.
-
-  24. Oil-can shelf.
-
-  25. Handle for air-brake valve.
-
-  26. Valve for controlling air-brake.
-
-  27. Pipe for conducting air to brakes under the cars.
-
-  28. Pipe connected with air-reservoir.
-
-  29. Pipe-connection to air-pump.
-
-  30. Handle for working a valve which admits or shuts off the air
-  for driving-wheel brakes.
-
-  31. Valve for driving-wheel brakes.
-
-  32, 32′. Lever for moving a diaphragm in smoke-box, by which the
-  draught is regulated.
-
-  33. Handle for raising or lowering snow-scrapers in front of
-  truck-wheels.
-
-  34. Handle for opening cock on pump to show whether it is forcing
-  water into the boiler.
-
-  35. Lamp to light the water-gauge, 51, 51.
-
-  36. Air-hole for admitting air to fire-box.
-
-  37. Tallow-can for oiling cylinders.
-
-  38. Oil-can.
-
-  39. Shelf for warming oil-cans.
-
-  40. Furnace door.
-
-  41. Chain for opening and closing the furnace door.
-
-  42. Handles for opening dampers on the ash-pan.
-
-  43. Lubricator for air-pump.
-
-  44. Valve for admitting steam to the chimney to blow the fire
-  when the engine is standing still.
-
-  45. Valve for admitting steam to the train-pipes for warming the
-  cars.
-
-  46. Valve for reducing the pressure of the steam used for heating
-  cars.
-
-  47. Cock which admits steam to the pressure-gauge, 48.
-
-  48. Pressure-gauge which indicates the steam-pressure in heater
-  pipes.
-
-  49. Pipe for conducting steam to the train to heat the cars.
-
-  50. Cock for water-gauge, 51.
-
-  51, 51. Glass water-gauge to indicate the height of water in the
-  boiler.
-
-  52. Cock for blowing off impurities from the surface of the water
-  in the boiler.
-
-Besides being impressive as a triumph of human ingenuity, there
-is much about the construction and working of locomotives which
-is picturesque. A shop where they are constructed or repaired is
-always of interest. An engine-house (Fig. 35) especially at night,
-is full of weird suggestions and food for the imagination.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 36.--Cab End of a Locomotive and its
-Attachments.]
-
-Figure 37 (p. 135) is an illustration from a photograph taken in
-the erecting shops of the Baldwin Locomotive Works in Philadelphia;
-and Figure 38 (p. 137) is a view of a similar shop of the
-Pennsylvania Railroad at Altoona, which suggests at a glance many
-of the processes of construction which go on in these great works.
-At Altoona are immense travelling cranes resting on brick arches
-and spanning the shop from side to side. These are powerful enough
-to take hold of the largest locomotive and lift it bodily from the
-rails and transfer it laterally or longitudinally at will. A large
-consolidation engine is shown in Figure 38, swung clear of the
-rails, and in the act of being moved laterally. The hooks of the
-crane are attached to heavy iron beams, from which the locomotive
-is suspended by strong bars. Figure 39 (p. 138) is a view in the
-blacksmiths' shop of the Baldwin Works, showing a steam hammer and
-the operation of forging a locomotive frame.
-
-It is quite natural that the engineers, or "runners," as they
-generally call themselves, who have the care of locomotives should
-take a deep interest in and acquire a sort of attachment for them.
-In the earlier days of railroading this was much more the case than
-it is now. Then each locomotive had an individuality of its own.
-It was rare that two engines were exactly alike. Nearly always
-there was some difference in their proportions, or one engine had
-some device in it which the other had not. Now, many locomotives
-are made exactly alike, or as nearly so as the most improved
-machinery will permit. There is nothing to distinguish the one
-from the other. Therefore Bony Smith can claim no superiority for
-his machine which Windy Brown has not the advantage of. In the
-old days, too, each engine had its own runner and fireman, and it
-seldom fell into the hands of anyone else, and those in charge
-of it took as much pride in keeping it bright as the character
-in "Pinafore" did "in polishing up the handle of the big front
-door." On many roads--particularly the larger ones--engines are
-not assigned to special men. The system of "first in first out"
-has been adopted; that is, the engines are sent out in the order
-in which they come in, and the men take whichever machine happens
-to fall to their lot. This naturally results in a loss of personal
-attachment to special engines.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 37.--View In Locomotive Erecting Shop.]
-
-Every change in the construction, alteration in the proportions, or
-addition to the attachments of locomotives is a subject of intense
-interest to the men and a topic of endless discussion at all times
-and places. The theories which are propounded, and the yarns which
-are spun while sitting around hot stoves in round-houses, or
-waiting for passing trains on side-tracks, would fill many books.
-Jack never tires of telling what his engine did when "she was
-going up Rattlesnake Grade," and Smoky Bill grows excited when he
-describes how Ninety-six turned her wheels in making up forty-nine
-minutes time in the down run with the "electric express."
-
-Locomotive engineers and firemen read with avidity everything which
-is explanatory of the construction or working of locomotives, but
-generally have a contempt for things which have no practical
-bearing. They demand "lucidity" in what they read with as much
-vehemence as Matthew Arnold did, and some editors and college
-professors, whose writing and thinking are foggy, would be greatly
-benefited by the criticisms of the Locomotive Brotherhood.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 38.--Interior of Erecting Shop, Showing
-Locomotive Lifted by Travelling Crane.]
-
-Much might be written about the duties of locomotive-runners and
-firemen, and the qualifications required. It is the general opinion
-of locomotive superintendents that it is not essential that the men
-who run locomotives should be good mechanics. The best runners or
-engineers are those who have been trained while young as firemen
-on locomotives. Brunel, the distinguished civil engineer, said
-that he never would trust himself to run a locomotive because he
-was sure to think of some problem relating to his profession which
-would distract his attention from the engine. It is probably a
-similar reason which sometimes unfits good mechanics for being good
-locomotive-runners.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 39.--Forging a Locomotive Frame.]
-
-It will perhaps interest some readers to know how much fuel a
-locomotive burns. This, of course, depends upon the quality of
-fuel, work done, speed, and character of the road. With freight
-trains consisting of as many cars as a heavy locomotive can draw
-without difficulty, the consumption of coal will not exceed from
-1 to 1½ pounds of coal per car per mile if the engine is carefully
-managed. It takes from 15 to 20 pounds of coal per mile to move
-an engine and tender alone, the consumption being dependent upon
-the size of the engine, speed, grades, and number of stops. If
-this amount of coal is allowed for the engine and tender, and the
-balance that is consumed is divided among the cars, it will reduce
-the quantity for hauling the cars alone to even less amounts than
-those given above. In ordinary average practice the consumption
-is from 3 to 5 pounds per freight-car per mile, without making
-any allowance for the engine and tender. With passenger trains,
-the cars of which are heavier and the speed higher, the coal
-consumption is from 10 to 15 pounds per car per mile. A freight
-locomotive with a train of 40 cars will burn 40 to 200 pounds of
-coal per mile, the amount depending on the care with which it is
-managed, quality of the coal, grades, speed, weather, and other
-circumstances.
-
-
-AMERICAN CARS.
-
-Peter Parley's illustration (p. 101) of the Baltimore & Ohio
-Railroad represents one of the earliest passenger-cars used in
-this country. The accuracy of the illustration may, however, be
-questioned. Probably the artist depended upon his imagination and
-memory somewhat when he drew it. The engraving below (Fig. 40)
-is from a drawing made by the resident engineer of the Mohawk &
-Hudson Railroad, and from which six coaches were made by James
-Goold for the Mohawk & Hudson Railroad in 1831. It is an authentic
-representation of the cars as made at that time. Other old prints
-of railroad cars represent them as substantially stage-coach bodies
-mounted on four car-wheels, as shown by Figure 41. The next step
-in the development of cars was that of joining together several
-coach-bodies. This form was continued after the double-truck system
-was adopted, as shown by Figure 42, which represents an early
-Baltimore & Ohio Railroad car, having three sections, united. It
-was soon displaced by the rectangular body, as shown in Figure 43,
-which is a reproduction from an old print.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 40.--Mohawk & Hudson Car, 1831. (From the
-original drawing by the resident engineer.)
-
-Fig. 41.--Early Car. (From an old print.)]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 42.--Early Car on the Baltimore & Ohio
-Railroad.]
-
-Figure 44 is an illustration of a car used for the transportation
-of flour on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, while horses were
-still used as the motive power. To show how nearly all progress
-is a process of evolution, it was asserted, in one of the trials
-of the validity of Winans' patent on eight-wheeled cars with two
-trucks, that before the date of his patent it was a practice to
-load firewood by connecting two such cars with long timbers, which
-rested on bolsters attached by kingbolts to the cars. The wood
-was loaded on top of these timbers, as shown in Figure 45. An old
-car (Fig. 46), which antedated Winans' patent and was used at
-the Quincy granite quarries for carrying large blocks of stone,
-was also introduced as evidence for the defendants in that suit.
-Although Winans was not able to establish the validity of his
-patent on eight-wheeled cars with two trucks, he was undoubtedly
-one of the first to put it into practical form, and did a great
-deal to introduce the system.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 43.--Early American Car, 1834.]
-
-The progress in the construction of cars has been fully as great
-as in that of locomotives. If the old stage-coach bodies on wheels
-are compared with a vestibule train of to-day the difference will
-be very striking. Most of us who are no longer young can recall
-the days when sleeping-cars were unknown, when a journey from an
-Eastern city to Chicago meant forty-eight hours or more of sitting
-erect in a car with thirty or more passengers, and an atmosphere
-which was fetid. Happily those days are past, although the
-improvement in the ventilation of cars has been very slow, and is
-still very imperfect.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 44.--Old Car for Carrying Flour on the
-Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.]
-
-Improvement has also lagged in the matter of coupling cars. It
-has been shown by statistics and calculations that some hundreds
-of persons are killed and some thousands injured in this country
-annually in coupling cars. The use of automatic coupling, by which
-cars could be connected together without going between them, it
-has been supposed, would greatly lessen, if it would not entirely
-prevent, this fearful sacrifice of life and limb. To accomplish
-this end, though, it is essential that some one form of coupler
-shall be generally adopted by all railroads. One of the obstacles
-in the way of this has been the mechanical difficulty of finding
-a mechanism which will satisfactorily accomplish the purpose for
-which it was intended. After thirty or forty years of invention
-and experiment, no automatic coupler has been produced, which has
-been approved by competent judges with a sufficient degree of
-unanimity to justify its general adoption. The patents on that
-class of inventions are numbered by thousands, so that it is no
-light task to select the best one or even the best kind. Besides
-this difficulty, there is the other equally formidable one of
-inducing railroad men, of various degrees of knowledge, ignorance,
-and prejudice regarding this subject, and who are scattered all
-over the continent, to agree in adopting some one form or kind
-of automatic coupler. Various cliques had also been organized
-on different roads in the interest of some patents, and in such
-cases argument and reason addressed to them were generally wasted.
-Public indignation was, however, aroused; and the stimulus of
-legislation in different States compelled railroad officers to
-give serious attention to the subject. After devoting some years
-to the investigation, the Master Car-Builders' Association--which
-is composed of officers of railroad companies, who are in charge
-of the construction and repair of cars on the different lines--has
-recommended the adoption of a coupler of the type represented by
-Figures 47 to 49, which has been already applied to many cars and
-the indications are that it will be very generally adopted for
-freight and probably for passenger cars. If it should be, it will
-relieve railroad employees of the dangerous duty of going between
-cars to couple them. Figure 47 shows a plan looking down on the
-couplers with one of the latches, _A_, open; Figure 48 shows it
-with the two couplers partly engaged; and Figure 49 shows them when
-the coupling is completed.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 45.--Old Car for Carrying Firewood on the
-Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 46.--Old Car on the Quincy Granite Railroad.]
-
-One of the first problems which presented itself in the infancy of
-railroads was how to keep the cars on the rails.
-
-Anyone who will stand close to a line of railroad when a train is
-rushing by at a speed of forty, fifty, or sixty miles an hour must
-wonder how the engine and cars are kept on the track; and even
-those familiar with the construction of railroad machinery often
-express astonishment that the flanges of the wheels, which are
-merely projecting ribs about 1-1/8 inches deep and 1¼ inches thick,
-are sufficient to resist the impetus and swaying of a locomotive or
-car at full speed. The problem of the manufacture of wheels which
-will resist this wear, and will not break, has occupied a great
-deal of the attention of railroad managers and manufacturers.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 47.
-
-Fig. 48.
-
-Fig. 49.
-
-Janney Car Coupler, showing the Process of Coupling.]
-
-Locomotive driving-wheels in this country are always made of
-cast-iron, with steel tires which are heated and put on the wheels
-and then cooled. They are thus contracted and "shrunk" on the
-wheel. The tread, that is, the surface which bears on the rail,
-and the flange of the tire are then turned off in a lathe, shown
-in Figure 25, on p. 121, made especially for the purpose. For
-engine-truck, tender, and car-wheels, until within a few years,
-"chilled" cast-iron wheels have been used almost exclusively on
-American railroads. If the tread and flange of a wheel were made
-of ordinary cast-iron they would soon be worn out in service, as
-such iron has ordinarily little capacity for resisting the wear
-to which wheels are subjected. Some cast-iron, however, has the
-singular property which causes it to assume a peculiar, hard
-crystalline form if, when it is melted, it is allowed to cool and
-solidify in contact with a cold iron mould. The iron which is thus
-cooled quickly, or "chilled," becomes very hard, and resists wear
-very much better than iron which is not chilled. Car-wheels which
-are made of this material are therefore cast in what is called a
-chill-mould. Figure 50 represents a section of such a mould and
-flask in which wheels are cast.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 50.--Mould and Flask in which Wheels are Cast.]
-
-_A A_ is the wheel, which is moulded in sand in the usual way. The
-part _B B_ of the mould, which forms the rim or tread of the wheel,
-consists of a heavy cast-iron ring. The melted iron is poured into
-this mould and comes in contact with _B B_. This has the effect of
-chilling the hot iron, as has been explained. In cooling, the wheel
-contracts; and for that reason the part between the rim _C_ and
-the hub _D_ is made of a curved form, as shown in the section, so
-that if one part should cool more rapidly than another these parts
-can yield sufficiently to permit contraction without straining any
-portion of the wheels injuriously. For the same reason the ribs on
-the back of the wheels, as shown in Figure 51, are also curved.
-As an additional safeguard to the unequal contraction in cooling,
-the wheels are taken out of the mould while they are red-hot, and
-placed in ovens where they are allowed to remain several days so as
-to cool very slowly.
-
-Figure 52, on p. 145, represents a section of the tread and flange
-of a chilled wheel, showing the peculiar crystalline appearance of
-the chilled iron.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 51.--Cast-iron Car Wheels.]
-
-In making cast-iron wheels the quality of the iron used is of
-the utmost importance. The difficulty in making good wheels lies
-in the fact that most iron which is ductile and tough will not
-chill, whereas hard white iron, which has the chilling property in
-a very high degree, is brittle, and wheels which are made of it
-are liable to break. There are some kinds of cast-iron produced
-in this country which have the two qualities combined, in a very
-remarkable degree; that is, they are ductile and tough, and will
-also chill. Wheel-founders also mix different qualities of irons to
-produce wheels with the required strength, and which will resist
-wear; that is, they use a certain amount of hard white iron which
-will chill, with that which is ductile and soft. By changing the
-proportions, any required amount of chill can be produced. The
-danger is that iron which has little strength or ductility will
-be fortified with hard chilling iron, and a very weak wheel will
-thus be the result. Thousands of such wheels have been bought and
-used because they are cheap, and many lamentable accidents are
-undoubtedly due to this cause. To guard against this, car-wheels
-should always be subjected to rigid tests and inspection.
-
-In Europe wheels are made of wrought-iron, with tires which were
-also made of the same material before the discovery of the improved
-processes of manufacturing steel, but since then they have been
-made of the latter material. Owing to the breakage of a great many
-cast-iron wheels of poor quality, steel-tired wheels are now coming
-into very general use on American roads under passenger-cars and
-engines. A great variety of such wheels is now made. The "centres"
-or parts inside the tires of some of them are cast-iron, and others
-are wrought-iron constructed in various ways.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 52.--Section of the Tread and Flange of a Car
-Wheel.]
-
-What is known as the Allen paper wheel is used a great deal in this
-country, especially under sleeping-cars. A section and front view
-of one of these wheels is shown by Figure 53. It consists of a
-cast-iron hub, _A_, which is bored out to fit the axle. An annular
-disk, _B B_, is made of layers of paper-board glued together and
-then subjected to an enormous pressure. The disk is then bored out
-to fit the hub, and its circumference is turned off, and the tire
-_C C_ is fitted to it. Two wrought-iron plates, _P P_, are then
-placed on either side of it, and the disk, plates, tire, and hub
-are all bolted together. The paper, it will be seen, bears the
-weight which rests on the hub of the axle and the hub of the wheel.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 53.--Allen Paper Car Wheel.]
-
-Steel tires have the advantage that when they become worn their
-treads and flanges may be turned off anew, whereas chilled
-cast-iron wheels are so hard that it is almost impossible to
-cut them with any turning tool. For this reason machines have
-been constructed for grinding the tread with a rapidly revolving
-emery-wheel. In these the cast-iron wheel is made to turn slowly,
-whereas the emery-wheel revolves very rapidly. The emery-wheel is
-then brought close to the cast-iron wheel, so that as they revolve
-the projections on the latter are cut away, and the tread is thus
-reduced to a true circular form. These machines are much used for
-"truing-up" wheels which have been made flat by sliding, owing to
-the brakes being set too hard.
-
-It would require a separate article to give even a brief
-description of the different kinds of cars which are now used. The
-following list could be increased considerably if all the different
-varieties were included.
-
-  Baggage-car,
-  Boarding-car,
-  Box-car,
-  Buffet-car,
-  Caboose or conductor's car,
-  Cattle- or stock-car,
-  Coal-car,
-  Derrick-car,
-  Drawing-room car,
-  Drop-bottom car,
-  Dump-car,
-  Express-car,
-  Flat or platform car,
-  Gondola-car,
-  Hand-car,
-  Hay-car,
-  Hopper-bottom car,
-  Horse-car,
-  Hotel-car,
-  Inspection-car,
-  Lodging-car,
-  Mail-car,
-  Milk-car,
-  Oil-car,
-  Ore-car,
-  Palace-car,
-  Passenger-car,
-  Post-office car,
-  Push-car,
-  Postal-car,
-  Refrigerator-car,
-  Restaurant-car,
-  Sleeping-car,
-  Sweeping-car,
-  Tank-car,
-  Tip-car,
-  Tool or wrecking car,
-  Three-wheeled hand-car.
-
-The following table gives the size, weight, and price of cars at
-the present time. The length given is the length over the bodies
-not including the platforms.
-
-  ------------------+-----------+------------------+--------------------
-                    |  Length,  |    Weight, lbs.  |      Price.
-                    |   feet.   |                  |
-  ------------------+-----------+------------------+--------------------
-  Flat-car          |    34     | 16,000 to 19,000 | $380
-  ------------------+-----------+------------------+--------------------
-  Box-car           |    34     | 22,000 to 27,000 | $550
-  Refrigerator-car  | 30 to 34  | 28,000 to 34,000 | $800 to $1,100
-  ------------------+-----------+------------------+--------------------
-  Passenger-car     | 50 to 52  | 45,000 to 60,000 | $4,400 to $5,000
-  Drawing-room car  | 50 to 65  | 70,000 to 80,000 | $10,000 to $20,000
-  ------------------+-----------+------------------+--------------------
-  Sleeping-car      | 50 to 70  | 60,000 to 90,000 | $12,000 to $20,000
-  Street-car        |    16     |  5,000 to  6,000 | $800 to $1,200
-  ------------------+-----------+------------------+--------------------
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 54.--Modern Passenger-car and Frame.]
-
-Some years ago the master car-builders of the different railroads
-experienced great difficulty in the transaction of their business
-from the fact that there were no common names to designate the
-parts of cars in different places in the country. What was known
-by one name in Chicago had quite a different name in Pittsburg
-or Boston. A committee was therefore appointed by the Master
-Car-Builders' Association to make a dictionary of terms used
-in car-construction and repairs. Such a dictionary has been
-prepared, and is a book of 560 pages, and has over two thousand
-illustrations. It has some peculiar features, one of which is
-described as follows in the preface: "To supply the want which
-demanded such a vocabulary, what might be called a double
-dictionary is needed. Thus, supposing that a car-builder in
-Chicago received an order for a 'journal-box'; by looking in an
-alphabetical list of words he could readily find that term and
-a description and definition of it. But suppose that he wanted
-to order such castings from the shop in Albany, and did not know
-their name; it would be impracticable for him to commence at A and
-look through to Z, or until he found the proper term to designate
-that part." To meet this difficulty the dictionary has very
-copious illustrations in which the different parts of cars are
-represented and numbered, and the names of the parts designated by
-the numbers are then given in a list accompanying the engraving. An
-alphabetical list of names and definitions is also given, as in an
-ordinary dictionary. The definition usually contains a reference to
-a number and a figure in which the object described is illustrated.
-In making the dictionary the compilers selected terms from those
-in use, where appropriate ones could be found. In other cases
-new names were devised. The book is a curious illustration of a
-more rapid growth of an art than of the language by which it is
-described.
-
-The following table, compiled from "Poor's Manual of Railroads,"
-gives the number of locomotives and of different kinds of cars in
-this country, beginning with 1876, and for each year thereafter. If
-the average length of locomotives and tenders is taken at 50 feet,
-those now owned by the railroads would make a continuous train 280
-miles long; and the 1,033,368 cars, if they average 35 feet in
-length, would form a train which would be more than 6,800 miles
-long.
-
-
-_Statement of the Rolling Stock of Railroads in the United States;
-from "Poor's Manual" for 1889._
-
-  -----+---------+------------++----------------------+---------+---------
-       |         |            || Passenger-train cars.|         |
-  Year.|Miles of |Locomotives.|+----------+-----------+ Freight |  Total.
-       |railroad.|            ||Passenger.|  Baggage, | cars.   |
-       |         |            ||          | mail, and |         |
-       |         |            ||          |  Express. |         |
-  -----+---------+------------++----------+-----------+---------+---------
-  1876 |  76,305 |  14,562    ||   --     |    --     |  358,101|  358,101
-  1877 |  79,208 |  15,911    || 12,053   |   3,854   |  392,175|  408,082
-  1878 |  80,832 |  16,445    || 11,683   |   4,413   |  423,013|  439,109
-  1879 |  84,393 |  17,084    || 12,009   |   4,519   |  480,190|  496,718
-  1880 |  92,147 |  17,949    || 12,789   |   4,786   |  539,255|  556,930
-  1881 | 103,530 |  20,116    || 14,548   |   4,976   |  648,295|  667,819
-  1882 | 114,461 |  22,114    || 15,551   |   5,566   |  730,451|  751,568
-  1883 | 120,552 |  23,623    || 16,889   |   5,848   |  778,663|  801,400
-  1884 | 125,152 |  24,587    || 17,303   |   5,911   |  798,399|  821,613
-  1885 | 127,729 |  25,937    || 17,290   |   6,044   |  805,519|  828,853
-  1886 | 133,606 |  26,415    || 19,252   |   6,325   |  845,914|  871,491
-  1887 | 147,999 |  27,643    || 20,457   |   6,554   |  950,887|  977,898
-  1888 | 154,276 |  29,398    || 21,425   |   6,827   |1,005,116|1,033,368
-  -----+---------+------------++----------+-----------+---------+---------
-
-The number of cars, it will be seen, has more than doubled in ten
-years, so that if the same rate of increase continues for the next
-decade there will be over two millions of them on the railroads of
-this country alone. Beyond a certain point, numbers convey little
-idea of magnitude. Our railroad system and its equipment seem to
-be rapidly outgrowing the capacity of the human imagination to
-realize their extent. What it will be with another half-century of
-development it is impossible even to imagine.
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[9] An engraving of a team and of a "Conestoga" wagon--which was
-used in this traffic--taken from a photograph of one which has
-survived to the present day, is given opposite (Fig. 1).
-
-[10] It was not really the first train, as the Baltimore & Ohio and
-the South Carolina roads were in operation earlier.
-
-[11] The truck was first applied by Mr. Jervis to an engine built
-by R. Stephenson & Co., of England.
-
-[12] It should be mentioned that this is not one of the most recent
-types of engines. The arrangement of parts in the cab has been
-somewhat simplified in later locomotives.
-
-[13] This engine had two different appliances for oiling the
-cylinders, a pair of oil-cups, 20, 20, and an automatic oiler, 9.
-
-
-
-
-RAILWAY MANAGEMENT.
-
-BY E. P. ALEXANDER.
-
-  Relations of Railway Management to all Other Pursuits--Developed
-  by the Necessities of a Complex Industrial Life--How a Continuous
-  Life is Given to a Corporation--Its Artificial Memory--Main
-  Divisions of Railway Management--The Executive and Legislative
-  Powers--The Purchasing and Supply Departments--Importance of
-  the Legal Department--How the Roadway is Kept in Repair--The
-  Maintenance of Rolling Stock--Schedule-making--The Handling
-  of Extra Trains--Duties of the Train-despatcher--Accidents
-  in Spite of Precautions--Daily Distribution of Cars--How
-  Business is Secured and Rates are Fixed--The Interstate
-  Commerce Law--The Questions of "Long and Short Hauls" and
-  "Differentials"--Classification of Freight--Regulation of
-  Passenger-rates--Work of Soliciting Agents--The Collection of
-  Revenue and Statistics--What is a Way-bill--How Disbursements are
-  Made--The Social and Industrial Problem which Confronts Railway
-  Corporations.
-
-
-The world was born again with the building of the first locomotive
-and the laying of the first level iron roadway. The energies and
-activities, the powers and possibilities then developed have
-acted and reacted in every sphere of life--social, industrial,
-and political--until human progress, after smouldering like a
-spark for a thousand years, has burst into a conflagration which
-will soon leave small trace of the life and customs, or even the
-modes of thought, which our fathers knew. But, in it all, the
-railroad remains the most potent factor in every development. By
-bringing men more and more closely together, and supplying them
-more and more abundantly and cheaply with all the varied treasures
-of the earth, stored up for millions of years for the coming of
-this generation, it adds continually more fuel to the flame it
-originated. And as it is necessarily reacted upon equally by
-every new invention or discovery, and by all progress in other
-departments of human activity, the demands upon it, and its points
-of contact with everyday life, are still increasing in geometrical
-progression.
-
-Hence, in the practical management of railroad affairs, problems
-are of constant occurrence which touch almost every pursuit to
-which men give themselves, whether of finance, agriculture,
-commerce, manufactures, science, or politics; and the methods,
-forms, and principles under which current railroad management is
-being developed (for it is by no means at a stand-still) are the
-result of the necessities imposed by these multiplying problems
-acting within the constraints of corporate existences.
-
-For while the life of a corporation is perpetual, its powers are
-constrained, and the individuals exercising them are constantly
-changing. It is but an artificial individual existing for certain
-purposes only, and, as it lacks some human qualities, all its
-methods of doing business are influenced thereby. The business
-affairs of an individual, for instance, are greatly simplified
-by his memory of his transactions from day to day and from year
-to year. But a corporation having no natural memory, all of its
-transactions and relations must be minutely and systematically
-noted in its archives. Every contract and obligation must be
-of record, all property bought or constructed must go upon the
-books, and, when expended or used up, must go off in due form; and
-especially must an accurate system of checks guard all earnings
-and expenditures, and a comprehensive system of book-keeping
-consolidate innumerable transactions into the great variety of
-boiled-down figures and statistics necessary for officers and
-stockholders to fully understand what the property is doing.
-
-Under such circumstances, then, our railroads and their systems of
-organization and management, like the Darwinian Topsy, have not
-"been made" but have "growed."
-
-Naturally, both the direction and extent of the development have
-varied in different localities and under different conditions.
-Within the limits of this article it would be impossible to
-give anything like an exhaustive or complete account of the
-organization, distribution of duties, systems of working, and of
-checks in the various departments of even a single road. Most roads
-publish more or less elaborate small volumes of regulations on such
-subjects for the use of their various employees. The task would
-also be endless to describe technically the variations of practice
-and of nomenclature in different sections and on different systems.
-The shades of difference, too, between managers, superintendents,
-or masters; comptrollers, auditors, book-keepers, and accountants;
-secretaries, cashiers, treasurers, and paymasters in different
-localities would be tedious to draw. A technical account of them
-would be almost a reproduction of the volumes above-mentioned. I
-can only attempt to outline and illustrate very briefly the general
-principles which underlie the present practice, and are more or
-less elaborated as circumstances may require.
-
-The principal duties connected with the management of a railroad
-may be classified as follows:
-
-1. The physical care of the property.
-
-2. The handling of the trains.
-
-3. The making rates and soliciting business.
-
-4. The collection of revenue and keeping statistics.
-
-5. The custody and disbursement of revenue.
-
-The president is, of course, the executive head of the company, but
-in important matters he acts only with the consent and approval
-of the Board of Directors, or of an executive committee clothed
-with authority of the board, which may be called the legislative
-branch of the management. More or less of the executive power
-and supervision of the president may be delegated to one or more
-vice-presidents. Often all of it but that relating to financial
-matters is so delegated, but, as their functions are subdivisions
-of those of the president, they have no essential part in a general
-scheme of authority.
-
-Of the five subdivisions of duties indicated above, the first
-four are usually confided to a general manager, who may also be
-a vice-president, and the fifth is in charge of a treasurer,
-reporting directly to the president.
-
-The special departments under charge of the general manager are
-each officered by trained experts:
-
-A superintendent of roadway or chief engineer has charge of the
-maintenance of the track, bridges, and buildings.
-
-A superintendent of machinery has charge of the construction and
-maintenance of all rolling stock.
-
-A superintendent of transportation makes all schedules, and has
-charge of all movements of trains.
-
-A car accountant keeps record of the location, whereabout, and
-movements of all cars.
-
-A traffic manager has charge of passenger and freight rates, and
-all advertising and soliciting for business.
-
-A comptroller has charge of all the book-keeping by which the
-revenue of the company is collected and accounted for. All
-statistics are generally prepared in his office.
-
-A paymaster receives money from the treasurer and disburses, under
-the direction of the comptroller, for all expenses of operation.
-
-All dividend and interest payments are made by the treasurer, under
-direction of the president and board.
-
-There are, besides the above, two general departments with which
-all the rest have to do, to a greater or less extent--the legal
-department and the purchasing department. The quantity and variety
-of articles used and consumed in the operation of a railroad are
-so great that it is a measure of much economy to concentrate all
-purchases into the hands of a single purchasing agent, rather
-than to allow each department to purchase for itself. This agent
-has nothing to do but to study prices and markets. His pride is
-enlisted in getting the lowest figures for his road, and the large
-amount of his purchases enables him to secure the best rates. And
-last, but not least, in matters where dishonesty would find so
-great opportunities, it is safer to concentrate responsibility than
-to diffuse it.
-
-As I shall not again refer to this department, what remains of
-interest for me to say about it will be said here. As an adjunct to
-it, storehouses are established at central points in which stocks
-of articles in ordinary use are kept on hand. Whenever supplies are
-wanted in any other department--as, for instance, a bell-cord and
-lantern by a conductor--requisitions are presented, approved by a
-designated superior. These requisitions state whether the articles
-are to be charged to legitimate wear and tear, and if so, whether
-to the passenger or the freight service, and of which subdivision
-of the road; or whether they are to be charged to the conductor
-for other articles not properly accounted for. Without going
-into further detail, it can be readily seen how the comptroller's
-office can, at the end of each month, from these requisitions,
-have a complete check upon all persons responsible for the care
-of property. The purchasing agent, too, from his familiarity with
-prices, is usually charged with the sale of all condemned and
-worn-out material.[14]
-
-Before returning to a more detailed review of the operating
-departments of a railroad, its legal department requires a few
-words. Not only is a railroad corporation, being itself a creation
-of the law, peculiarly bound to conform all its actions to legal
-forms and tenets, but it is also a favorite target for litigation.
-The popular prejudice against corporations, it may be said in
-passing, is utterly illogical. The corporation is the poor man's
-opportunity. Without it he could never share in the gains and
-advantages open to capital in large sums. With it a thousand men,
-contributing a thousand dollars each, compete on equal terms with
-the millionaire. Its doors are always open to any who may wish to
-share its privileges or its prosperity, and no man is denied equal
-participation according to his means and inclinations. It is the
-greatest "anti-poverty" invention which has ever been produced,
-and the most democratic. But, for all that, instead of possessing
-the unbounded power usually ascribed to it, no creature of God or
-man is so helpless as a corporation before the so-called great
-tribunal of justice, the American jury. It may not be literally
-true that a Texas jury gave damages to a tramp against a certain
-railroad because a section-master's wife gave him a meal which
-disagreed with him, but the story can be nearly paralleled from
-the experience of many railroads. Hence settlements outside of the
-law are always preferred where they are at all possible, and an
-essential part of an efficient legal organization is a suitable
-man always ready to repair promptly to the scene of any loss or
-accident, to examine the circumstances with the eye of a legal
-expert on liabilities.
-
-But the management of claims, and of loss and damage suits, though
-a large part, is by no means all of the legal business connected
-with a railroad. Every contract or agreement should pass under
-scrutiny of counsel, and in the preparation of the various forms
-of bonds, mortgages, debentures, preferred stocks, etc., which
-the wants of the day have brought forth, the highest legal talent
-finds employment. For, as development has multiplied the types of
-cars and engines to meet special wants, so have a great variety
-of securities been developed to meet the taste and prejudices of
-investors of all nations. There is, in fact, a certain fashion in
-the forms of bonds, and the conditions incorporated in mortgages,
-which has to be observed to adapt any bond to its proposed market.
-
-[Illustration: (Ploughing snow.)]
-
-We shall now return to the operating departments under their
-respective heads, and glance briefly at the methods and detail
-pursued in each. On roads of large mileage the general manager
-is assisted by general or division superintendents in charge
-of roadway, motive power, and trains of one or more separate
-divisions; but for our purposes we may consider the different
-departments without reference to these superintendents.
-
-[Illustration: (Ploughing snow.)]
-
-The superintendent of roadway or chief engineer comes first,
-having charge of track, bridges, and buildings. In his office are
-collected maps of all important stations and junction points,
-kept up to date with changes and additions; scale drawings of all
-bridges and trestles, of all standard depots, tanks, switches,
-rails, fastenings, signals, and everything necessary to secure
-uniformity of patterns and practice over the entire road. Under
-him are supervisors of bridges and supervisors of road, each
-assigned to a certain territory. The supervisors of bridges make
-frequent and minute examinations of every piece or member of every
-bridge and trestle, report in advance all the repairs that become
-necessary, and make requisition for the material needed.
-
-[Illustration: A Type of Snow-plough.]
-
-Under the bridge supervisor are organized "bridge gangs," each
-consisting of a competent foreman with carpenters and laborers
-skilled in bridge work and living in "house" or "boarding" cars,
-and provided with pile-drivers, derricks, and all appliances for
-handling heavy timbers and erecting, tearing down, and repairing
-bridges. These cars form a movable camp, going from place to place
-as needed, and being side-tracked as near as possible to the work
-of the gang. Long experience begets great skill in their special
-duties, and the feats which these gangs will perform are often more
-wonderful than many of the more showy performances of railroad
-engineering. It is an every-day thing with such gangs to take
-down an old wooden structure, and erect in its place an iron one,
-perhaps with the track raised several feet above the level of the
-original, while fifty trains pass every day, not one of which will
-be delayed for a moment.
-
-[Illustration: A Rotary Steam Snow-shovel in Operation.
-
-(From an instantaneous photograph.)]
-
-Each of the supervisors of road has his assigned territory
-divided into "sections," from five to eight miles in length.
-At a suitable place on each section are erected houses for a
-resident section-master and from six to twelve hands. These are
-provided with hand- and push-cars, and spend their whole time in
-keeping their sections in good condition. Upon many roads annual
-inspections are made and prizes offered for the best sections. At
-least twice a day track-walkers from the section-gangs pass over
-the entire line of road. To simplify reports and instructions,
-frequently every bridge or opening in the track is numbered, and
-the number displayed upon it; and every curve is also posted with
-its degree of curvature and the proper elevation to be given to the
-outer rail.
-
-The work of the section-men is all done under regular system. In
-the spring construction-trains deliver and distribute ties and
-rails on each section, upon requisitions from supervisors. Then the
-section-force goes over its line from end to end, putting in first
-the new ties and then the new rails needed. Next the track is gone
-over with minute care and re-lined, re-surfaced, and re-ballasted,
-to repair the damages of frost and wet, the great enemies of a
-road-bed. Then ditches, grass, and the right-of-way have attention.
-These processes are continually repeated, and especially in the
-fall in preparation for winter. During the winter as little
-disturbance of track is made as possible, but ditches are kept
-clean, and low joints are raised by "shims" on top of joint ties.
-Essential parts of the equipment of any large road are snow-ploughs
-(pp. 154-5-6) and wrecking cars, with powerful derricks and other
-appliances for clearing obstructions. When wrecks or blockades
-occur these cars, with extra engines, section-hands, bridge gangs,
-and construction-trains, are rushed to the spot, and everything
-yields to the work of getting the road clear.
-
-[Illustration: Railway-crossing Gate.]
-
-We come next to the superintendent of machinery, whose duty it is
-to provide and maintain locomotives and cars of all kinds to handle
-the company's traffic. His department is subdivided between a
-master mechanic, in charge of locomotives and machine-shops, and a
-master car-builder, in charge of car-shops.
-
-The master mechanic selects and immediately controls all
-engine-runners and firemen, and keeps performance sheets of all
-locomotives, showing miles run, cars hauled, wages paid, coal and
-oil consumed, and other details giving results accomplished by
-different runners and firemen, and by different types of engine,
-or on different divisions or roads. Premiums are often paid the
-runners and firemen accomplishing the best results.
-
-_Report of Performance of Engines, Repairs, and all other Costs
-Incident thereto, for the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1888._
-
-  [Key for column headings. Column A has been repeated in each Part.]
-
-   A. Number of Engine.
-   B. Passenger
-   C. Freight.
-   D. Gravel or Construction.
-   E. Switching.
-   F. Total.
-   G. Eighth Cords of wood.
-   H. Bushels Coal.
-   I. Cost of Fuel.
-
-                [Table--Part 1 of 4]
-  --+----------------------------------------+-------------------------
-    |            MILES RUN.                  |         FUEL.
-    +-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+----+--------+-----------
-  A.|    B. |   C.  |   D.  |  E.   |   F.   | G. |   H.   |     I.
-  --+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+----+--------+-----------
-   1|     --| 12,084|  4,253|     64|  16,401| 118|  10,699|  $1,090 25
-   2|     --|  2,672| 11,779|    954|  15,405| 193|  10,913|   1,131 77
-   3|  5,402| 14,471|    408|    120|  20,407| 189|  10,590|   1,101 08
-   4| 28,643|  4,168|     --|     --|  32,811| 297|  11,875|   1,212 20
-   5| 28,275|  4,490|     --|     72|  32,837| 301|  12,961|   1,335 31
-   6|     --|     --|     --| 32,370|  32,370|  33|  10,360|   1,042 26
-   8|  3,229| 11,799|  4,779|     --|  19,807| 150|  13,233|   1,356 30
-   9|  1,050| 23,203|     --|     --|  24,253| 155|  16,344|   1,663 41
-  10|    874| 24,729|     --|     96|  25,699| 158|  17,039|   1,741 67
-  11|     --|     --|     --| 23,609|  23,609| 205|   7,661|     811 00
-  12|  1,527|     --|  4,369| 12,060|  17,956| 142|   8,875|     918 75
-  30| 41,345|     --|     --|     --|  41,345| 237|  17,702|   1,821 37
-  31| 37,450|     --|     --|     --|  37,450| 215|  16,695|   1,716 56
-  32|  4,233| 13,516|     --|    120|  17,869| 115|  10,918|   1,117 10
-  34| 13,742|  5,217|     --|  1,224|  20,183| 149|   6,691|     704 07
-  --+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+----+--------+------------
-    |165,770|116,349| 25,588| 70,695| 378,402|2657| 182,556| $18,768 13
-  --+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+----+--------+------------
-
-
-   A. Number of Engine.
-   J. Gallons of Engine Oil.
-   K. Signal Oil.
-   L. Head-Light Oil.
-   M. Lbs. of Cyl. Oil.
-   N. Car Grease.
-   O. Waste.
-   P. Packing.
-   Q. Gallons Kerosene.
-
-                [Table--Part 2 of 4]
-  --+----------------------------------------------------------------
-    |                  OIL, WASTE AND OTHER STORES.
-    +---------+--------+--------+----------+-----+-----+---------+---
-  A.|   J.    |   K.   |    L.  |    M.    |  N. |  O. |    P.   | Q.
-  --+---------+--------+--------+----------+-----+-----+---------+---
-   1|  124    |  10    |  29    |    59½   |   45|  347|   72    | --
-   2|  121½   |  13½   |  35½   |    69½   |   69|  466|  102    |  2
-   3|  132½   |  10½   |  38    |    74½   |   69|  350|   61    | --
-   4|  258    |  14    |  49    |   125    |  106|  659|   76    | --
-   5|  256    |  12    |  39    |    99½   |   75|  622|   82½   | --
-   6|   30½   |  12½   | 188½   |   111¼   |   --|  298|  160½   | --
-   8|  134    |  10½   |  41    |    65¼   |   60|  327|   98    | --
-   9|  135    |  12½   |  45½   |    73    |   70|  374|   87    | --
-  10|  131½   |  13½   |  63    |    69    |   70|  372|   96    | --
-  11|  136    |   1¾   |  96    |    81    |   40|  354|   81    |  2
-  12|  105    |   9¼   |  58    |    95½   |   20|  360|   75    | --
-  30|  223    |  23¾   |  44½   |    69    |  106|  726|   51    | --
-  31|  243    |  15¼   |  46    |    92    |  110|  660|   68    |  1
-  32|  138    |  10½   |  41    |    71½   |  130|  361|   63    |  7
-  34|  186    |  10    |  32    |    71    |   75|  409|   43    |  2
-  --+---------+--------+--------+----------+-----+-----+---------+---
-    |2,554    | 179½   | 846    | 1,226½   | 1045| 6685| 1214    | 14
-  --+---------+--------+--------+----------+-----+-----+---------+---
-
-
-   A. Number of Engine.
-   R. Cost of Stores.
-   S. Wages of Engineer and Fireman.
-   T. Cost of Cleaning.
-   U. Labor.
-   V. Material.
-   W. Total Cost of Repairs.
-   X. Total Expenses and Repairs.
-
-                [Table--Part 3 of 4]
-  --+-------------------+--------+---------+--------+---------+---------
-    |        |          |        |       COST OF REPAIRS.     |
-    |        |          |        |----------------------------+
-  A.|   R.   |    S.    |   T.   |    U.   |   V.   |    W.   |    X.
-  --+--------+----------+--------+---------+--------+---------+---------
-   1|$  87.64|$ 1,293.80|$ 115.00| $ 223.40|$  66.32|$  289.72|$2,876.41
-   2|  106.85|  1,646.90|   82.50|    69.65|   75.14|   144.79| 3,112.81
-   3|   93.85|  1,489.65|  187.50|   178.25|   63.61|   241.86| 3,113.94
-   4|  171.85|  1,719.55|  212.50|   203.95|  100.13|   304.08| 3,620.18
-   5|  144.86|  1,628.80|  202.00|   240.55|  114.98|   355.53| 3,666.50
-   6|  173.92|  1,884.50|   10.00|   172.35|   63.65|   236.00| 3,346.68
-   8|   97.34|  1,593.05|  150.00|   110.75|  106.69|   217.44| 3,414.13
-   9|  108.53|  1,625.80|  200.00|   139.80|  175.48|   315.28| 3,918.02
-  10|  108.38|  1,669.55|  205.00|   207.55|  109.78|   317.33| 4,041.93
-  11|  111.83|  1,126.75|    5.00|   413.95|   89.76|   503.71| 2,558.29
-  12|  106.31|  1,405.10|   25.00|    37.45|   27.17|    64.62| 2,519.78
-  30|  142.71|  1,719.56|  212.50|   144.50|   77.52|   222.02| 4,118.15
-  31|  152.16|  1,554.55|  205.00|   642.50|  432.86| 1,075.36| 4,703.66
-  32|  108.40|  1,186.40   172.00| 1,729.70|  438.40| 2,168.10| 4,752.00
-  34|  108.40|  1,186.40|  137.00| 1,522.10|  781.64| 2,303.74| 4,313.48
-  --+--------+----------+--------+---------+--------+---------+---------
-    |1,823.80| 22,603.45|2,121.00| 6,036.45|2,723.13| 8,759.58|54,075.96
-  --+--------+----------+--------+---------+--------+---------+---------
-
-
-   A. Number of Engine.
-   Y. Bushel Coal.
-   Z. Gal. Engine Oil.
-  AA. Pound of Tallow.
-  BB. Repairs.
-  CC. Fuel.
-  DD. Stores.
-  EE. Wages E. and F.
-  FF. Cleaning.
-  GG. Total.
-  HH. Car Mileage.
-
-                [Table--Part 4 of 4]
-  --+----+------+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+---------+
-    | M'ls run to one.|          COST PER MILE RUN FOR.         |         |
-    +-----------------+-----------------------------------------+---------+
-  A.| Y. |  Z.  | AA. |  BB. |  CC. |  DD. |  EE. |  FF. |  GG. |   HH.   |
-  --+----+------+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+---------+
-   1| 1.5| 122.3| 34.5| 01.76| 06.64| 00.53| 07.89| 00.61| 17.43|  177,659|
-   2| 1.1| 126.8| 27.7| 00.94| 07.34| 00.69| 10.69| 00.53| 20.19|  197,203|
-   3| 0.9|  77.7| 17.4| 02.32| 10.58| 00.90| 14.31| 02.04| 30.15|  182,402|
-   4| 2.7| 127.2| 32.8| 00.92| 03.69| 05.23| 05.24| 00.64| 15.72|  139,422|
-   5| 2.5| 128.2| 41.2| 01.08| 04.06| 00.44| 04.96| 00.61| 11.15|  135,780|
-   6| 3.1| 140.4| 36.3| 00.72| 03.22| 00.53| 05.82| 00.03| 10.32|       --|
-   8| 1.5| 147.8| 37.9| 01.09| 06.84| 00.49| 08.04| 00.76| 17.22|  305,024|
-   9| 1.4| 150.0| 48.5| 01.30| 06.88| 00.40| 06.70| 00.82| 16.10|  383,682|
-  10| 1.5| 195.4| 46.5| 01.23| 06.77| 00.31| 06.49| 00.79| 15.59|  409,035|
-  11| 3.0| 173.6| 36.4| 02.13| 03.43| 00.47| 04.77| 00.02| 10.82|       --|
-  12| 2.0| 171.0| 23.5| 00.36| 05.11| 00.59| 07.82| 00.14| 14.02|   66,834|
-  30| 2.3| 185.4| 74.9| 00.53| 04.40| 00.34| 04.15| 00.51| 09.93|  231,554|
-  31| 2.2| 154.1| 50.8| 02.87| 04.58| 00.40| 04.15| 00.54| 12.54|  202,289|
-  32| 1.6| 129.5| 31.2| 12.11| 06.25| 00.60| 06.64| 00.96| 26.56|  184,083|
-  34| 3.2| 108.5| 35.5| 11.41| 03.48| 00.54| 05.29| 00.67| 21.39|  107,060|
-  --+----+------+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+---------+
-    | 2.5| 148.1| 38.5| 02.31| 04.98| 00.48| 05.97| 00.55| 14.29|2,722,027|
-  --+----+------+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+---------+
-
-The master car-builder has charge of the shops where cars are
-built and repaired, and of the car-inspectors who are stationed at
-central and junction points to prevent defective cars being put
-into the trains.
-
-Formerly each railroad used its own cars exclusively, and through
-freights were transferred at every junction point. This involved
-such delay and expense that railroads now generally permit all
-loaded cars to go through to destination without transfer, and
-allow each other a certain sum for the use of cars. Usually this is
-about three-quarters of a cent for each mile which the car travels
-on a foreign road. This involves a great scattering of cars, and
-an extensive organization to keep record of their whereabouts
-and of the accounts between the companies for mileage.[15] This
-organization will be referred to more fully in connection with the
-department of transportation. But the joint use of each other's
-cars makes it necessary that there should be at least enough
-similarity in their construction and their coupling appliances to
-permit their indiscriminate use upon all roads. And conventions of
-master car-builders have recommended certain forms and dimensions
-as standards, which are now in general use.
-
-There is much convenience in this, but one disadvantage. It
-requires almost unanimous action to introduce any change of form
-or of construction, however advantageous it may be. And to secure
-unanimous action in such matters is almost as hard as it would be
-to secure unanimity in a change in the spelling of English words.
-Still there is progress, though slow, toward several desirable
-reforms, the most important of which is the adoption of a standard
-automatic coupler (see p. 142).
-
-Having shown how the property of all kinds is kept in efficient
-condition, we next come to its operation. This is called
-"conducting transportation," and the officer in charge is usually
-called the superintendent of transportation. All train-despatchers,
-conductors, train-men, and telegraph operators are under his
-immediate control. He makes all schedules and provides all extra
-and irregular service that the traffic department makes requisition
-for, himself calling upon the superintendent of machinery for
-the necessary locomotives, switching engines, and cars. It is his
-especial province to handle all trains as swiftly as possible, and
-to see that there are no collisions. It is impossible to detail
-fully the safeguards and precautions used to this end, but the
-general principles observed are as follows:
-
-First, a general time-table or schedule is carefully made out for
-all regular trains upon each division, showing on one sheet the
-time of each train at each station.
-
-This schedule is all that is needed so long as all trains are
-able to keep on time, and there are no extras. Trouble begins
-when regular trains cannot keep on schedule, or when extra
-trains have to be sent out, not provided for on the schedule. A
-diagram, or graphic representation of this schedule, upon a board
-or large sheet of paper, is an important feature of the office
-regulating train-movements. Twenty-four vertical lines divide the
-board into equal spaces representing the twenty-four hours of
-the day, numbered from midnight to midnight. Horizontal lines at
-proportionate distances from the top represent the stations in
-their order between the termini, represented by the top and bottom
-lines of the diagram. The course of every train can now be plotted
-on this diagram in an oblique line joining the points on each
-station line corresponding to the time the train arrives at and
-leaves that station. The cut on the opposite page will illustrate.
-It represents a road 130 miles long from A to N, with intermediate
-stations B, C, D, etc., at different distances from each other, and
-six trains are shown as follows:
-
-A passenger train, No. 1, leaving A at 12 midnight and arriving
-at N at 4.05 A.M. A fast express, No. 2, leaving N at 12.45 and
-arriving at A at 3.30. A local passenger train, No. 4, which leaves
-N at 1.15, runs to E by 4 A.M., stops there until 4.10, and returns
-to N by 7 A.M.; being called No. 3 on the return, as the direction
-is always indicated by the train-number's being odd or even. No. 5
-is a way freight, leaving A at 12.05 and making long stops at each
-station. No. 6 is an opposing train of the same character.
-
-[Illustration: Diagram Used in Making Railway Time-Tables.]
-
-[Illustration: A lamp swung across the track is the signal to stop.]
-
-The diagram shows at a glance how, when, and where all these
-trains meet and pass each other, and where every train is at any
-moment. Should it be desired to send an extra train at any time, a
-line drawn or a string stretched on the board will indicate what
-opposing trains must be guarded against. For instance, to send
-an extra through in three hours, leaving A between 1 and 2 A.M.,
-a trial line will show that Nos. 5, 2, 4, and 6 must all be met
-or passed, and as (on a single-track road) this can only be done
-at stations, the extra must leave at 1.35 A.M., pass No. 5 at E,
-meet No. 2 at F, No. 4 at I, and No. 6 at J. A dotted line on
-the diagram indicates its run, and that No. 2 is held at F for 5
-minutes to let it pass. If the road is double-tracked, only trains
-going in the same direction need be regarded.[16]
-
-[Illustration: A lamp raised and lowered vertically is the signal
-to move ahead.]
-
-But the more usual way of handling extra trains, when circumstances
-will permit, is to let them precede or follow a regular train upon
-the same schedule. The train is then said to be run in "sections,"
-and a ten minutes' interval is allowed between them. That opposing
-trains may be informed, the leading section (and when there are
-more than two all but the last) wears on its locomotive two green
-flags by day and two green lights by night, indicating that a train
-follows which is to be considered as a part of the train leading,
-and having the same rights.
-
-[Illustration: A lamp swung vertically in a circle across the
-track, when the train is standing, is the signal to move back.]
-
-So far the rules are very simple, and they would be all that is
-necessary if all trains could always be kept exactly on time. But
-as that cannot be, provision must be made for all the complications
-which will result. The first and most important rule is that no
-train must ever, under any circumstances, run _ahead_ of time.
-The next is that any train making a stop not on its schedule must
-immediately send out flagmen with red flags, lights, and torpedoes
-to protect it. This rule is a very difficult one to enforce
-without rigid discipline, and its neglect is the cause of a large
-percentage of the accidents "that will happen." The flagman who
-must go to the rear, often a half-mile, at night, across trestles
-and in storms, must frequently be left behind, to take his chances
-of getting home by being picked up by a following train. There is
-no one to watch him, and he will often take chances, and not go as
-far back or as fast as he should; and if all goes well no one is
-ever the wiser.
-
-[Illustration: A lamp swung vertically in a circle at arm's length
-across the track, when the train is running, is the signal that the
-train has parted.]
-
-Now, when a train is prevented from arriving on time at its
-meeting-point, we must have some rules by which the opposing train
-may proceed, or all business on the road would be suspended by the
-delay of a single train. Only the general principles of these rules
-can be stated within limits. They are as follows:
-
-1. All freight trains must wait indefinitely for all passenger
-trains.
-
-2. When one train only is behind time, the opposing train of the
-same class will wait for it a specified time, usually ten minutes,
-and five minutes more for possible variation of watches, then go
-ahead, keeping fifteen minutes behind its schedule.
-
-3. But should such a train, running on delayed time, lose more
-time, or in any other way should both trains get behind time,
-then the one which is bound in a certain direction--for instance,
-north--has the right to the track, and the other must lie by
-indefinitely.
-
-[Illustration: The General Despatcher.]
-
-These principles, duly observed, will prevent collisions, but
-they will often cause trains to lose a great deal of time. The
-train-despatcher, therefore, has authority to handle extra and
-delayed trains by direct telegraphic order. Every possible
-precaution is taken to insure that such orders are received and
-correctly understood. As there are great advantages following
-uniformity of usages and rules among connecting roads, after
-years of conference, in conventions and by committees, approved
-forms of all running rules and signals have recently been adopted
-and are now in very general use over the United States. Yet,
-in spite of all possible precautions, accidents will sometimes
-happen. Richard Grant White gave a name to a mental habit which,
-in train-despatchers, has caused many fatal accidents. It is
-"heterophemy," or thinking one thing while saying, hearing, or
-reading another. A case within my knowledge, which cost a dozen
-lives, was as follows: Two opposing trains were out of time,
-and the train-despatcher wished to have them meet and pass at a
-certain station we will call "I," as Nos. 1 and 2 are represented
-as doing on the diagram (see diagram of schedule board, p. 161).
-So he telegraphed the following message, to be delivered to No. 1
-at "H" and to No. 2 at "J": "Nos. 1 and 2 will meet at 'I.'"
-This message was correctly received at "J" and delivered to No.
-2. But at "H" the operator had just sold a passenger a ticket to
-"K," and, getting this name in his head, he wrote out the message:
-"Nos. 1 and 2 will meet at 'K.'" But the mistake was not yet
-past correction. The operator had to repeat the message back to
-the despatcher, that the latter might be sure it was correctly
-understood. He repeated it as he had written it--"K." But the
-despatcher was also "heterophemous." He _saw_ "K," but he _thought_
-"I," and replied to the operator that the message was O. K.
-
-[Illustration: Entrance Gates at a Large Station.]
-
-So it was delivered to No. 1, and that train left "H" at full
-speed, expecting to run thirty-five miles to "K" before meeting
-No. 2. There was no telegraph office at "I," and there were no
-passengers to get off or on, and it passed there without stopping,
-and three miles below ran into No. 2 on a curve.
-
-By one of those strange impulses which seem to come from some
-unconscious cerebration, the train-despatcher meanwhile had a
-feeling that something was wrong, and looked again at the message
-received from "H" and discovered his mistake. But the trains were
-then out of reach. He still hoped that No. 2 might arrive at "I"
-first, or that they might meet upon a straight portion of road,
-and as the time passed he waited at the instrument in a state of
-suspense which may be imagined. When the news came he left the
-office, and never returned.
-
-Double tracks make accidents of this character impossible; but
-introduce a new possibility, that a derailment from any cause upon
-one track may obstruct the other track so closely ahead of an
-opposing train that no warning can be given.
-
-[Illustration: Central Switch and Signal Tower.]
-
-Where trains become very numerous additional safeguards are added
-by multiplying telegraph stations at short intervals, and giving
-them conspicuous signals of semaphore arms and lanterns, until
-finally the road is divided into a number of so-called "blocks"
-of a few miles each; and no train is permitted to enter any block
-until the train preceding has passed out. And in the approaches to
-some of our great depots, where trains and tracks are multiplied
-and confused with cross-overs and switching service, all switches
-are set and all movements controlled by signals from a single
-central tower. Sometimes, by very expensive and complicated
-apparatus, it is made mechanically impossible to open a track for
-the movement of a train without previously locking all openings by
-which another train might interfere. The illustrations on pages
-169, 171, and above will serve to give some general idea of these
-appliances.[17]
-
-[Illustration: Mantua Junction, West Philadelphia, showing a
-Complex System of Interlacing Tracks.]
-
-There remains one other branch of the duties of the master of
-transportation--the proper daily distribution of cars to every
-station according to its needs, and the keeping record of their
-whereabouts. And now that the gauges of all roads are similar,
-and competition enforces through shipments, roads are practically
-making common property of each other's cars, and the detail and
-trouble of keeping record of them become enormous.
-
-[Illustration: Interior of a Switch-tower, showing the Operation of
-Interlocking Switches.]
-
-The records are made up from daily reports, by every conductor, of
-every car, home or foreign, handled in his train, and from every
-station-agent of all cars in his yard at certain hours. From these
-returns the car accountant reports to their respective owners all
-movements of foreign cars and gives the transportation department
-information where cars are lying. The honesty of each other's
-reports concerning car movements is generally relied upon by
-railroads, but "lost car agents" are kept travelling to hunt up
-estrays, and to watch how the cars of their roads are being handled.
-
-It has been suggested that a great step in advance would be to
-have all the roads in the United States unite and put all cars
-into a common stock and let them be distributed, record kept of
-movements, and mileage paid through a general clearing house.
-This would practically form a single rolling-stock company owned
-by the roads contributing their cars to it. It could gradually
-introduce uniform patterns of construction, improved couplers, and
-air-brakes, and could concentrate cars in different sections of the
-country in large numbers as different crops required movement, thus
-avoiding the blockades which often occur in one section while cars
-are superabundant in another. Consolidations usually render more
-efficient and cheaper service than separate organizations can do,
-and this may come about in the course of time.[18]
-
-We have now seen how the road is maintained and its trains safely
-handled. The next step in order is to see how business is secured
-and the rates to be charged are fixed. This department may be
-controlled by a traffic manager, with two assistants--the general
-freight agent and the general passenger agent--or the officers may
-report directly to the general manager without the intervention
-of a traffic manager. But it would be a more accurate expression
-to say, not that these officers "fix" the rates, for if they did
-few railroads would ever fail, but that they accept and announce
-the rates that are fixed by conditions of competition between
-different markets and products, and between different railroads
-and water lines. Among these complex forces a railroad freight
-agent is nearly as powerless to regulate rates as a professor of
-grammar is to regulate the irregularities of English verbs. He
-can accept them and use them, or he may let them alone, but the
-irregularities will remain, all the same. There is no eccentricity,
-for example, more idiotic or indefensible to the ordinary citizen
-than a habit railroads have of sometimes charging less money for
-a long haul than they charge for a shorter haul. Yet I believe
-there is not a railroad line in the United States which will not
-be found guilty of this apparent folly of charging "less for
-the long haul" if its rates to distant points are followed far
-enough. For if followed far enough we shall come to the ocean,
-and find the railroad accepting business between two seaports. For
-instance, all railroads running westward from New York through
-some of their connections finally reach San Francisco, and compete
-for freight between these ports. But the rates they are able to
-obtain are limited by steamers using the ocean for a highway,
-and sailing vessels using the wind for motive power, and able to
-carry heavy freights at one-tenth the average cost to railroads
-across mountains and deserts. This average cost must fix the
-average rates charged by the railroads to intermediate points,
-such as to Ogden, in Utah. So the railroad must either charge less
-for the long haul to San Francisco, or leave that business to be
-done solely by water. Yet it may be profitable to the railroad to
-accept the business at such rates as it can obtain; for, as in all
-business ventures, manufacturing or mercantile, _new_ business
-can be profitably added at less than the average cost. And if
-profitable to the railroad its tendency is beneficial, even to the
-intermediate points which pay higher rates, as promoting better
-service, besides being advantageous to the whole Pacific Coast in
-tending to keep down the rates by water.
-
-But it would lead too far from our subject to follow this and
-several other questions which are suggested by it. Only it may
-be said briefly that the original Interstate Commerce Bill,
-introduced by Mr. Reagan, absolutely prohibited "less for the long
-haul." The Senate amended by adding "under similar circumstances
-and conditions," and the Interstate Commerce Commission has held
-that "water competition" makes dissimilar circumstances and thus
-legalizes it.
-
-And in this connection it may be added that the other Senate
-amendment to the Reagan bill, creating an Interstate Commerce
-Commission, was, next to the above amendment, the wisest measure
-of the bill. It forms a body of experts whose opinions and
-decisions must gradually educate the public, on the one hand, to
-a better understanding of transportation problems, and restrain
-the railroads, on the other, from many of the abuses incident
-to unchecked competition among them. For, however theorists may
-differ as to the advantages or disadvantages of competition
-in manufactures and commerce, either absolutely unchecked or
-checked only by high or low tariffs, I think all will agree that
-unchecked _railroad_ competition is a great evil, because it
-results in fluctuating rates and private rebates to large shippers.
-The rebates, to be sure, are forbidden by law, but they can be
-disguised past recognition. I have known a case, for instance,
-where a receipt was given for 75 barrels of whiskey, when only
-73 were shipped. The shipper was to make claim for two barrels
-lost and be paid an agreed value as a rebate on his freight bill.
-In another case, a road agreed with a certain shipper to pay his
-telegraph bills for a certain period in order to control his
-shipments. Understating the weight or class of the shipment is
-another common device for undercharging or rebating.
-
-In nearly every foreign country there is either a railroad pool or
-a division of territory, to prevent this sort of competition, which
-is only pernicious. A merchant needs to feel assured that rates are
-stable and uniform to all, and not that he must go shopping for
-secret rates, in order to be on an equality with his competitor.
-In the United States the railroads had largely resorted to pools
-before the Interstate Commerce Law forbade them. The result of
-this prohibition has generally been very advantageous to the best
-lines, which, under the pool, really paid a sort of blackmail to
-the poorer lines to maintain rates. If the penalties of the law
-can restrain such lines from rebating and under-billing, to be rid
-of the pool will be a great blessing to the well-located roads. If
-not, then the roads will be driven into consolidation, for the end
-of fighting will be bankruptcy and sale. Fortunately consolidation
-has already gone so far in many sections of the country that the
-difficulties of abolishing rebates have been greatly reduced. And
-as far as it has gone it has proved of much advantage both to the
-public and to the stockholders.
-
-Fortunately, too, the other results attendant upon consolidation
-have been sufficiently demonstrated to remove any intelligent
-fear of extortion in rates or deterioration of service. Who would
-to-day desire to undo the consolidations which have built up the
-Pennsylvania Railroad or the New York Central, and call back to
-life the numberless small companies which preceded them? The
-country has outgrown such service as they could render, and the
-local growth and development along the lines of these consolidated
-companies certainly indicates improved conditions. In this
-connection, too, the improvement in cost and character of service
-is instructive. In 1865 the average rate per ton per mile on the
-principal Eastern lines was about 2.900 cents; in 1887 it was 0.718
-for a service twice as speedy and efficient.
-
-There are many other live issues of great interest and importance
-in transportation suggested by this subject, such as "re-billing"
-or "milling in transit," and "differentials," but space forbids
-more than an explanation of the meaning of these two especially
-prominent ones.
-
-  A             B             C
-  -----------------------------
-
-Let A B and B C be two railroads connecting at B. Let the local
-rates A to B be 10 cents per 100 lbs. on grain, and B to C also
-10 cents. Let the through rate A to C be 18, since longest hauls
-are usually cheapest per mile. Let A be a large grain market, such
-as Chicago. Now a merchant at C can save 2 cents per 100 lbs. by
-buying direct from A instead of buying from a merchant at B. For
-the grain will pay less for the single long haul than for the two
-short hauls. But perhaps the town of B has for many years enjoyed
-the trade of C, and there are large mills and warehouses erected
-there. B will then say it is "discriminated against," and will
-demand the privilege of "re-billing" or "milling in transit."
-That is to say, when a merchant or miller at B ships to C grain,
-or flour made of grain, which he received from A, the two roads
-consent to make a new way-bill and treat the shipment as a through
-shipment from A to C. The road B C charges but 8 cents, and the
-road A B gives B C one cent from the 10 it originally collected.
-This involves much trouble and a loss of revenue to the roads,
-and is, apparently, a discrimination against the home products of
-B, but roads frequently do it where there is competition at C by
-rival lines, and also at local points along their lines to build up
-mills, distilleries, and factories of all kinds in competition with
-those located elsewhere. As yet the Interstate Commerce Commission
-has not pronounced upon this practice.
-
-The question of differentials is as follows: Suppose there are
-three lines, B, D, and E, between the cities A and C (Diagram, page
-176). B, being the shortest, will get most of the business when
-rates are the same (10 cents, for instance) by each line. But D
-and E insist upon participating, so they demand that B shall allow
-them to operate lower or "differential" rates--that is, B must
-maintain his rate at 10 while allowing D to charge only 8 and E 6
-cents, on account of their disadvantages. So that a differential is
-practically a premium offered for business by an inferior line.
-
-The foregoing will illustrate how the rivalry of railroads with
-each other complicates the making of rates. But even more difficult
-to manage is the rivalry of markets, and of products, and of new
-methods which threaten property invested in old methods; as, for
-instance, the dressed-beef traffic from the West threatens the
-investments in slaughter-houses and stock-yards in the East.
-
-As the roads have found it necessary to act together in
-establishing running rules and regulations, so, in spite of
-all rivalries, there must also be joint agreements reached in
-some way concerning rates. Usually the roads serving a certain
-territory form an "association," and their freight agents form
-"rate committees," which fix and publish joint rates. A tariff
-published by one of the trunk lines from the Eastern cities forms a
-good example. As the result of many long and bitter wars and many
-compromises, it has been agreed among these roads that the rates
-from New York to Chicago shall form a basis for all other rates,
-and a scale has been fixed showing the percentage of the Chicago
-rate to be used as the rate to each important point in the West.
-Thus Pittsburgh, Pa., is 60 per cent. of Chicago rate; Indianapolis
-is 93; Vandalia, 116. The tariff above referred to gives an
-alphabetical list of some 5,000 towns reached over these roads, and
-opposite each town the figure showing its percentage of the Chicago
-rate. The list begins with Abanaka, O., 90, and ends with Zoar, O.,
-74.
-
-The tariff next gives what is called the "Trunk Line
-Classification," which is a list comprising every article known to
-commerce, in all the different conditions, shapes, and packages in
-which it is offered for transportation, and opposite each article
-is given its assigned "class." This particular classification
-assigns every article to one of six regular, or two special,
-classes, and the present rates to Chicago in cents per 100 lbs.
-are given as 75, 65, 50, 35, 30, 25, 26, 21. The list of articles
-begins with Acetate of Lime, in car-loads, 5th class; in less
-quantities, 4th; and ends with Zinc, in various forms from 1st to
-6th--comprising in all nearly 6,000 articles. From these tables any
-desired rate readily appears. Thus, 500 pounds of acetate of lime
-would cost, from New York to Zoar, O., 74 per cent. of Chicago's
-4th class rate, or 74 per cent. of 35--say, 26 cents per 100 lbs.,
-or $1.30.
-
-There is also given in the tariff pamphlet a list of some 300
-manufacturing towns in New England, from each of which the same
-rates apply as from New York. So, on the whole, the pamphlet gives
-rates on about 6,000 articles from 300 points of origin to 5,000
-destinations.
-
-In different sections of the country different classifications are
-in use, some of them embracing twenty or more classes, and allowing
-finer shades of difference between articles according to their
-value, bulk, or many other varying conditions which determine the
-class into which each article is put.
-
-Great efforts have been made to bring about a uniformity of
-classification over the whole United States, and the number of
-classifications in extensive use has been reduced from a very large
-number to perhaps a dozen.
-
-But absolute uniformity cannot be obtained under the widely
-different conditions which prevail in different sections, without
-great loss and sacrifices somewhere. A road, for instance,
-competing with a river or canal must adjust the classification of
-the particular kinds of freight best adapted to river or canal
-transportation so as to secure the traffic in competition with
-boats. It must almost entirely disregard bulk, value, and all other
-conditions upon which a road not affected by this particular kind
-of competition arranges its classification. Uniformity would either
-force one of them to lose a legitimate business, or the other to
-reduce reasonable rates.
-
-These rates and classifications are the battle-ground for all the
-innumerable rivalries of trade and commerce. Every city is here at
-war with every other city, every railroad with every other road,
-every industry with those which rival it, and every individual
-shipper is a skirmisher for a little special rate, or advantage,
-all to himself. State legislatures and commissions, Congress, and
-the Interstate Commerce Commission are the heavy artillery which
-different combatants manage to bring into the contest. On these
-rates probably a million dollars are collected every day, yet it is
-very rarely that the _positive_ rates are fought over or complained
-of. Their average is considerably below that of the average rates
-of any other country in the world, even though other nations have
-cheaper labor and denser populations. Fifty cents for carrying
-a barrel of flour a thousand miles cannot be called exorbitant,
-and, indeed, the retail prices paid for bread and clothing would
-probably not be reduced in the slightest were the transportation
-of all such articles absolutely free. But the battle is over the
-_comparative_ rates to different points, over different routes, and
-for different commodities.[19]
-
-Passenger rates are established in much the same manner as freight
-rates. There are passenger-agents' associations and conventions,
-and they fight as do the freight men over comparative rates and
-differentials, and commissions to agents. The last within a few
-years has been a fearful abuse, and is not yet entirely abolished.
-This will illustrate:
-
-[Illustration: (Diagram of railways connecting A to E.)]
-
-The road A B has two connections, C and D, to reach E. It sells
-tickets over each at the same rate, and stands neutral between
-them. But C agrees with A's ticket-seller that he will give him a
-dollar for every ticket he can sell over C's line. D finds that
-he is losing travel, and offers, privately, a larger commission.
-Neither knows what the other is doing. The ticket-seller gets his
-regular salary from A, and from C and D often enormous sums as
-commissions, and is interested, not in sending ignorant travellers
-over the line which might suit them best, but over the one paying
-him the largest secret commission. This should be held as against
-public policy, because it tends to prevent reductions in rates
-to the public by robbing the roads of much of their revenue, and
-it also demoralizes the officers who handle a business which is
-practically but the giving away of large sums of money as bribes.
-
-There is another practice in the passenger business which is unfair
-at the best and is the source of many abuses. It is charging the
-same to the man with no baggage as to the man with a Saratoga
-trunk. If the baggage service were specially organized as a trunk
-express, it could be more efficiently handled and without any
-"baggage smashing," while the total cost of travelling to persons
-with baggage would be no more than at present, and to those
-without, much less.
-
-As an illustration of the sort of abuses to which it is now liable,
-I may cite a single case. I have known a merchant buy a lot of
-twenty trunks for his trade, pack them all full of dry-goods,
-check them to a city 1,000 miles away by giving a few dollars to
-baggage-men, and himself buy a single ticket and go by a different
-route. The roads which handled that baggage imagined that it
-belonged to their passengers, and were never the wiser. While
-the baggage service is free, no efficient checks can be provided
-against such frauds.
-
-Essential parts of both freight and passenger departments are the
-soliciting agents. They are like the cavalry pickets and scouts of
-an army, scattered far and wide over the country and looking after
-the interests of their lines, making personal acquaintances of all
-shippers and travellers, advertising in every possible manner,
-and reporting constantly all that the enemy--the rival lines--are
-doing, and often a great deal that they are not. For the great
-railroad wars usually begin in local skirmishes brought on by the
-zeal of these pickets when the officers in command would greatly
-prefer to live in peace.
-
-Besides their receipts from freight and passenger traffic,
-railroads derive revenue also from the transportation of mails
-and express freight on passenger trains, from the sleeping-car
-companies, and from news companies for the privilege of selling
-upon trains. Of the total revenue about 70 per cent. is usually
-derived from freight, 25 per cent. from passengers, and 5 per cent.
-from mail, express, sleeping-cars, and privileges. When it is
-considered that high speed involves great risks and necessitates
-a far more perfect roadway, more costly machinery and appliances,
-and a higher grade and a greater number of employees, the fast
-passenger, mail, and express traffic hardly seems at present to
-yield its due proportion of income.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-We have now followed the line of organization and management
-through the physical maintenance of the road and rolling stock,
-the safe handling of the trains, the establishment of rates, and
-solicitation of business. It only remains to show how the revenue
-is collected, how the expenses of operation are paid, and all
-statistics of the business prepared. These duties are usually
-united under charge of an officer called the comptroller, general
-auditor, or some equivalent title. His principal subordinates,
-whose duties are indicated by their titles, are the auditor of
-receipts, auditor of disbursements, local treasurer, paymaster, and
-clerk of statistics.
-
-The record of a single shipment of freight will illustrate methods,
-so far as limits will permit. A shipper sending freight for
-shipment sends with each dray-load a "dray ticket" in duplicate,
-showing the articles, weight, marks, and destination. If he has
-prepaid the freight, or advanced any charges which are to be
-paid at destination, it is also noted on the dray ticket. When
-the drayman reaches the outbound freight depot with his load,
-he is directed to a certain spot where all freight for the same
-destination is being collected for loading. A receiving clerk
-checks off his load against the duplicate dray tickets, keeps one
-and files it, and gives the drayman the other, receipted. In case
-of any loss arising afterward, the original dray ticket, made by
-the shipper himself, with his marks and instructions, becomes a
-valuable record. When the entire shipment has been delivered at
-the loading point, the shipper takes the dray tickets representing
-it to the proper desk, and receives "a bill of lading." This bill
-of lading is made in triplicate. The original and a duplicate
-are given to the shipper. He keeps the last and sends the former
-to the consignee. It represents the obligation of the railroad
-to transport and deliver the articles named on it to the person
-named, or his assignee. It is negotiable, and banks advance money
-upon it. But the shipper may still, by a legal process, have the
-goods stopped _en route_ should occasion arise, as, for instance,
-by the bankruptcy of the consignee. The goods are also liable for
-garnishments in certain cases, and there is much railroad and
-commercial law which it behooves the officials interested to be
-well posted in. When the goods arrive at destination the possession
-of the bill of lading is the evidence of the consignee's right to
-receive them.
-
-Now we will return to the shipment itself and see how it is
-taken care of. The whole structure of the system of collecting
-freight revenue, holding accountable all agents who assess it and
-collect it, dividing it in the agreed proportions between all the
-railroads, boats, bridges, wharves, and transfer companies who
-may handle it in its journeys, even across the continent, and
-the tabulating of the immense mass of statistics which are kept
-to show, separately, the quantities of freight of every possible
-class and variety, by every possible route, and to and from every
-possible point of destination and departure--all this system,
-neither the magnitude nor the minute elaboration of which can be
-adequately described within limits, is founded upon a paper called
-the way-bill.
-
-The theory of the way-bill is that no car must move without one
-accompanying it, describing it by its number and the initials
-of the road owning it, and showing its points of departure and
-destination, its entire contents, with marks and weights of each
-package, consignors and consignees, freight and charges prepaid
-or to be collected at destination, and the proportion of the same
-due to each carrier or transfer in the line. And not only must a
-way-bill accompany the car, but a duplicate of it must be sent
-immediately and directly, by the office making the original, to
-the office of the auditor of freight receipts. If the railroad
-is a member of any association, as the Trunk Line Association in
-New York, another duplicate is sent to its office, that it may
-supervise all rates, and see what each road is doing. The sum of
-all the way-bills is the total of a road's freight business. To
-facilitate taking copies they are printed with an ink which will
-give several impressions on strong, thin tissue-paper, forming
-"soft copies," while the "hard copy," or original, goes with the
-freight to be checked against it when the car is unloaded.
-
-And while the original way-bill fulfils its important function of
-conducting the freight to destination and delivery, the duplicate
-which was forwarded directly to the auditor of freight receipts
-has no less important purposes. It is the initial record that
-freight has been earned, and it shows which agent of the company
-has been charged with its collection. Before making any entries
-from it its absolute correctness must be assured. For this purpose
-all its figures are first checked by a rate-clerk, who is kept
-constantly supplied by the traffic department with all current
-rates, classifications, and percentage tables by which through
-freights are divided. These way-bills, coming in daily by hundreds
-and thousands, are then the grist upon which the office of the
-auditor of receipts grinds, and from which come forth the accounts
-with every agent, showing his debits for freight received, and the
-consolidations showing the freight earnings of the road. Agents
-remit the moneys they collect direct to the treasurer, who makes
-daily reports of the credits due to each one. A travelling auditor
-visits every station at irregular intervals and checks the agent's
-accounts, requiring him to justify any difference between his
-debits and credits by an exhibit of undelivered freight.
-
-The passenger earnings are obtained from daily reports by all
-conductors of their collections, and by all ticket-sellers of
-tickets sold. These reports are also checked by a passenger
-rate-clerk, and the travelling auditor frequently examines and
-verifies the tickets reported by agents as on hand unsold.
-
-After the auditor of receipts has finished with the way-bills and
-ticket reports, they go to the statistical department, where are
-prepared the great mass and variety of statistics required by
-different officers to keep themselves thoroughly posted on the
-growth or decrease of business of every variety, and from and to
-every market reached by the road. Finally, the way-bills are filed
-away for reference in case of claims for overcharges, or lost or
-damaged goods.
-
-The auditor of disbursements has supervision of all expenditures of
-money, which is only paid out by the paymaster or treasurer upon
-vouchers and pay-rolls approved by proper authority. The vouchers
-and pay-rolls then form the grist upon which his office works, and
-from which are produced the credits to be given all officers and
-agents who disburse money, and the classified records of expenses,
-and comparison of the same with previous months and years, and
-between different divisions.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-I have thus outlined the skeleton of a railroad organization, and
-suggested briefly the relations between its most important parts,
-and some of the principles upon which its work is conducted. The
-scheme of authority is outlined in the diagram on page 185. But
-space is utterly lacking to clothe the skeleton with flesh and
-go into the innumerable details and adjustments involved in the
-economical and efficient discharge of all of its functions.
-
-It seems a very simple matter for a railroad to place a barrel of
-flour in a car, to carry it to its destination, and to collect
-fifty cents for the service. It is done apparently so spontaneously
-that even the fifty cents may seem exorbitant, and I have actually
-heard appeals for free transportation on the ground that the cars
-were going anyhow. So it also seems a very simple matter for a
-man to pick up a stone and place it on a wall. But this simple
-act involves in the first place the existence of a bony frame,
-with joints, sinews, and muscles, sustained by a heart, lungs, and
-digestive system, with eyes to see, a brain to direct, nerves to
-give effect to the will-power, and a thousand delicate adjustments
-of organs and functions without which all physical exertion would
-soon cease. Similarly, a railroad organized to respond efficiently
-to all the varied demands upon it as a common carrier, by the
-public, and as an investment by its owners, becomes almost a living
-organism. That the barrel of flour may be safely delivered and
-the fifty cents reach the company's treasury, and a part of it
-the stockholder's pocket, the whole organization outlined in the
-diagram must thrill with life, and every officer and employee, from
-president to car-greaser, must discharge his special functions.
-All must be coordinated, and the organization must have and use
-its eyes and its ears, its muscle, its nerves, and its brain. It
-must immediately feel and respond to every demand of our rapidly
-advancing civilization.
-
-Each road usually has its own individuality and methods, and its
-employees are animated with an _esprit de corps_, as are the
-soldiers in an army. There is much about the service that is
-attractive, and, on the whole, the wages paid railroad employees
-are probably in excess of the rates for similar talent in any other
-industry, although labor in every other industry in the United
-States is protected by high tariffs, while in this it is under the
-incubus of legislation as oppressive as constitutional limits will
-permit.
-
-                                  PRESIDENT
-                                      |
-             +------------------------+--------------------------+
-             |                        |                          |
-  _Secretary and Treasurer_    _General Manager_              _General_
-                                      |                       _Counsel_
-  ------------------------------------+----------------------------------
-                                      |
-   +----------------------------------+
-   |
-   |                    {Auditor of Receipts
-   |                    {Auditor of Disbursements
-   +-Comptroller--------{Travelling Auditor
-   |                    {Local Treasurers
-   |                    {Local Paymasters
-   |                    {Clerk of Statistics
-   |
-   +-Purchasing Agent--+-Local Storekeepers
-   |                   |
-   |                   |                 {Receiving Clerks and Laborers
-   |                   |                 {Loading Clerks and Laborers
-   |                   |                 {Billing Clerks
-   |                ...+-Station Agents--{Discharging Clerks and Laborers
-   |                :  |                 {Delivery Clerks
-   |                :  |                 {Collectors     {Yard Engines
-   |                :  |                 {Yard Master----{Switchmen
-   |                :  |                                 {Brakemen
-   |                :  |
-   |                :  |
-   +-Superintendent of |                 {Train Despatchers
-   |    Transportation-+-Train Master----{Operators
-   |                   |                 {Conductors
-   |                   |                 {Trainmen
-   |                   |
-   +-Division          |                                 {Engine Runners
-   | Superintendents---+                 +-Foreman       {Firemen
-   |                   |                 | Machine Shop--{Hostelers and
-   |                   |                 |               {  Cleaners
-   +-Superintendent of |                 |               {Mechanics
-   |         Machinery-+-Master Mechanic-+               {Laborers
-   |                   |                 |
-   |                   |                 |               {Car Inspectors
-   |                   |                 +-Foreman       {Greasers
-   |                   |                     Car Shop----{Mechanics
-   |                   |                                 {Laborers
-   |                   |
-   |                   |
-   |                   |                                 {Bridge Foremen
-   |                   |                 +-Supervisors   {Watchmen
-   |                   |                 |  of Bridges---{Carpenter Gangs
-   +-Superintendent of |                 |               {Mason Gangs
-   |           Roadway-+-Road Master-----+
-   |                                     |               {Section Foremen
-   |                                     +-Supervisors   {Gangs and Track
-   |                                           of Road---{  Walkers
-   |                                                     {Wood and Water
-   |                                                     {  Tenders
-   |                                                     {Floating Gangs
-   |                                                     {Construction
-   |                                                     {  Trains
-   +Car Accountant-------Lost Car Agents
-   |
-   |                   +-General           {Travelling Agents
-   |                   | Passenger Agent---{Local Agents
-   |                   |                   {Rate and Division Clerks
-   +Traffic Manager----+-Claim Agent
-                       |
-                       +-General           {Travelling Agents
-                         Freight Agent-----{Local Agents
-                                           {Rate and Division Clerks
-
-  Diagram showing the Skeleton of a Railroad Organization, and Lines of
-  Responsibility.
-
-In Europe, where the pooling system practically prevails, the
-service is much more stable than in the United States, and in many
-instances there are pensions and insurances and disability funds,
-and regular rules for promotion and retirement, and provision for
-the children of employees being brought into service in preference
-to outsiders. Such relations between a company and its employees as
-must result from arrangements of this character are surely of great
-benefit to both. They are the natural outgrowth of _stability of
-business_. Their most advanced form is found in France, where each
-road is practically protected from dangerous competition by means
-of a division of territory. In the United States we are still in
-the midst of a fierce competition for territory and business, and,
-as pooling is forbidden, the railroad companies will be in unstable
-equilibrium until consolidation takes place. As that goes on, and
-large and rich corporations are formed, with prospects of stability
-in management and in business, we may hope to see similar relations
-established between our companies and their employees. Already
-there is a beginning upon some of the largest roads, such as the
-Baltimore & Ohio and the Pennsylvania Central. But the ground still
-needs preparation also on the employees' side, for our American
-spirit is aggressive and is sometimes rather disposed to resent,
-as interfering with its independence, any paternal relations with
-a corporation. And as we have before found railroad management
-in intimate contact with every problem of finance and commerce,
-it is here confronted with the social and industrial questions
-involved in labor unions and problems of co-operation. As to the
-results, we can only say that, as war is destructive, no state of
-warfare, even between capital and labor, can be permanent. Peaceful
-solutions must prevail in the end, and progress toward stability,
-peace, and prosperity in railroad operation and ownership will be
-progress toward the happy solution of many vexed social questions.
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[14] See "How to Feed a Railway," page 302.
-
-[15] See "The Freight-car Service," page 275.
-
-[16] Of course, this "stringing" of an extra train is not always
-done in actual operation. Practice and experience will give as
-wonderful expertness to a train-despatcher in handling trains "in
-his head" as to a mathematician in solving problems, and often all
-trains on a road will be handled entirely "by order," or as extras.
-But the example given illustrates the principle upon which expert
-practice is based.
-
-[17] See "Safety in Railroad Travel," page 204.
-
-[18] See "The Freight-car Service," page 288.
-
-[19] An idea may be gained of the extent and minuteness of the
-classification, and of the constant changes and adjustments,
-both of rates and classifications, perpetually going on from the
-following partial list of subjects submitted to a recent meeting
-of the Rate Committee of the Southern Railway and Steamship
-Association.
-
-RATES.--Watermelon rates; canned goods, Richmond to Atlanta; rates
-on cement from Eastern cities to Association territory; rates
-on sulphuric acid from Atlanta; rates from Atlanta, etc., to
-California and Transcontinental terminals; special iron rates from
-Cincinnati, etc., to Carolina points; rates on earthenware, East
-Liverpool to S. E. territory; rates on cotton bags to Memphis from
-Atlanta; rates on fertilizers to Mobile, Ala.; beer rates; rates
-on special iron articles from Chattanooga; rates from the West to
-Camden, S. C.; rates from Evansville and Cairo, on business from
-points between Cairo, Evansville, and Chicago.
-
-CLASSIFICATION.--Classification of paper twine; beer packages,
-empty returned; old machinery returned for repairs; steel car
-springs; cotton softener; iron safes or vaults weighing over 12,000
-lbs.; toys, etc.; portable powder magazines; coffee extract; empty
-lard tierces returned; bolts and nuts in barrels; box and barrel
-material; glass oil bottles in tin jackets; cast-iron radiators;
-malleable iron castings; dried beef; sausage; straw paper; burlaps;
-tobacco stems; hinges; straw braids; lawn hose reels; excelsior;
-car-load rates.
-
-SUBJECTS NOT ON THE REGULAR LIST.--Demurrage rules; adjustment of
-rates as per instructions from the Executive Board; rates from
-Cincinnati to Columbus, Eufaula, Opelika, etc.; classification of
-iron tanks; classification of whiting; rates to Eufaula, Ala., from
-East; rates to Milledgeville, Ga.; classification of cast-iron cane
-mills; classification of locomotives and tenders.
-
-
-
-
-SAFETY IN RAILROAD TRAVEL
-
-BY H. G. PROUT.
-
-  The Possibilities of Destruction in the Great Speed of
-  a Locomotive--The Energy of Four Hundred Tons Moving at
-  Seventy-five Miles an Hour--A Look ahead from a Locomotive at
-  Night--Passengers Killed and Injured in One Year--Good Discipline
-  the Great Source of Safety--The Part Played by Mechanical
-  Appliances--Hand-brakes on Old Cars--How the Air brake Works--The
-  Electric Brake--Improvements yet to be Made--Engine Driver
-  Brakes--Two Classes of Signals: those which Protect Points
-  of Danger, and those which Keep an Interval between Trains
-  on the Same Track--The Semaphore--Interlocking Signals and
-  Switches--Electric Annunciators to Indicate the Movements--The
-  Block Signal System--Protection for Crossings--Gates and
-  Gongs--How Derailment is Guarded Against--Safety Bolts--Automatic
-  Couplers--The Vestibule as a Safety Appliance--Car Heating and
-  Lighting.
-
-
-In 1829, when Ericsson's little locomotive "Novelty," weighing two
-and a half tons, ran a short distance at the rate of thirty miles
-an hour, a writer of the time said that "it was the most wonderful
-exhibition of human daring and human skill that the world had
-ever seen." To-day trains weighing four hundred tons thunder by
-at seventy-five miles an hour, and we hardly note their passage.
-We take their safety as a matter of course, and seldom think of
-the tremendous possibilities of destruction stored up in them. But
-seventy-five miles an hour is one hundred and ten feet a second,
-and the energy of four hundred tons moving at that rate is nearly
-twice as great as that of a 2,000-pound shot fired from a 100-ton
-Armstrong gun. This is the extreme of weight and speed now reached
-in passenger service, and, indeed, is very rarely attained, and
-then but for short distances; but sixty miles is a common speed,
-and a rate of forty or fifty miles is attained daily on almost
-every railroad in the country. We cannot tell from the time-tables
-how fast we travel. The schedule times do not indicate the delays
-that must be made up by spurts between stations. The traveller
-who is curious to know just how fast he is going, and likes the
-stimulus of thinking that he is in a little danger, may find
-amusement in taking the time between mile-posts; and when these
-are not to be seen, he can often get the speed very accurately by
-counting the rails passed in a given time. This may be done by
-listening attentively at an open window or door. The regular clicks
-of the wheels over the rail-joints can usually soon be singled out
-from the other noises, and counted. The number of rail-lengths
-passed in twenty seconds is almost exactly the number of miles run
-in an hour.
-
-[Illustration: Danger Ahead!]
-
-But if one wants to get a lively sense of what it means to rush
-through space at fifty or sixty miles an hour, he must get on a
-locomotive. Then only does he begin to realize what trifles stand
-between him and destruction. A few months ago a lady sat an hour
-in the cab of a locomotive hauling a fast express train over a
-mountain road. She saw the narrow bright line of the rails and
-the slender points of the switches. She heard the thunder of the
-bridges, and saw the track shut in by rocky bluffs, and new perils
-suddenly revealed as the engine swept around sharp curves. The
-experience was to her magnificent, but the sense of danger was
-almost appalling. To have made her experience complete, she should
-have taken one engine ride in a dark and rainy night. In a daylight
-ride on a locomotive, we come to realize how slender is the rail
-and how fragile its fastenings, compared with the ponderous machine
-which they carry. We see what a trifling movement of a switch makes
-the difference between life and death. We learn how short the look
-ahead must often be, and how close danger sits on either hand. But
-it is only in a night ride that we learn how dependent the engineer
-must be, after all, upon the faithful vigilance of others. We
-lean out of the cab and strain our eyes in vain to see ahead. The
-head-light reveals a few yards of glistening rail, and the ghostly
-telegraph poles and switch targets. Were a switch open, a rail
-taken up, or a pile of ties on the track, we could not possibly see
-the danger in time to stop. The friendly twinkle of a signal lamp,
-shining faintly, red or white, tells the engineer that the way
-is blocked or is clear, and he can only rush along trusting that no
-one of a dozen men on whom his life depends has made a mistake.
-
-When one reflects upon the destructive energy which is contained
-in a swiftly moving train, and sees its effects in a wreck; when
-he understands how many minute mechanical details, and how many
-minds and hands must work together in harmony to insure its safe
-arrival at its destination, he must marvel at the safety of
-railroad travel. In the year 1887, the passengers killed in train
-accidents in the United States were 207; those injured were 916.
-The employees killed were 406, and injured 890.[20] These were in
-train accidents only, it must be remembered, and do not include
-persons killed at crossings, or while trespassing on the track,
-or employees killed and injured making up trains. As will be seen
-later, the casualties in these two classes are much greater than
-those from train accidents. The total passenger movement in 1887
-was equal to one passenger travelling 10,570,306,710 miles. That is
-to say, a passenger might have travelled 51,000,000 miles before
-being killed, or 12,000,000 miles before being injured. Or he might
-travel day and night steadily at the rate of 30 miles an hour for
-194 years before being killed. Mark Twain would doubtless conclude
-from this that travelling by rail is much the safest profession
-that a man could adopt. It is unquestionably true that it is safer
-than travelling by coach or on horseback, and probably it is safer
-than any other method of getting over the earth's surface that man
-has yet contrived, unless it may be by ocean steamer. If one wants
-anything safer he must walk.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-[Illustration: Stephenson's Steam Driver-brake. Patented 1833.]
-
-In considering the means that have been adopted to make railroad
-travel safe, it must be remembered that there are very few devices
-in use that are purely safety appliances. Nearly everything used on
-a railroad has an economic or mechanical value, and if it promotes
-safety that is but part of its duty. The great source of safety in
-railroad working is good discipline. Of all the train accidents
-which have happened in the United States in the last sixteen
-years, nearly ten per cent. were due to negligence in operation,
-and seventeen per cent. were unexplained. Of these no doubt many
-were due to negligence, and many that were attributed to defects of
-track and equipment would have been prevented, had men done their
-duty. The value of mechanical appliances for safety is perhaps as
-often overrated as underrated. Undoubtedly the best, and in the
-long run the cheapest, practice will be that which combines in
-the highest degree both elements--disciplined intelligence and
-perfection of mechanical details.
-
-[Illustration: Driver-brake on Modern Locomotive.]
-
-First in importance among the mechanisms which demand attention
-here is the brake. From the beginning of railroads the necessity
-for brakes was apparent, and in 1833 Robert Stephenson patented a
-steam driver-brake (the brake on the driving-wheels). This was but
-four years after the Rainhill trials, which settled the question
-of the use of locomotives on the Liverpool & Manchester Railroad.
-This early brake contained the principle of the driver-brake,
-operated by steam or air, which has in late years come into wide
-use. The apparatus is so simple that the cut representing it hardly
-needs explanation. Admission of steam into the cylinder raised
-the piston, which through a lever and rod raised the toggle-joint
-between the brake-blocks and forced them against the treads of
-the wheels. Essentially the same method of applying the retarding
-force can now be seen on most passenger engines, and often, but not
-so commonly, on engines for freight service. For various reasons
-Stephenson's driver-brake did not come into use.
-
-[Illustration: English Screw-brake, on the Birmingham and
-Gloucester Road, about 1840.]
-
-Innumerable devices for car-brakes have been invented, but they
-divide themselves into two groups: those in which the retarding
-force is applied to the circumference of the wheel, and those in
-which it is applied to the rail. The class of brakes in which
-the retarding force is applied to the rail has been little used,
-although various contrivances have been devised to transfer a
-portion of the weight of the car from the wheels to runners sliding
-on the rails. There are many objections to the principle, and it
-will probably never again be seriously considered by railroad men.
-The apparatus is necessarily heavy, the power required to apply it
-is great, and its action is slow. When brought into action it is
-not as efficient as the brake applied to the tread of the wheels,
-and the transfer of the load increases the chance of derailment.
-
-[Illustration: English Foot-brake on the Truck of a Great Western
-Coach, about 1840.]
-
-Many different devices have been used to apply the brake-shoes to
-the wheels, and various sources of power. Hand-power brakes have
-been used, worked by levers, or by screws, or by winding a chain
-on a staff; or, in still other forms, springs wound up by hand are
-released and apply the brakes by their pressure. The momentum of
-the train has been employed to wind up chains by the rotation of
-the axles. This is the principle of the chain-brake, very much used
-in England. This same source of power has been utilized by causing
-the drawheads, when thrust in as the cars run together, to wind up
-the brake-chains. Hydraulic pressure has been used in cylinders
-under the cars; and finally air, either under pressure or acting
-against a vacuum, has been found to be the most useful of all means
-of operating train-brakes. Early forms of hand-brakes are seen in
-the illustrations of some old English cars. The coach shows a
-hand-brake operated by a screw and system of levers. By turning
-a crank the guard puts in operation the system of levers which
-apply the brake with great force; but the operation is slow. The
-common hand-brake of the United States is too well known to need
-illustration. With this brake a chain is wound around the foot of
-a staff, and the pull of this chain is transmitted by a rod to the
-brake-levers. This apparatus is simple, and when a train is manned
-by a sufficient number of smart brakemen it is capable of doing
-good service. This simple form of hand-brake will probably be used
-in freight-car service until it is replaced by air-brakes, and the
-various forms of chain and momentum brakes do not appear likely to
-be much more used in the future than they have been in the past.
-Therefore, no further space will be given to them.
-
-The expression, electric brake, is now often heard, and requires
-a word of explanation. There are various forms of so-called
-electric brakes which are practicable, and even efficient, working
-devices. In none of them, however, does electricity furnish
-the power by which the brakes are applied; it merely puts in
-operation some other power. In one type of electric brake the
-active braking force is taken from an axle of each car. A small
-friction-drum is made fast to the axle. Another friction-drum
-hung from the body of the car swings near the axle. If, when
-the car is in motion, these drums are brought in contact, that
-one which hangs from the car takes motion from the other, and
-may be made to wind a chain on its shaft. Winding in this chain
-pulls on the brake-levers precisely as if it had been wound on
-the shaft of the hand-brake. The sole function of electricity
-in this form of brake is to bring the friction-drums together.
-In a French brake which has been used experimentally for some
-years with much success, an electric current, controlled by the
-engine-driver, energizes an electro-magnet which forms part of
-the swinging-frame in which the loose friction-pulley is carried.
-This electro-magnet being vitalized, is attracted toward the axle,
-thus bringing the friction-drums in contact. In an American brake
-lately exhibited on a long freight train, a smaller electro-magnet
-is used, but the same end is accomplished by multiplying the
-power by the intervention of a lever and wheel. The other type of
-so-called electric brake is that in which the motive power is
-compressed air, and the function of the electric device is simply
-to manipulate the valves under each car, by which the air is let
-into the brake-cylinder or allowed to escape, thus putting on or
-releasing the brakes. All of these devices have this advantage,
-that, whatever the length of the train, the application of the
-brakes is simultaneous on all the wheels, and stops can be made
-from high speed with little shock. Up to two years ago it seemed
-as if this advantage might be a controlling one, and compel the
-introduction of electric brakes for freight service. Since then the
-new "quick-acting" form of the air-brake has been developed, by
-which the brakes are applied on the rear of a fifty-car train in
-two seconds, and there is no longer any necessity to turn to other
-devices. It is doubtful, therefore, if the additional complication
-of electricity is widely introduced into brake mechanism for many
-years, if ever.
-
-It is now universally held that the brake, both for freight and for
-passenger service, must be continuous; that is, it must be applied
-to every wheel of every car of the train from some one point, and
-ordinarily that point must be the engineer's cab. With the valve of
-an efficient continuous brake constantly under his left hand, the
-engine-driver can play with the heaviest and fastest train. Without
-that instrument his work is far more anxious, and much less certain.
-
-The continuous brake which to-day prevails all over the world, is
-the automatic air-brake. In the United States much the largest part
-of the rolling stock used in passenger service is equipped with the
-Westinghouse automatic brake. A few roads peculiarly situated use
-the Eames vacuum-brake. That brake is used on the elevated roads
-of New York, and on the Brooklyn bridge roads. The Westinghouse
-brake is also largely used in England, on the Continent of Europe,
-in India, Australia, and South America. In the United States it is
-being rapidly applied to freight cars also. This brake, therefore,
-being the highest development of the automatic air-brake, and
-the one most widely used, will be briefly described, as best
-representing the most approved type of the most important of all
-safety appliances.
-
-The general diagram which is given on pages 196-97 shows all of
-the principal parts as applied to a locomotive, a tender, and a
-passenger car. The diagram is reduced from one prepared by Mr. M.
-N. Forney for a new edition of his "Catechism of the Locomotive."
-In the plan view are shown very clearly the hand-wheels, the
-chains, the rods, and the levers by which the brake is applied by
-hand. In passenger service the hand-wheels are rarely used, but
-they are retained for convenience in switching cars in the yard,
-and for those rare emergencies in which the air-brakes fail. Under
-the middle of the car the ordinary pull-rod of the old hand-brake
-is cut and two levers are inserted. One lever is connected with
-the brake-cylinder, and the other with the piston which slides in
-that cylinder. When air is admitted to the cylinder the piston is
-driven out, and the brakes are applied exactly as they would be
-were the chains wound up by turning the hand-wheels. Compressed
-air is supplied to the cylinder from the reservoir near it, in
-which pressure is maintained at from 70 to 80 pounds per square
-inch by a pump placed on one side of the locomotive. The pump fills
-the main reservoir on the engine, and also the car-reservoirs, by
-means of the train-pipe which extends under all the cars. When
-the brakes are off there is a full pressure of air in all of the
-car-reservoirs and train-pipes. It is a _reduction_ of the pressure
-in the train-pipes which causes the brakes to be applied.
-
-[Illustration: Plan and Elevation of Air-brake
-Apparatus.--Reservoirs and piping in solid black; brake gear
-shaded.]
-
-This fact must be borne in mind, for it is on this principle that
-the automatic action of the brakes depends. If a train parts, or
-if the air leaks out of the train-pipe, the brakes go on. This
-automatic principle is a vital one in most safety appliances,
-and it is secured in the case of the air-brake by one of the
-most ingenious little devices that man ever contrived, that is,
-the triple valve, which is placed in the piping system between
-the brake-cylinder and the car-reservoir. This triple valve has
-passages to the brake-cylinder, to the car-reservoir, to the
-train-pipe, and to the atmosphere. Which of these passages are
-open and which are closed depends upon the position of a piston
-inside of the triple valve, and the position of that piston is
-determined by the difference in air-pressure on either side of it.
-Thus, when the pressure in the train-pipe is greater than that in
-the car-reservoir, the triple valve piston is forced over, say to
-the left, a communication is opened from the train-pipe to the
-car-reservoir, and the air pressure in the latter is restored from
-the main reservoir on the locomotive. At the same time a passage is
-opened from the brake-cylinder to the atmosphere, the compressed
-air escapes, the brake-piston is driven back by a spring, and
-the brakes are released. If the pressure in the train-pipe is
-reduced, the triple-valve piston is driven to the right (we will
-assume) by the pressure from the car-reservoir, the passage to the
-atmosphere is closed, air flows freely from the car-reservoir to
-the brake-cylinder, and the brakes are applied.
-
-The function of the engineer's valve is to control these
-operations. Naturally the runner's left hand rests on this
-instrument, which is fixed to the back head of the boiler. To apply
-the brakes he turns the handle to such a position as to allow air
-to escape from the train-pipe; to release, he turns it to allow air
-to pass from the main or locomotive reservoir into the train-pipe,
-and thence into the car-reservoir. It is hardly necessary to say
-that the operation of the brake, which has been described for one
-car, is practically simultaneous throughout the train. The brakes
-on the driving-wheels of the engine are also automatically applied
-at the same time as those of the cars and the tender.
-
-In the plan on page 197 the several different positions of the
-handle of the engineer's valve are indicated, and among them the
-service-stop and the emergency-stop positions. The quickness of
-the stop can be to some degree controlled by the rapidity with
-which the air-pressure in the train-pipe is reduced. To make a
-stop in the shortest possible time, the runner moves the throttle
-lever with his right hand and shuts off steam, and with his left
-hand moves the handle of the engineer's valve to the emergency
-position, then pulls the sand-rod handle to let sand down to the
-rails, and finally, if the engine is not fitted with driver-brakes,
-he must reverse the engine and again open the throttle. These
-movements must be made in order and with precision; and to make
-them instantly and without mistake in the face of sudden danger
-requires coolness and presence of mind. It sometimes happens that
-an engine-runner reverses his engine before shutting off steam, in
-which case the cylinder-heads will very likely be blown out and the
-engine be instantly disabled. Then, if there are no driver-brakes,
-the locomotive is worse than useless, for instead of aiding in
-making the stop, its momentum adds to the work to be done by the
-train-brakes. Again, if the air-pressure in the brake-cylinders
-is so high, and the adjustment of the levers such that an instant
-application of the full pressure will stop the rotation of the
-wheels, and cause them to slide on the rails, the stop will take
-longer than if the wheels continued to revolve. The maximum
-braking effect is obtained when the pressure on the wheels is
-as great as it can be without causing them to slide, and it may
-happen that a quicker stop can be made by putting the engineer's
-valve to the service-stop position than by trying to make an
-emergency-stop. The runner must, therefore, be familiar with the
-special conditions of his brakes, and must have that kind of mind
-which can be depended upon to work clearly and quickly in a moment
-of tremendous responsibility. Fortunately, such minds are not very
-rare. The world is full of heroes who want only discipline, habit,
-and opportunity.
-
-The pressure of air in the main reservoir and the train-pipe is
-maintained by the air-pump on the locomotive, the speed of which
-is automatically regulated by an ingenious governor. It is the
-throbbing of this vigilant machine which one hears during short
-stops at stations. The air-pressure has been reduced in applying
-the brakes, and the governor has set the pump at work.
-
-All of those parts of the air-brake apparatus which are shown in
-the diagram (pp. 196-97) can be easily seen on a train standing
-at a station; but the curious traveller must be careful not to
-mistake the gas-tank carried under some cars for the car-reservoir.
-The gas-tank is about eight feet long; the car-reservoir is about
-thirty-three inches.
-
-Although the air-brake can almost talk, it is still not perfect.
-There are several fortunes to be made yet in improving it. For
-instance, it is desirable, in descending long and steep grades,
-that the brake-pressure should be just sufficient to control the
-speed of the train, and should be steadily applied; otherwise
-the descent will be by a succession of jerks which may become
-dangerous. With the automatic the brakes must be occasionally
-released to recharge the reservoirs, or when the speed of the train
-is too much reduced; and it is difficult to keep a uniform speed.
-So far, the means devised to overcome this difficulty and keep a
-constant and light pressure on the wheels have been thought too
-costly or complicated for general use. With hand-brakes long trains
-are controlled by the brakes of but a few of the cars in any one
-train. It follows that in the descent of grades the braked wheels
-must often run for miles with the pressure as great as it can be
-without sliding the wheels. The rim of the wheel is rapidly heated
-by the friction of the brake-shoe, and the unequal expansion of
-the heated and the unheated parts of the wheel causes a fracture.
-This is why so many broken car-wheels are found at the foot of
-grades--of all places the worst for such an accident to happen.
-With "straight air," that is, with the pressure from the main
-reservoir, or the air-pump, going directly to the brake-cylinder,
-the engineer can apply the brakes to all the wheels of his train
-simultaneously, and with great delicacy of graduation; and by
-turning a three-way cock which is placed in the piping of each
-car, the air can be used "straight." This is regularly done on
-some mountain-roads. At summits the trains are stopped and the
-brakes are changed from "automatic" to "straight." This practice is
-dangerous, however, and is not approved by the best brake-experts,
-for if a hose bursts, or through some other accident the air in
-the train-pipe escapes, the brakes are useless. The automatic
-arrangement by which a reduction of air-pressure in the train-pipe
-applies the brakes, as previously explained, is much preferred,
-although no entirely satisfactory means has yet been devised for
-automatically regulating the air-pressure in the brake-cylinder.
-
-There is not space here to enter into the history of the air-brake.
-It was first practically applied to passenger trains in 1868.
-The first great epoch in its subsequent development was the
-invention, by Mr. George Westinghouse, Jr., of the triple valve.
-The introduction of the triple valve at once reduced the time of
-full application of the brake for a ten-car train from twenty-five
-seconds to about eight seconds. This means, at forty miles an hour,
-a reduction by more than one thousand feet in the distance in which
-a train can be stopped. The next great epoch in the history of the
-air-brake was made by the celebrated Burlington brake-trials of
-1886 and 1887. These trials were undertaken by a committee of the
-Master Car-builders' Association, to determine whether or not there
-was any power-brake fit for freight service. For general freight
-service the brake must be capable of arresting a very long train,
-with cars loosely coupled, running at a fair average passenger
-speed, without producing objectionable shocks in the rear of the
-train. The two series of trials were carried out in July, 1886,
-and May, 1887. The competing brake-companies brought to the trials
-trains of fifty cars each, equipped with their devices. Skilled
-mechanical engineers from various railroad and private companies
-assisted both years. These trials were most exhaustive, and have
-contributed more to the art of braking than any that preceded or
-have followed them. The first year's trials developed the fact that
-the air-brakes could not be applied on the rear of a fifty-car
-train in less than eighteen seconds, whereas the head of a train
-moving twenty miles an hour could be completely stopped in fifteen
-seconds. The result was that disastrous collisions between the
-cars of any one train were produced in the act of stopping. Men in
-the rear cars were thrown down and injured, and much damage was
-done to the cars. At the end of nineteen days the brake-companies
-went home to work another year over the new problem. In 1887 they
-reappeared on the same ground, and in eighteen days proved that
-no simple air-brakes, as then operated, could prevent disastrous
-shocks in a long train; but it was shown that by bringing in
-electricity to actuate the air-valves, the application of the
-brakes could be made practically simultaneous throughout the train.
-Mr. Westinghouse, however, during the summer following, made such
-modifications in the triple valve and in the train-pipe that he
-succeeded in applying the brakes throughout a fifty-car train in
-two seconds. That settled the matter. He at once equipped a train
-of fifty cars, and in October and November, 1887, that train made
-a journey of about three thousand miles, making exhibition stops
-at various cities. The journey was a splendid and conclusive
-demonstration that the air-brake is now a thoroughly efficient
-and reliable contrivance for freight as well as for passenger
-service. The result has been a very rapid application of the new
-quick-acting brake to freight cars. The performance of this train
-was to railroad men most impressive. A freight train of fifty cars
-is about one-third of a mile long. To see such a train, running
-forty miles an hour, smoothly stopped in one-third of its own
-length, without shock or fuss, was an object-lesson that no one
-could fail to understand or to remember. Some of the stops made by
-this train will give a fair notion of the relative power of hand-
-and air-brakes for quick stops. The following figures are averages
-of stops made in six different cities. They give the distances run
-in feet from the instant of applying the brakes till the train was
-brought to a stand-still:
-
-                                               Feet.
-  Hand-brakes, 50 cars, 20 miles an hour        794
-  Air-brakes, 50 cars, 20 miles an hour         166
-  Air-brakes, 50 cars, 40 miles an hour         581
-  Air-brakes, 20 cars, 20 miles an hour          99
-
-With twenty cars at twenty miles an hour even shorter stops were
-made than those recorded above. In the Burlington trials the
-hand-brake stops, with fifty-car trains at forty miles an hour,
-were made in from two thousand five hundred to three thousand feet.
-
-[Illustration: Dwarf Semaphores and Split Switch.]
-
-The air-brake is somewhat complicated, but the complicated
-mechanism is strong, has little movement, and is securely protected
-from dirt and the elements. It is therefore little liable to
-derangement. It is, however, becoming better understood that
-brake-gear must be good, and employees carefully instructed in
-the care and use of the air-brake to get its best results; and in
-recent years two or three elaborate instruction-cars have been
-fitted up for the education of the enginemen and trainmen.
-
-Space does not permit more than an allusion to driver-brakes,
-which are operated by steam and by air. The forms in constant use
-are made by the Eames, the American, the Westinghouse, and the
-Beals companies. Nor can much be said here of the water-brake,
-used to some extent on locomotives working heavy grades. It
-consists of a simple arrangement of admitting a little hot water,
-instead of steam, to the cylinders. The engine is reversed and the
-cylinder-cocks are opened to the air. The cylinders then act as
-air-pumps, and the retarding effect is due to the back pressure.
-The use of the water is to prevent overheating of the parts.
-
-[Illustration: Semaphore Signal with Indicators.
-
-(One arm governs several tracks. The number of the track which is
-clear is shown on the indicator disk.)]
-
-If it is important to have efficient means of stopping trains,
-it is scarcely less important to have timely information of the
-need of stopping them. To give such information is the function
-of signals, which, among safety appliances, must stand next after
-brakes. Signals fall naturally into two great classes: Those which
-protect points of danger and govern the movements of engines in
-yards, and those which keep an interval of space between two trains
-running on one track. For the protection of switches, crossings,
-junctions, and the like, signals in immense variety have been used,
-and, unfortunately, are still used; but in the last ten or fifteen
-years the semaphore signal has become the general standard in the
-United States, as it long has been in England. This consists of a
-board, called the blade or arm, pivoted on the post, and back of
-the pivot is a heavy casting which carries a colored glass lens,
-either green or red. On the post is hung a lantern. The danger
-position is with the blade horizontal. In this position the lens is
-in front of the lamp, and the light shows red or green, as the case
-may be. The safety position is with the blade hanging about sixty
-degrees from the horizontal. In this position the light of the
-lantern shows white. Red is the universal danger color, and green
-the color of caution. Therefore, a semaphore signal at a point
-of danger shows by day a blade painted red, with the end of the
-blade cut square. At night it shows a red light. At a position some
-distance from the point of actual danger, but where it is desirable
-to warn an engine-runner that he is likely to find the danger
-signal against him, a caution signal is placed. This is a semaphore
-blade painted green, with the end notched in a V-shape, or, as it
-is called, a fish-tail. At night this signal shows a green light.
-There is nothing very remarkable about a piece of board arranged to
-wag up and down on a pin stuck through a post, but it is wonderful
-how much of good brains and good breath have been expended in
-getting these boards to wag harmoniously, and in getting railroad
-officers to understand that a plain board, having two possible
-positions, is a better signal than any more complicated form.
-
-[Illustration: Section of Saxby & Farmer Interlocking Machine.
-
-(Showing two levers and locking mechanism. _A_ is normal, _B_ is
-reversed.)]
-
-The arrangement of a group of signals and switches in such a way
-that their movements are made mutually dependent one upon the
-other, and so that it is impossible to make these movements in
-any but prearranged sequences, is called, in railroad vernacular,
-"interlocking," and in this sense the word will be used here.
-Interlocking has become a special art. The objects which it is
-sought to accomplish by interlocking, and the admirable way in
-which those objects are attained, may best be understood from an
-actual example. For that purpose we shall take a double-track
-junction completely equipped with signals, facing-point locks, and
-derailing switches (p. 205).
-
-A general view of an interlocking frame was given on page 171 of
-this volume. Two levers from such a frame are here shown. The
-normal position of the levers is forward, as lever _A_. When pulled
-back, as lever _B_, the lever is said to be reversed.
-
-Let it be supposed that a main-line train is to be passed eastward
-in the direction of the arrow _B_. The first movement of the
-signalman in the signal-tower would naturally be to lower signals
-1 and 2. He attempts to pull over lever 1, but cannot move it,
-and, in spite of any effort or ingenuity on his part, that signal
-remains at danger. The reason is that lever 2 when normal locks
-lever 1 normal. The logic of this will be at once apparent.
-Clearing signal 1 is an indication to the engineer that the way
-is clear, and that he may pass the junction at speed. So long as
-this signal (which, it must be remembered, is a _caution_ signal)
-stands at danger he knows that he may pass it, but must be ready to
-stop before he reaches No. 2, the home-signal. Therefore No. 1 must
-never be lowered till all is arranged for passing the junction at
-speed. As the signalman cannot lower signal 1, he attempts to lower
-signal 2. Again he finds that he cannot budge the lever. It is
-locked by lever No. 3. This lever works a facing-point lock, which
-must be described just at this point (p. 206).
-
-[Illustration: Diagram of a Double-track Junction with Interlocked
-Switches and Signals.
-
-_A_ is the west-bound main line track; _B_, the east-bound; _C_ and
-_D_ are the west-bound and east-bound branch-tracks. Nos. 1, 10,
-and 12 are distant signals; Nos. 2, 9, and 11, home signals; Nos.
-3, 6, and 8, facing-point locks; and Nos. 4, 5, and 7 are switches.
-The levers which move all of these parts are placed side by side
-in a frame in the signal-tower. It will be noticed that No. 7 is a
-switch designed merely to derail an engine on track A. A similar
-switch is provided on track _C_, and is worked by the same lever
-which works junction switch No. 5. In the sketch all levers are
-supposed to stand in their "normal" position, all signals are at
-danger, and the switches are set for the main line. The switches
-themselves are not locked in this position of the facing-point lock
-levers.]
-
-The front rod of the switch, that is, the rod which connects the
-points of the two moving rails of the switch, is pierced with
-two holes placed a distance apart just equal to the throw of the
-switch. In front of these holes is a bolt which is worked by a
-lever in the signal-tower. After the switch is set the lock-lever
-is reversed and the bolt enters one of the holes, thus securely
-locking the switch in position. There is one other interesting
-feature of this facing-point lock. It has happened very often
-that a switch has been thrown under a moving train, splitting the
-train and derailing more or less of it. This class of accidents is
-especially likely to happen when train movements are very frequent,
-and may be prevented by the use of the "detector-bar." This is a
-bar about forty feet long, placed alongside the rail, and carried
-on swinging links, like those of a parallel ruler, in such a way
-that any effort to move the bar lengthwise of the rail must raise
-it above the top of the rail. This bar is moved by the same lever
-which moves the locking-bolt. So long as there is a wheel on the
-rail above the detector-bar it cannot be moved, therefore the
-locking-bolt cannot be withdrawn, and the switch cannot be moved
-until the train has passed completely off it.
-
-[Illustration: Split Switches with Facing-point Locks and
-Detector-bars.
-
-(The rod on the right of the track is the mechanical connection to
-the lever in the signal-tower by which the locks and detector-bars
-are moved.)]
-
-[Illustration: Derailing Switch.]
-
-We left the signalman trying to lower signal No. 2; vainly, because
-No. 3 lever was still normal and the switch unlocked (Diagram,
-p. 205). Probably he would not have begun his operations in the
-bungling way that has been supposed, but would have first reversed
-lever 3. That locks the switch by the facing-point lock, and locks
-also switch-lever 4 in the frame in the signal-tower and releases
-lever 2. Then he reverses lever 2. That locks lever 3 and releases
-lever 1. Then he reverses lever 1, which locks lever 2. Now the way
-is made for a train to pass east on the main line, and the signals
-are clear. The last signal could not have been lowered until the
-chain of operations was complete; none of the levers can now be
-moved until lever 1 is again put normal and signal 1 made to show
-danger. There is one point of great danger in this particular
-train-movement which has not been mentioned; that is, the crossing
-of main-line east-bound track _B_ by the branch-line west-bound
-track _C_. It will be noticed that with the levers normal,
-derailing switch 5 is open, and it is impossible for a locomotive
-to pass beyond it. Lever 5 is interlocked in the tower with lever
-4 in such a way that, before 5 can be reversed to let a train pass
-west from _C_, lever 4 must be reversed to trap any train on _B_
-and turn it down the branch _D_. It must not be understood that the
-use of "derailers" is universal. In fact, they are not recommended
-by the best signal engineers, except in special conditions. In the
-absence of derailer No. 5, signals 11 and 12 would be interlocked
-with switch 4, so that, so long as that switch stands open for the
-main line a clear signal cannot be given to a train coming west
-on _C_. It will be noticed that signal 2 carries two semaphores
-on one post. The upper one is for the main line and the lower one
-for the branch. Both are operated by one lever, 2, and whether
-reversing lever 2 lowers the main-line signal or the branch signal
-depends on the position of the switch. The switch is made to pick
-out its signal by an ingenious but very simple little arrangement,
-called a selector, which is placed somewhere in the line of ground
-connections.
-
-It would be an interesting study, were there space, to follow
-the possible and proper combinations of movements to pass trains
-over the various tracks. It will be seen that, by concentrating
-the levers which move switches and signals in one place and
-interlocking them, it is made mechanically impossible for a
-signalman to give a signal which would lead to a collision or a
-derailment within the region under his control. The only danger
-at such points is that an engineer may overrun the signals. This
-description of the objects and the capacity of the system of
-interlocking is no fancy sketch. The system has been in use for
-many years, doing just what has been here described, and more. A
-recent close estimate gave the number of interlocked levers now in
-use in the United States as about eight thousand, and the number
-is rapidly increasing. Recent official reports showed that in
-Great Britain and Ireland there were thirty-eight thousand cases
-in which a passenger line was connected with or crossed by another
-line, siding, or cross-over. In eighty-nine per cent. of these
-cases the levers operating the switches and protecting signals were
-interlocked.
-
-The example of interlocking which has been given is one of the
-simplest; the principle is capable of almost indefinite expansion,
-and any one lever may be made to lock any one or more levers among
-hundreds in the same frame. The greatest number of levers assembled
-in any one signal-tower in this country is one hundred and sixteen,
-at the Grand Central Station in New York. In the London Bridge
-tower there are two hundred and eighty levers. This is probably the
-greatest number in any one tower in the world. All of these levers
-may be more or less interlocked. The same principle is applied to
-the locking of two levers at a single switch, and to the protection
-of drawbridges and highway crossings.
-
-The mechanism by which the interlocking is done is strong and
-comparatively simple, but a detailed description of it seems out
-of place here. Two levers from a Saxby & Farmer machine are shown
-on page 204, with lever _A_ normal and _B_ reversed. The locking
-mechanism is in front of the levers, and is actuated not by the
-levers themselves, but by their catch-rods. It follows that it is
-not the actual movement of a signal which prevents the movement of
-other signals, or of switches, but it is the intention to move that
-signal. This principle of "preliminary locking" is one of great
-importance.
-
-Switches and signals are often worked at such distances from the
-tower that it is impossible for the operator to know whether or
-not the movement contemplated has taken place. The British Board
-of Trade does not permit switches to be worked more than 750 feet
-away. In this country there is no limit, but probably 800 feet is
-very rarely exceeded. Signals are worked in England up to 3,000 or
-3,500 feet very commonly, and they are even worked a mile away,
-but not satisfactorily. This is with direct mechanical connection,
-by rod or wire, from the levers. It is obvious that a break in the
-connections between the lever and the switch or signal might take
-place, and the lever be pulled over, without having produced the
-corresponding movement at the far end. The locking mechanism in the
-tower would not be affected by such an accident, and consequently
-conflicting signals might be given. Even this contingency is
-provided against with almost perfect safety. If a signal connection
-breaks, the signal is counter-weighted to go to danger. The worst
-that can happen is to delay traffic. If a switch connection breaks,
-the locking-bolt, in the latest form of facing-point lock, will not
-enter the hole in the switch-rod, and consequently warning is given
-in the tower that the switch has not moved. Electric annunciators
-are often placed in the signal-tower, to show on a board before the
-operator whether or not the movements of switches and signals have
-taken place.
-
-Considerable work must be done in the movement of each lever.
-The ground connections must be put down with great care, as
-nearly straight and level as may be, well drained, and protected
-from ice and snow. All of these difficulties have been overcome
-in a beautiful pneumatic interlocking apparatus which has been
-introduced within the last two or three years. In this system
-the motive power is compressed air. Near each switch is a small
-cylinder, containing a piston which is attached directly to the
-switch movement. Compressed air admitted to one side or the other
-of this piston moves the switch one way or the other. But, as it
-would take some time for the necessary quantity of air to flow
-from the signal-tower to a distant switch, a small reservoir
-is placed near the switch, and the air from this reservoir is
-admitted to one end or the other of the switch cylinder according
-to the position of a valve. For transmitting the motion from the
-tower to the valve compressed air might be used, but, as air is
-elastic, a quicker movement is got by using in the pipes some
-liquid which does not readily freeze, and which, being practically
-non-compressible, transmits an impulse given at one end almost
-instantly to the other. The signals are worked in essentially the
-same manner as the switches, except that the pneumatic valves are
-moved by electricity. The tower apparatus of a pneumatic system in
-the yard of the Pennsylvania Railroad at Pittsburg is shown in the
-engraving opposite. In the front of the apparatus is seen a rank
-of small handles, which can be turned from side to side with as
-much ease as the keys of a piano can be depressed. Turning one of
-these handles admits compressed air to the end of a pipe containing
-liquid. Instantly the pressure is transmitted 500 or 1,000 feet
-to the valve at the switch to be moved. The small levers are
-interlocked perfectly, and in that particular perform the duties of
-the ordinary machine. A model of the tracks controlled is placed
-before the operator, showing the switches and signals, and when
-a movement is made on the ground it is at once repeated back by
-electricity and duplicated on the model. This beautiful system is
-due to the same genius that gave us the perfected air-brake and the
-triple valve, and is the greatest improvement that has been made in
-interlocking in the last dozen years.
-
-[Illustration: Interlocking Apparatus for Operating Switches and
-Signals by Compressed Air, Pittsburg Yards, Pennsylvania Railroad.
-
-(A model of the track is shown above the levers, on which the
-movements of the switches and signals are electrically indicated
-after they are completed.)]
-
-[Illustration: Torpedo Placer.
-
-(The torpedo is carried forward by the plunger and exploded by the
-depression of the hammer shown near the rail.)]
-
-If the reader has grasped the full significance of interlocking, he
-understands that it makes it impossible to give a signal that would
-lead to a collision or to a derailment at a misplaced switch. The
-worst that a stupid, or drunken, or malicious signalman could do
-would be to delay traffic, if the signals were obeyed. Here comes
-in the failing case. The brake-power may be insufficient to stop a
-train after a danger signal is given. That is a rare occurrence,
-but may happen. The engineer may not see the danger signal because
-of fog, or he may carelessly run past it. Provision against a
-failure to see and to obey a signal may be made by placing on the
-track a torpedo, which will explode with a loud report when struck
-by a wheel. The use of hand-torpedoes in fogs, and for emergencies
-in places unprovided with fixed signals, is very common. These are
-little disks filled with a detonating powder, and provided with
-tin straps that are bent down to clasp over the top of the rail.
-A simple and very efficient torpedo machine, which has been used
-for some years on the Manhattan Elevated and elsewhere, is here
-shown. This machine has a magazine holding five torpedoes. It is
-connected to a signal-lever in such a way that, when the signal is
-put to danger, one torpedo is placed in a position to be exploded
-by the first passing wheel. When the signal returns to the clear
-position the torpedo, if unexploded, is withdrawn to the magazine.
-If the torpedo is exploded another one takes its place at the next
-movement of the signal-lever. One of these machines on the Elevated
-Road moves about five thousand times every day. In such a case a
-torpedo would soon be worn out if it was not exploded or frequently
-changed. When this apparatus is in operation, an unmistakable
-alarm is at once given to the engineer and to others if a danger
-signal is passed. On the Manhattan Elevated lines an engineman who
-overruns a danger signal and can show no good reason for it is
-suspended for the first offence, and discharged for the second. The
-torpedo makes it impossible for him to escape detection.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-[Illustration: Old Signal Tower on the Philadelphia & Reading, at
-Phœnixville.]
-
-The second great class of signals comprises those which are
-intended to keep fixed intervals of space between trains running
-on the same track. These are block signals. The block system is
-used on a few of the railroads of the United States which have
-the heaviest and fastest traffic. Much the most common practice
-in this country, however, is to run trains by time intervals, and
-under the constant control of the train despatcher. In England the
-block system is almost universal. About ninety per cent. of all the
-passenger lines of that country are worked under the absolute block
-system.
-
-When the block system is not used, it is quite common to protect
-particularly dangerous points, such as curves and deep cuts, by
-stationing watchmen there with flags or with some form of fixed
-signal. The watchman can notify an approaching engine-runner that
-a preceding train has or has not passed beyond his own range of
-vision; or can notify him that it has been gone a certain time.
-Travellers by the Philadelphia & Reading must have noticed the
-queer structures, with revolving vanes on top, looking like a
-feeble sort of windmill, which appear in positions to command a
-view of cuts, curves, etc. These are examples of the devices for
-local protection. The non-automatic block signal develops naturally
-from the protection of scattered points. Instead of placing
-watchmen at points of especial danger, they are placed at regular
-intervals of one mile, two miles, or five miles. Instead of the
-watchman looking to see that a train has disappeared from his field
-of vision before he lets another train pass, he uses the eyes of
-the next watchman ahead, who telegraphs back that the train has
-passed his station. Suppose A, B, and C to be three block-signal
-stations placed at intervals of two miles. When a train passes A,
-the operator at that point at once puts a signal to danger behind
-it. This signal stands at danger until the train passes B, and
-the operator puts his signal to danger, and telegraphs back to A
-to announce that train No. 1 has passed out of the block A B, and
-is protected by the signal at B. Then, and not until then, the
-operator clears the signal at A and allows train No. 2 to enter
-the block. Meanwhile train No. 1 is proceeding through the block
-B C, its rear protected at B; and the same sequence of events
-happens when it arrives at C as happened at B. This is the simplest
-form of block signalling. In the more elaborate form there are at
-each block-station three signals--the distant, the home, and the
-starting. The signals are often electrically interlocked, from
-one station to another, in such a way that it is mechanically
-impossible for the operator at A to give a signal for a train to
-pass that station until the signal at B has been put to danger
-behind the preceding train.
-
-  A             B             C
-  -----------------------------
-
-It is seen that no two trains can be in the same block and on the
-same track at the same time. If all run at a uniform speed, they
-will be kept just the length of a block apart. If No. 2 is faster
-than No. 1, it will arrive at B before No. 1 gets to C, but will
-have to wait there. The block system, therefore, while it gives
-security, does not always facilitate traffic. The longer the blocks
-the greater will be the delay to trains; but the shorter the
-blocks, the greater the cost of establishment, maintenance, and
-operation.
-
-Various systems have been contrived to have block signals displayed
-automatically by the passage of trains. This, if it can be done
-reliably, will do away with the wages of part of the operators, and
-will also eliminate the dangers arising from human carelessness.
-But there are very great objections to relying solely upon the
-automatic action of signals, and automatic block signals are little
-used except as auxiliary to a system employing operators also.
-So used, they are of decided advantage, as they make sure that a
-danger signal is set behind every train in spite of the operator,
-and that it cannot be again set to the all-clear position till the
-train has passed out of the block. All this is accomplished by
-electricity.
-
-Brakes, interlocking, and the apparatus of signalling have been
-considered at length because they are very much the most important
-of all the appliances which go to increase the safety of operating
-railroads. They act chiefly to prevent collisions, but often
-prevent or mitigate accidents from derailments and other causes.
-Of all train-accidents happening in the last sixteen years, over
-one-third have been from collisions, and more than one-half from
-derailments.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-[Illustration: Crossing Gates worked by Mechanical Connection from
-the Cabin.]
-
-After brakes and signals, the devices next in importance as means
-of saving life are those for the protection of highway crossings
-at the grade of railroads. In years to come, as wealth increases
-and as traffic becomes more crowded, we may suppose there will
-be few such crossings; but their abolition must be slow, and
-meantime the loss of life at them is great. The most accurate and
-complete statistics bearing on this matter are those collected
-by the Railroad Commissioners of Massachusetts. In 1888, of all
-those killed in the operation of the railroads of the State, seven
-per cent. were passengers, thirty-three per cent. were employees,
-and sixty per cent. were others. The others include trespassers,
-forty-seven per cent.; and killed at grade crossings, eleven per
-cent. More trespassers were killed than any other class; but the
-deaths at highway crossings considerably exceeded those among
-passengers. The difficulty of preventing this class of accidents
-is strikingly shown by the fact that, of all crossing accidents,
-forty-two per cent. were due to the victims' disregard of warnings
-given by closed gates or flags. It is evident that the efforts of
-the railroad companies to save people's lives at crossings are
-largely nullified by the carelessness of the public, and the lack
-of proper laws to punish those who venture upon railroad tracks
-when they should keep off them. Still, it remains the duty and
-the policy of the railroads to protect street crossings by all
-practicable means. The best protection is afforded by gates with
-watchmen, and of all forms of gate the most common, because it
-is the simplest and most convenient to operate, is the familiar
-arm-gate. This is usually worked by a man turning a crank, but it
-is also worked by compressed air. On this page is shown a group of
-gates worked from an elevated cabin by a mechanical connection. A
-bell fixed at a crossing, to be rung by an approaching train, is a
-very useful auxiliary to gates and to watchmen with flags, and is
-considerably used where the traffic does not warrant the expense
-of maintaining a watchman. There are several good devices of this
-sort, either electric or magneto-electric. One of the latter class
-has a lever alongside the rail, which is depressed by each wheel
-that passes over it. This lever is geared to a fly-wheel, which
-is set rapidly revolving and causes an armature to revolve in the
-field of a magnet, and thus generates a current and rings a gong,
-precisely as is done with the familiar magnetic bell used with the
-telephone.
-
-[Illustration: Some Results of a Butting Collision--Baggage and
-Passenger Cars Telescoped.]
-
-[Illustration: Wreck at a Bridge.]
-
-About thirteen per cent. of the train-accidents in the United
-States, in the last sixteen years, were derailments due to defects
-of road. These include not only defective rails, switches, and
-frogs, but bridge wrecks. There are, however, few devices used in
-the track, other than those already mentioned, that can be called
-safety appliances. This class of accidents is to be provided
-against only by good material, good workmanship, and unceasing
-care. Many so-called safety switches and safety frogs are offered
-to railroad officers, but those actually in wide use are confined
-to a very few standard forms. The split-switch, which is shown in
-the engravings on pages 206 and 207, has gradually replaced the old
-stub-switch, as well as most of the "safety" switches that have
-been from time to time introduced; although the stub-switch is
-still in considerable use in yards where movements are slow, and
-in the main tracks of the less progressive roads. It consists of a
-pair of moving rails the ends of which are brought opposite to the
-ends of the main-line rails, or to those of the turnout, as the
-case may be. It follows that but one of these tracks is continuous
-at any one time, and a train reaching the switch by the other
-track must be derailed. The distressing accident which happened at
-Rio, Wis., in 1886, where seventeen people lost their lives, was
-a derailment of this sort. Since that time the railroad on which
-the accident happened has taken out all stub-switches on thousands
-of miles of main-line track. The split-switch provides against
-such derailments, for if the switch is set for the turnout, and a
-train approaches it from the main line in the "trailing" direction,
-the flanges of the wheels move the switch-rails to make the track
-continuous. The terms "facing" and "trailing," as applied to
-switches, are almost self-explanatory. If a train approaches toward
-the points of the moving rails, the switch is said to be facing. If
-it runs through the switch from the rear of the moving rails, the
-switch is said to be trailing. This will be made clear by reference
-to the illustration on page 206. If a train were coming from the
-bridge, the first switch reached by it would be a trailing and
-the second a facing switch. In the newspaper reports an accident
-will very often be assigned to one of two causes, failure of the
-air-brakes or spreading of the rails. The chances are that it will
-be found on investigation to be due to neither of these causes.
-Those interested to maintain the credit of the air-brake or of the
-track department are not often on the ground when the reporter
-gets his information, and the temptation is always great to shift
-the responsibility to the shoulders of the absent. Probably
-the displacement of the rail will have taken place after the
-derailment; but rails do sometimes spread. Loose spikes and rotten
-ties allow the outer edge of the rail-flange to sink into the wood,
-and the rail to roll outward enough to let the wheels drop. Sound
-ties are the first safeguard against such accidents. Metal plates
-under the rails are useful also; but one of the most efficient
-means of preventing displacement of the rails is the interlocking
-bolt shown above. These bolts cross in the timber, and slots cut
-in the two bolts engage with each other in such a way that when
-the nuts are screwed down on the rail-flange it is impossible to
-pull the bolts out. They can only be moved by tearing through the
-wood contained in the angle between them. This bolt is much used
-on bridges and trestles, where it is of vital importance that the
-rails should be held in place and no part of the floor broken.
-
-[Illustration: New South Norwalk Drawbridge. Rails held by safety
-bolts.]
-
-In 1853 an express train went through an open draw at South
-Norwalk, Conn., and forty-six lives were lost. This, one of the
-most serious railroad accidents that ever happened, is still
-remembered as an historical calamity. The bridge which stands on
-the same site is shown opposite. In May, 1888, a west-bound express
-train, consisting of an engine and seven cars, was derailed just as
-it was entering the draw-span. The train ran three hundred feet on
-the sleepers before it was stopped. Then it was found that all of
-the driving-wheels of the engine had regained the rails, but all
-the other wheels were off, except those of two sleeping-cars in the
-rear. This was a remarkable escape from a bad accident, and much
-of the credit of it has been given to the interlocking bolts with
-which the rails were fastened. They are supposed to have prevented
-the rails being crowded aside, and thus to have made possible the
-rerailing of the engine. Besides, they helped the oak guard-timbers
-to hold the ties in place. The destruction of a bridge in an
-accident frequently begins by the ties bunching in front of the
-wheels and allowing the wheels to drop through and strike the
-floor-beams below. For this reason guard-timbers, notched down over
-the ties, should always be used.
-
-[Illustration: Engines Wrecked during the Great Wabash Strike.]
-
-The traveller will have noticed, on all bridges of various roads,
-two rails placed inside the track-rails, and curved to meet in
-a point at either end of the bridge. These are known as inside
-guard-rails, and their function is to keep derailed trucks in line
-till the train can be stopped. Besides the bunching of the ties,
-there is danger in a bridge derailment that a truck may swing
-around and strike one of the trusses. Then the bridge is very
-likely to be wrecked. A further provision for the protection of
-bridges is the rerailing frog invented by the late Charles Latimer,
-whose name is dear to railroad men all over America. This consists
-of a pair of castings combined with inside guard-rails, designed
-to raise the derailed wheels and guide them on to the rails. There
-is no doubt that it has prevented several wrecks, although it has
-never been widely used. The subject of bridges should not be left
-without a word of explanation of the stout timber-posts often seen
-at either end placed in line with the trusses. These are designed
-to stop any derailed vehicle which might otherwise strike against
-and destroy a truss.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-There is one track-fixture that has no duty or value except as
-it promotes safety. It helps only one humble class of railroad
-employees. That device is the foot-guard. At all places where two
-rails cross or approach each other, as at frogs and guard-rails,
-dangerous boot-jacks are formed by the rail-heads. The overhang of
-the heads of the rail makes it easy for one to so fasten his foot
-in one of those boot-jacks that it is hard to get it out. If a man
-finds himself in this position in front of an approaching train, he
-sometimes has the alternative of standing up to be struck by the
-engine or lying down and having his foot cut off. Fortunately this
-class of accidents is comparatively rare; probably not more than
-two or three per cent. of all deaths and injuries to passengers
-and employees is caused in this way. Nevertheless, the means of
-guarding against accidents of this class is so cheap that it should
-be more generally adopted than it is. It consists simply in partly
-filling the space between the rail-heads by putting in wooden
-blocks or strips of metal, or even packing with cinders, gravel, or
-any sort of ballast. Various wooden and metal foot-guards have been
-patented. They are all too simple to require description.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-[Illustration: Link-and-pin Coupler.]
-
-Of all accidents to employees the most numerous are those which
-arise in coupling and uncoupling cars. In Massachusetts, in 1888,
-the employees killed and injured were 391; of these casualties
-154 occurred in coupling accidents. The commissioners of other
-States, especially of Iowa, have for years published statistics
-showing nearly the same ratio. Fortunately accidents of this class,
-although numerous, are not proportionately fatal. Far the greater
-part of them result in the loss of part of a hand; but they are
-so frequent as to have caused much discussion, legislation, and
-invention. Several States have, one time and another, passed laws
-requiring the use of automatic couplers; and two or three years
-ago there were on record in the United States over four thousand
-coupler patents. The laws have been futile because impracticable;
-and most of the patents have been worthless for the same reason.
-It was obvious that the business of supplying couplers for the
-one million freight cars of the country could not be put into
-the hands of some one patentee unless his device was manifestly
-and pre-eminently superior to all others. It became important,
-therefore, to select as a standard some type of coupler general
-enough to include the patents of various men, and at the same time
-so definite that all couplers made to conform to the standard
-could work together interchangeably. Those who read Mr. Voorhees'
-story[21] of the wanderings of a freight car will understand
-that any one freight car in the United States or Canada should
-be prepared to run in the same train with any other car. A few
-years ago a committee of the Master Car-builders' Association was
-appointed to choose and recommend a type of coupler to be adopted
-as the standard of the association. After prolonged and careful
-study of the subject, the committee recommended the type of which
-the Janney is the best known example, and that has now become the
-standard of the association. This action does not give a monopoly
-to the Janney company, as there are already half a dozen couplers
-which conform to the type. This coupler is shown by diagrams in the
-article by M. N. Forney, page 142. A perspective view is herewith
-given. This device couples automatically, and thus does away with
-the necessity for the brakeman going between the cars. It can also
-be unlocked by the rod shown extending to the side of the car,
-and the locking device can be set not to couple, to facilitate
-switching and yard work. The mechanical principles of this coupler
-are a great and important improvement upon any form of link-and-pin
-coupler; and the coupler question has now come to this point: A
-type of coupler has been selected by a technical body representing
-most of the railroads of the United States. It is general enough to
-avoid the evils of a patent monopoly. It promises to be economical
-in operation, and will certainly do away with the terrible loss
-of life and limb which results from the use of the non-automatic
-coupler. The railroads are adopting it with reasonable speed,
-perhaps, but not as rapidly as simple considerations of humanity
-would dictate.
-
-[Illustration: Janney Automatic Coupler applied to a Freight Car.]
-
-Closely related to the coupler is the vestibule, which within
-the last two years has become so fashionable. The vestibule
-is not merely a luxury, but has a certain value as a safety
-device.[22] The full measure of this value has not yet been proved.
-Occasionally lives are lost by passengers falling from or being
-blown from the platforms of moving trains. Such accidents the
-vestibule will prevent, and, further, it decreases the oscillation
-of the cars, and thus to some degree helps to prevent derailment.
-It is also some protection against telescoping. A few months ago a
-coal train on a double-track road was derailed, and four cars were
-thrown across in front of a solid vestibule train of seven Pullman
-cars approaching on the other track. The engine of the vestibuled
-train was completely wrecked. Even the sheet-iron jacket was
-stripped off it. The engineer and fireman were instantly killed,
-but not another person on the train was injured. They escaped
-partly because the cars were strong, and partly, doubtless, because
-the vestibules helped to keep the platforms on the same level and
-in line, and thus to prevent crushing of the ends of the cars.
-
-[Illustration: Signals at Night.]
-
-The number of passengers burned in wrecks is greatly exaggerated
-in the public mind; but that fate is so horrible that it is
-not wonderful that "the deadly car-stove" should be the object
-of persistent and energetic attacks by the press and in State
-legislatures. The result has been the development, in the last
-three years, of the entirely new business of inventing and
-trying to sell systems of heating by steam or hot water from the
-locomotive, and even by electricity. In fact, the manufacture of
-such apparatus has already become an industry of some importance,
-several thousand cars being equipped with it. This whole matter
-of steam-heating is still in a somewhat crude state, and it
-does not seem desirable to force it by legislation. It has been
-demonstrated that it is the cheapest way of heating trains, and the
-most easily regulated; and it has become a good advertisement to
-attract passengers. Consequently the whole subject may be safely
-left in the hands of the railroad companies, and allowed to develop
-itself naturally in a business way. There is not yet any system
-of continuous heating so perfected that a railroad company could
-without hardship be compelled to adopt it for all its passenger
-equipment.
-
-Fires in wrecked trains have originated probably quite as often
-from kerosene lamps as from the stoves. The danger of fire from
-this source, and the desire to give passengers the luxury of
-sufficient light, have led to methods of lighting by gas and,
-more recently by electricity. Lighting by compressed gas ceased
-years ago to be an experiment. In Germany it is almost universal,
-but in this country it has been brought into use very slowly. The
-system is almost absolutely safe, not unreasonably expensive, and
-may be made to give satisfactory and even brilliant illumination;
-but the ideal light for railroad trains will probably be found in
-electricity. It is even safer than gas, and is the most adaptable
-of any known method of lighting. Some sleeping-cars that have
-been recently put in service on the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul
-Railway are provided with small electric lamps in the sides of the
-car, between each two adjoining seats, so that the occupants can
-read comfortably either when sitting in their seats or lying in
-their berths.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-It is not to be supposed that so large a subject as that of safety
-appliances can be exhaustively treated within the limits of one
-article. It has been thought best, therefore, to give most of the
-space available to the two or three devices of greatest and most
-useful application. There remain various others that are in daily
-use, and that have important offices, which have not even been
-mentioned. If the reader has gleaned from these very incomplete
-notes some clearer notions than he had before of the means by which
-the power of the locomotive is guided into safe and useful paths,
-the writer's object has been accomplished.
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[20] The statistics of train accidents used in this article are
-those collected and published monthly for many years by the
-_Railroad Gazette_. In the nature of things such statistics cannot
-be absolutely accurate, but no others are in existence for the
-whole country. These are sufficiently accurate for all practical
-purposes.
-
-[21] See "The Freight-car Service," page 267.
-
-[22] See "Railway Passenger Travel," page 249.
-
-
-
-
-RAILWAY PASSENGER TRAVEL.
-
-BY HORACE PORTER.
-
-  The Earliest Railway Passenger Advertisement--The First
-  Time-table Published in America--The Mohawk and Hudson
-  Train--Survival of Stage-coach Terms in English Railway
-  Nomenclature--Simon Cameron's Rash Prediction--Discomforts
-  of Early Cars--Introduction of Air-brakes, Patent Buffers
-  and Couplers, the Bell-cord, and Interlocking Switches--The
-  First Sleeping-cars--Mr. Pullman's Experiments--The
-  "Pioneer"--Introduction of Parlor and Drawing-room
-  Cars--The Demand for Dining-cars--Ingenious Devices for
-  Heating Cars--Origin of Vestibule-cars--An Important Safety
-  Appliance--The Luxuries of a Limited Express--Fast Time in
-  America and England--Sleeping-cars for Immigrants--The Village
-  of Pullman--The Largest Car-works in the World--Baggage-checks
-  and Coupon Tickets--Conveniences in a Modern Depot--Statistics
-  in Regard to Accidents--Proportion of Passengers in Various
-  Classes--Comparison of Rates in the Leading Countries of the
-  World.
-
-
-From the time when Puck was supposed to utter his boast to put a
-girdle round about the earth in forty minutes to the time when
-Jules Verne's itinerant hero accomplished the task in twice that
-number of days, the restless ingenuity and energy of man have
-been unceasingly taxed to increase the speed, comfort, and safety
-of passenger travel. The first railway on which passengers were
-carried was the "Stockton & Darlington," of England, the distance
-being 12 miles. It was opened September 27, 1825, with a freight
-train, or, as it is called in England, a "goods" train, but which
-also carried a number of excursionists. An engine which was the
-result of many years of labor and experiment on the part of
-George Stephenson was used on this train. Stephenson mounted it
-and acted as driver; his bump of caution was evidently largely
-developed, for, to guard against accidents from the recklessness of
-the speed, he arranged to have a signalman on horse-back ride in
-advance of the engine to warn the luckless trespasser of the fate
-which awaited him if he should get in the way of a train moving
-with such a startling velocity. The next month, October, it was
-decided that it would be worth while to attempt the carrying of
-passengers, and a daily "coach," modelled after the stage-coach
-and called the "Experiment," was put on, Monday, October 10, 1825,
-which carried six passengers inside and from fifteen to twenty
-outside. The engine with its light load made the trip in about two
-hours. The fare from Stockton to Darlington was one shilling, and
-each passenger was allowed fourteen pounds of baggage. The limited
-amount of baggage will appear to the ladies of the present day as
-niggardly in the extreme, but they must recollect that the bandbox
-was then the popular form of portmanteau for women, the Saratoga
-trunk had not been invented, and the muscular baggage-smasher of
-modern times had not yet set out upon his career of destruction.
-The advertisement which was published in the newspapers of the day
-is here given, and is of peculiar interest as announcing the first
-successful attempt to carry passengers by rail.
-
-[Illustration: Stockton & Darlington Engine and Car.]
-
-[Illustration: (Sign for S. & D. Railway Coach)]
-
-The Liverpool & Manchester road was opened in 1829. The first
-train was hauled by an improved engine called the "Rocket,"
-which attained a speed of 25 miles an hour, and some records put
-it as high as 35 miles. This speed naturally attracted marked
-attention in the mechanical world, and first demonstrated the
-superior advantages of railways for passenger travel. Only four
-years before, so eminent a writer upon railways as Wood had said:
-"Nothing can do more harm to the adoption of railways than the
-promulgation of such nonsense as that we shall see locomotives
-travelling at the rate of 12 miles an hour."
-
-America was quick to adopt the railway system which had had its
-origin in England. In 1827 a crude railway was opened between
-Quincy and Boston, but it was only for the purpose of transporting
-granite for the Bunker Hill Monument. It was not until August,
-1829, that a locomotive engine was used upon an American railroad
-suitable for carrying passengers. This road was constructed by the
-Delaware & Hudson Canal Company, and the experiment was made near
-Honesdale, Pa. The engine was imported from England and was called
-the "Stourbridge Lion."
-
-In May, 1830, the first division of the Baltimore & Ohio road was
-opened. It extended from Baltimore to Ellicott's Mills, a distance
-of 15 miles. There being a scarcity of cars, the regular passenger
-business did not begin till the 5th of July following, and then
-only horse-power was employed, which continued to be used till the
-road was finished to Frederick, in 1832. The term Relay House,
-the name of a well-known station, originated in the fact that the
-horses were changed at that place.
-
-The following notice, which appeared in the Baltimore newspapers,
-was the first time-table for passenger railway trains published in
-this country:
-
-
-RAILROAD NOTICE.
-
-  A sufficient number of cars being now provided for the
-  accommodation of passengers, notice is hereby given that the
-  following arrangements for the arrival and departure of carriages
-  have been adopted, and will take effect on and after Monday
-  morning next the 5th instant, viz.:
-
-  A brigade of cars will leave the depot on Pratt St. at 6 and 10
-  o'clock A. M., and at 3 to 4 o'clock P. M., and will leave the
-  depot at Ellicott's Mills at 6 and 8½ o'clock A. M., and at 12½
-  and 6 P. M.
-
-  Way passengers will provide themselves with tickets at the office
-  of the Company in Baltimore, or at the depots at Pratt St. and
-  Ellicott's Mills, or at the Relay House, near Elk Ridge Landing.
-
-  The evening way car for Ellicott's Mills will continue to leave
-  the depot, Pratt St., at 6 o'clock P. M. as usual.
-
-  N. B. Positive orders have been issued to the drivers to receive
-  no passengers into any of the cars without tickets.
-
-  P. S. Parties desiring to engage a car for the day can be
-  accommodated after July 5th.
-
-It will be seen that the word train was not used, but instead the
-schedule spoke of a "brigade of cars."
-
-The South Carolina Railroad was begun about the same time as the
-Baltimore & Ohio, and ran from Charleston to Hamburg, opposite
-Augusta. When the first division had been constructed, it was
-opened November 2, 1830.
-
-Peter Cooper, of New York, had before this constructed a locomotive
-and made a trial trip with it on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, on
-the 28th of August, 1830, but, not meeting the requirements of the
-company, it was not put into service.
-
-[Illustration: Mohawk & Hudson Train.]
-
-A passenger train of the Mohawk & Hudson Railroad which was put
-on in October, 1831, between Albany and Schenectady, attracted
-much attention. It was hauled by an English engine named the "John
-Bull," and driven by an English engineer named John Hampson. This
-is generally regarded as the first fully equipped passenger train
-hauled by a steam-power engine which ran in regular service in
-America. During 1832 it carried an average of 387 passengers daily.
-The accompanying engraving is from a sketch made at the time.
-
-It was said by an advocate of mechanical evolution that the
-modern steam fire-engine was evolved from the ancient leathern
-fire-bucket; it might be said with greater truth that the modern
-railway car has been evolved from the old-fashioned English
-stage-coach.
-
-England still retains the railway carriage divided into
-compartments, that bear a close resemblance inside and outside
-to stage-coach bodies with the middle seat omitted. In fact,
-the nomenclature of the stage-coach is in large measure still
-preserved in England. The engineer is called the driver, the
-conductor the guard, the ticket-office is the booking-office, the
-cars are the carriages, and a rustic traveller may still be heard
-occasionally to object to sitting with his back to the horses. The
-earlier locomotives, like horses, were given proper names, such
-as Lion, North Star, Fiery, and Rocket; the compartments in the
-round-houses for sheltering locomotives are termed the stalls, and
-the keeper of the round-house is called the hostler. The last two
-are the only items of equine classification which the American
-railway system has permanently adopted.
-
-[Illustration: English Railway Carriage, Midland Road. First and
-Third Class and Luggage Compartments.]
-
-America, at an early day, departed not only from the nomenclature
-of the turnpike, but from the stage-coach architecture, and adopted
-a long car in one compartment and containing a middle aisle which
-admitted of communication throughout the train. The car was carried
-on two trucks, or bogies, and was well adapted to the sharp
-curvature which prevailed upon our railways.
-
-The first five years of experience showed marked progress in the
-practical operation of railway trains, but even after locomotives
-had demonstrated their capabilities and each improved engine had
-shown an encouraging increase in velocity, the wildest flights of
-fancy never pictured the speed attained in later years.
-
-[Illustration: One of the Earliest Passenger Cars Built in this
-Country; used on the Western Railroad of Massachusetts (now the
-Boston & Albany).]
-
-When the roads forming the line between Philadelphia and
-Harrisburg, Pa., were chartered in 1835, and town meetings were
-held to discuss their practicability, the Honorable Simon Cameron,
-while making a speech in advocacy of the measure, was so far
-carried away by his enthusiasm as to make the rash prediction that
-there were persons within the sound of his voice who would live to
-see a passenger take his breakfast in Harrisburg and his supper in
-Philadelphia on the same day. A friend of his on the platform said
-to him after he had finished: "That's all very well, Simon, to tell
-to the boys, but you and I are no such infernal fools as to believe
-it." They both lived to travel the distance in a little over two
-hours.
-
-[Illustration: Bogie Truck.]
-
-The people were far from being unanimous in their advocacy of the
-railway system, and charters were not obtained without severe
-struggles. The topic was the universal subject of discussion in
-all popular assemblages. Colonel Blank, a well-known politician
-in Pennsylvania, had been loud in his opposition to the new means
-of transportation. When one of the first trains was running over
-the Harrisburg & Lancaster road, a famous Durham bull belonging
-to a Mr. Schultz became seized with the enterprising spirit of
-Don Quixote, put his head down and tail up, and made a desperate
-charge at the on-coming locomotive, but his steam-breathing
-opponent proved the better butter of the two and the bull was
-ignominiously defeated. At a public banquet held soon after in that
-part of the State, the toast-master proposed a toast to "Colonel
-Blank and Schultz's bull--both opposed to railroad trains." The
-joke was widely circulated and had much to do with completing the
-discomfiture of the opposition in the following elections.
-
-[Illustration: Rail and Coach Travel in the White Mountains.]
-
-The railroad was a decided step in advance, compared with the
-stage-coach and canal-boat, but, when we picture the surroundings
-of the traveller upon railways during the first ten or fifteen
-years of their existence, we find his journey was not one to
-be envied. He was jammed into a narrow seat with a stiff back,
-the deck of the car was low and flat, and ventilation in winter
-impossible. A stove at each end did little more than generate
-carbonic oxide. The passenger roasted if he sat at the end of the
-car, and froze if he sat in the middle. Tallow candles furnished a
-"dim religious light," but the accompanying odor did not savor of
-cathedral incense. The dust was suffocating in dry weather; there
-were no adequate spark-arresters on the engine, or screens at
-the windows, and the begrimed passenger at the end of his journey
-looked as if he had spent the day in a blacksmith-shop. Recent
-experiments in obtaining a spectrum-analysis of the component parts
-of a quantity of dust collected in a railway car show that minute
-particles of iron form a large proportion, and under the microscope
-present the appearance of a collection of tenpenny nails. As iron
-administered to the human system through the respiratory organs in
-the form of tenpenny nails mixed with other undesirable matter is
-not especially recommended by medical practitioners, the sanitary
-surroundings of the primitive railway car cannot be commended.
-There were no double tracks, and no telegraph to facilitate the
-safe despatching of trains. The springs of the car were hard, the
-jolting intolerable, the windows rattled like those of the modern
-omnibus, and conversation was a luxury that could be indulged in
-only by those of recognized superiority in lung power. The brakes
-were clumsy and of little service.
-
-[Illustration: From an Old Time-table (furnished by the "A B C
-Pathfinder Railway Guide").]
-
-The ends of the flat-bar rails were cut diagonally, so that when
-laid down they would lap and form a smoother joint. Occasionally
-they became sprung; the spikes would not hold, and the end of the
-rail with its sharp point rose high enough for the wheel to run
-under it, rip it loose, and send the pointed end through the floor
-of the car. This was called a "snake's head," and the unlucky being
-sitting over it was likely to be impaled against the roof. So that
-the traveller of that day, in addition to his other miseries, was
-in momentary apprehension of being spitted like a Christmas turkey.
-
-[Illustration: Old Boston & Worcester Railway Ticket (about 1837).]
-
-Baggage-checks and coupon tickets were unknown. Long trips had
-to be made over lines composed of a number of short independent
-railways; and at the terminus of each the bedevilled passenger
-had to transfer, purchase another ticket, personally pick out his
-baggage, perhaps on an uncovered platform in a rain-storm, and take
-his chances of securing a seat in the train in which he was to
-continue his weary journey.
-
-After the principal companies had sent agents to Europe to gather
-all the information possible regarding the progress made there,
-they soon began to aim at perfecting what may justly be called the
-American system of railways. The roadbed, or what in England is
-called the "permanent way," was constructed in such a manner as to
-conform to the requirements of the new country, and the equipment
-was adapted to the wants of the people. In no branch of industry
-has the inventive genius of the race been more skilfully or more
-successfully employed than in the effort to bring railway travel
-to its present state of perfection. Every year has shown progress
-in perfecting the comforts and safety of the railway car. In 1849
-the Hodge hand-brake was introduced, and in 1851 the Stevens brake.
-These enabled the cars to be controlled in a manner which added
-much to the economy and safety of handling the trains. In 1869
-George Westinghouse patented his air-brake, by which power from the
-engine was transmitted by compressed air carried through hose and
-acting upon the brakes of each car in the train.[23] It was under
-the control of the engineer, and its action was so prompt and its
-power so effectual that a train could be stopped in an incredibly
-short time, and the brakes released in an instant. In 1871 the
-vacuum-brake was devised, by means of which the power was applied
-to the brakes by exhausting the air.
-
-[Illustration: Obverse and Reverse of a Ticket Used in 1838, on the
-New York & Harlem Railroad.]
-
-A difficulty under which railways suffered for many years was
-the method of coupling cars. The ordinary means consisted of
-coupling-pins inserted into links attached to the cars. There was
-a great deal of "slack," the jerking of the train in consequence
-was very objectionable, and the distance between the platforms of
-the cars made the crossing of them dangerous. In collisions one
-platform was likely to rise above that of the adjoining car, and
-"telescoping" was not an uncommon occurrence.
-
-The means of warning passengers against standing on the platform
-were characteristic of the dangers which threatened, and were often
-ingenious in the devices for attracting attention. On a New Jersey
-road there was painted on the car-door a picture of a new-made
-grave, with a formidable tombstone, on which was an inscription
-announcing to a terrified public that it was "Sacred to the memory
-of the man who had stood on a platform."
-
-The Miller coupler and buffer was patented in 1863, and obviated
-many of the discomforts and dangers arising from the old methods of
-coupling. This was followed by the Janney coupler[24] and a number
-of other devices, the essential principle of all being an automatic
-arrangement by which the two knuckles of the coupler when thrust
-together become securely locked, and a system of springs which keep
-the buffers in close contact and prevent jerking and jarring when
-the train is in motion.
-
-The introduction of the bell-cord running through the train and
-enabling conductors to communicate promptly by means of it with
-the engineer, and signal him in case of danger, constitutes
-another source of safety, but is still a wonder to Europeans, who
-cannot understand why passengers do not tamper with it, and how
-they can resist the temptation to give false signals by means of
-it. The only answer is that our people are educated up to it,
-and being accustomed to govern themselves, they do not require
-any restraint to make them respect so useful a device. Aside
-from the inconveniences which used to arise occasionally from a
-rustic mistaking the bell-cord for a clothes-rack, and hanging his
-overcoat over it, or from an old gentleman grabbing hold of it to
-help him climb into an upper berth in a sleeping-car, it has been
-singularly exempt from efforts to pervert it to unintended uses.
-
-The application of the magnetic telegraph to railways wrought
-the first great revolution in despatching trains, and introduced
-an element of promptness and safety in their operation of which
-the most sanguine of railroad advocates had never dreamed. The
-application of electricity was gradually availed of in many
-ingenious signal devices for both day and night service, to direct
-the locomotive engineer in running his train, and interpose
-precautions against accidents. Fusees have also been called into
-requisition, which burn with a bright flame a given length of
-time; and when a train is behind time and followed by another, by
-igniting one of these lights, and leaving it on the track, the
-train following can tell by noting the time of burning about how
-near it is the preceding train. Torpedoes left upon the track,
-which explode when passed over by the wheels of a following train
-and warn it of its proximity to a train ahead, are also used.
-
-In the early days more accidents arose from switches than from any
-other cause; but improvement in their construction has progressed
-until it would seem that the dangers have been effectually
-overcome. The split-rail switch prevents a train from being thrown
-off the track in case the switch is left open, and the result is
-that in such an event the train is only turned on another track.
-The Wharton switch, which leaves the main line unbroken, marks
-another step in the march of improvement. Among other devices is
-a complete interlocking-switch system, by means of which one man
-standing in a switch-tower, overlooking a large yard with numerous
-tracks, over which trains arrive and depart every few minutes, can,
-by moving a system of levers, open any required track and by the
-same motion block all the others, and prevent the possibility of
-collisions or other accidents resulting from trains entering upon
-the wrong track.[25]
-
-The steam-boats on our large rivers had been making great progress
-in the comforts afforded to passengers. They were providing berths
-to sleep in, serving meals in spacious cabins, and giving musical
-entertainments and dancing parties on board. The railroads soon
-began to learn a lesson from them in adding to the comforts of the
-travelling public.
-
-The first attempt to furnish the railway passenger a place to sleep
-while on his journey was made upon the Cumberland Valley Railroad
-of Pennsylvania, between Harrisburg and Chambersburg. In the winter
-season the east-bound passengers arrived at Chambersburg late at
-night by stage-coach, and as they were exhausted by a fatiguing
-trip over the mountains and many wished to continue their journey
-to Harrisburg to catch the morning train for Philadelphia, it
-became very desirable to furnish sleeping accommodations aboard
-the cars. The officers of this road fitted up a passenger car with
-a number of berths, and put it into service as a sleeping-car in
-the winter of 1836-37. It was exceedingly crude and primitive in
-construction. It was divided by transverse partitions into four
-sections, and each contained three berths--a lower, middle, and
-upper berth. This car was used until 1848 and then abandoned.
-
-About this time there were also experiments made in fitting up cars
-with berths something like those in a steam-boat cabin, but these
-crude attempts did not prove attractive to travellers. There were
-no bedclothes furnished, and only a coarse mattress and pillow
-were supplied, and with the poor ventilation and the rattling and
-jolting of the car there was not much comfort afforded, except a
-means of resting in a position which was somewhat more endurable
-than a sitting posture.
-
-Previous to the year 1858 a few of the leading railways had put on
-sleeping-cars which made some pretensions to meet a growing want of
-the travelling public, but they were still crude, uncomfortable,
-and unsatisfactory in their arrangements and appointments.
-
-In the year 1858 George M. Pullman entered a train of the Lake
-Shore Railroad at Buffalo, to make a trip to Chicago. It happened
-that a new sleeping-car which had been built for the railroad
-company was attached to this train and was making its first
-trip. Mr. Pullman stepped in to take a look at it, and finally
-decided to test this new form of luxury by passing the night
-in one of its berths. He was tossed about in a manner not very
-conducive to the "folding of the hands to sleep," and he turned
-out before daylight and took refuge upon a seat in the end of
-the car. He now began to ponder upon the subject, and before the
-journey ended he had conceived the notion that, in a country of
-magnificent distances like this, a great boon could be offered to
-travellers by the construction of cars easily convertible into
-comfortable and convenient day or night coaches, and supplied
-with such appointments as would give the occupants practically
-the same comforts as were afforded by the steam-boats. He began
-experiments in this direction soon after his arrival in Chicago,
-and in 1859 altered some day-cars on the Chicago & Alton Railroad,
-and converted them into sleeping-cars which were a marked step
-in advance of similar cars previously constructed. They were
-successful in meeting the wants of passengers at that time, but Mr.
-Pullman did not consider them in any other light than experiments.
-One night, after they had made a few trips on the line between
-Chicago and St. Louis, a tall, angular-looking man entered one of
-the cars while Mr. Pullman was aboard, and after asking a great
-many intelligent questions about the inventions, finally said he
-thought he would try what the thing was like, and stowed himself
-away in an upper berth. This proved to be Abraham Lincoln.
-
-[Illustration: The "Pioneer." First complete Pullman Sleeping-car.]
-
-[Illustration: (Railwayman in uniform.)]
-
-In 1864 Mr. Pullman perfected his plans for a car which was to be
-a marked and radical departure from any one ever before attempted,
-and that year invested his capital in the construction of what may
-be called the father of the Pullman cars. He built it in a shed
-in the yard of the Chicago & Alton Railroad at a cost of $18,000,
-named it the "Pioneer," and designated it by the letter "A." It
-did not then occur to anyone that there would ever be enough
-sleeping-cars introduced to exhaust the whole twenty-six letters of
-the alphabet. The sum expended upon it was naturally looked upon
-as fabulous at a time when such sleeping-cars as were used could
-be built for about $4,500. The constructor of the "Pioneer" aimed
-to produce a car which would prove acceptable in every respect to
-the travelling public. It had improved trucks and a raised deck,
-and was built a foot wider and two and a half feet higher than any
-car then in service. He deemed this necessary for the purpose of
-introducing a hinged upper berth, which, when fastened up, formed a
-recess behind it for stowing the necessary bedding in the daytime.
-Before that the mattresses had been piled in one end of the car,
-and had to be dragged through the aisle when wanted. It was known
-to him that the dimensions of the bridges and station-platforms
-would not admit of its passing over the line, but he was singularly
-confident in the belief that an attractive car, constructed upon
-correct principles, would find its way into service against all
-obstacles. It so happened that soon after the car was finished,
-in the spring of 1865, the body of President Lincoln arrived
-at Chicago, and the "Pioneer" was wanted for the funeral train
-which was to take it to Springfield. To enable the car to pass
-over the road, the station-platforms and other obstructions were
-reduced in size, and thereafter the line was in a condition to put
-the car into service. A few months afterward General Grant was
-making a trip West to visit his home in Galena, Ill., and as the
-railway companies were anxious to take him from Detroit to his
-destination in the car which had now become quite celebrated, the
-station-platforms along the line were widened for the purpose, and
-thus another route was opened to its passage.
-
-The car was now put into regular service on the Alton road. Its
-popularity fully realized the anticipations of its owner, and its
-size became the standard for the future Pullman cars as to height
-and width, though they have since been increased in length.
-
-The railroad company entered into an agreement to have this car,
-and a number of others which were immediately built, operated upon
-its lines. They were marvels of beauty, and their construction
-embraced patents of such ingenuity and originality that they
-attracted marked attention in the railroad world and created a new
-departure in the method of travel.
-
-In 1867 Mr. Pullman formed the Pullman Car Company and devoted
-it to carrying out an idea which he had conceived, of organizing
-a system by which passengers could be carried in luxurious cars
-of uniform pattern, adequate to the wants of both night and day
-travel, which would run through without change between far-distant
-points and over a number of distinct lines of railway, in charge of
-responsible through agents, to whom ladies, children, and invalids
-could be safely intrusted. This system was especially adapted to
-a country of such geographical extent as America. It supplied an
-important want, and the travelling public and the railways were
-prompt to avail themselves of its advantages.
-
-Parlor or drawing-room cars were next introduced for day runs,
-which added greatly to the luxury of travel, enabling passengers
-to secure seats in advance, and enjoy many comforts which were
-not found in ordinary cars. Sleeping and parlor cars were soon
-recognized as an essential part of a railway's equipment and became
-known as "palace cars."
-
-The Wagner Car Company was organized in the State of New York, and
-was early in the field in furnishing this class of vehicles. It has
-supplied all the cars of this kind used upon the Vanderbilt system
-of railways and a number of its connecting roads. Several smaller
-palace-car companies have also engaged in the business at different
-times. A few roads have operated their own cars of this class, but
-the business is generally regarded as a specialty, and the railway
-companies recognize the advantages and conveniences resulting from
-the ability of a large car-company to meet the irregularities
-of travel, which require a large equipment at one season and a
-small one at another, to furnish an additional supply of cars for
-a sudden demand, and to perform satisfactorily the business of
-operating through cars in lines composed of many different railways.
-
-[Illustration: Pullman Parlor Car.]
-
-Next came a demand for cars in which meals could be served. Why,
-it was said, should a train stop at a station for meals any more
-than a steam-boat tie up to a wharf for the same purpose? The
-Pullman Company now introduced the hotel-car, which was practically
-a sleeping-car with a kitchen and pantries in one end and portable
-tables which could be placed between the seats of each section and
-upon which meals could be conveniently served. The first hotel-car
-was named the "President," and was put into service on the Great
-Western Railway of Canada, in 1867, and soon after several popular
-lines were equipped with this new addition to the luxuries of
-travel.
-
-[Illustration: Wagner Parlor Car.]
-
-After this came the dining-car, which was still another step beyond
-the hotel-car. It was a complete restaurant, having a large kitchen
-and pantries in one end, with the main body of the car fitted up as
-a commodious dining-room, in which all the passengers in the train
-could enter and take their meals comfortably. The first dining-car
-was named the "Delmonico," and began running on the Chicago & Alton
-Railroad in the year 1868.
-
-The comforts and conveniences of travel by rail on the main lines
-now seemed to have reached their culmination in America. The heavy
-T-rails had replaced the various forms previously used; the
-improved fastenings, the reductions in curvature, and the greater
-care exercised in construction had made the trip delightfully
-smooth, while the improvements in rolling-stock had obviated the
-jerking, jolting, and oscillation of the cars. The roadbeds had
-been properly ditched, drained, and ballasted with broken stone or
-gravel, the dust overcome, the sparks arrested, and cleanliness,
-that attribute which stands next to godliness, had at last been
-made possible, even on a railway train.
-
-[Illustration: Dining-car (Chicago, Burlington, & Quincy Railroad.)]
-
-The heating of cars was not successfully accomplished till a method
-was devised for circulating hot water through pipes running near
-the floor. The suffering from that bane of the traveller--cold
-feet--was then obviated and many a doctor's bill saved. The loss
-of human life from the destruction of trains by fires originating
-from stoves aroused such a feeling throughout the country that the
-legislatures of many States have passed laws within the last three
-years prohibiting the use of stoves, and the railway managers have
-been devising plans for heating the trains with steam furnished
-from the boiler of the locomotive. The inventive genius of the
-people was at once brought into requisition, and several ingenious
-devices are now in use which successfully accomplish the purpose
-in solid trains with the locomotive attached, but the problem of
-heating a detached car without some form of furnace connected with
-it is still unsolved.
-
-But notwithstanding the high standard of excellence which had been
-reached in the construction and operation of passenger trains,
-there was one want not yet supplied, the importance of which did
-not become fully recognized until dining-cars were introduced,
-and men, women, and children had to pass across the platforms of
-several cars in order to reach the one in which the meals were
-served. An act which passengers had always been cautioned against,
-and forbidden to undertake--the crossing of platforms while the
-train is in motion--now became necessary, and was invited by the
-railway companies.
-
-It was soon seen that a safe covered passageway between the cars
-must be provided, particularly for limited express trains. Crude
-attempts had been made in this direction at different times. As
-early as the years 1852 and 1855 patents were taken out for devices
-which provided for diaphragms of canvas to connect adjoining cars
-and form a passageway between them. These were applied to cars on
-the Naugatuck Railroad, in Connecticut, in 1857, but they were used
-mainly for purposes of ventilation, to provide for taking in air at
-the head of the train, so as to permit the car windows to be kept
-shut, to avoid the dust that entered through them when they were
-open. These appliances were very imperfect, did not seem to be of
-any practical advantage, even for the limited uses for which they
-were intended, and they were abandoned after a trial of about four
-years.
-
-In the year 1886 Mr. Pullman went practically to work to devise
-a perfect system for constructing continuous trains, and at the
-same time to provide for sufficient flexibility in connecting the
-passageways to allow for the motion consequent upon the rounding
-of curves. His efforts resulted in what is now known as the
-"vestibuled" train.
-
-[Illustration: Pullman Vestibuled Cars.]
-
-[Illustration: End View of a Vestibuled Car.]
-
-This invention, which was patented in 1887, succeeded not only in
-supplying the means of constructing a perfectly enclosed vestibule
-of handsome architectural appearance between the cars, but it
-accomplished what is even still more important, the introduction
-of a safety appliance more valuable than any yet devised for the
-protection of human life in case of collisions. The elastic
-diaphragms which are attached to the ends of the cars have steel
-frames, the faces or bearing surfaces of which are pressed firmly
-against each other by powerful spiral springs, which create
-a friction upon the faces of the frames, hold them firmly in
-position, prevent the oscillation of the cars, and furnish a
-buffer extending from the platform to the roof which precludes
-the possibility of one platform "riding" the other and producing
-telescoping in case of collision. The first of the vestibuled
-trains went into service on the Pennsylvania Railroad in June,
-1886, and they are rapidly being adopted by railway companies.
-The vestibuled limited trains contain several sleeping-cars, a
-dining-car, and a car fitted up with a smoking saloon, a library
-with books, desks, and writing materials, a bath-room, and a
-barber-shop. With a free circulation of air throughout the
-train, the cars opening into each other, the electric light, the
-many other increased comforts and conveniences introduced, the
-steam-heating apparatus avoiding the necessity of using fires, the
-great speed, and absence of stops at meal-stations, this train
-is the acme of safe and luxurious travel. An ordinary passenger
-travels in as princely a style in these cars as any crowned head in
-Europe in a royal special train.
-
-The speed of passenger trains has shown steady improvement from
-year to year. In the month of June in our Centennial year, 1876,
-a train ran from New York to San Francisco, a distance of 3,317
-miles, in 83 hours and 27 minutes actual time, thus averaging
-about 40 miles an hour, but during the trip it crossed four
-mountain-summits, one of them over 8,000 feet high. This train ran
-from Jersey City to Pittsburg over the Pennsylvania Railroad, a
-distance of 444 miles, without making a stop. In 1882 locomotives
-were introduced which made a speed of 70 miles per hour.
-
-[Illustration: Pullman Sleeper on a Vestibuled Train.]
-
-In July, 1885, an engine with a train of three cars made a trip
-over the West Shore road which is the most extraordinary one on
-record. It started from East Buffalo, N. Y., at 10.04 A.M., and
-reached Weehawken, N. J., at 7.27 P.M. Deducting the time consumed
-in stops, the actual running time was 7 hours and 23 minutes, or
-an average of 56 miles per hour. Between Churchville and Genesee
-Junction this train attained the unparalleled speed of 87 miles per
-hour, and at several other parts of the line a speed of from 70 to
-80 miles an hour. The superior physical characteristics of this
-road were particularly favorable for the attainment of the speed
-mentioned.
-
-The trains referred to were special or experimental trains, and
-while American railways have shown their ability to record the
-highest speed yet known, they do not run their trains in regular
-service as fast as those on the English railways. The meteor-like
-names given to our fast trains are somewhat misleading. When one
-reads of such trains as the "Lightning," the "Cannonball," the
-"Thunderbolt," and the "G--whiz-z," the suggestiveness of the
-titles is enough to make one's head swim, but, after all, the names
-are not as significant of speed as the British "Flying Scotchman"
-and the "Wild Irishman;" for the former do not attain an average
-rate of 40 miles an hour, while the latter exceed 45 miles. A
-few American trains, however, those between Jersey City and
-Philadelphia, for instance, make an average speed of over 50 miles
-per hour.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-[Illustration: Immigrant Sleeping-car (Canadian Pacific Railway.)]
-
-The transportation of immigrants has recently received increased
-facilities for its accommodation upon the principal through lines.
-Until late years economically constructed day-cars were alone used,
-but in these the immigrants suffered great discomfort in long
-journeys. An immigrant sleeper is now used, which is constructed
-with sections on each side of the aisle, each section containing
-two double berths. The berths are made with slats of hard wood
-running longitudinally; there is no upholstery in the car, and
-no bedding supplied, and after the car is vacated the hose can be
-turned in upon it, and all the wood-work thoroughly cleansed. The
-immigrants usually carry with them enough blankets and wraps to
-make them tolerably comfortable in their berths; a cooking stove
-is provided in one end of the car, on which the occupants can cook
-their food, and even the long transcontinental journeys of the
-immigrants are now made without hardship.
-
-[Illustration: View of Pullman, Ill.]
-
-The manufacture of railway passenger cars is a large item of
-industry in the country. The tendency had been for many years to
-confine the building of ordinary passenger coaches to the shops
-owned by the railway companies, and they made extensive provision
-for such work; but recently they have given large orders for that
-class of equipment to outside manufacturers. This has resulted
-partly from the large demand for cars, and partly on account of
-the excellence of the work supplied by some of the manufacturing
-companies. In 1880 the Pullman Company erected the most extensive
-car-works in the world at Pullman, fourteen miles south of Chicago;
-and, besides its extensive output of Pullman cars and freight
-equipment, it has built for railway companies large numbers of
-passenger coaches. The employees now number about 5,000, and an
-idea of the capacity and resources of the shops may be obtained
-from the fact that one hundred freight cars, of the kind known
-as flat cars, have been built in eight hours. The business
-of car-building has therefore given rise to the first model
-manufacturing town in America, and it is an industry evidently
-destined to increase as rapidly as any in the country.
-
-The transportation of baggage has always been a most important
-item to the traveller, and the amount carried seems to increase in
-proportion to the advance in civilization. The original allowance
-of fourteen pounds is found to be increased to four hundred when
-ladies start for fashionable summer-resorts.
-
-America has been much more liberal than other countries to the
-traveller in this particular, as in all others. Here few of the
-roads charge for excess of baggage unless the amount be so large
-that patience with regard to it ceases to be a virtue.
-
-The earlier method, of allowing each passenger to pick out his own
-baggage at his point of destination and carry it off, resulted in
-a lack of accountability which led to much confusion, frequent
-losses, and heavy claims upon the companies in consequence.
-Necessity, as usual, gave birth to invention, and the difficulty
-was at last solved by the introduction of the system known as
-"checking." A metal disk bearing a number and designating on its
-face the destination of the baggage was attached to each article
-and a duplicate given to the owner, which answered as a receipt,
-and upon the presentation and surrender of which the baggage could
-be claimed. Railways soon united in arranging for through checks
-which, when attached to baggage, would insure its being sent safely
-to distant points over lines composed of many connecting roads. The
-check system led to the introduction of another marked convenience
-in the handling of baggage--the baggage express or transfer
-company. One of its agents will now check trunks at the passenger's
-own house and haul them to the train. Another agent will take up
-the checks aboard the train as it is nearing its destination, and
-see that the baggage is delivered at any given address.
-
-The cases in which pieces go astray are astonishingly rare, and
-some roads found the claims for lost articles reduced by five
-thousand dollars the first year after adopting the check system,
-not to mention the amount saved in the reduced force of employees
-engaged in assorting and handling the baggage. Its workings are
-so perfect and its conveniences so great that an American cannot
-easily understand why it is not adopted in all countries; but he is
-forced to recognize the fact that it seems destined to be confined
-to his own land. The London railway managers, for instance, give
-many reasons for turning their faces against its adoption. They say
-that there are few losses arising from passengers taking baggage
-that does not belong to them; that most of the passengers take a
-cab at the end of their railway journey to reach their homes, and
-it costs but little more to carry their trunk with them; that in
-this way it gets home as soon as they, while the transfer company,
-or baggage express, would not deliver it for an hour or two later;
-that the cab system is a great convenience, and any change which
-would diminish its patronage would gradually reduce the number of
-cabs, and these "gondolas of London" would have to increase their
-charges or go out of business. It is very easy to find a stick when
-one wants to hit a dog, and the European railway officials seem
-never to be at a loss for reasons in rejecting the check system.
-
-Coupon tickets covering trips over several different railways
-have saved the traveller all the annoyance once experienced in
-purchasing separate tickets from the several companies representing
-the roads over which he had to pass. Their introduction
-necessitated an agreement among the principal railways of the
-country and the adoption of an extensive system of accountability
-for the purpose of making settlements of the amounts represented by
-the coupons.
-
-[Illustration: In a Baggage-room.]
-
-Like every other novelty the coupon ticket, when first introduced,
-did not hit the mark when aimed at the understanding of certain
-travellers. A United States Senator-elect had come on by sea from
-the Pacific Coast who had never seen a railroad till he reached the
-Atlantic seaboard. With a curiosity to test the workings of the new
-means of transportation, of which he had heard so much, he bought
-a coupon ticket and set out for a railway journey. He entered a
-car, took a seat next to the door, and was just beginning to get
-the "hang of the school-house" when the conductor, who was then
-not uniformed, came in, cried "Tickets!" and reached out his hand
-toward the Senator. "What do you want of me?" said the latter.
-"I want your ticket," answered the conductor. Now it occurred to
-the Senator that this might be a very neat job on the part of an
-Eastern ticket-sharp, but it was just a little too thin to fool
-a Pacific Coaster, and he said: "Don't you think I've got sense
-enough to know that if I parted with my ticket right at the start I
-wouldn't have anything to show for my money during the rest of the
-way? No, sir, I'm going to hold on to this till I get to the end of
-the trip."
-
-"Oh!" said the conductor, whose impatience was now rising to fever
-heat, "I don't want to take up your ticket, I only want to look at
-it."
-
-[Illustration: Railway Station at York, England, built on a curve.]
-
-The Senator thought, after some reflection, that he would risk
-letting the man have a peep at it, anyhow, and held it up before
-him, keeping it, however, at a safe distance. The conductor, with
-the customary abruptness, jerked it out of his hand, tore off the
-first coupon, and was about to return the ticket, when the Pacific
-Coaster sprang up, threw himself upon his muscle, and delivered
-a well-directed blow of his fist upon the conductor's right eye,
-which landed him sprawling on one of the opposite seats. The other
-passengers were at once on their feet, and rushed up to know the
-cause of the disturbance. The Senator, still standing with his arms
-in a pugnacious attitude, said:
-
-"Maybe I've never ridden on a railroad before, but I'm not going to
-let any sharper get away with me like that."
-
-[Illustration: Outside the Grand Central Station, New York.]
-
-"What's he done?" cried the passengers.
-
-"Why," said the Senator, "I paid seventeen dollars and a half for
-a ticket to take me through to Cincinnati, and before we're five
-miles out that fellow slips up and says he wants to see it, and
-when I get it out, he grabs hold of it and goes to tearing it up
-right before my eyes." Ample explanations were soon made, and the
-new passenger was duly initiated into the mysteries of the coupon
-system.
-
-The uniforming of railway employees was a movement of no little
-importance. It designated the various positions held by them, added
-much to the neatness of their appearance, enabled passengers to
-recognize them at a glance, and made them so conspicuous that it
-impressed them with a greater sense of responsibility and aided
-much in effecting a more courteous demeanor to passengers.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-[Illustration: Boston Passenger Station, Providence Division, Old
-Colony Railroad.]
-
-Many conveniences have been introduced which greatly assist the
-passenger when travelling upon unfamiliar roads. Conspicuous
-clock-faces stand in the stations with their hands set to the hour
-at which the next train is to start, sign-boards are displayed with
-horizontal slats on which the stations are named at which departing
-way-trains stop, and employees are stationed to call out necessary
-information and direct passengers to the proper entrances, exits,
-and trains. A "bureau of information" is now to be seen in large
-passenger-stations, in which an official sits and with a Job-like
-patience repeats to the curiously inclined passengers the whole
-railway catechism, and successfully answers conundrums that would
-stump an Oriental pundit.
-
-The energetic passenger-agent spares no pains to thrust information
-directly under the nose of the public. He uses every means known to
-Yankee ingenuity to advertise his regular trains and his excursion
-business, including large newspaper head-lines, corner-posters,
-curb-stone dodgers, and placards on the breast and back of the
-itinerant human sandwich who perambulates the streets.
-
-Railway accidents have always been a great source of anxiety to the
-managers, and the shocks received by the public when great loss of
-life occurs from such causes deepen the interest which the general
-community feels in the means taken to avoid these distressing
-occurrences.
-
-American railway officials have made encouraging progress in
-reducing the number and the severity of accidents, and while the
-record is not so good on many of our cheaply constructed roads, our
-first-class roads now show by their statistics that they compare
-favorably in this respect with the European companies.
-
-The statistics regarding accidents[26] are necessarily unreliable,
-as railway companies are not eager to publish their calamities
-from the house-tops, and only in those States in which prompt
-reports are required to be made by law are the figures given at
-all accurately. Even in these instances the yearly reports lead to
-wrong conclusions, for the State Railroad Commissioners become more
-exacting each year as to the thoroughness of the reports called
-for, and the results sometimes show an increase compared with
-previous years, whereas there may have been an actual decrease.
-
-In 1880, the last census year, an effort was made to collect
-statistics of this kind covering all the railways in the United
-States, with the following result:
-
-  ------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-------
-              | Through causes |    Through     |                |
-    To whom   |  beyond their  |   their own    |   Aggregate.   | Total
-   happened.  |    control.    | carelessness.  |                | acci-
-              +-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+ dents.
-              |Killed.|Injured.|Killed.|Injured.|Killed.|Injured.|
-  ------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------
-  Passengers  |    61 |    331 |    82 |    213 |   143 |    544 |   687
-  Employees   |   261 |  1,004 |   663 |  2,613 |   924 |  3,617 | 4,541
-  All others  |    43 |    103 | 1,429 |  1,348 | 1,472 |  1,451 | 2,923
-  Unspecified |       |        |       |        |     3 |     62 |    65
-              +-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------
-     Total    |   365 | 1,438  | 2,174 | 4,174  | 2,542 |  5,674 | 8,216
-  ------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------
-
-[Illustration: "Show Your Tickets!"
-
-(Passenger Station, Philadelphia.)]
-
-Mulhall, in his "Dictionary of Statistics," an English work, uses
-substantially these same figures and makes the following comparison
-between European and American railways:
-
-_Accidents to Passengers, Employees, and Others._
-
-  ---------------+---------+----------+--------+-------------
-                 |         |          |        | Per million
-                 | Killed. | Wounded. | Total. | passengers.
-  ---------------+---------+----------+--------+-------------
-  United States  |  2,349  |   5,867  |  8,216 |   41.1
-  United Kingdom |  1,135  |   3,959  |  5,094 |    8.1
-  Europe         |  3,213  |  10,859  | 14,072 |   10.8
-  ---------------+---------+----------+--------+-------------
-
-That the figures given above are much too high as regards the
-United States, there can be no doubt. For the fiscal year 1880-81
-the data compiled by the Railroad Commissioners of Massachusetts
-and published in their reports give as the total number of persons
-killed and injured in the United States 2,126, as against 8,216
-upon which the comparisons in the above table are based. If we
-substitute in this table the former number for the latter, it would
-reduce the number of injured per million passengers in the United
-States to 10.6, about the same as on the European railways.
-
-Edward Bates Dorsey gives the following interesting table of
-comparisons in his valuable work, "English and American Railroads
-Compared:"
-
-_Passengers Killed and Injured from Causes beyond their own Control
-on all the Railroads of the United Kingdom and those of the States
-of New York and Massachusetts in 1884._
-
-  -----------------+---------+---------------------------+-------+------
-                   |  Total  |                           |       |
-                   | length  |       Total mileage.      |       | In-
-                   | of line +-------------+-------------+Killed.|jured.
-                   |operated.|    Train.   | Passengers. |       |
-  -----------------+---------+-------------+-------------+-------+------
-  United Kingdom   |  18,864 | 272,803,220 |6,042,659,990|    31 |  864
-  New York         |   7,298 |  85,918,677 |1,729,653,620|    10 |  124
-  Massachusetts    |   2,852 |  32,304,333 |1,007,136,376|     2 |   42
-  -----------------+---------+-------------+-------------+-------+------
-  In               |         |             |             |       |
-  1,000,000,000    |         |             |             |       |
-  passengers       |         |             |             |       |
-  transported      |         |             |             |       |
-  1 mile.          |         |             |             |       |
-                   |         |             |             |       |
-    United Kingdom |         |             |             |  5.15 |  143
-    New York       |         |             |             |  5.78 |   70
-    Massachusetts  |         |             |             |  2.00 |   42
-  -----------------+---------+-------------+-------------+-------+------
-
-  --------------------------------------------------+------------
-                                                    |  Miles.
-                                                    +------------
-  The average number of miles      { United Kingdom | 194,892,255
-    a passenger can travel without { New York       | 172,965,362
-    being killed.                  { Massachusetts  | 503,568,188
-                                                    |
-  The average number of miles      { United Kingdom |   6,992,662
-    a passenger can travel without { New York       |  13,940,754
-    being injured.                 { Massachusetts  |  23,955,630
-  --------------------------------------------------+------------
-
-From this it will be seen that in the United Kingdom the average
-distance a passenger may travel before being killed is about equal
-to twice the distance of the Earth from the Sun. In New York he may
-travel a distance greater than that of Mars from the Sun; and in
-Massachusetts he can comfort himself with the thought that he may
-travel twenty-seven millions of miles farther than the distance of
-Jupiter to the Sun before suffering death on the rail.
-
-The most encouraging feature of these statistics is the fact that
-the number of railway accidents per mile in the United States has
-shown a marked decrease each year. Taking the figures adopted by
-the Massachusetts commissions, the number of persons injured in
-the year 1880-81 was 2,126, and in 1886-87, 2,483, while in the
-same time the number of miles in operation increased from 93,349 to
-137,986.
-
-The amounts paid annually by railways in satisfaction of claims for
-damages to passengers are serious items of expenditure, and in the
-United States have reached in some years nearly two millions of
-dollars. About half of the States limit the amount of damages in
-case of death to $5,000, the States of Virginia, Ohio, and Kansas
-to $10,000, and the remainder have no statutory limit.
-
-In the year 1840 the number of miles of railway per 100,000
-inhabitants in the different countries named was as follows: United
-States, 20; United Kingdom, 3; Europe, 1; in the year 1882, United
-States, 210; United Kingdom, 52; Europe, 34.
-
-In the year 1886 the total number of miles in the United States was
-137,986; the number of passengers carried, 382,284,972; the number
-carried one mile, 9,659,698,294; the average distance travelled per
-passenger, 25.27 miles.
-
-In Europe the first-class travel is exceedingly small and the
-third class constitutes the largest portion of the passenger
-business, while in America almost the whole of the travel is first
-class, as will be seen from the following table:
-
-  ---------------+--------------------------------------------
-                 |    Percentage of passengers carried.
-                 +--------------+---------------+-------------
-                 | First Class. | Second Class. | Third Class.
-  ---------------+--------------+---------------+-------------
-  United Kingdom |      6       |      10       |     84
-  France         |      8       |      32       |     60
-  Germany        |      1       |      13       |     86
-  United States  |     99       |    ½ of 1     |   ½ of 1
-  ---------------+--------------+---------------+-------------
-
-The third-class travel in this country is better known as immigrant
-travel. The percentages given in the above table for the United
-States are based upon an average of the numbers of passengers of
-each class carried on the principal through lines. If all the roads
-were included, the percentages of the second- and third-class
-travel would be still less.
-
-That which is of more material interest to passengers than anything
-else is the rate of fare charged.
-
-The following table gives an approximate comparison between the
-rates per mile in the leading countries in the world:
-
-  ---------------+--------------+---------------+-------------
-                 | First Class. | Second Class. | Third Class.
-  ---------------+--------------+---------------+-------------
-                 |    Cents.    |    Cents.     |    Cents.
-  United Kingdom |     4.42     |     3.20      |     1.94
-  France         |     3.86     |     2.88      |     2.08
-  Germany        |     3.10     |     2.32      |     1.54
-  United States  |     2.18     |      --       |      --
-  ---------------+--------------+---------------+-------------
-
-The rates above given for the United Kingdom, France, and Germany
-are the regular schedule-rates. An average of all the fares
-received, including the reduced fares at excursion rates, would
-make the figures somewhat less.
-
-The rate named as the first-class fare for the railways in
-the United States is, strictly speaking, the average earnings
-per passenger per mile, and includes all classes; but as the
-first-class passengers constitute about ninety-nine per centum
-of the travel the amount does not differ materially from the
-actual first-class fare. In the State of New York the first-class
-fare does not exceed two cents, which is not much more than the
-third-class fare in some countries of Europe, and heat, good
-ventilation, ice-water, toilet arrangements, and free carriage of
-a liberal amount of baggage are supplied, while in Europe few of
-these comforts are furnished.
-
-On the elevated railroads of New York a passenger can ride in a
-first-class car eleven miles for 5 cents, or about one-half cent a
-mile, and on surface-roads the commutation rates given to suburban
-passengers are in some cases still less.
-
-The berth-fares in sleeping-cars in Europe largely exceed those in
-America, as will be seen from the following comparisons, stated in
-dollars:
-
-  --------------------+-------------------+------------
-        Route.        | Distance in Miles.| Berth fare.
-  --------------------+-------------------+------------
-  Paris to Rome       |        901        |    $12.75
-  New York to Chicago |        912        |      5.00
-  Paris to Marseilles |        536        |     11.00
-  New York to Buffalo |        440        |      2.00
-  Calais to Brindisi  |      1,373        |     22.25
-  Boston to St. Louis |      1,330        |      6.50
-  --------------------+-------------------+------------
-
-While it would seem that the luxuries of railway travel in America
-have reached a maximum, and the charges a minimum, yet in this
-progressive age it is very probable that in the not far distant
-future we shall witness improvements over the present methods which
-will astonish us as much as the present methods surprise us when we
-compare them with those of the past.
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[23] See "Safety in Railroad Travel," page 195.
-
-[24] See "Safety in Railroad Travel," page 224; also, "American
-Locomotives and Cars," page 142.
-
-[25] See "Safety in Railroad Travel," page 204.
-
-[26] See "Safety in Railroad Travel," page 191.
-
-
-
-
-THE FREIGHT-CAR SERVICE.
-
-BY THEODORE VOORHEES.
-
-  Sixteen Months' Journey of a Car--Detentions by the
-  Way--Difficulties of the Car Accountant's Office--Necessities
-  of Through Freight--How a Company's Cars are Scattered--The
-  Question of Mileage--Reduction of the Balance in Favor of
-  Other Roads--Relation of the Car Accountant's Work to the
-  Transportation Department--Computation of Mileage--The Record
-  Branch--How Reports are Gathered and Compiled--Exchange of
-  "Junction Cards"--The Use of "Tracers"--Distribution of
-  Empty Cars--Control of the Movement of Freight--How Trains
-  are Made Up--Duties of the Yardmaster--The Handling of
-  Through Trains--Organization of Fast Lines--Transfer Freight
-  Houses--Special Cars for Specific Service--Disasters to Freight
-  Trains--How the Companies Suffer--Inequalities in Payment for Car
-  Service--The Per Diem Plan--A Uniform Charge for Car Rental--What
-  Reforms might be Accomplished.
-
-
-I.
-
-THE WANDERINGS OF A CAR.
-
-
-On the 14th of December, 1886, there was loaded in Indianapolis a
-car belonging to one of the roads passing through that city. It
-was loaded with corn consigned to parties in Boston. The car was
-delivered to the Lake Shore road at Cleveland on the 16th; but,
-owing to bad weather and various other local causes, it did not
-reach East Buffalo until December 28th. It was turned over by the
-New York Central & Hudson River Railroad to the West Shore road
-the next day, and by this company was taken to Rotterdam Junction,
-and there delivered on December 31st to the Western Division of
-the Fitchburg Railroad, or what was then known as the Boston,
-Hoosac Tunnel & Western. They took it promptly through to Boston.
-After a few days the corn was sold by the consignees for delivery
-in Medfield, on the New York & New England Railway. The car was
-delivered to this road on January 24, 1887, and taken down to
-Medfield. There it remained among a large number of other cars,
-until it suited the convenience of the purchaser to put the corn
-into his elevator.
-
-On the 17th of March the car was unloaded, taken back to Boston,
-and delivered to the Fitchburg road to be sent West, homeward. That
-company took it promptly, but instead of delivering it to the West
-Shore road at Rotterdam Junction, as would have been the regular
-course, either through some mistake of a yardmaster at the junction
-station, or in pursuance of general instructions to load all
-Western cars home whenever practicable, the car was not delivered
-to the West Shore, but was turned over to the Delaware & Hudson
-Canal Co's. Railroad, taken down to the coal regions, and on March
-31st delivered to the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad, by
-whom it was loaded with coal for Chicago. That company promptly
-delivered it to the Grand Trunk at Buffalo, and on April 10th the
-car reached Chicago. It was immediately reconsigned by the local
-agents of the coal company to a dealer in the town of Minot, 523
-miles west of St. Paul, on the St. Paul, Minneapolis & Manitoba
-Railroad. To reach that point, it was delivered to the Chicago,
-Rock Island & Pacific on April 10th, then to the Burlington, Cedar
-Rapids & Northern, Minneapolis & St. Louis, St. Paul & Duluth, St.
-Paul, Minneapolis & Manitoba, arriving at its destination on the
-14th of April.
-
-Winter still reigned in that locality, and the car was promptly
-unloaded, and returned to St. Paul, where it was loaded with wheat
-consigned to New York. It left St. Paul on the 26th of April, was
-promptly moved through to Chicago, and delivered to the Grand
-Trunk. Coming east, in Canada, the train of which this car formed
-a part, while passing through a small station, in the night ran
-into an open switch. The engine dashed into a number of loaded
-cars standing on the siding, and the cars behind it were piled
-up in bad confusion, a number of them being destroyed, and the
-freight scattered in all directions. Our car, whose history we are
-tracing, suffered comparatively slight damage. The drawheads were
-broken, and some castings on one truck, not sufficient to affect
-in any way the loading of the car. It was sent to the shops of the
-road; and it became necessary for them, on examination, to send
-to the owners of the car for a casting to replace that broken on
-the truck. This resulted in serious detention. The requisition for
-this casting had to be approved by the Superintendent and by the
-General Manager, and was forwarded, after a considerable delay, to
-the officers of the road owning the car. There it was sent through
-a number of offices before it finally reached the hands of the
-man who was able to supply the required casting. This in turn was
-sent by freight, and passed over the intervening territory at a
-slow rate; the whole involving a detention which held the car from
-April 28th, when it was delivered at Chicago to the Grand Trunk,
-until July 18th, when finally the Grand Trunk delivered it to the
-Delaware, Lackawanna & Western at Buffalo. It came through promptly
-to New York, the grain was put in an elevator, the car was sent
-back once more to the mines at Scranton, and again loaded with coal
-for Chicago. On August 9th the record says the car was delivered by
-the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western to the Grand Trunk, and on the
-12th of August it was in Chicago.
-
-About this time the owners of the car began to make vigorous
-appeals to the various roads, urging them to send the car home. One
-of these tracers reached the Grand Trunk road while they still held
-the car in their possession; so that orders were sent that the coal
-must be unloaded at once, and the car returned. In order to unload
-it, it was necessary to switch it to the Illinois Central for some
-local consignee, and it was unloaded within four days and delivered
-back to the Grand Trunk at Chicago. This was on August 16th.
-During the few days that had elapsed since the order was given to
-send this car home, there had been an active demand for cars, and
-knowing that this one had to be sent to Buffalo in order to be
-delivered to the Lake Shore road, from which it had originally been
-received, the car was loaded for that point. This again resulted
-in detention, for we find that the car was held on the Grand Trunk
-tracks at Black Rock, awaiting the pleasure of the consignee to
-unload the freight, until the 27th of September; and then, instead
-of being unloaded and delivered to the Lake Shore road, as had been
-the intention of the Grand Trunk officials, the consignee sold the
-wheat in the car to a local dealer on the line of the Erie Railway,
-and the car was sent down on that road on October 1st, and not
-returned to the Grand Trunk again until the 10th day of October.
-
-Unfortunately, the Erie was as anxious at that time to load cars
-west with coal as the other roads, and when they brought the car
-back to the Grand Trunk, they brought it once more filled with
-coal, and back the car went to Chicago, reaching there on the 13th
-of October.
-
-It had now been away from home and diverted from its legitimate
-uses for nine months, and apparently was as far from home as ever.
-The delivery of the coal this time at Chicago put the car in the
-hands of the Louisville, New Albany & Chicago Railway, and they
-promptly gave it a lading by the southern route to Newport News;
-for we find the car delivered by the Louisville, New Albany &
-Chicago to the Chesapeake & Ohio route on October 28th, and at
-Newport News on the 10th of November. The owners of the car were
-meanwhile not idle. The occasional stray junction cards which came
-in notified them of the passage of the car by different junction
-points, giving them clews to work by, and they were in vigorous
-correspondence with the various roads over which the car had gone,
-urging, begging, and imploring the railway officers to make all
-efforts in their power to get the car back to its home road.
-
-On its last trip from Chicago to Newport News, the car passed
-through Indianapolis, the very point from which it began its long
-journey and many wanderings. Unfortunately, however, it passed
-there loaded, without detention, and the owners of the car did not
-discover until it had been for some time at Newport News, that the
-car had been anywhere near its home territory. By the time they
-made this discovery the car had been unloaded, and had started west
-once more. The records of the movement of the car here become dim.
-It was apparently diverted from its direct route back, which would
-have taken it once more to Indianapolis, and so home, for we find,
-after waiting at Newport News for some time to be unloaded, it was
-delivered to the Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis, next on the
-Western & Atlantic, and so down into Georgia and South Carolina.
-Again, on January 14, 1888, the car was reported on the Richmond
-& Danville. They sent it once more down into South Carolina and
-Georgia. From there it was loaded down to Selma, Ala., on the
-Atlanta & West Point Railroad. They returned it promptly to
-Atlanta, and so to the Central Railroad of Georgia; and the car,
-after being used backward and forward between Montgomery and
-Atlanta and Macon, finally appeared at Augusta, Ga., where it stood
-on February 11, 1888. Here the car remained for some time, long
-enough for the owners to get advices as to its whereabouts, and
-communicate with the road on whose territory the car was, before
-it was again moved. An urgent representation of the case having
-been laid before the proper authorities, they agreed, if possible,
-to load it in such a way that it should go back to Indianapolis.
-This could not be done at once, however; but about the 12th of
-March the car was sent to a near-by point in South Carolina loaded,
-and worked back over the Georgia road and the Western Atlantic,
-delivered to the Louisville & Nashville on April 3d, and finally,
-after its many and long wanderings, was by that road delivered to
-the home road at Cincinnati on the 17th of April; having been away
-from home sixteen months and one day.
-
-This is a case taken from actual records, and is one that could be
-duplicated probably by any railroad in the country.
-
-
-II.
-
-THE CAR ACCOUNTANT'S OFFICE.
-
-  THE WINNIPEG & ATHABASKA LAKE RAILWAY CO.,
-  _General Superintendent's Office_,
-  WINNIPEG, December 31, 1888.
-
-  TO JOHN SMITH, ESQ.,
-  _Supt. of Trans'n, L. & N. R. R. Co., Louisville, Ky._
-
-  SIR: Our records show forty-five of our box-cars on your line,
-  some of which have been away from home over three weeks. I give
-  below the numbers of those which have been detained over thirty
-  days, viz.:
-
-  Nos.    28542    34210     34762     29421     28437     29842
-          34628    34516     29781     28274     34333     28873
-
-  There is at this time a strong demand for cars for the movement
-  of the wheat crop, and I must beg that you will send home
-  promptly all that you have on your line.
-
-  I remain,
-  Yours very truly,
-  THOMAS BROWN.
-
-
-  LOUISVILLE & NORFOLK R. R. CO.,
-  _Office of Superintendent of Transportation_,
-  LOUISVILLE, KY., Jan'y 3, 1889.
-
-  TO THOMAS BROWN, ESQ.,
-  _Gen'l Supt., W. & A. L. R. W. Co., Winnipeg, Canada_.
-
-  SIR: Your favor of the 31st ulto. was duly received and contents
-  noted.
-
-  I call your attention to the enclosed mem. from our Car
-  Accountant, which shows that we have but seven of your cars now
-  on our road; of these but three are bad cases, Nos. 28437, 34516,
-  and 28873. One of these cars was crippled, and is in the shops;
-  the other two are loaded with wheat consigned "to order."
-
-  The necessary instructions have been given our agents, and we
-  will do all in our power to hurry the return of your cars.
-
-  I am,
-  Very truly yours,
-  JOHN SMITH.
-
-  (Mem. enclosed.)
-
-  MEMORANDUM.
-
-  W. & A. L. Nos.
-
-  28542 to Ohio Northern, Dec. 5th.
-  34210  " Ohio Northern, Dec. 10th.
-  34762  " Kanawha Junc., 12/15 crippled.
-  29421  " Elmwood, 12/15 unloading.
-  28437  " Norfolk Shops, Dec. 6th.
-  34628  " No account.
-  34516  " Blue Ridge, 12/4 ordered out.
-  29781 to Ohio Northern, Nov. 27th.
-  28274  " Niantic, Dec. 12th, loading home.
-  34333  " Louisville Belt, Dec. 8th.
-  29842  " Brockton, Dec. 14th, empty, will load home.
-  28873  " Blue Ridge, Nov. 18th, ordered out.
-
-
-This is but an example of a correspondence that is constantly
-being exchanged between the officials who are in charge of the
-Transportation Department of the various railways of the country.
-
-The demands of trade necessitate continually the transportation of
-all manner of commodities over great distances.
-
-Thus, wheat is brought from the Northwest to the seaboard, corn
-from the Southwest, cotton from the South, fruit comes from
-California, black walnut from Indiana, and pine from Michigan.
-In the opposite direction, merchandise and manufactured articles
-are sent from the East to all points in the West, the North, and
-Southwest. The interchange is constant and steadily increasing in
-all directions.
-
-In the early period of railways in this country, when they were
-built chiefly to promote local interests, and the movement
-of either freight or passengers over long distances was a
-comparatively small portion of the traffic, it was customary for
-all roads to do their business in their own cars, transferring
-any freight destined to a station on a connecting road at the
-junction or point of interchange of the two roads. While this
-system had the advantage of keeping at home the equipment of each
-road, it resulted in a very slow movement of the freight. As the
-volume of traffic grew, and the interchange of commodities between
-distant points increased, this slow movement became more and
-more vexatious. Soon the railway companies found it necessary to
-allow their cars to run through to the destination of the freight
-without transfer, or they would be deprived of the business by more
-enterprising rivals. So that to-day a very large proportion of the
-freight business of the country is done without transfer; the same
-car taking the load from the initial point direct to destination.
-The result of this is, however, that a considerable share of all
-the business of any railway is done in cars belonging to other
-companies, for which mileage has to be paid; while, in turn, the
-cars of any one company may be scattered all over the country from
-Maine to California, Winnipeg to Mexico.
-
-The problem that constantly confronts the general superintendent of
-a railway is, how to improve the time of through freight, thereby
-improving the service and increasing the earnings of the company;
-and, at the same time, how to secure the prompt movement of cars
-belonging to the company, getting them home from other roads, and
-reducing as far as possible upon his own line the use of foreign
-cars, and the consequent payment of mileage therefor.
-
-By common consent the mileage for the use of all eight-wheel
-freight cars has been fixed at three-quarters of a cent per mile
-run; four-wheel cars being rated at one-half this amount, or
-three-eighths of a cent. This amount would at first sight appear
-to be insignificant, yet in the aggregate it comes to a very
-considerable sum. In the case of some of the more important roads
-in the country, even those possessing a large equipment, the
-balance against them for mileage alone often amounts to nearly half
-a million annually.
-
-It becomes therefore of the first importance to reduce to a minimum
-the use of foreign cars, thereby reducing the mileage balance;
-at the same time avoiding any action that will interfere with or
-impede in any way the prompt movement of traffic.
-
-The first step toward accomplishing this result is to organize
-and fully equip the Car Accountant's Department. The importance of
-this office has been recognized only of late years. Formerly, and
-on many lines even now, the Car Accountant was merely a subordinate
-in the Auditing Department of the company. His duties were confined
-strictly to computing the mileage due to other roads. This he
-did from the reports of the freight-train conductors, often in a
-cumbrous and mechanical manner, making no allowance for possible
-errors. At the same time, he received reports of foreign roads
-without question and without check. He was not interested in any
-way in the operations of the Transportation Department; and, as a
-consequence, it never occurred to him to make inquiries as to the
-proper use of the cars belonging to his own company. That he left
-entirely to the Superintendent. The latter, on the other hand, his
-time incessantly filled with many duties, could give but scant
-attention to his cars.
-
-The Superintendent of a railway in this country who has, let us
-say, three hundred miles of road in his charge, has perhaps as
-great a variety of occupation, and as many different questions
-of importance depending upon his decision, as any other business
-or professional man in the community. Fully one-half of his time
-will be spent out-of-doors looking after the physical condition
-of his track, masonry, bridges, stations, buildings of all kinds.
-Concerning the repair or renewal of each he will have to pass
-judgment. He must know intimately every foot of his track and,
-in cases of emergency or accident, know just what resources he
-can depend upon, and how to make them most immediately useful.
-He will visit the shops and round houses frequently, and will
-know the construction and daily condition of every locomotive,
-every passenger and baggage car. He will consult with his Master
-Mechanic, and often will decide which car or engine shall and
-which shall not be taken in for repair, etc. He has to plan and
-organize the work of every yard, every station. He must know the
-duties of each employee on his pay-rolls, and instruct all new men,
-or see that they are properly instructed. He must keep incessant
-and vigilant watch on the movement of all trains, noting the
-slightest variation from the schedules which he has prepared, and
-looking carefully into the causes therefor, so as to avoid its
-recurrence. The first thing in the morning he is greeted with a
-report giving the situation of business on the road, the events of
-the night, movement of trains, and location and volume of freight
-to be handled. The last thing at night he gets a final report of
-the location and movement of important trains; and he never closes
-his eyes without thinking that perhaps the telephone will ring and
-call him before dawn. During the day in his office he has reports
-to make out, requisitions to approve, a varied correspondence, not
-always agreeable, to answer. Added to this, frequent consultations
-with the officers of the Traffic Department, or with those of
-connecting lines, in reference to the movement of through or local
-business, completely fill his time.
-
-It is not to be wondered at that such a man gives but slight
-attention in many cases to the matter of car mileage. He frequently
-satisfies himself by arranging a system of reports from his
-agents to his office that give a summary each twenty-four hours
-of the cars of every kind on hand at each station; and leaves the
-distribution and movement of the cars in the hands of his agents.
-He will give some attention to the matter whenever he goes over his
-road on other and more pressing duties. Occasionally he will even
-take a day or two and visit every station, inquiring carefully as
-to each car he finds; why it is being held, for what purpose, and
-how long it has stood. Then, satisfied with having, as he says,
-"shaken up the boys," he will turn his attention to other matters,
-and let the cars take care of themselves. When the monthly or
-quarterly statements are made up, and he sees the amount of balance
-against his road for car mileage, he gives it but little thought,
-regarding it as one of the items like taxes, important, of course,
-but hardly one for which he is responsible.
-
-His General Manager, however, will note the car-mileage balance
-with more concern; and, looking into the matter carefully, he will
-discover that the remedy is to put the Car Accountant into the
-Transportation Department; thus at once interesting him in the
-economical use of the equipment, and also placing in the hands of
-the Superintendent the machinery he needs to enable him to promptly
-control and direct the use of all cars.
-
-The Car Accountant's Office may properly be divided into two main
-branches--mileage and record. The computation of mileage is made
-in most cases directly from the reports of each train. These
-reports are made by the train conductors, and give the initials and
-number of each car in their train, whether loaded or empty, and the
-station whence taken and where left. To facilitate the computation
-of mileage of each car, the stations on the road are consecutively
-numbered, beginning at nought--each succeeding station being
-represented by a number equivalent to the number of miles it is
-distant from the initial station; excepting divisional and terminal
-stations, where letters are used, to reduce the work in recording.
-The conductors report the stations between which each car moves by
-their numbers or letters. So that all that is necessary for the
-mileage clerk to do is to take the difference between the station
-numbers in each case, and he has the miles travelled by that car.
-The mileage of each car having been so noted on the conductor's
-report, it is then condensed, the mileage of all cars of any given
-road or line being added together, and the results entered into the
-ledgers. At the close of the month these books are footed, and a
-report is rendered to each road in the country of the mileage and
-amount in money due therefor, in each case; and settlements are
-made accordingly, either in full or by balance. This is purely the
-accounting side of the Car Accountant's Office.
-
-There remains the record branch, equally important, and to the
-operating department far more interesting. This consists broadly
-in a complete record being kept of the daily movement and location
-of every car upon the road, local or foreign. At first sight this
-may seem to be a difficult and complicated operation, but, in
-fact, it is simple. The record is first divided between local and
-foreign; local cars being all cars owned by the home road, foreign
-being all those owned by other roads. The local books are of large
-size, ruled in such a way as to allow space for the daily movement
-or location of each car for one month, and admit of twenty-five
-or fifty cars being recorded upon each page. The record books for
-foreign cars are similarly ruled, a slight change being necessary
-to allow for the numbers and initials of the foreign cars, which
-cannot well be arranged for in advance.
-
-The train conductors' reports are placed in the hands of the record
-clerks, each one recording the movements of certain initials, or
-series of numbers, under the date as shown by the report; the
-reports being handed from one to another until every car has been
-entered and the report checked.
-
-[Illustration: A Page from the Car Accountant's Book.[27]]
-
-In addition to the conductors' train reports, the Car Accountant
-receives reports from all junction stations daily, showing all cars
-received from or delivered to connecting roads, whether loaded or
-empty, and the destination of each. He also has reports from all
-stations showing cars received and forwarded, from midnight to
-midnight, cars remaining on hand loaded or empty; and if loaded,
-contents and consignee, and also cars in process of loading or
-unloading, and reports from shops or yards showing cars undergoing
-repairs, or waiting for the same. In fine, he endeavors to get
-complete reports showing every car that either may be in motion or
-standing at any point on his road. All of these are entered on his
-record books. The station reports check those of the conductor, and
-_vice versa_. It will thus be seen that the record gives a complete
-history of the movement and daily use of each car on the road.
-
-In case of stock and perishable freight, or freight concerning
-whose movements quick time is of the utmost importance, this
-record is kept not only by days but by hours; that is, the actual
-time of each movement is entered on the record. This is done by a
-simple system of signs, so that an exact account of the movement,
-giving date and hour of receipt and delivery, can be taken from the
-record. This is frequently of the greatest value.
-
-In addition to this, it is customary now for nearly all roads to
-exchange what are known as "junction cards." They are reports from
-one to another giving the numbers of all cars of each road passing
-junction stations. These junction reports when received are also
-carefully noted in the record, so that an account is kept in a
-measure of the movement of home cars while on foreign roads, and
-their daily location.
-
-It would be difficult, and beyond the scope of this article, to
-tell of the great variety of uses these records are put to. They
-serve as a check upon reports of the mileage clerks, insuring their
-accuracy. The junction reports serve also in a measure to check
-the reports of foreign roads. Then, at frequent intervals, a clerk
-will go over the record and note every car that is not shown to
-have moved within, say, five days, putting down on a "detention
-report" for each station the car number and date of its arrival.
-These reports are sent to the agents for explanation, and then
-submitted to the Superintendent. In a similar manner reports will
-be made showing any use locally of foreign cars. From the record
-can be shown almost at a glance the location of all idle cars,
-information that is often very valuable, and that when wanted is
-wanted promptly. Also, from the record, reports are constantly
-being made out--"tracers," as they are termed--showing the location
-and detention of home cars on foreign roads. In turn, foreign
-tracers are taken to the record, and the questions therein asked
-are readily answered by the Car Accountant.
-
-Whenever possible, the distribution of empty cars upon the line
-should be under the direct supervision of the Car Accountant.
-Where this matter is left to a clerk in the Superintendent's
-office, or, as has often been the case, is left to the discretion
-of yardmasters and agents, the utmost waste in the use of cars
-is inevitable. An agent at a local station will want a car for
-a particular shipment. If he has none at his station suitable
-he will ask some neighboring agent; failing there, he will ask
-the Superintendent's office, and frequently also the nearest
-yardmaster. Some other agent at a distant station may want the
-same kind of car; orders in this way become duplicated, and the
-road will not only have to haul twice the number of cars needed,
-but very often haul the same kind of cars empty in opposite
-directions at the same time. This is no uncommon occurrence even on
-well-managed roads, and, it is needless to say, is most expensive.
-
-Where the cars are distributed under the direct supervision of the
-Car Accountant, he has the record at hand constantly, and knows
-exactly where all cars are, and the sources of supply to meet every
-demand. Not only that, but every improper use of cars is at once
-brought to light and corrected.
-
-The _theory_ of the use of foreign cars is that they are permitted
-to run through to destination with through freight, on condition
-that they shall be promptly unloaded on arrival at destination;
-that they shall be returned at once to the home road, being loaded
-on the return trip if suitable loading is available; but by no
-means allowed to be used in local service, or loaded in any other
-direction than homeward.
-
-The _practice_ of many agents, and many roads, too, unfortunately,
-is hardly in keeping with this theory. Agents, especially if not
-closely watched, are prone to put freight into any car that is at
-hand, regardless of ownership, being urged to such course by the
-importunities of shippers and, at times, by the scarcity of cars.
-Frequently such irregularities are the result of pure carelessness,
-agents using foreign cars for local shipments, simply because they
-are on hand, rather than call for home cars which it may take
-some trouble and delay to procure. In this way at times a large
-amount of local business may be going on on one part of the road in
-foreign cars, while but a few miles distant the company's cars may
-be standing idle. The Car Accountant from his record can at once
-put a stop to this, and prevent its recurrence.
-
-[Illustration: Freight Pier, North River, New York.]
-
-Another valuable use to which the Car Accountant's Office may be
-put is to trace and keep a record of the movement of freight,
-locating delays, and tracing for freight lost or damaged. By a
-moderate use of the telegraph wire the Car Accountant can keep
-track of the movement of special freight-trains concerning which
-time is important, and so insure regularity and promptness in their
-despatch and delivery. From the mileage records may be obtained
-the work of each engine in freight service, the miles run, the
-number of loaded and empty cars hauled; and by considering two,
-or perhaps three, empty cars as equivalent to one loaded car, the
-average number of loaded cars hauled per mile is obtained. The
-information is often valuable, as on many roads the ability of a
-Superintendent is measured to a considerable extent by the amount
-of work performed by the engines at his command.
-
-In many other ways the resources of the Car Accountant's office
-will be found of the greatest value to the Superintendent. When the
-office is once fully organized and systematized, and all in good
-working order, the Superintendent will find that his capacity for
-control of his cars has been more than doubled, while the demands
-on his time for their care has been really lessened. He has all the
-information he needs supplied at his desk, far more accurate than
-any he was ever able to secure before, and in the most condensed
-form; while, at the same time, he will find his freight improving
-in time over his line, his agents will have cars more promptly
-and in greater abundance than ever, and last, and most gratifying
-of all, his monthly balance-sheets will show a steady decrease in
-the amount his road pays for foreign-car mileage, until probably
-the balance will be found in his favor, although his business and
-consequent tonnage may have increased meanwhile.
-
-
-III.
-
-USE AND ABUSE OF CARS.
-
-A package of merchandise can be transported from New York to
-Chicago in two days and three nights. This is repeated day after
-day with all the regularity of passenger service. So uniform is
-this movement, that shippers and consignees depend upon it and
-arrange their sales and stocks of goods in accordance therewith.
-Any deviation or irregularity brings forth instant complaint and
-a threatened withdrawal of patronage. This is true of hundreds
-of other places and lines of freight service. To accomplish it,
-there is necessary, first, a highly complicated and intricate
-organization, and, next, incessant watchfulness.
-
-[Illustration: Hay Storage Warehouses, New York Central & Hudson
-River Railroad, West Thirty-third Street, New York.]
-
-The shipper delivers the goods at the receiving freight-house
-of the railway company. His cartman gets a receipt from the
-tallyman. This receipt may be sent direct to the consignee, or
-more frequently is exchanged for a bill of lading. There the
-responsibility of the shipper ends. His goods are in the hands of
-the railway company, which to all intents and purposes guarantees
-their safe and prompt delivery to the consignee.
-
-The tallyman's receipt is taken in duplicate. The latter is kept
-in the freight-house until the freight is loaded in a car, and is
-then marked with the initials and number of the car into which the
-freight has been loaded. After that it is taken to the bill clerk
-in the office, and from it and others is made the waybill or bills
-for that particular car.
-
-Where the volume of freight received at a given station is large,
-it is customary to put all packages for a common destination, as
-far as possible, in a car by themselves, thus making what are
-termed "straight" cars. This is not always possible, however, or if
-attempted would lead to loading a very large number of cars with
-but light loads. So that it becomes necessary to group freight for
-contiguous stations in one car, and again often to put freight for
-widely distant cities in the same car. These latter are known as
-"mixed" cars.
-
-We will assume the day's receipt of freight finished, and most of
-the cars loaded. About 6 P.M. the house will be "pulled," that
-is, those cars already loaded will be taken away, and an empty
-"string" of cars put in their place. An hour later, this "string"
-will in turn be loaded and taken out, and the operation repeated,
-until all the day's receipt of freight is loaded. Meanwhile other
-freight will have been loaded direct from the shippers' carts on to
-cars on the receiving tracks. For all cars, there is made out in
-the freight-office a running slip or memorandum bill, which gives
-simply the car number, initials, and destination. These are given
-to the yardmaster or despatcher, and from them he "makes up" the
-trains.
-
-To a very great degree, the good movement of freight depends
-upon the vigilance of the yardmasters and the care with which
-they execute their duties. In an important terminal yard, the
-yardmaster may have at all times from one to two thousand cars,
-loaded and empty. He must know what each car contains, what is its
-destination, and on what track it is. To enable him to do this,
-he has one or more assistants, day and night. They, in turn, will
-have foremen in charge of yard crews, each of the latter having
-immediate charge of one engine. The number of engines employed will
-vary constantly with the volume of the freight handled, but it
-is safe to assume that there will be at all times nearly as many
-engines employed in shifting in the various yards and important
-stations on a line as there are road engines used in the movement
-of the freight traffic.
-
-The work of the yard goes on without intermission day and night,
-Sundays as well as week-days. The men there employed know no
-holidays, get no vacations. The loaded cars are coming from the
-freight-houses all day long, in greater numbers perhaps in the
-afternoon and evening, but the work of loading and moving cars
-goes on somewhere or other, at nearly all times. As often as the
-yardmaster gets together a sufficient number of cars for a common
-destination to make up a train, he gathers them together, orders a
-road engine and crew to be ready, and despatches them. In the make
-up of "through" trains, care has to be exercised to put together
-cars going to the same point, and to "group" the trains so that
-as little shifting as possible may be required at any succeeding
-yard or terminal, where the trains may pass. To accomplish this,
-a thorough knowledge of all the various routes is necessary, and
-minute acquaintance with the various intermediate junction yards
-and stations.
-
-The train once "made up" and in charge of the road crew, its
-progress for the next few hours is comparatively simple. It will
-go the length of the "run" at a rate of probably twenty miles per
-hour, subject only to the ordinary vicissitudes of the road. At
-the end of the division, if a through train, it will be promptly
-transferred to another road crew with another engine, and so on.
-Each conductor takes the running slip for each car in his train.
-He also makes a report, giving the cars in his train by numbers
-and initials, whether loaded or empty, how secured; and detailed
-information in regard to any car out of order, or any slight mishap
-or delay to his train. These reports go to the Car Accountant.
-The running slips stay with the cars, being transferred from hand
-to hand until the cars reach their destination. At junction yards
-where one road terminates and connects with one or more foreign
-roads, a complete record is kept, in a book prepared especially
-for the purpose, of every car received from and delivered to each
-connecting road. A copy of this information is sent daily to the
-Car Accountant.
-
-[Illustration: Freight Yards of the New York Central & Hudson River
-Railroad, West Sixty-fifth Street, New York.]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration: "Dummy" Train and Boy on Hudson Street, New York.]
-
-A road is expected to receive back from a connecting line any car
-that it has previously delivered loaded. It becomes very necessary
-to know just what cars have been so delivered. Without such a
-record a road is at the mercy of its connections, and may be forced
-to receive and move over its length empty foreign cars that it
-never had in its possession before, thus paying mileage and being
-at the expense of moving cars that brought it no revenue whatever.
-The junction records put a complete check on such errors, and by
-their use thousands of dollars are saved annually.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-To still more expedite the movement of through freight, very
-many so-called fast freight lines exist in this country, as, for
-example, the Traders' Despatch, the Star Union, the Merchants'
-Despatch Transportation Company, the Red, the White, the Blue, the
-National Despatch, etc. Some of these lines are simply co-operative
-lines, owned by the various railway companies whose roads are
-operated in connection with one another. Their organization is
-simple. A number of companies organize a line, which they put in
-charge of a general manager. Each company will assign to the line a
-number of cars, the quota of each being in proportion to its miles
-of road. The general manager has control of the line cars. He has
-agents who solicit business and employees who watch the movement
-of his line cars, and report the same to him. He keeps close
-record of his business, and reports promptly to the transportation
-officer of any road in his line any neglect or delinquency he may
-discover. The earnings of the line and its expenses are all divided
-_pro rata_ among the roads interested. Such a line is simply an
-organization to insure prompt service and secure competitive
-business, and the entire benefit goes to the railway companies.
-
-[Illustration: (Logo on a box-car)]
-
-Other lines are in the nature of corporations, being owned by
-stockholders and operating on a system of roads in accordance with
-some agreement or contract. Others, again, are organized for some
-special freight, and are owned wholly by firms or individuals, such
-as the various dressed-beef lines and some lines of live-stock
-cars. These are put in service simply for the mileage received for
-their use, and in many cases the railway companies have no interest
-in them whatever.
-
-The movement of "straight" cars and "solid" trains is comparatively
-simple. But there is a very large amount of through freight,
-particularly of merchandise, that cannot be put into a "straight"
-car. A shipper in New York can depend on his goods going in a
-straight car to St. Louis, Denver, St. Paul, etc., but he can
-hardly expect a straight car to any one of hundreds of intermediate
-cities and towns. Still less is it possible for a road at a small
-country-town, where there are perhaps but one or two factories, to
-load straight cars to any but a very few places. To overcome this
-difficulty, transfer freight-houses have to be provided. These are
-usually located at important terminal stations.
-
-[Illustration: Coal Car, Central Railroad of New Jersey.]
-
-To them are billed all mixed cars containing through freight. These
-cars are unloaded and reloaded, and out of a hundred "mixed" cars
-will be made probably eighty straight and the balance local. This
-necessarily causes some delay, but it is practically a gain in time
-in the end, as otherwise every car would have to be reloaded, and
-held at every station for which it contained freight.
-
-[Illustration: (Logo on a box-car)]
-
-The variety of articles that is offered to a railway company for
-transportation is endless. Articles of all sizes and weights are
-carried, from shoe-pegs by the carload to a single casting that
-weighs thirty tons. The values also vary as widely. Some cars will
-carry kindling wood or refuse stone that is worth barely the cost
-of loading and carrying a few miles, while others will be loaded
-with teas, silks, or merchandise, where perhaps the value of a
-single carload will exceed twenty-five or thirty thousand dollars.
-The great bulk of all freight is carried in the ordinary box-cars,
-coal in cars especially planned for it, and coarse lumber and stone
-on flat or platform cars. But very many cases arise that require
-especial provision to be made for each. Chicago dressed beef has
-made the use of the refrigerator cars well known. These cars are
-also used for carrying fruit and provisions. They are of many
-kinds, built under various patents, but all with a common purpose;
-that is, to produce a car wherein the temperature can be maintained
-uniformly at about 40 degrees. On the other hand, potatoes in
-bulk are brought in great quantities to the Eastern seaboard in
-box-cars, fitted with an additional or false lining of boards, and
-in the centre an ordinary stove in which fire is kept up during the
-time the potatoes are in transit.
-
-An improvement on this plan is afforded by the use of cars known
-as the Eastman Heater Cars. They are provided with an automatic
-self-feeding oil-stove, so arranged that fire can be kept up under
-the car for about a fortnight without attention. These are largely
-used in the fruit trade.
-
-[Illustration: Unloading a Train of Truck-wagons, Long Island
-Railroad.]
-
-For carrying milk, special cars have to be provided, as particular
-attention has to be given to the matter of ventilation in
-connection with a small amount of cooling for the proper carrying
-of the milk. Not only the cars but the train service has to be
-especially arranged for in particular cases.
-
-[Illustration: Freight from all Quarters--Some Typical Trains.]
-
-As an instance, the Long Island Railroad Company makes a specialty
-of transporting farmers' truck-wagons to market. For this purpose
-they have provided long, low, flat cars, each capable of carrying
-four truck-wagons. The horses are carried in box-cars, and one
-farmer or driver is carried with each team, a coach being provided
-for their use. During the fall of the year, they frequently carry
-from 45 to 50 wagons on one train, charging a small sum for each
-wagon, and nothing for the horses or men. These trains run three
-times weekly, and are arranged so as to arrive in the city about
-midnight, returning the next day at noon. The trains by themselves
-are not very remunerative, but by furnishing this accommodation,
-farmers who are thirty or forty miles out on Long Island can have
-just as good an opportunity for market-gardening as those who live
-within driving distance of the city. This builds up the country
-farther out on the island, which in turn gives the road other
-business.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-The movement of freight is not always successfully accomplished. In
-spite of good organization, every facility, incessant watchfulness,
-accidents will occur, freight will be delayed, cars will break
-down, trains will meet with disaster. The consequences sometimes
-fall heavily on the railway companies. The loss is frequently out
-of all proportion to the revenue. The following instance is from
-the writers own experience:
-
-Some carpenters repairing a small low trestle left chips and
-shavings near one of the bents. A passing train dropped some
-ashes. The shavings caught fire and burnt one or two posts in one
-bent. The section-men failed to notice the fire. Toward evening a
-freight train came to the trestle, the burnt bent gave way, and
-the train was derailed. Two men were killed, one severely injured,
-and eighteen freight cars were burned. The resulting loss to the
-railroad company was $56,113. Of this amount, the loss paid on
-freight was $39,613.12. As a matter of interest, and to show the
-disparity between the value of the commodities and the earnings
-from freight charges received by the railway company, the amount of
-each is given here in detail, taken from the actual records of the
-case:
-
-  ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------
-       Property destroyed.      | Amount paid by  |Freight charges on
-                                |railroad company.|    the same.
-  ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------
-  Butter, 200 pounds at 35 cents|      $70.00     |      $0.50
-  Ore, 75.9 tons at $3.50       |      265.80     |      56.91
-  Paper, 4,600 pounds           |      269.10     |       8.74
-  Pulp, 10,400 pounds           |      160.00     |      12.65
-  Shingles, 85 M                |      192.50     |      11.00
-  Horsenails                    |    2,986.06     |      37.44
-  Lumber                        |      252.00     |      18.40
-  Apples, 159 barrels           |      508.80     |      15.26
-  Hops, 209 bales, 37,014 pounds|   34,908.86     |      59.22
-  ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------
-                                |  $39,613.12     |    $220.12
-  ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------
-
-This was during the fall of 1882, when hops sold in New York for
-over $1 per pound.
-
-The plan of payment for car service by the mile run,
-without reference to time, has the merit of simplicity and
-long-established usage. It is, however, in reality, crude and
-unscientific, and has brought with it, in its train, numerous
-disadvantages.
-
-The owner of a car is entitled, first, to the proper interest
-in his investment, that is, on the value of the car; second, to
-a proper amount for wear and tear or for repairs. The life of a
-freight car may be reasonably estimated at ten years, so that ten
-per cent. on its value would be a fair interest-charge. The average
-amount for repairs varies directly as to the distance the car
-moves, and may be put at one-half cent per mile run.
-
-It will be seen that by the ordinary method of payment the
-car-owner is compensated for interest at the rate of ¼ of a cent
-for the time that the car is in motion, but receives nothing for
-all the time the car is at rest. If cars could be kept in motion
-for any considerable portion of each twenty-four hours, this would
-prove ample. But in practice it is found that few roads succeed
-in getting an average movement of all cars for more than one
-hour and a half in each twenty-four. This gives about five per
-cent. interest on the value of the car, only one-half of what is
-generally conceded to be a fair return. Still further, there is no
-inducement to the road on which a foreign car is standing to hasten
-its return home. On the contrary, there is a direct advantage in
-holding the car idle until a proper load can be found for it,
-rather than return it home empty. The most serious abuses of the
-freight business of the country have grown from this state of
-affairs. It costs nothing but the use of the track to hold freight
-in cars; consequently freight is held in cars instead of being put
-in storehouses, frequently for weeks and months at a time.
-
-There is but little earnest attempt made to urge consignees to
-remove freight; on the contrary, the consignees consider that
-they can leave their freight as long as they choose, and that the
-railroad companies are bound to hold it indefinitely.
-
-One special practice has grown up as a result of this condition,
-that of shippers sending freight to distant points to their own
-order. This practice is most prolific of detention to cars, and yet
-is so strongly rooted in the traffic arrangements of the country
-that it is most difficult to put an end to it. Cars "to order" will
-frequently stand for weeks before the contents are sold and the
-consignee is discovered, during which time the cars accumulate,
-stand in the way, occupy valuable space, and have to be handled
-repeatedly by the transportation department of the road, all at the
-direct cost of handling to the road itself, and loss of interest to
-the owner of the car.
-
-[Illustration: Floating Cars, New York Harbor.]
-
-Only two methods have so far been suggested to abate or put an end
-to the evils which have been but slightly indicated above. The
-first is a change in the method of payment for car service to a
-compensation based upon time as well as mileage, which is commonly
-known as the "per diem plan."
-
-This plan consists in paying for the use of all foreign cars a
-fixed sum per mile run, based on the supposed cost of repairs of
-the car, and a price per day based upon what is estimated to be a
-fair return for the interest on its value. This plan was originally
-suggested by a convention of car accountants, and was brought
-up and advocated by Mr. Fink, the Chairman of the Trunk Line
-Commission, in New York, in the fall of 1887. At his suggestion,
-and largely through his influence, it was tried by a few of the
-roads (the Trunk Lines and some of their immediate connections)
-during the early part of the year 1888; the amounts as then fixed
-being one-half cent per mile run, and fifteen cents per day. The
-results of this experiment, while they were quite satisfactory
-to the friends of the proposed change, yet were not sufficiently
-conclusive to demonstrate the value of the plan to those who were
-indifferent or hostile to it.
-
-For various reasons, chiefly local to the roads in question, the
-plan was discontinued after a few months' trial. The experiment
-resulted, however, in the collection of a large mass of statistics
-and other data, the study of which has led many to believe that
-the plan is the proper solution of the difficulties experienced,
-and, if adjusted so as not to add too much to the burden of those
-railway companies who are borrowers of cars, that it would meet
-with the approval of the railway companies throughout the country.
-It certainly provided a strong inducement to all roads to promptly
-handle foreign cars, and in that particular it proved a great
-advance over the existing methods of car service. The charge per
-day of fifteen cents was found too high in practice. Ten cents
-per day and a half-cent per mile would produce a net sum to the
-car-owner very slightly in excess of three-fourths of a cent per
-mile run. While this appears but small, yet it would be quite
-sufficient to amount in the aggregate to a considerable sum, and
-would serve to urge all railway companies to promptly unload and
-send home foreign cars. This plan would result, if generally
-adopted, in largely increasing the daily movement or mileage of all
-cars, or, what would be equivalent, would practically amount to a
-very considerable increase in the equipment of the country.
-
-The plan has recently been approved by the General Time Convention,
-and there is strong probability that it will be very extensively
-adopted and given a trial by all the railways during the year 1890.
-
-The second method of remedying the existing evils of car service
-is in a uniform and regular charge for demurrage, or car rental,
-to be collected by all railroad companies with the same regularity
-and uniformity that they now collect freight charges. This car
-rental, or demurrage charge, would not be in any sense a revenue
-to the car-owner; the idea of it being that it is a rental to the
-delivering company, not only for the use of the car but for the
-track on which it stands, and the inconvenience and actual cost
-that the company is put to in repeated handling a car that is held
-awaiting the pleasure of the consignee to unload. The difficulty
-in the way of making such a charge has been the unwillingness of
-any railroad company to put any obstacle in the way of the free
-movement of freight to its line, and the fear that an equivalent
-charge would not be made by some one of its competitors. Of late,
-however, the serious disadvantages resulting from the privileges
-given to consignees at competing points, by allowing them to hold
-cars indefinitely, have led the different railway companies to come
-together and agree upon a uniform system of demurrage charges at
-certain competing points.
-
-If these two plans could be put into operation simultaneously, a
-fair and uniform method of charging demurrage, coupled with the per
-diem and mileage plan for car service, the results would be most
-satisfactory not only to the railway companies and car-owners, but
-also to the community.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-The matter of freight transportation is a vast one, and whole
-chapters might be written on any one of the various topics that
-have been but slightly mentioned in this sketch.
-
-The subject is fraught with difficulties; new complications arise
-daily which, each in its turn, have to be met and mastered. The
-publicity recently given to the various phases of the railway
-problem has done much to enlighten the public mind in regard to
-these difficulties.
-
-The result has already been evident in the growing spirit of mutual
-forbearance and good-will between the railway companies and the
-public. Let us hope that this will continue, and that as time goes
-on their relations will steadily improve, so that the public, while
-yielding nothing of their legitimate demand for safe, prompt, and
-convenient service, will at the same time see that this can only
-be secured by allowing the railways a fair return for the services
-rendered; while the railways will learn that their true interest
-lies in the best service possible at moderate, uniform rates.
-
-FOOTNOTE:
-
-[27] EXPLANATION. Each connecting road at each junction station is
-assigned a number, and when a car is received from a connection
-the record is shown by entering the road number in the upper space
-of the block under the proper date, followed by the character ×
-if loaded; or, if empty, together with the time, as for example:
-Car 29421 is shown as received, Dec. 2d, from the Amherst &
-Lincoln Ry. at Port Chester (10), loaded (×), at 21 o'clock, or 9
-P.M. A similar entry in the lower space of the block indicates a
-_delivery_ to connecting line. The middle space of the block is
-used for the car movement, the first number or letter showing the
-station from which the car moved. The character × as a prefix to
-a station number indicates that the car is being loaded at that
-station. The --, when used as a prefix, shows that the car is being
-unloaded; as an _affix_ it indicates a movement empty, or on hand
-empty. When the -- is used _under_ a station number it indicates
-a change date record, that is, leaving a station on one date and
-arriving at another on the following date. Station numbers or
-letters without other characters show that the car is loaded.
-
-The sign (B) is used when a car is left at a station for repairs,
-while in transit. The sign (T) denotes that the lading was
-transferred to another car, a transfer record being kept showing
-to what car transferred; the sign (R), when a car is on hand at a
-station or yard for repairs. Shops are assigned numbers with an O
-prefix; the upper and lower spaces being used to show delivery to,
-or receipt from the shop, similar to the interchange record.
-
-For convenience the twenty-four hour system is used for recording
-time, and is shown in quarter-hours; thus, 10, 12^1, 18^2, 21^3,
-representing 10 A.M., 12.15 P.M., 6.30 P.M., and 9.45 P.M. This,
-used in the movement record, shows the running time on each
-division, or detention at train terminals.
-
-The "transfer" column shows the station at which the car was
-reported on the last day of the previous month, and the _arriving
-date_; also from what road received, with date.
-
-
-
-
-HOW TO FEED A RAILWAY.
-
-BY BENJAMIN NORTON.
-
-  The Many Necessities of a Modern Railway--The Purchasing and
-  Supply Departments--Comparison with the Commissary Department of
-  an Army--Financial Importance--Immense Expenditures--The General
-  Storehouse--Duties of the Purchasing Agent--The Best Material the
-  Cheapest--Profits from the Scrap-heap--Old Rails Worked over into
-  New Implements--Yearly Contracts for Staple Articles--Economy
-  in Fuel--Tests by the Best Engineers and Firemen--The
-  Stationery Supply--Aggregate Annual Cost of Envelopes, Tickets,
-  and Time-tables--The Average Life of Rails--Durability of
-  Cross-ties--What it Costs per Mile to Run an Engine--The
-  Paymaster's Duties--Scenes during the Trip of a Pay-car.
-
-
-The commissary or supply department of a railroad is not unlike
-that of a large army. Like a vast army, its necessities are many,
-and the various departments which make up the whole system must be
-provided with their necessary requirements in order to accomplish
-the end for which it is operated.
-
-If, again, we regard a railroad as a huge animal, the quantity
-of supplies needed to fill its capacious maw is something
-overwhelming. It is always hungry, and the daily bill of fare
-(which includes pretty much everything known to trade) is gone
-through with an appetite as vigorous and healthy at the end as
-it exhibits in the beginning. Yet how few there are who realize
-the important part this one feature plays in the operation of
-the thousands of miles of railroad throughout the world! Upon
-the proper conduct of this department depends very largely the
-success of any road, so far as its relation to the stockholders
-is concerned; for while, as has been the case in the past,
-combinations and pools have aided in maintaining rates, and have
-served to increase the income, and attention has been paid to
-securing additional business in every possible way, the "out-goes"
-have often been overlooked, to the detriment of dividends and the
-general welfare of the property.
-
-The supplies must be furnished in any event, in order that the
-various departments may perform their allotted duties--coal for
-the engines, stationery for the clerks, ties and rails for the
-tracks, oils for the lubrication of the thousands of axles daily
-turning, passage-tickets for the travellers, and a thousand and one
-things which are absolutely necessary for the safe and efficient
-conduct of every railroad in active operation. Each item serves its
-purpose, and, properly assimilated, keeps alive all the functions
-of one vast and complicated system. It is easy to see, then, the
-importance, first, of proper economy in buying, and then a correct
-and systematic distribution of all supplies. On the Philadelphia &
-Reading Railroad, for instance, the annual supply bills aggregate
-more than $3,000,000, covering such supplies as those just
-mentioned, and, in fact, everything which is purchased and used in
-the operation of the road; so that on a large system like that,
-the commissary department requires no end of detail, both in the
-purchase and the distribution of all material.
-
-The expenditure for lubricating oils, waste, and greases alone
-amounts to more than $150,000 per annum, while the outlay for fuel
-represents about $1,200,000, and this is comparatively a small
-sum, since that road is a coal road, so called, and the cost for
-fuel, as a matter of course, is reduced to a minimum. There the
-store-room system, which has now been pretty generally adopted by
-many of the larger roads, is fully exemplified. With a General
-Store-keeper in charge, all supplies purchased are accounted for
-through him, and distributions are made daily among the sub-store
-rooms, which are located at convenient points; and they in turn
-distribute among the various departments, for consumption, all
-accounting daily to the General Store-keeper at Reading.
-
-To give an idea as to the quantity of material required in the
-service on such a road, it may be stated that from twelve to
-fifteen car-loads of supplies per day are shipped to various
-points. When we consider that an ordinary car will carry from
-fifteen to twenty tons of freight, we find that the annual
-requirements will average about four thousand car-loads, or, say,
-about fifty thousand tons, and if all the cars were made up into
-one solid train they would occupy fully twenty-five miles of
-track, and consume an hour and a half passing a given point running
-at the ordinary speed of freight-trains.
-
-To account carefully for all this requires necessarily a large
-army of clerks and other assistants, though, with the fundamental
-principles correct, it is no more difficult to account for large
-quantities than for small. The supplies are purchased in the first
-instance, delivered at the General Storehouse, are there weighed or
-measured and receipted for, are then distributed on requisition,
-and finally delivered to the several departments when needed; are
-charged out to the various accounts, after consumption, and all
-returns and records are finally kept on the books of the General
-Store-keeper.
-
-It would be a large army indeed which would require so much for
-its maintenance; and, remembering the hundreds of roads, small and
-large, throughout the country, the measure of one's comprehension
-is nearly reached in estimating the amount of money and the
-thousands of tons of material represented.
-
-If the buyer of railroad stocks for investment, besides looking
-into the returns of freight and passenger business for his
-decision, would investigate carefully the method adopted for the
-purchase and distribution of supplies on any road in which he may
-be interested, he might get information enough to satisfy himself
-that a large portion of the earnings were dribbling out through
-this department, and that, as a result, his stock might eventually
-cease to be a dividend payer.
-
-In the matter of buying, the result depends entirely upon the
-purchasing agent, and this position must necessarily be occupied
-by a man of honor and integrity, coupled with a reasonable amount
-of shrewdness and aptitude for such business. As this department
-covers to a greater or less degree pretty much all the known
-branches of trade, the buyer cannot, under ordinary circumstances,
-thoroughly master the whole field as an expert; but he can
-nevertheless inform himself in the most important articles of
-manufacture to the extent of preventing deception or fraud. The
-field is extensive, and the sooner railroad companies realize that
-the purchasing agent is not a mere order clerk, the sooner they
-will discover that their disbursements for supplies are very much
-less, and that the chief part of the leakage has found its source
-in this very department.
-
-Exactly the same principles are involved in this matter as in the
-case of a thrifty proprietor of a country-store, whose profits each
-year depend materially upon the closeness and care with which his
-stock in trade is purchased from the wholesale dealers in a large
-city. A purchasing agent's experience is varied in the extreme,
-dealing as he does with all classes of salesmen and business
-houses. There is no end to the operations which skilful salesmen
-go through in offering their stock; but after some experience a
-sharp buyer will be able to fortify himself against the best of
-them--even against the clever vender of varnishes who disposed of
-one hundred barrels of his wares in small lots to different buyers,
-on a sample of maple-sirup. On the other hand, a salesman who,
-when a buyer asked him if his oil gummed, replied that "it gummed
-beautifully," lost the chance of ever selling any goods in that
-quarter.
-
-As has been said, the ordinary or general supplies consumed in the
-operation of the average railroad include almost everything known
-to trade. Tobacco, for the gratification of the taste of a gang
-of men out on the road with the snow-plough, is not outside the
-list; and even pianos, for some trains (since the days of absolute
-comfort and possible extravagance have begun) for the benefit of
-passengers setting out on long journeys; nor do we lose sight of
-books, bath-tubs, and barbers. The practical feature involved,
-however, calls for an endless variety of expensive as well as
-inexpensive materials.
-
-It is a safe rule to follow that anything which goes into the
-construction either of track, equipment, or buildings, should be
-the best. Care should always be exercised against the use of any
-material the failure of which might be the cause of loss of life,
-and consequently result in heavy damages to the company. Iron alone
-enters so extensively into railroad construction and operation
-that it is safe to say three-fourths of all manufactured in this
-country is consumed directly or indirectly in this way; and besides
-its use in rails and fastenings (the latter including spikes,
-fish-plates, and bolts and nuts), and in the many thousand tons of
-car-wheels and axles annually required, there must be reckoned the
-almost unlimited number of castings daily required in the way of
-brake-shoes, pedestals, draw-heads, grate-bars, etc. The lumber and
-timber for buildings, bridges, platforms, and crossings, and the
-large quantity of glass which is necessary, are among other large
-items of expenditure.
-
-Lubricating and illuminating oils, paints and varnishes, soaps,
-chalk, bunting, hardware, lamps, cotton and woollen waste, clocks,
-brooms, and such metals as copper, pig tin, and antimony are only a
-few of the many articles of diet which a railroad requires to keep
-body and soul together, and give it strength to perform the great
-duty it owes to commerce and the public. After they have all served
-their purposes, such as cannot be worked over again in the shops,
-and are not entirely consumed, are consigned to the scrap-heap
-under the head of "old material"--an all-important consideration in
-the economical management of any road. On many roads very little
-attention is paid to the sale of scrap. As a general rule, the
-purchasing agent has charge of it, and if he shows any shrewdness
-in buying, he will exercise more or less ingenuity in selling. Most
-railroad scrap has a fixed value in the market. Quotations for old
-rails, car-wheels, and wrought iron are found in all the trade
-journals; but as in buying one can usually buy of someone at prices
-less than market price, so in selling he can often find a buyer who
-is willing to pay more than the regular quotation. As it is found
-not wise in the long run to purchase ahead on some prospective
-rise, so in selling it is equally true that holding scrap over upon
-the possibility of a rise in prices is not always for the best
-advantage.
-
-There has always been a demand for old iron rails, and recently
-use for old steel rails has been found. They are worked over at
-the rolling mills into crowbars and shovels, spikes, fish-plates,
-bolts, and other necessary things to be employed in construction
-and maintenance. Not long since an experiment with old steel rails
-was successfully performed, whereby they were melted and poured
-into moulds for use as brake-shoes. The result showed a casting
-of unusual hardness which would outwear three ordinary cast-iron
-shoes. This opens up an entirely new field in railroad economy,
-for with ordinary foundry appliances accumulations of old steel
-rails can be worked over and cast into all sorts of shapes and
-patterns to better advantage than selling them at a nominal price
-to outside buyers. While worn-out car-wheels will generally bring
-more money from wheel manufacturers than they command in the open
-market, it has not always been found the best policy to compel the
-mill from which the new wheels are purchased to take too many of
-them. It is apt to encourage the use of too much old material in
-the manufacture of the new; and while the company may consider that
-it is realizing much more money on sales of the old wheels than
-the market price, it does not take into account the inferior stock
-it is getting back, or the fact that possibly when the mileage
-is reckoned the wheels have signally failed to run as long as
-they ought. In the aggregate about ten per cent. of the original
-cost of all supplies purchased is realized out of the sales of
-old material. From cast-iron wheels and old rails, however, the
-percentage is much larger, for while at present new passenger
-car-wheels of this class, weighing about five hundred and fifty
-pounds, are worth about ten dollars each, they will bring in the
-market, when worn out after running say fifty thousand miles, about
-twenty dollars per ton. Four wheels go to the ton, which represents
-five dollars per wheel, or fifty per cent. of the original cost.
-With old rails the percentage is even higher, in the present
-condition of the rail market. Old iron rails are worth within four
-or five dollars of the price of new steel, and the old steel about
-seventy per cent. of the price of the new. These high percentages
-assist in making up for the materials which are entirely consumed
-in the service, and which never form a part of the ordinary
-scrap-heap, such as oils, waste, and paints.
-
-While the majority of general supplies just mentioned briefly may
-be arranged for as required and purchased from month to month upon
-regular requisitions, there are certain staple articles which are
-provided for in advance by contract. Among them principally are
-the engine-coal, rails and ties, stationery, passage-tickets, and
-time-tables. More money is expended for such supplies than for any
-others, and contracts with responsible business houses, for their
-delivery at fixed prices for the limit of at least a year, are
-generally made to insure, in the first place, the lowest market
-rates and, again, to make the delivery certain.
-
-Locomotive fuel is the largest single item of expense in the
-operation of any road, the consumption of it running up as high as
-a million tons per annum on some large roads; and while there are
-a few exceptional cases where wood is used as fuel, coal is the
-necessary element in nearly every case in America to-day.
-
-Of the two general varieties--bituminous or soft, and anthracite
-or hard--it is safe to say that bituminous coal is the more
-economical, assuming that the grade employed is the best, this
-economy lying both in the original cost and the fact that the bulk
-of it goes to serve its purpose, there being comparatively little
-waste in the way of ashes; while the anthracite produces many ashes
-and clinkers, requires much more care and attention on the part of
-the stoker or fireman, and costs, as a general rule, about thirty
-per cent. more. Economy, however, should not be carried too far in
-any branch of the service, and if the passenger traffic be heavy
-the use of soft coal may be a great detriment. To a traveller
-there can be nothing more disagreeable than the smoke and cinders
-emanating from it; and if, besides this, the road be an especially
-dusty one, the combination of dust, smoke, and cinders will be
-quite sufficient to turn the tide of travel in some other direction
-and over another route.
-
-For freight service bituminous coal is decidedly the best, and
-perhaps might not be out of place on short local passenger trains;
-but the company that provides hard-coal-burning engines for
-passenger trains, and soft-coal burners for freight, does about
-the right thing, and economizes as far as practicable in this
-particular. In making contracts for this important commodity the
-necessity of careful tests in advance is very apparent, and such
-trials are generally left with the best engineers and firemen;
-otherwise it might be difficult to get at all the qualifications.
-On some roads inducements offered to firemen have brought the
-consumption of fuel down to the most economical point, and it is
-surprising how much depends upon their good judgment in this matter.
-
-Now that heating cars direct from the engines is coming into
-general use, and State legislatures have given the subject their
-consideration, the consumption of the domestic sizes of coal as
-fuel in cars is growing less; but this, too, is still a very
-important matter.
-
-Stationery is not only a very significant item, but also an
-expensive one. This includes all the forms and blanks used in
-the conduct of the freight and passenger business, and there is
-an endless variety of them--the inks, pens, pencils, mucilage,
-sealing-wax, and envelopes, besides many other odds and ends.
-Perhaps the envelopes represent one of the largest single items of
-expense in this line. The hundreds of thousands of them used in
-the course of a year, even at low prices, mean an outlay of many
-thousands of dollars. Agents must send in daily reports, there
-must be covers for all the correspondence passing between the
-different departments, while the daily average amount of outside
-correspondence is very considerable. It is surprising how many
-dollars might be saved in this direction, not only by a judicious
-contract, but by a careful use of the supply.
-
-When a railroad company takes up the question of time-tables, it
-has a matter of importance to handle which on many roads receives
-very little consideration. When the passenger traffic is heavy, the
-number of travellers during the year running into the millions,
-the demand for time-tables is very large. This refers directly to
-the time-table sheets or folders, which every company must keep
-on hand at its stations, and in other public places and hotels,
-for the convenience of the traveller, in addition to the printed
-schedules which are framed and hung up conspicuously on the walls
-of its waiting-rooms. A neat and attractive folder for general
-circulation is very desirable, particularly if competition is very
-strong. There is more virtue in a neatly made up schedule of trains
-than one would suppose. One in doubt is apt to reason that the road
-is kept up in a corresponding condition, and that the trains are
-made up on the same plan, and consequently would prefer to go by
-that route rather than by one whose trains were advertised on cheap
-leaflets.
-
-Fifteen thousand to twenty thousand dollars per annum for envelopes
-alone is spent on some roads, and twice as much more perhaps for
-time-tables.
-
-Passage-tickets, including all varieties of regular and special
-tickets, such as mileage books or coupons, family trip-books,
-and school-tickets are also an item of large expense, the annual
-consumption covering many tons, which once used are of no value
-save as waste paper; yet they are absolutely indispensable in
-the operation of the road. Yearly contracts for these are made,
-and while the actual cost of a single ticket may not exceed _one
-mill_, the aggregate on a road carrying fifteen millions to twenty
-millions or more passengers per annum is considerable.
-
-To induce the public to travel, and encourage shippers to send
-their freight to market over any road, attention must first be paid
-to the condition of the track and rolling stock.
-
-It is not economy to allow anything to be out of repair, on
-the supposition that it is less expensive than it would be to
-spend comparatively little from day to day to keep it up. The
-day of reckoning will come in the end, and the sacrifice will
-be considerable. As the track is the fundamental feature, the
-cross-ties or sleepers and rails should be the best. Iron rails are
-practically out of date, and it is fair to assume that the time
-is approaching when wooden ties will be things of the past. Where
-the traffic is light, heavy steel rails may not be necessary; but
-it has been generally found economical to put in use rails which
-do not weigh less than sixty-seven or seventy pounds to the yard;
-an even greater weight than this is not ill-advised--they require
-fewer cross-ties to the mile, and in consequence the force of men
-required to keep the track in condition is less. Light rails are
-soon worn and battered out on a road over which heavy engines are
-run and large trains are hauled. The powerful locomotives now built
-require a well-kept track and a solid and substantial road-bed.
-Heavier and faster trains have tended to reduce the average life of
-rails, even though the weight of the rails has also been steadily
-increasing. Circumstances vary on the different roads, but it is
-safe to say that eight to ten per cent. of all rails in the track
-must be renewed every year. This brings the average life of the
-steel rails down to about twelve years, under ordinary conditions.
-On some divisions, however, where the traffic is frequent, and in
-yards where a good deal of switching is done, and the rails are
-under pressure constantly, the average is, of course, very much
-less--even as low as two or three years.
-
-Aside from the durability of the timber employed, plenty of face
-for the rail bearings, and uniform thickness and length, are
-very important requirements in contracts for ties. While white
-oak is generally considered the most durable for this purpose,
-the growth of this timber is limited except in certain sections
-of the country, so that cedar, cypress, chestnut, and yellow
-pine are more commonly used than any other class. The millions
-of them used for renewals and new roads each year are gradually
-reducing our forests; and, like some of the European roads, we
-shall some day fall back upon metal, which (while its life may not
-be measured) will make so rigid a track that the traveller over
-long distances will be worn out with his journey, and the rolling
-stock will require frequent repairs and overhauling. The practice
-of creosoting cross-ties is growing rapidly, and this tends to
-increase their durability three or four times. While the first
-cost of such ties may be double that for the unprepared timbers,
-the result in the end is economical, for the labor alone required
-to take out an old tie and put in a new one costs at least twelve
-cents.
-
-The general store-room is properly the intermediate stage, so far
-as supplies are concerned, between the different departments of
-the road and the Auditor, who charges up all material used to the
-different accounts into which his system is divided. Properly,
-everything in the nature of material, however small, directly or
-indirectly passes through the Store-keeper's books. An account is
-kept with each locomotive, station agent, switchman, and flagman,
-so that to a penny everything consumed in the operation of a road
-is accurately known. To accomplish this the Store-keeper, of
-course, must be a good accountant, and at the same time be more
-or less of an expert in railroad material. Under an economical
-administration of his affairs he is able to save a great deal of
-money for his company. By his system, with the aid of data from
-the mechanical department, he can tell the average number of miles
-run during the year to a pint of oil or a ton of coal; the number
-of pounds of coal consumed per mile run, as well as the number of
-pints of oil for the same distance. He can give in detail the cost
-in cents per mile run for all the oil, tallow, and waste, fuel,
-and other supplies consumed, and can account to a nicety for all
-the lanterns, brooms, hardware, and other material which he has
-received and distributed.
-
-The following statement of averages represents fairly what it costs
-to run a locomotive under ordinary conditions:
-
-
-_Averages._
-
-  Number of miles run to pint of oil         15.32
-  Number of miles run to ton of coal         46.17
-  Number of pounds of coal per mile run      48.62
-  Number of pints of oil per mile run         0.06
-
-
-_Cost in Cents per Mile Run._
-
-                                             Cents.
-  For oil, tallow, and waste                  0.32
-  For fuel                                    7.42
-  For engineers                               3.60
-  For firemen                                 1.79
-  For wipers and watchmen                     1.25
-  For water supply                            0.49
-  For supplies (miscellaneous)                0.10
-  For repairs                                 2.40
-                                             -----
-        Total                                17.37
-
-He will find that some engineers and firemen are more extravagant
-than others, and that some station agents and flagmen do not
-perform their respective duties with near so much regard for
-economy as others do under exactly similar circumstances. In such
-cases a report is made and a reminder from the Superintendent
-follows, calling attention to such carelessness. The result is
-apparent at the next monthly comparison.
-
-Prompt payment of all supply bills helps to insure economy, and any
-company unable to make its payments promptly and regularly, suffers
-to a greater or less extent always; for a firm not able to know
-whether its accounts are to be settled in thirty or ninety days
-cannot afford to allow all the discounts which it otherwise might,
-and this may mean an extra expense every year of many thousands of
-dollars.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-So far as the employees are concerned, it is for the best interests
-of the company to have a fixed time for the pay-day. They need
-their money and should get it regularly. Any road on which the men
-are paid at uncertain times may be subject to incalculable losses.
-It is apt to provoke dishonesty and carelessness. The road which
-is bankrupt and forced to pass its pay-day to some indefinite time
-is always hampered by some of the most inferior class of servants
-in the market. Except in some instances where special laws have
-been passed requiring railroad companies to meet their pay-rolls
-oftener, once each month is generally recognized as pay-time, and
-on large roads it would be simply out of the question for the
-pay-rolls to be made up correctly and the men paid off sooner.
-The paymaster is the wage-distributing medium, and by virtue of
-his generosity will command as much respect as the President of
-the road. No officer's face is more familiar than his, and surely
-no one connected with the institution is looked for with more
-eagerness by the hard-working employees. It is no easy task he has
-to perform, and the responsibility for the millions of dollars
-paid out in this way annually is very great. This responsibility,
-however, has been very much reduced on some roads, where wages
-are paid by checks entirely. Under some circumstances this system
-will not work satisfactorily, especially on a road running through
-a sparsely settled country. The employees may have to stand a
-good round discount to some store-keeper or tradesman in order
-to secure their money. The best and most satisfactory return for
-services can be nothing less than solid cash; it encourages better
-attention to business and relieves the men from possible annoyance
-and inconvenience. The Paymaster's car, which is virtually a
-moving bank or cashier's office, and arranged conveniently for the
-payment of money to the men as they pass through, is generally
-run "special," upon notice in advance to all foremen or heads of
-departments, either by telegraph or, as on some roads, by the
-display of special signal flags, which are carried on the front
-end of the locomotive of some regular train the day before the car
-is run over any division. In this way all men employed along the
-line of the road, whether at or between stations, are notified of
-the Paymaster's coming, and it does not usually require any other
-inducement than this to bring them all out. There is nothing that
-will prompt them to jump higher and run faster than the whistle of
-the pay-train as it comes around the curve to the station. Men have
-been known to forget their names, and do other foolish things under
-the excitement of drawing their month's pay. The fellow who said
-he could not write all his name when requested by the Paymaster to
-sign the pay-roll, but offered to write as much of it as he could,
-after some deliberation made a cross on the sheet with all the care
-and nicety he could muster. Others who could not write have been
-very slow to admit it, and have pleaded haste as an excuse for
-not doing so. So far as Italians are concerned (and what railroad
-service is now complete without its gang of Italian laborers?),
-they are usually designated by numbers, and in some cases their
-foremen have thought it well to name them after prominent statesmen
-or other public men, or possibly some of the head officials of the
-company. To run across twenty-five or thirty Daniel Websters on
-the same road is not surprising, and the President of the company
-himself is liable to have a half-dozen namesakes throughout the
-different divisions of his road. A cage of jabbering monkeys is
-not a more amusing spectacle than some gangs of Italian laborers
-receiving their month's pay.
-
-The pay-department can be made very systematic, and to promote
-economy and accuracy it is absolutely necessary that it should
-be. The Paymaster is not simply a medium through whom wages are
-distributed. He may be one of the most important officers of his
-company, and ferret out frauds and dishonesty which otherwise might
-never be discovered. He knows all the men, and they, of course,
-know him. In fact, he is the only one connected with the road whose
-recognition among all the employees is absolutely certain.
-
-Some idea of the enormous amount of money earned annually by the
-railroad men in this country may be formed from the statement that
-it requires about $1,000,000 per month to pay twenty thousand
-men, and there are a good many roads on which the average monthly
-pay-roll embraces from fifteen thousand to twenty thousand names;
-in some cases even more.
-
-When the pay-rolls are all turned over to the Paymaster,
-properly approved by each head of department, he notifies the
-Superintendent or Trainmaster of his proposed trip, mapping out
-in detail the route, which is usually the same each month. The
-signals or telegrams are sent ahead to the various foremen, and
-the car is ordered ready for the journey. The funds are arranged
-in denominations to suit the circumstances, with plenty of small
-change, and enough money for a day or two only at a time is
-provided. The pay for the flagmen at crossings, and switchmen on
-the road, as well as for the agents at small stations, is generally
-done up in envelopes, and, as the train speeds by, the packages
-are handed or thrown out at the proper places; and sometimes, to
-warrant a safe delivery, a forked stick is used, into which the
-envelope is put, thus giving it plenty of weight and saving it from
-being tumbled about promiscuously on the ground. Much time is saved
-in this way, and the pay-train is able to keep well out of the way
-of any regular train which may be following. So the pay-car flies
-along, only stopping at some large station where the number of
-employees engaged is sufficient to warrant it. These are quickly
-paid off, however, and the journey is continued. Perhaps at some
-junction a freight crew is met; and as these fellows have to get
-their money when they can, a stop is made on the road to give them
-a chance to do it. At some stations are found two or three gangs
-of section or track men, a watchman, an agent and his assistant, a
-pumper, and possibly a mail-carrier. Perhaps a discharged trainman
-will turn up also, who may have part of a month's pay coming to him.
-
-Later in the day it may be a shop gang of five hundred or one
-thousand men, consisting of carpenters, painters, machinists,
-and boiler-makers, and these are paid in order, each set of men
-by itself. There is no noise or disturbance, everything goes
-like clock-work, as all pass through in regular order, each gang
-or class preceded by its foreman, and the men arranged in line
-in the order in which their names appear on the pay-rolls. When
-night comes, and two or three hundred miles of road have been
-covered, the balance of the funds is carefully locked up in the
-safe on board, the car run in upon some convenient siding, and
-the engine housed for a wiping and a thorough preparation for the
-next day's run. The car is generally provided with comfortable
-beds for the Paymaster and his clerks, and during the paying-off
-time they practically live in the car. This insures early starts
-in the morning, and on large roads the necessity for haste is very
-apparent, where possibly two or three weeks are consumed each month
-in paying off the rolls.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-The average traveller, spinning across the country at forty miles
-an hour, is not apt to think of the countless details involved in
-the make-up of the train in which he rides or the track over which
-he is wheeled; but when he considers how safely the millions of
-passengers are annually carried over the one hundred and fifty
-thousand miles or more of railroad in this country alone, he may
-be brought to realize that quite as much depends upon the quality
-of the material entering into the construction of the train and
-tracks as upon the efficiency of the engineer in the cab, or the
-conductor, brakeman, switchmen, and train-despatcher who perform
-their respective responsible duties in connection therewith.
-Feeding a railroad, then, means a great deal more than the majority
-of mankind supposes.
-
-
-
-
-THE RAILWAY MAIL SERVICE.
-
-BY THOMAS L. JAMES.
-
-  An Object Lesson in Postal Progress--Nearness of the Department
-  to the People--The First Travelling Post-Office in the United
-  States--Organization of the Department in 1789--Early Mail
-  Contracts--All Railroads made Post-routes--Compartments for
-  Mail Clerks in Baggage-cars--Origin of the Present System in
-  1862--Important Work of Colonel George S. Bangs--The "Fast Mail"
-  between New York and Chicago--Why it was Suspended--Resumption
-  in 1877--Present Condition of the Service--Statistics--A
-  Ride on the "Fast Mail"--Busy Scenes at the Grand Central
-  Depot--Special Uses of the Five Cars--Duties of the Clerks--How
-  the Work is Performed--Annual Appropriation for Special Mail
-  Facilities--Dangers Threatening the Railway Mail Clerk's Life--An
-  Insurance Fund Proposed--Needs of the Service--A Plea for Radical
-  Civil Service Reform.
-
-
-At the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia, in the Post-Office
-exhibit, was a double picture showing the postal service at the
-beginning of the century and as it is to-day. On one side was a
-postman--perhaps Franklin--on horseback, jogging over a corduroy
-road, "through the forest primeval," making a mile or two an hour;
-and on the other a representation of the fast mail train, the
-"catcher" taking a pouch from the "crane" as it passes at the rate
-of fifty miles an hour! Standing in the foreground is the pretty
-daughter of the village postmaster with the mail pouch just thrown
-from the car in her hand, a group of rustics, with ill-concealed
-admiration in their eyes, watching her as the swiftly passing train
-goes on its journey. This picture is not, perhaps, a work of art,
-but it is an "object lesson," giving at a glance the progress that
-our country has made in a hundred years.
-
-[Illustration: Postal Progress, 1776-1876.
-
-(Facsimile of a print in the Post-Office Department.)]
-
-Of all the executive departments of the Government, the Post-Office
-is the one nearest the people, and the one with which they
-are the most familiar. In addition to its work of collecting,
-transporting, and delivering legitimate mail matter, viz.,
-letters, newspapers, and magazines, it is the greatest express
-company of the continent, since it has an office at almost every
-cross-roads, even carrying merchandise cheaper (considering the
-distance) than its rivals. Its registration system affords a means
-of forwarding valuable packages, at a slight additional cost, with
-almost absolute security. It is the greatest banking institution
-on this side of the Atlantic. The transactions of its money-order
-system, not only in our own country, but with almost every nation
-in the civilized world (Russia and Spain excepted), run up to
-wellnigh fabulous sums. Its drafts are easily obtained and cheap.
-Its notes are "gilt edged," and have never been repudiated. With
-the creation of the Postal Savings Bank system, the working
-people's department in its organization will approach perfection.
-
-The first mention of a travelling post-office occurs in a memorial
-addressed to Congress in November, 1776, by Ebenezer Hazard,
-Postmaster-General under the Continental Congress, in which he
-states that, owing to the frequent removals of the Continental
-Army, he was subjected to extraordinary expense, difficulties, and
-fatigues, "having paid an exorbitant price for every necessary of
-life, and having been obliged, for want of a horse--which could not
-be procured--to follow the army on foot."
-
-Directly after the inauguration of General Washington, in April,
-1789, the organization of the Post-Office Department followed, and
-Samuel Osgood, of Massachusetts, was appointed Postmaster-General.
-That the people might derive the greatest possible advantage from
-an institution peculiarly their own, this gigantic monopoly--for it
-is nothing else--was created, and all competition forbidden. The
-Postmaster-General had then but one clerk, and there were but 75
-post-offices and 1,875 miles of post-roads in the United States;
-the cost of mail transportation being $22,081, the total revenue,
-$37,935, the total expenditures, $32,140; leaving a surplus of
-$5,795. From this time until 1836 the contracts made for the
-transportation of the mails do not mention any kind of service
-on post-roads except stages, sulkies, four-horse post-coaches,
-horseback, packets, and steam-boats.
-
-[Illustration: The Pony Express--The Relay.]
-
-The growth of the Railway Mail Service has been coincident with
-that of the railway itself, and the importance of both cannot
-be underestimated in considering the future development of the
-country. Almost as soon as a railroad is fully organized it becomes
-a mail contractor with the Department.
-
-The Act of Congress constituting every railroad in the United
-States a post-route was approved July 7, 1838. Postmaster-General
-Barry, in his annual report for 1836, speaks of the multiplication
-of railroads in many parts of the country, and suggests it as a
-subject worthy of inquiry, whether measures may not be taken to
-secure the transportation of the mail on them, and adds: "Already
-have the railroads between Frenchtown, in Maryland, and Newcastle,
-in Delaware, and between Camden and South Amboy, in New Jersey,
-afforded great and important facilities to the transmission of the
-great eastern mail." At this time a railroad between Washington and
-New York was in process of construction, and Postmaster-General
-Barry dwelt in his report on the importance of the facilities
-that would be afforded for speedy service between the two cities,
-predicting that the run between them would probably be made in
-sixteen hours. The service is now performed in about five hours.
-
-[Illustration: The Overland Mail Coach--A Star Route.]
-
-At first the facilities for mail services were very limited.
-Postmaster-General Kendall, in 1835, suggested that the Baltimore
-& Ohio Railroad Company might be asked to close in some portion of
-their baggage-cars, a strong lock being placed on the apartment, to
-which only the postmasters at Washington and Baltimore should have
-keys. In the same report he adds: "If wheels can be constructed
-which can be used alike upon the railroads and the streets of the
-cities respectively, the Department will furnish an entire car
-containing the mail to be delivered at one depot, and received at
-the other, asking nothing of the company but to haul it." It was
-even proposed at this time that the Government should have its own
-locomotives, everything else on the road giving the right of way
-to the mail train. This proposition was not adopted. The fear was
-expressed, however, that if the Department did not have absolute
-control over the road, the people would have to depend on stage
-or other horse transportation for mail service. All these early
-troubles in time passed away, and, through concessions on both
-sides, the railways soon became the most important agent of the
-Post-Office Department.
-
-[Illustration: Mail Carrying in the Country.]
-
-This, of course, was not accomplished without many trials and
-tribulations. It seems strange, in the light of the present, to
-read in an official report a remonstrance from route agents that
-nearly every night dead bodies were placed in the mail crates
-between Philadelphia and New York, and the mails packed around the
-coffins. This breach of good order disappeared after that time, and
-with it came to an end the freight methods and the old stage-coach
-ideas of dealing with the mails.
-
-A separate compartment in a baggage-car, fitted up with few
-conveniences necessary for the distribution of local way-mail, was
-the beginning of the system which has developed into the luxurious
-postal cars of the present time. As a matter of history, however,
-it is only fair to say that the system which we then adopted had
-been in use for some time by our northern neighbors of Canada, who
-had taken it from the mother country.
-
-The credit of suggesting the first step toward the present system
-has generally been given to Colonel G. B. Armstrong, who in 1864
-was Assistant Postmaster at Chicago. This is incorrect; Mr. W.
-A. Davis, a clerk of the St. Joseph, Mo., Post-Office, where the
-overland mail was made up, conceived the idea, in 1862, that if the
-letters and papers could be assorted on the cars between Quincy and
-St. Joseph, the overland mail could start promptly on time. He was
-given permission to carry out this idea, and there are vouchers on
-file in the Department at Washington showing that he was paid for
-that specific work. In 1864 Colonel Armstrong was authorized and
-encouraged by the Hon. Montgomery Blair, then Postmaster-General,
-to undertake the difficult task of arranging and introducing the
-service. On August 31, 1864, he wrote: "To-day I commenced the new
-distribution." Subsequently, Colonel Armstrong became the first
-General Railway Mail Superintendent, and held this office until
-ill-health compelled him to resign, in 1871. To Colonel George S.
-Bangs, of Illinois, and his successors, Theodore N. Vail, William
-B. Thompson, and John Jameson, is due the excellence of the present
-system. Colonel Bangs was a thoroughly equipped post-office man,
-energetic, courageous, and progressive. Brimful of ideas, he
-was ever on the lookout for improvement. Never satisfied with
-old ways, he was constantly striving to simplify and better the
-service. He forgot himself in his work, and died a martyr to his
-duty, leaving the Travelling Post-Office of to-day a monument to
-his memory. While to Colonel Armstrong is due the credit for the
-skeleton of the system, it was the genius of Colonel Bangs that
-clothed the bones with flesh, developed the sinew, put the blood
-in circulation, and breathed into its body the breath of life.
-Colonel Bangs found, in 1871, that everything was disjointed,
-disconnected, and sluggish. There was no attempt at "certainty,
-security, or celerity." It was a "go-as-you-please" condition of
-affairs. He grappled at once with it and brought order out of
-chaos. He introduced a system of emulation among the employees,
-rewarding those who displayed proficiency by promotion over the
-sluggish, and thus, in fact, was probably the father of what
-is now known as Civil Service Reform. In 1874 he discussed the
-propriety of establishing a fast and exclusive mail train between
-New York and Chicago, "this train" (quoting his report to the
-Postmaster-General) "to be under the control of the Department,
-so far as it is necessary for the purposes designed, and to run
-the distance in about twenty-four hours. It is conceded by railway
-officials that this can be done. The importance of a line like
-this cannot be overestimated. It would reduce the actual time of
-mail between the east and west from twelve to twenty-four hours.
-As it would necessarily be established upon one or more of the
-trunk lines, having an extended system of connections, its benefit
-would be in no case confined, but extended through all parts of the
-country alike."
-
-This report met with the approval of Postmaster-General Jewell,
-who ordered Bangs to negotiate with the New York Central & Hudson
-River Railroad and the Lake Shore Railroad for a fast mail train,
-leaving New York at four o'clock in the morning, and arriving
-at Chicago in about twenty-four hours. It was the old story of
-making bricks without straw. The Post-Office Department had no
-appropriation to pay for such facilities, hence it had to depend at
-first on the public spirit of the railroad authorities. Commodore
-Vanderbilt, the president of the companies whose lines were to be
-used, had had dealings with the Department, and was perhaps not
-altogether sanguine as to the practical issue of the experiment,
-or in respect to the countenance it would receive from Congress;
-but Mr. William H. Vanderbilt, the vice-president, lent a willing
-ear to Mr. Bangs's proposition, and did his utmost to aid him
-in putting it into effect. There being no special appropriation
-available for the purpose in hand, "the devil was whipped around
-the stump" by Colonel Bangs stipulating that if Mr. Vanderbilt
-would have twenty cars built and the service performed, all matter
-originating at or coming into the New York Post-Office, which
-could reach its destination at the same time by this line, should
-be sent by this train, and that the railway companies could have
-the right to demand a weighing of the mail matter at will, all
-railroads being paid according to weight. When the details of the
-plan were communicated to Commodore Vanderbilt, he is reported to
-have said to his son: "If you want to do this, go ahead, but I know
-the Post-Office Department, and you will, too, within a year." Mr.
-Vanderbilt did "go ahead." He constructed and equipped the finest
-mail train ever seen on the planet, ran it for ten months, never
-missed a connection at Chicago, and was always on time at New
-York. He did not have to wait a year, however, for a realization of
-the sagacious old commodore's prophecy. Within three weeks, despite
-the indignant protest of Colonel Bangs, the mails of three States
-were ordered to be taken from this and given to another route. A
-grosser and more wanton breach of plighted faith it would be hard
-to find, and its results were far-reaching and disastrous.
-
-This train was a marvel of completeness and efficiency. It was
-manned by picked men, and the only complaint ever made against it
-was that it ran so fast that the clerks had not time to sort the
-mails for the post-offices between New York and Poughkeepsie. To
-obviate this, Colonel Bangs requested the postmaster at New York
-to have two hundred mail-bags dyed red, which should contain the
-mail for those offices nearest together, so that the crew in the
-train could distribute them first. There was no complaint after
-that. But when the dyer's bill was sent by the postmaster to the
-Department, it was disallowed by a clerk of the Second Assistant
-Postmaster-General, who, in a letter announcing the fact, said that
-there was no necessity for the outlay if the postal clerks did
-their duty. Bangs, who had just arrived at the post-office from a
-day and night's ride on his favorite train, was lying on a sofa
-half asleep in the postmaster's private office, as that official
-was opening his mail. When he came to that letter he handed it to
-Bangs. He was wide-awake in an instant. "Mr. Postmaster," said he,
-"do you know the man who signed this letter? He is a wheezy priest,
-a fool, and a Baptist, at that. Give me the letter." The bill was
-allowed as soon as Bangs reached the Department. He was wrong,
-however, in crediting the subordinate to the Baptist faith. He was
-an ornament of another persuasion.
-
-So carefully had the project been considered and adapted that the
-service on the Central, from the start, moved with the precision
-of clock-work, and was an immediate success. It is proper to say
-that word of what was going on between the Department and the
-Vanderbilt system reached the Hon. Thomas A. Scott, President of
-the Pennsylvania Railroad, and he at once made up his mind that the
-corporation under his management could not afford to be behind its
-great rival. One Saturday morning he telegraphed to J. D. Layng
-(now General Manager of the West Shore and President of the C. C.
-C. & I.), then General Manager of the Pennsylvania lines west of
-Pittsburg, to know if by the following Monday week, the date on
-which the train was to start, four postal cars could be built and
-the first one be in Chicago ready to start on its eastern trip.
-The answer came back, "Yes." The order was given to the Allegheny
-shops on Saturday afternoon, and on the following Saturday the
-first of the cars, complete and equipped for mail service, started
-for Chicago, and began its east-bound trip on Monday morning.
-The second and third cars were finished on Monday night, and the
-fourth--thus fully equipping the line--on Tuesday.
-
-Thus had been established two splendid fast trains, and the outlook
-was bright for the future, when Congress, in spite of the efforts
-of the Post-Office Department, passed an Act reducing the already
-inadequate compensation to the trunk lines, for the carrying of the
-mails. This action brought official notice from Messrs. Vanderbilt
-and Scott of the discontinuance of the fast mail trains between New
-York City and Chicago, and that service ended.
-
-[Illustration: At a Way-station--The Postmaster's Assistant.]
-
-Colonel Bangs was greatly mortified at this result, but he stood
-his ground and remained at his post until the close of the year.
-Then, worn out with never-ending toil, and disheartened by the
-action of Congress, he tendered his resignation and insisted on
-its acceptance. Parted from the Post-Office, President Grant,
-knowing his worth and wishing to recognize his services, appointed
-him Assistant Treasurer of the United States at Chicago. He
-lived to perform the duties of this office only a few months, as
-death overtook him suddenly, while on a visit to Washington on
-official business, December, 1876. His work, however, was not
-permitted to drop. He had left in the service three assistants,
-Theodore N. Vail, William B. Thompson--afterward Second Assistant
-Postmaster-General--and John Jameson, who were fully imbued with
-the ideas of their late chief and were fully loyal to them. They,
-in the order named, became his successors, and never permitted
-opportunities to escape wherein there was a possible benefit
-to the service to be secured. Although the fast mail service
-was suspended for lack of support from Congress, its usefulness
-and practicability had been so thoroughly demonstrated that an
-appropriation of $150,000 was made in March, 1877, for its
-resumption on the trunk lines. This victory was not reached
-without untiring efforts on the part of Mr. Vail, and by generous
-support in both houses of Congress; in the Senate by the Hon.
-Hannibal Hamlin and James G. Blaine, of Maine, and in the House of
-Representatives by such broad and liberal statesmen as Mr. Waddell,
-of North Carolina, Mr. Randall, of Pennsylvania, and Mr. Cox, of
-New York.
-
-Since then, Messrs. Thompson and Jameson have watched the progress
-of the work with jealous eyes, and have succeeded in extending it
-practically to the whole country. The present service is due not
-alone to the liberality of Congress, because the appropriations
-have been parsimonious, but to the generosity of the railways,
-which have performed a valuable work for a price which in many
-cases does not pay the expense of the necessary additional labor
-involved.
-
-The Railway Mail Service at the close of the fiscal year ending
-June 30, 1888, gave employment to 5,094 clerks. Matter was
-distributed on 126,310 miles of railway, and on 17,402 miles
-additional closed pouches were carried. There were also operated 41
-inland steam-boat lines on which postal clerks were employed. The
-postal clerks travelled (in crews) 122,031,104 miles by railway,
-and 1,767,649 miles by steam-boats. They distributed 6,528,772,060
-pieces of ordinary mail matter, and handled 16,001,059 registered
-packages and cases, and 1,103,083 through registered pouches and
-inner registered sacks. The service is in charge of one General
-Superintendent, who has his headquarters at Washington, and it is
-divided into eleven divisions with a superintendent in charge of
-each.
-
-The majority of people who travel on railways (and how many
-Americans are there who do not?) have paid passing attention to the
-railway mail cars as they have stood at the station preparatory
-to the starting of the train, and have glanced through the open
-doors with more or less curiosity at the scene of energy and
-bustle witnessed within. At such a moment, no matter how great
-the curiosity, it is not feasible to investigate closely, for
-the workers must not be hampered by the prying public, however
-praiseworthy the motive. To supply this pardonable desire to know
-how it is done, I invite my readers to accompany me in spirit on a
-visit to the Grand Central Station, to witness the preparations
-for the departure of train No. 11, known in railway parlance as
-"the New York and Chicago Fast Mail," which leaves New York every
-night at nine o'clock.
-
-[Illustration: Loading for the Fast Mail, at the General
-Post-Office, New York.]
-
-It must not be supposed that everything has been left until the
-last moment, and that the mail matter has been tumbled into the
-cars on the eve of departure, to be handled as best it may in the
-short run to Albany; for under such conditions the task would
-be an impossibility even to an army of trained hands. Work has
-been in progress since four o'clock in the afternoon, and it has
-been steady, hard labor every minute of the time. The five cars
-have been backed down to the tracks opposite Forty-fifth Street,
-and have been so placed that they are convenient of access to
-the big lumbering mail wagons which are familiar sights in the
-streets of the metropolis. The crew of nineteen men, skilled in
-the handling of mail matter, and thorough experts in the geography
-of the country, reported to the chief clerk and took up their
-stations in the various cars at the hour named. At the same time
-the wagons began arriving from the General Post-Office with their
-tons of matter which had "originated" in New York, and were soon
-transferring their loads to the cars, where agile hands were in
-waiting to receive them. Since the removal of the deadly stoves
-from the railway trains the occupants of the postal cars have
-suffered to no small extent owing to the lack of heat. These cars
-are provided with steam-heating apparatus which is worked from the
-engine, but they are occupied for five hours before the engine
-comes near them, and in cold weather the hands of the men employed
-in distributing letters become numb with cold. This is a matter
-which should receive prompt attention.
-
-[Illustration: At the Last Moment.]
-
-Before we deal with the mail matter, let us look at the cars and
-the men who occupy them. The train, as it leaves New York, is made
-up of five cars which are placed immediately behind the engine, and
-are followed by express and baggage cars and one passenger coach.
-The car next to the engine is devoted entirely to letter mail, and
-the four following it to papers and packages. The letter car is
-fifty feet in length, while those for the newspaper mail are ten
-feet longer. All are uniform in width, nine feet eight inches,
-and are six feet nine inches high in the clear. When newly built,
-before long and hard service had told on their appearance, their
-outsides were white in color, with cream-tinted borderings and gilt
-ornamentations, and were highly varnished. Midway on the outside,
-and below; the windows of each car, is a large oval gilt-finished
-frame within which is painted the name of the car, with the words,
-"United States Post Office" above and below. The cars used by
-the New York Central are named for the Governors of the State
-and the members of President Garfield's cabinet. Along the upper
-edge and centre are painted in large gilt letters the words, "The
-Fast Mail Train," while on a line with these letters at the
-other end, in a square, are the words, in like lettering, "New
-York Central" and "Lake Shore." The frieze and minute trimmings
-around the windows are of gilt finish. The body of the car also
-contains other ornamentation, including the coat-of-arms of the
-United States. The running gear is of the most approved pattern.
-The platforms are enclosed by swinging doors which, when opened,
-afford a protected passage between the cars. This arrangement no
-doubt suggested the modern improvement now known as the vestibuled
-train. The letter car is provided with a "mail catcher," which is
-placed at a small door through which mail pouches are snatched from
-conveniently placed posts at wayside stations where stops are not
-made. Each car is divided into three sections, all fitted up alike
-with conveniences for the service to be performed. The letter car,
-however, is somewhat differently arranged from the others, to
-meet the requirements of that particular branch of the work.
-
-[Illustration: Transfer of Mail at the Grand Central Station, New
-York.]
-
-[Illustration: Pouching the Mail in the Postal Car.]
-
-In the first section of the letter car are received the pouches
-from the General Post-Office, which when opened are found to
-contain letters done up in packages of about a hundred, marked
-for Michigan, Indiana, New York, Ohio, Western Pennsylvania,
-Montana, Dakota, and California. When this mass of matter has
-been emptied out of the pouches and, in the vernacular of the
-service, "dumped up" preparatory to distribution, the section is
-clear for the registered mail which is worked in it. Before this
-is accomplished, however, much work is done; in fact, a sort of
-rough distribution is made. All packages which are directed to one
-office are distributed into pouches, which are afterward stored
-away until the towns are reached. The other packages are carried
-into the letter department for distribution, where a rack, similar
-to those seen in almost every post-office, although space is
-thoroughly economized, is used for the purpose. To give a slight
-idea of the work done in this section, it may be mentioned that
-the distribution for New York State alone requires 325 boxes.
-Still there is plenty of space, otherwise the third section of the
-car would not be used, as it is, for the distribution of Montana
-and Dakota newspapers. How closely everything is packed, and
-all available space utilized, may be imagined when it is stated
-that for this newspaper mail ninety-five pouches are hung in the
-section, and that there is still sufficient room for the storage of
-pouches locked up and ready for delivery, and also for the sealed
-registered mail. A separation of the California mail is also made
-in this car, so that when it reaches Chicago the pouches into which
-the matter is placed are transferred without delay, thus saving
-twenty-four hours on the time to the Pacific Coast, not by any
-means an unimportant accomplishment.
-
-There have been received in this car before it moves out of the
-Grand Central Station between 1,000 and 1,500 packages of letters
-and, in addition, forty or fifty sacks of Dakota and Montana
-papers. To handle this mass of correspondence there are six men in
-addition to the chief clerk, or superintendent. This official is
-not assigned to any particular duty, but he supervises the general
-work and lends aid where it is most required. The second clerk
-handles letters for Ohio, Dakota, and Montana; the third clerk
-takes charge of those for New York State; the fourth, Illinois; the
-fifth opens all pouches labelled, "New York and Chicago Railway
-Post-Office," distributes their contents, and afterward works on
-Dakota and Montana papers; the sixth, Michigan State letters,
-and the seventh, California letter mail. The salaries of these
-men, intrusted with so much responsibility and of whom so much is
-expected, range from $900 per annum for the lowest grade to $1,300
-per annum for the superintendent.
-
-The second, or "Illinois Car," is devoted, as are the others which
-follow it, to the newspaper and periodical mail. In it are handled
-papers for Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, New York, Oregon, and Wyoming.
-Two clerks and two assistants man this car. The first assistant,
-who "faces up" papers ready to be distributed, draws mails from
-stalls to case, and removes boxes as fast as they are filled, has
-gained the sobriquet of the "Illinois derrick," owing to the heavy
-nature of his duties. The second, who lends what aid he can in the
-heavy work on the run between New York and Albany, has become known
-on the train as "the short stop." The third section of the car is
-used for storing the bags of assorted matter.
-
-[Illustration: A Very Difficult Address--known as a "sticker."]
-
-The third car is used for storing through mail for San Francisco,
-Omaha, and points west of Chicago. In it are also carried stamped
-envelopes from the manufacturer at Hartford, Conn., to postmasters
-in the West. This car is frequently fully loaded with matter from
-the New York office when the journey is begun, and it is then
-found necessary to add a similar car to the train on its arrival
-at Albany for the accommodation of matter taken on by the way and
-bound for the same destination.
-
-[Illustration: Distributing the Mail by States and Routes.]
-
-[Illustration: Sorting Letters in Car No. 1--The Fast Mail.]
-
-The Michigan paper car is the fourth. In it are handled papers for
-Michigan, Iowa, and the mixed Western States. In the first section
-are piled the Iowa pouches and those for points out of Utica, which
-have been distributed in the centre section, and in the third
-section the distribution for Michigan, Nebraska, and Minnesota,
-as well as for points reached from Buffalo, is made. Two men
-perform the work of the car, one of whom has already handled the
-registered mail and Indiana letters in the first car.
-
-[Illustration: Pouching Newspapers for California--in Car No. 5.]
-
-The fifth, or California paper car, is the last mail coach on the
-train, as it is made up when leaving the Grand Central Station.
-Besides the papers for the Golden State the car carries through
-registered pouches to Chicago and the West, which have been made
-up in the New York office, and, as a usual thing, a large lot of
-stamped envelopes for postmasters in the West. The California
-letter man from the first car looks after the papers for the same
-State, and has an eye to the safety of the car. On reaching Albany
-another car is added to the train, making six in all from that
-point. This last addition comes from Boston, brings the morning
-mail from Bangor, Me., and is manned by four men.
-
-The run to Chicago for post-office purposes is divided into three
-divisions: from New York to Syracuse, from Syracuse to Cleveland,
-and from Cleveland to Chicago. Each division has its own crew, so
-that the men leaving New York are relieved at Syracuse by others,
-and these in turn at Cleveland. The New York crew go to work, as
-has been said, at 4 P.M., and if the train is on time at Syracuse,
-as it usually is, they arrive there at 5.35 A.M., after thirteen
-and a half hours of as hard work as men are called upon to do. The
-same evening at 8.40 they relieve the east-bound crew, and are in
-New York again at six o'clock on the following morning. Half an
-hour later they are to be found on the top floor of the General
-Post-Office building, comfortably ensconced in bunks and in a
-large and airy room, provided as a dormitory for their use by the
-postmaster of New York at the time of the inauguration of the fast
-mail service. Each crew makes three round trips and is then laid
-off for six days, but its members are all this time subject to
-extra duty, which they are called upon to perform with unpleasant
-frequency, particularly in holiday times.
-
-After leaving New York, the first stop the train makes is at
-Poughkeepsie, but no mail is taken on there. At Albany the second
-halt is made, and there twenty minutes are spent in taking on
-the mail from New England and northeastern New York. At Palatine
-Bridge there is a brief stop, and after that comes Utica, where
-the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western, the Ontario & Western, and
-the Rome, Watertown & Ogdensburg roads exchange mail matter. At
-Syracuse more mails come, this time from the Oswego, Binghamton
-& Syracuse, and the Auburn & Rochester branch of the New York
-Central. Here also comes welcome relief for the crew which left
-New York. Those who follow have much to keep them busy, but the
-heaviest part of the work has been already performed.
-
-From Syracuse to Cleveland there are several distributing points
-where mail matter is also received on the train, and the routine is
-continued much as already described until the crew is relieved at
-Cleveland. There the men of the Western Division take charge and
-continue the work until Elkhart, Ind., is reached. There a special
-force from Chicago meets the train, takes possession of a portion
-of the letter car, and makes the distribution for the main office
-and stations of the city of Chicago, thus saving much time. When
-the train arrives in Chicago, it makes connection with a fast mail
-train on the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, as also on a like train
-on the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul. The former train arrives at
-Council Bluffs about 7 P.M., and there overtakes the train which
-left Chicago on the previous evening. The Pacific Coast mail is
-thus expedited just twenty-four hours. A similar train on the St.
-Paul road also saves twenty-four hours' time on the trip to the
-northwestern portion of the Pacific Coast.
-
-The appropriation for special facilities for the year ending June
-30, 1889, was $295,987.53. The uses to which the appropriation
-referred to is put are explained in the following table.
-
-  -----------------------+--------------------------+------+-----------
-         Termini.        |    Railroad Company.     |Miles.|    Pay.
-  -----------------------+--------------------------+------+-----------
-  New York to            |New York, New Haven       |      |
-    Springfield          |  & Hartford              |136   | $17,647.06
-  4.35 A.M. train        |New York Central &        |      |
-                         |  Hudson River            |144   |  25,000.00
-  Philadelphia to        |Philadelphia, Wilmington  |      |
-    Bay View             |  & Baltimore             | 91.80|  20,000.00
-  Bay View to Quantico   |Baltimore & Potomac       | 79.80|  21,900.00
-  Quantico to Richmond   |Richmond, Fredericksburg  |      |
-                         |  & Potomac               | 81.50|  17,419.26
-  Richmond to Petersburg |Richmond & Petersburg     | 23.39|   4,268.67
-  Petersburg to Weldon   |Petersburg                | 64   |  11,680.00
-  Weldon to Wilmington   |Wilmington & Weldon       |162.07|  29,541.27
-  Wilmington to Florence |Wilmington, Columbia      |      |
-                         |  & Augusta               |110   |  20,075.00
-  Florence to Charleston |                          |      |
-    Junction             |Northeastern              | 95   |  17,337.50
-  Charleston Junction    |                          |      |
-    to Savannah          |Charleston & Savannah     |108   |  19,710.00
-  Savannah to            |Savannah, Florida         |      |
-    Jacksonville         |  & Western               |171.50|  31,309.70
-  Baltimore to           |                          |      |
-    Hagerstown           |Western Maryland          | 86.60|  15,804.50
-  Jacksonville to Tampa  |Jacksonville, Tampa & Key |      |
-                         |  West & South Florida    |242.57|  43,962.42
-  -----------------------+--------------------------+------+-----------
-  Total                                                    |$295,655.38
-  ---------------------------------------------------------+-----------
-
-A careful perusal of this table develops the fact that the greater
-portion of this money is expended south of Philadelphia, the
-railroad companies in that section not having sufficient weight of
-mails to warrant fast trains without some additional compensation.
-It will also be noted that with the exception of the sum of $25,000
-for a special train to Poughkeepsie, which leaves New York City at
-4.35 in the morning, the New York Central receives no compensation
-except that earned by them as common carriers of so many pounds of
-freight-mail matter carried, being paid for in accordance with its
-weight. It will also be observed that the Pennsylvania Railroad, on
-its trunk line, is not even so fortunate as its great rival.
-
-There may be more dangerous pursuits in life than that of the
-railway post-office clerk, but there are not many so, and there are
-few in which the risk to life and limb is so constant. The everyday
-citizen who is called upon occasionally to make a railroad journey
-of a few hundred miles feels it to be incumbent upon himself on
-such occasions to make special provision for those dependent on him
-in case injury or death should come while riding in the thoroughly
-appointed and luxurious coach placed in a portion of the train
-least likely to suffer from accident. But too little thought is
-devoted to the safety of those poorly paid but efficient servants
-of the State, in the forward cars, without whose services the
-business of the country, as conducted to-day, would come to a
-stand-still. To show that the importance of this service is not
-here exaggerated, it is only necessary to recall the condition
-of affairs in New York City, and other cities as well, in March,
-1888, when the great blizzard fell upon the land. There were then
-no mails for several days, and the prostration which came upon
-the community is too well remembered to need comment. The danger
-to those within the postal cars, however, is recognized by the
-railway people, and efforts have been made in the way of providing
-safety appliances, but it is, of course, impossible to lessen the
-danger to any great extent. All that American ingenuity suggests
-in the way of construction, both inside and outside of the cars,
-is provided. The body of the car is most substantially built, the
-platforms and couplings are of the most approved patterns, the
-trucks are similar to those used under the best passenger coaches,
-and the air-brakes and other safety apparatus are all brought into
-requisition. Within the cars are saws, axes, hammers, and crowbars
-conveniently placed in case of wreck, and safety-bars extend the
-length of the cars overhead to which the clerks may cling when
-the cars leave the track and roll down embankments, as they often
-do. In the year ending June, 1888, there were 248 accidents to
-trains upon which postal clerks were employed. In these wrecks four
-clerks were killed; sixty-three were seriously, several of the
-number permanently, and forty-five slightly injured. The official
-report of the accidents shows that the majority of them resulted
-from collisions, while others were due to the spreading of the
-rails, the failure of air-brakes to work at critical moments, and
-obstructions on the track.
-
-In every case where cars were wrecked the postal car was among the
-number.
-
-In many instances the cars were telescoped, and on such occasions
-the clerks were found buried in the wreckage or pinned under the
-engine or its tender. And many times true heroism was shown by the
-injured men. Over and over again the General Superintendent reports
-that, notwithstanding severe injuries received by the clerks, the
-scattered mail matter was collected by them and transferred either
-to another train or to the nearest post-office. Several times
-trains in the West were held up by robbers, who, after sacking the
-express car, visited the postal car, introducing themselves with
-pistol-shots. One clerk was seriously wounded in the shoulder.
-An instance of self-possession is reported in Arkansas, where
-the robbers, before visiting the postal car, had secured $10,000
-from the express safe. When they came to clerk R. P. Johnson he
-suggested that they had secured booty enough, and that under the
-circumstances they might let the mail matter alone. The masked men
-agreed with him, and did not molest the mails.
-
-[Illustration: Catching the Pouch from the Crane.]
-
-In view of the dangers to which employees of the Railway Mail
-Service are exposed, it may be permitted to quote from the last
-annual report of General Superintendent Bancroft on the subject
-of insurance. No action, he points out, has ever been taken by
-Congress toward providing for the care of clerks permanently
-injured in the service, or those dependent upon them in case of
-death, notwithstanding frequent recommendations by the Department.
-He attributes this to insurmountable objections on the part of the
-people's representatives to the creation of anything of the nature
-of a civil pension-roll. He therefore suggests that there shall
-be deducted from the pay of each and every railway postal clerk
-ten cents per month, to be paid into "The Railway Postal Clerks'
-Insurance Fund," the custodian of which is to be the United States
-Treasury. In case of death from injuries while on duty, $1,000 is
-to be paid to the clerk's heirs. While this proposition is in the
-right direction, it hardly goes far enough. Provision should be
-made for the disabled, and to do so, the clerks doubtless would not
-object to an assessment of double the amount suggested. That they
-should be compelled to resort to such a mode of relief, however, is
-a reflection upon the Government of the United States.
-
-The first great need of the Railway Mail Service is an adequate
-appropriation by Congress to extend its usefulness, and to keep
-it up to the demands and the needs of the public. Where speed
-is required to make connections, the Department should have the
-cash on hand to buy what is necessary. The railways are business
-institutions, managed as such, and when the Department desires
-extra facilities it should be prepared to pay in coin and not in
-talk. In this connection it is a pleasant duty for the writer of
-this very imperfect sketch to say that during his term of service
-in the post-office at New York, and at the Department, he always
-found Mr. William H. Vanderbilt, Mr. Cornelius Vanderbilt, Mr.
-J. H. Rutter, of the New York Central; Mr. John Newell, of the
-Lake Shore; Mr. George B. Roberts, Mr. A. J. Cassatt, and Mr.
-Frank Thomson, of the Pennsylvania system; Mr. R. R. Bridgers
-and Mr. H. B. Plant, of the Atlantic Coast Line, ready to grant
-any reasonable request for the improvement and extension of the
-service. Time after time Mr. Roberts has run a special train with
-the Australian transcontinental mail from Pittsburg to New York,
-that it might catch an outgoing steamer; and he and Mr. Vanderbilt
-practically re-established the fast mail, by taking letters on
-their limited trains. Mr. Roberts gave, in addition, an extra mail
-train from Philadelphia west at four o'clock in the morning, and
-Mr. Vanderbilt placed a postal car on the 4 P.M. train from New
-York, receiving in return--what they had a right to demand--an
-extra weighing of the mails, and, what was not a matter of surprise
-to them, unmeasured abuse on the floor of Congress for giving these
-additional facilities to the people of the country.
-
-The last and greatest need of the postal service is the total
-and complete elimination of partisan considerations as affecting
-appointments and removals in the working force. The spoils method
-invariably brings into the service a lot of do-nothings or a race
-of experimenters, whose performances never fail to breed disaster
-and to crush out substantial progress.
-
-There is no position in the Government more exacting than that
-of a postal clerk, and none that has so many requirements. He
-must not only be sound "in wind and limb," but possessed of more
-than ordinary intelligence, and a retentive memory. His work is
-constant, and his only recreation, study. He must not only be
-proficient in his own immediate work, but he must have a general
-knowledge of the entire country, so that the correspondence he
-handles shall reach its destination at the earliest possible
-moment. He must know no night and no day. He must be impervious
-to heat or cold. Rushing along at a rate of forty or fifty miles
-an hour, in charge of that which is sacred--the correspondence
-of the people--catching his meals as he may; at home only
-semi-occasionally, the wonder is that men competent to discharge
-the duties of so high a calling can be found for so small a
-compensation, and for so uncertain a tenure of official life. They
-have not only to take the extra-hazardous risks of their toilsome
-duties, but they are at the mercy of the practical politicians
-who believe that "to the victor belong the spoils." There are no
-public offices which are so emphatically "public trusts" as those
-whose duties comprise that of handling the correspondence of the
-people, because upon the proper and skilful performance of that
-duty depend--to a far greater degree than in the care of any other
-function accomplished through government agency--the business and
-social welfare of the entire community. The effects of ignorance,
-carelessness, and dishonesty in any other branch of the public
-service, although to be deplored, are not to be compared to those
-which follow the existence of such evils in the Post-Office.
-Can there be a more flagrant abuse of a "public trust" than the
-perversion of a branch of the public service into an agency for
-furthering the ambitious ends of local politicians and their
-partisans by allowing them to distribute its "patronage" as rewards
-for party services among those who, by reason of inexperience--if
-for no graver cause--are incompetent to replace the skilled
-workman who must be routed out in order to give them room? This
-evil should be corrected at once. The Railway Mail Service must no
-longer be left at the mercy of the local partisans. The reform is
-not only a present necessity, but it was one in the past and will
-be in the future, until the force of public sentiment shall compel
-acquiescence in the reasonable demand that what was so eminently
-meant for mankind shall not be given up to party; that the
-non-political business of letter-carrying, which the Government has
-monopolized, shall be conducted by it solely with a view to prompt
-and expeditious carrying of mail matter, and not with the object of
-bolstering up local "statesmen" or carrying elections.
-
-At the coming in of Mr. Cleveland's administration, William B.
-Thompson was Second Assistant Postmaster-General--in charge of
-the contract office--and John Jameson was General Railway Mail
-Superintendent. Both of these gentlemen had worked their way from
-the ranks by sheer merit. In private business the value of their
-services would have been so highly appreciated that, no matter
-who became senior partner of the firm, under no circumstances
-would they have been permitted to retire. The case of these
-gentlemen is mentioned now simply to illustrate an idea and not
-to found a complaint. On the incoming of the new administration,
-General Thompson, in accordance with precedent, promptly tendered
-his resignation, and it was as promptly accepted; while General
-Superintendent Jameson struggled along doing his work until,
-to relieve his chief from embarrassment, he, too, tendered his
-resignation. The country was thus deprived of the services of two
-men who were experts in their profession, simply to give place
-to others, of high character, no doubt, but with no knowledge
-and special aptitude for the great trust that was committed to
-them. And now, in the first year of another administration, the
-experience that many valuable officials have gained has counted
-for nothing, and they have been rotated out. In no other civilized
-country would such an atrocity be possible. An attempt to remove,
-for similar reasons, such postal authorities as Messrs. Rich, of
-Liverpool, Johnston, of Manchester, or Hubson, of Glasgow, all of
-whom, under a sound, logical, just, and economical business system,
-have reached their present positions by merit and efficiency from
-more or less inferior places, would hurl an administration in
-Great Britain from power, and justly too. The possession of the
-immense patronage of the Government did not save the Republican
-party from defeat in 1884, or keep the Democratic party in power in
-1888. Ideas are stronger than "soap," and principles more potent
-than spoils. It is due to President Cleveland to state that toward
-the close of his administration he recognized the importance of
-permanency in the Railway Mail Service, and that he made a long
-step in advance by approving a series of rules submitted by the
-Civil Service Commission having for its object the removal of the
-service from the influences of politicians. It needs more than
-this, however; it needs the sanctity of the statute law, declaring
-that the clerks should not only keep their offices during good
-behavior, but that after twenty years of faithful and efficient
-service, or before that time, if injured in the discharge of
-their duty, they should retire on half-pay. In case of death from
-accident while on duty, proper provision should be made for the
-family of the official. Whenever justice is done by Congress in
-these particulars, the United States will have the best and most
-efficient Railway Mail Service in the world.
-
-
-
-
-THE RAILWAY IN ITS BUSINESS RELATIONS.
-
-BY ARTHUR T. HADLEY.
-
-  Amount of Capital Invested in Railways--Important Place in
-  the Modern Industrial System--The Duke of Bridgewater's
-  Foresight--The Growth of Half a Century--Early Methods of
-  Business Management--The Tendency toward Consolidation--How
-  the War Developed a National Idea--Its Effect on Railroad
-  Building--Thomson and Scott as Organizers--Vanderbilt's Capacity
-  for Financial Management--Garrett's Development of the Baltimore
-  & Ohio--The Concentration of Immense Power in a Few Men--Making
-  Money out of the Investors--Difficult Positions of Stockholders
-  and Bondholders--How the Finances are Manipulated by the Board
-  of Directors--Temptations to the Misuse of Power--Relations of
-  Railroads to the Public who Use Them--Inequalities in Freight
-  Rates--Undue Advantages for Large Trade Centres--Proposed
-  Remedies--Objections to Government Control--Failure of
-  Grangerism--The Origin of Pools--Their Advantages--Albert
-  Fink's Great Work--Charles Francis Adams and the Massachusetts
-  Commission--Adoption of the Interstate Commerce Law--Important
-  Influence of the Commission--Its Future Functions--Ill-judged
-  State Legislation.
-
-
-The railroads of the world are to-day worth from twenty-five to
-thirty thousand million dollars. This probably represents one-tenth
-of the total wealth of civilized nations, and one-quarter, if not
-one-third, of their invested capital. It is doubtful whether the
-aggregate plant used in all manufacturing industries can equal it
-in value. The capital engaged in banking is but a trifle beside it.
-The world's whole stock of money of every kind--gold, silver, and
-paper--would purchase only a third of its railroads.
-
-Yet these facts by no means measure the whole importance of the
-railroad in the modern industrial system. The business methods
-of to-day are in one sense the direct result of improved means
-of transportation. The railroad enables the large establishment
-to reach the markets of the world with its products; it enables
-the large city to receive its food-supplies, if necessary, from
-a distance of hundreds or thousands of miles. And while it thus
-favors the concentration of capital, it is in itself an extreme
-type of this concentration. Almost every distinctive feature of
-modern business, whether good or bad, finds in railroad history at
-once its chief cause and its fullest development.
-
-[Illustration: George Stephenson.]
-
-As befits a nineteenth century institution, the railroad dates
-from 1801. In that year Benjamin Outram built in the suburbs of
-London a short line of horse railroad--or tramroad, as it was
-named in honor of the inventor. Other works of the same kind
-followed in almost every succeeding year. They were recognized as
-a decided convenience, but nothing more. It was hard to imagine
-that a revolution in the world's transportation methods could
-grow out of this beginning. Least of all could such a result be
-foreseen in England, whose admirable canal system seemed likely
-to defy competition for centuries to come. And yet, curiously
-enough, it was a man wholly identified with canal business who
-first foresaw the future importance of the railroad. The Duke of
-Bridgewater had built canals when they were regarded as a hazardous
-speculation; but they proved a success, and in the early years
-of the century he was reaping a rich reward for his foresight.
-One of his fellow-shareholders took occasion to congratulate the
-Duke on the fact that their property was now the surest monopoly
-in the land, and was startled by the reply, "I see mischief in
-these--tramroads." The prophecy is all the more striking as coming
-from an enemy. Like Balaam, the Duke of Bridgewater had a pecuniary
-interest in cursing, but was so good a prophet that he had to tell
-the truth in spite of himself, even though his curse was thereby
-turned into a blessing.
-
-It is hardly necessary to tell in detail how this prediction
-was realized. Thanks to the skill and perseverance of George
-Stephenson, the difficulties in the use of steam as a mode of
-propulsion were rapidly overcome. What was a doubtful experiment
-as late as 1815 had become an accomplished fact in 1830. The
-successful working of the Liverpool & Manchester Railway gave an
-impulse to similar enterprises all over the world. In 1835 there
-were 1,600 miles of railroad in operation--more than half of it in
-the United States. In 1845 the length of the world's railroads had
-increased to more than 10,000 miles; in 1855 it was 41,000 miles;
-in 1865, 90,000; in 1875, 185,000; in 1885, over 300,000.
-
-There were perhaps a few men who foresaw this growth; there were
-almost none who foresaw the changes in organization and business
-methods with which it was attended. People at first thought of the
-railroad as merely an improved highway, which should charge tolls
-like a turnpike or canal, and on which the public should run cars
-of its own, independent of the railroad company itself. In many
-cases, especially in England, long sheets of tolls were published,
-based on the model of canal charters, and naming rates under which
-the use of the road-bed should be free to all. This plan soon
-proved impracticable. If independent owners tried to run trains
-over the same line, it involved a danger of collision and a loss
-of economy. The former evil could perhaps be avoided; the latter
-could not. The advantages of unity of management were so great that
-a road running its own trains could do a much larger business at
-lower rates than if ownership and carriage were kept separate. The
-old plan was as impracticable as it would be for a manufacturing
-company to own the buildings and engines, while each workman owned
-the particular piece of machinery which he handled. Almost all the
-technical advantages of the new methods would be lost for lack of
-system. The railroad company, to serve the public well, could not
-remain in the position of a turnpike or canal company, but must
-itself do the work of carriage.
-
-This was not all. The same economy which resulted from the union
-of road and rolling-stock under one management was still further
-subserved by the consolidation of connecting lines. This change
-did not come about so suddenly as the other. Half a century had
-elapsed before it was fully carried out. At first there was no need
-of it. The early railroads were chiefly built for local traffic,
-and especially for the carriage of local passengers. They were
-like the horse railroads of the present day in the simplicity
-of their organization and the shortness of their lines. England
-in 1847 had chartered 700 companies, with an average authorized
-length of hardly fifteen miles each. The line from Albany to
-Buffalo and Niagara Falls was in the hands of a dozen independent
-concerns. These were but types of what existed all over the world.
-As through traffic, and especially through freight traffic, grew
-in importance, this state of things became intolerable. Frequent
-transshipment was at once an expense to the railroad and a burden
-to the public. Even when this could be avoided, there was a
-multiplication of offices and a loss of responsibility. The system
-of ownership and management had to adapt itself to the technical
-necessities of the business. The change was not the result of
-legislation; nor was it, except in a limited sense, the work of men
-like Vanderbilt or Scott. It occurred in all parts of the world
-at about the same time. It was the result of business necessity,
-strong enough to shape legislation, and to find administrative
-leaders who could meet its demands.
-
-From the very first there were some men who felt the importance
-of the railroads as national lines of communication. The idea was
-present in the minds of the projectors of the Baltimore & Ohio, of
-the Erie, and of the Boston & Albany. But it was not until 1850
-that it became a controlling one; nor was it universally accepted
-even then. As late as 1858 we find that there was a violent popular
-agitation in the State of New York to prohibit the New York Central
-from carrying freight in competition with the Erie Canal. It was
-gravely urged that the railroad had no business to compete with the
-canal; that the latter had a natural right to the through traffic
-from the West, with which the railroads must not interfere. It is
-less than thirty years since a convention at Syracuse, representing
-no small part of the public sentiment of New York, formally
-recommended "the passage of a law by the next Legislature which
-shall confine the railroads of this State to the business for which
-they were originally created."
-
-But matters had gone too far for effective action of this kind.
-Besides the New York Central, the Erie and the Pennsylvania were in
-condition to handle the through traffic which Western connections
-were furnishing. These connections themselves were rapidly growing
-in importance. Prior to 1850 there were very few railroads west of
-the Alleghanies. In 1857 there were thousands of miles. The policy
-of land-grants acted as an artificial stimulus to the building of
-such roads; and a land-grant road, when once built, was almost
-necessarily dependent on through traffic for its support. It
-could not be operated locally; it was forced into close traffic
-arrangements which paved the way for actual consolidation.
-
-The war brought this development to a stand-still for the time
-being; but it was afterward resumed with renewed vigor. It is
-probable that the final effect of the war was to hasten rather
-than to retard the growth of large systems. In the first place,
-it familiarized men's minds with national ideas instead of those
-limited to their own State. It is hard for us to realize that our
-business ideas were ever thus confined by artificial boundaries;
-but if we wish proof, we have only to look at the original location
-of the Erie Railway from Piermont to Dunkirk. Both were unnatural
-and undesirable terminal points; but people were willing to submit
-to inconvenience and to actual loss in order that the railroad
-might run as far as the New York State limits would allow, and not
-one whit farther. Similar instances can be found in other States.
-Hard as it is to understand, there seems to have been a positive
-jealousy of interstate traffic. The war did much to remove this
-by making the different sections of the country feel their common
-interest and their mutual dependence. It also had more direct
-effects. It produced special legislation for the Pacific railroads
-as a measure of military necessity; and this was but the beginning
-of a renewal of the land-grant policy, no longer through the medium
-of the States, but in the Territories and by the direct action of
-Congress. All the results in the way of extension or consolidation
-which had been noted in the first land-grant period were more
-intensely felt in the second. Never was there a time when business
-foresight and administrative power were more needed or more richly
-rewarded than in railroad management during the third quarter of
-the century.
-
-[Illustration: J. Edgar Thomson.]
-
-In 1847 J. Edgar Thomson, an engineer of experience, entered the
-service of the Pennsylvania Railroad, of which he afterward became
-president. Three years later, a young man without experience in
-railroad business applied to him for a position as clerk in the
-station at Duncansville, and was, with some hesitation, accepted.
-Not long after--so runs the story--an influential shipper entered
-the station, and demanded that some transfers should be made in
-a manner contrary to the rules of the company. This the clerk
-refused to do; and when the influential shipper tried to attend
-to the matter himself, he was forcibly ejected from the premises.
-Indignant at this, he complained to the authorities, demanding that
-the obnoxious employee be removed from his position. He was--and
-was promoted to a much higher one. This is said to have been the
-beginning of the railroad career of Thomas Alexander Scott. Edgar
-Thomson was a sufficiently able man to appreciate Scott's talent at
-its full worth, and took every opportunity to make it useful in the
-service of the company. Both before and after the war the system
-was extended in every direction; and the man who in 1850 had need
-of all his nerve to defy a single influential shipper was a quarter
-of a century later at the head of 7,000 miles of the most valuable
-railroad in the country.
-
-[Illustration: Thomas A. Scott.]
-
-As an enterprising and active railroad organizer, Scott was
-probably unrivalled--especially when aided by the soberer judgment
-of Thomson; nor has the operating department of any other railroad
-in the country reached the standard established on the Pennsylvania
-by Scott and Thomson and the men trained up under their eyes.
-But in business sagacity and those qualities which pertain to
-the financial management of property, Scott was surpassed by
-Vanderbilt. The work of the two men was so totally different in
-character that it is hard to compare them. Vanderbilt was not so
-distinctively a railroad man as Scott. He had already made his mark
-as a ship-owner before he went into railroads. But he was a man
-who was bound to take the lead in the business world; and he saw
-that the day for doing it with steamships was passing away, and
-that the day of railroads was come. He therefore presented his best
-steamship to the United States Government in a time when it was
-sorely needed, disposed of the others in whatever way he could, and
-turned his undivided attention to railroads.
-
-In 1863 Vanderbilt began purchasing Harlem stock on a large scale.
-The road was unprofitable, but he at once improved its management
-and made it pay. Speculators on the other side of the market had
-not foreseen the possibility of this course of action, and were
-badly deceived in their calculations. Vanderbilt had begun buying
-at as low a figure as 3; within little more than a year he had
-forced some of its opponents to buy it of him at 285. He soon
-extended his operations to Hudson River, and somewhat later to
-New York Central. Defeated in an attempt to gain control of Erie,
-he turned his attention farther west; and was soon in virtual
-possession of a system which, in his hands at any rate, was fully a
-match for all competitors.
-
-These systems did not long remain without rivals. The Baltimore
-& Ohio, whose development had been interrupted by the war,
-soon resumed, under the leadership of John W. Garrett, its old
-commanding position in the railroad world. Farther west, in the
-years succeeding, systems were developed and consolidated which
-surpassed their eastern connections in aggregate mileage. The
-combined Wabash and Missouri Pacific system in its best days
-included about 10,000 miles of line under what was virtually
-a single management. The Southern Pacific, the Atchison, the
-Northwestern, and the St. Paul systems control each of them in
-one way or another decidedly over 5,000 miles; and a half-dozen
-others might be named, scarcely inferior either in magnitude or in
-commercial power.
-
-The result of all this was to place an enormous and almost
-irresponsible power in the hands of a few men. The directors of
-such a system stand for thousands of investors, tens of thousands
-of employees, and hundreds of thousands of shippers. They have
-the interests of all these parties in their hands for good or
-ill. If they are fit men for their places, they will work for the
-advantage of all. A man like Vanderbilt gave higher profits, larger
-employment, and lower rate as the result of his railroad work. But
-if the head of such a system is unfit for his trust intellectually
-or morally, the harm which he can do is almost boundless.
-
-[Illustration: Cornelius Vanderbilt.]
-
-Of intellectual unfitness the chance is perhaps not great. The
-intense competition of the modern business world makes sure that
-any man, to maintain his position, must have at least some of the
-qualities of mind which it exacts. But of moral unfitness the
-danger is all the greater, because some of the present conditions
-of business competition directly tend to foster it. A German
-economist has said that the so-called survival of the fittest in
-modern industry is really a double survival, side by side, of the
-most talented on the one hand and the most unscrupulous on the
-other. The truth of this is already apparent in railroad business.
-A Vanderbilt on the Central meets a Fisk on the Erie. In spite of
-his superior power and resources he is virtually beaten in the
-contest--beaten, as was said at the time, because he could not
-afford to go so close to the door of State's prison as his rival.
-
-The manager of a large railroad system has under his control a
-great deal of property besides his own--the property of railroad
-investors which has been placed in his charge. Two lines of action
-are open to him. He may make money _for_ the investors, and thereby
-secure the respect of the community; or he may make money _out_ of
-the investors, and thereby get rich enough to defy public opinion.
-The former course has the advantage of honesty, the latter of
-rapidity. It is a disgrace to the community that the latter way is
-made so easy, and so readily condoned. A man has only to give to
-charitable objects a little of the money obtained by violations of
-trust, and a large part of the world will extol him as a public
-benefactor. Nay, more; it seems as if some of our financial
-operators really mistook the _vox populi_ for the _vox Dei_, and
-believed that a hundred thousand dollars given to a theological
-seminary meant absolution for the past and plenary indulgence for
-the future. It is charged that one financier, when he undertook any
-large transaction which was more than usually questionable, made a
-covenant that if the Lord prospered him in his undertaking he would
-divide the proceeds on favorable terms. But--as Wamba said of the
-outlaws and "the fashion of their trade with Heaven"--"when they
-have struck an even balance, Heaven help them with whom they next
-open the account!"
-
-A word or two as to the methods by which such operations are
-carried on, and the system which makes them possible. From the very
-first, railroads have been built and operated by corporations.
-A number of investors, too large to attend personally to the
-management of the enterprise, took shares of stock and elected
-officers to represent them. These officers had almost absolute
-power; but while matters were in this simple stage, there was no
-great opportunity for its abuse. The losses of investors were
-due to _bona fide_ errors of judgment rather than to misuse of
-power. But soon the corporations found it convenient to borrow
-money by mortgaging their property. We then had two classes of
-investors--stockholders and bondholders, the former taking the
-risks and having the full control of the property, the latter
-receiving a relatively sure though perhaps smaller return, but
-having no control over the management as long as their interest was
-regularly paid.
-
-Of course there is always some danger when the men who furnish
-the money do not have much control of the enterprise; but as long
-as the relations of stock and bonds were in practice what they
-pretended to be in theory, the resulting evils were not very
-great. Matters soon reached another stage. The amount of money
-furnished by the bondholders increased out of all proportion to
-that furnished by the stockholders. Sometimes the nominal amount of
-stock was unduly small; more commonly only a very small part of the
-nominal value was ever paid in.[28] The stock was nearly all water,
-simply issued by the directors as a means of keeping control of the
-property. After the crisis of 1857, people had become shy of buying
-railroad stock; but they bought railroad bonds because they thought
-they were safe. This was the case only when there was an actual
-investment of stockholders behind them; without this assurance,
-bonds were more unsafe than stock had been, because the bondholders
-had still less immediate control over the directors and officials.
-If there was money to be made at the time, the directors made it;
-if there was loss in the end, it fell upon the bondholders.
-
-Let us take a specific case. An inside ring issues stock
-certificates to the value of a million dollars, on which perhaps
-a hundred thousand is paid in. They then publish their prospectus
-and place on the market two million of bonds with which the road is
-to be built. They sell the bonds at 80, reimburse themselves for
-the $100,000 advanced by charging the moderate commission of 5 per
-cent. for services in placing the loan, and have at their disposal
-$1,500,000 cash. These same directors now appear as a construction
-company, and award themselves a contract to pay $1,500,000 for work
-which is worth $1,200,000 only. The road is finished, and probably
-does not pay interest on its bonds. It passes into the hands of a
-receiver. Possibly the old management may have an influence in his
-appointment. At the worst, they have got back all the money they
-put in, _plus_ the profits of the construction company; in the case
-supposed, 300 per cent. The bondholders, on the other hand, have
-paid $1,600,000 for a $1,200,000 road.
-
-[Illustration: John W. Garrett.]
-
-But the troubles of the bondholders and the advantages of the old
-directors by no means end here. When the receiver takes possession
-he discovers that valuable terminals, necessary for the successful
-working of the road, are not the property of the company, but of
-the old directors. He finds that the road owns a very inadequate
-supply of rolling-stock, and that the deficiency has been made up
-by a car-trust--also under the control of the old directors. Each
-of these things, and perhaps others, must be made the subject of a
-fight or of a compromise. The latter is often the only practicable
-alternative, and almost always the cheaper one; by its terms the
-ring perhaps secures hundreds of thousands more, at the expense of
-the actual investors.
-
-These are but a few of the many ways in which a few years' control
-of property may be made profitable to the officials at the expense
-of legitimate interests. In a case like this, all depends upon the
-possibility of selling bonds. It is usually impossible to place the
-whole loan before construction; and if the market-price falls below
-the cost of the work undertaken, as was the case with the West
-Shore, the loss falls upon the construction company. Such accidents
-were for a long time rare. It took the public nearly twenty years
-to learn the true character of imperfectly secured railroad bonds.
-Within the past five years it seems to have become a trifle wiser.
-The crisis of 1873 was insufficient to teach the lesson; but that
-of 1885 has been at least partially successful in this respect.
-
-In cases like the one just described the bondholders are largely to
-blame for their own folly. But sometimes the loss falls on those
-who are in no way responsible for it. A railroad may be built as a
-blackmailing job. If a company is sound and prosperous, speculators
-may be tempted to build a parallel road, not with the idea of
-making it pay, but because they can so damage the business of the
-old road as to force it to buy them out. They build the road to
-sell.
-
-It is but fair to say that operations as bad as those just
-described are the exception rather than the rule. But the fact that
-they can exist at all is by no means creditable to our financial
-methods. The whole system by which directors can use their
-positions of trust to make contracts in which they are personally
-interested puts a premium on dishonesty. Such contracts are
-forbidden in England. It may be true, as is urged by many railroad
-officials of undoubted honesty, that it would be inconvenient to
-apply the same law here; but on the whole, the gain would far
-outweigh the loss.
-
-At the very best, a railroad president is subject to temptations
-to misuse his financial powers, all the more dangerous because it
-is impossible to draw the line between right and wrong. He knows
-the probable value of his railroad and of the property affected
-by its action a great deal better than any outsider possibly can.
-The published figures of earnings of the road are the result of
-estimates by himself and his subordinates. Out of the current
-earnings he pays current expenses, and probably charges permanent
-expenditures to capital account. But what expenditures are current
-and what are permanent? This division is itself the result of
-an estimate, and a very doubtful one at that. There are some
-well-established general principles, but none which will apply
-themselves automatically. With the best will in the world he cannot
-make his annual reports give a thoroughly clear idea of what has
-been done. Is he to be forbidden to buy stock when it seems too
-low, or sell it when it is high? Shall we refuse him the right
-to invest in other property which he sees will advance in value?
-Apparently not; and yet, if we allow this, we open the door for
-some of the worst abuses of power which have occurred in railroad
-history. The line between good faith and bad faith in these matters
-is a narrow one, and the average conscience cannot be trusted to
-locate it with accuracy.
-
-But the relations to the investors cover but a small part either
-of the work or of the responsibility of the railroad authorities.
-They are managing not merely a piece of property, but a vast and
-complicated organization of men, and an instrument of public
-service. In all these capacities their cares are equally great.
-The operating and the traffic departments are not less important
-than the financial department. The relations of the railroad to its
-employees, and to the business community at large, are even more
-perplexing than its relations to the investors.
-
-Of the questions arising between the railroad and its employees we
-are just beginning to realize the full importance. They are not
-matters to be settled by private agreement or private war. If they
-involve a serious interruption of the business of the community
-they concern public interests most vitally. The community cannot
-afford to have its business interrupted by railroad strikes. On
-the other hand, it cannot allow the men to make this public duty
-of the railroads a means of enforcing their own will on every
-occasion, to the detriment of all discipline and responsibility, or
-in disregard of investors' rights. How to compromise between these
-two conflicting requirements is one of the most serious problems of
-the immediate future.[29] Little progress in this direction has as
-yet been made, or even systematically attempted.
-
-The questions arising from the relations of the railroads to those
-who use them are wider and older. From the very outset attempts
-were made to regulate railroad charges by law in various ways.
-The fear at that time was that they might be made unreasonably
-high. This fear proved groundless. From the outset the rates were
-rather lower than had been expected, and much lower than by many
-of the means of transportation which railroads superseded. These
-low rates caused a great development in business; and this, in
-turn, gave a chance for such economy in handling it that rates
-went still lower. Each new invention rendered it easier to do a
-large business at cheap rates. The substitution of steel rails
-for iron, which began shortly after the close of the war, had an
-enormous influence in this respect. This was not merely due to the
-direct saving in repairs, which, though appreciable, was moderate
-in amount. It was due still more to improvements in transportation
-which followed. It was found that steel rails would bear heavier
-rolling-stock. Instead of building ten-ton cars to carry ten tons
-of cargo, companies built twelve-ton cars to carry twenty tons of
-cargo, or fourteen-ton cars to carry thirty tons; and they made the
-locomotives heavy enough to handle correspondingly larger trains.
-A given amount of fuel was made to haul more weight; and of the
-weight thus hauled, the freight formed a constantly increasing
-proportion as compared with the rolling-stock itself. The system
-of rates was adopted to meet the new requirements. Charges were
-made incredibly low in order to fill cars that would otherwise
-go empty, or to use the road as nearly as possible to its full
-capacity. In the twenty years following the introduction of steel
-rails the traffic of the New York Central increased from less than
-400,000,000 ton-miles to decidedly over 2,000,000,000; while the
-average rates fell from 3.09 cents per ton per mile in 1866 to 0.76
-cent in 1886. This is but a single instance of a process which has
-gone on all over the country. The average freight charge on all
-railroads of the country to-day is a little over one cent per ton
-a mile: less than half what would have been deemed possible on any
-railroad a few years ago.
-
-The progress of railroad consolidation contributed greatly to
-this economy. It saved multiplication of offices; it saved
-re-handling of freight; it enabled long-distance business to
-be done systematically. So great were its advantages that
-co-operation between connecting lines was carried far beyond
-the limits of actual consolidation. Through traffic was handled
-without transshipment, sometimes by regularly incorporated express
-companies or freight companies on the same plan, but more commonly
-by what are known as fast-freight lines.[30] These are little more
-than combinations for keeping account of through business; they are
-by no means ideal in their working, but they have the advantage of
-few expenses and no income, so that the temptation to steal, which
-is the bane of such organizations, is here reduced to a minimum.
-
-But all these things, while they increased the efficiency of the
-service, also increased the power of the railroad authorities
-and rendered the shipper more helpless. The very cheapness of
-rates only made a recourse to other means of transportation more
-difficult. If _A_ was charged 30 cents while his competitor _B_ was
-paying only 20 cents for the same service, he was worse off than
-when they were both paying a dollar; and the fact that no other
-means of conveyance could be found to do the work for less than a
-dollar simply put _A_ all the more completely at the mercy of the
-railroad freight-agent. In other words, the fact that rates were so
-low made any inequality in rates all the more dangerous. The lower
-the rate and the wider the monopoly, the less was the chance of
-relief.
-
-Such inequalities existed on a large scale: and they were all the
-more difficult to deal with because there was a certain reason
-for some of them arising from the nature of railroad business.
-The expenses of a railroad are of two kinds. Some, like train and
-station service, locomotive fuel, or repairs of rolling-stock, are
-pretty directly chargeable to the different parts of the traffic.
-It costs a certain amount in wages and in materials to run a
-particular train; if that train is taken off, that part of the
-expense is saved. But there is another class of items, known as
-fixed charges, that do not vary with the amount of business done.
-Interest on bonds must be paid, whether the volume of traffic
-be large or small. The services of track-watchmen must be paid
-for, whether there be a hundred trains daily or only a dozen. In
-short, most of the expenses for interest and maintenance of way
-are chargeable to the business as a whole, but not to particular
-pieces of work done. The practical inference from this is obvious.
-In order that the railroad as a whole may be profitable, the fixed
-charges must be paid somehow. The railroad manager will try to get
-them as he can from different parts of his traffic. But if, for any
-reason, a particular piece of business cannot or will not pay its
-share of the fixed charges, it is better to secure it at any price
-above the bare expense of loading and hauling, without regard to
-the fixed charges. For if the business is lost, these charges will
-run on just the same, without any added means of meeting them.
-
-The consequence is that there is no natural standard of rates;
-or, rather, that there are two standards, so far apart that the
-difference between the two is quite sufficient to build up one
-establishment or one locality and ruin another, in case of an
-arbitrary exercise of power on the part of the freight-agent.
-In the use of such a power it was inevitable that there should
-be a great many mistakes, and some things which were worse than
-mistakes. Colbert once cynically defined taxation as "the art of
-so plucking the goose as to secure the largest amount of feathers
-with the least amount of squealing." Some of our freight-agents
-have taken Colbert's tax theories as a standard, and have applied
-them only too literally. It is this short-sighted policy which
-has made the system of charging "what the traffic will bear" a
-synonyme for extortion. Interpreted rightly, this phrase represents
-a sound principle of railroad policy--putting the burden of the
-fixed charges on the shipments that can afford to pay them. But
-practically--in the popular mind at least--it has come to mean
-almost exactly the opposite.
-
-The points which got the benefit of the lowest rates were the
-large trade centres, which had the benefit of competing lines of
-railroad, and often of water competition also. The threat to ship
-goods by a rival route was the surest way of making a freight-agent
-give low rates. The result was that the growth of such places was
-specially stimulated. In addition to their natural advantages they
-had an artificial one due to the policy of competing lines of
-railroad. It may well be the case, as is argued by railroad men,
-that sound railroad economy demands that goods in large masses
-should be carried much more cheaply than those which are furnished
-in smaller quantities. But it is certain the practice went far
-beyond the limits of any such justification. There was a time
-when cattle were carried from Chicago to New York at a dollar a
-car-load; and many other instances, scarcely less marked, could be
-cited from the history of trunk-line competition. The fact was,
-that in an active railroad war freight-agents would generally
-accede to a demand for reduced rates at a competing point, whether
-well founded or not, and would almost always turn a deaf ear to
-similar demands from local shippers, however strongly supported by
-considerations of far-sighted business policy.
-
-But this was not the worst. Inequalities between different places
-might after some hardship correct themselves; differences of
-treatment between individuals could not be thus adjusted. And the
-system of making rates by special bargain almost always led to
-differences between individuals, where favors were too often given
-to those who needed or deserved them least. The fluctuation of
-rates was first taken advantage of by the unscrupulous speculator.
-Often, if he controlled large sources of shipment, he might receive
-the benefit of a secret agreement by which he could obtain lower
-rates than his rivals under all circumstances. A more effective
-means for destroying straightforwardness in business dealings than
-the old system of special rates was never devised. Sometimes, where
-one competitor was overwhelmingly strong, the pretence of secrecy
-was thrown aside, and the railroad companies so far forgot their
-public duties as almost openly to assist one concern in crushing
-its rivals. The state of things in this respect twelve or fifteen
-years ago was so bad that it is painful to dwell upon; but the
-reformation to-day is not so complete that we can wash our hands of
-past sins.
-
-Less was said or felt of similar evils in passenger traffic,
-because the passenger business of the country generally is of much
-less importance than its freight business, either to the railroad
-investors or to the producers themselves. But there was the same
-fluctuation in passenger rates; and there was an outrageous form
-of discrimination in the development of the free-pass system; a
-practice which would have fully deserved the name of systematic
-bribery, had it not become so universal that most men hardly
-recognized any personal obligation connected with the acceptance
-of a pass. Officials and other citizens of influence had come to
-regard it as a right; it was not so much bribery on the part of the
-companies as blackmail levied against them.
-
-The remedies proposed for all these evils have been various. From
-the very beginning until now there have been some who held that
-such abuses could be avoided only by State railroad ownership.
-Such experiments in the United States have not gone far enough
-to furnish conclusive evidence either way; but the experience of
-other countries indicates that State railroads, as such, do not
-avoid these evils. Where they have been worked in competition with
-other lines, they have been as deeply involved in these abuses as
-their private competitors--perhaps more so. Where the government
-has obtained control of all the railroads of the country, and made
-such arrangements with the water-routes as to render competition
-impossible, the abuses have vanished, because there was no longer
-any conceivable motive to continue them. But this was the result
-of the monopoly, not of the State ownership; and the advantage was
-purchased by a sacrifice of all the stimulus of competition toward
-the development of new facilities.
-
-Many people assume that, because the government represents the
-nation as a whole, therefore government officials will not be
-under the same temptations to act unjustly which are felt by the
-representatives of a private corporation. This is a mistake. It
-is not as representatives of the investor that railroad agents do
-much injustice; this motive has practically nothing to do with
-it. Most of the abuses complained of are positively injurious to
-the investor in the long run. When officials really represent
-the interests of the property with wise foresight, they, as a
-rule, give the public no ground to complain. The question reduces
-itself to this: Will the State choose better representatives and
-agents than a private corporation? Will it secure a higher grade
-of officials, more competent, more honest, and more enterprising?
-The difference between state and private railroads is not so much
-on matters of policy as on methods of administration. The success
-of government administration varies with different countries. In
-Prussia, where it is seen at its best, the results are in some
-respects remarkably good; yet even here the roads are not managed
-on anything like the American standard of efficiency, either in
-amount of train service, in speed, or in rapidity of development.
-And what is barely successful in Prussia, with its trained civil
-service on the one hand and its less intense industrial demands
-on the other, can hardly be considered possible or desirable in
-America. No one who has watched the workings of a government
-contract can desire to have the whole trade of the country put
-to the expense of supporting such methods in its transportation
-business.
-
-A more easy method of trying to regulate railroad charges has been
-by forced reductions in rates. This was tried on the largest scale
-in the Granger movement fifteen years ago. A fall in the price of
-wheat had rendered it difficult for the farmers to make money. The
-Patrons of Husbandry, in investigating the causes, saw that the
-larger trade centres, where there was competition, were getting
-lower rates than the local producer. They reasoned that if all the
-farmers could get such low rates, they could make money; and that,
-if the roads could afford to make these low rates for any points,
-they could afford to do it for all. The railroad agents, instead of
-foreseeing the storm and trying to prevent it, assumed a defiant
-attitude. The result was that legislatures of the States in the
-upper Mississippi Valley passed laws of more or less rigidity,
-scaling down all rates to the general level of competitive ones.
-After a period of some doubt, the right of the States to do this
-was admitted by the courts. But before the legal possibility had
-been decided, the practical impossibility of such a course had
-been shown. If all rates were reduced to the level of competitive
-ones, it left nothing to pay fixed charges. On such terms, foreign
-capital would not come into the State; nor could it be enticed by
-such a clumsy effort as that of one of the States, which provided
-"that no road _hereafter constructed_ shall be subject to the
-provisions of this act." The goose which laid the golden eggs was
-not such a goose as to be deceived by this. The untimely death of
-several of her species meant more than any promises of immunity to
-those who should follow in her footsteps. In those States which had
-passed the most severe laws capital would not invest; railroads
-could not pay interest, their development stopped, and the growth
-of the community was seriously checked thereby. The most obnoxious
-laws were either repealed or allowed to remain in abeyance. Where
-the movement was strongest in 1873 it had practically spent its
-force in 1876. There have been many similar attempts in all parts
-of the country since that time; just now they are peculiarly
-active; but nothing which approaches in recklessness some of the
-legislation of 1873 and 1874. The lesson was at least partly
-learned.
-
-We had hardly passed the crisis of the effort to level down, when
-some of the more intelligent railroad men made an effort to level
-up. Recognizing that discriminations and fluctuating rates were
-an evil, they sought to avoid it by common action with regard to
-the business at competing points. A mere agreement as to rates to
-be charged was not enough to secure this end. Such an agreement
-was sure to be violated. Even if the leading authorities meant
-to observe it, their agents could always evade its requirements
-to some extent. Such evasion was favored by loose arrangements
-between connecting roads, and by the somewhat irresponsible system
-of fast freight lines. Wherever it existed, it gave rise to mutual
-suspicion. _A_ believed that his road did it because he could not
-help it, but that _B_ and _C_ were allowing their roads to do
-it maliciously; while _B_ and _C_ had the same consciousness of
-individual rectitude and the same unkind suspicions with regard to
-_A_. It was at best a rather hollow truce, which did not really
-accomplish its purpose, and which might change to open war on very
-slight provocation.
-
-To avoid this difficulty a pool, or division of traffic, was
-arranged. It is a fact that, whatever wars of rates there may be,
-the percentage of traffic carried by the different lines varies
-but little. If an arbitrator can examine the books and decide what
-these percentages have been in the past, he can make an award for
-the future, under which the competitive traffic of the different
-roads may be fairly divided. The arrangements for doing this are
-various. Sometimes the roads carry such traffic as may happen to
-be offered, and settle the differences with one another by money
-balances; sometimes they actually divert traffic from one line to
-another. But the advantage of either of these arrangements over a
-mere agreement to maintain rates is that they cannot be violated
-without direct action on the part of the leading authorities of
-the roads concerned--either in open withdrawal, or in actual
-bad faith. The ordinary irregularities of agents do not, under
-a pooling system, give rise to much suspicion, because they do
-not benefit the road in whose behalf they are undertaken. Its
-percentage being fixed there is no motive for rate-cutting. So
-great is this advantage that pooling is accepted in almost all
-other countries as a natural means of maintaining equality of
-rates; the state railroads of Central Europe entering into such
-contracts with competing private lines and even with water-routes.
-In America itself, pools have had a longer and wider history than
-is generally supposed. In New England they arose and continued to
-exist on a moderate scale without attracting much attention. In the
-Mississippi Valley, the Chicago-Omaha pool was arranged as early as
-1870, and formed the model for a whole system of such arrangements
-extending as far as the Pacific Coast. But, as involving wider
-questions of public policy, the activity of the Southern and the
-Trunk Line Associations has attracted chief attention.
-
-The man whose name is most prominently identified with both these
-systems is Albert Fink. A German by birth and education, his long
-experience as a practical railroad engineer did not deprive him of
-a taste for studying traffic problems on their theoretical side. As
-Vice-President of the Louisville & Nashville, he had given special
-attention to the economic conditions affecting the Southern roads;
-and when, in the years 1873-75, a traffic association was formed by
-a number of these roads to secure harmony of action on matters of
-common interest, he became the recognized leader. His success in
-arrangements for through traffic was so conspicuous that when, in
-1877, the trunk lines were exhausted with an unusually destructive
-war of rates, they looked to him as the only man who could deliver
-them from their trouble. In some lines, division of traffic had
-already been resorted to; but it was in the hands of outside
-parties, like the Standard Oil Company or the cattle eveners,
-and was made a means of oppression against shippers not in the
-combination itself.
-
-[Illustration: Albert Fink.]
-
-The conditions were not favorable; the result of Fink's efforts to
-bring order out of chaos was slow and by no means uninterrupted.
-Yet on the whole, as was admitted even by opponents of the pooling
-system, it contributed to steadiness and equality of rates. The
-arrangement of these agreements was hampered by their want of
-legal status. While the law did not at that time actually prohibit
-them, it refused to enforce them. Existing thus on sufferance,
-they depended on the good will of the contracting parties. None
-but a man of Fink's unimpeached integrity and high intellectual
-power could have kept matters running at all; and even he could
-not prevent the adoption of a policy of making hay while the sun
-shines, more or less regardless of the future. The results of the
-trunk-line pool were unsatisfactory--most of all to those who
-believed in pools as a system; but it is fair to attribute a large
-part of this failure to the absence of legal recognition, which
-in a manner compelled the agreements to be arranged to meet the
-demands of the day rather than of the future.
-
-Meantime an equally important contribution to the solution of the
-railroad question was being worked out in another quarter. In the
-year 1869 the Massachusetts Railroad Commission was established.
-Its powers were so slight that it was not regarded as likely to
-be an influential public agency. Fortunately it numbered among
-its members Charles Francis Adams, Jr.; a man whose efficiency
-more than made up for any want of nominal powers. In his hands the
-mere power to report became the most effective of all weapons.
-Representing at once enlightened public judgment and far-sighted
-railroad policy, he did much to bring the two into harmony and
-protect the legitimate interests on both sides from short-sighted
-misuse for the benefit of either party. The detail of his work is
-matter of past history; perhaps its most prominent result was to
-introduce to State legislation the idea of a railroad commission
-as an administrative body. Those States which had no stringent
-laws appointed commissions to take their place; those which had
-overstringent ones appointed commissions to use discretion in
-applying them. In either case, the existence of a body of men
-representing the State, but possessing the technical knowledge
-to see what the exigencies of railroad business demanded, was a
-protection to all parties concerned.
-
-[Illustration: Charles Francis Adams.]
-
-But matters were rapidly passing beyond the sphere of State
-legislation. Each new consolidation of systems, each additional
-development of through traffic, made it more impossible to control
-railroad policy by the action of individual States. It could only
-be done by a development of the law in the United States courts or
-by Congressional legislation. The former result was necessarily
-slow; each year showed an increased demand for special action on
-the part of Congress. But such action was hindered by divergence of
-opinion in that body itself. One set of men wished a moderate law,
-prohibiting the most serious abuses of railroad power, and enforced
-under the discretionary care of a commission. These men were for
-the most part not unwilling to see pools legalized if their members
-could thereby be held to a fuller measure of responsibility. On the
-other hand, the extremists wished to prescribe a system of equal
-mileage rates; they would hear of no such thing as a commission,
-and hated pools as an invention of the adversary. Between the two
-lay a large body of members who had no convictions on the matter,
-but were desirous to please everybody and offend nobody--a hard
-task in this particular case. It was nearly nine years from the
-time Mr. Reagan introduced his first bill when a compromise was
-finally effected--largely by the influence of Senator Cullom.
-As compromises go, it was a tolerably fair one. The extremists
-sacrificed their opposition to a commission, but secured the
-prohibition of pools; the disputed points with regard to rates were
-left in such a shape that no man knew what the law meant, and each
-was, for the time being, able to interpret it to suit the wishes of
-his Congressional district.
-
-The immediate effects of the law were extremely good. There
-were certain sections of it, like those which secured publicity
-of rates and equal treatment for different persons in the same
-circumstances, whose wisdom was universally admitted. Indeed it was
-rather a disgrace, both to the railroad agents and to the courts,
-that we had to wait for an act of Congress to secure these ends;
-and most of the railroads made up for past remissness in this
-respect by quite a spasm of virtue. In some instances it was even
-thought that they "stood up so straight as to lean over backward."
-But this was not the only part of the law which proved efficient.
-The very vagueness of the clause concerning the relative rates for
-through and local traffic, which under other circumstances might
-have proved fatal, put a most salutary power into the hands of the
-Interstate Commerce Commission, and one which they were not slow to
-use.
-
-[Illustration: Thomas M. Cooley.]
-
-The President was fortunate in his selection of commissioners;
-above all in the chairman, Judge T. M. Cooley, of Michigan, a
-man whose character, knowledge of public law, and technical
-familiarity with railroad business made him singularly well fitted
-for the place. The work of the Interstate Commission, like that
-of its Massachusetts prototype, shows how much more important is
-personal power than mere technical authority. It was supposed at
-first that the commission would be a purely administrative body,
-with discretion to suspend the law. Instead of this, they have
-enforced and interpreted it; and in the process of interpretation
-have virtually created a body of additional law, which is read and
-quoted as authority. With but little ground for expecting it from
-the letter of the act, they have become a judicial body of the
-highest importance. Their existence seems to furnish a possibility
-for an elastic development of transportation law, neither so weak
-as to be ineffective nor so strong as to break by its own rigidity.
-
-But the final test of their success is yet to come. They have laid
-down a few principles as to the cases when competition justifies
-through rates lower than those at intermediate points. But the
-application of these principles is as yet far from settled; and
-it is rendered doubly hard by the clause against pools, which
-does much to hamper the roads in any attempt to secure common
-action on the matter of through rates. Each ill-judged piece of
-State legislation, and each reckless attempt to attack railroad
-profits, increases the difficulty. There was a time when the
-powers of railroad managers were developed without corresponding
-responsibility. In many parts of the country we are now going
-to the other extreme--increasing the responsibility of railroad
-authorities toward shipper and employees, State law and national
-commission, and at the same time striving to restrict their powers
-to the utmost. Such a policy cannot be continued indefinitely
-without a disastrous effect upon railroad service, and, indirectly,
-upon the business of the country as a whole.
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[28] In 1886 the capital stock and the indebtedness of the
-railroads of the United States amounted to about four thousand
-million dollars each. Most of the debt represents money actually
-paid in; but a very large fraction of the stock is a merely
-nominal liability on which no payments have been made. Some was
-issued as here described merely as a means of keeping control of
-the property; some, as the easiest method of balancing unequal
-values in reorganization; some, to represent increased value of
-the property, so as to be able to divide all the current earnings
-without calling public attention too prominently to the very
-profitable character of the business. On the other hand, some stock
-on which money was actually paid has been wiped out of existence;
-and something has been paid out of earnings for capital account
-without corresponding issue of securities. The net amount of
-"water," or excess of nominal liabilities over actual investments,
-in the capital account of the railroads of the country can only be
-made the subject of guesswork. Estimates of responsible authorities
-vary all the way from nothing to $4,000,000,000.
-
-[29] See following article on "The Prevention of Railway Strikes."
-
-[30] See "The Freight-car Service," page 287.
-
-
-
-
-THE PREVENTION OF RAILWAY STRIKES.[31]
-
-BY CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS.
-
-  Railways the Largest Single Interest in the United
-  States--Some Impressive Statistics--Growth of a Complex
-  Organization--Five Divisions of Necessary Work--Other Special
-  Departments--Importance of the Operating Department--The Evil
-  of Strikes--To be Remedied by Thorough Organization--Not the
-  Ordinary Relation between Employer and Employee--Of what the
-  Model Railway Service Should Consist--Temporary and Permanent
-  Employees--Promotion from One Grade to the Other--Rights
-  and Privileges of the Permanent Service--Employment during
-  Good Behavior--Proposed Tribunal for Adjusting Differences
-  and Enforcing Discipline--A Regular Advance in Pay for
-  Faithful Service--A Fund for Hospital Service, Pensions, and
-  Insurance--Railroad Educational Institutions--The Employer
-  to Have a Voice in Management through a Council--A System of
-  Representation.
-
-
-In 1836--fifty years ago--there were but a little more than 1,000
-miles of railroad on the American continents, representing an
-outlay of some $35,000,000, and controlled by a score or so of
-corporations. There are now (1886) about 135,000 miles in the
-United States alone, capitalized at over eight thousand millions of
-dollars.
-
-The railroad interest is thus the largest single interest in the
-country. Probably 600,000 men are in its employ as wage-earners. It
-is safe to say that over two millions of human beings are directly
-dependent upon it for their daily support. The Union Pacific,
-as a single and by no means the largest member of this system,
-controls 5,150 miles of road, represented by stock and bonds to
-the amount of $275,000,000. More than 15,000 names are borne upon
-its pay-rolls. Its yearly income has exceeded $29,000,000, and
-in 1885 was $26,000,000. Large as these aggregates sound, there
-are other corporations which far exceed the Union Pacific both in
-income and in capitalization, and not a few exceed it in mileage.
-The Pennsylvania, for instance, either owns or directly controls
-7,300 miles of road. It is represented by a capitalization of
-$670,000,000; its annual income is $93,000,000; it carries 75,000
-names on its pay-rolls.
-
-This has been the outgrowth of a single half-century. The vast
-and intricate organization implied in the management of such an
-interest had, as it were, to be improvised. The original companies
-were small and simple affairs. Some retired man of business
-held, as a rule, the position of president; while another man,
-generally a civil engineer, and as such supposed to be more or
-less acquainted with the practical working of railroads, acted as
-superintendent. The superintendent, in point of fact, attended
-to everything. He was the head of the commercial department; the
-head of the operating department; the head of the construction
-department; and the head of the mechanical department. But
-there is a limit to what any single man can do; and so, as the
-organization developed, it became necessary to relieve the railroad
-superintendent of many of his duties. Accordingly, the working
-management naturally subdivided itself into separate departments,
-at the head of which men were placed who had been trained all their
-lives to do the particular work required in each department. In
-the same way, the employees of the company--the wage-earners, as
-they are called--originally few in number, held toward the company
-relations similar to those which the employees in factories, shops,
-or on farms, held to those who employed them. In other words, there
-was in the railroad system no organized service. As the employees
-increased until they were numbered by hundreds, better organization
-became a necessity. The community was absolutely dependent upon its
-railroad service for continued existence, for the running of trains
-is to the modern body politic very much what the circulation of
-blood is to the human being. An organized system, therefore, had
-to grow up. This fact was not recognized at first; and, indeed,
-is only imperfectly recognized yet. Still the fact was there; and
-inasmuch as it was there and was not recognized, trouble ensued.
-No rationally organized railroad service--that is, no service in
-which the employer and employed occupy definite relations toward
-each other, recognized by each, and by the body politic--no such
-service exists. Approaches to it only have been made. A discussion,
-therefore, of the form that such a service would naturally take if
-it were organized, cannot be otherwise than timely.
-
-It has already been noticed that in the process of organization the
-railroad, following the invariable law, naturally subdivides itself
-into different departments.[32] In the case of every corporation of
-magnitude there are of these departments, whether one man is at the
-head of one or several of them, at least five. These are:
-
-1st. The financial department, which provides the ways and means.
-
-2d. The construction department, which builds the railroad after
-the means to build it are provided.
-
-3d. The operating department, which operates the road after it is
-built.
-
-4th. The commercial department, which finds business for the
-operated road to do, and regulates the rates which are to be
-charged for doing it.
-
-5th. The legal department, which attends to all the numerous
-questions which arise in the practical working of everyone of the
-other departments.
-
-These five divisions of necessary work exist in the organization of
-every company, no matter how small it may be, or how few officers
-it may employ. In the larger companies the need is found for yet
-other special departments. In the case of the Union Pacific, for
-instance, there are two such: First, the comptroller's department,
-which establishes and is responsible for the whole method of
-accounting; second, a department which is responsible for all
-the numerous interests which a large railroad company almost of
-necessity develops outside of its strict, legitimate work as a
-common carrier.
-
-When it comes to dealing with the employees of the company, it
-will be found that the vast majority of those whose names are on
-the pay-rolls belong to the operating department. This department
-is responsible not only for the running of trains and, usually,
-for the maintenance of the permanent way, but also for the repairs
-of rolling stock. All the train-hands, all the section-men and
-bridge-gangs, and all the mechanics in the repair shops thus belong
-to the operating department. The accounting department employs
-only clerks. The same is true of the commercial department, though
-the commercial department has also agents at different business
-centres who look after the company's interests and secure traffic
-for it. The construction department is in the hands of civil
-engineers, and the force employed by it depends entirely upon the
-amount of building which may at any time be going on. As a rule,
-the bulk of the employees in the construction department are paid
-by contractors, and not directly by the railroad company. The legal
-department consists only of lawyers and the few clerks necessary to
-aid them in transacting their business.
-
-In the operating department of the Union Pacific at the present
-time (1886) about 14,000 names are carried upon the pay-roll. The
-number varies according to the season of the year and the pressure
-of traffic. In January, and during the winter months, the average
-will fall to 12,000, while in June and during the summer it rises
-to 14,000.
-
-Of these, 2,800, or 20 per cent., are engaged in train movement;
-4,200, or 30 per cent, are in the machine-shops and in charge
-of motive power and rolling-stock; 7,000, or 50 per cent., are
-employed in various miscellaneous ways, as flag-men, section-hands,
-station agents, switch-men, etc., etc.
-
-So far as the wage-earner is concerned, it is, therefore, this
-portion of the force of a railroad company which may be called
-distinctively "the service." If good relations exist between the
-men employed in its operating department and the company no
-serious trouble can ever arise in the operation of the road.
-The clerks in the financial department, or the engineers in the
-construction department, might leave the company's employ in a
-body, and their places could soon be filled. In point of fact,
-they never do leave it; but should they do so, the public would
-experience no inconvenience. The inconvenience--and it would
-be very considerable--would be confined to the office of the
-company, and their work would fall into arrears. It is not so with
-the operating department. So far as the community at large is
-concerned, whatever difficulties arise in the working of railroads
-develop themselves here. All serious railroad strikes take place
-among those engaged in the shops, on the track, or in handling
-trains. That these difficulties should be reduced to a minimum is
-therefore a necessity. They can be reduced to a minimum only when
-the railroad service is thoroughly organized.
-
-How then can this service be better organized than it is? It is
-usually maintained that only the ordinary relation of employer
-and employed should exist between the railroad company and the
-men engaged in operating its road. If the farmer is dissatisfied
-with his hands, he can dismiss them. In like manner, if the
-laborer is dissatisfied with the farmer, he can leave his employ.
-It is argued that exactly the same relation should exist between
-the great railroad corporation and the tens of thousands of men
-in its operating department. The proposition is not tenable.
-The circumstances are different. In the first place, it is of
-no practical consequence to the community whether difficulties
-which prevent the work of the farm from going on arise or do not
-arise between an individual farmer and his laborers. The work of
-innumerable other farms goes on all the same, and it is a matter
-of indifference what occurs in the management of the particular
-farm. So it is even with large factories, machine-shops--in fact,
-with all industrial concerns which do not perform immediate
-public functions. A railroad company does perform immediate
-public functions. The community depends upon it for the daily
-and necessary movements of civilized existence. This fact has to
-be recognized. For a railroad to pause in its operation implies
-paralysis to the community which it serves.
-
-Such being the fact, it is futile to argue that the ordinary
-relations of employer and employed should obtain in the railroad
-service. Something else is required; and because something
-else is required but has not yet been devised we have had the
-numerous difficulties which have taken place during the present
-year--difficulties which have occasioned the community much
-inconvenience and loss.
-
-The model railroad service, therefore, is now to be considered.
-Of what would it consist? At present, there is practically no
-difference between individuals in the employ of a great railroad
-corporation. All the wage-earners in its pay stand in like position
-toward it. There should be a difference among them; and a marked
-difference, due to circumstances which should receive recognition.
-Take again the case of the Union Pacific. The Union Pacific, it has
-already been mentioned, numbers 14,000 employees in its operating
-department as a maximum, and 12,000 as a minimum. They vary with
-the season of the year, increasing in summer and diminishing
-in winter. Consequently there is a large body of men who are
-permanently in its employ; and there is a smaller body, although
-a very considerable portion of the whole, who are in its employ
-only temporarily. Here is a fact, and facts should be recognized.
-If this particular fact is recognized, the service of the company
-should be organized accordingly, and each of the several divisions
-of the operating department would have on its rolls two classes of
-men: First, those who have been admitted into the permanent service
-of the company; and, second, those who for any cause are only
-temporarily in that service. And no man should be admitted into
-the permanent service until after he has served an apprenticeship
-in the temporary service. In other words, admission into the
-permanent service would be in the nature of a promotion from an
-apprenticeship in the temporary service.
-
-Those in the temporary service need not, therefore, be at present
-considered. They hold to the companies only the ordinary relation
-of employee to employer. They may be looked upon as candidates for
-admission into the permanent service--they are on probation. So
-long as they are on probation they may be engaged and discharged at
-pleasure. The permanent service alone is now referred to.
-
-The permanent service of a great railroad company should in many
-essential respects be very much like a national service, that of
-the army or navy, for instance, except in one particular, and a
-very important particular: to wit, those in it must of necessity
-always be at liberty to resign from it--in other words, to leave
-it. The railroad company can hold no one in its employ one moment
-against his will. Meanwhile, to belong to the permanent service
-of a railroad company of the first class, so far as the employee
-is concerned, should mean a great deal. It should carry with it
-certain rights and privileges which would cause that service to be
-eagerly sought. In the first place, he who had passed through his
-period of probation and whose name was enrolled in the permanent
-service would naturally feel that his interests were to a large
-extent identified with those of the company; and that he on the
-other hand had rights and privileges which the company was bound
-to respect. It has been a matter of boast in France that every
-private soldier in the French army carried the possibility of
-the field-marshal's baton in his knapsack. It should be the same
-with every employee in the permanent service of a great American
-railroad company. The possibility of his rising to any position in
-that service for which he showed himself qualified should be open
-before him and constantly present in his mind. Many of the most
-remarkable and successful men who have handled railroads in the
-United States began their active lives as brakemen, as telegraph
-operators, even as laborers on the track. Such examples are of
-inestimable value. They reveal possibilities open to all.
-
-Beyond this, the man who is permanently enrolled should feel that,
-though he may not rise to a high position, yet, as a matter of
-right, he is entitled to hold the position to which he has risen
-just so long as he demeans himself properly and does his duty well.
-He should be free from fear of arbitrary dismissal. In order that
-he may have this security, a tribunal should be devised before
-which he would have the right to be heard in case charges of
-misdemeanor are advanced against him.
-
-No such tribunal has yet been provided in the organization of any
-railroad company; neither, as a rule, has the suggestion of such a
-tribunal been looked upon with favor either by the official or the
-employee. The latter is apt to argue that he already has such a
-tribunal in the executive committee of his own labor organization;
-and a tribunal, too, upon which he can depend to decide always in
-his favor. The official, on the other hand, contends that if he is
-to be responsible for results he must have the power of arbitrarily
-dismissing the employee. Without it he will not be able to maintain
-discipline. The two arguments, besides answering each other, divide
-the railroad service into hostile camps. The executive committees
-of the labor organizations practically cannot save the members of
-those organizations from being got rid of, though they do in many
-cases protect them against summary discharge; and, on the other
-hand, the official, in the face of the executive committee, enjoys
-only in theory the power of summary discharge. The situation is
-accordingly false and bad. It provokes hostility. The one party
-boasts of a protection which he does not enjoy; the other insists
-upon a power which he dares not exercise. The remedy is manifest. A
-system should be devised based on recognized facts; a system which
-would secure reasonable protection to the employee, and at the
-same time enable the official to enforce all necessary discipline.
-This a permanent service, with a properly organized tribunal to
-appeal to, would bring about. Meanwhile the winnowing process would
-be provided for in the temporary service. Over that the official
-would have complete control, and the idle, the worthless, and the
-insubordinate would be kept off. The wheat would there be separated
-from the chaff. Until such a system is devised the existing chaos,
-made up of powerless protection and impotent power, must apparently
-continue. None the less it is a delusion on the one side and a
-mockery on the other.
-
-How the members of such a court as has been suggested would be
-appointed and by whom is matter for consideration. It would,
-of course, be essential that the appointees should command the
-confidence of all in the company's service, whether officials
-or employees. The possible means of reaching this result will
-presently be discussed.
-
-Not only should permanent employees be entitled to retain their
-position during good behavior, but they should also look forward
-to the continual bettering of their condition. That is, apart
-from promotion, seniority in the service should carry with it
-certain rights and privileges. Take the case of conductors,
-brakemen, engineers, machinists, and the like; there seems to be
-no reason why length of faithful service should not carry with it
-a stipulated increase of pay. If conductors, for example, have
-a regular pay of $100 a month, there seems no good reason why
-the pay should not increase by steps of $5 with each five years'
-service, so that when the conductor has been twenty-five years in
-the service his pay should be increased by one-quarter, or $25 a
-month. The increase might be more or less. The figures suggested
-merely illustrate. So also with the engineer, the brakeman, the
-section-man, the machinist. A certain prospect of increased pay, if
-a man demeans himself faithfully, is a great incentive to faithful
-demeanor. This is another fact which it would be well not to lose
-sight of.
-
-There ought likewise to be connected with every large railroad
-organization certain funds, contributed partly by the company and
-partly by the voluntary action of employees, which would provide
-for hospital service, retiring pensions, sick pensions, and
-insurance against accident and death. Every man whose name has once
-been enrolled in the permanent employ of the company should be
-entitled to the benefit of these funds; and he should be deprived
-of it only by his own voluntary act, or as the consequence of some
-misdemeanor proved before a tribunal. At present the railroad
-companies of this country are under no inducement to establish
-these mutual insurance societies, or to contribute to them. Their
-service, in principle at least, is a shifting service; and so long
-as it is shifting the elaborate organizations which are essential
-to the safe management of the funds referred to cannot be called
-into existence. A tie-up, as it might be called, between the
-companies and their employees is a condition precedent. Were this
-once effected the rest would follow by steps both natural and easy.
-For a company like the Union Pacific to contribute $100,000 a year
-to a hospital fund and retiring pension and insurance associations
-would be a small matter, if the thing could be so arranged that
-the permanent employees themselves would contribute a like sum;
-and permanent employees only would contribute at all. Once let
-the growth of associations like these begin, and it proceeds with
-almost startling rapidity. At the end of ten years the accumulated
-capital on the basis of contribution suggested would probably
-amount to millions. Every man who was so fortunate as to become
-a permanent employee of the company would then be assured of
-provision in case of sickness or disability, and his family would
-be assured of it in case of his death.
-
-The moment a permanent service was thus established it would also
-involve further provision of an educational nature. That is, the
-companies must continually provide a stock of men for the future.
-Where a boy--the son of an employee--grows up always looking
-forward to entering the company's service, he becomes to that
-company very much what a cadet at West Point or Annapolis is to
-the army or the navy of the United States; the idea of loyalty
-to the company and of pride in its service grows up with him.
-Railroad educational institutions of this sort have already been
-created by at least one corporation in the country, and they should
-be created by all railroad corporations of the first class. The
-children of employees would naturally go into these schools, and
-the best of them would at the proper age be sent out upon the
-road to take their places in the shops, on the track, or at the
-brake. From those thus educated the higher positions in the company
-would thereafter be filled. The cost of maintaining these schools,
-at least in part, would become a regular item in the operating
-expenses of the road. Properly handled, a vast economy would be
-effected through them. The morale of the service would gradually
-be raised, and the morale of a railroad is, if properly viewed, no
-less important than the morale of an army or navy. It is invaluable.
-
-But it is futile to suppose that such a service as that outlined
-could be organized, in America at least, unless those concerned in
-it were allowed a voice in its management. Practically the most
-important feature of the whole is therefore yet to be considered.
-How is the employee to be assured a voice in the management of
-these joint interests, without bringing about demoralization?
-No one has yet had the courage to face this question; and yet
-it is a question which must be faced if a solution of existing
-difficulties is to be found. If the employees contribute to the
-insurance and other funds, it is right that they should have a
-voice in the management of those funds. If an employee holds his
-situation during good behavior, he has a right to be heard in the
-organization of the board which, in case of his suspension for
-alleged cause, is to pass upon his behavior. No system will succeed
-which does not recognize these rights. In other words, it will be
-impossible to establish perfectly good faith and the highest morale
-in the service of the companies until the problem of giving this
-voice to employees, and giving it effectively, is solved. It can be
-solved in but one way: that is, by representation. To solve it may
-mean industrial peace.
-
-It is, of course, impossible to dispose of these difficult matters
-in town-meeting. Nevertheless, the town-meeting must be at the base
-of any successful plan for disposing of them. The end in view is to
-bring the employer--who in this case is the company, represented by
-its president and board of directors--and the employees into direct
-and immediate contact through a representative system. When thus
-brought into direct and immediate contact, the parties must arrive
-at results through the usual method: that is, by discussion and
-rational agreement. It has already been noticed that the operating
-department of a great railroad company naturally subdivides itself
-into those concerned in the train movement, those concerned in
-the care of the permanent way, and those concerned in the work
-of the mechanical department. It would seem proper, therefore,
-that a council of employees should be formed, of such a number
-as might be agreed on, containing representatives from each of
-these departments. In order to make an effective representation,
-the council would have to be a large body. For present purposes,
-and for the sake of illustration merely, it might be supposed
-that, in the case of the Union Pacific, each department in a
-division of the road would elect its own members of the employees'
-council. There are five of these divisions and three departments
-in every division. The operating-men, the yard and section-men,
-and the machinists of the division would, therefore, under this
-arrangement choose a given number of representatives. If one
-such representative was chosen to each hundred employees in the
-permanent service those thus selected would constitute a division
-council. To perfect the organization, without disturbing the
-necessary work of the company, each of these division councils
-would then select certain (say, for example, three) of their
-number, representing the mechanical, the operating, and the
-permanent way departments, and these delegates from each of the
-departments would, at certain periods of the year, to be provided
-for by the articles of organization, all meet together at the
-head-quarters of the company in Omaha. The central council, under
-the system here suggested, would consist of fifteen men; that
-is, one representing each of the three departments of the five
-several divisions. These fifteen men would represent the employees.
-It would be for them to select a board of delegates, or small
-executive committee, to confer directly with the president and
-board of directors. Here would be found the organization through
-which the voice of the employees would make itself heard and felt
-in matters which directly affect the rights of employees, including
-the appointment of a tribunal to pass upon cases of misdemeanor,
-and the management of all institutions, whether financial or
-educational, to which the employees had contributed and in which
-they had a consequent interest.
-
-There is no reason whatever for supposing that, within the
-limits which have been indicated, such an organization would
-lead to difficulty. On the contrary, where it did not remove a
-difficulty it might readily be made to open a way out of it. The
-employees, feeling that they too had rights which the company
-frankly recognized and was bound to respect, would in all cases
-of agitation proceed through the regular machinery, which brought
-them into easy and direct contact with the highest authority in
-the company's service. They would not, therefore, be driven into
-outside organizations. Meanwhile, on the other hand, the highest
-officers of the company, including the president and the board
-of directors, would be brought into immediate relations with the
-representatives of the employees on terms of equality. Each would
-have an equal voice in the management of common interests; and it
-would only remain to make provision for arriving at a solution of
-questions in case of deadlock. This would naturally be done by the
-appointment of a permanent arbitrator, who would be selected in
-advance.
-
-The organization suggested includes, it will be remembered, only
-those employees whose names are on the permanent rolls of the
-operating department. For reasons which have been sufficiently
-referred to, those whose names are on the rolls of the other
-four departments have not been considered. But there would be
-no difficulty in making provision for them also, should it be
-found expedient or desirable so to do. Through the system of
-representation the organization could in fact be made to include
-every employee in the permanent service of the company, not
-excepting the president, the general manager, or the general
-counsel. Each employee included would have one vote, and each
-division and department its representatives. The organization in
-other words is elastic. No matter how large it might be it would
-never become unwieldy so long as it resulted in the small committee
-which met in direct conference face to face with the board of
-directors.
-
-Could such a system as that which has been suggested be devised
-and put in practical operation there is reason to hope that the
-difficulties which have hitherto occurred between the great
-railroad companies and those in their pay would not occur in
-future. The movement is the natural and necessary outcome of the
-vast development referred to in the opening paragraphs of this
-paper. It is based on a simple recognition of acknowledged facts,
-and follows the lines of action with which the people of this
-country are most familiar. The path indicated is that in which for
-centuries they have been accustomed to tread. It has led them out
-of many difficulties. Why not out of this difficulty?
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[31] NOTE.--The following paper was prepared for a special purpose
-in June, 1886, and then submitted to several of the leading
-officials directly engaged in the local management of the lines
-operated by the Union Pacific Railway Company, of which the writer
-had been president for two years. It drew forth from them various
-criticisms, which led to the belief that the publication of the
-paper at that time might easily result in more harm than good. It
-was accordingly laid aside, and no use made of it.
-
-Nearly three years have since elapsed, and the events of the year
-1888--with its strike of engineers on the Chicago, Burlington &
-Quincy--seem to indicate that the relations of railroad employees
-to the railroad companies have undergone no material change since
-the year 1886, when the strike on the Missouri Pacific took place.
-The same unsatisfactory condition of affairs apparently continues.
-There is a deep-seated trouble somewhere.
-
-No sufficient reason, therefore, exists for longer suppressing this
-paper. Provided the suggestions contained in it have any value at
-all, they may at least be accepted as contributions to a discussion
-which of itself has an importance that cannot be either denied or
-ignored.
-
-The paper is printed as it was prepared. The figures and statistics
-contained in it have no application, therefore, to the present
-time; nor has it been thought worth while to change them, inasmuch
-as they have little or no bearing upon the argument. That is just
-as applicable to the state of affairs now as it was to that which
-existed then. The only difference is that the course of events
-during the three intervening years has demonstrated that the paper,
-if it does no good, will certainly do no harm.
-
-  BOSTON, February 4, 1889.
-  C. F. A.
-
-
-[32] See "Railway Management," page 151.
-
-
-
-
-THE EVERY-DAY LIFE OF RAILROAD MEN.
-
-BY B. B. ADAMS, JR.
-
-  The Typical Railroad Man--On the Road and at Home--Raising the
-  Moral Standard--Characteristics of the Freight Brakeman--His Wit
-  the Result of Meditation--How Slang is Originated--Agreeable
-  Features of his Life in Fine Weather--Hardships in
-  Winter--The Perils of Hand-brakes--Broken Trains--Going back
-  to Flag--Coupling Accidents--At the Spring--Advantages of
-  a Passenger Brakeman--Trials of the Freight Conductor--The
-  Investigation of Accidents--Irregular Hours of Work--The
-  Locomotive Engineer the Hero of the Rail--His Rare Qualities--The
-  Value of Quick Judgment--Calm Fidelity a Necessary Trait--Saving
-  Fuel on a Freight Engine--Making Time on a Passenger
-  Engine--Remarkable Runs--The Spirit of Fraternity among
-  Engineers--Difficult Duties of a Passenger-train Conductor--Tact
-  in Dealing with Many People--Questions to be Answered--How
-  Rough Characters are Dealt with--Heavy Responsibilities--The
-  Work of a Station Agent--Flirtation by Telegraph--The
-  Baggage-master's Hard Task--Eternal Vigilance Necessary in a
-  Switch-tender--Section-men, Train Despatchers, Firemen, and
-  Clerks--Efforts to Make the Railroad Man's Life Easier.
-
-
-The typical railroad man "runs on the road;" he is not the one
-whose urbane presence adorns the much-heralded offices of the
-railroad companies on Broadway, where the gold letters on the front
-window are each considerably larger than the elbow-room allowed
-the clerks inside; nor, indeed, is he, generally speaking, the one
-with whom the public or the public's drayman comes in contact when
-visiting a large city station to ship or receive freight. These and
-others, whose part in the complex machinery of transportation is
-in a degree auxiliary, are indeed largely imbued with the _esprit
-de corps_ which originates in the main body of workers; but their
-duties are such that their interest is not especially lively. Even
-the men employed at stations in villages and large towns acquire
-a share of their railroad spirit at second hand, as life on a
-train is necessary to get the experience which embodies the true
-fascination which so charms Young America.
-
-The railroad man's home-life is not specially different from other
-people's. There have been Chesterfields among conductors, and
-mechanical geniuses have grown up among the locomotive engineers,
-but these were products of an era now past. Station-men are a part
-of the communities where their duties place them. Trainmen and
-their families occupy a modest though highly respectable place in
-the society they live in. Trainmen who live in a city generally
-receive the same pay that is given to their brothers, doing the
-same work, whose homes are in the country. The families of the
-latter therefore enjoy purer air, lessened expenses, and other
-advantages which are denied the former.
-
-On most railroads the freight trainmen--engineers, conductors,
-brakemen, and firemen--are the most numerous and prominent class,
-as the number of freight trains is generally larger than that of
-passenger trains; and among these men there are more brakemen than
-anything else, because there are two or more on every train, while
-there is but one of each of the other classes. And as the ranks
-of the passenger-train service are generally recruited from the
-freight trainmen, it follows that the _freight brakeman_ impresses
-his individuality quite strongly upon not only the circles in which
-he moves but the whole train-service as well. Freight conductors
-are promoted brakemen, and most (though not by any means all)
-passenger conductors are promoted freight conductors; so that
-the brakeman's prominent traits of character continue to appear
-throughout the several grades of the service. As he is promoted he
-of course improves. The general character of the _personnel_ of
-the freight-train service has undergone a considerable change in
-the last twenty years. Whiskey drinkers have been weeded out, and
-pilferers with them. Improved discipline has effected a general
-toning up, raising the moral standard perceptibly. One reforming
-superintendent, a few years ago, on undertaking an aggressive
-campaign found himself compelled to discharge three-fifths of all
-his brakemen before he could regard the force as reasonably cleared
-of the rowdy element.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-The brakeman, like the "drummer," is a characteristic American
-product. Each has his wits sharpened by peculiar experiences,
-and, while important lines of intellectual training are almost
-wholly neglected, there is contact with the world in various
-directions, which develops qualities that tend to elevate the
-individual in many ways. Although freight brakemen do not have
-any intercourse with the public, they somehow learn the ways of
-the world very quickly, and the brightest ones among them need
-very little training to fit them for a place on a passenger train
-where they are expected to deal with gentle ladies and fastidious
-millionaires, and bear themselves with the grace of a hotel clerk.
-Perhaps one reason why brakemen impress their characteristics on
-the whole _personnel_ of the service is because they have abundance
-of opportunity for meditation. Many of them have a superfluity
-of hours and half-hours when they have nothing to do but ride on
-the top of a car and keep a general watch of the train, and they
-have ample time to think twice before speaking once. Even a circus
-clown or the vender of shoestrings or ten-cent watches has to study
-the arts of expression; why should not the intelligent trainman,
-who wishes to let people know that he is of some account in the
-world? If he wants a favor from a superior he knows just the best
-way of approach to secure success. If he deems it worth while to
-complain of anything, he formulates his appeal in a way that is
-sure to be telling. Everyone knows the old story of the brakeman
-who was refused a free pass home on Saturday night with the
-argument that his employer, if a farmer, could not be reasonably
-expected to hitch up a horse and buggy for such a purpose. The
-reply that, admitting this, the farmer who had his team already
-harnessed up and was going that way with an empty seat would be
-outrageously mean to refuse his hired man a ride, is none too 'cute
-to be characteristic. The brakeman who is not able to puncture
-the sophistries of narrow-souled or disingenuous superiors is the
-exception and not the rule.
-
-The brakeman gives the prevailing tone to the "society" of
-despatchers' lobbies and other lounging places which he frequents.
-If he be profane or fault-finding or sour, he can easily spread the
-influence of these unpleasant traits. A lazy brakeman becomes more
-lazy, because his work is in many respects easy. Having little to
-do he demands still less. A foul-mouthed one gives himself free
-rein because many usual restraints are absent. The prevalence of
-profanity, which, aside from the question of sinfulness, hampers a
-man in any aspirations he may have toward more elevating society,
-is perhaps the worst blot on the reputation of brakemen as a
-class. Many worthy men among them, and especially among conductors
-and engineers, have, however, done much to improve the tone of
-conversation in trainmen's haunts, and on the better disciplined
-roads decorum is the rule, and rowdyism the exception. There is
-abundance of humor and spirit, however. The brakeman originates
-whatever slang may be deemed necessary to give spice to the talk
-of the caboose and round-house. He calls a gravel train a "dust
-express," and refers to the pump for compressing air for the
-power-brakes as a "wind-jammer." The fireman's prosaic labors
-are lightened by being poetically mentioned as the "handling of
-black diamonds," and the mortification of being called into the
-superintendent's office to explain some dereliction of duty is
-disguised by referring to the episode as "dancing on the carpet."
-
-[Illustration: "Dancing on the Carpet."]
-
-The disagreeable features of a freight brakeman's life are chiefly
-those dependent upon the weather. If he could perform his duties
-in Southern California or Florida in winter, and in the Northern
-States in summer, his lot would ordinarily be a happy one, though
-the annoyance of tramps is almost universal in mild climates, and
-in many cases takes the shape of positive danger. These vagabonds
-persist in riding on or in the cars, while the faithful trainman
-must, according to his instructions, keep them off. In some
-sections of the country they will board a train in gangs of a
-dozen, armed with pistols, and dictate where a train shall carry
-them. Not long ago in Chicago a conductor, while ejecting a tramp
-from the caboose, was shot and killed by the ruffian.
-
-[Illustration: Trainman and Tramps.]
-
-The hardships of cold and stormy weather are serious, both because
-of the test of endurance involved and the added difficulties in
-handling a train. The Westinghouse automatic air-brake, which
-has served so admirably on passenger trains for the past fifteen
-years, has only recently been adapted and cheapened so as to make
-it available for long freight trains, but it is now so perfected
-that in a few years the brakeman who now has to ride on the outside
-of cars in a freezing condition for an hour at a time will be
-privileged to sit comfortably in his caboose while the speed of the
-train is governed by the engineer through the instantaneous action
-of the air-brake. On the steep roads of the Rocky Mountains, and a
-few other lines, this brake is already in use.
-
-[Illustration: Braking in Hard Weather.]
-
-But "braking by hand" is still the rule. In running on ascending
-grades or at slow speeds, the brakemen can ride under cover, but in
-descending grades, or on levels when the speed is high, they must
-be on the tops of the cars ready to instantly apply the brakes,
-for the reason that there are generally only three or four men
-to a long train weighing from 500 to 1,000 tons, whose momentum
-cannot be arrested very quickly. In descending steep grades, only
-the most constant and skilful care prevents the train from rushing
-at breakneck speed to the foot of the incline, or to a curve,
-where it would be precipitated over an embankment and crushed into
-splinters. One of the mountain roads in Colorado which now uses
-air-brakes is said to be lined its whole length with the ruins of
-cars lying in the gorges, where they were wrecked in the former
-days of hand-brakes. Even on grades much less steep than those in
-Colorado the danger of this sort of disaster is one that has to
-be constantly guarded against. Take the case of a 40-car train
-descending a 1½ per cent. grade (79-2/10 feet per mile). Before all
-of the cars have passed over the summit and commenced to descend,
-the forward part of the train will have increased its velocity
-very perceptibly and will thus by its weight exert a strong pull
-on the rear portion, "yanking" it very roughly sometimes, and
-if one of the couplings between the cars chances to be weak it
-breaks, separating the train into two parts. Mishaps of this kind
-are frequent, and two or more breakages often occur at the same
-time, dividing the train so that one of the parts--between the
-two end portions--is perhaps left with no brakeman upon it. The
-engineman then has the choice of slackening his speed and allowing
-the unmanageable cars to violently collide with his portion, or
-of increasing his own speed to such a rate that he is soon in
-danger of suddenly overtaking a train ahead of him. To avoid this
-breaking-in-two the brakemen must be wide awake on the instant
-and see that their brakes are tightened before the speed even
-begins to elude control. As soon as the whole train has got beyond
-the summit, and the speed is reduced to a proper rate by the
-application of the brakes on, say, one-third or one-half the cars,
-it will perhaps be found that one or two brakes too many have been
-put on and that the train is running too slowly. Some of them
-must then be loosened. Or perhaps some are set so tightly that the
-friction heats the wheels unduly or causes them to slide along
-the track instead of rolling; then those brakes must be released
-and some on other cars applied instead; and all this must be done
-(sometimes for an hour) when the temperature is 20 degrees below
-zero, or the wind is blowing a gale, just as under more favorable
-circumstances. A train moving at 20 miles an hour against a wind
-with a velocity of 30 miles increases the latter to 50, so far as
-the brakeman is concerned; and if rain or sleet is falling, the
-force of it on his hands and face is very severe. If we add to
-this the danger attendant upon stepping from one car to another
-over a gap of 27 to 30 inches, in a dark night, when the cars are
-constantly moving up and down on their springs and are swaying
-to one side or the other every few seconds, we get some idea of,
-though we cannot realize, the sensations that must at such times
-fill the minds of the men whose pleasant berth seems so enjoyable
-on a mild summer's day. And this is not an overdrawn picture or
-the worst that might be given; for rain and snow combined often
-coat the roofs of cars so completely and solidly that they are
-worse than the smoothest skating-pond, and moving upon them is
-attended with danger at every step. Jumping--it cannot be called
-walking--from one car to another is in such cases positively
-reckless. The brake-apparatus will in a snow-storm be coated with
-ice so rapidly that vigorous action is required to keep it in
-working condition. Even a wind alone, in dry weather, sometimes
-compels the men to _crawl_ from one car to another, grasping such
-projections as they may. The brakeman who forgets to take his
-rubber coat and overalls sometimes suffers severely from sudden
-changes of temperature. In spring or fall a lively shower will be
-encountered in a sheltered valley, and the clothing be completely
-drenched, and then within perhaps half an hour the ascent of a few
-hundred feet brings the train into an atmosphere a few degrees
-below the freezing point, so that with the aid of the wind, fanned
-by the speed of the train, the clothes are very soon frozen stiff.
-
-[Illustration: Flagging in Winter.]
-
-Another feature which often involves discomfort, and occasionally
-positive suffering and danger, is "going back to flag." When a
-train is unexpectedly stopped upon the road, the brakeman at the
-rear end must immediately take his red flag or lantern and go back
-a half-mile or more to give the "stop" signal to the engine-men of
-any train that may be following. This rule is sometimes disregarded
-in clear weather on straight lines, and is even evaded by lazy or
-unfaithful brakemen where the neglect is positively dangerous,
-but still many a faithful man has to go out and stand for a long
-time in a severe snow-storm or risk his life in walking several
-miles to a station. The record of individual perils and heroisms
-in the New York blizzard of March, 1888, are paralleled, or at
-least repeated, on a slightly milder scale, by brakemen every
-winter. Even in the blizzard country of the Northwest, where a half
-hour's exposure is often fatal, the system of train-running is
-such that the stopping of a train at an unexpected place involves
-danger of collision if the brakeman does not at once go back and
-_stay back_. A "tail-end" brakeman has various anxieties, which
-cannot be detailed here. Often there is a possibility that the
-advancing engineer will not see his red lantern. One brakeman in
-New Brunswick several years ago ignominiously deserted his post,
-leaving his train to look out for itself, because of a visit from
-a huge bear whose residence was in the woods near the point on the
-railroad where the brakeman was keeping his lonely night-vigil.
-
-[Illustration: Coupling.]
-
-The danger of sudden accidental death or maiming is constant
-and great, and the bare record of the numerous cases is acutely
-suggestive of inexpressible suffering; but, strange to say, it does
-not worry the average brakeman much. Though probably a thousand
-trainmen are killed in this country every year, and four or five
-thousand injured, by collisions and derailments, in coupling cars,
-falling off trains, striking low overhead bridges, and from other
-causes, not one brakeman, from what he sees in his own experience,
-realizes the danger very vividly. As in other dangers which are
-constant but inevitable, familiarity breeds carelessness which is
-closely akin to contempt. Falling from trains is really a serious
-danger, because the most ceaseless caution--next to impossible for
-the average man to maintain--is necessary to avoid missteps. This
-will be practically abolished when the long-wished-for air-brake
-comes into use, as that will obviate the necessity of riding on the
-tops of the cars.
-
-Coupling accidents are practically unavoidable because, although
-the necessary manipulations _can_ be made without going between
-the cars or placing the hands in dangerous situations, the men
-as a general thing prefer to take the risk of the more dangerous
-method. With the ordinary freight-car apparatus (which, however,
-is destined to be superseded by an automatic coupler) the link by
-which the cars are connected is retained by a pin in the drawbar of
-either car; as one car approaches another at considerable speed,
-this link, which hangs loosely down at an angle of thirty degrees,
-must be lifted and guided into the opening in the opposite
-drawbar. This operation must, according to the regulations of most
-roads, be performed by the aid of a short stick; but, disregarding
-the regulation, partly to save time and partly because of fear of
-the ridicule that would be called out by the exhibition of a lack
-of dexterity, the average brakeman uses his fingers. He must lift
-the link and hold it horizontally until the end enters the opening,
-and then withdraw his hand before the heavy drawbars come together.
-A delay of a fraction of a second would crush the hand or finger
-as under a trip-hammer. And, in point of fact, this delay does,
-for various reasons, frequently happen, and the number of trainmen
-with wounded hands to be found in every large freight-yard is sad
-evidence of the fact. But again, assuming that this part of the
-operation is accomplished in safety, there is another and worse
-danger in the possibility of being crushed bodily. Cars are built
-with projecting timbers on their ends at or near the centre, for
-the purpose of keeping the main body of each car twelve or fifteen
-inches from its neighbor; but cars of dissimilar pattern sometimes
-meet in such a way that the projections on one lap past those on
-the other, and the space which should afford room for the man to
-stand in safety is not maintained. If the brakeman, in the darkness
-of night or the hurry of his work, fails to note the peculiarities
-of the cars, he is mercilessly crushed, the ponderous vehicles
-often banging together with a force of many tons. A constant danger
-in coupling and uncoupling is the liability to catch the feet in
-angles in the track.[33] Freight conductors are peculiarly liable
-to this, as the duty of uncoupling (pulling out the coupling-pin)
-generally devolves upon them, and must be done while the train is
-in motion. Walking rapidly along, in the dark, with the right hand
-holding a lantern and grasping the car, while the left is tugging
-at a pin which sticks, involves perplexities wherein a moment's
-hesitation may prove fatal.
-
-The dangers here recounted are those which only brakemen (or those
-acting as brakemen) have to meet. The liability of all trainmen to
-be killed by the cars tumbling down a bank, colliding with another
-train, and a hundred other conditions, is also considerable. The
-horror which the public feels on the occurrence of such a disaster
-as that at Chatsworth, Ill., in the summer of 1887, or the
-half-dozen other terrible ones within the past few years, could
-reasonably be repeated every month if railroad employees instead
-of passengers were considered. There are no accurate official
-statistics kept of the train accidents in the country, but the
-accounts compiled monthly by the _Railroad Gazette_ always show
-a large number of casualties to railroad men from causes _beyond
-their own control_ (collisions, running off the track, etc.), no
-mention being made of the larger number resulting from the victims'
-own want of caution. In the month of March, 1887, in which occurred
-the terrible Bussey Bridge disaster, near Boston, 25 passengers
-were killed in the United States; but the same month recorded 34
-employees killed. At Chatsworth 80 passengers were killed; but in
-that and the following month the number of employees killed in the
-country reached 97. In both of these comparisons the number of
-passengers is exceptional, while that of employees is ordinary.
-But, as already intimated, these dangers and discouragements are
-distributed over such a large territory and among such a large
-number of individuals that the general serenity of the brakeman's
-life is not much disturbed by them. In spite of them all, he enjoys
-his work and, if he is adapted to the calling, he sticks to it.
-
-[Illustration: The Pleasant Part of a Brakeman's Life.]
-
-The brakeman must be on hand promptly at the hour of his train's
-preparation for departure, and generally he must do his part in 15,
-30, or 60 minutes' lively work in assembling cars from different
-tracks, changing them from the front to the rear or middle of
-the train, and setting aside those that are broken or disabled;
-but, once on the road, by far the greater portion of his time is
-his own, for his own enjoyment, almost as fully as that of the
-passenger who travels for the express purpose of entertaining
-himself. In mild weather and in daylight, life on the top of a
-freight train is almost wholly devoid of unpleasant features, and
-it takes on the nature of work only for the same reason that any
-routine becomes more or less irksome after a time. Much of the time
-there are a few bushels of cinders from the engine flying in the
-air, which a novice can get into his eyes with great facility, but
-the brakeman gets used to them. He sees every day (on many roads)
-the beauties of nature in great variety. Much of the scenery of
-the adjoining country is 500 per cent. more enjoyable from the
-brakeman's perch on the roof than from the car windows, for the
-reason that the increased height gives such an enlarged horizon.
-This education from nature is an element in railroad men's lives
-not to be despised. The trainman whose daily trips take him past
-the panoramic charms of the Connecticut Valley in summer, through
-the gorgeous-hued mountain-foliage along the Erie in autumn, or the
-perennial grandeur of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado, certainly
-enjoys a privilege for which many a city worker would gladly make
-large sacrifices. But to trainmen the refining influence of these
-surroundings is often an unconscious influence, and with the
-majority of them is perhaps generally so, because of the prosaic
-round of every-day thoughts filling their minds. There are also
-some other advantages, not wholly unæsthetic, which a millionaire
-might almost envy the freight trainman. Every twenty miles or so
-the engine must stop for water, and it often happens that this
-is in a cool place where the men can at the same time refresh
-themselves with spring water whose sparkling purity is unknown in
-New York or Chicago. Though brakemen who love beer are not by any
-means scarce, an accessible spring or well of pure water along the
-line always finds appreciative users during warm weather; and the
-Kentuckian who sojourned six months in Illinois without thinking to
-try the water there is not represented in the ranks of level-headed
-brakemen. A certain railroad president regales himself in summer on
-spring water brought in jugs from 100 miles up the road by trainmen
-who find in this service an opportunity to "make themselves solid"
-at headquarters. Freight trainmen get all the delicious products
-of the soil at first hands. In their stops at way-stations they
-get acquainted with the farmers, and can make their selection of
-the best things at low prices, thus (if they keep house) living on
-fruits, vegetables, etc., of a quality fit for a king.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-[Illustration: At the Spring.]
-
-The passenger-train brakeman differs from the freight trainman
-chiefly in the fact that he must deal with the public, and so
-must have a care for his personal appearance and behavior, and
-in the fact that he is _not a brakeman_, the universal air-brake
-relieving him of all work in this line. His chief duties are those
-of a porter, though the wide-awake American brakeman, with an eye
-to future promotion to a conductorship, maintains his dignity and
-is not by any means the servile call-boy that the English railway
-porter is. The wearing of uniforms has been introduced here from
-England and is, in the main, a good feature, though some roads,
-whose discipline is otherwise quite good, allow their men to
-appear in slovenly and even ragged clothes. Superintendents should
-give more care to this matter, as it is not an unimportant one.
-It affects the men's self-respect and influences their usefulness
-in other ways. The frugal brakeman cannot wear his blue suit on
-Sunday or a-visiting, and his Sunday suit when old cannot be used
-up by week-day wear, so he naturally concludes that his employer
-is guilty of a little undue severity toward him. Brakemen on
-the modern "limited" trains (a three hours' run without a stop
-constituting a day's work) have in some respects too easy a task,
-and their minds are more likely to rust out than to wear out.
-They have a constant care, to be sure, and sometimes must "go
-back to flag," the same as a freight trainman, but, in the main,
-their berth would about fill the ideal of the Irish shoveller who
-confided to his fellow-workman that "for a nice, clane, aisy job"
-he would like to be a bishop.
-
-Brakemen have had the reputation of doing a good deal of flirting,
-and many a country-girl has found a worthy husband among them;
-but there is not so much of this method of diversion as formerly;
-both passenger and freight men now have to attend more strictly to
-business, and they cannot conveniently indulge in side play. There
-are still, however, enough short branch-lines and slow-going roads
-in backwoods districts to insure that flirting shall not become a
-lost art in this part of the world.
-
-The freight conductor is simply a high grade of brakeman. His work
-is almost wholly supervisory and clerical, and so, after several
-years' service, he becomes more sober and business-like in his
-bearing, the responsibilities of his position being sufficient
-to effect this change; but he generally retains his sympathies
-with his old associates who have become subordinates. His duties
-are to keep the record of the train, the time, numbers of cars,
-etc.; to see that the brakemen regulate the speed when necessary,
-and to keep a general watch. The calculations necessary to make
-a 75-mile trip and get over the line without wasting time are
-often considerable, and an inexperienced conductor can easily
-keep himself in a worry for the whole trip. Often he cannot go
-more than ten miles after making way for a passenger train before
-another overtakes him; so that he must spend a good share of his
-time sitting in his caboose with the time-table in one hand and
-his watch in the other, calculating where and when to side-track
-the train. On single-track roads perplexities of this kind are
-generally more numerous than on double lines, because trains both
-in front and behind must be guarded against, and because the
-regulations are frequently modified by telegraphic instructions
-from headquarters. A mistake in reading these instructions,
-which are written in pencil, often by a slovenly penman, and on
-tissue-paper, may, and occasionally does, cause a disastrous
-collision. These duties of conductors are especially characteristic
-of trains that must keep out of the way of passenger trains, so
-that in this particular line it will be seen that the passenger
-conductor has much the easier berth. The freight and "work-train"
-conductor must really be a better calculator, in many ways, than
-the wearer of gilt badges and buttons, though the latter receives
-the higher pay.
-
-The _bête noire_ of the freight conductor is an investigation
-at headquarters concerning delinquencies in which the blame is
-divided. A typical case of this kind is that of a freight train
-which has stopped at some unusual place and been run into by a
-following train, doing some hundreds of dollars damage, if not
-killing or injuring persons. "Strict adherence to rules will avert
-all such accidents," the code says; but they do happen, and the
-inquiry as to whether the conductor used due diligence in sending a
-man with a red flag to warn the oncoming train, or the engineer of
-the latter was heedless, or what was the trouble, is the occasion
-of much anxiety.
-
-Conductors, concerning whose life I have only noted a few of
-the duties and perplexities, are not so much subject to the
-vicissitudes of cold and wet weather, and therefore have in many
-respects better opportunities than the brakemen to avail themselves
-of the enjoyments of a trainman's life. The risk to life and limb
-from coupling cars, etc., is also somewhat less, though many a
-faithful conductor has lost his life in the performance of a
-dangerous duty which he had assumed out of generous consideration
-for an inexperienced or overworked subordinate. The beneficial
-influences on health, mind, and morals coming from contact with
-nature are, as before remarked, largely unconscious influences,
-because of the counteracting effect of the immediate surroundings.
-The irregular hours are unfavorable to health. The crews run in
-turn; if there are forty crews and forty trains daily, each crew
-will start out at about the same hour each day. But if on Monday
-there are forty trains, on Tuesday thirty, and on Wednesday fifty,
-it will be seen that the starting time must be very irregular.
-Ten of the crews which worked on Monday will have nothing to do
-on Tuesday, but on Wednesday or Thursday will have to do double
-service. The first trip will be all in the daytime, and the next
-all in the night, perhaps. This irregularity is constant, and
-it is impossible to tell on Monday morning where one will be on
-Wednesday. All the week's sleep may have to be taken in the daytime
-or all at night. There may be five days' work to do between Monday
-morning and the following Monday morning, or there may be nine.
-The trainman has to literally board in his "mammoth" dinner-pail,
-and his wife or boarding mistress knows less about his whereabouts
-than if he were on an Arctic whaling vessel.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-The locomotive engineer is the popular "hero of the rail," and the
-popular estimate in this respect is substantially just. Others have
-to brave dangers and perform duties under trying circumstances; but
-the engine-runner has to ride in the most dangerous part of the
-train, take charge of a steam-boiler that may explode and blow him
-to atoms, and of machinery that may break and kill him, and try
-to keep up a vigilance which only a being more than human could
-successfully maintain. He must be a tolerably skilful machinist--he
-cannot be too good--and have nerves that will remain steady under
-the most trying circumstances. If running a fast express through
-midnight darkness over a line where a similar train has been tipped
-off a precipice (and a brother runner killed) by train-wreckers
-the night before, he must dash forward with the same confidence
-that he would feel in broad daylight on an open prairie. But he
-does not "heroically grasp the throttle" in the face of danger,
-when the throttle has been already shut, nor does he "whistle down
-brakes," in order to add a stirring element to the reporter's tale,
-when by the magic of the air-brake he can, with a turn of his hand,
-apply every brake in the train with the grip of a vise in less time
-than it would take him to reach the whistle-pull. When there is
-danger ahead there is generally just one thing to do, and that is
-to stop as soon as possible. An instant suffices for shutting off
-the steam and applying the brake. With modern trains this is all
-that is necessary or can be done. Reversing the engine is necessary
-on many engines, and formerly was on all; this would, in fact, be
-done instinctively by old runners, in any case, but this also is
-done in a second. After taking these measures there is nothing
-for the engineman to do but look out for his own safety. In some
-circumstances, as in the case of a partially burned bridge which
-may possibly support the train even in a weakened condition, it may
-be best to put on all steam. The runner is then in a dilemma, and
-a right decision is a matter of momentary inspiration. Many lives
-have been saved by quick-witted runners in such cases, but there
-is no ground for censure of the engineer who, in the excitement
-of the moment, decides to slacken instead of quicken his speed.
-The rare cases of this kind are what show the value of experience,
-and of men of the right temperament and degree of intelligence to
-acquire experience-lessons readily. The writer recalls an instance
-several years ago where an alert, steady, and experienced runner
-found himself on the crossing of another railroad with a heavy
-train rushing toward him on the transverse track at uncontrollable
-speed. It was too late to retreat, and in less than ten seconds the
-oncoming train would crash broadside into his cars, filled with
-passengers. A frantic effort to increase the speed and clear the
-crossing would have either broken the weak couplings then in use or
-would have simply whirled the driving-wheels with such excessive
-force as to slacken the speed of the train rather than accelerate
-it. In point of fact, the rear car just escaped being struck by
-the ponderous engine bearing down upon it at the rate of twenty
-or thirty feet a second; and the preservation of the lives of the
-passengers was due to the fact that the engineer was well-balanced,
-quick to act, and not excitable. What did he do? He instantly put
-on more steam, but with unerring judgment opened the valve just far
-enough and no more.
-
-But the terrible cloud constantly hanging over the engineer
-and fireman of a fast train is the chance of encountering an
-obstacle which cannot possibly be avoided, and which leaves them
-no alternative but to jump for their lives, if, indeed, it does
-not take away even that. To the fact that this cloud is no larger
-than it is, and that these men have sturdy and courageous natures,
-must be attributed the lightness with which it rests upon them. On
-one road or another, from a washout, or inefficient management,
-or a collision caused by an operator's forgetfulness, or some one
-of a score of other causes, there are constantly occurring cases
-of men heroically meeting death under the most heart-rending
-circumstances. Every month records a number of such, though happily
-they are not frequent on any one road. The case of Engineer Kennar,
-a year or more ago, is a typical one. Precipitated with his engine
-into a river by a washout which the roadmaster's vigilance had
-failed to discover, his first thought, as zealous hands tried
-to rescue him, was for the safety of his train; and, forgetting
-his own anguish, he warned those about him to attend first to
-the sending of a red lantern to warn a following train against a
-collision. The significance of facts like this is not so much in
-the service to humanity done at the time, or even in the example
-set for those who shall meet such crises in the future, but rather
-in the evidence they give of the firm and lofty conscientiousness
-that inspires the every-day conduct of thousands of engineers all
-over the land. As has already been said, the critical occasions
-on which engineers are supposed to be heroic often allow them no
-chance at all to be either heroic or cowardly, and their heroism
-must be, and is, manifested in the calm fidelity with which they,
-day after day and year after year, perform their exacting and
-often monotonous round of duties while all the time knowing of the
-possibilities before them.
-
-On the best of roads a freight train wrecked by a broken wheel
-under a borrowed car may be thrown in the path of a passenger train
-on another track, just as the latter approaches. This has happened
-more than once lately. No amount of fidelity or forethought
-(except in the maker of the wheels) can prevent this kind of
-disaster. There is constant danger, on most roads, of running off
-the track at misplaced switches, many switches being located at
-points where the runner can see them only a few seconds before he
-is upon them; but the chance is so small--perhaps one in ten or
-a hundred thousand--that the average runner forgets it, and it
-is only by severe self-discipline that he can hold himself up to
-compliance with the rule which requires him to be on the watch for
-every switch-target as long before reaching it as he possibly can.
-He finds the switches all right and the road perfectly clear so
-regularly, day after day and month after month, that he may easily
-fall into the snare of thinking that they will always be so. But,
-like other trainmen, the engineman finds enough more agreeable
-thoughts to fill his mind, and reflects upon the hazards of his
-vocation perhaps too little.
-
-[Illustration: Just Time to Jump.]
-
-The freight engineman's every-day thoughts are largely about the
-care of his engine and the perplexities incident to getting out
-of it the maximum amount of work with the minimum amount of fuel.
-The constant aim of his superiors is to have the engine draw every
-pound it possibly can. To haul a train up a long and steep grade
-when the cars are so heavily loaded that a single additional one
-would bring the whole to a dead stand-still requires a knack that
-can be appreciated only by viewing the performance on the spot.
-Failure not only wastes time and fuel (it may necessitate a return
-to the foot of the hill or going to the top with only half the
-load), but it raises a suspicion that some other runner might have
-succeeded better. The runner whose engine "lays down on the road"
-(fails to draw its load because of insufficient fire and consequent
-low steam-pressure) is liable to the jeers of his comrades on his
-return home, if not to some sharp inquiries from his superior.
-
-The passenger runner's greatest concern is to "make time." Some
-trains are scheduled so that the engineman must keep his locomotive
-up to its very highest efficiency over every furlong of its
-journey in order to arrive at his destination on time. A little
-carelessness in firing, in letting cold water into the boiler
-irregularly, or in slackening more than is necessary where the
-right to the track is in doubt for a few rods; these and a score of
-similar circumstances may make five minutes' delay in the arrival
-at the terminus and necessitate an embarrassing interview with the
-trainmaster. A trip on a crowded line may involve watching for
-danger-signals every quarter of a mile and the maintenance of such
-high speed that they must be obeyed the instant they are espied in
-order to avoid the possibility of collision.[34]
-
-The passenger runner finds himself now and then with a disabled
-engine on his hands, and two or three hundred passengers standing
-around apparently ready to eat him up if he does not remedy the
-difficulty in short order. Often in such cases he is in doubt
-himself whether the repairs necessary to enable his engine to
-proceed will occupy fifteen minutes or an hour. This, with the
-knotty question of where the nearest relief engine is, causes the
-brow to knit and the sweat to start, and to the young runner proves
-an experience which he long remembers.
-
-[Illustration: A Breakdown on the Road.]
-
-Stories of fast running are common but unreliable; and when
-truthful, important considerations are often omitted. There are
-so many elements to be considered, that usually the verdict can
-be justly rendered only after a careful comparison with previous
-records. Most regular runs include a number of stops, and are
-subject to numerous slackenings of the speed, thus dimming the
-lustre of the record of the trip as a whole. Frequently, quick
-runs which have been reported as noteworthy have had favoring
-circumstances not told of. The most remarkable single run on
-record was that of Jarrett & Palmer's special train chartered to
-carry their theatrical company from New York to San Francisco
-(Jersey City to Oakland), June 1-4, 1876, which is well known to
-all Americans. Perhaps the fastest long run ever made in this
-country was that of a special train over the West Shore Railroad
-from East Buffalo to Frankfort, N. Y., two hundred and one miles,
-on July 9, 1885, which ran this distance in four hours, including
-several stops. This train ran thirty-six miles in thirty minutes,
-and ran many single miles in forty-three seconds each. An engine
-with two cars ran over the Canada Southern Division of the Michigan
-Central from St. Clair Junction to Windsor, Ont., on November 16,
-1886, a distance of one hundred and seven miles, in ninety-seven
-minutes; and this included two or three stops. The average rate
-of speed was about sixty-nine miles an hour, and in places it
-rose to seventy-five and over. The engineers and their firemen,
-and all connected with the handling of the trains, certainly
-deserve credit for performances like these, and they receive it;
-but the supplying of the perfect machine, the smooth and safe
-roadway comparatively clear of other trains, and other conditions,
-is so manifestly beyond their control, while at the same time
-constituting such an important factor in the result, that
-praise should be given discriminatingly. An engineer who makes a
-specially quick trip feels proud of his engine, and of the honor
-of having been chosen for an important run, and he shares with the
-passengers the exhilaration produced by such a triumph of science
-and skill in annihilating space; but in the matter of credit to
-himself for experience and judgment, patience and forethought, he
-feels and knows that many a trip in his every-day service is worthy
-of greater recognition. Many a runner has to urge his engine, day
-after day, with a load twenty-five per cent. heavier than it was
-designed for, over track that is fit only for low speeds, at a
-rate which demands the most constant care. He must run fast enough
-over the better portions of the track to allow of slackening where
-prudence demands slackening. The tracks of many roads are rendered
-so uneven by the action of frost in winter that with an unskilful
-runner the passengers would be half-frightened by the unsteady
-motion of the cars. This condition is not common on the important
-trunk-lines, of course; but it does prevail on roads that carry a
-great many passengers, nevertheless; and engineers who guide trains
-over such difficult journeys, gently luring the passengers, with
-the aid of the excellent springs under the cars, into the belief
-that they are riding over a track of uniform smoothness, should not
-be forgotten in any estimate of the fraternity as a whole.
-
-[Illustration: Timely Warning.]
-
-The engineer whose humanity is not hardened has his feelings
-harrowed occasionally by pedestrians who risk their lives on the
-track. Tramps and other careless persons are so numerous that the
-casual passenger in a locomotive cab generally cannot ride fifty
-miles without seeing what seems to him a hair-breadth escape, but
-which is nevertheless treated by the engineer as a commonplace
-occurrence. These heedless wayfarers do, however, occasionally
-carry their indifference to danger too far, and they are tossed in
-the air like feathers.[35] Doubtless there are those who, like the
-fireman who talked with the tender-hearted young lady, regret the
-killing of a man chiefly "because it musses up the engine so;" but,
-taking the fraternity as a whole, warmth of heart and tenderness
-of feeling may be called not only well-developed but prominent
-traits of character. The great strike on the Chicago, Burlington &
-Quincy road in 1888, which proved to have been ill-advised, would
-have been possible only in a body of men actuated by the most
-loyal friendship. Undoubtedly a large conservative element in the
-Brotherhood of Engineers believed the move injudicious, but they
-joined in it out of an intense spirit of fidelity to their brethren
-and leaders.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-[Illustration: The Passenger Conductor.]
-
-The passenger-train conductor has in many respects the most
-difficult position in the railroad ranks. He should be a
-first-class freight conductor and a polished gentleman to boot. But
-in his long apprenticeship on a freight train he has very likely
-been learning how _not_ to fulfil the additional requirements of
-a passenger conductorship. In that service he could be uncouth
-and even boorish, and still fill his position tolerably well; now
-he feels the need of a life-time of tuition in dealing with the
-diverse phases of human nature met with on a passenger train. He
-must now manage his train in a sort of automatic way, for he has
-his mind filled with the care of his passengers and the collection
-of tickets. He must be good at figures, keeping accounts, and
-handling money, though the freight-train service has given him no
-experience in this line. Year by year the clerical work connected
-with the taking up of tickets and collecting of cash fares has been
-increased until now, on many roads, an expert bank clerk would
-be none too proficient for the duties imposed. The conductor who
-grumblingly averred that "it would take a Philadelphia lawyer with
-three heads" to fill his shoes was not far out of the way. Every
-day, and perhaps a number of times a day, he must collect fares of
-fifty or a hundred persons in less time than he ought to have for
-ten. Of that large number a few will generally have a complaint
-to make, or an objection to offer, or an impudent assertion
-concerning a fault of the railroad company which the conductor
-cannot remedy and is not responsible for. A woman will object to
-paying half-fare for a ten-year-old girl or to paying full rates
-for one of fifteen. A person whose income is ten times larger
-than he deserves will argue twenty minutes to avoid paying ten
-cents more (in cash) than he would have been charged for a ticket.
-Passengers with legitimate questions to ask will couch them in
-vague and backhanded terms, and those with useless ones will take
-inopportune times to propound them. These are not occasional but
-every-day experiences. The very best and most intelligent people in
-the community (excepting those who travel much) are among those who
-oftenest leave their wits at home when they take a railroad trip.
-All these people must be met in a conciliatory manner, but without
-varying the strict regulations in the least degree. The officers
-of the revenue department are inexorable masters, and passengers
-offended by alleged uncivil treatment are likely to make absurd
-complaints at the superintendent's office. A conductor dreads an
-investigation of this sort, however unreasonable the passengers'
-complaints may be, because it may tend to show that he lacked tact
-in handling the case. But after becoming habituated to this sort of
-dealings, there are still left the occasional disturbances which no
-amount of philosophy can make pleasant. These are the encounters
-with drunken and disorderly passengers. The conductor, starting
-at the forward end of his train, finds, perhaps, in the first car
-one or two "toughs" who refuse payment of fare and are spoiling
-for a fight. Care must be taken with this sort of character not to
-punish him or use the least bit of unnecessary severity, for he
-will, when sobered off, quite likely be induced by a sharp lawyer
-to sue the railroad company for damages by assault. The conductor,
-however, if he be one who has (in his freight-train experience)
-dealt with tramps, is able to cope with his customer and confine
-him to the baggage-car or put him off the train. But a tussle of
-this kind is at best far from soothing to the temper, and the very
-next car may contain the wife of a nabob, who will expect the most
-genteel treatment and critically object to any behavior on the part
-of the conductor which is not fully up to the highest drawing-room
-standard. Experiences of this kind, it can be readily imagined, are
-exceedingly trying. The conductor cannot give himself up completely
-to learning gentility, for he still has need for his old severity.
-
-The difficulty of always finding the ideal person when wanted has
-led to the employment of men of good address who have had little or
-no training on freight trains; so that we find some conductors who
-are able to deal with all sorts of passengers with a good degree
-of success, but who are far from brilliant as managers of trains,
-technically speaking; while others, who from their early experience
-have first-class executive ability, are slow in discarding the
-somewhat rough habits of the freight train. While there are not
-wanting those who strive faithfully to reach the ideal, and succeed
-admirably, it may be said that the average conductor retains
-more of the severe than of the gentle side of his character, at
-least so far as outward behavior goes. The rigid requirements of
-his financial superiors, which compel him to actually fight for
-his rights with dishonest and stingy passengers, make it almost
-impossible that he should be otherwise. Ignorant foreigners, poor
-women and girls who have lost their way, and other unfortunates
-are, however, encountered often enough to preclude the conductor's
-forgetting how to be compassionate.
-
-The heroic element is not wholly lacking in the conductor's
-life. The temporary guardianship of several hundred people is
-an important trust even in smooth sailing, but the conductor's
-possibilities are entirely different from the engineer's. He has so
-much to do to attend to the petty wants of passengers that their
-remoter but more important interests are not given much thought.
-The anxieties of a hundred nervous passengers who terribly dread
-the loss of an hour by a missed connection are much more likely to
-weigh down a conductor's mind than any thoughts of his duty to them
-in a possible emergency that will happen only once in five years.
-And yet the last-mentioned contingency is a real one. Only last
-year, in the great Eastern blizzard, conductors risked their lives
-in protecting their passengers. One spent three or four hours in
-travelling a mile and a half to a telegraph-office; in consequence
-of the six feet of snow, the blinding storm, and the darkness, he
-had to constantly hug a barbed-wire fence to avoid losing his way,
-and was on the point of exhaustion when he reached the station.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-The term "station-agent" means, practically, the person in charge
-of a small or medium-sized station. When one of these men is
-promoted to the charge of a large city station, either freight or
-passenger, he becomes really a local superintendent, his duties
-then consisting very largely in the supervision of an army of
-clerks and laborers who must, each in his place, be as capable
-as the agent himself. The agent at a small station has a great
-multiplicity of duties to perform. He must sell tickets, be a good
-book-keeper, and a faithful switch-tender. He generally must be
-a telegraph-operator and must be vigorous physically. He must be
-ready, like the conductor, to submit to some abuse from ill-bred
-customers, and should be the peer of the business men of his town.
-He often encounters almost as great a variety of knotty problems
-as the superintendent himself, though he has the advantage that
-he can generally turn them over to a superior if he feels unequal
-to them. The practical difficulties that most beset him are those
-incident to doing everything in a hurry. People who buy tickets
-wait until the train is about to start before presenting themselves
-at the office. Then the agent has a dozen other things to attend
-to, and must therefore detect counterfeit ten-dollar bills with
-the expertness of a Washington treasury-clerk. Just as a train
-reaches his station the train despatcher's click is heard on the
-wires, and he must drop everything and receive (for the conductor)
-a telegram in which an error of a single word would very likely
-involve the lives of passengers. At a very small station the
-checking of baggage devolves on the agent, his overburdened back
-being thus loaded with one more straw. He is in many cases agent
-for the express company, and so must count, seal, superscribe, and
-way-bill money packages and handle oyster-kegs and barrels of beer
-at a moment's notice. Women with wagon-loads of loose household
-effects to go by freight, and shippers of car-loads of cattle, for
-which a car must be specially fitted up, will appear just as the
-distracted station-man is receiving a telegram with one side of
-his brain and selling a ticket with the other. The household goods
-must be weighed and tagged, the sewing-machine tied up, and tables
-repaired; the cattle-shipper must be given a short lecture on the
-legal bearings of the bargain for transportation which he is about
-to make, and his demand that his live-stock shall be carried 500
-miles more quickly than human animals are taken over the same road
-is to be gently repressed. It is not every day that a small station
-is enlivened by this sort of excitement, yet it is common, and is
-familiar to every station agent. The variety in the duties of this
-position is, however, a great advantage to the ambitious young
-man, because it serves to give him a good lift toward a valuable
-business education. He can learn about the methods and knacks and
-tricks of many different kinds of business, and can profit by
-the knowledge thus gained. Thomas J. Potter, the lately deceased
-vice-president of the Union Pacific Railway, whose memory it is
-proposed to perpetuate by a bronze statue, began his railroad
-career as agent at a small station in Iowa. Others of equal ability
-and perfection of character have risen from similar places and by
-the same means.
-
-[Illustration: In the Waiting Room of a Country Station.]
-
-The agent at a small station catches his breath between trains.
-There is then generally ample time for calming the nerves and
-preparing for the next onslaught. If he is a telegraph-operator he
-can chat with the operators at other stations--a common resource
-if the wires are not occupied with more important affairs. In the
-class periodicals of operators and railroad men, reference to
-this phase of their life may be constantly seen, and incidents
-of even romantic interest are not infrequent. Many of the men at
-small stations are young and unmarried, while at places where the
-business has increased enough to warrant the employment of an
-assistant, a young woman to do the telegraphing is frequently the
-first helper engaged. With this combination it is unnecessary to
-tell what follows. If iron bars and stone walls are things which
-Cupid holds in contempt, an electric telegraph wire is the thing
-which makes him "snicker right out," if we may use the language
-of the circus ring. A distance of 100 miles, instead of being a
-barrier, is, under these circumstances, an advantage. There is,
-to be sure, a slight disadvantage in the fact that any tender
-communication confided to the wires will be liable to fall on
-the ears of unfeeling persons at intermediate offices, but the
-overcoming of this obstacle provides the agreeable incidental
-excitement which is always necessary in genuine love-making. Young
-persons (or old, either) can study each other's characters, in
-important phases at least, at a distance better than at short
-range. The telegraphic mode of sending communications discloses
-one's disposition far better than does handwriting. Working on
-the same wire with another for a few months enables one to form
-judgments of that other's generosity or narrowness, serenity or
-excitability, industry or laziness, refinement or boorishness,
-kindliness of heart or otherwise, which are quite sure to be
-correct judgments. Judgments ripen into attachments, and romances
-of the wire are common.
-
-At the railroad station next larger in size, the work is more
-divided. One man sells tickets, another attends to the freight
-office, another to the baggage, and so on. The ticket-seller must
-make five-cent bargains with the same urbanity that is given to a
-$100 trade, and must be able to toss off the latter in two minutes
-if occasion requires, or to spend an hour in helping the passenger
-choose the best route among a score of possible ones. The fusillade
-of questions that must be met by the ticket-seller every time he
-opens his window is familiar to everyone who has ever watched a
-place of the kind for ten minutes. The inexperienced traveller
-wants to be fully posted as to the exact hour of departure of a
-tri-weekly stage with which he is to connect at a railroad station
-a thousand miles away, and the more intelligent ones demand an
-oral time-table covering the trains for the ensuing week on all
-railroads within a radius of 50 miles. Those who cannot read or
-understand the time-tables are too modest to ask aid, and their
-misfortune is disclosed only after their train has gone and they
-are found in tears; while those who can read the table ignore it
-and ask questions simply to be sociable.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-[Illustration: The Trials of a Baggage-master.]
-
-[Illustration: Station Gardening.]
-
-The station baggage-master has an important but rather thankless
-place. He must handle 200-pound trunks with as much ease as though
-they contained feathers, and, if he break a moulding off one,
-must meet the reproaches of the owner, who imagines that the time
-available for handling the trunk was five minutes instead of two
-seconds. He must handle much dirty and otherwise unpleasant stuff,
-and on the whole pursue a very unpoetic life. He has little to
-do with train-handling, but he "keeps in with" the trainmen and
-furnishes them with a share of their entertainment. They lounge
-in his room sometimes and he keeps on tap a supply of jokes such
-as that about the new brakeman who sent to headquarters for a
-supply of red oil for his red lantern, and the engineer who lost
-time with an excursion train on the Fourth of July because the
-extremely hot weather had elongated the rails and thus materially
-increased the distance to be travelled over. When "hot boxes"
-(friction-heated axles) are given as the cause of a delay the
-real cause of which is concealed (by the conductor who is ashamed
-of it), the baggage-master gently punctures the deception by
-suggesting that perhaps a hot _fire_-box (in the engine) is what
-is meant. Whether the roguish clerk of an inexperienced general
-manager, who slyly induced his chief to issue an order to station
-agents directing that "all freight cars standing for any length of
-time on side tracks must be occasionally moved a short distance in
-order to prevent flattening of the wheels," had formerly been a
-baggage-master, history does not state.
-
-[Illustration: In the Yard at Night.]
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-The switch-tender, whose momentary carelessness has many a
-time caused terrible disaster, but whose constant faithfulness
-outweighs a million-fold even that painful record, is one of the
-essential figures around a station. Nothing but eternal vigilance
-will suffice to keep switches always in safe position, and the
-conscientious custodian of these always possible death-traps
-often takes his burden of care to his pillow. The mishaps which
-do occur strikingly illustrate the practical impossibility of
-holding the human brain always to the highest pitch. A conductor
-in New Jersey (trainmen have to set switches at many places where
-no switchmen are employed) recently caused a slight collision by
-misplacing a switch, and on seeing the consequences exclaimed, "I
-deserve to be discharged; my mistake was inexcusable." And yet an
-honest man of that type is the kind demanded for such a place. The
-interlocking of switches and signals (the arrangement in a frame
-of the levers moving the switches and those moving signals in such
-a way that the signal which tells the engineer to come on _cannot
-be given_ until the switch is actually in proper position) is one
-of the notable improvements of the last twenty years, and is a
-great boon to switchmen, as well as to passengers and the owners
-of railroads.[36] By the aid of this apparatus and its distant
-signals, connected by wire ropes, the switchman's anxieties are
-reduced immeasurably. By concentrating the levers of a number of
-switches in a single room one man can do the work of several, and
-to the looker-on the perplexities of the position seem to have been
-increased instead of diminished. But the switchman's task now is
-of a different sort. Under the old plan he was constantly on guard
-lest he make a mistake and throw an engine or car off the track.
-Under the new, his calculations are chiefly about saving time and
-facilitating the work of the trainmen. Questions of danger rarely
-come up, being provided against by the perfection of the machinery.
-By long familiarity with the ground and the ways of handling the
-trains, the switch-tender in an "interlocking tower" is enabled to
-safely conduct a score of trains through a labyrinth of switches
-in the time that the novice would take to make the first move for
-a single train. Without this admirable apparatus, and skilful and
-experienced attendants, the business of great stations like the
-Grand Central at New York would be impossible in the space allowed.
-
-[Illustration: A Track-walker on a Stormy Night.]
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-One of the habitués of every station is the section-master, who
-looks after three, five, or ten miles of track and a gang of from
-five to twenty-five men who keep it in repair. He is not much
-seen, because he is out on the road most of the time; and his
-duties are not of a kind that the reader could study, on paper,
-to much advantage; but he deserves mention because his place is
-a really important one. Railroad tracks cannot be made, like a
-bridge, five times as strong as is necessary, and thus a large
-margin be allowed for deterioration; they must be constantly
-watched to see that they do not fall even a little below their
-highest standard. This care-taking can be intrusted only to one who
-has had long experience at the work. In violent rain-storms the
-trackman must be on duty night and day and patrol the whole length
-of his division to see that gravel is not washed over the track or
-out from under it. Though roughly dressed and sunburnt, he is an
-important personage in the eye of the engineer of a fast express
-train, and if he be the least bit negligent, even to the extent of
-letting a few rails get a quarter of an inch lower than they ought
-to, he hears a prompt appeal from the engine-runner. The latter
-could not feel the confidence necessary to guide his 50-ton giant
-over the road at lightning speed with its precious human freight if
-he had not a trusty trackman every few miles; and passengers who
-feel like expressing gratitude for a safe railroad journey should
-never forget this unseen guardian.
-
-A number of classes of men in the railroad service must be turned
-off with a word for lack of space. The train despatcher, with
-his constant burden of care, deserves a chapter. The locomotive
-fireman, who has not been directly alluded to, is practically an
-apprentice to the engineer, and, like apprentices in some other
-callings, has a good deal of hard work to do. He generally has
-longer hours than the engineer, as he has to clean a portion of
-the polished brass- and iron-work of the engine. He has to throw
-into the fire-box several tons of coal a day, and gets so black
-that his best friends would not know him when washed up. Those who
-begin young and are intelligent, and conserve their strength, are
-at length promoted to be engineers. The fireman's twin brother is
-the "hostler," who is employed at the larger termini to get the
-iron horse out of its stable, lead it to the watering place and
-feed-trough (coal-bin), and harness it to the train.
-
-The clerk in the freight office has almost as much variety of work
-as the ticket-seller, and is by no means a mere book-keeper. The
-workmen at the freight station are not common laborers. Their work
-requires peculiar skill and experience, and they have diversions
-worth telling of, if there were space. The men in the shops, and
-those who go out with derricks and chains to pick up wrecks, are an
-important class by themselves, and bridge-builders, gate-tenders,
-and various others bring up the rear.
-
-[Illustration: A Crossing Flagman.]
-
-In conclusion, railroad men as a body are industrious, sober when
-at work, and lively when at play, using well-trained minds, in
-their sphere, and possessing capacity for a high degree of further
-training. The public is not without its duty toward the million
-or so of men in the railroad service. The liability to death or
-maiming from accident is such a real factor in railroad men's
-lives that the public, and especially shareholders in railroads,
-are bound to not only uphold officers in providing every possible
-appliance and regulation for safety, but to demand the introduction
-of such devices. Some of the State railroad commissioners have
-done and are doing noble service in this direction, and should be
-vigorously supported by their constituencies. The demands of the
-public, re-enforced by the exigencies of competition, have made
-Sunday trains in many localities almost as common as on week-days,
-so that many train and station men work seven days in the week.
-In addition to this, holidays oftener increase their work than
-diminish it, so that there is room for a considerable reform in
-this regard.
-
-[Illustration: A Little Relaxation.]
-
-The general moral welfare of railroad men has received much
-attention in late years, and affords a wide field for work by all
-who will. Many railroads have co-operated with the Young Men's
-Christian Association branches, started by a few of the employees,
-in building and equipping reading-rooms, libraries, etc., and the
-companies give many hundred dollars annually toward the support of
-these resorts, which serve to keep many a young trainman away from
-loafing places of a questionable character or worse. Mr. Cornelius
-Vanderbilt, whose millions came largely out of the profits of the
-New York Central & Hudson River Railroad, has set a good example
-to other railroad millionaires in the erection of a building for
-the employees of that road in New York City, whose luxuriousness
-is an evidence that he loves his neighbor as himself, even if
-that neighbor be a plain brakeman earning but low wages. That the
-resorts provided for railroad men are appreciated is evidenced by
-their records. Of the trainmen who regularly come into the Grand
-Central Station in New York, 46 per cent. are members of the
-Association occupying the building given by Mr. Vanderbilt, and 65
-per cent. make use of the rooms more or less regularly. Rooms in
-numerous other cities also make encouraging showings.
-
-Railroad officers, with their great advantages for enlightenment,
-owe it to themselves and their men to see that the thousands under
-them have fair opportunities for rising in the world, and that the
-owners of the immense corporations which stand as masters of such
-vast armies fully understand their measure of responsibility in the
-premises. Science and invention, machinery and improved methods,
-have effected great changes in the railroad art, but the American
-nation, which travels more than any other, still recognizes the
-fact that faithful and efficient _men_ are an essential factor
-in the prosecution of that art. People desire to deal with a
-personality, and therefore wish to see the _personnel_ of the
-railroad service fostered and perfected.
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[33] See "Safety in Railroad Travel," page 222.
-
-[34] The New York elevated roads run 3,500 trains a day, each
-one passing signals (likely to indicate danger) every hundred
-rods, almost. Who can expect engineers never to blunder in such
-innumerable operations?
-
-[35] Mr. Porter King, of Springfield, Mass., who has run an engine
-on the Boston & Albany road for forty-five years, and who served on
-the Mohawk & Hudson, the Long Island, and the New Jersey Railroads
-in 1833-44, when horses were the motive power and the reverse lever
-consisted of a pair of reins, ran until December, 1887, before his
-engine ever killed a person.
-
-[36] See "Safety in Railroad Travel," page 204.
-
-
-
-
-STATISTICAL RAILWAY STUDIES.[37]
-
-BY FLETCHER W. HEWES.
-
-  Railway Mileage of the World--Railway Mileage of the United
-  States--Annual Mileage and Increase--Mileage Compared with
-  Area--Geographical Location of Railways--Centres of Mileage
-  and of Population--Railway Systems--Trunk Lines Compared:
-  By Mileage; Largest Receipts; Largest Net Results--Freight
-  Traffic--Reduction of Freight Rates--Wheat Rates--The Freight
-  Haul--Empty Freight Trains--Freight Profits--Passenger
-  Traffic--Passenger Rates--Passenger Travel--Passenger
-  Profits--General Considerations--Dividends--Net Earnings per
-  Mile and Railway Building--Ratios of Increase--Construction and
-  Maintenance--Employees and their Wages--Rolling Stock--Capital
-  Invested.
-
-
-Although the United States was the second nation to open a line of
-railway, it operates to-day nearly half the mileage of the world,
-and it has so many miles of double, triple, and quadruple track
-that, were the data of trackage available, such a comparison would
-undoubtedly show it to more than equal all the rest of the world
-combined.
-
-Below is given a chart comparing the mileage of the principal
-railway countries. The list contains all countries having a mileage
-of over ten thousand kilometers.
-
-  Principal Railway Countries, 1887.
-  +-------------+-------+
-  | Countries.  |Kilo-  |
-  |             |meters.|
-  +-------------+-------+   25,000 Kilometers
-  |Italy        | 11,759|»»  |  50,000
-  |Australia    | 15,297|»»» |    |  75,000
-  |Canada       | 19,883|»»»»|    |    | 100,000
-  |British India| 22,665|»»»»|    |    |    | 125,000
-  |Austria-     |       |    |    |    |    |    | 150,000
-  |  Hungary    | 24,432|»»»»|    |    |    |    |    | 175,000
-  |Russia       | 28,517|»»»»|»   |    |    |    |    |    | 200,000
-  |France       | 31,208|»»»»|»»  |    |    |    |    |    |    | 225,000
-  |Great Britain| 31,521|»»»»|»»  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |250,000
-  |Germany      | 39,785|»»»»|»»» |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
-  |United States|241,210|»»»»|»»»»|»»»»|»»»»|»»»»|»»»»|»»»»|»»»»|»»»»|»»» |
-  +-------------+-------+
-
-The most prominent fact is impressed by the very long line
-representing the mileage of the United States. A second impressive
-fact is that the United States has more than six times the mileage
-of any other country. A third, that there are but five other
-countries that have even a tenth as much railway.
-
-
-RAILWAY MILEAGE OF THE UNITED STATES.
-
-_Total Annual Mileage and Increase._--On page 429 is given a
-chart which, beginning with the 23 miles of 1830 and ending with
-the 156,082 miles of 1888, delineates our ever-increasing total
-mileage. It also portrays the fluctuations in the number of
-miles built annually. This latter study is the more interesting,
-especially during the last twenty-five years, which cover the
-periods of extreme activity.
-
-_Mileage Compared with Area._--The shaded map on the same page
-pictures the railway mileage of each State as compared with its
-total area. The eleven States bearing the deepest shade (5) are
-those having the larger proportions of mileage to area. Of these,
-New Jersey stands first, having almost exactly one-fourth of a
-mile of railroad for each square mile of land. The proportion of
-total area occupied by this mileage is measured to the eye by the
-accompanying diagram.
-
-[Illustration: Mileage to Area in New Jersey.]
-
-The entire square stands for one square mile of land, and the space
-at the upper left-hand corner stands for that part of the square
-mile which the railroad occupies, counting from fence to fence
-on each side of the road. This comparison is made on the basis
-of one hundred feet for the "right of way" (the width allowed in
-government grants), and is useful in connection with the study of
-the historical maps, especially those of 1880 and 1889, on which
-the area of some of the States seems to be nearly all taken up with
-roads, owing to the small scale of the maps. Iowa has the smallest
-proportion of any in Group 5. The figures show her proportion to
-be a little over one-seventh of a mile of road to one square mile
-of area. (Nevada has the smallest proportion of all the States and
-Territories, viz., a trifle over 1/117 of a mile of line to one
-square mile.)
-
-That part of the map bearing the deepest shade shows at a glance
-that an unbroken belt, averaging some two hundred miles wide,
-stretching from Cape Cod to beyond the Mississippi River, is that
-part of the country best supplied with railways.
-
-The lighter shades grouped on either side of this belt show how the
-mileage grades away north and south.
-
-
-GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF RAILWAYS.
-
-On pages 430 to 433 is a series of historical maps showing the
-location of railway lines at each census-year from 1830 to 1880,
-and in 1889. Charts comparing and ranking the mileage by States
-accompany the maps of 1870, 1880, and 1889. These maps and charts
-give a better idea of the location and extent of progress than
-could be given by a dozen pages of description and a hundred
-columns of figures.
-
-_Centre of Mileage and of Population._--The space for notes on the
-maps permits the bare mention of the meaning of the series of stars
-in the 1889 map (page 433), which mark the centres of mileage and
-of population. It is well to state the manner of determining the
-centres of mileage, that it may have its proper bearing in any
-study of the subject into which the showing may enter.
-
-The locations are necessarily approximate. Each centre was
-determined by selecting, on the proper map, a line running east and
-west which seemed, to the eye, to nearly divide the mileage into
-equal parts. The sum of the mileage of the States north, was then
-compared with that of the States south of the line. By this means
-the position of the line chosen by the eye was corrected and the
-right parallel determined. The meridian dividing the total mileage
-into equal parts was ascertained in like manner. The point of
-intersection of the parallel and meridian is marked in the map by a
-star, having the proper date printed to the right of it.
-
-The upper series of stars locates the centres of railway mileage,
-and the lower series the centres of population, as given by the
-returns of the census of 1880.
-
-The following table describes the several locations thus
-ascertained:
-
-_Centres of Railway Mileage._
-
-  -----+----------+----------+--------------------------------------------
-  Date.| Latitude.|Longitude.|    Approximate location by towns.
-  -----+----------+----------+--------------------------------------------
-  1840 |40° 50′ N.|76° 10′ W.|Twenty miles west of Mauch Chunk, Pa.
-  1850 |41° 30′ N.|77° 27′ W.|Twenty-five miles northwest of Williamsport,
-       |          |          |   Lycoming County, Pa.
-  1860 |40° 40′ N.|82° 30′ W.|Ten miles south of Mansfield, O.
-  1870 |41° 10′ N.|84° 35′ W.|Paulding, Paulding County, O.
-  1880 |41° 05′ N.|86° 50′ W.|Thirty miles northwest of Logansport, Ind.
-  1888 |39° 50′ N.|88° 40′ W.|Pontiac, Ill., about ninety miles S. S. W.
-       |          |          |   of Chicago.
-  -----+----------+----------+--------------------------------------------
-
-The remarkable movement of the centre of mileage from 1850 to
-1860 is easily understood when one turns to the maps of those
-dates (page 430) and locates the fields of activity. The wonderful
-increase in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa gave the
-Western impulse, while the growth in Tennessee and the States south
-of it furnishes the principal explanation of the southerly motion.
-
-Although the study of this period is the most interesting of the
-series, in the space passed over, yet each period has its points of
-special interest, which the reader will easily solve by referring
-to the proper maps on pages 430 to 433.
-
-_Railway Systems._--The consolidation of separate lines under
-central controlling interests has resulted in several "systems" of
-great extent. Five such are mapped on pages 434 and 435. The roads
-controlled by them are printed in broad lines, while all others
-are printed in narrow lines. It needs but a glance to see whether
-any of them has so far absorbed the roads of a given region as to
-be able to control rates. The systems selected are believed to be
-representative ones, and the mapping of a dozen others would not
-tell the story any more plainly.
-
-
-TRUNK LINES COMPARED.
-
-_Compared by Mileage._--At present there are twenty-four
-corporations reporting over one thousand miles of line each. A
-comparison of these roads by mileage is profitless, as it furnishes
-no just clew to their importance in point of business transacted.
-Several of the shorter of these twenty-four lines largely exceed
-some of the longer ones in the volume of business transacted. As
-an example of the little value of comparison by mileage, the New
-York Central & Hudson River Road, with but 1,421 miles of line,
-reports $63,132,920 receipts, while the Union Pacific, with 6,288
-miles, reports but $19,898,817. Two of the twenty-four roads, viz.,
-the Southern Pacific Railroad (5,931 miles) and the Richmond, West
-Point & Terminal Railroad (6,869 miles) report neither gross or net
-earnings. The remaining twenty-two report both, and these reports
-furnish a satisfactory basis for study.
-
-
-[Illustration: Railway Mileage of the United States.
-
-  Compared with Area, 1888.
-
-  =Explanatory.=--The horizontal black lines below interpret the
-  right-hand column of figures, and therefore picture the annual
-  total mileage of railways operated.--The color below interprets
-  the left-hand column, and therefore pictures the fluctuations in
-  the number of miles built annually.
-
-  The =Key= explains the shades on the map. The lightest shade
-  indicates an average of less than one-fiftieth of a mile of
-  railway for each square mile of land. The second shade, from
-  one-fiftieth to one-twentieth of a mile of railway, for each
-  square mile of land, etc.
-
-  KEY TO SHADES
-  ON THE MAP.
-
-  Less than 1/50 m. to 1 sq. m.   =1=
-  1/50 m. - 1/20 m.  " "  "  "    =2=
-  1/20 m. - 1/15 m.  " "  "  "    =3=
-  1/15 m. - 1/8  m.  " "  "  "    =4=
-  1/8  m.  and over, per  "  "    =5= ]
-
-  Total and Increase.
-
-  +------+------------------+
-  |      |      Miles.      |
-  | Years+--------+---------+
-  |      | Built  | Operated|
-  +------+--------+---------+
-  | 1830 |     -- |      23 |
-  | 1831 |     72 |      95 |
-  | 1832 |    134 |     229 |
-  | 1833 |    151 |     380 |
-  | 1834 |    253 |     633 |
-  | 1835 |    465 |   1,098 |
-  | 1836 |    175 |   1,273 |
-  | 1837 |    224 |   1,497 |
-  | 1838 |    416 |   1,913 |
-  | 1839 |    389 |   2,302 |
-  | 1840 |    516 |   2,818 |
-  | 1841 |    717 |   3,535 |
-  | 1842 |    491 |   4,026 |
-  | 1843 |    159 |   4,185 |
-  | 1844 |    192 |   4,377 |
-  | 1845 |    256 |   4,633 |
-  | 1846 |    297 |   4,930 |
-  | 1847 |    668 |   5,598 |
-  | 1848 |    398 |   5,996 |
-  | 1849 |  1,369 |   7,365 |
-  | 1850 |  1,656 |   9,021 |
-  | 1851 |  1,961 |  10,982 |
-  | 1852 |  1,926 |  12,908 |
-  | 1853 |  2,452 |  15,360 |
-  | 1854 |  1,360 |  16,720 |
-  | 1855 |  1,654 |  18,374 |
-  | 1856 |  3,642 |  22,016 |
-  | 1857 |  2,487 |  24,503 |
-  | 1858 |  2,465 |  26,963 |
-  | 1859 |  1,821 |  28,789 |
-  | 1860 |  1,846 |  30,635 |
-  | 1861 |    651 |  31,286 |
-  | 1862 |    834 |  32,120 |
-  | 1863 |  1,050 |  33,170 |
-  | 1864 |    738 |  33,908 |
-  | 1865 |  1,177 |  35,085 |
-  | 1866 |  1,716 |  36,801 |
-  | 1867 |  2,249 |  39,250 |
-  | 1868 |  2,979 |  42,229 |
-  | 1869 |  4,615 |  46,844 |
-  | 1870 |  6,070 |  52,914 |
-  | 1871 |  7,379 |  60,293 |
-  | 1872 |  5,878 |  66,171 |
-  | 1873 |  4,097 |  70,268 |
-  | 1874 |  2,117 |  72,385 |
-  | 1875 |  1,711 |  74,096 |
-  | 1876 |  2,712 |  76,808 |
-  | 1877 |  2,280 |  79,088 |
-  | 1878 |  2,679 |  81,767 |
-  | 1879 |  4,817 |  86,584 |
-  | 1880 |  6,712 |  93,296 |
-  | 1881 |  9,847 | 103,143 |
-  | 1882 | 11,569 | 114,712 |
-  | 1883 |  6,743 | 121,455 |
-  | 1884 |  3,924 | 125,379 |
-  | 1885 |  2,930 | 128,309 |
-  | 1886 |  8,100 | 136,409 |
-  | 1887 | 12,872 | 149,281 |
-  | 1888 |  6,801 | 156,082 |
-  +------+--------+---------+
-
-
-[Illustration: Railways in the United States, 1830-1860.
-
-(From Scribner's Statistical Atlas.)
-
-  =Note.=--These maps are reductions of larger maps referred to
-  in the titles. This makes it possible to bring them within
-  very convenient space for comparison, and compensates for any
-  indistinctness of lettering in the maps.
-
-  The railways of 1830 are pointed out by red arrows. Those of the
-  other maps are easily seen. The growth by decades is thus quickly
-  located. In 1840, one continuous line stretched from New York
-  to Washington, D. C. Another considerable line was that from
-  Fredericksburg, Va., to Wilmington, N. C. In 1850, one could not
-  go by direct railway from New York to either Albany or Boston. In
-  1860, several direct routes stretched from New York to far west
-  of the Mississippi.
-
-  _=Note.=_--In 1860 there was also in California, a railway from
-  Sacramento to Folsom City (22 miles).]
-
-
-[Illustration: Railways in the United States. 1870
-
-(From Scribner's Statistical Atlas.)
-
-  Railway Mileage by States, 1870.
-
-  +----+--------+-------+
-  |Rank| State  | Miles |
-  +----+--------+-------+
-  | 41 | Dak.   |    65 |»
-  | 40 | R.I.   |   136 |»
-  | 39 | Colo.  |   157 |»»
-  | 38 | Oreg.  |   159 |»»
-  | 37 | Del.   |   197 |»»
-  | 36 | Ark.   |   256 |»»»
-  | 35 | Utah   |   257 |»»»
-  | 34 | W. Va. |   387 |»»»»   1,000 Miles
-  | 33 | Fla.   |   446 |»»»»    |
-  | 32 | La.    |   450 |»»»»    |
-  | 31 | Wyo.   |   459 |»»»»    |
-  | 30 | Nev.   |   593 |»»»»»   |
-  | 29 | Vt.    |   614 |»»»»»   |
-  | 28 | *Md.   |   671 |»»»»»»  |
-  | 27 | Nebr.  |   705 |»»»»»»» |
-  | 26 | Tex.   |   711 |»»»»»»» |       2,000
-  | 25 | N.H.   |   736 |»»»»»»» |        |
-  | 24 | Conn.  |   742 |»»»»»»» |        |
-  | 23 | Me.    |   786 |»»»»»»» |        |       3,000
-  | 22 | Cal.   |   925 |»»»»»»»»|        |        |
-  | 21 | Miss.  |   990 |»»»»»»»»|        |        |
-  | 20 | Ky.    | 1,017 |»»»»»»»»|        |        |
-  | 19 | Minn.  | 1,092 |»»»»»»»»|»       |        |
-  | 18 | N.J.   | 1,125 |»»»»»»»»|»       |        |       4,000
-  | 17 | S.C.   | 1,139 |»»»»»»»»|»       |        |        |
-  | 16 | Ala.   | 1,157 |»»»»»»»»|»»      |        |        |
-  | 15 | N.C.   | 1,178 |»»»»»»»»|»»      |        |        |
-  | 14 | Mass.  | 1,480 |»»»»»»»»|»»»     |        |        |      5,000
-  | 13 | Va.    | 1,488 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»    |        |        |        |
-  | 12 | Tenn.  | 1,492 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»    |        |        |        |
-  | 11 | Kans.  | 1,501 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»    |        |        |        |
-  | 10 | Wis.   | 1,525 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»   |        |        |        |
-  |  9 | Mich.  | 1,638 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»  |        |        |        |
-  |  8 | Ga.    | 1,845 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»» |        |        |        |
-  |  7 | Mo.    | 2,000 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»» |        |        |        |
-  |  6 | Iowa   | 2,683 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»  |        |        |
-  |  5 | Ind.   | 3,177 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»      |        |
-  |  4 | Ohio   | 3,538 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»   |        |
-  |  3 | N.Y.   | 3,924 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»» |        |
-  |  2 | Pa.    | 4,658 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»  |
-  |  1 | Ill.   | 4,823 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»» |
-  +----+--------+-------+        |        |        |        |        |
-
-  * Includes District of Columbia.
-
-  In 1850 Chicago had one short road. In 1860 she had several main
-  lines, reaching hundreds of miles.--east, west, north, and south.
-  In 1850, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois were open fields. In 1860
-  they were crossed and recrossed many times A similar change had
-  taken place in the south east. The 1860 map marks the condition
-  at the breaking out of the Civil War.--In 1870 there does not
-  appear to have been much change except in the north-west, and the
-  completion of the first Pacific line, and yet there were 22,296
-  more miles than in 1860, nearly 700 miles more than the 1850-1860
-  growth, but being spread over a wider area it does not appear
-  as clearly. A little careful study shows that many States had
-  added considerably to their mileage.--The names in the maps are
-  given mainly to mark terminal points.--While the map locates the
-  mileage, the chart at the left accurately measures and compares
-  it State by State.
-
-  Before turning to the 1880 map, let the eye go carefully over the
-  1870 lines, that the comparison may be the more properly made.]
-
-
-[Illustration: Railways in the United States. 1880
-
-(From Scribner's Statistical Atlas.)
-
-  Railway Mileage by States, 1880.
-
-  +----+-------+-------+
-  |Rank| State | Miles |
-  +----+-------+-------+
-  | 47 | Mont. |   106 |»
-  | 46 | Ida.  |   206 |»
-  | 45 | R.I.  |   210 |»
-  | 44 | Del.  |   275 |»»
-  | 43 | Wash. |   289 |»»
-  | 42 | I. T. |   289 |»»
-  | 41 | Ariz. |   349 |»»
-  | 40 | Oreg. |   508 |»»»
-  | 39 | Wyo.  |   512 |»»»
-  | 38 | Fla.  |   518 |»»»
-  | 37 | La.   |   652 |»»»»
-  | 36 | W. Va.|   691 |»»»»
-  | 35 | Nev.  |   739 |»»»»
-  | 34 | N.Mex.|   758 |»»»»
-  | 33 | Utah  |   842 |»»»»»
-  | 32 | Ark.  |   859 |»»»»»
-  | 31 | Vt.   |   914 |»»»»»
-  | 30 | Conn. |   923 |»»»»»
-  | 29 | Me.   | 1,005 |»»»»»»
-  | 28 | N.H.  | 1,015 |»»»»»»  2,000 Miles
-  | 27 |*Md.   | 1,040 |»»»»»»   |
-  | 26 | Miss. | 1,127 |»»»»»»   |
-  | 25 | Dak.  | 1,225 |»»»»»»   |
-  | 24 | S.C.  | 1,427 |»»»»»»»  |
-  | 23 | N.C.  | 1,486 |»»»»»»»  |
-  | 22 | Ky.   | 1,530 |»»»»»»»  |
-  | 21 | Colo. | 1,570 |»»»»»»»  |
-  | 20 | N.J.  | 1,684 |»»»»»»»» |
-  | 19 | Tenn. | 1,843 |»»»»»»»» |
-  | 18 | Ala.  | 1,843 |»»»»»»»» |
-  | 17 | Va.   | 1,893 |»»»»»»»»»|
-  | 16 | Mass. | 1,915 |»»»»»»»»»|       4,000
-  | 15 | Nebr. | 1,953 |»»»»»»»»»|         |
-  | 14 | Cal.  | 2,195 |»»»»»»»»»|»        |
-  | 13 | Ga.   | 2,459 |»»»»»»»»»|»»       |
-  | 12 | Minn. | 3,151 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»     |
-  | 11 | Wis.  | 3,155 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»     |
-  | 10 | Tex.  | 3,244 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»    |
-  |  9 | Kans. | 3,400 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»   |
-  |  8 | Mich. | 3,938 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|       6,000
-  |  7 | Mo.   | 3,965 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|         |
-  |  6 | Ind.  | 4,373 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»       |       8,000
-  |  5 | Iowa  | 5,400 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»     |         |
-  |  4 | Ohio  | 5,792 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»   |         |    10,000
-  |  3 | N.Y.  | 5,991 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»» |         |         |
-  |  2 | Pa.   | 6,191 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»        |         |
-  |  1 | Ill.  | 7,851 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»» |         |
-  +----+-------+-------+         |         |         |         |         |
-
-  * Includes District of Columbia.
-
-  It is difficult to believe that so many roads could have been
-  added in ten years. All the 1870 area north of the Ohio River
-  seems crowded at nearly every point, and the network of advance
-  westward, in the States of Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas,
-  Nebraska, and Dakota, is equally surprising. The growth in Texas
-  was also very large, and many new lines appear in other Southern
-  States. The total increase of the ten years was over forty
-  thousand miles (40,374).
-
-  It would not seem possible that this rate of building could be
-  longer maintained, and yet the 1889 map shows a still greater
-  growth. At the close of 1888 (only eight years), the increase was
-  62,785 miles.]
-
-
-[Illustration: Railways in the United States, 1889
-
-(From the "Scribner-Black Atlas of the World.")
-
-  Railway Mileage by States,
-  Dec. 31, 1888.
-
-  +----+-------+-------+
-  |R'k |States | Miles |
-  +----+-------+-------+
-  | 48 | D.C.  |    21 |»
-  | 47 | R.I.  |   214 |»»
-  | 46 | Del.  |   315 |»»»
-  | 45 | Ida.  |   868 |»»»»
-  | 44 | Wyo.  |   902 |»»»»
-  | 43 | Nev.  |   948 |»»»»»
-  | 42 | Vt.   |   959 |»»»»»
-  | 41 | I. T. |   973 |»»»»»
-  | 40 | Conn. | 1,006 |»»»»»
-  | 39 | N.H.  | l,079 |»»»»»
-  | 38 | Ariz. | 1,095 |»»»»»
-  | 37 | Utah  | 1,133 |»»»»»»
-  | 38 | Md.   | 1,162 |»»»»»»
-  | 35 | W. Va.| 1,281 |»»»»»»»  2,000 Miles
-  | 34 | Wash. | 1,319 |»»»»»»»  |
-  | 33 | Me.   | 1,321 |»»»»»»»  |
-  | 32 | N.Mex.| 1,321 |»»»»»»»  |
-  | 31 | Oreg. | 1,412 |»»»»»»»  |
-  | 30 | La.   | 1,505 |»»»»»»»  |
-  | 29 | Mont. | 1,804 |»»»»»»»» |
-  | 28 | N.J.  | 1,981 |»»»»»»»»»|
-  | 27 | Ark.  | 2,046 |»»»»»»»»»|»
-  | 26 | Mass. | 2,074 |»»»»»»»»»|»
-  | 25 | N.C.  | 2,084 |»»»»»»»»»|»
-  | 24 | Miss. | 2,218 |»»»»»»»»»|»»
-  | 23 | Fla.  | 2,250 |»»»»»»»»»|»»
-  | 22 | Tenn. | 2,488 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»      4,000
-  | 21 | N.C.  | 2,529 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»      |
-  | 20 | Ky.   | 2,585 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»     |
-  | 19 | Va.   | 2,931 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»    |
-  | 18 | Ala.  | 2,986 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»   |
-  | 17 | Ga.   | 3,928 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|
-  | 16 | Colo. | 4,038 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|
-  | 15 | Cal.  | 4,128 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»
-  | 14 | Dak.  | 4,465 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»       6,000
-  | 13 | Nebr. | 4,980 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»     |
-  | 12 | Wis.  | 5,330 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»   |
-  | 11 | Minn. | 5,375 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»   |
-  | 10 | Ind.  | 5,890 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»» |
-  |  9 | Mo.   | 5,901 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|
-  |  8 | Mich. | 6,490 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»       8,000
-  |  7 | N.Y.  | 7,598 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»   |
-  |  6 | Ohio  | 7,636 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»  |
-  |  5 | Tex.  | 8,211 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»   10,000
-  |  4 | Pa.   | 8,225 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»        |
-  |  3 | Iowa  | 8,365 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»       |
-  |  2 | Kans. | 8,755 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»     |
-  |  1 | Ill.  | 9,901 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|
-  +----+-------+-------+         |         |         |         |         |
-
-  The figures in the two charts show that four States alone claim
-  more than one-fourth of the growth (Kansas, 5,354; Texas,
-  4,967; Dakota, 8,240 and Nebraska, 3,207 miles; total, 16,768
-  miles.) Six other States (Iowa, Mich., Col., Minn., Wis., and
-  Penn.) had each an increase of over 2,000 miles.--The charts
-  give Illinois the longest line from 1870, but the position of
-  Texas in the three charts seems to prophesy that Illinois must
-  soon yield. In 1860, Ohio led; in 1850, New York, and in 1840,
-  Pennsylvania.--The upper series of stars in the 1880 map locate
-  the center of railway mileage. See page 427, preceding.]
-
-
-[Illustration: Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul System, 1889.]
-
-[Illustration: Chicago, Burlington and Quincy System, 1889.]
-
-[Illustration: Chicago and Northwestern System, 1889.]
-
-[Illustration: Pennsylvania System, 1889.]
-
-[Illustration: Vanderbilt System, 1889.]
-
-
-[Illustration: Largest Receipts, 1888.
-
-(See page 437, following)
-
-  +--+----------------+-----------+
-  |R.|  Corporation   | Receipts  |     $10M
-  +--+----------------+-----------+      |
-  |15|Ill. Cent.      |$13,660,245|»»»»»»|»»
-  |14|Mich. Cent.     | 13,770,593|»»»»»»|»»   $20M
-  |13|A. T. & St. F.  | 15,612.913|»»»»»»|»»»   |
-  |12|N. Pacific      | 15,846,328|»»»»»»|»»»   |
-  |11|L. & N.         | 17,122,026|»»»»»»|»»»»  |     $30M
-  |10|L. S. & M. S.   | 18,029,627|»»»»»»|»»»»» |      |
-  | 9|U. Pacif.       | 19,898,817|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|      |
-  | 8|B. & O.         | 20,353,492|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»     |     $40M
-  | 7|C. B. & Q.      | 23,789,168|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»    |      |
-  | 6|C. M. & St. P.  | 24,867,730|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»   |      |
-  | 5|C. & N. W.      | 26,697,559|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»  |      |    $50M
-  | 4|N. Y. L. E. & W.| 27,217,990|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»» |      |      |
-  | 3|N. Y. C. & H. R.| 36,139,920|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»  |      |
-  | 2|Penn. W. of P.  | 37,894,370|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»» |      |
-  | 1|Penn. E. of P.  | 58,172,078|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»»
-  +--+----------------+-----------+
-
-
-Largest Net Results, 1888.
-
-(See page 437, following)
-
-  +--+----------------+-----+
-  |R.|  Corporation   |Net %|         10%       20%       30%
-  +--+----------------+-----+         |         |         |
-  |15|N. Y. C. & H. R.|31.85|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»
-  |14|Penn. E. of P.  |33.39|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»
-  |13|D. & R. G.      |33.43|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»
-  |12|A. T. & St. F.  |33.47|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»
-  |11|N. Y. L. E. & W.|33.85|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»
-  |10|Ill. Cent.      |34.41|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»
-  | 9|C. R. I. & P.   |35.29|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»
-  | 8|E. T. V. & G.   |36.06|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»
-  | 7|L. & N.         |36.11|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»   40%
-  | 6|L. S. & M. S.   |37.27|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»  |
-  | 5|C. & N. W.      |37.56|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»» |
-  | 4|U. Pacif.       |40.80|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»
-  | 3|N. Pacif.       |41.52|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»
-  | 2|St. L. & San F. |41.88|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»
-  | 1|St. P. M. & M.  |46.08|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»
-  +--+----------------+-----+
-]
-
-
-[Illustration: AVERAGE CHARGE PER MILE FOR EACH TON OF FREIGHT
-HAULED.
-
-  TRUNK LINES. 1870--1889
-  Chicago and Northwestern
-  Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul
-  Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific
-  =Av. of 6 Lines West of Chicago=
-  Chicago, Burlington and Quincy
-  Illinois Central
-  Chicago and Alton
-  Boston and Albany
-  Michigan Central
-  New York Central
-  =Av. of 7 Lines East of Chicago=
-  Pennsylvania
-  Lake Shore and Michigan Southern
-  New York, Lake Erie and Western
-  Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago
-
-  =Explanatory.=--The upper edge of the deep shade marks the
-  fluctuations of the average rate charged by the seven lines
-  east of Chicago.--The upper edge of the light shade marks the
-  fluctuations of the average rate charged by the six lines west
-  of Chicago.--Each particular road has a distinctive line, which
-  makes it easy to trace it among other lines.--All Western lines
-  are accompanied by lines of color, to distinguish them plainly
-  from the Eastern lines, and to make their relation to their own
-  average more easily discovered. The Boston and Albany is the only
-  Eastern line whose rate places it near the Western lines, but the
-  absence of color prevents it from being taken for a Western line,
-  which it might otherwise be, especially during the last three
-  years, in its journey through and above them all.--The C. B. &
-  Q. Road makes no report later than 1879.--The Chicago and Alton
-  report begins at 1874.
-
-  =Explanatory.=--The diagram upon which the rates are charted
-  (like all such diagrams) is constructed of perpendicular and
-  horizontal lines. Each line, and each space between lines, has
-  a particular meaning. The perpendicular spaces represent years,
-  indicated by the figures at the top of each space. The horizontal
-  spaces represent money values, each space representing .2c (two
-  mills). Each horizontal line represents a particular money value,
-  marked by the figures at the end of the line. Each black dot
-  represents the average annual rate of some particular road. For
-  example, take the Boston and Albany Road. Starting with the name
-  and following the tracing line, the 1870 dot is found just below
-  the 2.2c (2 cents and 2 mills) line. This indicates that the
-  average rate charged by that road in 1870 was a trifle less than
-  2.2c. Following the line leading from the 1870 dot into the 1871
-  space, the 1871 dot is found a little below the center of the
-  space between the 2c line and the 2.2c line, indicating a rate of
-  a little less than 2 cents and 1 mill for 1871. The next year it
-  is lower still. In this way the history of any road is quickly
-  traced.]
-
-_Largest Receipts._--A comparison on the basis of gross receipts
-gives the best means of judging of the financial importance of the
-several roads, for it measures the volume of business done. On
-page 435 is given such a comparison of the fifteen roads (of the
-twenty-two referred to above) reporting the largest gross receipts.
-
-_Largest Net Results._--While the gross receipts measure the volume
-of business they may not give any indication of net results. A
-chart, immediately under that comparing gross receipts, compares
-the net receipts of the fifteen roads (of the same twenty-two)
-which report the highest per centages.
-
-Of the ten reporting largest net results, seven are west of
-Chicago. This fact, coupled with the desire of the great western
-systems to possess new territory in advance of others, suggests a
-reason for the large railway growth in that part of the country.
-
-
-FREIGHT TRAFFIC.
-
-The gross traffic receipts of the railways of the United States are
-divided between freight and passenger business in very nearly the
-proportion of three to one in favor of the freight traffic. For
-this reason, and because the data are still more largely available
-on the same side, the freight service receives herein the fuller
-treatment.
-
-_Reduction of Freight Rates._--On the opposite page is a chart
-delineating the fluctuations in freight rates since 1870. To one
-not familiar with the subject the picture presented is a most
-remarkable one. It looks as though the roads are all in a mad
-scramble to see which can reach the bottom of the hill first. To
-railway managers the picture is a painful reminder of a serious
-struggle, the end of which no one can yet predict.
-
-The lines selected are representative lines of the east and west
-divisions of the country, north of the Ohio River, where the great
-number of competing roads has induced sharp competition.
-
-The history of the _averages_ is very clear, and it is easy to see
-that they are steadily approaching common ground, for while in 1870
-the eastern average marked almost exactly one cent six mills, the
-western marked two cents four mills, a separation of eight mills;
-in 1888 they recorded seven mills and a trifle over nine mills, a
-separation of about one-quarter of the 1870 record.
-
-_Wheat Rates._--The chart below repeats the lesson of the larger
-chart as to reduction of rates. The persistency with which water
-rates have kept below rail rates, emphasizes the fact that wherever
-water-ways exist, they are stubborn competitors for such freight
-traffic as will not suffer by the longer time required for the
-journey.
-
-[Illustration: Average Freight Rates per Bushel of Wheat from
-Chicago to New York.]
-
-_The Freight Haul._--It costs as much to load and unload a train
-that hauls its freight ten miles as it does one that carries it a
-thousand miles. In other words, the longer the haul the less the
-proportional cost to the carriers. The great extension of long
-lines westward in the last few years naturally raises the question
-whether the average freight haul has increased. The largely
-diminished rates suggest that probably producers have been led
-thereby to ship both agricultural and manufactured products greater
-distances to market. One or both of these conditions may have
-operated favorably for some roads, but, plausible as the theories
-seem, the facts prove that neither of them is supported in a study
-of the average haul of the country. The available figures permit us
-to go back only to 1882. Within that period the little chart given
-herewith delineates the fluctuations, but indicates no permanency
-in either direction. It is a matter of regret that in this, as in
-many other studies, the history is not available for earlier years,
-as the more extended the view the better the judgment of such
-questions becomes.
-
-[Illustration: Average Number of Miles each Ton of Freight was
-Hauled.]
-
-_Empty Freight Trains._--One of the considerable items of expense
-in the freight traffic is that of returning empty cars to their
-point of starting. Just how large an item this is depends chiefly
-upon the demands of the population at either end of the operating
-line for the product of the population at the opposite end. Thus
-the carriage of the great agricultural product of the West to
-feed the denser population of the East, and for export to foreign
-countries, may or may not be met by the demand of the western
-people for the manufactures of the East and the imports from
-foreign countries arriving at the eastern seaboard. It is scarcely
-probable that any line, short or long, running east and west or
-north and south, finds its traffic in opposite directions balanced.
-
-[Illustration: Percentage of East-Bound and West-Bound Freight
-carried by the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway Co.]
-
-An interesting study of this problem is presented in the
-accompanying chart, the road selected for the illustration being
-one of the large carriers between Chicago and Buffalo. The upper
-chart-line marks the proportion of freight carried from west to
-east, while the lower line (at the top of the shaded part of the
-diagram) marks the portion carried from east to west. It is readily
-seen that in 1877 the west-bound freight was less than half as
-much as the east-bound, for they stand 30.8 per cent, and 69.2 per
-cent., respectively; and in 1878 the difference is still greater.
-From that year, however, there has been great improvement, so that
-now it would appear that there is on that road a much diminished
-need for hauling empty cars. The history of the Pennsylvania Road
-is similar to that shown in the chart, but the ratios have not come
-so nearly together. That of the New York Central & Hudson River
-Road shows very little change in the ratios since 1870, and all
-the time both these roads report a very large excess of east-bound
-freight.
-
-[Illustration: Profit per Ton per Mile.]
-
-_Freight Profits._--The change in rates are of great moment to the
-producer; that of profits is the important one to the carrier.
-No matter how great the reduction of rates, if the reduction of
-expense is as great, the profits are not disturbed. This question
-can be studied best by examining the figures which measure the
-actual profits. But few corporations furnish such figures, and the
-two whose history is delineated on the accompanying chart are among
-those giving the most readily available data. It will be seen that
-the reduction of profits is no less remarkable than the reduction
-of rates, which shows that the reduction of rates has far exceeded
-that of expense of carriage; for, had the reduction of expenses
-kept pace with that of rates, the profits would have remained
-level. As it is, the reduction of profits in the history of these
-roads, as shown, is from about six mills per ton per mile in 1870,
-to about two mills in 1888. These two roads are probably good
-representatives of the experience of the general freight service
-of all railways north of the Ohio River. If so, the prospect of the
-future of freight traffic is not cheerful.
-
-
-PASSENGER TRAFFIC.
-
-The study of passenger traffic is less satisfactory than that of
-freight traffic. Fewer lines furnish a history of their passenger
-rates, and ordinarily those histories cover shorter periods. The
-study is therefore confined to narrower limits and its lessons are
-necessarily less conclusive.
-
-[Illustration: Passenger Rates per Mile.]
-
-_Passenger Rates._--Below is given a chart interpreting the
-available data of six representative lines. The first lesson
-impressed is that no such reduction marks the history of passenger
-rates as is shown in freight rates, although the general trend
-of the chart-lines is plainly downward. The line indicating the
-average rate for all the roads in the country (marked U. S. in the
-chart) shows a reduction of over one-fourth of a cent per passenger
-per mile since 1882.
-
-Certain features of this chart attract special attention. The
-reduction of rates by the Pennsylvania, and the New York Central &
-Hudson River roads in 1876, and that by the same roads in 1885, are
-suggestive. Equally noticeable are the reductions of the Illinois
-Central in 1871, 1872, 1880, and 1888.
-
-This chart would seem to indicate that competition has not operated
-as sharply on passenger as on freight traffic.
-
-_Passenger Travel._--The average distance that passengers ride is
-not as important an element of railway business as is the average
-freight haul, for the passengers load and unload themselves; so
-that, whether they ride few or many miles, the cost of loading and
-unloading is neither increased nor diminished. On the contrary,
-if a thousand tons of freight, once loaded, is to be hauled one
-hundred miles instead of fifty, the proportional cost of loading
-and unloading is reduced one-half.
-
-[Illustration: Average Number of Miles each Passenger was Carried.]
-
-Still, the average distance passengers ride is important; for,
-if the number of passengers remains the same and their ride is
-shorter, the receipts are diminished. The returns show that while
-the number of passengers has increased since 1882 about fifty-six
-per cent., the total miles travelled have not increased quite fifty
-per cent., marking a falling off in the average number of miles
-each passenger rode. The reduction is graphically shown in the
-little chart given herewith. This result is no doubt largely due to
-the great increase of suburban travel which has developed about our
-large cities within the past few years.
-
-It is necessary to state, however, that the figures embraced in
-this study do not include the traffic of the elevated roads of New
-York and Brooklyn.
-
-_Passenger Profits._--Again a marked difference between freight and
-passenger traffic appears in comparing the chart given below with
-the corresponding chart on page 440.
-
-[Illustration: Profit per Passenger per Mile.]
-
-The study covers the history of the same roads in each case. The
-history of freight profits shows a persistent falling off, which
-in the nineteen years amounts to four mills per ton per mile, a
-loss of two-thirds of the six mills of 1870. The history delineated
-on this chart shows the average profit of the two roads to be
-almost exactly at the same point that it was in 1870, while the
-profits for most of the intervening years have been much greater.
-
-Were this the record of the freight traffic, it would be much more
-gratifying to the managers of the roads, for the New York Central
-& Hudson River Railway receives about twice as much, and the
-Pennsylvania Railway receives four times as much, from freights as
-from passengers. Attention is invited to the opposite results of
-the same policy on these two roads in 1876. The chart of passenger
-rates on page 441 marks a decided reduction of rates by the
-Pennsylvania Road, and a slight reduction by the New York Central &
-Hudson River Road. The chart of profits records an increase for the
-former and a decrease for the latter. This year (1876) is the date
-of the Centennial World's Fair at Philadelphia. The Pennsylvania
-Road had an enormous increase of passenger traffic (double that
-of the following year), a record which it did not equal until
-1887. The New York Central & Hudson River Road had but a slightly
-increased traffic, the record of which it passed in 1881.
-
-
-GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.
-
-_Dividends._--While many readers are probably not holders of
-railway stocks, yet a look at the dividends received by those who
-are will not be without interest. The little chart given below
-tells an interesting, although a not over-attractive story.
-
-[Illustration: Average Dividend Paid on Total Capital Stock.]
-
-It shows that, comparing the aggregate of all the railroad stocks
-of the country with the aggregate of all dividends paid, the
-holders of stock realized an average of 3.03% on their investment
-in 1876. In 1878 it had fallen to less than 2½%. From that date to
-1885 the record makes a curve ending just above 2%. A slight rally
-is indicated for 1886 and 1887, but 1888 carries it down to 1.81%.
-The stock of many roads has paid no dividend whatever these later
-years, and the lines whose stock proves a good investment at par
-are very few.
-
-[Illustration: Net Earnings and Mileage Built.]
-
-_Net Earnings per Mile._--Although the studies of the financial
-question already made undoubtedly point out the true drift of
-railway business, yet one more comparison is worth making, both
-for its bearing on the question of profits and the study of the
-influence of profits on railway building. The upper one of the
-two charts given herewith is the record of net earnings per mile
-of road in operation, and is based on the reported net earnings
-less the interest-charge. It therefore shows the average number of
-dollars each mile had earned, after paying all expenses and the
-interest on its debt. This money, then, is the clear amount each
-mile could apply each year to pay the principal of its debt and the
-dividends on its capital stock, or to use for improvements, such as
-rolling stock, stations, better road-bed, new rails, or any other
-betterments which might seem advisable.
-
-In 1876 this sum was $1,264; in 1880 it was $1,798, since which
-time it has suffered a serious decline, until in 1888 it was only
-$650. It is the story of the previous studies repeated, and needs
-no further reiteration.
-
-_Railway Building._--The larger chart given on page 429, gives the
-history of railway building from 1831 to 1888. The lower chart of
-the two given together on page 444, repeats the annual record from
-1876, for the purpose of studying the influence of profits on the
-progress of building. The net earnings per mile show a reduction
-in 1877. The following year shows an increase of earnings, and the
-building responded somewhat feebly the same year. The next two
-years (1879 and 1880) show great gains in net earnings, and the
-impetus given thereby to building, carries its increase steadily
-forward even two years beyond the turning-point of the earnings.
-The decline is then mutual to 1885. In 1886 the advance in earnings
-was responded to by such a remarkable increase in building that
-the stimulus is to be sought for partly outside of the increase
-of earnings, and is undoubtedly found in the desire to occupy the
-newly opening fields of western settlement; for the records mark
-unparalleled activity among the great trunk lines of the West in
-pushing their advances in Dakota, Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado,
-in 1886 and 1887. This is graphically shown in the map of 1889,
-when compared with that of 1880 (pages 432 and 433).
-
-_Ratios of Increase._--It is difficult to obtain a just impression
-of values when expressed by figures alone. It is easy when these
-values are expressed in lines or colors. The greater difficulties
-come in the effort to compare values expressed in differing terms.
-To read that the increase of population was 23,400,000 from 1870
-to 1888; and that of railway mileage was 62,785 miles; and that of
-freight traffic was nearly 30,000,000,000 tons, in the same period,
-and then to attempt the comparison of increase without further aid,
-is a hopeless task.
-
-As a study of financial economy the comparison is worth making,
-for evidence of the over-development of an industry or a financial
-interest, rightly considered, may prevent suicidal development.
-The chart given on the next page makes the comparison easy. The
-actual increase in each instance is reduced to percentages, and
-the several chart-lines measure the progress. The increase of
-population is estimated on the basis of 62,000,000 persons in 1888.
-(So far as the lesson conveyed by the chart is concerned, the
-estimate might as well have been 60,000,000, the variation in the
-location of the line would be trifling.)
-
-It appears, then, that railway mileage has increased nearly
-two hundred per cent. and that the rate of increase of freight
-traffic (as measured by ton-miles[38]) has been enormously larger,
-considering the history of the thirteen trunk lines as indicative
-of the whole. It further appears that the freight traffic of the
-West has developed much more rapidly than that of the East, during
-the last eight years.
-
-[Illustration: Ratios of Increase.]
-
-_Construction and Maintenance._--The tabulated statistics of these
-subjects are not of special interest, as the annual variation of
-cost is slight. In both these elements the wage-question is so
-large a factor that a comparative level is maintained from year
-to year. The available figures touching these subjects are few.
-The first table on the opposite page gives the average cost of
-construction per mile of the _total mileage of the country_; and
-the cost of maintenance per mile as reported by the New York,
-Lake Erie & Western Road. The second table furnishes interesting
-_details_ of the cost of maintenance.
-
-
-_Construction and Maintenance for Ten Years._
-
-  ------+----------------------+--------------------
-  Years.| Cost of construction | Cost of maintenance
-        |      per mile.       |      per mile.
-  ------+----------------------+--------------------
-   1879 |      $57,730         |       $1,671
-   1880 |       58,624         |        1,371
-   1881 |       60,645         |        1,448
-   1882 |       61,303         |        1,335
-   1883 |       61,800         |        1,533
-   1884 |       61,400         |        1,281
-   1885 |       61,400         |        1,082
-   1886 |       61,098         |        1,496
-   1887 |       58,603         |        1,533
-   1888 |       60,732         |        1,226
-  ------+----------------------+--------------------
-
-_Comparative Statement of Maintenance of Way of the Illinois
-Central Road for Ten Years._
-
-                    [Table--Part 1 of 2]
-  -----+--------+----------------------------------------------------+
-       | Miles  |                     MAINTENANCE OF WAY.            |
-  Year.|of road +----------+---------------------+-------------------+
-       | at end | Labor on |     New rails.      |    Cross-ties.    |
-       |of year.|  track.  |                     |                   |
-  -----+--------+----------+---------------------+-------------------+
-       |        |    $     |   Tons.       $     |Number.      $     |
-  1879 |1,286.72|297,363.40| 9,276.00  125,062.70|264,520   93,107.51|
-  1880 |1,320.35|343,982.23| 9,767.49  215,365.32|260,116   93,330.32|
-  1881 |1,320.35|411,018.91|10,098.47  169,718.80|345,260  127,279.76|
-  1882 |1,908.65|690,112.59| 8,438.00  128,521.48|604,096  201,648.26|
-  1883 |1,927.99|742,476.20| 8,191.79  183,239.65|425,627  153,739.00|
-  1884 |2,066.35|706,751.86| 6,342.73   93,446.25|462,665  154,083.19|
-  1885 |2,066.35|749,254.19| 8,747.31   87,331.95|508,756  176,835.69|
-  1886 |2,149.07|705.553.82| 6,376.40   63,238.84|492,524  174,515.72|
-  1887 |2,355.12|760,093.33| 6,092.66   79,917.84|573,898  197.989.47|
-  1888 |2,552.55|847,806.67| 8,172.36  106,372.94|654,141  214,130.73|
-  -----+--------+----------+---------------------+-------------------+
-
-                    [Table--Part 2 of 2]
-  -----+----------------------------------+--------+----------+------------
-       |   MAINTENANCE OF WAY.            |Expense |          |Repairs of
-  Year.+----------+-----------------------+per mile|Repair of |station
-       | Repair of|  Other   |   Total.   |run by  | fences.  |building and
-       | bridges. |  items.  |            |engines.|          |water-works.
-  -----+----------+----------+------------+--------+----------+------------
-       |    $     |    $     |      $     | Cents. |    $     |     $
-  1879 | 73,119.56|125,041.92|  640,575.53|  11.73 |$33,416.86|  45,755.09
-  1880 |105,551.62| 49,399.09|  807,628.58|  12.39 | 36,981.94|  80,887.34
-  1881 |114,193.18| 30,399.46|  852,610.11|  12.16 | 36,690.33|  70,699.58
-  1882 |174,826.24| 17,277.34|1,212,385.91|  11.87 | 31,032.57|  87,588.26
-  1883 |121,101.03| 72,294.71|1,272,850.59|  11.89 | 30,084.49|  87,291.93
-  1884 |173,831.23|107,236.13|1,235,348.66|  12.20 | 21,394.71|  94,122.03
-  1885 |164,586.39| 88,126.28|1,266,134.50|  11.27 | 21,932.48|  94,518.19
-  1886 |172,144.65| 63,976.69|1,179,429.72|  10.15 | 26,668.91| 123,519.83
-  1887 |250,337.47| 61,441.88|1,349.779.99|   9.95 | 31,905.46| 129,526.76
-  1888 |310,908.42|115,898.04|1,595,116.80|  10.74 | 40,423.39| 170,023.85
-  -----+----------+----------+------------+--------+----------+------------
-
-_Employees._--This item is also one touching which railways make
-few reports. The New York Central & Hudson River Road reports as
-follows: "Average number of employees, 20,659, being at the rate of
-14.54 per mile of road worked; aggregate wages, $12,460,708.89,
-or $603.16 each. Payments in wages equalled 50.60 per cent. of
-the total working expenses, against 51.90 per cent. in 1886-87."
-Reckoning that each employee's wages supports an average of three
-persons, we have a total of 61,977 persons clothed, housed, and fed
-by this one corporation.
-
-"Poor's Manual" discusses this subject at some length, but mainly
-on theoretical ground.
-
-_Rolling Stock._--A table showing the history of the growth of the
-rolling stock of the country is given on page 148; it is therefore
-unnecessary to repeat it here.
-
-_Capital Invested._--It is folly for the human mind to attempt to
-grasp the immensity of the financial interest expressed in the
-statement, that the combined capital invested in the railways of
-the United States is $9,369,398,954. No more can it comprehend that
-this vast aggregate has been the growth of about fifty years in a
-single interest, in a single country.
-
-_Capital Invested._
-
-  ------+----------------
-  Year. |    Capital.
-  ------+----------------
-   1876 | $4,468,592,000
-   1877 |  5,106,202,000
-   1878 |  4,772,297,000
-   1879 |  4,872,017,000
-   1880 |  5,402,038,000
-   1881 |  6,278,565,000
-   1882 |  7,016,750,000
-   1883 |  7,477,866,000
-   1884 |  7,676,399,000
-   1885 |  7,842,533,000
-   1886 |  8,163,149,000
-   1887 |  8,673,187,000
-   1888 |  9,369,399,000
-  ------+----------------
-
-The first date in the table marks the close of the first century
-of our national life. Since that time the investment has more than
-doubled; an increase of nearly five billion dollars in twelve
-years--an average of over four hundred million dollars per year.
-More exactly expressed, this means $1,118,906 per day, or $46,621
-for every hour, day and night, during the first twelve years of our
-second century.
-
-It is safe to say that no other financial interest shows a total of
-such wonderful magnitude. And with greater emphasis may it be said,
-that the finances of the world, record, in all the ages, to the
-present day, no such astounding increase of investment.
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[37] Data drawn from "Poor's Manual of Railroads," 1889, and the
-"Statistical Abstract of the United States," 1888, and carefully
-revised, form, in large part, the basis of the several studies; and
-the writer hereby expresses obligation to Mr. John P. Meany, editor
-of the "Manual," for kindly aid in his work.
-
-[38] A ton-mile means a ton of freight hauled one mile; ten
-ton-miles, a ton of freight hauled ten miles, or two tons hauled
-five miles.
-
-
-
-
-INDEX.
-
-
-  Accidents, chances of, 191
-    at crossings, 408
-    from coupling cars, 223, 392
-    investigation of, 399
-    to railway bridges, 26
-    South Norwalk, 221
-    statistics of, 260
-    to trainmen, 393
-    to trains, origin of, 167
-
-  Adams, Charles Francis, 104, 367
-
-  Air-brake, 193, 195
-
-  Allen, Horatio, 2, 4, 102
-
-  Arbitration between railways and their employees, 376, 381
-
-  Armstrong, Colonel G. G., 316
-
-  Atkinson, Edward, 43
-
-  Auditor's duties, 180, 183
-
-
-  Baggage-check system, 253
-
-  Baggage-master, work of, 416
-
-  Baggage service, abuses in, 179
-
-  Baggage transportation, 253
-
-  Baldwin Locomotive Works, 132
-
-  Ballast of a railway, 37
-
-  Baltimore & Ohio, the, 103
-    cars, 139
-    early passenger-trains, 230
-    in 1830, 101
-
-  Bangs, George S., 317
-
-  Bell-cord train-signal, 237
-
-  Bessemer, Sir Henry, 37
-
-  Bessemer steel, invention of, 37
-
-  Blaine, James G., 323
-
-  Blair, Montgomery, 317
-
-  Block-signal, automatic, 215
-    system, 168, 213
-
-  Boilers, construction of, 114
-
-  Bonds and stock, relative position of, 354
-
-  Brake, air-, 193, 195
-    advantages of air-, 387
-    improvements suggested to air-, 199
-    American, 202
-    and coupler, 237
-    Beals, 202
-    chain, 193
-    continuous, 195
-    early forms of, 192
-    electric, 194
-    hand, 193;
-      perils of, 387;
-      how to manage, 388
-    hydraulic, 193
-    steam driver-, 192
-    trials at Burlington, 200
-    vacuum, 193, 195
-    water, 202
-    Westinghouse air-, 193, 195
-
-  Brakemen, characteristics of, 384
-    duties of, 394
-    life, agreeable and disagreeable features of, 386, 389
-    passenger-train, advantages of, 396
-    pleasures of, 394
-    wit of, the result of meditation, 385
-
-  Bridges, railway, accidents to, 26
-    American iron, 28
-    American, development of, 27;
-      length of, 24, 26
-    American wooden, 27
-    and culverts, how built, 22
-    Bismarck, 86
-    Britannia, 79
-    builders, 423
-    cantilever, 33, 88
-    connecting two tunnels, 55
-    connections, types of, 85
-    foundations by crib or open caisson, 75
-
-  Bridges, foundations by pneumatic caisson, 69
-    foundations, how made, 32, 67
-    foundations under water, 67
-    gangs, work of, 155
-    great, over cañons and valleys, 55
-    guard-rails and frogs for, 221
-    Hawkesbury River, 32
-    Howe truss, 27
-    how to build safe, 31
-    Kentucky River, 34, 55, 88
-    Kinzua, 30
-    Lachine, 92
-    masonry arch, 76
-    Niagara cantilever, 34, 90
-    Portage, 78
-    Poughkeepsie, 32, 34
-    steel truss, development of, 85
-    strength of, 29
-    St. Louis, 93
-    trusses, types of, 86
-    tubular, 80
-    typical American truss, 86
-    Verrugas, 55
-    Victoria, 80
-    Washington, over Harlem River, 77, 94
-    wooden, 78
-    wood, stone, and iron, 25, 26
-
-  Bridgers, R. R., 340
-
-  Bridgewater, Duke of, 345
-
-  Broken trains, dangers of, 388
-
-  Burr & Wernwag, 27
-
-
-  Caissons for bridge foundations, how made, 32, 69
-    open, 75
-    pneumatic, 69
-
-  Camden & Amboy locomotives, 106
-
-  Cameron, Simon, prediction of, 232
-
-  Campbell, Henry R., 109
-
-  Cantilever bridges, 33, 88
-
-  Capital invested in railways, 344, 448
-
-  Car-accountant, and the transportation department, 275
-    office of, 271
-
-  Car-accounting, benefits of a good system, 280
-
-  Car-builders' dictionary, 147
-
-  Car-couplers, imperfections of, 140
-    need of uniformity in, 141
-
-  Car-coupling, accidents from, 223, 392
-
-  Cars, American and English, 7
-    American, evolution of, 139
-    Baltimore & Ohio freight-, 139
-    different kinds of, 146
-    old, discomforts of, 234
-    distribution of, 171, 279
-    empty, distribution of, 279
-    first American passenger-, 139
-    first sleeping-, 140
-    for special uses, 289
-    freight-, wanderings of a, 267
-    heating by gas, 226
-    heating by steam, 226
-    heating, methods of, 245
-    lighting safely, 226
-    mileage and records, 158
-    mileage charges, 273
-    Mohawk & Hudson passenger-, 139
-    number of, in the United States, 148
-    records of movement, 171
-    service charges, per diem plan, 29
-    service of, payment for, 293
-    service records and reports, 276
-    tracers for, 279
-    trucks, 7;
-      invention of, 108
-    use and abuse of, 281
-
-  Car-wheels, European, 144
-    how made, 142
-    paper, 145
-
-  Cassatt, A. J., 340
-
-  Check system for baggage, 253
-
-  Chief engineer, duties of, 154
-
-  Chimbote Railway in the Andes, 50, 53
-
-  Civil service reform in the mail service, 340
-
-  Classifications of freight, 176
-
-  Clerks, railway, 422
-
-  Coffer-dam foundations for bridges, 67
-
-  Commissions to passenger agents, 179
-
-  Competing points and pools, 364
-
-  Concentration of power, 351
-
-  Conducting transportation, 159
-
-  Conductors, freight, trials of, 398
-    heroism of, 411
-    passenger, 408
-
-  Consolidation, effects of, 351
-    tendency to, 346
-
-  Construction companies, 355
-
-  Contractors, railway, work of, 21
-
-  Conveniences at stations, 259
-
-  Cooley, Judge Thomas M., 368
-
-  Cooper, Peter, 104, 231
-
-  Council, proposed railway, 380
-
-  Couplers and brakes, 237
-    imperfections of, 140
-    uniform automatic, 223
-
-  Coupling cars, accidents from, 223, 392
-
-  Coupon tickets, 254
-    misunderstood, 254
-
-  Cox, S. S., 323
-
-  Cranes, large travelling, in locomotive shops, 132
-
-  Crib foundations for bridge piers, 75
-
-  Crises of 1873 and 1885, effects of, 356
-
-  Crossings, accidents at, 408
-    protection for, 216
-
-  Cullom, Senator S. M., 368
-
-  Culverts, building of, 22
-    log, 25
-    masonry, 76
-    on American railways, 24, 26
-
-  Curves, American and European railway, 8
-    least, 8
-
-  Cutting, largest ever made, 56
-
-  Cylinders, locomotive, construction of, 117
-
-
-  Darwin, Erasmus, 2
-
-  Davis & Gartner, 106
-
-  Davis, Phineas, 106
-
-  Davis, W. A., 317
-
-  Death and accident provisions for postal clerks, 343
-
-  Delays in a long journey, 267
-
-  Delaware & Hudson Canal Company, 101
-
-  Demurrage charges, 296
-
-  Derailing switches, use of, 207
-
-  Derailments of trains, causes of, 218
-
-  Destructive force of a locomotive at high speed, 187
-
-  Detector-bar for switches, 205
-
-  Differentials, 175
-
-  Dining-cars, introduction of, 243
-
-  Discipline necessary on a railway, 377
-
-  Distribution of cars, 171, 279
-
-  Dividends, average, on railway stock, 443
-
-  Drawbridge accidents, 221
-
-  Driving-wheels, large and small, 128
-
-
-  Eads, Captain James B., 64, 93
-
-  Eames vacuum brake, 195
-
-  Eccentric, operation of, 118
-
-  Educational institutions for railway employees, 379
-
-  Electric annunciator for signals, 209
-
-  Electric lights for cars, 226
-
-  Electricity applied to brakes, 194
-
-  Elevated Railroad, New York, 97
-
-  Employees, railway, benefit funds, 378
-    permanent and temporary, 375
-    promotion of, 376
-    number of, in the United States, 43, 370
-    permanency of service during good behavior, 376
-    relations of, to the railway, 357
-    representative system for, 380
-    rights and privileges of permanent, 376
-    to have a voice in management, 379
-    wages of, 448
-
-  Engineer, the, as a public benefactor, 46
-    civil, qualifications of, 15
-    responsibilities and duties of, 98
-
-  Engineering, good, true test of, 60
-
-  Ericsson, John, 2
-
-
-  Facing and trailing point switches, 219
-
-  Facing-point locks, 205
-
-  Fast freight lines, 287
-
-  Fast mail service, appropriations for, 337
-
-  Fast mail train, trip with, 323
-
-  Fast runs, remarkable instances, 404
-
-  Fast time on railways, conditions of, 128
-
-  Field & Hayes, 34
-
-  Fink, Albert, 365
-
-  Fisk, James, Jr., 353
-
-  Flagging trains, 390
-
-  Foot-guard for frogs, 222
-
-  Foreign cars, theory and practice in their use, 279
-
-  Foster, Rastrick & Company, 102
-
-  Free-pass system, 362
-
-  Freight-car wanderings, 267
-    classifications and rates, 176
-    conductor and his trials, 398
-    department, organization of, 282
-    engines, saving fuel on, 402
-    empty trains of, 439
-    handlers at stations, 423
-    movement, accidents in, 293;
-      cost of delays in, 293
-
-  Freight profits, 440
-    rates, reduction of, 358, 438
-    traffic, 437;
-      how handled, 180
-
-  Freight trains, air-brakes for, 200
-    transportation, needs of the service, 297
-
-  Fuel, saving, on freight-engines, 402
-
-
-  Garrett, John W., 351
-
-  Gate-tenders on the railway, 423
-
-  General Freight Agent, 172
-
-  General Manager, duties of, 154
-
-  General Passenger Agent, 172
-
-  Geographical location of railways in the United States, 427
-
-  Goold, James, 139
-
-  Grades, limit of, 8
-
-  Grand Central Station interlocking signals, 208
-
-  Grand River cañon, 54
-
-  Granger movement, 363
-
-  Guard-rails and frogs for bridges, 221
-
-
-  Hamlin, Hannibal, 323
-
-  Hampson, John, 231
-
-  Harrison, Joseph, Jr., 4
-
-  Hawkesbury River bridge, 32
-
-  Heater-cars, Eastman, 289
-
-  Heating cars, 245
-
-  Highway crossing accidents, 216
-    crossing gates, 217
-
-  Holley, Alexander L., 37
-
-  Hoosac Tunnel, 63
-
-  Hospital funds for railway employees, 378
-
-  Hotel-cars, 244
-
-  Howe truss bridges, 27
-
-
-  Immigrant sleeping-cars, 251
-
-  Inclined planes for overcoming elevations, 58
-
-  Injectors, principle of, 116
-
-  Insurance funds for railway employees, 378
-
-  Interchange of cars, methods of, 272
-
-  Interlocking bolts, uses of, 221
-    signals and switches, 204
-
-  Interstate commerce law, 173, 368
-    Commerce Commission and its work, 368
-
-  Investigation of accidents, 399
-
-  Investors and managers, relations of, 357
-    difficult position of, 354
-
-  Irregular hours of work, 399
-
-
-  Jameson, John, 317, 323, 342
-
-  Janney car-coupler, 237
-
-  Jervis, John B., 4, 107
-
-  Johnson, R. P., 339
-
-  Judgment, value of, in a locomotive-runner, 407
-
-  Junction-cards and car-reports, 278
-
-
-  Kentucky River cantilever bridge, 34, 55, 88
-
-  King, Porter, 408
-
-  Kinzua Bridge, 30
-
-
-  Lachine Bridge, 92
-
-  Latimer, Charles, 221
-
-  Latrobe, Benjamin H., 8
-
-  Layng, J. D., 319
-
-  Legal department of a railway, duties of, 152
-
-  Lighting cars, safe methods, 226
-
-  Lincoln, Abraham, in the first sleeping-car, 240
-
-  Link motion for locomotive valves, 119
-
-  Location, approximate, 15
-    final, 18
-    how governed, 16
-    in old and new countries, 17
-    importance of, 15
-
-  Locomotives, ability to climb grades, 8
-    American type, origin of, 109
-    Baltimore & Ohio "grasshopper," 106
-    boiler construction, 115
-    cab, what is in it, 131
-    capacity to draw loads, 120
-    consolidation, 122
-    cost of running, 307
-    cylinders, how supplied with steam, 117
-    decapod, 122
-    destructive force of, at high speed, 187
-    "DeWitt Clinton," 105
-    driving-wheels, how made, 142
-    earliest American, 2
-    early eight-wheeled, 105
-    engineer, the duties and qualifications of, 137;
-      peculiarities of, 134;
-      duties and dangers of, 400;
-      spirit of fraternity of, 408
-    English type of, 3
-    equalizing levers, 4
-    fireman, 422
-    first trial of, in America, 103
-    fuel, 303;
-      consumption, 135
-    hostler, 422
-    how to start and stop, 120
-    "John Bull," 106
-    Mogul, 122
-    number of, in the United States, 148
-    Peter Cooper's, 104
-    prize offered for, by the Baltimore & Ohio, 105
-    pumps and injectors, 116
-    "Rocket," 1
-    running, systems of, 134;
-      cost of, 158, 159
-    running gear, adjustment of, 114;
-      flexible, 113
-    shops, 132
-    size, weight, and price, 126
-    speed, law of, 127
-    suburban traffic, 124
-    ten-wheeled, 122
-    trials, Liverpool & Manchester Railway, 2, 3
-    truck, invention of, 4, 107
-    types of, 109
-    valve motion, 118
-
-  London Underground Railway, 97
-
-  "Long and short haul," 173
-
-
-  Mail service, railway, civil service reform in, 340
-
-  Mail train, fast, 317
-
-  Managers and investors, relations of, 357
-
-  Masonry arch bridges, 76
-
-  Massachusetts Railroad Commission and traffic questions, 367
-
-  Master Car Builders' Association brake-trials, 200
-    type of car-coupler, 223
-
-  Master car-builder's duties, 158
-
-  Master mechanic's work, 157
-
-  Master of transportation, duties of, 159, 171
-
-  Mexican Central Railway, 56
-
-  Mileage balances, reduction of, 273
-
-  Miller coupler and buffer, 237
-
-  Miller, Ezra, 237
-
-  Milling in transit, 175
-
-  Model railway service, 375
-
-  Mohawk & Hudson passenger-cars, 139
-
-  Mont Cenis Tunnel, 63
-
-  Moral standard on the railway, improvement in, 384
-
-  Mount Washington Railway, 58
-
-  Mountain climbing by rack railways, 58
-    railways, 49
-
-
-  National regulation of railways, 367
-
-  Newell, John, 340
-
-  New York Elevated Railways, 97
-
-  Niagara cantilever bridge, 34, 90
-    suspension bridge, 81
-
-  Nochistongo cut, 56
-
-
-  Operating department of a railway, importance of, 373
-
-  Oroya Railway in the Andes, 50, 53
-
-  Outram, Benjamin, 345
-
-
-  Paper car-wheels, 145
-
-  Passenger advertisement, first, 229
-    brakeman, 396
-    burned in wrecks, 225
-    cars, early, 231;
-      English and American, 232;
-      first American, 139;
-      manufacture of, 252;
-      Mohawk & Hudson, 139
-    conductor, 408
-    fares, comparative rates, 265
-    profits, 442
-    rates and commissions, 17
-    tickets, old, 236
-    traffic, 442
-    trains, first, 228;
-      early American, 230;
-      making time on, 403
-    travel, 362;
-      amount of, 264;
-      safety of, in England and America, 260;
-      speed of, 249
-
-  Pay-car, trip of the, 309
-
-  Pay, increase of, for faithful service, 378
-
-  Paymaster's work, 308
-
-  Parallel roads, 356
-
-  Pensions for railway employees, 378
-
-  Pennsylvania Railroad shops at Altoona, 132
-    maintenance of track, 41
-    system, 371
-
-  Permanent service of a railway, 375
-
-  Pile-driver, work of a, 22
-
-  Pile foundations for bridges, 68
-
-  Plant, H. B., 340
-
-  Pneumatic caissons for bridge foundations, 69
-    interlocking apparatus, 210
-
-  Pœtsch method of building foundations for bridge piers, 32
-
-  Pooling rates, 184
-
-  Pools and competing points, 364
-    railway, origin and nature of, 364
-
-  Pope, Thomas, 33
-
-  Portage Bridge, 78
-
-  Postal cars, 325
-    first used, 316
-    provision against accident in, 338
-
-  Postal clerks, accidents to, 338
-
-  Postal progress, object lesson in, 312
-
-  Postal service, early history, 313
-
-  Potter, Thomas J., 412
-
-  Poughkeepsie cantilever bridge, 32, 34
-
-  Predecessors of the railway, 101
-
-  Premiums to section-men, 41
-
-  Promotion of employees, 376
-
-  Pullman, George M., 239
-    Palace Car Company, 242
-    sleeper, first, 241
-
-  Purchasing agent's varied duties and experience, 300
-
-
-  Rails, development of, 47
-    increased weight of, 122
-    iron, first used, 1, 37
-    joints for, 37
-    steel, first introduction, 37
-    supply and renewal of, 306
-    weight which they will carry, 121
-
-  Railroading fifty years ago, 100
-
-  Railways, American, key to the development of, 3;
-      rolling stock of, 148;
-      and English, essential differences, 10
-    amount of capital invested in, 344
-    and their employees, nature of relations, 374
-    and democracy, 45
-    and their customers, 358
-    beginning of, 345
-    building, cost of, 43;
-      example of rapid, 44;
-      history of, 445
-    competition of, 174;
-      with canals, 347
-    consolidation, 174, 346
-    council, proposed, 380
-    division of expenses on, 359
-    earnings, average net, per mile, 444
-    earliest, 1;
-      in America, 103
-    early systems of management, 346
-    economic view of, 45
-    educational institutions, 379
-    employees, permanent and temporary, 375;
-      general characteristics of, 423;
-      moral welfare of, 423;
-      a typical, 383;
-      wages of, 448
-    growth of, 346
-    income, sources of, 180
-    influence on the world, 149
-    mail first carried on, 314
-    mail service, growth of, 314;
-      importance of, 323;
-      needs of, 341;
-      organization of, 323;
-      party injury to, 341
-    management, development of, 150;
-      in Europe, 184;
-      organization and division of authority, 151;
-      results expected from, 184;
-      special departments of, 372;
-      stability of, 184;
-      subdivisions of, 372
-    men's building in New York, 424
-    mileage, comparative, of the principal countries, 425;
-      of the United States, 426
-    national idea developed by, 348
-    national regulation, 367
-    officers' duties and responsibilities, 151
-    organization analyzed, 185;
-      complex, 183;
-      growth of, 371
-    personnel, importance of, 424
-    place in the modern industrial system, 344
-    postal clerks' dangers, 337;
-      just claims, 343;
-      need of provision against disability, 339;
-      work, 334
-    relations of, to their employees, 357
-    shop-men, 423
-    State ownership of, 362
-    statistics of, 425
-    systems, 428
-    the largest single industrial interest, 370
-    United States, extent of, 43
-    "wars" between, 361
-
-  Randall, Samuel J., 323
-
-  Rates and rebates, 173
-    causes of reduction, 358
-    combinations and adjustments, 176
-    forced reductions, 363
-    how made and regulated, 176
-    inequalities of, 359
-    passenger, and commissions, 178
-    plans for regulating, 362
-    special, wars over, 177
-    without a natural standard, 360
-
-  Reagan, John H., 368
-
-  Reconnoissance, 13
-
-  Refrigerator cars, 289
-
-  Representation for railway employees, 380
-
-  Restriction of railways, tendency to, 369
-
-  Ride on a locomotive at night, 188
-
-  Righi Railway, 59
-
-  Road-bed of a railway, how made, 21
-
-  Roadway department of a railway, 154
-
-  Roberts, George B., 340
-
-  Roebling, John A., 82
-
-  Rolling stock, growth of, 448
-
-  Routine of the railway mail service, 325
-
-  Rutter, J. H., 340
-
-
-  Safety appliances, railway, 191
-    devices needed, 423
-
-  St. Gothard Tunnel and spirals, 63
-
-  St. Louis Bridge, 64, 93
-
-  Schneider, C. C., 34
-
-  Scott, Thomas Alexander, 319, 349
-
-  Scrap-heap, value of, 302
-
-  Section-master's duties, 421
-
-  Section-men's work, 156
-
-  Semaphore signals, 203
-
-  Shepard, General D. C., 44
-
-  Signals and switches, interlocking, 168, 204
-    automatic block, 215
-    block system, 168, 213
-    semaphore, 203
-    torpedo, 213
-
-  Sleeping-car rates, comparative, 266
-
-  Sleeping-cars, first experiments, 239
-    immigrant, 251
-    Pullman, 239, 242
-
-  Smith, Colonel C. Shaler, 34, 88
-
-  Snow-sheds and fences, 18
-
-  South American mountain-railways, 50
-
-  South Carolina Railway, 104
-    early passenger trains, 231
-
-  Special rates, 177, 361
-
-  Spoils system, how it works in the railway mail service, 342
-
-  Spreading of rails, 220
-
-  State ownership of railways, 362
-
-  State regulation of railways, 362, 363
-
-  Station agent's duties, 411
-
-  Station indicators, 259
-
-  Station, large, work at, 415
-    small, work at, 411
-
-  Stationery and blanks, quantity used on a railway, 304
-
-  Statistics, railway, 425
-
-  Steam driver-brake, 192
-    how distributed to the cylinders, 117
-    shovel, work of, 21
-    supply and speed, relations of, 129
-
-  Steel bridges, 29
-
-  Steel rails, first introduction, 37
-
-  Steel truss-bridges, development of, 85
-
-  Stephenson, George, 1, 2, 3, 228, 346
-    Robert, 1, 2, 3, 79, 192
-
-  Stock and bonds, relative position, 354
-
-  Storekeeper's duties on a railway, 307
-
-  Stockton & Darlington passenger train, 228
-
-  "Stourbridge Lion," 102
-
-  Strikes, evils of, 374
-
-  Superintendent, duties of, 274
-    of machinery, powers and duties, 157
-
-  Supply department, 298
-    importance of, 311
-
-  Supplies, aggregate of, on a railway, 299
-    variety required for a railway, 301
-
-  Surveying party, life of, 13
-    from a rope ladder, 50
-
-  Surveys, preliminary, 13
-
-  Suspension bridges, 81
-
-  Switchbacks and loops, 8;
-    types of, 9, 10
-
-  Switches, interlocking, 420
-    stub, accidents caused by, 218
-
-  Switch-tender's work, 420
-
-
-  Telegraph in railroading, 238
-
-  Thompson, William B., 317, 322, 342
-
-  Thomson, Frank, 43, 340
-
-  Thomson, J. Edgar, 349
-
-  Through and local freight, 288
-
-  Through lines, growth of, 348
-
-  Tickets, cost of, on a railway, 305
-    coupon, 254
-    old, 236
-    sales and reports, 182
-
-  Ties and timber supplies, 306
-
-  Time, fast, instances of, 404
-    making, on passenger trains, 403
-
-  Time-tables, cost of, 305
-    earliest American, 235
-    how made, 160
-
-  Torpedo signals, 213
-
-  Track, early experiments with, 36, 37
-    how laid, 36
-    how maintained and kept in order, 38
-    inspection on the Pennsylvania Railroad, 41
-    laid on stone, 36
-    standards of excellence, 41
-
-  Trackmen's duties, 38
-    organization and officers, 41
-
-  Track-walker's duties and trials, 422
-
-  Trade centres, advantages of, 360
-
-  Traffic, how influenced and secured, 172
-    manager, duties of, 172
-    questions and the Massachusetts Railroad Commission, 367
-    receipts, how returned and accounted for, 182
-
-  Train despatcher and his work, 163, 422
-
-  Train despatching, 162
-    old and new, 187
-
-  Train orders and rules, 164
-
-  Train signals, bell-cord and other, 237
-
-  Train work, irregularity of, 399
-
-  Trainmen, accidents to, 393
-    and tramps, 386
-
-  Trains, rules for running, 162
-
-  Tramways, Roman, of stone, 1
-
-  Transfer freight stations, 288
-
-  Transportation, cost of, 43
-    conducting, 159
-    department and the car-accountant, 275
-
-  Trestles, wooden, 78
-
-  Trevithick, Richard, 2
-
-  Tribunal, proposed, for adjusting differences between railways and
-        their employees, 376
-
-  Trucks for cars, 7, 108
-    for locomotives, 4, 107, 109
-
-  Trunk lines compared, 428
-
-  Trunk-line pool, origin and history, 365
-
-  Truss-bridge, typical American, 86
-
-  Tubular bridges, 80
-
-  Tunnels, 59
-    American, 23
-    connected by a bridge, 55
-    difficulties of construction, 62
-    great, 62
-    how avoided, 23
-    located by triangulation, 53
-    Mont Cenis, 63
-    St. Gothard, 63
-
-
-  Underground Railway, London, 97
-
-  Union Pacific Railway system, extent of, 370
-
-
-  Vacuum-brake, 193, 195
-
-  Vail, Theodore N., 317, 322
-
-  Valleys, how crossed by a railway, 49
-
-  Valve-motion arrangements, 118
-
-  Vanderbilt business methods, 351
-
-  Vanderbilt, Commodore, 318, 340
-
-  Vanderbilt, Cornelius, 350, 424
-
-  Vanderbilt, William H., 318, 340
-
-  Verrugas Viaduct, 55
-
-  Vestibule train, luxury of, 248
-    as a safety device, 224
-
-  Viaducts, American metal, 79
-
-  Victoria Bridge, 80
-
-
-  Waddell, A., 323
-
-  Wagner Palace Car Company, 242
-
-  Wagon cars, 290
-
-  War, the late, effect of, on railway growth, 348
-
-  Washington Bridge over the Harlem River, 77, 94
-
-  Waste and saving in supplies, 302
-
-  Water-jet method of sinking piles, 68
-
-  Watt, James, 1
-
-  Way-bill and its theory, 181
-
-  Westinghouse air-brake, 195, 196
-
-  Westinghouse, George, Jr., 200, 237
-
-  West Point Foundry as a locomotive shop, 104
-
-  Whipple, Squire, 28
-
-  Winans, Ross, 7, 108
-
-
-  Yardmaster's duties, 283
-
-  Young Men's Christian Association, Railway Department, 424
-
-
-
-
-  TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE
-
-  Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.
-
-  Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=.
-
-  A superscript is denoted by ^x for example 12^1.
-
-  Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been
-  corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within
-  the text and consultation of external sources.
-
-  Basic fractions are displayed as ½ ¼ ¾; other fraction are shown in
-  the form a/b as 1/117 or 39-2/10 for example.
-
-  A large dense table spanning two pages in the original book (page 158
-  and 159) has been split into 4 parts, with column #1 (engine number)
-  being repeated in each part. The vertical column headings have been
-  replaced by a key, A B etc, with an explanation of the keys at the
-  beginning of each part. Some cell values were unclear in the scanned
-  image and a best guess of the digit has been made.
-
-  Another large table at page 447 has been split into 2 parts.
-
-  In several tables with dollar.cent values the decimal point is faint
-  or missing. For consistency the decimal point has been inserted in
-  all cases.
-
-  Footnote #31 had no anchor; this has been added in the chapter title.
-
-  Nine consecutive full-page illustrations placed after page 428
-  have detailed maps and Gantt charts and many have large amounts of
-  text on them. Most of this text, and the Gantt chart information,
-  have been copied and placed under the illustration as part of the
-  caption.
-
-  In the organization chart on page 185, it is very likely that the
-  Train Master and the Station Agents were all intended to report
-  to the Superintendant of Transportation. The missing connecting
-  line has been inserted using a dotted line to indicate this
-  insertion.
-
-  Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text,
-  and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. For example,
-  untravelled; sirup; smouldering; box car, box-car; cast iron,
-  cast-iron.
-
-  Pg 42, 'from 1 to 10' replaced by 'from 0 to 10'.
-  Pg 114, 'have ournal-boxes' replaced by 'have journal-boxes'.
-  Pg 392, 'no one brakeman' replaced by 'not one brakeman'.
-  Pg 416, 'fusilade' replaced by 'fusillade'.
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The American Railway, by 
-Thomas Curtis Clarke and Theodore Voorhees and John Bogart and and others
-
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-<pre>
-
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The American Railway, by 
-Thomas Curtis Clarke and Theodore Voorhees and John Bogart and and others
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-
-
-Title: The American Railway
-       Its Construction, Development, Management, and Appliances
-
-Author: Thomas Curtis Clarke
-        Theodore Voorhees
-        John Bogart
-        and others
-
-Release Date: March 18, 2017 [EBook #54383]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AMERICAN RAILWAY ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Chris Curnow, John Campbell and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
-file was produced from images generously made available
-by The Internet Archive)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-
-
-<div class="transnote">
-<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE</strong></p>
-
-<p>Details on minor changes can be found at <a href="#TN">the end of the book.</a></p>
-</div>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="600" alt="" /></div>
-
-
-<hr class="chap pg-brk" />
-<p class="p10" />
-
-<h1>THE AMERICAN RAILWAY</h1>
-
-<p class="p10" />
-
-
-<hr class="chap pg-brk" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/frontis.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">THE LAST SPAN&mdash;READY TO JOIN.</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<hr class="chap pg-brk" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="pfs240"><span class="smcap">The American Railway</span></p>
-
-<p class="p2 pfs135"><em>ITS CONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT,</em></p>
-<p class="pfs135"><em>MANAGEMENT, AND APPLIANCES</em></p>
-
-
-<p class="p6 pfs70">BY</p>
-
-<div class="blockquotx fs70">
-<p>THOMAS CURTIS CLARKE<span class="pad4">THEODORE VOORHEES</span></p>
-<p class="pad2">JOHN BOGART<span class="pad10">BENJAMIN NORTON</span></p>
-<p class="pad4">M. N. FORNEY<span class="pad10">ARTHUR T. HADLEY</span></p>
-<p class="pad6">E. P. ALEXANDER<span class="pad8">THOMAS L. JAMES</span></p>
-<p class="pad8">H. G. PROUT<span class="pad10">CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS</span></p>
-<p class="pad10">HORACE PORTER<span class="pad8">B. B. ADAMS, JR.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p class="p4 pfs70">WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY</p>
-
-<p class="pfs100">THOMAS M. COOLEY</p>
-
-<p class="pfs60">CHAIRMAN OF INTERSTATE COMMERCE COMMISSION</p>
-
-<p class="p4 pfs90"><em>WITH MORE THAN 200 ILLUSTRATIONS</em></p>
-
-<p class="p4 pfs100">NEW YORK</p>
-
-<p class="pfs120">CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS</p>
-
-<p class="pfs120">1889</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap pg-brk" />
-<p class="p10" />
-<p class="pfs70"><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1888, 1889, by</span></p>
-
-<p class="pfs70">CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS</p>
-
-<p class="p10 pfs60">TROW'S<br />
-PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING COMPANY,<br />
-NEW YORK.</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</a></h2>
-
-<div class="center">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr xs">PAGE</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl"><em>INTRODUCTION</em></td><td class="tdl"><a href="#Page_xxi">xxi</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By THOMAS M. COOLEY</span>,<br /><em>Chairman Interstate Commerce Commission</em>.</td></tr>
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl tdpp fs120">THE BUILDING OF A RAILWAY</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2">By THOMAS CURTIS CLARKE,<br /><em>Civil Engineer</em>.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlj">Roman Tramways of Stone&mdash;First Use of Iron Rails&mdash;The Modern Railway created by
-                     Stephenson's "Rocket" in 1830&mdash;Early American Locomotives&mdash;Key to the Evolution of
-                     the American Railway&mdash;Invention of the Swivelling Truck, Equalizing Beams, and the
-                     Switchback&mdash;Locating a Road&mdash;Work of the Surveying Party&mdash;Making the Road-bed&mdash;How
-                     Tunnels are Avoided&mdash;More than Three Thousand Bridges in the United States&mdash;Old Wooden
-                     Structures&mdash;The Howe Truss&mdash;The Use of Iron&mdash;Viaducts of Steel&mdash;The American
-                     System of Laying Bridge Foundations under Water&mdash;Origin of the Cantilever&mdash;Laying the
-                     Track&mdash;How it is Kept in Repair&mdash;Premiums for Section Bosses&mdash;Number of Railway
-                     Employees in the United States&mdash;Rapid Railway Construction&mdash;Radical Changes which the
-                     Railway will Effect.</td></tr>
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl tdpp fs120">FEATS OF RAILWAY ENGINEERING</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By JOHN BOGART</span>,<br /><em>State Engineer of New York</em>.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlj">Development of the Rail&mdash;Problems for the Engineer&mdash;How Heights are Climbed&mdash;The Use
-                     of Trestles&mdash;Construction on a Mountain Side&mdash;Engineering on Rope Ladders&mdash;Through
-                     the Portals of a Cañon&mdash;Feats on the Oroya Railroad, Peru&mdash;Nochistongo Cut&mdash;Rack Rails
-                     for Heavy Grades&mdash;Difficulties in Tunnel Construction&mdash;Bridge Foundations&mdash;Cribs and
-                     Pneumatic Caissons&mdash;How Men work under Water&mdash;The Construction of Stone Arches&mdash;Wood
-                     <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span>
-                     and Iron in Bridge-building&mdash;Great Suspension Bridges&mdash;The Niagara Cantilever and the
-                     enormous Forth Bridge&mdash;Elevated and Underground Roads&mdash;Responsibilities of the Civil Engineer.</td></tr>
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl tdpp fs120">AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By M. N. FORNEY</span>,<br /><em>Author of "The Catechism of the Locomotive," Editor "Railroad and Engineering Journal," New York</em>.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlj">The Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad in 1830&mdash;Evolution of the Car from the Conestoga Wagon&mdash;Horatio
-                     Allen's Trial Trip&mdash;The First Locomotive used in the United States&mdash;Peter Cooper's Race
-                     with a Gray Horse&mdash;The "De Witt Clinton," "Planet," and other Early Types of Locomotives&mdash;Equalizing
-                     Levers&mdash;How Steam is Made and Controlled&mdash;The Boiler, Cylinder, Injector, and Valve Gear&mdash;Regulation
-                     of the Capacity of a Locomotive to Draw&mdash;Increase in the Number of Driving Wheels&mdash;Modern
-                     Types of Locomotives&mdash;Variation in the Rate of Speed&mdash;The Appliances by which an Engine is
-                     Governed&mdash;Round-houses and Shops&mdash;Development of American Cars&mdash;An Illustration from
-                     Peter Parley&mdash;The Survival of Stage Coach Bodies&mdash;Adoption of the Rectangular Shape&mdash;The
-                     Origin of Eight-wheeled Cars&mdash;Improvement in Car Coupling&mdash;A Uniform Type Recommended&mdash;The
-                     Making of Wheels&mdash;Relative Merits of Cast and Wrought Iron, and Steel&mdash;The Allen Paper
-                     Wheel&mdash;Types of Cars, with Size, Weight, and Price&mdash;The Car-Builder's Dictionary&mdash;Statistical.</td></tr>
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl tdpp fs120">RAILWAY MANAGEMENT</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By Gen. E. P. ALEXANDER</span>,<br /><em>President of the Central Railroad and Banking Company of Georgia</em>.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlj">Relations of Railway Management to all Other Pursuits&mdash;Developed by the Necessities of a Complex
-                     Industrial Life&mdash;How a Continuous Life is Given to a Corporation&mdash;Its Artificial Memory&mdash;Main
-                     Divisions of Railway Management&mdash;The Executive and Legislative Powers&mdash;The Purchasing and
-                     Supply Departments&mdash;Importance of the Legal Department&mdash;How the Roadway is Kept in Repair&mdash;The
-                     Maintenance of Rolling Stock&mdash;Schedule-making&mdash;The Handling of Extra Trains&mdash;Duties of
-                     the Train-despatcher&mdash;Accidents in Spite of Precautions&mdash;Daily Distribution of Cars&mdash;How
-                     Business is Secured and Rates are Fixed&mdash;The Interstate Commerce Law&mdash;The Questions of
-                     "Long and Short Hauls" and "Differentials"&mdash;Classification of Freight&mdash;Regulation of
-                     Passenger-rates&mdash;Work of Soliciting Agents&mdash;The Collection of Revenue and Statistics&mdash;What
-                     is a Way-bill&mdash;How Disbursements are Made&mdash;The Social and Industrial Problem which Confronts
-                     Railway Corporations.</td></tr>
-<tr><td>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl tdpp fs120">SAFETY IN RAILROAD TRAVEL</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By H. G. PROUT</span>,<br /><em>Editor "Railroad Gazette," New York</em>.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlj">The Possibilities of Destruction in the Great Speed of a Locomotive&mdash;The Energy of Four Hundred
-                     Tons Moving at Seventy-five Miles an Hour&mdash;A Look ahead from a Locomotive at Night&mdash;Passengers
-                     Killed and Injured in One Year&mdash;Good Discipline the Great Source of Safety&mdash;The Part Played
-                     by Mechanical Appliances&mdash;Hand-brakes on Old Cars&mdash;How the Air-brake Works&mdash;The
-                     Electric Brake&mdash;Improvements yet to be Made&mdash;Engine Driver Brakes&mdash;Two Classes of
-                     Signals: those which Protect Points of Danger, and those which Keep an Interval between Trains on
-                     the Same Track&mdash;The Semaphore&mdash;Interlocking Signals and Switches&mdash;Electric Annunciators
-                     to Indicate the Movements&mdash;The Block Signal System&mdash;Protection for Crossings&mdash;Gates
-                     and Gongs&mdash;How Derailment is Guarded Against&mdash;Safety Bolts&mdash;Automatic Couplers&mdash;The
-                     Vestibule as a Safety Appliance&mdash;Car Heating and Lighting.</td></tr>
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl tdpp fs120">RAILWAY PASSENGER TRAVEL</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By Gen. HORACE PORTER</span>,<br /><em>Vice-President Pullman Palace-Car Company</em>.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlj">The Earliest Railway Passenger Advertisement&mdash;The First Time-table Published in America&mdash;The
-                     Mohawk &amp; Hudson Train&mdash;Survival of Stage-coach Terms in English Railway Nomenclature&mdash;Simon
-                     Cameron's Rash Prediction&mdash;Discomforts of Early Cars&mdash;Introduction of Air-brakes, Patent
-                     Buffers and Couplers, the Bell-cord, and Interlocking Switches&mdash;The First Sleeping-cars&mdash;Mr.
-                     Pullman's Experiments&mdash;The "Pioneer"&mdash;Introduction of Parlor and Drawing-room Cars&mdash;The
-                     Demand for Dining-cars&mdash;Ingenious Devices for Heating Cars&mdash;Origin of Vestibule-cars&mdash;An
-                     Important Safety Appliance&mdash;The Luxuries of a Limited Express&mdash;Fast Time in America and
-                     England&mdash;Sleeping-cars for Immigrants&mdash;The Village of Pullman&mdash;The Largest Car-works
-                     in the World&mdash;Baggage-checks and Coupon Tickets&mdash;Conveniences in a Modern Depot&mdash;Statistics
-                     in Regard to Accidents&mdash;Proportion of Passengers in Various Classes&mdash;Comparison of Rates in
-                     the Leading Countries of the World.</td></tr>
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl tdpp fs120">THE FREIGHT-CAR SERVICE</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By THEODORE VOORHEES</span>,<br /><em>Assistant-General Superintendent, New York Central Railroad</em>.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlj">Sixteen Months' Journey of a Car&mdash;Detentions by the Way&mdash;Difficulties of the Car Accountant's
-                     Office&mdash;Necessities of Through Freight&mdash;How a Company's Cars are Scattered&mdash;The Question
-                     <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span>
-                     of Mileage&mdash;Reduction of the Balance in Favor of Other Roads&mdash;Relation of the Car Accountant's
-                     Work to the Transportation Department&mdash;Computation of Mileage&mdash;The Record Branch&mdash;How
-                     Reports are Gathered and Compiled&mdash;Exchange of "Junction Cards"&mdash;The Use of
-                     "Tracers"&mdash;Distribution of Empty Cars&mdash;Control of the Movement of Freight&mdash;How Trains
-                     are Made Up&mdash;Duties of the Yardmaster&mdash;The Handling of Through Trains&mdash;Organization of
-                     Fast Lines&mdash;Transfer Freight Houses&mdash;Special Cars for Specific Service&mdash;Disasters to
-                     Freight Trains&mdash;How the Companies Suffer&mdash;Inequalities in Payment for Car Service&mdash;The
-                     Per Diem Plan&mdash;A Uniform Charge for Car Rental&mdash;What Reforms might be Accomplished.</td></tr>
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl tdpp fs120">HOW TO FEED A RAILWAY</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_298">298</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By BENJAMIN NORTON</span>,<br /><em>Second Vice-President, Long Island Railroad Company</em>.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlj">The Many Necessities of a Modern Railway&mdash;The Purchasing and Supply Departments&mdash;Comparison
-                     with the Commissary Department of an Army&mdash;Financial Importance&mdash;Immense Expenditures&mdash;The
-                     General Storehouse&mdash;Duties of the Purchasing Agent&mdash;The Best Material the Cheapest&mdash;Profits
-                     from the Scrap-heap&mdash;Old Rails Worked over into New Implements&mdash;Yearly Contracts for Staple
-                     Articles&mdash;Economy in Fuel&mdash;Tests by the Best Engineers and Firemen&mdash;The Stationery
-                     Supply&mdash;Aggregate Annual Cost of Envelopes, Tickets, and Time-tables&mdash;The Average Life of
-                     Rails&mdash;Durability of Cross-ties&mdash;What it Costs per Mile to Run an Engine&mdash;The Paymaster's
-                     Duties&mdash;Scenes during the Trip of a Pay-car.</td></tr>
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl tdpp fs120">THE RAILWAY MAIL SERVICE</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_312">312</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By THOMAS L. JAMES</span>,<br /><em>Ex-Postmaster General</em>.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlj">An Object Lesson in Postal Progress&mdash;Nearness of the Department to the People&mdash;The First
-                     Travelling Post-Office in the United States&mdash;Organization of the Department in 1789&mdash;Early
-                     Mail Contracts&mdash;All Railroads made Post-routes&mdash;Compartments for Mail Clerks in
-                     Baggage-cars&mdash;Origin of the Present System in 1862&mdash;Important Work of Colonel George S.
-                     Bangs&mdash;The "Fast Mail" between New York and Chicago&mdash;Why it was Suspended&mdash;Resumption
-                     in 1877&mdash;Present Condition of the Service&mdash;Statistics&mdash;A Ride on the "Fast Mail"&mdash;Busy
-                     Scenes at the Grand Central Depot&mdash;Special Uses of the Five Cars&mdash;Duties of the Clerks&mdash;How
-                     the Work is Performed&mdash;Annual Appropriation for Special Mail Facilities&mdash;Dangers Threatening
-                     the Railway Mail Clerk's Life&mdash;An Insurance Fund Proposed&mdash;Needs of the Service&mdash;A
-                     Plea for Radical Civil Service Reform.</td></tr>
-<tr><td>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl tdpp fs120">THE RAILWAY IN ITS BUSINESS RELATIONS</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_344">344</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By ARTHUR T. HADLEY</span>,<br /><em>Professor of Political Science in Yale College, Author of "Railroad Transportation</em>."</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlj">Amount of Capital Invested in Railways&mdash;Important Place in the Modern Industrial System&mdash;The
-                     Duke of Bridgewater's Foresight&mdash;The Growth of Half a Century&mdash;Early Methods of Business
-                     Management&mdash;The Tendency toward Consolidation&mdash;How the War Developed a National Idea&mdash;Its
-                     Effect on Railroad Building&mdash;Thomson and Scott as Organizers&mdash;Vanderbilt's Capacity for
-                     Financial Management&mdash;Garrett's Development of the Baltimore &amp; Ohio&mdash;The Concentration
-                     of Immense Power in a Few Men&mdash;Making Money out of the Investors&mdash;Difficult Positions of
-                     Stockholders and Bondholders&mdash;How the Finances are Manipulated by the Board of Directors&mdash;Temptations
-                     to the Misuse of Power&mdash;Relations of Railroads to the Public who Use Them&mdash;Inequalities in
-                     Freight Rates&mdash;Undue Advantages for Large Trade Centres&mdash;Proposed Remedies&mdash;Objections
-                     to Government Control&mdash;Failure of Grangerism&mdash;The Origin of Pools&mdash;Their Advantages&mdash;Albert
-                     Fink's Great Work&mdash;Charles Francis Adams and the Massachusetts Commission&mdash;Adoption of the
-                     Interstate Commerce Law&mdash;Important Influence of the Commission&mdash;Its Future Functions&mdash;Ill-judged
-                     State Legislation.</td></tr>
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl tdpp fs120">THE PREVENTION OF RAILWAY STRIKES</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_370">370</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS</span>,<br /><em>President of the Union Pacific Railroad</em>.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlj">Railways the Largest Single Interest in the United States&mdash;Some Impressive Statistics&mdash;Growth
-                     of a Complex Organization&mdash;Five Divisions of Necessary Work&mdash;Other Special Departments&mdash;Importance
-                     of the Operating Department&mdash;The Evil of Strikes&mdash;To be Remedied by Thorough Organization&mdash;Not
-                     the Ordinary Relation between Employer and Employee&mdash;Of what the Model Railway Service Should
-                     Consist&mdash;Temporary and Permanent Employees&mdash;Promotion from one Grade to the Other&mdash;Rights
-                     and Privileges of the Permanent Service&mdash;Employment during Good Behavior&mdash;Proposed Tribunal
-                     for Adjusting Differences and Enforcing Discipline&mdash;A Regular Advance in Pay for Faithful
-                     Service&mdash;A Fund for Hospital Service, Pensions, and Insurance&mdash;Railroad Educational
-                     Institutions&mdash;The Employer to Have a Voice in Management through a Council&mdash;A System of
-                     Representation.</td></tr>
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">THE EVERY-DAY LIFE OF RAILROAD MEN</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_383">383</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By B. B. ADAMS, Jr.</span>,<br /><em>Associate Editor, "Railroad Gazette," New York</em>.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlj">The Typical Railroad Man&mdash;On the Road and at Home&mdash;Raising the Moral Standard&mdash;Characteristics
-                     <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span>
-                     of the Freight Brakeman&mdash;His Wit the Result of Meditation&mdash;How Slang is Originated&mdash;Agreeable
-                     Features of his Life in Fine Weather&mdash;Hardships in Winter&mdash;The Perils of Hand-brakes&mdash;Broken
-                     Trains&mdash;Going back to Flag&mdash;Coupling Accidents&mdash;At the Spring&mdash;Advantages of a
-                     Passenger Brakeman&mdash;Trials of the Freight Conductor&mdash;The Investigation of Accidents&mdash;Irregular
-                     Hours of Work&mdash;The Locomotive Engineer the Hero of the Rail&mdash;His Rare Qualities&mdash;The
-                     Value of Quick Judgment&mdash;Calm Fidelity a Necessary Trait&mdash;Saving Fuel on a Freight
-                     Engine&mdash;Making Time on a Passenger Engine&mdash;Remarkable Runs&mdash;The Spirit of Fraternity
-                     among Engineers&mdash;Difficult Duties of a Passenger-train Conductor&mdash;Tact in Dealing with Many
-                     People&mdash;Questions to be Answered&mdash;How Rough Characters are Dealt with&mdash;Heavy
-                     Responsibilities&mdash;The Work of a Station Agent&mdash;Flirtation by Telegraph&mdash;The Baggage-master's
-                     Hard Task&mdash;Eternal Vigilance Necessary in a Switch-tender&mdash;Section-men, Train Despatchers,
-                     Firemen, and Clerks&mdash;Efforts to Make the Railroad Man's Life Easier.</td></tr>
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl tdpp fs120">STATISTICAL RAILWAY STUDIES</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_425">425</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs60" colspan="2">ILLUSTRATED WITH THIRTEEN MAPS AND NINETEEN CHARTS.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By FLETCHER W. HEWES</span>,<br /><em>Author of "Scribner's Statistical Atlas</em>."</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlj">Railway Mileage of the World&mdash;Railway Mileage of the United States&mdash;Annual Mileage and
-                     Increase&mdash;Mileage Compared with Area&mdash;Geographical Location of Railways&mdash;Centres of
-                     Mileage and of Population&mdash;Railway Systems&mdash;Trunk Lines Compared: By Mileage; Largest
-                     Receipts; Largest Net Results&mdash;Freight Traffic&mdash;Reduction of Freight Rates&mdash;Wheat
-                     Rates&mdash;The Freight Haul&mdash;Empty Freight Trains&mdash;Freight Profits&mdash;Passenger
-                     Traffic&mdash;Passenger Rates&mdash;Passenger Travel&mdash;Passenger Profits&mdash;General
-                     Considerations&mdash;Dividends&mdash;Net Earnings per Mile and Railway Building&mdash;Ratios of
-                     Increase&mdash;Construction and Maintenance&mdash;Employees and their Wages&mdash;Rolling
-                     Stock&mdash;Capital Invested.</td></tr>
-<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl"><em>INDEX</em></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_449">449</a></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="p4" />
-<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
-<p class="p2" />
-<h3>FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS.</h3>
-
-<div class="center fs90">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="4" width="95%" summary="">
-<tr class="fs60"><td class="tdc"><em>Title.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Designer.</em></td><td class="tdr xs"><em>Page</em></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">The Last Span (Frontispiece)</td><td class="tdl">A. B. Frost</td><td class="tdr wd10"><a href="#Page_v">v</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">Alpine Pass. Avoidance of a Tunnel</td><td class="tdl"><em>From&nbsp;a&nbsp;photograph</em></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">Big Loop, Georgetown Branch of the Union Pacific, Colorado</td><td class="tdl"><em>From a photograph</em></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">Snow-sheds, Selkirk Mountains, Canadian Pacific</td><td class="tdl">J. D. Woodward</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">Rail Making</td><td class="tdl">Walter Shirlaw</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">Loop and Great Trestle near Hagerman's, on the Colorado Midland Railway</td><td class="tdl">J. D. Woodward</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">Portal of a Tunnel in Process of Construction</td><td class="tdl">Otto Stark</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">At Work in a Pneumatic Caisson&mdash;Fifty Feet below the Surface of the Water</td><td class="tdl">Walter Shirlaw</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">Below the Brooklyn Bridge</td><td class="tdl">J. H. Twachtman</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">The St. Louis Bridge during Construction</td><td class="tdl">M. E. Sands &amp; R. Blum</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">A Typical American Passenger Locomotive</td><td class="tdl"><em>From a photograph</em></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">Interior of a Round-house</td><td class="tdl">M. J. Burns</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">View in Locomotive Erecting Shop</td><td class="tdl">J. D. Woodward &amp; R. Blum</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</a></span>
-                     Diagram Used in Making Railway Time-Tables</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">The General Despatcher</td><td class="tdl">M. J. Burns</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">Mantua Junction, West Philadelphia, showing a Complex System of Interlacing Tracks</td><td class="tdl">W. C. Fitler</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">Danger Ahead!</td><td class="tdl">A. B. Frost</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">Interlocking Apparatus for Operating Switches and Signals by Compressed Air, Pittsburg Yards, Pennsylvania Railroad</td><td class="tdl"><em>From a photograph</em></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">Pullman Vestibuled Cars</td><td class="tdl"><em>From a photograph</em></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">In a Baggage-room</td><td class="tdl">W. C. Broughton</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_255">255</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">"Show Your Tickets!"</td><td class="tdl">Walter Shirlaw</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">Freight Yards of the New York Central &amp; Hudson River Railroad, West Sixty-fifth Street, New York</td><td class="tdl">W. C. Fitler</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_285">285</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">Freight from all Quarters&mdash;Some Typical Trains</td><td class="tdl">W. C. Fitler</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">At a Way-station&mdash;The Postmaster's Assistant</td><td class="tdl">Herbert Denman</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_321">321</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">Transfer of Mail at the Grand Central Station, New York</td><td class="tdl">Herbert Denman</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_327">327</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">Sorting Letters in Car No. 1&mdash;The Fast Mail</td><td class="tdl">Herbert Denman</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_333">333</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">A Breakdown on the Road</td><td class="tdl">A. B. Frost</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_405">405</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">In the Waiting Room of a Country Station</td><td class="tdl">A. B. Frost</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_413">413</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlx">The Trials of a Baggage-master</td><td class="tdl">A. B. Frost</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_417">417</a></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-
-<hr class="chap pg-brk" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[xv]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3>ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT.</h3>
-
-<div class="center fs90">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="tdly"></td><td class="tdr xs">PAGE</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">First Locomotive</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_2">2</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Locomotive of To-day</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">A Sharp Curve&mdash;Manhattan Elevated Railway, 110th Street, New York</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">A Steep Grade on a Mountain Railroad</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">A Switchback</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Plan of Big Loop</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Profile of the Same</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Engineers in Camp</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Royal Gorge Hanging Bridge, Denver and Rio Grande, Colorado</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Veta Pass, Colorado</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Sections of Snow-sheds (3 cuts)</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Making an Embankment</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Steam Excavator</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Building a Culvert</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Building a Bridge Abutment</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Rock Drill</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">A Construction and Boarding Train</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Bergen Tunnels, Hoboken, N. J.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Beginning a Tunnel</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Old Burr Wooden Bridge</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Kinzua Viaduct; Erie Railway</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Kinzua Viaduct</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">View of Thomas Pope's Proposed Cantilever (1810)</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Pope's Cantilever in Process of Erection</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">General View of the Poughkeepsie Bridge</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Erection of a Cantilever</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Spiking the Track</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Track Laying</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Temporary Railway Crossing the St. Lawrence on the Ice</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">View Down the Blue from Rocky Point, Denver, South Park and Pacific Railroad; showing successive tiers of railway</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Denver and Rio Grande Railway Entering the Portals of the Grand River Cañon, Colorado</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">The Kentucky River Cantilever, on the Cincinnati Southern Railway</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Truss over Ravine, and Tunnel, Oroya Railroad, Peru</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">The Nochistongo Cut, Mexican Central Railway</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">The Mount Washington Rack Railroad</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Trestle on Portland and Ogdensburg Railway, Crawford Notch, White Mountains</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">A Series of Tunnels</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[xvi]</a></span>
-                     Tunnel at the Foot of Mount St. Stephen, on the Canadian Pacific</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Peña de Mora on the La Guayra and Carácas Railway, Venezuela</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Perspective View of St. Gothard Spiral Tunnels, in the Alps</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Plan of St. Gothard Spiral Tunnels</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Profile of the Same</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Portal of a Finished Tunnel; showing Cameron's Cone, Colorado</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Railway Pass at Rocky Point in the Rocky Mountains</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Bridge Pier Founded on Piles</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Pneumatic Caisson</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Transverse Section of Pneumatic Caisson</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Pier of Hawkesbury Bridge, Australia</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Foundation Crib of the Poughkeepsie Bridge</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Transverse Section of the Same</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Granite Arched Approach to Harlem River Bridge in Process of Construction</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">The Old Portage Viaduct, Erie Railway, N. Y.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">The New Portage Viaduct</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">The Britannia Tubular Bridge over the Menai Straits, North Wales</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Old Stone Towers of the Niagara Suspension Bridge</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">The New Iron Towers of the Same</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Truss Bridge of the Northern Pacific Railway over the Missouri River at Bismarck, Dak.&mdash;Testing the Central Span</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Curved Viaduct, Georgetown, Col.; the Union Pacific Crossing its own Line</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_88">88</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">The Niagara Cantilever Bridge in Progress</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">The Niagara Cantilever Bridge Completed</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">The Lachine Bridge, on the Canadian Pacific Railway, near Montreal, Canada</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">The 510-feet Span Steel Arches of the New Harlem River Bridge, New York, during Construction</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">London Underground Railway Station</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Conestoga Wagon and Team</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad, 1830&ndash;35</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Boston &amp; Worcester Railroad, 1835</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Horatio Allen</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Peter Cooper's Locomotive, 1830</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">"South Carolina," 1831, and Plan of its Running Gear</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">The "De Witt Clinton," 1831</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">"Grasshopper" Locomotive</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">The "Planet"</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">John B. Jervis's Locomotive, 1831, and Plan of its Running Gear</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Campbell's Locomotive</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Locomotive for Suburban Traffic</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Locomotive for Street Railway</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Four-wheeled Switching Locomotive</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[xvii]</a></span>
-                     Driving Wheels, Frames, Spurs, etc., of American Locomotive</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Longitudinal Section of a Locomotive Boiler</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Transverse Section</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Rudimentary Injector</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Injector Used on Locomotives</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Sections of a Locomotive Cylinder</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Eccentric</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Eccentric and Strap</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Valve Gear</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Turning Locomotive Tires</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Six-wheeled Switching Locomotive</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Mogul Locomotive</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Ten-wheeled Passenger Locomotive</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Consolidation Locomotive (unfinished)</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Consolidation Locomotive</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Decapod Locomotive</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">"Forney" Tank Locomotive</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">"Hudson" Tank Locomotive</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Camden &amp; Amboy Locomotive, 1848</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Cab End of a Locomotive and its Attachments</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Interior of Erecting Shop, showing Locomotive Lifted by Travelling Crane</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Forging a Locomotive Frame</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Mohawk &amp; Hudson Car, 1831</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Early Car</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Early Car on the Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Early American Car, 1834</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Old Car for Carrying Flour on the Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Old Car for Carrying Firewood on the Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Old Car on the Quincy Granite Railroad</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Janney Car Coupler, showing the Process of Coupling</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Mould and Flask in which Wheels are Cast</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Cast-iron Car Wheels</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Section of the Tread and Flange of a Car Wheel</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Allen Paper Car Wheel</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Modern Passenger-car and Frame</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Snow-plough at Work</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">A Type of Snow-plough</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">A Rotary Steam Snow-shovel in Operation</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Railway-crossing Gate</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Signal to Stop</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Signal to Move Ahead</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Signal to Move Back</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[xviii]</a></span>
-                     Signal that the Train has Parted</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Entrance Gates at a Large Station</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Central Switch and Signal Tower</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Interior of a Switch-tower, showing the Operation of Interlocking Switches</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Stephenson's Steam Driver-brake, patented 1833</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Driver-brake on Modern Locomotive</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">English Screw-brake, on the Birmingham and Gloucester Road, about 1840</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">English Foot-brake on the Truck of a Great Western Coach, about 1840</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Plan and Elevation of Air-brake Apparatus</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Dwarf Semaphores and Split Switch</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Semaphore Signal with Indicators</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Section of Saxby &amp; Farmer Interlocking Machine</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Diagram of a Double-track Junction with Interlocked Switches and Signals</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Split Switches with Facing-point Locks and Detector-bars</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Derailing Switch</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_207">207</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Torpedo Placer</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_213">213</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Old Signal Tower on the Philadelphia &amp; Reading, at Phœnixville</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Crossing Gates worked by Mechanical Connection from the Cabin</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Some Results of a Butting Collision&mdash;Baggage and Passenger Cars Telescoped</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_218">218</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Wreck at a Bridge</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">New South Norwalk Drawbridge. Rails held by Safety Bolts</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Engines Wrecked during the Great Wabash Strike</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Link-and-pin Coupler</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Janney Automatic Coupler applied to a Freight Car</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Signals at Night</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_225">225</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Stockton &amp; Darlington Engine and Car</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Mohawk &amp; Hudson Train</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">English Railway Carriage, Midland Road. First and Third Class and Luggage Compartments</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">One of the Earliest Passenger Cars Built in this Country; used on the Western Railroad of Massachusetts (now the Boston &amp; Albany)</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Bogie Truck</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Rail and Coach Travel in the White Mountains</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Old Time Table, 1843</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Old Boston &amp; Worcester Railway Ticket (about 1837)</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Obverse and Reverse of a Ticket used in 1838, on the New York &amp; Harlem Railroad</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">The "Pioneer." First Complete Pullman Sleeping-car</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_240">240</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">A Pullman Porter</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Pullman Parlor Car</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Wagner Parlor Car</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Dining-car (Chicago, Burlington &amp; Quincy Railroad)</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_245">245</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">End View of a Vestibuled Car</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_249">249</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">[xix]</a></span>
-                     Pullman Sleeper on a Vestibuled Train</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Immigrant Sleeping-car (Canadian Pacific Railway)</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_251">251</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">View of Pullman, Ill.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Railway Station at York, England, built on a Curve</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_257">257</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Outside the Grand Central Station, New York</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Boston Passenger Station, Providence Division, Old Colony Railroad</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_259">259</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">A Page from the Car Accountant's Book</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_277">277</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Freight Pier, North River, New York</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Hay Storage Warehouses, New York Central &amp; Hudson River Railroad, West Thirty-third Street, New York</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">"Dummy" Train and Boy on Hudson Street, New York</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_287">287</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Red Line Freight-car Mark</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Star Union Freight-car Mark</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Coal Car, Central Railroad of New Jersey</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_289">289</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Refrigerator-car Mark</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_289">289</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Unloading a Train of Truck-wagons, Long Island Railroad</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_290">290</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Floating Cars, New York Harbor</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_295">295</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Postal Progress, 1776&ndash;1876</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_313">313</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">The Pony Express&mdash;The Relay</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_314">314</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">The Overland Mail Coach&mdash;A Star Route</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_315">315</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Mail Carrying in the Country</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_316">316</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Loading for the Fast Mail, at the General Post-Office, New York</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_324">324</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">At the Last Moment</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_326">326</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Pouching the Mail in the Postal Car</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_329">329</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">A Very Difficult Address&mdash;known as a "Sticker."</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_331">331</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Distributing the Mail by States and Routes</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_332">332</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Pouching Newspapers for California&mdash;in Car No. 5</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_335">335</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Catching the Pouch from the Crane</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_339">339</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">George Stephenson</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_345">345</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">J. Edgar Thomson</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_349">349</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Thomas A. Scott</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_350">350</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Cornelius Vanderbilt</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_352">352</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">John W. Garrett</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_355">355</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Albert Fink</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_366">366</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Charles Francis Adams</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_367">367</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Thomas M. Cooley</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_369">369</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">"Dancing on the Carpet"</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_386">386</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Trainman and Tramps</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_387">387</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Braking in Hard Weather</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_389">389</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Flagging in Winter</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_391">391</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Coupling</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_392">392</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">The Pleasant Part of a Brakeman's Life</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_395">395</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">[xx]</a></span>
-                     At the Spring</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_397">397</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Just Time to Jump</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_403">403</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Timely Warning</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_407">407</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">The Passenger Conductor</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_409">409</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Station Gardening</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_416">416</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">In the Yard at Night</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_419">419</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">A Track-walker on a Stormy Night</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_421">421</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">A Crossing Flagman</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_423">423</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">A Little Relaxation</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_424">424</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><h3>MAPS.</h3></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Mileage compared with Area</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_429">429</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Railways, 1830, 1840, 1850, and 1860</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_430">430</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Railways, 1870</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_431">431</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Railways, 1880</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_432">432</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Railways, 1889</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_433">433</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Five Railway Systems</td><td class="tdly"><a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><h3>CHARTS.</h3></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Principal Railway Countries</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_425">425</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Mileage to Area in New Jersey</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_426">426</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Total Mileage and Increase, 1830&ndash;1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_429">429</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Mileage by States, 1870</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_431">431</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Mileage by States, 1880</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_432">432</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Mileage by States, 1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_433">433</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Largest Receipts, 1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_435">435</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Largest Net Results, 1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_435">435</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Freight Rates of Thirteen Trunk Lines, 1870&ndash;1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_436">436</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Wheat Rates, by Water and by Rail, 1870&ndash;1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_438">438</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">The Freight Haul, 1882&ndash;1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_439">439</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">East-bound and West-bound Freight, 1877&ndash;1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_439">439</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Freight Profits, 1870&ndash;1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_440">440</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Passenger Rates, 1870&ndash;1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_441">441</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Passenger Travel, 1882&ndash;1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_442">442</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Passenger Profits, 1870&ndash;1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_442">442</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Average Dividends, 1876&ndash;1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_443">443</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Net Earnings and Mileage Built, 1876&ndash;1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_444">444</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Increase of Population, Mileage, and Freight Traffic, 1870&ndash;1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_446">446</a></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi">[xxi]</a></span></p>
-<p class="p4" />
-
-<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">INTRODUCTION.</a></h2>
-
-<p class="pfs90 smcap">By THOMAS M. COOLEY.</p>
-
-<div class="large">
-<p>The railroads of the United States, now aggregating a
-hundred and fifty thousand miles and having several hundred
-different managements, are frequently spoken of comprehensively
-as the railroad system of the country, as
-though they constituted a unity in fact, and might be regarded
-and dealt with as an entirety, by their patrons and
-by the public authorities, whenever the conveniences they
-are expected to supply, or the conduct of managers and
-agents, come in question. So far, however, is this from being
-the case, that it would be impossible to name any other industrial
-interest where the diversities are so obvious and
-the want of unity so conspicuous and so important. The diversities
-date from the very origin of the roads; they have
-not come into existence under the same laws nor subject to
-the same control. It was accepted as an undoubted truth in
-constitutional law from the first that the authority for the
-construction of railroads within a State must come from the
-State itself, which alone could empower the promoters to
-appropriate lands by adversary proceedings for the purpose.
-The grant of corporate power must also come from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii">[xxii]</a></span>
-the State, or, at least, have State recognition and sanction;
-and where the proposed road was to cross a State boundary,
-the necessary corporate authority must be given by every
-State through or into which the road was to run. It was
-conceded that the delegated powers of the General Government
-did not comprehend the granting of charters for the
-construction of these roads within the States, and even in
-the Territories charters were granted by the local legislatures.
-The case of the transcontinental roads was clearly
-exceptional; they were to be constructed in large part over
-the public domain, and subsidies were to be granted by
-Congress for the purpose. They were also, in part at least,
-to be constructed for governmental reasons as national
-agencies; and invoking State authority for the purpose
-seemed to be as inconsistent as it would be inadequate.
-But, though these were exceptional cases, the magnitude
-and importance of the Pacific roads are so immense that
-the agency of the General Government in making provision
-for this method of transportation must always have prominence
-in railroad history and railroad statistics.</p>
-
-<p>Not only have the roads been diverse in origin, but the
-corporations which have constructed them have differed
-very greatly in respect to their powers and rights, and also
-to the obligations imposed by law upon them. The early
-grants of power were charter-contracts, freely given, with
-very liberal provisions; the public being more anxious that
-they be accepted and acted upon than distrustful of their
-abuse afterward. Many of them were not subject to alteration
-or repeal, except with the consent of the corporators;
-and some of them contained provisions intended to exclude<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiii" id="Page_xxiii">[xxiii]</a></span>
-or limit competition, so that, within a limited territory, something
-in the nature of a monopoly in transportation would
-be created. The later grants give evidence of popular apprehension
-of corporate abuses; the legislature reserves a
-control over them, and the right to multiply railroads indefinitely
-is made as free as possible, under the supposition
-that in this multiplication is to be found the best protection
-against any one of them abusing its powers. In very many
-cases the motive to the building of a new road has been
-antagonism to one already in existence, and municipalities
-have voted subsidies to the one in the hope that, when constructed,
-it would draw business away from the other. The
-anomaly has thus been witnessed of distrust of corporate
-power being the motive for increasing it; and the multiplication
-of roads has gone on, without any general supervision
-or any previous determination by competent public authority
-that they were needed, until the increase has quite outrun
-in some sections any proper demand for their facilities.</p>
-
-<p>Roads thus brought into existence, without system and
-under diverse managements, it was soon seen were capable
-of being so operated that the antagonism of managers,
-instead of finding expression in legitimate competition,
-would be given to the sort of strife that can only be properly
-characterized by calling it, as it commonly is called, a
-war. From such a war the public inevitably suffers. The
-best service upon the roads is only performed when they
-are operated as if they constituted in fact parts of one harmonious
-system; the rates being made by agreement, and
-traffic exchanged with as little disturbance as possible, and
-without abrupt break at the terminals. But when every<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiv" id="Page_xxiv">[xxiv]</a></span>
-management might act independently, it sometimes happened
-that a company made its method of doing business
-an impediment instead of a help to the business done over
-other roads, recognizing no public duty which should preclude
-its doing so, provided a gain to itself, however indirect
-or illegitimate, was probable. Many consolidations
-of roads have had for their motive the getting rid of this
-power to do mischief on the part of roads absorbed.</p>
-
-<p>In nothing is the want of unity so distinctly and mischievously
-obvious as in the power of each corporation to
-make rates independently. It may not only make its own
-local rates at discretion, but it may join or refuse to join
-with others in making through rates; so that an inconsiderable
-and otherwise insignificant road may be capable of
-being so used as to throw rates for a large section of the
-country into confusion, and to render the making of profit
-by other roads impossible. It is frequently said in railroad
-circles that roads are sometimes constructed for no other
-reason than because, through this power of mischief, it will
-be possible to levy contributions upon others, or to compel
-others, in self-protection, to buy them up at extravagant
-prices. Cases are named in which this sort of scheming is
-supposed to have succeeded, and others in which it is now
-being tried.</p>
-
-<p>Evils springing from the diversities mentioned have
-been cured, or greatly mitigated, by such devices as the
-formation of fast-freight lines to operate over many roads;
-by allowing express companies to come upon the roads
-with semi-independence in the transportation of articles,
-where, for special reasons, the public is content to pay an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxv" id="Page_xxv">[xxv]</a></span>
-extra price for extra care or speed; and by arrangements
-with sleeping-car companies for special accommodations in
-luxurious cars to those desiring them. These collateral
-arrangements, however, have not been wholly beneficial;
-and had all the roads been constructed as parts of one system
-and under one management, some of them would
-neither have been necessary nor defensible. They exist
-now, however, with more or less reason for their existence;
-and they tend to increase the diversities in railroad
-work.</p>
-
-<p>The want of unity which has been pointed out tended
-to breed abuses specially injurious to the public, and governmental
-regulation was entered upon for their correction.
-Naturally the first attempts in this direction were made
-by separate States, each undertaking to regulate for itself
-the transportation within its own limits. Such regulation
-would have been perfectly logical, and perhaps effectual,
-had the roads within each State formed a system by themselves;
-but when State boundaries had very little importance,
-either to the roads themselves or to the traffic done
-over them, unless made important by restrictive and obstructive
-legislation, the regulation by any State must necessarily
-be fragmentary and imperfect, and diverse regulation
-in different States might be harmful rather than
-beneficial. It must be said for State regulation that it has
-in general been exercised in a prudent and conservative
-way, but it is liable to be influenced by a sensitive and excitable
-public opinion; and as nothing is more common
-than to find gross abuses in the matter of railroad transportation
-selfishly defended in localities, and even in consid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxvi" id="Page_xxvi">[xxvi]</a></span>erable
-sections, which are supposed to receive benefits from
-them, it would not be strange if the like selfishness should
-sometimes succeed in influencing the exercise of power
-by one State in a manner that a neighboring State would
-regard as unfriendly and injurious.</p>
-
-<p>The Federal Government recently undertook the work of
-regulation, and in doing so accepted the view upon which
-the States had acted, and so worded its statute that the
-transportation which does not cross State lines is supposed
-to be excluded. The United States thus undertakes to
-regulate interstate commerce by rail, and the States regulate,
-or may regulate, that which is not interstate. It was
-perhaps overlooked at first that, inasmuch as Government
-control may embrace the making of classifications, prescribing
-safety and other appliances, and naming rates, any considerable
-regulation of State traffic and interstate traffic separately
-must necessarily to some extent cause interference.
-The two classes of traffic flow on together over the same
-lines in the same vehicles under the management of the
-same agencies, with little or no distinction based on State
-lines; the rates and the management influenced by considerations
-which necessarily are of general force, so that separate
-regulation may without much extravagance be compared
-to an attempt in the case of one of our great rivers to
-regulate the flow of the waters in general, but without, in
-doing so, interfering with an independent regulation of
-such portion thereof as may have come from the springs
-and streams of some particular section. This is one of
-many reasons for looking upon all existing legislation as
-merely tentative.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxvii" id="Page_xxvii">[xxvii]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>No doubt the time will come when the railroads of the
-country will constitute, as they do not now, a system.
-There are those who think this may, sufficiently for practical
-purposes, be accomplished by the legalization of some
-scheme of pooling; but this is a crude device, against which
-there is an existing prejudice not easily to be removed.
-Others look for unity through gradual consolidations, the
-tendency to which is manifest, or through something in the
-nature of a trust, or by means of more comprehensive and
-stringent national control. Beyond all these is not infrequently
-suggested a Government ownership.</p>
-
-<p>Of the theories that might be advanced in this direction,
-or the arguments in their support, nothing further will be
-said here; the immediate purpose being accomplished
-when it is shown how misleading may be the term <em>system</em>,
-when applied to the railroads of the country as an aggregate,
-as now owned, managed, and controlled.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>Every man in the land is interested daily and constantly
-in railroads and the transportation of persons and
-property over them. The price of whatever he eats, or
-wears, or uses, the cost and comfort of travel, the speed
-and convenience with which he shall receive his mail and
-the current intelligence of the day, and even the intimacy
-and extent of his social relations, are all largely affected
-thereby. The business employs great numbers of persons,
-and the wages paid them affect largely the wages paid in
-other lines of occupation. The management of the business
-in some of its departments is attended by serious dangers,
-and thousands annually lose their lives in the service.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxviii" id="Page_xxviii">[xxviii]</a></span>
-Other thousands annually are either killed or injured in
-being transported; the aggregate being somewhat startling,
-though unquestionably this method of travel is safer
-than any other. The ingenuity which has been expended
-in devices to make the transportation rapid, cheap, and
-safe may well be characterized as marvellous, and some
-feats in railroad engineering are the wonder of the world.
-With all these facts and many others to create a public interest
-in the general subject, the editor of <cite>Scribner's Magazine</cite>,
-some little time ago, applied to writers of well-known
-ability and competency to prepare papers for publication
-therein upon the various topics of principal interest in the
-life and use of railroads, beginning with the construction,
-and embracing the salient facts of management and
-service. He was successful in securing a series of papers
-of high value, the appearance of which has been welcomed
-from month to month, beginning with June, 1888, with constant
-and increasing interest. These papers have a permanent
-value; and, in obedience to a demand for their separate
-publication in convenient form for frequent reference,
-the publishers now reproduce them with expansions and
-additions. A reference to the several titles will convince
-anyone at all familiar with the general subject that the
-particular topic is treated in every instance by an expert,
-entitled as such to speak with authority.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-    <div class="chapter"></div>
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">THE BUILDING OF A RAILWAY.</a></h2>
-
-<p class="pfs90 smcap">By THOMAS CURTIS CLARKE.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Roman Tramways of Stone&mdash;First Use of Iron Rails&mdash;The Modern Railway created by
-Stephenson's "Rocket" in 1830&mdash;Early American Locomotives&mdash;Key to the Evolution
-of the American Railway&mdash;Invention of the Swivelling Truck, Equalizing
-Beams, and the Switchback&mdash;Locating a Road&mdash;Work of the Surveying Party&mdash;Making
-the Road-bed&mdash;How Tunnels are Avoided&mdash;More than Three Thousand
-Bridges in the United States&mdash;Old Wooden Structures&mdash;The Howe Truss&mdash;The
-Use of Iron&mdash;Viaducts of Steel&mdash;The American System of Laying Bridge Foundations
-under Water&mdash;Origin of the Cantilever&mdash;Laying the Track&mdash;How it is Kept
-in Repair&mdash;Premiums for Section Bosses&mdash;Number of Railway Employees
-in the United States&mdash;Rapid Railway Construction&mdash;Radical
-Changes which the Railway will Effect.</p></div>
-
-<div><img class="drop-cap" src="images/i_001dc.jpg" alt="" /></div>
-<p class="p4 drop-cap">The world of to-day differs from that of Napoleon
-Bonaparte more than his world differed
-from that of Julius Cæsar; and this change has
-chiefly been made by railways.</p>
-
-<p>Railways have been known since the days
-of the Romans. Their tracks were made of two
-lines of cut stones. Iron rails took their place about one hundred
-and fifty years ago, when the use of that metal became extended.
-These roads were called tram-roads, and were used to carry coal
-from the mines to the places of shipment. They were few in number
-and attracted little attention.</p>
-
-<p>The modern railway was created by the Stephensons in 1830,
-when they built the locomotive "Rocket." The development of
-the railway since is due to the development of the locomotive.
-Civil engineering has done much, but mechanical engineering has
-done more.</p>
-
-<p>The invention of the steam-engine by James Watt, in 1773,
-attracted the attention of advanced thinkers to a possible steam<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
-locomotive. Erasmus Darwin, in a poem published in 1781, made
-this remarkable prediction:</p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry">
-<p class="verseq">"Soon shall thy arm, unconquered steam! afar</p>
-<p class="verse">Drag the slow barge, or drive the rapid car."</p>
-</div></div>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_002.jpg" width="275" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">First Locomotive.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The first locomotive of which we have any certain record was
-invented, and put in operation on a model circular railway in
-London, in 1804, by Richard Trevithick,
-an erratic genius, who invented
-many things but perfected
-few. His locomotive could not
-make steam, and therefore could
-neither go fast nor draw a heavy
-load. This was the fault of all its
-successors, until the competitive
-trial of locomotives on the Liverpool
-and Manchester Railway, in
-1829. The Stephensons, father and son, had invented the steam
-blast, which, by constantly blowing the fire, enabled the "Rocket,"
-with its tubular boiler, to make steam enough to draw ten passenger
-cars, at the rate of thirty-five miles an hour.</p>
-
-<p>Then was born the modern giant, and so recent is the date of
-his birth that one of the unsuccessful competitors at that memorable
-trial, Captain John Ericsson, was until the present year
-(1889) living and actively working in New York. Another engineer,
-Horatio Allen, who drove the first locomotive on the first
-trip ever made in the United States, in 1831, still lives, a hale
-and hearty old man, near New York.</p>
-
-<p>The earlier locomotives of this country, modelled after the
-"Rocket," weighed five or six tons, and could draw, on a level,
-about 40 tons. After the American improvements, which we
-shall describe, were made, our engines weighed 25 tons, and
-could draw, on a level, some sixty loaded freight cars, weighing
-1,200 tons. This was a wonderful advance, but now we have the
-"Consolidation" locomotive, weighing 50 tons, and able to draw,
-on a level, a little over 2,400 tons.</p>
-
-<p>And this is not the end. Still heavier and more powerful
-engines are being designed and built, but the limit of the strength<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
-of the track, according to its present forms, has nearly been
-reached. It is very certain we have not reached the limit of the
-size and power of engines, or the strength of the track that can
-be devised.</p>
-
-<p>After the success of the "Rocket," and of the Liverpool and
-Manchester Railway, the authority of George Stephenson and his
-son Robert became absolute and unquestioned upon all subjects
-of railway engineering. Their locomotives had very little side
-play to their wheels, and could not go around sharp curves.
-They accordingly preferred to make their lines as straight as possible,
-and were willing to spend vast sums to get easy grades.
-Their lines were taken as models and imitated by other engineers.
-All lines in England were made with easy grades and gentle
-curves. Monumental bridges, lofty stone viaducts, and deep cuts
-or tunnels at every hill marked this stage of railway construction
-in England, which was imitated on the European lines.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_003.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Locomotive of To-day.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>As it was with the railway, so it was with the locomotive.
-The Stephenson type, once fixed, has remained unchanged (in
-Europe), except in detail, to the present day. European locomotives
-have increased in weight and power, and in perfection of
-material and workmanship, but the general features are those
-of the locomotives built by the great firm of George Stephenson
-&amp; Son, before 1840.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>When we come to the United States we find an entirely different
-state of things. The key to the evolution of the American
-railway is the contempt for authority displayed by our engineers,
-and the untrammelled way in which they invented and applied<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
-whatever they thought would answer the best purpose, regardless
-of precedent. When we began to build our railways, in 1831,
-we followed English patterns for a short time. Our engineers
-soon saw that unless vital changes were made our money would
-not hold out, and our railway system would be very short. Necessity
-truly became the mother of invention.</p>
-
-<p>The first, and most far-reaching, invention was that of the
-swivelling truck, which, placed under the front end of an engine,
-enables it to run around curves of almost any radius. This
-enabled us to build much less expensive lines than those of England,
-for we could now curve around and avoid hills and other
-obstacles at will. The illustration opposite shows a railroad curving
-around a mountain and supported by a retaining wall, instead
-of piercing through the mountain with a tunnel, as would
-have been necessary but for the swivelling truck. The swivelling
-truck was first suggested by Horatio Allen, for the South Carolina
-Railway, in 1831; but the first practical use of it was made on the
-Mohawk and Hudson Railroad, in the same year. It is said to
-have been invented by John B. Jervis, Chief Engineer of that
-road.</p>
-
-<p>The next improvement was the invention of the equalizing
-beams or levers, by which the weight of the engine is always
-borne by three out of four or more driving-wheels. They act like
-a three-legged stool, which can always be set level on any irregular
-spot. The original imported English locomotives could not
-be kept on the rails of rough tracks. The same experience obtained
-in Canada when the Grand Trunk Railway was opened, in
-1854&ndash;55. The locomotives of English pattern constantly ran off
-the track; those of American pattern hardly ever did so. Finally,
-all their locomotives were changed by having swivelling trucks
-put under their forward ends, and no more trouble occurred. The
-equalizing levers were patented in 1838, by Joseph Harrison, Jr.,
-of Philadelphia.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span><br />
-   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_005.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Alpine Pass. Avoidance of a Tunnel.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>These two improvements, which are absolutely essential to the
-success of railways in new countries, and have been adopted in
-Canada, Australia, Mexico, and South America,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> to the exclusion
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
-of English patterns, are also of great value on the smoothest and
-best possible tracks. The flexibility of the American machine increases
-its adhesion and enables it to draw greater loads than its
-English rival. The same flexibility equalizes its pressure on the
-track, prevents shocks and blows, and enables it to keep out of
-the hospital and run more miles in a year than an English locomotive.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_007.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">A Sharp Curve&mdash;Manhattan Elevated Railway, 110th Street, New York.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Equally valuable improvements were made in cars, both for
-passengers and freight. Instead of the four-wheeled English car,
-which on a rough track dances along on three wheels, we owe
-to Ross Winans, of Baltimore, the application of a pair of four-wheeled
-swivelling trucks, one under each end of the car, thus enabling
-it to accommodate itself to the inequalities of a rough track
-and to follow its locomotive around the sharpest curves. There<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
-are, on our main lines, curves
-of less than 300 feet radius,
-while, on the Manhattan Elevated,
-the largest passenger
-traffic in the world is conducted
-around curves of less than
-100 feet radius. There are
-few curves of less than 1,000
-feet radius on European railways.</p>
-
-<div class="sandbagbox" id="img008">
- <div id="i008b1">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i008b2">&nbsp;</div>
-
-<div class="center caption">A steep grade on a<br />Mountain Railroad.</div>
-
-<p>The climbing capabilities of
-a locomotive upon smooth rails
-were not known until, in 1852, Mr. B. H. Latrobe, Chief Engineer
-of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, tried a temporary zigzag gradient
-of 10 per cent.&mdash;that is 10 feet rise in 100 feet length, or 528
-feet per mile&mdash;over a hill about two miles long, through which the
-Kingwood Tunnel was being excavated. A locomotive weighing
-28 tons on its drivers took one car weighing 15 tons over this line
-in safety. It was worked for passenger traffic for six months.
-This daring feat has never been equalled. Trains go over 4 per
-cent. gradients on the Colorado system, and there is one short
-line, used to bring ore to the Pueblo furnaces, which is worked by
-locomotives over a 7 per cent. grade. These are believed to be
-the steepest grades worked by ordinary locomotives on smooth
-rails.</p>
-</div>
-
-    <div class="HandHeld">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_008.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">A Steep Grade on a Mountain Railroad.</div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p>The climbing capabilities of
-    a locomotive upon smooth rails
-    were not known until, in 1852, Mr. B. H. Latrobe, Chief Engineer
-    of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, tried a temporary zigzag gradient
-    of 10 per cent.&mdash;that is 10 feet rise in 100 feet length, or 528
-    feet per mile&mdash;over a hill about two miles long, through which the
-    Kingwood Tunnel was being excavated. A locomotive weighing
-    28 tons on its drivers took one car weighing 15 tons over this line
-    in safety. It was worked for passenger traffic for six months.
-    This daring feat has never been equalled. Trains go over 4 per
-    cent. gradients on the Colorado system, and there is one short
-    line, used to bring ore to the Pueblo furnaces, which is worked by
-    locomotives over a 7 per cent. grade. These are believed to be
-    the steepest grades worked by ordinary locomotives on smooth
-    rails.</p>
-    </div>
-
-<p>Another American invention is the switchback. By this plan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
-the length of line required to ease the gradient is obtained by running
-backward and forward in a zigzag course, instead of going
-straight up the mountain. As a full stop has to be made at the
-end of every piece of line, there is no danger of the train running
-away from its brakes. This device was first used among the hills
-of Pennsylvania over forty years ago, to lower coal cars down into
-the Nesquehoning Valley. It was afterwards used on the Callao,
-Lima, and Oroya Railroad in Peru, by American engineers, with
-extraordinary daring and skill. It was employed to carry the
-temporary tracks of the Cascade Division of the Northern Pacific
-Railroad over the "Stampede" Pass, with grades of 297 feet per
-mile, while a tunnel 9,850 feet long was being driven through the
-mountains.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_009.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">A Switchback.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>With the improvement of brakes and more reliable means of
-stopping trains upon steep grades, came a farther development of
-the above device, which was first applied on the Denver and Rio
-Grande Railroad in Colorado, and has since been applied on a
-grand scale on the Saint Gothard road, the Black Forest railways
-of Germany, and the Semmering line in the Tyrol. This device is
-to connect the two lines of the zigzag by a curve at the point<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
-where they come together, so that the train, instead of going alternately
-backward and forward, now runs continuously on. It
-becomes possible for the line to return above itself in spiral form,
-sometimes crossing over the lower level by a tunnel, and sometimes
-by a bridge. A notable instance of this kind of location is
-seen on the Tehachapi Pass of the Southern Pacific, where the line
-ascends 2,674
-feet in 25 miles,
-with eleven tunnels,
-and a spiral
-3,800 feet
-long.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_010a.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Plan of Big Loop.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The "Big Loop," as it is called, on the Georgetown branch of
-the Union Pacific, in Colorado, between Georgetown and a mining
-camp called Silver Plume, has been chosen to illustrate this point.
-The direct distance up the valley is 1¼ miles and the elevation 600
-feet, requiring a gradient of 480 feet per mile. But by curving the
-line around in a spiral, the length of the line is increased to 4 miles
-and the gradient reduced to 150 feet per mile. Zigzags were used
-first for foot-paths, then for common roads, lastly for railways.
-Their natural sequence, spirals, was a railway device entirely, and
-confirms the saying of one of our engineers: "Where a mule can
-go, I can make a locomotive go." This may be called the poetry
-of engineering,
-as it requires
-both imagination
-to conceive
-and skill to execute.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_010b.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Profile of the Same.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>There is one
-thing more
-which distinguishes
-the American railway from its English parent, and that is
-the almost uniform practice of getting the road open for traffic in
-the cheapest manner and in the least possible time, and then completing
-it and enlarging its capacity out of its surplus earnings, and
-from the credit which these earnings give it.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span><br />
-   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_011.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Big Loop, Georgetown Branch of the Union Pacific, Colorado.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The Pennsylvania Railroad between Philadelphia and Harrisburg
-is a notable example of this. Within the past few years it has
-been rebuilt on a grand scale, and in many places relocated, and
-miles of sharp curves and heavy gradients, originally put in to save
-expense, have been taken out. This system has been followed
-everywhere, except on a few branch lines, and upon one monumental
-example of failure&mdash;the West Shore Railroad, of New York.
-The projectors of that line attempted in three years to build a
-double-track railroad up to the standard of the Pennsylvania road,
-which had been forty years in reaching its present excellence.
-Their money gave out, and they came to grief.</p>
-
-
-<h3>II.</h3>
-
-<p>We have thus briefly reviewed the development of our railways
-to show what they are, and how they came to be what they are,
-before describing the processes of building, in order that the
-reasons may be clearly understood why we do certain things, and
-why we fail to do other things which we ought to do.</p>
-
-<p>In the building of a railway the first thing is to make the surveys
-and locate the position of the intended road upon the ground,
-and to make maps and sections of it, so that the land may be
-bought and the estimates of cost be ascertained. The engineer's
-first duty is to make a survey by eye without the aid of instruments.
-This is called the "reconnoissance." By this he lays down the
-general position of the line, and where he wants it to go if possible.
-Great skill, the result of long experience, or equally great
-ignorance may be shown here. After the general position of the
-line, or some part of it, has been laid down upon the pocket map,
-the engineer sends his party into the field to make the preliminary
-survey with instruments.</p>
-
-<p>In an old-settled country the party may live in farm-houses and
-taverns, and be carried to their daily work by teams. But a surveying
-party will make better progress, be healthier and happier, if
-they live in their own home, even if that home be a travelling camp
-of a few tents. With a competent commissary the camp can be
-well supplied with provisions, and be pitched near enough to the
-probable end of the day's work to save the tired men a long walk.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
-When they get to camp and, after a wash in the nearest creek,
-find a smoking-hot supper ready&mdash;even though it consist of fried
-pork and potatoes, corn-bread and black coffee&mdash;their troubles are
-all forgotten, and they feel a true satisfaction which the flesh-pots
-of Delmonico's cannot give. One greater pleasure remains&mdash;to
-fill the old pipe, and recline by the camp-fire for a jolly smoke.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_014.jpg" width="625" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Engineers in Camp.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>A full surveying party consists of the front flag-man, with his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
-corps of axe-men to cut away trees and bushes; the transit-man,
-who records the distances and angles of the line, assisted by his
-chain-men and flag-men; and lastly the leveller, who takes and
-records the levels, with his rod-men and axe-men. The chief of
-the party exercises a general supervision over all, and is sometimes
-assisted by a topographer, who sketches in his book the
-contours of the hills and direction and size of the watercourses.</p>
-
-<p>One tent contains the cook, the commissary, and the provisions;
-another tent or two the working party, and another the superior
-engineers, with their drawing instruments and boards. In a
-properly regulated party the map and profile of the day's work
-should be plotted before going to bed, so as to see if all is right.
-If it turns out that the line can be improved and easier grades got,
-or other changes made, now is the time to do it.</p>
-
-<p>After the preliminary lines have been run, the engineer-in-chief
-takes up the different maps and lays down a new line, sometimes
-coinciding with that surveyed, and sometimes quite different. The
-parties then go back into the field and stake out this new line,
-called the "approximate location," upon which the curves are all
-run in. In difficult country the line may be run over even a third
-or fourth time; or in an easy country, the "preliminary" surveys
-may be all that is wanted.</p>
-
-<p>The life of an engineer, while making surveys, is not an easy
-one. His duties require the physical strength of a drayman and
-the mental accuracy of a professor, both exerted at the same time,
-and during heat and cold, rain and shine.</p>
-
-<p>An engineer, once on a time, standing behind his instrument,
-was surrounded by a crowd of natives, anxious to know all about
-it. He explained his processes, using many learned words, and
-flattered himself that he had made a deep impression upon his
-hearers. At last, one old woman spoke up, with an expression of
-great contempt on her face, "Wall! If I knowed as much as you
-do, I'd quit ingineerin' and keep a grocery!"</p>
-
-<p>A large part of the financial difficulties of our railways results
-from not taking time enough to properly locate the line. It must
-be remembered that a cheaply constructed line can be rebuilt, but
-with a badly located line nothing can be done except to abandon
-it entirely.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_016.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Royal Gorge Hanging Bridge, Denver and Rio Grande, Colorado.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>It is well therefore to consider carefully what is the true problem
-of location. It is so to place and build a line of railway that it
-shall get the greatest amount of business out of the country through
-which it passes, and at the same time be able to do that business
-at the least cost, including both expenses of operating and the
-fixed charges on the capital invested. The mere statement of this
-problem shows that it is not an easy one. Its solution is different<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
-in a new and unsettled country from that in an old-settled region.
-In the new country, the shortest, cheapest, and straightest
-line possible, consistent with the easiest gradients that the topography
-of the land will allow, is the
-best. The towns will spring up after
-the road is built, and will be built on
-its line, and generally at the places where stations have been fixed.</p>
-
-<div class="sandbagbox" id="img017">
- <div id="i017b1">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i017b2">&nbsp;</div>
-
-<div class="center caption">Veta Pass, Colorado.</div>
-
-<p>In a mountainous country, like Colorado, the problem is how
-to reach the important mining camps, regardless of the crookedness
-and increased length given to the line. The Denver and
-Rio Grande has been compared to an octopus. This is really a
-compliment to its engineers. It sucks nutriment from every place
-where nutriment is to be found. To do this it has been forced to
-climb mountains, where it was thought locomotives could never
-climb. In one place, called the Royal Gorge, the difficulties of
-blasting a road-bed into the side of the mountain were so great that
-it was thought expedient to carry the track upon a bridge, and
-this bridge was hung from two rafters, braced against the sides of
-the gorge. In surveying some parts of the lines the engineers
-were suspended by ropes from the top of the mountains and made
-their measurements swinging in mid-air.</p>
-</div>
-
-    <div class="HandHeld">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_017.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">Veta Pass, Colorado.</div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p>In a mountainous country, like Colorado, the problem is how
-    to reach the important mining camps, regardless of the crookedness
-    and increased length given to the line. The Denver and
-    Rio Grande has been compared to an octopus. This is really a
-    compliment to its engineers. It sucks nutriment from every place
-    where nutriment is to be found. To do this it has been forced to
-    climb mountains, where it was thought locomotives could never
-    climb. In one place, called the Royal Gorge, the difficulties of
-    blasting a road-bed into the side of the mountain were so great that
-    it was thought expedient to carry the track upon a bridge, and
-    this bridge was hung from two rafters, braced against the sides of
-    the gorge. In surveying some parts of the lines the engineers
-    were suspended by ropes from the top of the mountains and made
-    their measurements swinging in mid-air.</p>
-    </div>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_018a.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Sections of Snow-sheds.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The problem of location is different in an old-settled country,
-where the position of the towns as trade-centres has been fixed by
-natural laws that cannot be overruled. In this case the best thing
-the engineer can do is to get the easiest gradient possible consist<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>ent
-with the topography of the country, and let the curves take
-care of themselves; always to strike the important towns, even if
-the line is made more crooked and longer thereby; to so place
-the line in these towns as to accommodate the public, and
-still be able to buy plenty of land; also to locate
-for under or over, rather than grade crossings.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_018b.jpg" width="350" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>In all countries, old and new, mountainous
-and level, the rule should be to
-keep the level of track well
-above the surface of the
-ground, in order to insure
-good drainage and freedom
-from snow-drifts.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_018c.jpg" width="350" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The question of avoidance of obstruction by snow is a very serious
-one upon the Rocky Mountain lines, and they could not be
-worked without the device of snow-sheds&mdash;another purely American
-invention. There
-are said to be six miles
-of stanchly built snow-sheds
-on the Canadian
-Pacific and sixty
-miles on the Central
-Pacific Railway. The
-quantity of snow falling
-is enormous, sometimes amounting to 250,000 cubic yards,
-weighing over 100,000 tons, in one slide. It is stated by the engineers
-of the Canadian Pacific, that the force of the air set in
-motion by these avalanches
-has mown
-down large trees, not
-struck by the snow
-itself. Their trunks, from one to two feet in diameter, remain,
-split as if struck by lightning.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span><br />
-   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_019.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Snow-sheds, Selkirk Mountains, Canadian Pacific. The winter track under cover; the outer track for summer use.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>After the railway line has been finally located, the next duty of
-the engineers is to prepare the work for letting. Land-plans are
-made, from which the right of way is secured. From the sections,
-the quantities are taken out. Plans of bridges and culverts are
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
-made; and a careful specification of all the works on the line is
-drawn up.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_021a.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Making an Embankment.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The works are then let, either to one large contractor or to
-several smaller ones, and the labor of construction begins. The
-duties of the engineers are to stake out the work for the contractors,
-make monthly returns of its progress, and see that it is well
-done and according
-to the specifications
-and contract. The
-line is divided into
-sections, and an engineer,
-with his assistants,
-is placed
-in charge of each.
-Where the works
-are heavy, the contractors
-build shanties
-for their men
-and teams near the heavy cuttings or embankments. It is the custom
-to take out heavy cuttings by means of the machine called a
-steam shovel, which will dig as many yards in a day as 500 men.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_021b.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Steam Excavator.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>On the prairies of the West the road-bed is thrown up from
-ditches on each side, either by men with wheelbarrows and carts,
-or by means of a ditching-machine, which can move 3,000 yards of
-earth daily. In this case
-the track follows immediately
-after the embankment,
-and the men live
-in cars fitted up as boarding-shanties,
-and moved
-forward as fast as required.
-If the country contains
-suitable stone, the
-culverts and bridge abutments
-are built by gangs
-of masons and stone-cutters,
-who move from point
-to point. But the general
-practice is to put in temporary
-trestle-work of
-timber resting upon piles,
-which trestle-work is renewed
-in the shape of
-stone culverts covered
-by embankments, or iron
-bridges resting on stone abutments and built after the road is running.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_022a.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Building a Culvert.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_022b.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The pile-driver plays a very important part therefore in the
-construction of our railroads, and has been brought to great perfection.
-It is worked by a small boiler and engine, and gives its
-blows with great rapidity. It drags the piles up to leaders and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
-lifts them into place by steam-power, so that it is worked by a
-small gang of men. Finally, it is as portable as a pedler's cart,
-and as soon as it has finished one job it is taken to pieces, packed
-upon wagons, and
-moved on to the next
-job.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_023a.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Tunnels are neither
-so long nor so frequent
-upon American railways
-as upon those of
-Europe. The longest
-are from two to two
-and a half miles long,
-except one, the Hoosac, about
-four miles. Sometimes they
-are unavoidable.
-The ridge called Bergen
-Hill, west of Hoboken,
-N. J., is a case
-in point. This is
-pierced by the tunnels
-of the West Shore, of
-the Delaware, Lackawanna,
-and Western,
-and of the Erie, the
-last two of which, as
-shown on <a href="#Page_25">page 25</a>, are
-placed at different levels
-to enable one road
-to pass over the other.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_023b.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Rock Drill.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>It is by our system of using sharp curves that we avoid tunnels.
-It may be said, in general terms, that American engineers
-have shown more skill in avoiding the necessity of tunnels than
-could possibly be shown in constructing them. When we are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
-obliged to use tunnels, or to make deep cuttings in rocks, our
-labors are greatly assisted by the use of power-drills worked by
-compressed air and by the use of high explosives, such as dynamite,
-giant powder, rend-rock,
-etc. Rocks can now be removed in less than half the time formerly
-required, when ordinary blasting-powder was used in hand-drilled
-holes.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_024.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">A Construction and Boarding Train.</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<h3>III.</h3>
-
-<p>From data furnished by Mr. D. J. Whittemore, chief engineer
-of the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul system (which had a total
-length of 5,688 miles on January 1, 1888), the length of open
-bridges on these lines was 115<sup>91</sup>/<sub>100</sub> miles, and of culverts covered
-over with embankment, 39<sup>2</sup>/<sub>10</sub> miles. "Everything," says Mr.
-Whittemore, "not covered with earth, except cattle guards, be the
-span 10 or 400 feet, is called a bridge. Everything covered with
-earth is called a culvert. Wherever we are far removed from
-suitable quarries, we build a wooden culvert in preference to a
-pile bridge, if we can get six inches of filling over it. These culverts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
-are built of roughly
-squared logs, and are large
-enough to draw an iron
-pipe through them of sufficient
-diameter to take care
-of the water. We do this
-because we believe that we
-lessen the liability to accident,
-and that the culvert
-can be maintained after decay has begun, much longer than a piled
-bridge with stringers to carry the track. Had we good quarries
-along our line, stone would be cheaper. Many thousands of dollars
-have been spent by this company in building masonry that after
-twenty to twenty-five years shows such signs of disintegration that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
-we confine masonry work now only to stone that we can procure
-from certain quarries known to be good."</p>
-
-<div class="sandbagbox" id="img025">
- <div id="i025b1">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i025b2">&nbsp;</div>
-
-<div class="center caption">Bergen Tunnels, Hoboken, N. J.</div>
-
-<p>Mr. Whittemore is an engineer of great experience, skill, and
-judgment, and there is food for much reflection in these words of
-his: First&mdash;that it is better to use temporary wooden structures,
-to be afterward renewed in good stone, rather than to build of the
-stone of the locality, unless first-class. Second&mdash;that a structure
-covered with earth is much safer than an open bridge; which, if
-short and apparently insignificant, may be, through neglect, a most
-serious point of danger, as was shown in the dreadful accident of
-1887 on the Toledo, Peoria, and Western road in Illinois, where
-one hundred and fifty persons were killed and wounded, and by
-the equally avoidable accident on the Florida and Savannah line,
-in March, 1888. Had these little trestles been changed to culverts
-covered with earth, many valuable lives would not have been lost.</p>
-</div>
-
-    <div class="HandHeld">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_025.jpg" width="550" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">Bergen Tunnels, Hoboken, N. J.</div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p>Mr. Whittemore is an engineer of great experience, skill, and
-    judgment, and there is food for much reflection in these words of
-    his: First&mdash;that it is better to use temporary wooden structures,
-    to be afterward renewed in good stone, rather than to build of the
-    stone of the locality, unless first-class. Second&mdash;that a structure
-    covered with earth is much safer than an open bridge; which, if
-    short and apparently insignificant, may be, through neglect, a most
-    serious point of danger, as was shown in the dreadful accident of
-    1887 on the Toledo, Peoria, and Western road in Illinois, where
-    one hundred and fifty persons were killed and wounded, and by
-    the equally avoidable accident on the Florida and Savannah line,
-    in March, 1888. Had these little trestles been changed to culverts
-    covered with earth, many valuable lives would not have been lost.</p>
-    </div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_026.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Beginning a Tunnel.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>It was safely estimated that there were, in 1888, 208,749
-bridges of all kinds, amounting in length to 3,213 miles, in the
-United States.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The wooden bridge and the wooden trestle are purely American
-products, although they were invented by Leonardo da Vinci
-in the sixteenth century. From the above statistics it will be seen
-how much our American railways owe to them, for without them
-over 150,000 miles could never have been built.</p>
-
-<p>The art of building wooden truss-bridges was developed by
-Burr &amp; Wernwag, two Pennsylvania carpenters, some of whose
-works are still in use after eighty years of faithful duty (<a href="#Page_28">p. 28</a>).
-A bridge built by Wernwag across the Delaware in 1803 was
-used as a highway bridge for forty-five years, was then strengthened
-and used as a railway bridge for twenty-seven years more,
-and was finally superseded by the present iron bridge in 1875.</p>
-
-<p>These old bridge-builders were very particular about the quality
-of their timber, and never put any into a bridge less than two
-years old. But when we began to build railways, everything was
-done in a hurry, and nobody could wait for seasoned timber. This
-led to the invention of the Howe truss, by the engineer of that
-name, which had the advantage of being adjustable with screws
-and nuts, so that the shrinkage could be taken up, and which
-had its parts connected in such a way that they were able to bear
-the heavy concentrated weight of locomotives without crushing.
-This bridge was used on all railways, new and old, from 1840 to
-about 1870. Had it been free from liability to decay and burn up,
-we should probably not be building iron and steel bridges now,
-except for long spans of over 200 feet; and as the table opposite
-shows, the largest number of our spans are less than 100 feet
-long.</p>
-
-<p>The Howe truss forms an excellent bridge, and is still used in
-the West on new roads, with the intention of substituting iron
-trusses after the roads are opened.</p>
-
-<p>After 1870, the weights both of locomotives and other rolling
-stock began to be increased very rapidly. This, together with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
-the development of the manufacture of iron, and especially the invention
-of rolled beams and of eye-bars, gave a great impetus to
-the construction of iron bridges. At first cast-iron was used for
-the compression members, but the development of the rolling-mill
-soon enabled us
-to make all parts of
-rolled iron sections at
-no greater cost, and
-rolled iron, being a
-less uncertain material,
-has replaced cast-iron
-entirely. Iron
-bridges came in direct
-competition with the
-less costly Howe truss,
-and during the first
-decade of their construction
-every attempt
-was made to build them with as few pounds of iron as
-would meet the strains.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_028.jpg" width="350" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Old Burr Wooden Bridge.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>S. Whipple, C.E., published a book in 1847 which was the
-first attempt ever made to solve the mathematical questions upon
-which the due proportioning of iron truss-bridges depends. This
-work bore fruit, and a race of bridge designers sprang up. The
-first iron bridges were modelled after their wooden predecessors,
-with high trusses and short panels. Riveted connections were
-avoided, and every part was so designed that it might be quickly
-and easily erected upon staging or false works, placed in the river.
-This was very necessary, for our rivers are subject to sudden
-freshets, and if we had adopted the English system of riveting together
-all the connections, the long time required before the bridge
-became self-sustaining would have been a serious element of
-danger.</p>
-
-<p>Following the practice of wooden bridge building, iron bridges
-were contracted for by the foot, and not by the pound as is now
-the custom. To this accidental circumstance is greatly due the
-development of the American iron bridge. The engineer representing
-the railway company fixed the lengths of spans, and other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
-general dimensions, and also the loads to be carried and the maximum
-strains to be allowed. The contracting engineer was left
-perfectly free to design his bridge, and he strained every nerve
-to find the form of truss and the arrangement of its parts that
-should give the required strength with the least number of pounds
-weight per foot, so that he could beat his competitors. When the
-different plans were handed in, an expert examined them and rejected
-those whose parts were too small to meet the strains. Of
-those found to be correctly proportioned, the lowest bid took the
-work.</p>
-
-<p>By the rule of the survival of the fittest all badly designed
-forms of trusses disappeared and only two remained: one the
-original truss designed by Mr. Whipple, and the other, the well-known
-triangular, or "Warren" girder, so called after its English
-inventor.</p>
-
-<p>It speaks well for the skill and honesty of American bridge engineers
-that many of their old bridges are still in use, designed for
-loads of 2,500 pounds per lineal foot, and now daily carrying loads
-of 4,000 pounds and over per foot. Sometimes the floor has been
-replaced by a stronger one, but the trusses still remain and do good
-service. The writer may be permitted to point to the bridge over
-the Mississippi River at Quincy, Ill., built in 1869, as an example.
-Most bridge-accidents can be traced to derailed trains striking the
-trusses and knocking them down. Engineers (both those specially
-connected with bridge works, and those in charge of railways)
-know much better now what is wanted, and the managers of railways
-are willing to pay for the best article. The introduction of
-mild steel is a great step in advance. This material has an ultimate
-strength, in the finished piece, of 63,000 to 65,000 pounds per
-square inch, or forty per cent. more than iron, and it is tough
-enough to be tied in a knot, or punched into the shape of a bowl,
-while cold. With this material it is as easy to construct spans of
-500 feet as it was spans of 250 feet in iron.</p>
-
-<p>Bridges are now designed to carry much heavier loads than
-formerly. The best practice adopts riveted connections except at
-the junction of the chord-bars and the main diagonals, where pins
-and eyes are still very properly used. Plate girders below the
-track are preferred up to 60 or 70 feet long, then riveted lattice up<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
-to 125 feet. The wind
-strains also are now
-provided for with a
-considerable excess of
-material, amounting in
-very long spans to
-nearly as much as the
-strains due to gravity.
-Observing the rule
-that no bridge can be
-stronger than its weakest
-part, a vast deal of
-care and skill has been applied
-in perfecting the connections
-of the parts of a
-truss, and many valuable experiments
-have been made
-which have greatly enlarged
-our knowledge of this difficult
-subject. The introduction
-of riveting by the power
-of steam or compressed air
-is another very great improvement.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
-
-<div class="sandbagbox" id="img030">
- <div id="i030b1">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i030b2">&nbsp;</div>
-
-<div class="center caption">Kinzua Viaduct;<br />Erie Railway.</div>
-
-<p>Valleys and ravines are
-now crossed by viaducts of
-iron and steel, of which the
-Kinzua viaduct, illustrated
-here, is an example. A
-branch line from the Erie, connecting that system with valuable
-coal-fields, strikes the valley of the Kinzua, a small creek, about
-15 miles southwest of Bradford, Pa. At the point suitable for
-crossing, this ravine is about half a mile wide and over 300 feet
-deep. At first it was proposed to run down and cross the creek
-at a low level by some of the devices heretofore illustrated in this
-article. But finally the engineering firm of Clarke, Reeves &amp; Co.
-agreed to build the viaduct, shown above, for a much less sum than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
-any other method of crossing would have cost. This viaduct was
-built in four months. It is 305 feet high and about 2,400 feet long.
-The skeleton piers were first erected by means of their own posts,
-and afterward the girders were placed by means of a travelling
-scaffold on the top, projecting over about 80 feet. No staging of
-any kind was used, nor even ladders, as the men climbed up the
-diagonal rods of the piers, as a cat will run up a tree.</p>
-
-<p>The Manhattan Elevated Railway, about 34 miles long, is nothing
-but a long viaduct, and is as strong and durable as iron viaducts
-on railways usually are, while from the slower speed of its
-trains it is much safer.</p>
-</div>
-
-    <div class="HandHeld">
-    <div class="figleft">
-    <img src="images/i_030.jpg" width="350" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">Kinzua Viaduct; Erie Railway.</div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p>Valleys and ravines are
-    now crossed by viaducts of
-    iron and steel, of which the
-    Kinzua viaduct, illustrated
-    here, is an example. A
-    branch line from the Erie, connecting that system with valuable
-    coal-fields, strikes the valley of the Kinzua, a small creek, about
-    15 miles southwest of Bradford, Pa. At the point suitable for
-    crossing, this ravine is about half a mile wide and over 300 feet
-    deep. At first it was proposed to run down and cross the creek
-    at a low level by some of the devices heretofore illustrated in this
-    article. But finally the engineering firm of Clarke, Reeves &amp; Co.
-    agreed to build the viaduct, shown above, for a much less sum than
-    any other method of crossing would have cost. This viaduct was
-    built in four months. It is 305 feet high and about 2,400 feet long.
-    The skeleton piers were first erected by means of their own posts,
-    and afterward the girders were placed by means of a travelling
-    scaffold on the top, projecting over about 80 feet. No staging of
-    any kind was used, nor even ladders, as the men climbed up the
-    diagonal rods of the piers, as a cat will run up a tree.</p>
-
-    <p>The Manhattan Elevated Railway, about 34 miles long, is nothing
-    but a long viaduct, and is as strong and durable as iron viaducts
-    on railways usually are, while from the slower speed of its
-    trains it is much safer.</p>
-    </div>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_031.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Kinzua Viaduct.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>It may not be out of place for the writer to state here what, in
-his belief, is the next series of steps to be taken to insure safety in
-travelling over our bridges: Replace, wherever possible, all temporary
-trestles by wood or stone culverts covered with earth.
-Where this cannot be done, build strong iron or steel bridges and
-viaducts with as short spans as possible and having no trusses
-above the
-track where
-it can possibly
-be helped.
-Cover
-these and all
-new bridges
-with a solid
-deck of rolled-steel
-corrugated
-plates, coated
-with asphalt
-to prevent
-rusting.
-Place on
-this broken
-stone ballast, and bed the ties in it as in the ordinary form of
-road-bed.</p>
-
-<p>By this means the usual shock felt in passing from the elastic
-embankment to the comparatively solid bridge will be done away.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
-Has a crack formed in a wheel or axle, this shock generally develops
-it into a break, the car or engine is derailed, and if it strikes
-the truss the bridge is wrecked. The cost of this proposed safety
-floor is insignificant, compared with the security resulting from it.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>The improvements in the processes of putting in the foundations
-of bridges have been as great as those above water. All have
-shortened greatly the time necessary, and have made the results
-more certain. The American system may briefly be described as
-an abandonment of the old engineering device of coffer-dams, by
-which the bed of the river is enclosed by a water-tight fence and
-the water pumped out. For this we substitute driving piles and
-sawing them off under water; or sinking cribs down to a hard
-bottom through the water. In both cases we sink the masonry,
-built in a great water-tight box (called a caisson) with a thick
-bottom of solid timber, until it finally rests on the heads of the piles
-sawn to a level, or on the top of a crib which is filled with stone,
-dumped out of a barge. Sometimes it is filled with concrete
-lowered through the water by special apparatus.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
-
-<p>Another process, developed within the last twenty years, is to
-sink cribs through soft or unreliable material to a harder stratum
-by compressed air. This is an improvement on the old diving-bell.
-The air, forced into the bell-shaped cavity, expels the water and
-allows the men to work and remove the material, which is taken
-up by a device called an air-lock. The crib slowly sinks, carrying
-the masonry on its top.</p>
-
-<p>By this means the foundations of the Brooklyn bridge and of
-the St. Louis bridge were sunk a little over 100 feet below water.
-A recent invention is that of a German engineer, Herr Poetsch,
-who freezes the sand by inserting tubes filled with a freezing mixture,
-and then excavates it as if it were solid rock.</p>
-
-<p>The process of sinking open cribs through the water by weighting
-them and dredging out the material was followed at the new
-bridge recently built over the Hudson at Poughkeepsie, where
-the cribs were sunk 130 feet below water, and at the bridge building
-over the Hawkesbury River, in Australia. The Hawkesbury piers
-are sunk to a depth of 175 feet below water, and are the deepest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
-foundations yet put in. The writer (who derives his knowledge
-from being one of the designing and executive engineers of both
-these bridges) sees no difficulty in putting down foundations by
-this process of open dredging to even much greater depths. The
-compressed-air process is limited to about 110 feet in depth.</p>
-
-
-<h3>IV.</h3>
-
-<p>The most notable invention of latter days in bridge construction
-is that of the cantilever bridge, which is a system devised to
-dispense with staging, or false works, where from the great depth,
-or the swift current, of the river, this would be difficult, or, as in the
-case of the Niagara River, impossible to make. The word cantilever
-is used in architecture to signify the lower end of a rafter,
-which projects beyond the wall of a building, and supports the roof
-above. It is from an Italian word, taken from the Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cantilabrum</i>
-(used by Vitruvius), meaning the <em>lip of the rafter</em>. If two
-beams were pushed out from the shores of a stream until they met
-in the centre, and these two beams were long enough to run back
-from the shores until their weight, aided by a few stones, held them
-down, we should have a primitive form of the cantilever, but one
-which in principle would not differ from the actual cantilever
-bridges. This is another American invention, although it has been
-developed by British engineers&mdash;Messrs. Fowler &amp; Baker&mdash;in their
-huge bridge now building across the Forth, in Scotland, of a size
-which dwarfs everything hitherto done in this country, the Brooklyn
-bridge not excepted.</p>
-
-<p>The first design of which we have any record was that of a
-bridge planned by Thomas Pope, a ship carpenter of New York,
-who, in 1810, published a book giving his designs for an arched
-bridge of timber across the North River at Castle Point, of 2,400
-feet span. Mr. Pope called this an arch, but his description clearly
-shows it to have been what we now call a cantilever. As was the
-fashion of the day, he indulged in a poetical description:</p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry">
-<p class="verseq">"Like half a Rainbow rising on yon shore,</p>
-<p class="verse">While its twin partner spans the semi o'er,</p>
-<p class="verse">And makes a perfect whole that need not part</p>
-<p class="verse">Till time has furnish'd us a nobler art."</p>
-</div></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_034.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">View of Thomas Pope's Proposed Cantilever (1810).</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The first railway cantilever bridge in the world was built by
-the late C. Shaler Smith, C.E., one of our most accomplished
-bridge engineers. This was a bridge over the deep gorge of the
-Kentucky River.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> The next was a bridge on the Canadian
-Pacific, in British Columbia, designed by C. C. Schneider, C.E.
-A very similar bridge is that over the Niagara River, designed
-by the same engineer in conjunction with Messrs. Field &amp; Hayes,
-Civil Engineers. This bridge was the first to receive the distinctive
-name of cantilever.</p>
-
-<p>The new bridge at Poughkeepsie has three of these cantilevers,
-connected by two fixed spans, as shown in the illustration (pg. 36).
-The fixed spans have horizontal lower chords, and really extend
-beyond each pier and up the inclined portions, to where the bottom
-chord of the cantilever is horizontal. At these points the
-junctions between the spans are made, and arranged in such a way,
-by means of movable links, that expansion and contraction due to
-changes of temperature can take place. The fixed spans are 525
-feet long. Their upper chord, where the tracks are placed, is 212
-feet above water. These spans required stagings to build them
-upon. These stagings were 220 feet above water, and rested on
-piles, driven through 60 feet of water and 60 feet of mud, making
-the whole height of the temporary staging 332 feet, or within 30
-feet of the height of Trinity Church steeple, in New York. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
-time occupied in building one of these stagings and then erecting
-the steel-work upon it was about four months.</p>
-
-<p>The cantilever spans were erected, as shown in the illustration
-on <a href="#Page_37">page 37</a>, without any stagings at all below, and entirely from
-the two overhead travelling scaffolds, shown in the engraving.
-These scaffolds were moved out daily from the place of beginning
-over the piers, until they met in the centre. The workmen
-hoisted up the different pieces of steel from a barge in the river
-below and put them into place, using suspended planks to walk
-upon. The time saved by this method was so great that one of
-these spans of 548 feet long was erected in less than four weeks,
-or one-seventh of the time which would have been required if
-stagings had been used.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_035.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Pope's Cantilever in Process of Erection. (From his "Treatise on Bridge Architecture.")</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>At the Forth Bridge, all the projecting cantilevers will be built
-from overhead scaffolds, 360 feet above the water. It contains
-two spans of 1,710 feet each. When spans of this length are used,
-the rivets become very long&mdash;seven inches&mdash;and it would be impossible
-to make a good job by hand riveting. Hence a power-riveter
-is used in riveting the work upon the staging. A steam-engine
-raises up a heavy mass of cast-iron, called "the accumulator;"
-the
-weight of
-this in descending
-is
-transmitted
-through
-tubes of water,
-and its
-power increased
-by
-contracting the area of pressure, until some twenty tons can be
-applied to the head of each rivet. One rivet per minute can be
-put in with this tool.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>It will be seen that most of the great saving of time in modern
-construction of bridges and other parts of railways is due to improved
-machinery. The engineer of to-day is probably not more
-skilful than his ancestor, who, in periwig and cue, breeches and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
-silk stockings, is represented in old prints supervising a gang of
-laborers, who slowly lift the ram of a pile-driver by hauling on one
-end of a rope passed over a pulley-wheel. The modern engineer
-has that useful servant, steam, and the history of modern engineering
-is chiefly the history of those inventions by which steam has
-been able to supersede manual labor&mdash;such as pile-drivers, steam-shovels,
-steam-dredges, and other similar tools.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_036.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">General View of the Poughkeepsie Bridge.</div>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>After the road-bed of a railway is completed and covered with
-a good coat of gravel or stone-ballast, and after all the temporary
-structures have been replaced by permanent ones, that part of the
-work may be said to be done, requiring only that the damages of
-storms should be repaired. But the track of a railway is never
-done. It is always wearing out and always being replaced.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_037.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Erection of a Cantilever.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Some of the early English engineers, not appreciating this, endeavored
-to lay down solid stone walls coped with stone cut to a
-smooth surface, on which they laid their rails. They called this
-"permanent way," as distinguished from the temporary track of
-rails and cross-ties used by contractors in building the lines. But
-experience soon showed that the temporary track, if supported by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
-a bed of broken stone, always kept itself drained and was always
-elastic, and remained in much better order than the more expensive
-so-called "permanent way." When the increase in the weight of
-our rolling stock began to take place, dating from about 1870, iron
-rails were found to be wearing out very fast. Some railway men
-declared that the railway system had reached its full development.
-But in this world the supply generally equals the demand. When
-a thing is very much wanted, it is sure to come, sooner or later.
-The process of making steel invented by, and named after, Henry
-Bessemer, of England, and perfected by A. L. Holley, of this
-country, gave us a steel rail which at the present time costs less
-than one of iron, and has a life five or six times as long, even
-under the heavy loads of to-day. We are now approaching very
-near the limit of what the rail will carry, while the joints are becoming
-less able to do their duty. Bad joints mean rough track.
-Rough track means considerably greater expenditure both for its
-maintenance and that of all the rolling stock, as the blows and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
-shocks do reciprocal damage, both to the rails and to that which
-runs on them. Hence all railway managers are now devoting
-more care and attention to their tracks.</p>
-
-<p>In laying track on a new railway, if it be in an old-settled country
-where other railroads are near and the highways good, the ties
-are delivered in piles along the line where wanted, and the haul of
-the rails is comparatively short.
-The ties are laid down, spaced
-and bedded, adzed off to a true
-bearing, and the rails laid
-upon them; the workmen being
-divided into gangs, each
-doing a different part of the
-work. After the track is laid, the ballast-trains come along and
-cover the roadbed with gravel. The track is raised, the gravel
-tamped well under the ties, and the track is ready for use.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_038.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Spiking the Track.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span><br />
-   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_039.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Rail Making.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The road is then divided into sections about five miles long.
-On each section there is a section-boss, with four to six laborers.
-Their duty is to pass over the track at least twice a day in their
-hand-car, to examine every joint, and where one is found low or
-out of line, to bring it back to its true position by tamping gravel
-under it and moving the track. They have also to see that all
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
-ditches are kept clear of water, a most essential point, as without
-good drainage the ground under gravel ballast becomes soft, and
-the mud is churned up into the gravel, and the whole soon gets
-into bad order.</p>
-
-<p>They have to see that the fences are all right, that trees and
-telegraph poles do not fall across the track, that wooden bridges
-do not burn down, that iron and stone bridges are not undermined
-by freshets, and always to set up danger signals to warn the trains.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_041.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Track Laying.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>It is admitted by competent judges, that the track of the Pennsylvania
-Railroad is the best in this country, and one of the best
-in the world. It is kept up to its high standard of excellence by a
-system of competitive examinations.</p>
-
-<p>About the first of November, in each year, after the season's
-work has been done, a tour of inspection is made over all the lines,
-on a train of cars expressly prepared, consisting of two or more
-cars not unlike ordinary box cars with the front end taken out.
-Each car is pushed in front of an engine, and goes slowly over the
-line, by daylight only, so that the inspecting party may have a full
-view of the road.</p>
-
-<p>The Pennsylvania road is divided into Grand Divisions, Superintendents'
-Divisions, of about 100 miles long, Supervisors' Divisions,
-of about 30 miles, and Subdivisions, of 2½ miles.</p>
-
-<p>The examining committee for each Supervisor's Division consists
-of the supervisors of other divisions. As they pass along,
-they mark on a card. One sub-committee marks the condition of
-the alignment and surfacing of the rails; another the condition of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
-the joints and the spacing of the ties; another the ballast, switches,
-and sidings; another the ditches, road-crossings, station grounds.
-The marks range <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;Original text: 'from 1 to 10'">from 0 to 10</ins>, 0 being very bad, 5 medium, and
-10 perfection. When the trip is done these reports are all collected
-and the average is taken for each division.</p>
-
-<p>As an inducement to the supervisors and the foremen of the
-Subdivisions to excel on their division, premiums are given as
-follows:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquoty">
-
-<p>$100 to the supervisor having the best yard on his Grand Division.</p>
-
-<p>$100 each to the supervisors having the best Supervisor's Division on each Superintendent's
-Division of 100 miles.</p>
-
-<p>$75 to the foreman having the best subdivision of 2½ miles on each Grand Division.</p>
-
-<p>$60 to each foreman having the best subdivision on his Superintendent's Division,
-including yards.</p>
-
-<p>$50 to the foreman having the best subdivision on each Supervisor's Division.</p></div>
-
-<p>In addition to the above there are two premiums of honor given
-by the general manager, which bring into competition with each
-other those parts of the main line lying on either side of Philadelphia,
-viz.:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquoty">
-
-<p>$100 to the supervisor having the best line and surface between Pittsburg and Jersey
-City.</p>
-
-<p>$50 to the second best ditto.</p></div>
-
-<p>If a supervisor or foreman of subdivision receives one of the
-higher premiums, he is not allowed to be a competitor for any
-others premiums, except the premiums of honor.</p>
-
-<p>The advantages of these inspections and premiums are these:
-Every man knows exactly what the standard of excellence is, and
-strives to have his section reach it. Under the old system, a man
-never got off of his own section, and had no means of comparison,
-and like all untravelled persons, became conceited.</p>
-
-<p>The standard of excellence becomes higher and higher every
-year. Perfect fairness prevails, as the men themselves are the
-judges. The officers of the road make no marks, but usually
-look on and see that there is fair play.</p>
-
-<p>This brings the officers and men nearer together, and shows
-the men how all are working for the common good. An agreeable
-break is made in the monotony of the men's lives. They have
-something to look forward to better than a spree.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>It is by the adoption of such methods as these that strikes will
-be prevented in the future. It encourages an <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">esprit de corps</i>
-among the men, and educates them in every way.</p>
-
-<p>This system was first devised and put in operation on the
-Pennsylvania Railroad in 1879, by Mr. Frank Thomson, General
-Manager, to whom the credit of it is justly due.</p>
-
-
-<h3>V.</h3>
-
-<p>I have thus endeavored to trace the history of the building of
-a railway; and it must have been seen, from what has been said,
-that the evolution of the railway and of its rolling stock follows the
-same laws which govern the rest of the world: adaptation to circumstances
-decides what is fittest, and that alone survives. The
-scrap-heap of a great railway tells its own story.</p>
-
-<p>Our railways have now reached a development which is wonderful.
-The railways of the United States, if placed continuously,
-would reach more than half-way to the moon. Their bridges
-alone would reach from New York to Liverpool. Notwithstanding
-the number of accidents that we read of in the daily papers,
-statistics show that less persons are killed annually on railways
-than are killed annually by falling out of windows.</p>
-
-<p>Railways have so cheapened the cost of transportation that,
-while a load of wheat loses all of its value by being hauled one
-hundred miles on a common road, meat and flour enough to supply
-one man a year can, according to Mr. Edward Atkinson, be
-hauled 1,500 miles from the West to the East for one day's wages
-of that man, if he be a skilled mechanic. If freight charges are
-diminished in the future as in the past, this can soon be done for
-one day's wages of a common laborer.</p>
-
-<p>The number of persons employed in constructing, equipping,
-and operating our railways is about two millions.</p>
-
-<p>The combined armies and navies of the world, while on peace
-footing, will draw from gainful occupations 3,455,000 men.</p>
-
-<p>Those create wealth&mdash;these destroy it. Is it any wonder that
-America is the richest country in the world?</p>
-
-<p>The rapidity with which it is possible to build railways over
-the prairies of the West is extraordinary. It is true that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
-amount of earth necessary to
-be moved is much less than
-on the railways of the East.
-In Iowa and Wisconsin, the
-amount runs from 20,000 to
-25,000 yards per mile, while
-in Dakota it is only 12,000 to
-15,000 yards per mile. After making all due allowance for this,
-the result is still remarkable.</p>
-
-<div class="sandbagbox" id="img044">
- <div id="i044b1">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i044b2">&nbsp;</div>
-
-<div class="center caption">Temporary Railway Crossing<br />the St. Lawrence on the Ice.</div>
-
-<p>The Manitoba system was extended in 1887 through Dakota
-and Montana, a distance of 545 miles. A small army of 10,000
-men, with about 3,500 teams, commanded by General D. C. Shepard,
-of St. Paul, a veteran engineer and contractor, did it all between
-April 2 and October 19. All materials and subsistence
-had to be hauled to the front, from the base of supplies. The
-army slept in its own tents, shanties, and cars. The grading was
-cast up from the side ditches, sometimes by carts, and sometimes
-by the digging machine.</p>
-</div>
-
-    <div class="HandHeld">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_044.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">Temporary Railway Crossing the St. Lawrence on the Ice.</div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p>The Manitoba system was extended in 1887 through Dakota
-    and Montana, a distance of 545 miles. A small army of 10,000
-    men, with about 3,500 teams, commanded by General D. C. Shepard,
-    of St. Paul, a veteran engineer and contractor, did it all between
-    April 2 and October 19. All materials and subsistence
-    had to be hauled to the front, from the base of supplies. The
-    army slept in its own tents, shanties, and cars. The grading was
-    cast up from the side ditches, sometimes by carts, and sometimes
-    by the digging machine.</p>
-    </div>
-
-<p>Everything was done with military organization, except that
-what was left behind was a railway and not earth-work lines of defence.
-Assuming that this railway, ready for its equipment, cost
-$15,100 per mile, or $8,175,000, and if it be true, as statisticians
-tell us, that every dollar expended in building railways in a new
-country adds ten to the value of land and other property, then this
-six months' campaign shows a solid increase of the wealth of our<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
-country of over eighty millions of dollars. Had it been necessary
-for our Government to keep an army of observation of the same
-size on the Canadian frontier, there would have been a dead loss
-of over eight millions of dollars, and the only result would have
-been a slight reduction of the Treasury surplus.</p>
-
-<p>It must be remembered that this railway was built after the
-American system: when the rails were laid, so as to carry trains,
-it was not much more than half finished; the track had to be ballasted,
-the temporary wooden structures replaced by stone and
-iron, and many buildings and miles of sidings were yet to be constructed.
-But it began to earn money from the very day the last
-rail was laid, and out of its earnings, and the credit thereby acquired,
-it will complete itself.</p>
-
-<p>And this is only one instance out of many. The armies of
-peace are working all over our country, increasing our wealth, and
-binding all parts into a common whole. We have here the true
-answer to the Carlyles and the Ruskins who ask: "What is the
-use of all this? Is a man any better who goes sixty miles an hour
-than one who went five miles an hour?" "Were we not happier
-when our fields were covered with their golden harvests, than
-now, when our wheat is brought to us from Dakota?"</p>
-
-<p>The grand function of the railway is to change the whole basis
-of civilization from military to industrial. The talent, the energy,
-the money, which is expended in maintaining the whole of Europe
-as an armed camp is here expended in building and maintaining
-railways, with their army of two millions of men. Without the
-help of railways the rebellion of the Southern States could never
-have been put down, and two great standing armies would have
-been necessary. By the railways, aided by telegraphs, it is easy
-to extend our Federal system over an entire continent, and thus
-dispense forever with standing armies.</p>
-
-<p>The moral effect of this upon Europe is great, but its physical
-effect is still greater. American railways have nearly abolished
-landlordism in Ireland, and they will one day abolish it in England,
-and over the continent of Europe. So long as Europe was
-dependent for food upon its own fields, the owner of those fields
-could fix his own rental. This he can no longer do, owing to the
-cheapness of transportation from Australia and from the prairies of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
-America, due to the inventions of Watt, the Stephensons, Bessemer,
-and Holley.</p>
-
-<p>With the wealth of the landlord his political power will pass
-away. The government of European countries will pass out of
-the hands of the great landowners, but not into those of the
-rabble, as is feared. It will pass into the same hands that govern
-America to-day&mdash;the territorial democracy, the owners of small
-farms, and the manufacturers and merchants. When this comes to
-pass, attempts will be made to settle international disputes by arbitration
-instead of war, following the example of the Geneva arbitration
-between the two greatest industrial nations of the world.
-Whether our Federal system will ever extend to the rest of the
-world, no one knows, but we do know that without railways it
-would be impossible.</p>
-
-<p>When we consider the effects of all these wonderful changes
-upon the sum of human happiness, we must admit that the engineer
-should justly take rank with statesmen and soldiers, and that no
-greater benefactors to the human race can be named than the
-Stephensons and their American disciples&mdash;Allen, Rogers, Jervis,
-Winans, Latrobe, and Holley.</p>
-
-
-<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> It is proper here to say that English engineers now appreciate the merits of the American swivelling
-truck or bogie. In the article on Railways in the last edition of the "Encyclopædia Britannica,"
-speaking of locomotives, the author of the article, who is an English engineer of high authority, says:
-"American practice, many years since, arrived at two leading types of locomotive for passenger, and
-for goods traffic. The passenger locomotive has eight wheels, of which four in front are framed in a
-bogie, and the four wheels behind are coupled drivers. <em>This is the type to which English practice has
-been approximating.</em>" The italics are ours.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The statistics of ten leading English and ten leading American lines, given by Dorsey, show the following
-results: 1. The cost per year of the rations, wages, fuel of an American locomotive is $5,590; of
-an English locomotive, $3,080. 2. Average yearly number of train-miles run by American locomotive,
-23,928; English locomotive, 17,539. 3. Yearly earnings: American locomotive, $14,860; English locomotive,
-$10,940, although the English freight charges are much greater than those of the United States.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The writer has obtained many of the statistics used in this article from A. M. Wellington's
-"Economic Theory of Railway Location," a perfect mine of valuable information upon all such matters.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> The amount of permanent wood and iron truss bridges, and of temporary wooden trestles on the
-Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul is as follows:
-</p>
-
-<div class="center fs90">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="60%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="tdl">Truss&nbsp;bridges,</td><td class="tdr">700</td><td class="tdl">spans,&nbsp;average</td><td class="tdr">93</td><td class="tdl">feet,</td><td class="tdr">12<sup>4</sup>/<sub>5</sub>&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">miles.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Trestle &nbsp; &nbsp; "</td><td class="tdr">7,196</td><td class="tdc">" &nbsp; &nbsp; "</td><td class="tdr">77</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdr">103<sup>1</sup>/<sub>10</sub></td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrh">&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrh">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">Total,</td><td class="tdr">7,896</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">115<sup>9</sup>/<sub>10</sub></td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p>
-The approximate total number of bridges in the United States was in 1888:
-</p>
-
-<div class="center fs90">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="tdl">Iron and wood truss bridges,</td><td class="tdr">61,562</td><td class="tdl">spans,</td><td class="tdr">1,086</td><td class="tdl">miles.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Wooden trestles,</td><td class="tdr">147,187</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">2,127</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrh">&ndash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrh">&ndash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">Total,</td><td class="tdr">208,749</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">3,213</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p>
-Probably three-fourths of the truss bridges are now of iron or steel, and may be considered perfectly
-safe so long as the trains remain upon the rails and do not strike the side trusses. The wooden trestles
-are a constant source of danger from decay or burning or from derailed trains, and should be replaced
-by permanent structures as fast as time and money will allow.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> See following article on "Feats of Railroad Engineering," <a href="#Page_86">page 86.</a></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> For fuller description of work in a caisson see "Feats of Railway Engineering," <a href="#Page_69">page 69.</a></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> See "Feats of Railway Engineering," <a href="#Page_55">page 55.</a></p></div></div>
-
-
-    <div class="chapter"></div>
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">FEATS OF RAILWAY ENGINEERING.</a></h2>
-
-<p class="pfs90 smcap">By JOHN BOGART.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Development of the Rail&mdash;Problems for the Engineer&mdash;How Heights are Climbed&mdash;The
-Use of Trestles&mdash;Construction on a Mountain Side&mdash;Engineering on Rope Ladders&mdash;Through
-the Portals of a Cañon&mdash;Feats on the Oroya Railroad, Peru&mdash;Nochistongo
-Cut&mdash;Rack Rails for Heavy Grades&mdash;Difficulties in Tunnel Construction&mdash;Bridge
-Foundations&mdash;Cribs and Pneumatic Caissons&mdash;How Men work under Water&mdash;The
-Construction of Stone Arches&mdash;Wood and Iron in Bridge-building&mdash;Great Suspension
-Bridges&mdash;The Niagara Cantilever and the enormous Forth Bridge&mdash;Elevated
-and Underground Roads&mdash;Responsibilities of the Civil Engineer.</p></div>
-
-<div><img class="drop-cap" src="images/i_047dc.jpg" alt="" /></div>
-<p class="p1x drop-cap">There are one hundred and fifty
-thousand miles of railway in the
-United States: three hundred thousand
-miles of rails&mdash;in length enough
-to make twelve steel girdles for the
-earth's circumference. This enormous
-length of rail is wonderful&mdash;we do not
-really grasp its significance. But the
-rail itself, the little section of steel, is
-an engineering feat. The change of its form
-from the curious and clumsy iron pear-head of thirty years ago to
-the present refined section of steel is a scientific development. It
-is now a beam whose every dimension and curve and angle are
-exactly suited to the tremendous work it has to do. The loads it
-carries are enormous, the blows it receives are heavy and constant,
-but it carries the loads and bears the blows and does its duty.
-The locomotive and the modern passenger and freight cars are
-great achievements; and so is the little rail which carries them all.</p>
-
-<p>The railway to-day is one of the matter-of-fact associations of
-our active life. We use it so constantly that it requires some little
-effort to think of it as a wonderful thing; a creation of man's inge<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>nuity,
-which did not exist when our grandfathers were young. Its
-long bridges, high viaducts, and dark tunnels may be remarked and
-remembered by the traveller, but the narrow way of steel, the road
-itself, seems but a simple work. And yet the problem of location,
-the determination, foot by foot and mile by mile, of where the line
-must go, calls in its successful solution for the highest skill of the
-engineer, whose profession before the railway was created hardly
-existed at all. Locomotives now climb heights which a few years
-ago no vehicle on wheels could ascend. The writer, with some
-engineer friends, was in the mountains of Colorado during the
-summer of 1887, and saw a train of very intelligent donkeys loaded
-with ore from the mines, to which no access could be had but by
-those sure-footed beasts. Within a year one of that party of engineers
-had located and was building a railway to those very
-mines. No heights seem too great to-day, no valleys too deep, no
-cañons too forbidding, no streams too wide; if commerce demands,
-the engineer will respond and the railways will be built.</p>
-
-<p>The location of the line of a railway through difficult country
-requires the trained judgment of an engineer of special experience,
-and the most difficult country is not by any means that which might
-at first be supposed. A line through a narrow pass almost locates
-itself. But the approach to a summit through rolling country is
-often a serious problem. The rate of grade must be kept as light
-as possible, and must never exceed the prescribed maximum. The
-cuttings and the embankments must be as shallow as they can be
-made&mdash;the quantities of material taken from the excavations should
-be just about enough to make adjacent embankments. The curves
-must be few and of light radius&mdash;never exceeding an arranged
-limit. The line must always be kept as direct as these considerations
-will allow&mdash;so that the final location will give the shortest
-practicable economical distance from point to point. Many a mile
-of railway over which we travel now at the highest speed has been
-a weary problem to the engineer of location, and he has often accomplished
-a really greater success by securing a line which seems
-to closely fit the country over which it runs without marking itself
-sharply upon nature's moulding, than if he had with apparent boldness
-cut deep into the hills and raised embankments and viaducts
-high over lowlands and valleys.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="sandbagbox" id="img049">
- <div id="i049b1">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i049b2">&nbsp;</div>
-
-<div class="center caption">View Down the Blue from Rocky Point, Denver,<br />
-South Park and Pacific Railroad;<br />showing successive tiers of railway.</div>
-
-<p>But roads must run through
-many regions where very different
-measures must be taken to
-secure a location practicable for
-traffic. For instance, a line at
-a high elevation approaches a
-wide valley which it must cross.
-The rate of descent is fixed by
-the established maximum grade,
-and the sides of the valley are
-much steeper than that rate.
-Then the engineer must gain
-distance&mdash;that is to say, he
-must make the line long enough
-to overcome the vertical height. This can often be accomplished
-by carrying it up the valley on one side and down on the other.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
-Tributary valleys can be made use of if necessary, and the desired
-crossing thus accomplished. But at times even these expedients
-will not suffice. Then the line is made to bend upon itself and
-wind down the hillside upon benches cut into the earth, or rock,
-curving at points where nature affords any sort of opportunity, and
-reaching the valley at last in long convolutions like the path of a
-great serpent on the mountain side. These lines often show several
-tiers of railway, one directly above the other, as may be seen
-in the illustrations on pages 49 and 51.</p>
-</div>
-
-    <div class="HandHeld">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_049.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">View Down the Blue from Rocky Point, Denver, South Park
-    and Pacific Railroad; showing successive tiers of railway.</div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p>But roads must run through
-    many regions where very different
-    measures must be taken to
-    secure a location practicable for
-    traffic. For instance, a line at
-    a high elevation approaches a
-    wide valley which it must cross.
-    The rate of descent is fixed by
-    the established maximum grade,
-    and the sides of the valley are
-    much steeper than that rate.
-    Then the engineer must gain
-    distance&mdash;that is to say, he
-    must make the line long enough
-    to overcome the vertical height. This can often be accomplished
-    by carrying it up the valley on one side and down on the other.
-    Tributary valleys can be made use of if necessary, and the desired
-    crossing thus accomplished. But at times even these expedients
-    will not suffice. Then the line is made to bend upon itself and
-    wind down the hillside upon benches cut into the earth, or rock,
-    curving at points where nature affords any sort of opportunity, and
-    reaching the valley at last in long convolutions like the path of a
-    great serpent on the mountain side. These lines often show several
-    tiers of railway, one directly above the other, as may be seen
-    in the illustrations on pages 49 and 51.</p>
-    </div>
-
-<p>The long trestle shown in the illustration opposite is an example
-of an expedient often of the greatest service in railway construction.
-These trestles are built of wood, simply but strongly framed together,
-and are entirely effective for the transport of traffic for a
-number of years. Then they must be renewed, or, what is better,
-be replaced by embankment, which can be gradually made by
-depositing the material from cars on the trestle itself. The trestle
-illustrated is interesting as conforming to the curve of the line,
-which in that country, the mountains of Colorado, was probably a
-necessity of location.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>Where the direct turning of a line upon itself may not be necessary,
-there may and often must be bold work done in the construction
-of the road upon a mountain side. It must be supported
-where necessary by walls built up from suitable foundations, often
-only secured at a great depth below the grade of the road. Projecting
-points of rock must be cut through, and any practicable
-natural shelf or favorable formation must be made use of, as in the
-picture on <a href="#Page_61">page 61</a>. In some of the mountain locations, galleries
-have been cut directly into the rock, the cliff overhanging the roadway,
-and the line being carried in a horizontal cut or niche in the
-solid wall.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span><br />
-   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_051.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Loop and Great Trestle near Hagerman's, on the Colorado Midland Railway.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Oroya and the Chimbote railways in South America
-demanded constant locations of this character. At many points
-it was necessary to suspend the persons making the preliminary
-measurements from the cliff above. The engineer who made these
-locations told the writer that on the Oroya line the galleries were
-often from 100 to 400 feet above the base of the cliff, and were generally
-reached from above. Rope ladders were used to great advantage.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
-One 64 feet long and one 106 feet long covered the usual
-practice, and were sometimes spliced together. The side ropes
-were ¾ and 1¼ inches in diameter, and the rounds of wood 1¼ inches
-in diameter, and 16 inches and 24 inches long. These were notched
-at the ends and passed through the ropes, to which they were afterward
-lashed. These ladders could be rolled up and carried about
-on donkeys or mules. When swung over the side of a cliff and
-secured at the top, and when practicable at the bottom, they formed
-a very useful instrument in location and construction. For simple
-examination of the cliff, and for rough or broken slopes not exceeding
-70 to 80 degrees, an active fellow would, after some experience,
-walk up and down such a slope simply grasping the rope in his
-hands. If required to do any work he would secure the rope
-about his body, or wind it around his arm, leaving his hands comparatively
-free for light work.</p>
-
-<p>The boatswain's chair&mdash;consisting of a wooden seat 6 inches
-wide and two feet long, through the ends of which pass the side
-ropes, looped at the top, and having their ends knotted&mdash;is a particularly
-convenient seat to use where cliffs overhang to a slight
-degree. The riggers were generally Portuguese sailors, who
-seemed to have more agility and less fear than any other men to
-be found. At Cuesta Blanca, on the Oroya, a prominent discoloration
-on the cliff served as a triangulation point for locating the chief
-gallery. Men were swung over the side of the cliff in a cage about
-2½ feet by 6 feet, open at the top and on the side next the rock.
-This was a peculiar cliff about 1,000 feet high, rising from the river
-at a general slope of about 70 degrees. The grade line of the road
-was 420 feet above the river. The Chileno miners climbed up a
-rope ladder to a large seam near the grade, where they lived; provisions,
-water, etc., being hoisted up to them. The first men sent
-over the cliff to begin the preliminary work were lowered in a cage
-and took their dinners with them, for fear they would not return to
-the work, and that unless a genuine start was made others could
-not be induced to take their places. It is safe to say that 80 per
-cent. of the sixty odd tunnels on the Oroya and the seven tunnels
-on the Chimbote lines were located and constructed on lines
-determined by triangulation, and the results were so satisfactory
-that the method may be depended upon as the best system for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
-determining topographical
-data or
-for locating and
-constructing the
-lines in any similar
-locality.</p>
-
-<div class="sandbagbox" id="img054">
- <div id="i054b1">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i054b2">&nbsp;</div>
-
-<div class="center caption">Denver and Rio Grande Railway Entering the Portals of the Grand River Cañon, Col.</div>
-
-<p>Where the
-rocks close in together,
-as in some
-of the cañons of
-our Southwest,
-the railway curves
-about them and
-finds its way often
-where one would
-hardly suppose a
-decent wagon
-road could be
-built. The portals
-of the Grand
-River Cañon, as
-here shown, present
-such a line,
-passing through
-narrow gateways of rock rising precipitously on either side to
-enormous heights.</p>
-</div>
-
-    <div class="HandHeld">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_054.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">Denver and Rio Grande Railway Entering the Portals of the Grand River Cañon, Col.</div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p>Where the
-    rocks close in together,
-    as in some
-    of the cañons of
-    our Southwest,
-    the railway curves
-    about them and
-    finds its way often
-    where one would
-    hardly suppose a
-    decent wagon
-    road could be
-    built. The portals
-    of the Grand
-    River Cañon, as
-    here shown, present
-    such a line,
-    passing through
-    narrow gateways of rock rising precipitously on either side to
-    enormous heights.</p>
-    </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>When such a cañon or a narrow valley directly crosses the line
-of the road, it must be spanned by a bridge or viaduct. The Kentucky
-River Bridge, shown below, is an instance. The Verrugas
-Bridge, on the Lima and Oroya Railroad in Peru, is another. This
-bridge is at an elevation of 5,836 feet above sea-level. It crosses a
-ravine at the bottom of which is a small stream. The bridge is
-575 feet long, in four spans, and is supported by iron towers, the
-central one of which is 252 feet in height. The construction was
-accomplished entirely from above, the material all having been
-delivered at the top of the ravine, and the erection was made by
-lowering each piece to its position. This was done by the use of
-two wire-rope cables, suspended across the ravine from temporary
-towers at each end of the bridge.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_055.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">The Kentucky River Cantilever, on the Cincinnati Southern Railway.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>On the line of the same Oroya Railroad is a striking example
-of the difficulties encountered in such mountain country and of the
-method by which they have been overcome. A tunnel reaches a
-narrow gorge, a truss is thrown across, and the tunnel continued.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
-Nature's wildest scenery, the deep ravine, the mountain cliffs,
-and the graceful truss carrying the locomotive and train safely over
-what would seem an impossible pass, here combine to give a vivid
-illustration of an engineering feat.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_056.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Truss over Ravine, and Tunnel, Oroya Railroad, Peru.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The location of a part of the Mexican Central Railway through
-the cut of Nochistongo is peculiarly interesting. Far underneath
-the level of this line of railway there was skilfully constructed, in
-1608, a tunnel which at that period was a very bold piece of engin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>eering.
-It was designed to drain the Valley of Mexico, which has
-no natural outlet. This tunnel was more than six miles long and
-ten feet wide. It was driven through the formation called <em>tepetate</em>,
-a peculiar earth with strata of sand and marl. It was finished in
-eleven months. At first excavated without a lining, it was afterward
-faced with masonry. It was not entirely protected when a
-great flood came, the dikes above gave way, and the tunnel became
-obstructed. The City of Mexico was flooded, and it was decided
-that, instead of repairing the tunnel an open cut should be made.
-The engineer who had constructed the tunnel, Enrico Martinez,
-was put in charge of this enormous undertaking, and others took
-his place after his death. The cut is believed to be the largest ever
-made in the world. For more than a century the work was continued.
-Its greatest depth is now 200 feet. It was cut deeper, but
-has partially filled with the washings from the slopes. The cost
-was enormous, more than 6,000,000 dollars in silver having been
-actually disbursed! Wages for workmen were then from 9 to 12
-cents a day. All convicts sentenced to hard labor were put at work
-in the great cut. The loss of life was very great. Writers of the
-time state that more than 100,000 Indians perished while engaged
-in the work.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_057.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">The Nochistongo Cut, Mexican Central Railway.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_058a.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">The Mount Washington Rack Railroad.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>When a line of railway
-encountered a
-grade too steep for ascent
-by the traction
-of the locomotive, the
-earlier engineers adopted the
-inclined plane. Such planes were
-in use at important points during
-many years. Notable instances
-were those by which traffic was
-carried across the Alleghany
-Mountains, connecting on
-each side with the Pennsylvania
-railway lines. These
-old planes are still visible
-from the present Pennsylvania
-Railroad where it
-crosses the summit west of Altoona. The planes were operated
-by stationary engines acting upon cables attached to the cars.
-These cables passed around drums at the head of the planes, the
-weight of the cars on one track partially
-balancing those on the other. Similar
-planes were in use also at Albany,
-Schenectady, and
-other places.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_058b.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Trestle on Portland and Ogdensburg Railway,<br />Crawford Notch, White Mountains.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Another effective
-expedient is the central
-rack rail. No
-better or more successful
-example of
-this method of construction
-can be given
-than the Mount
-Washington Railway,
-illustrated above.
-The road was completed
-in 1869. Its
-length is 3<sup>1</sup>/<sub>3</sub> miles and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
-its total rise 3,625 feet. Its steepest grade is about 1 foot rise in
-every 3 feet in length; the average grade is 1 in 4. It is built of
-heavy timber, well bolted to the rock. Low places are spanned by
-substantial trestle work. The gauge of the road is 4 feet 7½ inches,
-and it is provided with the two ordinary rails and also the central
-rack rail, which is really like an iron ladder, the sides being of
-angle iron and the cross-pieces of round iron 1½ inches in diameter
-and 4 inches apart. Into these plays the central cog-wheel on the
-locomotive, which thus climbs this iron ladder with entire safety.
-Very complete arrangements are made to control the descent of the
-train in case of accident to the machinery. The locomotive is always
-below the train, and pushes it up the mountain. Many thousands
-of passengers have been transported every year without accident.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
-<img src="images/i_059.jpg" width="250" height="313" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p>A Series of Tunnels.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The rack railroad ascending the Righi, in Switzerland, was
-copied after the Mount Washington
-line. Some improvements in
-the construction of the rack rail
-and attachments have been introduced
-upon mountain roads in
-Germany, and this system seems
-very advantageous for use in exceptionally
-steep locations.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>When a line of railway meets
-in its course a barrier of rock, it is
-often best to cut directly through.
-If the grade is not too far below
-the surface of the rock, the cut is
-made like a great trench with the
-sides as steep as the nature of
-the material will allow. Very deep
-cuts are, however, not desirable. The rains bring down upon
-their slopes the softer material from above, and the frost detaches
-pieces of rock which, falling, may result in serious accidents to
-trains. Snow lodges in these deep cuts, at times entirely stopping
-traffic, as in the blizzard near New York, in March, 1888.
-A tunnel, therefore, while perhaps greater in first cost than a moderately
-deep cut, is really often the more economical expedient.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_060.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Tunnel at the Foot of Mount St. Stephen, on the Canadian Pacific.<br />
-(The glacier 8,200 feet above the Railway.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="sandbagbox" id="img061">
- <div id="i061b1">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i061b2">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i061b3">&nbsp;</div>
-
-<div class="p2 center caption">Peña de Mora<br />
-on the La Guayra and Carácas Railway, Venezuela.</div>
-
-<p>And here is as good a place, perhaps, as any other in this
-chapter, to say that true engineering is the economical adaptation
-of the means and opportunities existing, to the end desired. Civil
-engineering was defined, by one of the greatest of England's engineers,
-as "the art of directing the great sources of power in nature
-for the use and convenience of man," and that definition was
-adopted as a fundamental idea in the charter of the English Institution
-of Civil Engineers. But the development of engineering works
-in America has been effected successfully by American engineers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
-only because they have appreciated another side of the
-problem presented to them. A past president of the American
-Society of Civil Engineers, a man of rare judgment and remarkable
-executive ability, the late Ashbel Welch, said, in discussing a
-great undertaking proposed by an eminent Frenchman: "That is
-the best engineering, not which makes the most splendid, or even
-the most perfect, work, but that which makes a work that answers
-the purpose well, at the least cost." And it may be remarked, as
-to the project which he was then
-discussing, that after a very large
-expenditure and an experience of
-eight years since that discussion,
-the plans of the work were modified
-and the identical suggestions
-made by Mr. Welch of a radical
-economical change were adopted
-in 1888.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> Another eminent
-American
-engineer,
-whose practical
-experience
-has
-been gained
-in the construction
-and
-engineering
-supervision
-of more than
-five thousand
-miles of railway,
-said, in
-his address
-as President
-of the American
-Society
-of Civil Engineers: "The high object of our profession is to consider
-and determine the most economic use of time, power, and matter."</p>
-</div>
-
-    <div class="HandHeld">
-    <div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_061.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">Peña de Mora<br />
-    on the La Guayra and Carácas Railway, Venezuela.</div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p>And here is as good a place, perhaps, as any other in this
-    chapter, to say that true engineering is the economical adaptation
-    of the means and opportunities existing, to the end desired. Civil
-    engineering was defined, by one of the greatest of England's engineers,
-    as "the art of directing the great sources of power in nature
-    for the use and convenience of man," and that definition was
-    adopted as a fundamental idea in the charter of the English Institution
-    of Civil Engineers. But the development of engineering-works
-    in America has been effected successfully by American engineers
-    only because they have appreciated another side of the
-    problem presented to them. A past president of the American
-    Society of Civil Engineers, a man of rare judgment and remarkable
-    executive ability, the late Ashbel Welch, said, in discussing a
-    great undertaking proposed by an eminent Frenchman: "That is
-    the best engineering, not which makes the most splendid, or even
-    the most perfect, work, but that which makes a work that answers
-    the purpose well, at the least cost." And it may be remarked, as
-    to the project which he was then
-    discussing, that after a very large
-    expenditure and an experience of
-    eight years since that discussion,
-    the plans of the work were modified
-    and the identical suggestions
-    made by Mr. Welch of a radical
-    economical change were adopted
-    in 1888.<a name="FNanchor_8_8h" id="FNanchor_8_8h"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> Another eminent
-    American
-    engineer,
-    whose practical
-    experience
-    has
-    been gained
-    in the construction
-    and
-    engineering
-    supervision
-    of more than
-    five thousand
-    miles of railway,
-    said, in
-    his address
-    as President
-    of the American
-    Society
-    of Civil Engineers: "The high object of our profession is to consider
-    and determine the most economic use of time, power, and matter."</p>
-    </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="sandbagbox" id="img062">
- <div id="i062b1">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i062b2">&nbsp;</div>
-
-<div class="center caption">Perspective View of St. Gothard Spiral Tunnels, in the Alps.</div>
-
-<p>That true economy, which
-finally secures in a completed
-work the best results from the
-investment of capital, in first
-cost and continued maintenance, is an essential element in the consideration
-of any really great engineering feat.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>The difficulties involved in the construction of a tunnel, after
-the line and dimensions have been determined, depend generally
-upon the nature of the material found as the work advances. Solid
-rock presents really the fewest difficulties, but it is seldom that
-tunnels of considerable length occur without meeting material
-which requires special provision for successful treatment. In some
-cases great portions of the rock, where the roof of the tunnel is to
-be, press downward with enormous weight, being detached from
-the adjacent mass by the occurrence of natural seams.</p>
-</div>
-
-    <div class="HandHeld">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_062.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">Perspective View of St. Gothard Spiral Tunnels, in the
-    Alps.</div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p>That true economy, which
-    finally secures in a completed
-    work the best results from the
-    investment of capital, in first
-    cost and continued maintenance, is an essential element in the consideration
-    of any really great engineering feat.</p>
-
-    <hr class="tb" />
-
-    <p>The difficulties involved in the construction of a tunnel, after
-    the line and dimensions have been determined, depend generally
-    upon the nature of the material found as the work advances. Solid
-    rock presents really the fewest difficulties, but it is seldom that
-    tunnels of considerable length occur without meeting material
-    which requires special provision for successful treatment. In some
-    cases great portions of the rock, where the roof of the tunnel is to
-    be, press downward with enormous weight, being detached from
-    the adjacent mass by the occurrence of natural seams.</p>
-    </div>
-
-<p>At other places soft material may be encountered, and the passage
-then is attended with great difficulty. Temporary supports,
-generally of timber, and of great strength, have often to be used
-at every foot of progress to prevent the material from forcing its
-way into the excavation already made.</p>
-
-<p>In long tunnels the ventilation is a difficult problem, although
-the use of compressed air drills has aided greatly in its solution.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_063a.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="right fs70">Plan of St. Gothard Spiral Tunnels.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Among the great tunnels which have been excavated, the St.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
-Gothard is the most remarkable. It is 9¼ miles long, with a section
-26¼ feet wide by 19<sup>2</sup>/<sub>3</sub> feet high. The work on this tunnel was
-continuous, and it required 9¼
-years for its completion.</p>
-
-<p>The Mont Cenis tunnel, 8<sup>1</sup>/<sub>3</sub>
-miles in length, was completed
-in 12 years.</p>
-
-<div class="sandbagbox" id="img063">
- <div id="i063b1">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i063b2">&nbsp;</div>
-
-<div class="left caption">Profile of the Same.</div>
-
-<p>The Hoosac Tunnel, 4¾
-miles in length, 26 feet wide
-and 21½ feet high, was not prosecuted
-continuously; it was
-completed in 1876. These tunnels are notable chiefly on account
-of their great length; there are others of more moderate extent
-which have peculiar features; one, illustrated on the preceding
-page, is unique. This tunnel is a portion of the St. Gothard Railway,
-and not very far distant from the great tunnel referred to
-above. In the descent of the mountain it was absolutely necessary
-to secure a longer distance than a straight
-line or an ordinary curve would give; the
-line was therefore doubly curved upon itself.
-It enters the mountain at a high elevation,
-describes a circle through the rock and,
-constantly descending, reappears under itself
-at the side; still descending, it enters
-the mountain at another point and continues
-in another circular tunnel
-until it finally emerges again,
-under itself, but at a comparatively
-short horizontal distance
-from its first entry, having gained
-the required descent by a continued
-grade through the tunnels.
-The profile above shows the descent,
-upon a greatly reduced
-scale, the heavy lines marking
-where the line is in the tunnel.</p>
-</div>
-
-    <div class="HandHeld">
-    <div class="figleft">
-    <img src="images/i_063b.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">Profile of the Same.</div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p>The Hoosac Tunnel, 4¾
-    miles in length, 26 feet wide
-    and 21½ feet high, was not prosecuted
-    continuously; it was
-    completed in 1876. These tunnels are notable chiefly on account
-    of their great length; there are others of more moderate extent
-    which have peculiar features; one, illustrated on the preceding
-    page, is unique. This tunnel is a portion of the St. Gothard Railway,
-    and not very far distant from the great tunnel referred to
-    above. In the descent of the mountain it was absolutely necessary
-    to secure a longer distance than a straight
-    line or an ordinary curve would give; the
-    line was therefore doubly curved upon itself.
-    It enters the mountain at a high elevation,
-    describes a circle through the rock and,
-    constantly descending, reappears under itself
-    at the side; still descending, it enters
-    the mountain at another point and continues
-    in another circular tunnel
-    until it finally emerges again,
-    under itself, but at a comparatively
-    short horizontal distance
-    from its first entry, having gained
-    the required descent by a continued
-    grade through the tunnels.
-    The profile above shows the descent,
-    upon a greatly reduced
-    scale, the heavy lines marking
-    where the line is in the tunnel.</p>
-    </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_064.jpg" width="550" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Portal of a Finished Tunnel; showing Cameron's Cone, Colorado.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span><br />
-   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_065.jpg" width="550" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Portal of a Tunnel in Process of Construction.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The remarkable success achieved by engineers in securing
-suitable foundations at great depths is, of course, hardly known to
-the thousands who constantly see the structures supported on
-those foundations, but in any fair consideration of such engineering
-achievements this must not be omitted. The beautiful bridge
-built by Captain Eads over the Mississippi River at St. Louis,
-bold in its design and excellent in its execution, is an object of admiration
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
-to all who visit it, but the impression of its importance
-would be greatly magnified if the part below the surface of the
-water, which bears the massive towers, and which extends to a
-depth twice as great as the height of the pier above the water,
-could be visible.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_067.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Railway Pass at Rocky Point in the Rocky Mountains.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The simplest and most effective foundation is, of course, on
-solid rock. In many localities reliable foundations are built upon
-earth, when it exists at a suitable depth and of such a character as
-properly to sustain the weight. Foundations under water, when
-rock or good material occurs at moderate depth, are constructed
-frequently by means of the coffer-dam, which is simply an enclosure
-made water-tight and properly connected with the bottom of
-the stream. The water is then pumped out and the foundation
-and masonry built within this temporary dam. When the material
-is not of a character to sustain the weight, the next expedient
-is the use of piles, which are driven into the ground, often to a
-very considerable depth, and sustain the load placed upon them by
-the friction upon the sides of the piles of the material in which they
-are driven. It is seldom that dependence is placed upon the load
-being transferred from the top to the point of the pile, even though
-the point may have penetrated to a comparatively solid material.
-Wood is generally used for piles, and where the ground is permanently
-saturated there seems to be hardly any known limit to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
-its durability. The substructure of foundations, where it is certain
-that they will always be in contact with water, can be, and
-generally is, of wood, and the permanency of such foundations
-is well established. An exception to this, however, occurs in
-salt-water, particularly in warmer countries, where the ravages of
-the minute <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Teredo Navalis</i>, and of the still more minute <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Limnoria
-Terebrans</i>, destroy the wood in a very short period of time.
-These insects, however, do not work below the ground-line or bed
-of the water. In many special cases hollow
-iron piles are used successfully.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_068.jpg" width="175" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Bridge Pier Founded on Piles.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The ordinary method of forcing a pile into
-the ground is by repeated blows of a hammer
-of moderate weight; better success being obtained
-by frequent blows of the hammer, lifted
-to a slight elevation, than results from a greater
-fall, there being danger also in the latter case
-of injuring the material of the pile. The use
-of the water-jet for sinking piles, particularly in
-sand, is interesting. A tube, generally
-of ordinary gas-pipe, open at the lower
-end, is fastened to the pile; the upper
-end is connected by a hose to a powerful
-pump and, the pile being placed in
-position on the surface of the sand,
-water is forced through the tube and
-excavates a passage for the pile, which,
-by the application of very light pressure,
-descends rapidly to the desired depth.
-The stream of water must be continuous,
-as it rises along the side of the pile
-and keeps the sand in a mobile state.
-Immediately upon the cessation of pumping,
-the sand settles about the pile, and
-it is sometimes quite impossible to afterward
-move it. The water-jet is used in
-sinking iron piles by conducting the
-water through the interior of the hollow pile and out of a hole at
-its point. The piles of the great iron pier at Coney Island were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
-sunk with great celerity in this way. The illustration opposite
-shows one of the piers of a bridge founded upon wooden piling.</p>
-
-<p>In many cases it would be impossible to drive piling in such a
-way as to insure the durability of the structure above it. This is
-particularly true of the foundations of structures crossing many of
-our rivers, where the bottom is of material which, in time of flood,
-sometimes scours to very remarkable depths; the material often
-being replaced when the flood has subsided. The expedient
-adopted is the pneumatic tube, or the caisson. Both are merely
-applications of the well-known principle of the diving-bell. In the
-former case hollow iron tubes, open at the bottom, are sunk to
-considerable depths, the water being expelled by air pumped into
-the tubes at a pressure sufficient to resist the weight of the water.
-Entrance to the tubes is obtained by an air-lock at the top, the
-material is excavated from the inside, and sufficient weight placed
-upon the tube to force it gradually to the desired depth. When
-that depth is attained, the tubes are filled with concrete, and thus
-solid pillars of hydraulic concrete, surrounded by cast-iron tubing,
-are obtained.</p>
-
-<p>The pneumatic caisson is an enlargement of this idea of the diving-bell.
-The caisson is simply a great chamber or box, open at
-the bottom; the outside bottom edges are shod and cased with
-iron so as to give a cutting surface; the roof and sides are made
-of timber, thoroughly bolted together, and of such strength as to
-resist the pressure of the structure to be finally founded upon it.
-The chamber in the open bottom is of sufficient height to enable
-the laborers to work comfortably in it. This caisson is generally
-constructed upon the shore in the vicinity of the structure and
-towed to the point where the foundation is to be sunk. Air is supplied
-by powerful pumps and is forced into the working chamber.
-The pressure of the air of course increases constantly as
-the caisson descends; it must always be sufficient to overbalance
-the weight of the water and thus prevent the water from entering
-the chamber.</p>
-
-<p>Descent to the caisson is made through a tube, generally of
-wrought iron, and having, at a suitable point, an air-lock, which is
-substantially an enlargement of the tube, forming a chamber, and
-of sufficient size to accommodate a number of men. This air-lock<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
-is provided with doors or valves at the top and at the bottom, both
-opening downward, and also with small tubes connecting the air-lock
-with the chamber below and with the external air above.
-Entrance to the caisson is effected through this air-lock. The
-lower door, or valve, being at the bottom, closes and is kept closed
-by the pressure of the air in the caisson below. After the air-lock
-is entered the upper door or valve is shut, and held shut a few
-moments, and the tube connecting with the outer air is closed; a
-small valve in the tube connecting with the caisson is then opened
-gradually and the pressure in the air-lock becomes the same as
-that in the chamber below; as soon as this is effected the valve,
-or door, at the bottom of the air-lock falls open and the air-lock
-becomes really a part of the caisson.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_070.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Pneumatic Caisson.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>A sufficient force of men is employed in the chamber to gradually
-excavate the material from its whole surface and from under
-the cutting edge, and the masonry structure is founded upon the
-top of the caisson and built gradually, so as to give constantly a
-sufficient weight to carry the whole construction down to its final
-location upon the stable foundation, which may be the bed-rock or
-may be some strata of permanent character.</p>
-
-<p>The problem of lighting the chamber was until recently of considerable
-difficulty. The rapid combustion under great pressure
-made the use of lamps and candles very troublesome, particularly
-on account of the dense smoke and large production of lampblack.</p>
-
-<p>The introduction of the electric light has greatly aided in the
-more comfortable prosecution of pneumatic foundation work.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_071.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Transverse Section of Pneumatic Caisson.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The removal of rock, or any large mass, from the caisson is effected
-through the air-chamber; but the removal of finer material,
-as sand or earth, is accomplished by the sand pump or by the
-pressure of the air. A tube, extending from the top of the masonry
-and kept above the surface by additions, as may be required,
-enters the working chamber and is controlled by proper valves.
-Lines of tubing and hose extend to all portions of the chamber.
-A slight excavation is made and kept filled with water. The bottom
-of the tube, or the hose connected with it, is placed in this
-excavation, and, the material being agitated so as to be in suspension
-in the water, the valve is opened, and the pressure of the air
-throws the water and the material held in suspension to the surface,
-through the tube, from the end of which it is projected with
-great velocity and may be deposited at any desired adjacent point.
-This method, however, exhausts the air from the caisson too rapidly
-for continuous service. The Eads sand-pump is therefore
-generally used. This is an ingenious apparatus, somewhat the
-same in principle as the injector which forces water into steam-boilers.
-A stream of water is thrown by a powerful pump through
-a tube which, at a point near the inlet for the excavated material,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
-is enlarged so as to surround another tube. The water is forced
-upward with great velocity into the second tube, through a conical
-annular opening, and, expelling the atmosphere, carries with it to
-the surface a continuous stream of sand and water from the bottom
-of the excavation.</p>
-
-<p>This system has been used successfully in the foundations of
-piers and abutments of bridges in all parts of the world. The
-rapidity of the descent of the caisson varies with the material
-through which it has to pass. The speed with which such foundations
-are executed is remarkable, when one remembers with what
-delicacy and intelligent supervision they have to be balanced and
-controlled. In some instances it has been necessary to carry them
-to great depths, one at St. Louis being 107 feet below ordinary
-water level in the river.</p>
-
-<p>The pressure of air in caissons at these depths is very great;
-at 110 feet below the surface of the water it would be 50 pounds
-to the square inch. Its effect upon the men entering and working
-in the caisson has been carefully noted in various works, and these
-effects are sometimes very serious; the frequency of respiration is
-increased, the action of the heart becomes excited, and many persons
-become affected by what is known as the "caisson disease,"
-which is accompanied by extreme pain and in some cases results
-in more or less complete paralysis. The careful observations of
-eminent physicians who have given this disease special attention
-have resulted in the formulation of rules which have reduced the
-danger to a minimum.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span><br />
-   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_073.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">At Work in a Pneumatic Caisson&mdash;fifty feet below the surface of the water.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The execution of work within a deep pneumatic caisson is worth
-a moment's consideration. Just above the surface of the water
-is a busy force engaged in laying the solid blocks of masonry
-which are to support the structure. Great derricks lift the stones
-and lay them in their proper position. Powerful pumps are forcing
-air, regularly and at uniform pressure, through tubes to the chamber
-below. Occasionally a stream of sand and water issues with
-such velocity from the discharge pipe that, in the night, the friction
-of the particles causes it to look like a stream of living fire. Far
-below is another busy force. Under the great pressure and abnormal
-supply of oxygen they work with an energy which makes
-it impossible to remain there more than a few hours. The water
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
-from without is only kept from entering by the steady action of the
-pumps far above and beyond their control. An irregular settlement
-might overturn the structure. Should the descent of the
-caisson be arrested by any solid under
-its edge, immediate and judicious action
-must be taken. If the obstruction be a
-log, it must be cut off outside the edge
-and pulled into the chamber. Boulders
-must be undermined and often must be
-broken up by blasting. The excavation
-must be systematic and regular. A constant
-danger menaces the lives of these
-workers, and the wonderful success with
-which they have accomplished what they
-have undertaken is entitled to notice and
-admiration.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_075.jpg" width="200" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Pier of Hawkesbury Bridge, Australia.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Another process, which has succeeded
-in carrying a foundation to greater depths
-than is possible with compressed air, is
-by building a crib or caisson, with chambers
-entirely open at the top, but having
-the alternate ones closed at the bottom
-and furnished with cutting edges. These
-closed chambers are weighted with stone
-or gravel until the structure rests upon
-the bottom of the river; the material is
-then excavated from the bottom through
-the open chambers, by means of dredges,
-thus permitting the structure to sink by
-its weight to the desired depth. When that depth is reached, the
-chambers which have been used for dredging are filled with concrete,
-and the masonry is constructed upon the top of this structure.
-The use of this system has enabled the engineer to place
-foundations deeper than has been accomplished by any other device,
-one recently built in Australia being 175 feet below the surface
-of the water. The illustrations above and on <a href="#Page_76">page 76</a> show
-this method of construction.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_076a.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Foundation Crib of the Poughkeepsie Bridge.
-<br /><br /></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Even more remarkable than the pneumatic caisson is this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
-method of sinking these great foundations. The removal of material
-must be made with such systematic regularity that the structure
-shall descend evenly
-and always maintain
-its upright position.
-The dredge is handled
-and operated entirely
-from the surface. The
-very idea is startling,
-of managing an excavation
-more than a
-hundred feet below the
-operator, entirely by
-means of the ropes
-which connect with the dredge, and doing it with such delicacy
-that the movement of an enormous structure, weighing many tons,
-is absolutely controlled. This is one of the latest and most interesting
-advances of engineering skill.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_076b.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Transverse Section of the same.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>While it is true that the avoidance of large expenditure, when
-possible, is a mark of the best engineering, yet great structures
-often become absolutely necessary in the development of railway
-communication. Wide rivers must be crossed, deep valleys must
-be spanned, and much study has been given to the best methods
-of accomplishing these
-results. In the early
-history of railways in
-Europe substantial
-viaducts of brick and
-stone masonry were
-generally built; and in
-this country there are
-notable instances of
-such constructions.
-The approach to the
-depot of the Pennsylvania
-Railroad, in the city of Philadelphia, is an excellent example.
-Each street crossed by the viaduct is spanned by a bold arch of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
-brick. Upon a
-number of our railways there
-are heavy masonry arches and culverts,
-and at some places these are of a very
-interesting character. The arches in
-the approach to the bridge over the
-Harlem Valley (recently completed) are shown above. They
-are of granite, having a span of 60 feet. The illustration shows
-also the method of supporting the stone work of such arches during
-construction. Braced timbers form what is called the centre,
-and support the curved frame of plank upon which the masonry
-is built, which, of course, cannot be self-supporting until the keystone
-is in place; then the centre is lowered by a loosening of the
-wedges which support it, and the stone work of the arch is permitted
-to assume its final bearing. It is generally considered that
-where it is practicable to construct masonry arches under railways
-there is a fair assurance of their permanency, but some engineers
-of great experience in railway construction advance the theory that
-the constant jar and tremor produced by passing railway trains is
-really more destructive to masonry work than has been supposed,
-and that it may be true that the elements of the best economy will
-be found in metal structures rather than in masonry. It is a fact
-that repairs and renewals of metal bridges are much more easily
-accomplished than of masonry constructions.</p>
-
-<div class="sandbagbox" id="img077">
- <div id="i077b1">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i077b2">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i077b3">&nbsp;</div>
-
-<div class="center caption">Granite Arched Approach to<br />Harlem River
-Bridge in<br />Process of Construction.</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>In this country
-the wooden bridge
-has been an important,
-in fact an essential element
-in the successful building
-of our railways.</p>
-
-<p>Timber is also used extensively
-in railroad construction
-in the form of trestles; one
-example of which has been
-alluded to on <a href="#Page_50">page 50</a>. There were also constructed, years ago,
-some very bold viaducts in wood. One of the most interesting is
-shown above, being the viaduct at Portage, N. Y. This construction
-was over 800 feet long, and 234 feet high from the bed of
-the river to the rail. The masonry foundations were 30 feet high,
-the trestles 190 feet, and the truss 14 feet; it contained more than a
-million and a half feet, board measure, of timber. The timber piers,
-which were 50 feet apart, are formed by three trestles, grouped together.
-It was framed so that defective pieces could be taken out
-and replaced at any time. This bridge was finished in 1852 and
-was completely destroyed by fire in 1875. The new metal structure
-which took its place is shown on the opposite page, and is an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
-interesting example of the American method of metal viaduct construction,
-an essential feature of that construction being the concentration
-of the material into the least possible number of parts. This
-bridge has ten spans of 50 feet, two of 100 feet, and one of 118 feet.
-The trusses are of what is called the Pratt pattern, and are supported
-by wrought-iron columns, two pairs of columns forming a skeleton
-tower 20 feet wide and 50 feet long on the top. There are six of
-these towers, one of which has a total height from the masonry to
-the rail of 203 feet 8 inches. There are over 1,300,000 pounds of
-iron in this structure.</p>
-</div>
-
-    <div class="HandHeld">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_077.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">Granite Arched Approach to Harlem River
-    Bridge in Process of Construction.</div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p>In this country
-    the wooden bridge
-    has been an important,
-    in fact an essential element
-    in the successful building
-    of our railways.</p>
-
-    <p>Timber is also used extensively
-    in railroad construction
-    in the form of trestles; one
-    example of which has been
-    alluded to on <a href="#Page_50">page 50</a>. There were also constructed, years ago,
-    some very bold viaducts in wood. One of the most interesting is
-    shown above, being the viaduct at Portage, N. Y. This construction
-    was over 800 feet long, and 234 feet high from the bed of
-    the river to the rail. The masonry foundations were 30 feet high,
-    the trestles 190 feet, and the truss 14 feet; it contained more than a
-    million and a half feet, board measure, of timber. The timber piers,
-    which were 50 feet apart, are formed by three trestles, grouped together.
-    It was framed so that defective pieces could be taken out
-    and replaced at any time. This bridge was finished in 1852 and
-    was completely destroyed by fire in 1875. The new metal structure
-    which took its place is shown on the opposite page, and is an
-    interesting example of the American method of metal viaduct construction,
-    an essential feature of that construction being the concentration
-    of the material into the least possible number of parts. This
-    bridge has ten spans of 50 feet, two of 100 feet, and one of 118 feet.
-    The trusses are of what is called the Pratt pattern, and are supported
-    by wrought-iron columns, two pairs of columns forming a skeleton
-    tower 20 feet wide and 50 feet long on the top. There are six of
-    these towers, one of which has a total height from the masonry to
-    the rail of 203 feet 8 inches. There are over 1,300,000 pounds of
-    iron in this structure.</p>
-    </div>
-
-<div class="sandbagbox" id="img078">
- <div id="i078b1">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i078b2">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i078b3">&nbsp;</div>
-
-<div class="center caption">The Old Portage Viaduct,<br />Erie Railway, N. Y.</div>
-
-<p>The fundamental idea of a bridge is a simple beam of wood.
-If metal is substituted it is still a beam with all superfluous parts
-cut away. This results in what is called an <span class="bold fs120">I</span> beam. When
-greater loads have to be carried, the <span class="bold fs120">I</span> beam is enlarged and
-built up of metal plates riveted together and thus becomes a plate
-girder. These are used for all short railway spans. For greater
-spans the truss must be employed.</p>
-</div>
-
-    <div class="HandHeld">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_078.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">The Old Portage Viaduct, Erie Railway, N. Y.</div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p>The fundamental idea of a bridge is a simple beam of wood.
-    If metal is substituted it is still a beam with all superfluous parts
-    cut away. This results in what is called an <span class="bold fs120">I</span> beam. When
-    greater loads have to be carried, the <span class="bold fs120">I</span> beam is enlarged and
-    built up of metal plates riveted together and thus becomes a plate
-    girder. These are used for all short railway spans. For greater
-    spans the truss must be employed.</p>
-    </div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_079.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">The New Portage Viaduct.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Before referring, however, to examples of truss bridges, a description
-should be given of the Britannia Bridge, built by Robert<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
-Stephenson in 1850, over the Menai Straits. This great construction
-carries two lines of rails and is built of two square tubes,
-side by side, each being continuous, 1,511 feet long, supported at
-each extremity and at three intermediate points, and having two
-spans of 460 feet each and two spans of 230 feet each. The towers
-which support this structure are of very massive masonry, and
-rise considerably above the top of the tubes. These tubes are
-each 27 feet high and 14 feet 8 inches wide; they are built up of
-plate iron, the top and bottom being cellular in construction, and
-the sides of a single thickness of iron. The tubes for the long
-spans were built on shore and floated to the side of the bridge and
-then lifted by hydraulic presses to their final position. The rapid
-current, and other considerations, made the erection of false works
-for these spans impracticable. The beautiful suspension bridge,
-built by Telford in 1820, over the Menai Straits, is only a mile
-away from this Britannia Bridge, but, at the time of the construction
-of the latter, it was not deemed possible by English engineers
-to erect a suspension bridge of sufficient strength and stability to
-accommodate railway traffic.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_080.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">The Britannia Tubular Bridge over the Menai Straits, North Wales.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Victoria Bridge at Montreal is of the same general character<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
-of construction as the Britannia Bridge, but is built only for
-a single line of rails; this bridge also was built by Mr. Stephenson,
-in 1859. These two structures were enormous works; their
-strength is undoubted, but they lack that element of permanent
-economy which has been spoken of in this article; their cost was
-very great, and the expense of maintenance is also very great. A
-very large amount of rust is taken from these tubes every year;
-they require very frequent painting, and there are on the Victoria
-Bridge 30 acres of iron surface to be thus painted.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_082a.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Old Stone Towers of the Niagara Suspension Bridge.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>A remarkable and interesting contrast to these heavy tubes of
-iron is the Niagara Falls railway suspension bridge, completed in
-March, 1855. The span of this bridge is 821 feet, and the track
-is 245 feet above the water surface. It is supported by 4 cables
-which rested on the tops of two masonry towers at each end of the
-central span, the ends of the cables being carried to and anchored
-in the solid rock. The suspended superstructure has two floors,
-one above the other, connected together at each side by posts and
-truss rods, inclined in such a manner as to form an open trussed
-tube, not intended to support the load, but to prevent excessive
-undulations. The floors are suspended from the cables by wire
-ropes, the upper floor carrying the railroad track, and the lower
-forming a foot and carriage way. Each cable has 3,640 iron wires.
-This bridge carried successfully a heavy traffic for 26 years; it was
-then found that some repairs to the cable were required at the anchorage,
-the portions of the cables exposed to the air being in excellent
-condition. These repairs were made, and the anchorage
-was substantially reinforced. At the same time it was found that
-the wooden suspended superstructure was in bad condition, and
-this was entirely removed and replaced by a structure of iron, built
-and adjusted in such a manner as to secure the best possible results.
-For some time it had been noticed that the stone towers
-which supported the great cables of the bridge showed evidences
-of disintegration at the surface, and a careful engineering examination
-in 1885 showed that these towers were in a really dangerous
-condition. The reason for this was that the saddles over which
-the cables pass on the top of the towers had not the freedom of
-motion which was required for the action of the cables, caused by
-differences of temperature and by passing loads. These saddles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
-had been placed upon rollers but, at some period, cement had been
-allowed to be put between these rollers, thus preventing their free
-motion. The result was a bending
-strain upon the towers which
-was too great for the strength
-and cohesion of the stone.
-A most interesting and successful
-feat was accomplished
-in the substitution of iron
-towers for these stone towers,
-without interrupting
-the traffic across the bridge.
-This was accomplished within
-a year or two by building
-a skeleton iron tower outside
-of the stone tower, and
-transferring the cables from the stone to the iron tower by a most
-ingenious arrangement of hydraulic jacks. The stone towers were
-then removed. Thus, by the renewal of its suspended structure
-and the replacing of its towers, the bridge has been given a new
-lease of life and is in excellent condition to-day.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_082b.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">The New Iron Towers of the Same.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>This Niagara railway
-suspension bridge has
-been so long in successful
-operation that it is difficult
-now to appreciate the general
-disbelief in the possibility
-of its success as a
-railway bridge, when it
-was undertaken. It was
-projected and executed by
-the late John A. Roebling.
-Before it was finished, Robert
-Stephenson said to him,
-"If your bridge succeeds,
-mine is a magnificent blunder." The Niagara bridge did succeed.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span><br />
-   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_083.jpg" width="475" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Below the Brooklyn Bridge.<br />
-From a painting by J. H. Twachtman.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>We are so familiar with the great suspension bridge between
-New York and Brooklyn, that only a simple statement of some of
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
-its characteristic features will be given. Its clear span is 1,595½
-feet. With its approaches its length is 3,455 feet. The clear
-waterway is 135 feet high. The towers rise 272 feet above high
-water and extend on the New York side down to rock 78 feet below.
-The four suspension cables are of steel wire and support six
-parallel steel trusses, thus providing two carriage ways, two lines
-of railway, and one elevated footway. The cables are carried to
-bearing anchorages in New York and in Brooklyn. The cars on
-the bridge are propelled by cables, and the amount of travel is
-now so great as to demand some radical changes in the methods
-for its accommodation, which a few years ago were supposed to
-be ample.</p>
-
-<p>Except under special circumstances of location or length of
-span, the truss bridge is a more economical and suitable structure
-for railway traffic than a suspension bridge.</p>
-
-<p>The advance from the wood truss to the modern steel structure
-has been through a number of stages. Excellent bridges were
-built in combinations of wood and iron, and are still advocated
-where wood is inexpensive. Then came the use of cast iron for
-those portions of the truss subject only to compressive strains,
-wrought iron being used for all members liable to tension. Many
-bridges of notable spans were built in this way and are still in use.
-The form of this combination truss varied with the designs of different
-engineers, and the spans extended to over three hundred
-feet. The forms bore the names of the designers, and the Fink,
-the Bollman, the Pratt, the Whipple, the Post, the Warren, and
-others had each their advocates. The substitution of wrought for
-cast iron followed, and until quite recently trusses built entirely of
-wrought iron have been used for all structures of great span. The
-latest step has been made in the use of steel, at first for special
-members of a truss and latterly for the whole structure. The art
-of railway bridge building has thus, in a comparatively few years,
-passed through its age of wood, and then of iron, and now rests in
-the application of steel in all its parts.</p>
-
-<p>Two distinct ways of connecting the different parts of a structure
-are in common use, riveting and pin connections.</p>
-
-<p>In riveted connections the various parts of the bridge are fastened
-at all junctions by overlapping the plates of iron or steel and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
-inserting rivets into holes punched through all the plates to be
-connected. The rivets are so spaced as to insure the best result
-as to strength. The pieces of metal are brought together, either
-in the shop or at the structure during erection, and the rivets,
-which are round pieces of metal with a head formed on one end,
-are heated and inserted from one side, being made long enough to
-project sufficiently to give the proper amount of metal for forming
-the other head. This is done while the rivet is still hot, either by
-hammering or by the application of a riveting machine, operated
-by steam or hydraulic pressure. Ingenious portable machines are
-now manufactured which are hung from the structure during erection
-and connected by flexible hose with the steam power, by the
-use of which the rivet heads can be formed in place with great
-celerity. The connections of plates by rivets of proper dimensions
-and properly spaced give great strength and stiffness to such
-joints.</p>
-
-<p>In pin connections the members of a structure are assembled
-at points of junction and a large iron or steel pin inserted in a pin-hole
-running through all the members. This pin is made of such
-diameter as to withstand and properly transmit all the strains
-brought upon it. Joints made with such pin connections have flexibility,
-and the strains and stresses can be calculated with great
-precision. Eye-bars are forged pieces of iron or steel, generally
-flat, and enlarged at the ends so as to give a proper amount of
-metal around the pin-hole or eye, formed in those ends.</p>
-
-<p>Structures connected by pins at their principal junctions have,
-of course, many parts in which riveting must be used.</p>
-
-<p>The elements which are distinctively American in our railway
-bridges are the concentration of material in few members and the
-use of eye-bars and pin connections in place of riveted connections.
-The riveted methods are, however, largely used in connection
-with the American forms of truss construction.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_087.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Truss Bridge of the Northern Pacific Railway over the Missouri River at Bismarck, Dak.&mdash;Testing the central span.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>An excellent example of an American railway truss bridge is
-shown on the opposite page. This structure spans the Missouri
-River at its crossing by the Northern Pacific Railroad. It has three
-through spans of 400 feet each and two deck spans of 113 feet each.
-The bottom chords of the long spans are 50 feet above high water,
-which at this place is 1,636 feet above the level of the sea. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
-foundations of the masonry
-piers were pneumatic
-caissons. The trusses of
-the through spans, 400
-feet long, are 50 feet deep
-and 22 feet between centres.
-They are divided
-into 16 panels of 25 feet
-each. The truss is of the
-double system Whipple
-type, with inclined end
-posts. The bridge is proportioned
-to carry a train
-weighing 2,000 pounds
-per lineal foot, preceded
-by two locomotives weighing
-150,000 pounds in a
-length of 50 feet. The
-pins connecting the members
-of the main truss are
-5 inches in diameter.</p>
-
-<p>This bridge is a characteristic
-illustration of the
-latest type of American
-methods. The extreme
-simplicity of its lines of
-construction, the direct
-transfer of the strains arising
-from loads, through
-the members, to and from
-the points where those
-strains are concentrated in
-the pin connections at the
-ends of each member, are
-apparent even to the untechnical
-eye. The apparent
-lightness of construction
-arising from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
-concentration of the material in so small a number of members,
-and the necessarily great height of the truss, give a grace and
-elegance to the structure, and suggest bold and fine development
-of the theories of mechanics.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_088.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Curved Viaduct, Georgetown, Col.; the Union Pacific crossing its own Line.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>An interesting viaduct is shown in the above illustration, where
-the railway crosses its own line on a curved truss.</p>
-
-<p>The truss bridges which have been mentioned as types of the
-modern railway bridge are erected by the use of false works of
-timber, placed generally upon piling or other suitable foundation,
-between the piers or abutments, and made of sufficient strength to
-carry each span of the permanent structure until it is completed
-and all its parts connected, or, as is technically said, until the span
-is swung. Then the false works are removed and the span is left
-without intermediate support. But there are places where it
-would be impossible or exceedingly expensive to erect any false
-works. A structure over a valley of great depth, or over a river
-with very rapid current, are instances of such a situation.</p>
-
-<p>A suspension bridge would solve the problem, but in many
-cases not satisfactorily. The method adopted by Colonel C. Sha<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>ler
-Smith at the Kentucky River Bridge [p. 55] shows ingenuity
-and boldness worthy of special remark. The Cincinnati Southern
-Railroad had here to cross a cañon 1,200 feet wide and 275 feet
-deep. The river is subject to freshets every two months, with a
-range of 55 feet and a known rise of 40 feet in a single night.
-Twenty years before, the towers for a suspension bridge had been
-erected at this point. The design adopted for the railroad bridge
-was based upon the cantilever principle. The structure has three
-spans of 375 feet each, carrying a railway track at a height of 276
-feet above the bed of the river. At the time of its construction
-this was the highest railway bridge in the world, and it is still the
-highest structure of the kind with spans of over 60 feet in length.
-The bridge is supported by the bluffs at its ends and by two intermediate
-iron piers resting upon bases of stone masonry. Each
-iron pier is 177 feet high, and consists of four legs, having a base
-of 71½ × 28 feet, and terminating at its top in a turned pin 12
-inches in diameter under each of the two trusses. Each iron pier
-is a structure complete in itself, with provision for expansion and
-contraction in each direction through double roller beds interposed
-between it and the masonry, and is braced to withstand a gale of
-wind that would blow a loaded freight-train bodily from the bridge.</p>
-
-<p>The trusses were commenced by anchoring them back to the
-old towers, and were then built out as cantilevers from each bluff
-to a distance of one-half the length of the side spans, and at this
-point rested upon temporary wooden supports. Thence they were
-again extended as cantilevers until the side spans were completed
-and rested upon the iron piers. This cantilever principle is
-simply the balancing of a portion of the structure on one side of a
-support by the portion on the opposite side of the same support.
-Similarly the halves of the middle span were built out from the
-piers, meeting with exactness in mid-air. The temporary support
-used first at the centre of one side span and then at the other, was
-the only scaffolding used in erecting the structure, none whatever
-being used for the middle span.</p>
-
-<p>When the junction was made at the centre of the middle span,
-the trusses were continuous from bluff to bluff, and, had they been
-left in this condition, would have been subjected to constantly
-varying strains resulting from the rise and fall of the iron piers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
-due to thermal
-changes. This
-liability was obviated
-by cutting
-the bottom chords
-of the side spans and
-converting them into sliding joints
-at points 75 feet distant from the
-iron piers. This done, the bridge
-consists of a continuous girder 525 feet long, covering the middle
-span of 375 feet, and projecting as cantilevers for 75 feet beyond
-each pier, each cantilever supporting one end of a 300-foot span,
-which completes the distance to the bluff on each side.</p>
-
-<div class="sandbagbox" id="img090">
- <div id="i090b1">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i090b2">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i090b3">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i090b4">&nbsp;</div>
-
-<div class="center caption">The Niagara Cantilever<br />Bridge in Progress.</div>
-
-<p>A most interesting example of cantilever construction is the railway
-bridge built several years ago at Niagara, only a few rods from
-the suspension bridge and a short distance below the great falls. It
-is shown in the illustrations above and on <a href="#Page_91">page 91</a>. The floor of
-the bridge is 239 feet above the surface of the water, which at that
-point has a velocity in the centre of 16½ miles per hour and forms
-constant whirlpools and eddies near the shores. The total length
-of the structure is 910 feet, and the clear span over the river between
-the towers is 470 feet. The shore arms of the cantilever,
-that is to say, those portions of the structure which extend from
-the top of the bank to the top of the tower built from the foot of
-the bank, are firmly anchored at their shore ends to a pier built<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
-upon the solid rock. These shore-arms were constructed on
-wooden false works, and serve as balancing weights to the other
-or river arms of the lever, which project out over the stream.
-These river-arms were built by the addition of metal, piece by
-piece, the weight being always more than balanced by the shore-arms.
-The separate members of the river-arms were run out on
-the top of the completed part and then lowered from the end by
-an overhanging travelling derrick, and fastened in place by men
-working upon a platform suspended below. This work was continued,
-piece by piece, until the river-arm of each cantilever was
-complete, and the structure was then finished by connecting these
-river-arms by a short truss suspended from them directly over the
-centre of the stream. This whole structure was built in eight
-months, and is an example both of a bold engineering work and of
-the facility with which a pin-connected structure can be erected.
-The materials are steel and iron. The prosecution of this work
-by men suspended on a platform, hung by ropes from a skeleton
-structure projecting, without apparent support, over the rushing
-Niagara torrent, was always an interesting and really thrilling
-spectacle.</p>
-</div>
-
-    <div class="HandHeld">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_090.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">The Niagara Cantilever Bridge in Progress.</div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p>A most interesting example of cantilever construction is the railway
-    bridge built several years ago at Niagara, only a few rods from
-    the suspension bridge and a short distance below the great falls. It
-    is shown in the illustrations above and on <a href="#Page_91">page 91</a>. The floor of
-    the bridge is 239 feet above the surface of the water, which at that
-    point has a velocity in the centre of 16½ miles per hour and forms
-    constant whirlpools and eddies near the shores. The total length
-    of the structure is 910 feet, and the clear span over the river between
-    the towers is 470 feet. The shore arms of the cantilever,
-    that is to say, those portions of the structure which extend from
-    the top of the bank to the top of the tower built from the foot of
-    the bank, are firmly anchored at their shore ends to a pier built
-    upon the solid rock. These shore-arms were constructed on
-    wooden false works, and serve as balancing weights to the other
-    or river arms of the lever, which project out over the stream.
-    These river-arms were built by the addition of metal, piece by
-    piece, the weight being always more than balanced by the shore-arms.
-    The separate members of the river-arms were run out on
-    the top of the completed part and then lowered from the end by
-    an overhanging travelling derrick, and fastened in place by men
-    working upon a platform suspended below. This work was continued,
-    piece by piece, until the river-arm of each cantilever was
-    complete, and the structure was then finished by connecting these
-    river-arms by a short truss suspended from them directly over the
-    centre of the stream. This whole structure was built in eight
-    months, and is an example both of a bold engineering work and of
-    the facility with which a pin-connected structure can be erected.
-    The materials are steel and iron. The prosecution of this work
-    by men suspended on a platform, hung by ropes from a skeleton
-    structure projecting, without apparent support, over the rushing
-    Niagara torrent, was always an interesting and really thrilling
-    spectacle.</p>
-    </div>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_091.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">The Niagara Cantilever Bridge Completed.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The Lachine Bridge recently built over the St. Lawrence near
-Montreal, illustrated below, has certain peculiar features. It has a
-total length of 3,514 feet. The two channel spans are each 408 feet
-in length and are through spans. The others are deck spans.
-Through spans are
-those where the train
-passes between the
-side trusses. Deck
-spans are those
-where the train
-passes over the top
-of the structure.
-These two channel
-spans and the two spans next them form cantilevers, and the channel
-spans were built out from the central pier and from the adjacent
-flanking spans without the use of false works in either channel.
-A novel method of passing from the deck to the through spans has
-been used, by curving the top and bottom chords of the channel
-spans to connect with the chords of the flanking spans. The material
-is steel.</p>
-
-<div class="sandbagbox" id="img092">
- <div id="i092b1">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i092b2">&nbsp;</div>
-
-<div class="center caption">The Lachine Bridge, on the<br />Canadian Pacific Railway,<br />near Montreal, Canada.</div>
-
-<p>This structure, light, airy, and graceful, forms a strong contrast
-to the dark, heavy tube of the Victoria Bridge just below.</p>
-
-<p>The enormous cantilever Forth Bridge, with its two spans of
-1,710 feet each, is in steady progress of construction and will when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
-completed mark a long step in advance in the science of bridge
-construction.</p>
-</div>
-
-    <div class="HandHeld">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_092.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">The Lachine Bridge, on the Canadian Pacific Railway, near Montreal, Canada.</div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p>This structure, light, airy, and graceful, forms a strong contrast
-    to the dark, heavy tube of the Victoria Bridge just below.</p>
-
-    <p>The enormous cantilever Forth Bridge, with its two spans of
-    1,710 feet each, is in steady progress of construction and will when
-    completed mark a long step in advance in the science of bridge
-    construction.</p>
-    </div>
-
-<p>Of entirely different design and principle from all these trusses
-are the beautiful steel arches of the St. Louis Bridge [p. 95], the
-great work of that remarkable genius, James B. Eads. This
-structure spans the Mississippi at St. Louis. Difficult problems
-were presented in the study of the design for a permanent bridge
-at that point. The river is subject to great changes. The variation
-between extreme low and high water has been over 41 feet.
-The current runs from 2¾ to 8½ miles per hour. It holds always
-much matter in suspension, but the amount so held varies greatly
-with the velocity. The very bed of the river is really in constant
-motion. Examination by Captain Eads in a diving-bell showed
-that there was a moving current of sand at the bottom, of at least
-three feet in depth. At low water, the velocity of the stream is
-small and the bottom rises. When the velocity increases, a
-"scour" results and the river-bed is deepened, sometimes with
-amazing rapidity. In winter the river is closed by huge cakes of
-ice from the north, which freeze together and form great fields of
-ice.</p>
-
-<p>It was decided to be necessary that the foundations should go
-to rock, and they were so built. The general plan of the superstructure,
-with all its details, was elaborated gradually and carefully,
-and the result is a real feat of engineering. There are three
-steel arches, the centre one having a span of 520 feet and each
-side arch a span of 502 feet. Each span has four parallel arches
-or ribs, and each arch is composed of two cylindrical steel tubes,
-18 inches in exterior diameter, one acting as the upper and the
-other as the lower chord of the arch. The tubes are in sections,
-each about twelve feet long, and connected by screw joints. The
-thickness of the steel forming the tubes runs from 1<sup>3</sup>/<sub>16</sub> to 2<sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub> inches.
-These upper and lower tubes are parallel and are 12 feet apart,
-connected by a single system of diagonal bracing. The double
-tracks of the railroad run through the bridge adjacent to the side
-arches at the elevation of the highest point of the lower tube. The
-carriage road and footpaths extend the full width of the bridge and
-are carried, by braced vertical posts, at an elevation of twenty-three
-feet above the railroad. The clear headway is 55 feet above<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
-ordinary high water. The approaches on each side are masonry
-viaducts, and the railway connects with the City Station by a tunnel
-nearly a mile in length. The illustration shows vividly the
-method of erection of these great tubular ribs. They were built
-out from each side of a pier, the weight on one side acting as a
-counterpoise for the construction on the other side of the pier.
-They were thus gradually and systematically projected over the
-river, without support from below, till they met at the middle of
-the span, when the last central connecting tube was put in place
-by an ingenious mechanical arrangement, and the arch became
-self-supporting.</p>
-
-<p>The double arch steel viaduct recently built over the Harlem
-Valley in the city of New York [<a href="#Page_96">p. 97</a>] has a marked difference
-from the St. Louis arches in the method of construction of the
-ribs. These are made up of immense voussoirs of plate steel,
-forming sections somewhat analogous to the ring stones of a masonry
-arch. These sections are built up in the form of great <span class="large bold">I</span>
-beams, the top and bottom of the <span class="large bold">I</span> being made by a number of
-parallel steel plates connected by angle pieces with the upright
-web, which is a single piece of steel. The vertical height of the
-<span class="large bold">I</span> is 13 feet. The span of each of these arches is 510 feet.
-There are six such parallel ribs in each span, connected with each
-other by bracing. These great ribs rest upon steel pins of 18
-inches diameter, placed at the springing of the arch. The arches
-rise from massive masonry piers, which extend up to the level of
-the floor of the bridge. This floor is supported by vertical posts
-from the arches and is a little above the highest point of the rib.
-It is 152 feet above the surface of the river&mdash;having an elevation
-fifty feet greater than the well-known High Bridge, which spans
-the same valley within a quarter of a mile. The approaches to
-these steel arches on each side are granite viaducts carried over
-a series of stone arches. The whole structure forms a notable
-example of engineering construction. It was finished within two
-years from the beginning of work upon its foundations, the energy
-of its builders being worthy of special commendation.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_095.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">The St. Louis Bridge during Construction.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_097.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">The 510-feet Span Steel Arches of the New Harlem River Bridge, New York, during construction.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In providing for the rapid transit of passengers in great cities
-the two types of construction successfully adopted are represented
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
-by the New York Elevated
-and the London
-Underground railways.
-The New York Elevated
-is a continuous metal viaduct,
-supported on columns
-varying in height so
-as to secure easy grades.
-The details of construction
-differ greatly at various
-parts of the elevated lines,
-those more recently built
-being able to carry much
-heavier trains than the
-earlier portions. The
-roads have been very successful
-in providing the
-facilities for transit so absolutely
-necessary in New
-York. The citizens of
-that city are alive to the
-present necessity of adding
-very soon to those
-facilities, and it is now
-only a question of the
-best method to be adopted
-to secure the largest
-results in a permanent
-manner.</p>
-
-<p>The London Underground
-road has also been
-very successful. Its construction
-was a formidable
-undertaking. Its tunnels
-are not only under streets
-but under heavy buildings.
-Its daily traffic is enormous.
-The difficult ques<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>tion
-in its management is, as in all long tunnels, that of ventilation,
-but modern science will surely solve that, as it does so many
-other problems connected with the active life of man.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_098.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">London Underground Railway Station.</div>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>Many broad questions of general policy, and innumerable matters
-of detail are involved in the development of railway engineering.
-In the determination, for instance, of the location, the relations
-of cost and construction to future business, the possibilities
-of extensions and connections, the best points for settlements and
-industrial enterprises, the merits and defects of alternative routes
-must be weighed and decided.</p>
-
-<p>Where structures are to be built, the amount and delicacy of
-detail requisite in their design and execution can hardly be described.
-Final pressures upon foundations must be ascertained
-and provided for. Accurate calculations of strains and stresses,
-involving the application of difficult processes and mechanical theo<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>ries,
-must be made. The adjustment of every part must be secured
-with reference to its future duty. Strength and safety must
-be assured and economy not forgotten. Every contingency must,
-if possible, be anticipated, while the emergencies which arise during
-every great construction demand constant watchfulness and
-prompt and accurate decision.</p>
-
-<p>The financial success of the largest enterprises rests upon such
-practical application of theory and experience. Even more weighty
-still is the fact that the safety of thousands of human lives depends
-daily upon the permanency and stability of railway structures.
-Such are some of the deep responsibilities which are involved in
-the active work of the Civil Engineer.</p>
-
-<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a>
-   <span class="screenonly"><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a></span>
-   <span class="handonly"><a href="#FNanchor_8_8h"><span class="label">[8]</span></a></span>
-Reference is made to the substitution of locks in the Panama Canal for the original project of a
-canal at the sea-level.</p></div></div>
-
-
-    <div class="chapter"></div>
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS.</a></h2>
-
-<p class="pfs90 smcap">By M. N. FORNEY.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in 1830&mdash;Evolution of the Car from the Conestoga
-Wagon&mdash;Horatio Allen's Trial Trip&mdash;The First Locomotive used in the United
-States&mdash;Peter Cooper's Race with a Gray Horse&mdash;The "De Witt Clinton,"
-"Planet," and other Early Types of Locomotives&mdash;Equalizing Levers&mdash;How Steam
-is Made and Controlled&mdash;The Boiler, Cylinder, Injector, and Valve Gear&mdash;Regulation
-of the Capacity of a Locomotive to Draw&mdash;Increase in the Number of Driving
-Wheels&mdash;Modern Types of Locomotives&mdash;Variation in the Rate of Speed&mdash;The
-Appliances by which an Engine is Governed&mdash;Round-houses and Shops&mdash;Development
-of American Cars&mdash;An Illustration from Peter Parley&mdash;The Survival of Stage
-Coach Bodies&mdash;Adoption of the Rectangular Shape&mdash;The Origin of Eight-wheeled
-Cars&mdash;Improvement in Car Coupling&mdash;A Uniform Type Recommended&mdash;The
-Making of Wheels&mdash;Relative Merits of Cast and Wrought Iron, and Steel&mdash;The
-Allen Paper Wheel&mdash;Types of Cars, with Size, Weight, and Price&mdash;The Car-Builder's
-Dictionary&mdash;Statistical.</p></div>
-
-<div><img class="drop-cap" src="images/i_100dc.jpg" alt="" /></div>
-<p class="p1x drop-cap">Among the readers of this volume there
-will be some who have reached the summit
-of the "divide" which separates the
-spring and summer of life from its autumn
-and winter, and whose first information about
-railroads was received from Peter Parley's "First
-Book of History," which was used as a schoolbook
-forty or fifty years ago. In his chapter on Maryland,
-he says:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquoty">
-
-<p>But the most curious thing at Baltimore is the railroad. I must tell you that there is
-a great trade between Baltimore and the States west of the Alleghany Mountains. The
-western people buy a great many goods at Baltimore, and send in return a great deal of
-western produce. There is, therefore, a vast deal of travelling back and forth, and hundreds
-of teams are constantly occupied in transporting goods and produce to and from
-market.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
-
-<p>Now, in order to carry on all this business more easily, the people are building what<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
-is called a railroad. This consists of iron bars laid along the ground, and made fast, so
-that carriages with small wheels may run along upon them with facility. In this way,
-one horse will be able to draw as much as ten horses on a common road. A part of this
-railroad is already done, and if you choose to take a ride upon it, you can do so. You
-will mount a car something like a stage, and then you will be drawn along by two horses,
-at the rate of twelve miles an hour.</p></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_101a.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 1.&mdash;Conestoga Wagon and Team. (From a recent photograph.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The picture reproduced below (Fig. 2) of a car drawn by
-horses was given with the above description of the Baltimore &amp;
-Ohio Railroad. The mutilated copy of the book from which the
-engraving and extract were copied does not give the date when it
-was written or published. It was probably some time between the
-years 1830 and 1835. That the car shown in the engraving was
-evolved from the Conestoga wagon is obvious from the illustrations.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_101b.jpg" width="275" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 2.&mdash;Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad, 1830&ndash;35.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>This engraving and description, made for children, more than
-fifty years ago, will give some idea of the state of the art of railroading
-at that time; and it is
-a remarkable fact that the present
-wonderful development and
-the improvements in railroads
-and their equipments in this
-country have been made during
-the lives of persons still living.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_102.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 3.&mdash;Boston &amp; Worcester Railroad, 1835.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the latter part of 1827,
-the Delaware &amp; Hudson Canal
-Company put the Carbondale
-Railroad under construction.
-The road extends from the head of the Delaware &amp; Hudson Canal
-at Honesdale, Pa., to the coal mines belonging to the Delaware &amp;
-Hudson Canal Company at Carbondale, a distance of about sixteen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
-miles. This line was opened, probably in 1829, and was operated
-partly by stationary engines, and partly by horses. The road is
-noted chiefly for being the one on which a locomotive was first
-used in this country.
-This was the "Stourbridge
-Lion," which
-was built in England
-under the direction of
-Mr. Horatio Allen,
-who afterward was
-president of the Novelty
-Works in New York, and who is still (1889) living near
-New York at the ripe age of eighty-seven. Before the road
-was opened, he had been a civil engineer on the Carbondale
-line. In 1828 Mr. Allen went to England, the only place where
-a locomotive was then in daily operation, to study the subject
-in all its practical details. Before leaving this country he was
-intrusted by the Delaware &amp; Hudson Canal Company with the
-commission to have rails made for that line, and to have three
-locomotives built on plans to be decided by him when in England.
-This, it must be remembered, was before the celebrated
-trial of the "Rocket" on the Liverpool &amp; Manchester Railway,
-which was not made until 1829. Previous to that trial, it
-had not been decided what type of boiler was the best for
-locomotives. The result of Mr. Allen's investigations was to
-produce in his mind a decided confidence in the multitubular
-boiler which is now universally used for locomotives. Other
-persons of experience recommended a boiler with small riveted
-flues of as small diameter as could be riveted. An order was
-therefore given to Messrs. Foster, Rastrick &amp; Co., at Stourbridge,
-for one engine whose boiler was to have riveted flues of
-comparatively large size, and another order was given to Messrs.
-Stephenson &amp; Co., of Newcastle-on-Tyne, for two locomotives
-with boilers having small tubes. The engine built by Foster,
-Rastrick &amp; Co. was named the "Stourbridge Lion." It was sent
-to this country and was tried at Honesdale, Pa., on August 9,
-1829. On its trial trip it was managed by Mr. Allen, to whom
-belongs the distinction of having run the first locomotive that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
-was ever used in this country. In 1884 he wrote the following
-account of this trip:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquoty">
-
-<p>When the time came, and the steam was of the right pressure, and all was ready,
-I took my position on the platform of the locomotive alone, and with my hand on the
-throttle-valve handle said: "If there is any danger in this ride it is not necessary that
-the life and limbs of more than one should be subjected to that danger."</p>
-
-<p>The locomotive, having no train behind it, answered at once to the movement of the
-hand; ... soon the straight line was run over, the curve was reached and passed
-before there was time to think as to its not being passed safely, and soon I was out of
-sight in the three miles' ride alone in the woods of Pennsylvania. I had never run a
-locomotive nor any other engine before; I have never run one since.</p></div>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_103.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Horatio Allen.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The two engines contracted for with Messrs. Stephenson &amp;
-Co. were made by them, and Mr. Allen has informed the writer
-that they were built on substantially
-the same plans that were
-afterward embodied in the famous
-"Rocket." They were shipped
-to New York and for a time were
-stored in an iron warehouse on
-the east side of the city, where
-they were exhibited to the public.
-They were never sent to the Delaware
-&amp; Hudson Canal Company's
-road, and it is not now
-known whatever became of them.
-If they had been put to work on
-their arrival here the use of engines
-of the "Rocket" type would have been anticipated on this
-side the Atlantic.</p>
-
-<p>The first railroad which was undertaken for the transportation
-of freight and passengers in this country, on a comprehensive
-scale, was the Baltimore &amp; Ohio. Its construction was begun in
-1828. The laying of rails was commenced in 1829, and in May,
-1830, the first section of fifteen miles from Baltimore to Ellicott's
-Mills was opened. It was probably about this time that the animated
-sketch of the car given by Peter Parley was made. From
-1830 to 1835 many lines were projected, and at the end of that
-year there were over a thousand miles of road in use.</p>
-
-<p>Whether the motive power on these roads should be horses or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
-steam was for a long time an open question. The celebrated trial
-of locomotives on the Liverpool &amp; Manchester Railway, in England,
-was made in 1829. Reports of these trials, and of the use of locomotive
-engines on the Stockton &amp; Darlington line, were published
-in this country, and, as Mr. Charles Francis Adams says, "The
-country, therefore, was not only ripe to accept the results of the
-Rainhill contest, but it was anticipating them with eager hope."
-In 1829 Mr. Horatio Allen, who had been
-in England the year before to learn all that
-could then be learned about steam locomotion,
-reported to the South Carolina Railway
-Company in favor of steam instead of horse
-power for that line. The basis of that report,
-he says, "Was on the broad ground
-that in the future there was no reason to
-expect any material improvement in the
-breed of horses, while, in my judgment, the
-man was not living who knew what the breed of locomotives was
-to place at command."</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_104.jpg" width="225" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 4.&mdash;Peter Cooper's Locomotive,
-1830.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>As early as 1829 and 1830, Peter Cooper experimented with a
-little locomotive on the Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad (Fig. 4). At
-a meeting of the Master Mechanics' Association in New York, in
-1875&mdash;at the Institute which bears his name&mdash;he related with great
-glee how on the trial trip he had beaten a gray horse, attached to
-another car. The coincidence that one of Peter Parley's horses is
-a gray one might lead to the inference that it was the same horse
-that Peter Cooper beat, a deduction which perhaps has as sound a
-basis to rest on as many historical conclusions of more importance.</p>
-
-<p>The undeveloped condition of the art of machine construction
-at that time is indicated by the fact that the flues of the boiler of
-this engine were made of gun-barrels, which were the only tubes
-that could then be obtained for the purpose. The boiler itself is
-described as about the size of a flour-barrel. The whole machine
-was no larger than a hand-car of the present day.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_105a.jpg" width="350" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 5.&mdash;"South Carolina," 1831,<br />and Plan of its Running Gear.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the same year that Peter Cooper built his engine, the South
-Carolina Railway Company had a locomotive, called the "Best
-Friend," built at the West Point Foundry for its line. In 1831 this
-company had another engine, the "South Carolina" (Fig. 5),<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
-which was designed by Mr. Horatio Allen, built at the same shop.
-It was remarkable in having eight wheels, which were arranged in
-two trucks. One pair of driving-wheels, <em>D D</em> and <em>D′ D′</em>, and a
-pair of leading-wheels, <em>L L</em>
-and <em>L′ L′</em>, were attached to
-frames, <em>c d e f</em> and <em>g h i j</em>,
-which were connected to the
-boiler by kingbolts, <em>K K′</em>,
-about which the trucks could
-turn. Each pair of driving-wheels
-had one cylinder, <em>C
-C′</em>. These were in the middle
-of the engine and were
-connected to cranks on the
-axles <em>A</em> and <em>B</em>.</p>
-
-<p>The "De Witt Clinton"
-(Fig. 6) was built for the Mohawk &amp; Hudson Railroad, and was
-the third locomotive made by the West Point Foundry Association.
-The first excursion trip was made with passengers from Albany to
-Schenectady, August 9, 1831. This is the engine shown in the
-silhouette engraving of the "first<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> railroad train in America"
-which in recent years has been so widely distributed as an advertisement.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_105b.jpg" width="200" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 6.&mdash;The "De Witt Clinton," 1831.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In 1831 the Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad Company offered a
-premium of $4,000 "for the most approved engine which shall be
-delivered for trial upon the road on or
-before the 1st of June, 1831; and $3,500
-for the engine which shall be adjudged
-the next best." The requirements were
-as follows:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquoty">
-
-<p>The engine, when in operation, must not exceed three
-and one-half tons weight, and must, on a level road, be
-capable of drawing day by day fifteen tons, inclusive
-of the weight of wagons, fifteen miles per hour.</p></div>
-
-<p>In pursuance of this call upon American genius, three locomotives
-were produced, but only one of these was made to answer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
-any useful purpose. This engine, the "York," was built at York,
-Pa., and was brought to Baltimore over the turnpike on wagons.
-It was built by Davis &amp; Gartner, and was designed by Phineas
-Davis, of that firm, whose trade and business was that of a watch
-and clock maker. After undergoing certain modifications, it was
-found capable of performing what was required by the company.
-After thoroughly testing this engine, Mr. Davis built others, which
-were the progenitors of the "grasshopper" engines (Fig. 7) which
-were used for so many years on the Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad.
-It is a remarkable fact that three of these are still in use on that
-road, and have been in continuous service for over fifty years.
-Probably there is no locomotive in existence which has had so
-long an <em>active</em> life.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_106.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 7.&mdash;"Grasshopper" Locomotive. (From an old photograph.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In August, 1831, the locomotive "John Bull," which was built
-by George &amp; Robert Stephenson &amp; Company, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
-was received in Philadelphia, for the Camden &amp; Amboy
-Railroad &amp; Transportation Company. This is the old engine
-which was exhibited by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company at
-the Centennial Exhibition in 1876. After the arrival of the "John
-Bull" a very considerable number of locomotives which were built<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
-by the Stephensons were imported from England. Most of them
-were probably of what was known as the "Planet" class (Fig. 8),
-which was a form of engine that succeeded the famous "Rocket."</p>
-
-<p>The following quotation is from "The Early History of Locomotives
-in this Country," issued by the Rogers Locomotive &amp;
-Machine Works:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquoty">
-
-<p>These locomotives, which were imported from England, doubtless to a very considerable
-extent, furnished the types and patterns from which those which were afterward built
-here were fashioned. But American designs very soon began to depart from their British
-prototypes, and a process of adaptation to the existing conditions of the railroads in this
-country followed, which afterward "differentiated" the American locomotives more and
-more from those built in Great Britain. A marked feature of difference between American
-and English locomotives has been the use of a "truck" under the former.</p></div>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_107.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 8.&mdash;The "Planet."</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In all of the locomotives which have been illustrated, excepting
-the "South Carolina," the axles were held by the frames so that
-the former were always parallel to each other. In going around
-curves, therefore, there was somewhat the same difficulty that there
-would be in turning a corner with an ordinary wagon if both its
-axles were held parallel, and the
-front one could not turn on the
-kingbolt. The plan of the wheels
-and running gear of the "South
-Carolina" shows the position that
-they assumed on a curved track
-(Fig. 5). It will be seen that, by
-reason of their connection to the
-boiler by kingbolts, <em>K K′</em>, the
-two pairs of wheels could adjust
-themselves to the curvature of
-the rails. This principle was afterward applied to cars, and nearly
-all the rolling-stock in this country is now constructed on this plan,
-which was proposed by Mr. Allen in a report dated May 16, 1831,
-made to the South Carolina Canal &amp; Railroad Company; and an
-engine constructed on this principle was completed the same year.</p>
-
-<p>In the latter part of the year 1831 the late John B. Jervis invented
-what he called "a new plan of frame, with a bearing-carriage
-for a locomotive engine," for the use of the Mohawk &amp; Hudson
-Railroad. Jervis's engine is shown by Figure 9. In a letter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
-published in the <cite>American Railroad Journal</cite> of July 27, 1833, he
-described the objects aimed at in the use of the truck as follows:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquoty">
-
-<p>The leading objects I had in view, in the general arrangement of the plan of the engine,
-did not contemplate any improvement in the power over those heretofore constructed
-by Stephenson &amp; Company,<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> but to make an engine that would be better
-adapted to railroads of less strength than
-are common in England; that would travel
-with more ease to itself and to the rail on
-curved roads; that would be less affected
-by inequalities of the rail, than is attained
-by the arrangement in the most approved
-engines.</p></div>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_108.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 9.&mdash;John B. Jervis's Locomotive, 1831,<br /> and Plan of its
-Running Gear.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In Jervis's locomotive the
-main driving-axle, <em>A</em>, shown in
-the plan of the wheels and running
-gear, was rigidly attached
-to the engine-frame, <em>a b c d</em>, and
-only one truck, or "bearing-carriage,"
-<em>e f g h</em>, consisting of the
-two pairs of small wheels attached
-to a frame, was used. This was connected to the main
-engine-frame by a kingbolt, <em>K</em>, as in Allen's engine.</p>
-
-<p>The position of its wheels on a curve, and the capacity of the
-truck, or "bearing-carriage," to adapt itself to the sinuosities of
-the track are shown in the plan. The effectiveness of the single
-truck for locomotives, in accomplishing what Mr. Jervis intended it
-for, was at once recognized, and its almost general adoption on
-American locomotives followed.</p>
-
-<p>In 1834, Ross Winans, of Baltimore, patented the application
-of the principle which Mr. Allen had proposed and adopted for
-locomotives "to passenger and other cars." He afterward brought
-a number of actions at law against railroads for infringement of his
-patent, which was a subject of legal controversy for twenty years.
-Winans claimed that his invention originated as far back as 1831,
-and was completed and reduced to practice in 1834. The dispute
-was finally carried to the Supreme Court of the United States, and
-was decided against the plaintiff, after an expenditure of as much
-as $200,000 by both sides. It involved the principle on which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
-nearly all cars in this country are now and were then built; and,
-as one of the counsel for the defendants has said, "It was at one
-time a question of millions, to be assured by a verdict of a jury."</p>
-
-<p>In 1836, Henry R. Campbell, of Philadelphia, patented the use
-of two pairs of driving-wheels and a truck, as shown in Figure 10.
-The driving-wheels were coupled by rods, as may be seen below.
-This plan has since been so generally adopted in this country that
-it is now known as the "American type" of locomotive, and is the
-one almost universally used here for passenger, and to a considerable
-extent for freight, service. An example of a modern locomotive
-of this type is represented by Figure 11.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_109.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 10.&mdash;Campbell's Locomotive.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>From these comparatively small beginnings, the magnificent
-equipment of our railroads has grown. From Peter Cooper's locomotive,
-which weighed less than a ton, with a boiler the size of a
-flour-barrel, and which had difficulty in beating a gray horse, we now
-have locomotives which will easily run sixty and can exceed seventy
-miles an hour, and others which weigh seventy-five tons and over.
-A comparison of the engraving of Peter Cooper's engine with that
-of the modern standard express passenger locomotive (Fig. 11)
-shows vividly the progress which has been made since that first
-experiment was tried&mdash;little more than half a century ago. In that
-period there have been many modifications in the design of locomotives
-to adapt them to the changed conditions of the various
-kinds of traffic of to-day. An
-express train travelling at a high
-rate of speed requires a locomotive
-very different from one which
-is designed for handling heavy
-freight trains up steep mountain grades.
-A special class of engines
-is built for light trains
-making frequent stops, as on the
-elevated railroads in New York,
-and those provided for suburban
-traffic (Fig. 12)&mdash;and still others for street railroads (Fig. 13), for
-switching cars at stations (Fig. 14), etc. [<a href="#Page_110">Pp. 110</a> and <a href="#Page_113">113</a>]. The process
-of differentiation has gone on until there are now as many different
-kinds of these machines as there are breeds of dogs or horses.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_110a.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 11.&mdash;A Typical American Passenger Locomotive.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_110b.jpg" width="550" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 12.&mdash;Locomotive for Suburban Traffic. By the Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span><br />
-   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_111.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 13.&mdash;Locomotive for Street Railway. By the Baldwin Locomotive Works.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Nearly all the early locomotives had only four wheels. In some
-cases one pair alone was used to drive the engine, and in others
-the two pairs were coupled together, so that the adhesion of all
-four could be utilized to draw loads. The four-wheeled type is
-still used a great deal for moving cars at stations, and other purposes
-where the speed is comparatively slow. But to run around
-sharp curves the wheels of such engines must be placed near together,
-just as they are under an ordinary street-car. This makes
-the wheel-base very short, and such engines are therefore very
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
-unsteady at high speeds, so that they are unsuited for any excepting
-slow service. They have the advantage, though, that the whole
-weight of the machine may be carried on the driving-wheels, and
-can thus be useful for increasing their friction, or adhesion to the
-rails. This gives such engines an advantage for starting and moving
-heavy trains, at stations or elsewhere, which is the kind of service
-in which they are usually employed.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_113.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 14.&mdash;Four-wheeled Switching Locomotive. By the Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>If the front end of the engine is carried on a truck, as in Campbell's
-plan (Fig. 10)&mdash;which is the one that has been very generally
-adopted in this country&mdash;the wheel-base can be extended and at the
-same time the front wheels can adjust themselves to the curvature
-of the track. This gives the running-gear lateral flexibility. But
-as the tractive power of a locomotive is dependent upon the friction,
-or adhesion of the wheels to the rails, it is of the utmost importance
-that the pressure of the wheels on the rails should be uniform.
-For this reason the wheels must be able to adjust themselves
-to the vertical as well as the horizontal inequalities of the
-track.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_114.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 15.&mdash;Driving Wheels, Frames, Spurs, etc., of American Locomotive.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Figure 15 shows the driving-wheels, axles, journal-boxes, and
-part of the frame and springs of an American type of engine&mdash;the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
-circumference of the wheels only being shown. The axles <em>A A</em>
-each <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;Original text: 'have  ournal-boxes'">have journal-boxes</ins> or bearings, <em>B B</em>, in which they turn.
-These boxes
-are held between
-the jaws
-<em>J J J J</em> of the
-frames, and can
-slide vertically
-in the spaces <em>c
-c c c</em> between
-the jaws. The
-frames are suspended on springs, <em>S S</em>, which bear on the boxes <em>B B</em>.
-The vertical motion of the boxes and the flexibility of the springs
-allow the wheels to adjust themselves to some extent to the unevenness
-of the track. But, in order to distribute the weight equally
-on the two wheels, the springs <em>S S</em> on each side of the engine
-are connected together by an equalizing lever, <em>E E</em>. These levers
-each have a fulcrum, <em>F</em>, in the middle, and are connected by iron
-straps or hangers, <em>h h</em>, to the springs. It is evident that any strain
-or tension on one spring is transferred by the equalizing lever to
-the other spring, and thus the weight is equalized on both wheels.</p>
-
-<p>But to give perfect vertical adjustment of such an engine to the
-track, still another provision must be made. Everyone has observed
-that a three-legged stool will always stand firm on any surface,
-no matter how irregular, but one with four legs will not.
-Now if the back end of a locomotive should rest on the fulcrums
-of the equalizing levers, as shown in Figure 15, and the front end
-should rest on the two sides of the truck, it would be in the condition
-of the four legged stool. Therefore, instead of resting on
-the two sides of the truck, locomotives are made to bear on the
-centre of it, so that they are carried on it and on the two fulcrums
-of the equalizing levers, which gives the machine the adjustability
-due to the three-legged principle. When more than four driving-wheels
-are used the springs are connected together by equalizing
-levers, as shown in Figure 29 (<a href="#Page_124">p. 124</a>), which represents a consolidation
-engine as it appears before the wheels are put under it.</p>
-
-<p>Having a vehicle which is adapted to running on a railroad track,
-it remains to supply the motive power. This, in all but some very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
-few exceptional cases, is the expansive power of steam. What the
-infant electricity has in store for us it would be rash to predict, but
-for locomotives its steps have been thus far weak and uncertain,
-and when we want a giant of steel or a race-horse of iron our only
-sure reliance is steam. This is the breath of life to the locomotive,
-which is inhaled and exhaled to and from the cylinders, which act
-as lungs, while the boiler fulfils functions analogous to the digestive
-organs of an animal. A locomotive is as dependent on the action
-of its boiler for its capacity for doing work as a human being on that
-of his stomach. The mechanical appliances of the one and the
-mental and physical equipment of the other are nugatory without a
-good digestive apparatus.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_115.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 16.&mdash;Longitudinal Section of a Locomotive Boiler.<br />
-Fig. 17.&mdash;Transverse Section.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>A locomotive boiler consists of a rectangular fireplace or fire-box,
-as shown at <em>A</em>, in Figure 16, which is a longitudinal section, and
-Figure 17 a transverse section through the fire-box. The fire-box is
-connected with the smoke-box <em>B</em> by a large number of small tubes,
-<em>a a</em>, through which the smoke and products of combustion pass from
-the fire-box to the smoke-box, and from the latter they escape up
-the chimney <em>D</em>. The fire-box and tubes are all surrounded with
-water, so that as much surface as possible is exposed to the action
-of the fire. This is essential on account of the large amount of
-water which must be evaporated in such boilers. To create a
-strong draught, the steam which is exhausted from the cylinders
-is discharged up the chimney through pipes, and escapes at <em>e</em>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
-This produces a partial vacuum in the smoke-box, which causes a
-current of air to flow through the fire on the grate, into the fire-box,
-through the tubes, and thence to the smoke-box and up the chimney.
-Probably many readers have noticed, that of late years the
-smoke-boxes of locomotives have been extended forward in front
-of the chimneys. This has been done to give room for deflectors
-and wire netting inside to arrest sparks and cinders, which are collected
-in the extended front and are removed by a door or spout,
-<em>L</em>, below.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_116.jpg" width="250" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 18.&mdash;Rudimentary Injector.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>To get the water into the boiler against the pressure of steam
-a very curious instrument, called an injector, has been devised.
-Formerly force-pumps were used, but these are now being abandoned.
-The illustration (Fig. 18) shows what may be called a rudimentary
-injector. <em>B</em> is a boiler and <em>E</em> a conical tube open at its
-lower end&mdash;and connected to a water-supply tank by a pipe, <em>C</em>. A
-pipe, <em>A</em>, is connected with the steam-space of the boiler and terminates
-in a contracted mouth, <em>F</em>, inside of the cone <em>E</em>. If steam is
-admitted to <em>A</em>, it flows through the pipe and escapes at <em>F</em>. In doing
-so it produces a partial vacuum in <em>E</em>, and water is consequently
-drawn up the pipe <em>C</em> from the tank. The current of steam now
-carries with it the water, and they
-escape at <em>G</em>. After flowing for a
-few seconds the water has a high
-velocity and the steam, mingling
-with the water, is condensed.
-The momentum of the water soon
-becomes sufficient to force the
-valve <em>H</em> down against the pressure
-below it, and the jet of water
-then flows continuously into the
-boiler. A very curious phenomenon
-of this somewhat mysterious
-instrument is that if steam of a low pressure is taken from one boiler
-it will force water into another against a higher pressure. Figure
-19 is a section of an actual injector used on locomotives.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_117.jpg" width="175" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 19.&mdash;Injector used on<br />Locomotives.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Having explained how the steam is generated, it remains to
-show how it propels a locomotive. It does this very much as a
-person on a bicycle propels it&mdash;that is, by means of two cranks<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
-the wheels are made to revolve, and the latter must then either slip
-or the vehicle will move. In a locomotive the driving-wheels are
-turned by means of two cylinders and pistons, which are connected
-by rods to the cranks attached to the driving-wheels
-or axles. These cranks are placed at
-right angles to each other, so that when one
-of them is at the "dead-point" the piston
-connected with the other can exert its maximum
-power to rotate the wheels. This enables
-the locomotive to start with the pistons
-in any position; whereas, if one cylinder only
-was used it would be impossible to turn the
-wheels if the crank should stop at one of its
-dead-points.</p>
-
-<p>It will probably interest a good many
-readers to know how the steam gets into the
-cylinders and moves the pistons and then
-gets out again, and how a locomotive is made
-to run either backward or forward at pleasure.</p>
-
-<p>Figure 20 (<a href="#Page_118">p. 118</a>) shows a section of a
-cylinder, <em>A A′</em>, with the piston <em>B</em> and piston
-rod <em>R</em>. The cylinder has two passages, <em>c c</em> and
-<em>d d</em>, which connect its ends with a box, <em>U</em>, called
-a steam-chest, to which steam is admitted
-from the boiler by a pipe, <em>J</em>. The two passages <em>c</em> and <em>d</em> have
-another one, <em>g</em>, between them, which is connected with the chimney.
-These passages are covered by a slide-valve, <em>V</em>, which
-moves back and forth in the steam-chest, alternately uncovering the
-openings <em>c</em> and <em>d</em>. When the valve is in the position shown in Figure
-20, obviously steam can flow into the front end <em>A</em> of the cylinder
-through the passage <em>c</em>, as indicated by the darts. The valve has a
-cavity, <em>H</em>, underneath it. When this cavity is over the passage <em>d</em>
-and <em>g</em>, it is plain that the steam in the back end <em>A′</em> of the cylinder
-can flow through <em>d</em> and <em>g</em> and then escape up the chimney. Under
-these circumstances the steam in the front end <em>A</em> of the cylinder
-will force the piston <em>B</em> to the back end. When it reaches the back
-end of the cylinder the valve is moved into the position shown in
-Figure 21, and steam can then enter <em>d</em> and will fill the back end <em>A′</em><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
-while that in the front end escapes through <em>c</em> and <em>g</em>. The piston
-is then forced to the front end by the pressure of the steam behind
-it. It will thus be seen that the steam enters and escapes to and
-from the cylinder through the
-same openings.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_118a.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Figs. 20 (above) and 21.&mdash;Sections of a<br />Locomotive Cylinder.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>From what has been said it
-is obvious, too, that every time
-the piston moves from one end
-of the cylinder to the other the
-valve must also be moved back
-and forth in the steam-chest.
-This is done by what is called
-an eccentric.</p>
-
-<p>An "eccentric" is a disk or
-wheel (Fig. 22) with a hole, <em>S</em>,
-the size of the axle of the locomotive
-to which it is attached.
-The centre <em>n</em> of the outside periphery
-of the eccentric is some
-distance from <em>S</em>, the centre of the shaft. A metal ring, <em>K K</em> (Fig. 23),
-made in two halves, embraces the eccentric, and the latter revolves inside
-of this ring. A rod, <em>L</em>, is attached to the strap, and is connected
-with the valve so that the motion of the eccentric is communicated
-to it. It is obvious that if the eccentric
-revolves it will impart a
-reciprocating motion to the rod
-<em>L</em>, which is communicated to the
-valve.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_118b.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 22.&mdash;Eccentric.<br />
-Fig. 23.&mdash;Eccentric and Strap.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>If properly adjusted on the
-axle the eccentric will run the
-engine in one direction. To run
-the opposite way another eccentric
-must be provided. Therefore
-locomotives always have two eccentrics
-for each cylinder. These, <em>J</em> and <em>K</em>, are shown in Figure 24,
-which represents the "valve-gear" of a locomotive. <em>S</em> is a section
-of the main driving-axle, to which the eccentrics are attached by
-keys or screws. <em>C</em> is the eccentric rod of the forward-motion ec<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>centric
-and <em>D</em> that of the one for running backward. As a locomotive
-must be run either backward or forward, and, as the one eccentric
-moves the valve to run forward and the other to run
-backward, we must be able to connect or disconnect the rods to
-and from the valve at will. The eccentric
-rods of the early locomotives had hooks on
-the ends by which they were attached to or
-detached from suitable pins connected with
-the valves. But these hooks were very uncertain
-in their action and therefore were
-abandoned, and now what is known as the
-"link-motion" is almost universally used for the valve-gear of locomotives.
-It consists of a "link" (<em>a b</em>, Fig. 24) which has a curved
-opening or slot, <em>k</em>, in it in which a block, <em>B</em>, fits accurately, so that
-it can slide from end to end of the link. This block has a hole
-bored in the middle which receives a pin, <em>c</em>, which is attached to
-the end of the arm <em>N</em> of the "rocker" <em>M O N</em>. The rocker has a
-shaft, <em>O</em>, which can turn in a suitable bearing, and two arms, <em>M</em> and
-<em>N</em>; the latter, as explained, is connected to the link by the pin <em>c</em>
-and block <em>B</em>. The upper arm <em>M</em> has another pin, <em>V</em>, on its end,
-which is connected by a rod, <em>v V</em>, to the main slide-valve <em>V</em>. The
-rocker-arms, as will be seen, can vibrate about the shaft <em>O</em>.</p>
-
-<div class="sandbagbox" id="img119">
- <div id="i119b1">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i119b2">&nbsp;</div>
-
-<div class="p2 right caption">Fig. 24.&mdash;Valve Gear.</div>
-
-<p>The link is hung by a pendulous bar, <em>g h</em>, to the end <em>g</em> of the arm
-<em>E</em>, attached to the shaft <em>A</em>. This shaft has another upright arm, <em>F</em>,
-which is connected by a rod or bar, <em>G G′</em>, to a lever, <em>H I</em>, called a
-reverse lever, whose fulcrum is at <em>I</em>. To save room, in the engraving
-this lever and the cylinder <em>G</em> are drawn nearer to the main axle
-<em>S</em> than they would be on an engine. The lever is located inside<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
-the cab of the locomotive, and is indicated by the numbers 17 17′ in
-Figure 36 on <a href="#Page_133">p. 133</a>, which is a view looking from the tender at the
-back end of a locomotive. The lever has a trigger (<em>t</em>, Fig. 24)
-which is connected by a rod, <em>r</em>, to a latch, <em>l</em>, which engages in the
-notches of the sector <em>S S′</em>. This latch holds the lever in any desired
-position and can be disengaged from the notches by grasping
-the upper end of the lever and the trigger.</p>
-</div>
-
-    <div class="HandHeld">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_119.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">Fig. 24.&mdash;Valve Gear.</div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p>The link is hung by a pendulous bar, <em>g h</em>, to the end <em>g</em> of the arm
-    <em>E</em>, attached to the shaft <em>A</em>. This shaft has another upright arm, <em>F</em>,
-    which is connected by a rod or bar, <em>G G′</em>, to a lever, <em>H I</em>, called a
-    reverse lever, whose fulcrum is at <em>I</em>. To save room, in the engraving
-    this lever and the cylinder <em>G</em> are drawn nearer to the main axle
-    <em>S</em> than they would be on an engine. The lever is located inside
-    the cab of the locomotive, and is indicated by the numbers 17 17′ in
-    Figure 36 on <a href="#Page_133">p. 133</a>, which is a view looking from the tender at the
-    back end of a locomotive. The lever has a trigger (<em>t</em>, Fig. 24)
-    which is connected by a rod, <em>r</em>, to a latch, <em>l</em>, which engages in the
-    notches of the sector <em>S S′</em>. This latch holds the lever in any desired
-    position and can be disengaged from the notches by grasping
-    the upper end of the lever and the trigger.</p>
-    </div>
-
-<p>It is plain that, by moving the upper end of the reverse lever,
-the link <em>a b</em> can be raised up or lowered at will. When the link is
-down, or in the position represented in the engraving, the forward
-eccentric rod imparts its motion to the block <em>B</em>, pin <em>c</em>, and thence to
-the rocker and valve, and the engine will run forward. If, however,
-the reverse lever is thrown back into the position indicated by the
-dotted line <em>J I</em>, the link would then be raised up so that the end <em>e</em>
-of the backward-motion rod would be opposite to the block <em>B</em> and
-pin <em>c</em> and would communicate its motion to the rocker and valve,
-and the wheels would then be turned backward instead of forward.
-It will thus be seen how the movement of the reverse lever effects
-the reversal of the engine.</p>
-
-<p>A locomotive is started by admitting steam to the cylinders
-by means of what is called the "throttle-valve." This is usually
-placed in the upper part of the boiler at <em>T</em> (Fig. 16). The valve
-is worked by a lever at <em>l</em>, which is also shown at 14, 14′ (Fig. 36).
-The steam is conveyed to the cylinders by a pipe (<em>s</em>, Fig. 16,
-p. 115).</p>
-
-<p>If steam is admitted to the cylinders and the wheels are turned,
-one of two results must follow: either the locomotive will move
-backward or forward according to the direction of revolution, or
-the wheels will slip, as they often do, on the rails. That is, if the
-resistance of the cars or train is less than the friction or "adhesion"
-of the wheels on the rails, the engine and train will be moved; if
-the adhesion is less than the resistance the wheels will turn without
-moving the train.</p>
-
-<p>The capacity of a locomotive to draw loads is therefore dependent
-on the adhesion, and this is in proportion to the weight or
-pressure of the driving-wheels on the rails. The adhesion also
-varies somewhat with the weather and the condition of the wheels
-and rails. In ordinary weather it is equal to about one-fifth of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>
-weight which bears on the track; when perfectly dry, if the rails
-are clean, it is about one-fourth, and with the rails sanded about
-one-third. In damp or frosty weather the adhesion is often considerably
-less than a fifth.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_121.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 25.&mdash;Turning Locomotive Tires.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>It would, then, seem as though all that is needed to increase
-the capacity of a locomotive to draw loads would be to add to the
-weight on its driving-wheels, and provide engine-power sufficient
-to turn them&mdash;which is true. But it has been found that if the
-weight on the wheels is excessive both the wheels and rails will be
-injured. Even when they are all made of steel, they are crushed
-out of shape or are rapidly worn if the loads are too great. The
-weight which rails will carry without being injured depends somewhat
-on their size or weight, but ordinarily from 12,000 to 16,000
-pounds per wheel is about the greatest load which they should
-carry.</p>
-
-<p>For these reasons, when the capacity of a locomotive must be
-increased beyond a limit indicated by these data, one or more ad<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>ditional
-pairs of driving-wheels must be used. Thus, if a more
-powerful engine was required than that shown in Figure 14 (<a href="#Page_113">p. 113</a>),
-another pair of wheels would be added, as shown in Figures 26,
-27, and 28. Or, if you wanted a more powerful engine than these,
-still another pair of driving-wheels would be provided, as shown in
-Figure 30. In this way the Mogul, ten-wheeled and consolidation
-engines have been developed from that shown in Figure 14. The
-Mogul locomotive (Fig. 27) has three pairs of driving-wheels, but
-only one pair of truck-wheels. The engravings shown in Figures
-30 and 31 represent consolidation and decapod types of engines
-which have four and five pairs of driving-wheels.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_122.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 26.&mdash;Six-wheeled Switching Locomotive. By the Schenectady Locomotive Works.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>From the illustrations, Figures 28, 30, and 31, it will be seen
-that when so many wheels are used, even if they are of small diameter,
-the wheel-base must necessarily be long, so that a limit is very
-soon reached beyond which the number of driving-wheels cannot
-be increased.</p>
-
-<p>Improvements in the processes of manufacturing steel, which
-resulted in the general use of that material for rails and tires, have
-made it possible to nearly double the weight which was carried on
-each wheel when they were made of iron. The weight of rails
-has also been very much increased since they were first made of
-steel. Twenty or twenty-five years ago iron rails weighing 56
-pounds per yard were about the heaviest that were laid in this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
-country. Now steel rails weighing 72 pounds are commonly used,
-and some weighing 85 pounds have been laid on American roads,
-and others weighing 100 pounds have been laid on the Continent
-of Europe.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_123a.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 27.&mdash;Mogul Locomotive. By the Schenectady Locomotive Works.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_123b.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 28.&mdash;Ten-wheeled Passenger Locomotive. By the Schenectady Locomotive Works.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_124a.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 29.&mdash;Consolidation Locomotive (unfinished).</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_124b.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 30.&mdash;Consolidation Locomotive. By the Pennsylvania Railroad Company.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Of late years urban and suburban traffic has created a demand
-for a class of locomotives especially adapted to that kind of service.
-One of the conditions of that traffic is that trains must stop and
-start often, and therefore, to "make fast time," it is essential to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
-start quickly. Few persons realize the great amount of force which
-must be exerted to start any object suddenly. A cannon-ball, for
-example, will fall through 16 feet in a second with no other resistance
-than the atmosphere. The impelling force in that case is the
-weight of the ball. If we want it to fall 32 feet during the first
-second, the force exerted on it must be equal to double its weight,
-and for higher speeds the increase of force must be in the same
-proportion. This law applies to the movement of trains. To start
-in half the time, double the force must be exerted. For this reason,
-trains which start and stop often require engines with a great deal
-of weight on the driving-wheels. In accordance with these conditions
-a class of engines has been designed which carry all, or nearly
-all, the weight of the boiler and machinery, and sometimes the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
-water and fuel, on the driving-wheels. For suburban traffic, the
-speed between stops must often be quite rapid, and consequently
-the engine must have a long wheel-base for steadiness, as well as
-considerable weight on the wheels for adhesion. Four-wheeled
-engines (Fig. 14) have all their weight on the driving-wheels, but
-the wheel-base is short.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_125.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 31.&mdash;Decapod Locomotive. By the Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_126.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 32.&mdash;"Forney" Tank Locomotive. By the Rogers Locomotive<br />and Machine
-Works, Paterson, N. J.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>To combine the two features, engines have been built with the
-driving-wheels and axles arranged as in Figure 32. The frames are
-then extended backward, and the water-tank and fuel are placed on
-top of the frames, and their weight is carried by a truck underneath.
-This arrangement leaves the whole weight of the boiler and machinery
-on the driving-wheels, and at the same time gives a long
-wheel-base for steadiness. This plan of engine was patented by
-the author of this article in 1866, and has come into very general
-use&mdash;since the expiration of the patent. In some cases a two-wheeled
-truck is added at the opposite end, as shown in Figure 33.
-For street railroads, in which the speed is necessarily slow, engines
-such as Figure 13 (<a href="#Page_110">p. 110</a>) are used. To hide the machine from
-view, and also to give sufficient room inside, they are enclosed in
-a cab large enough to cover the whole machine.</p>
-
-<p>The size and weight of locomotives have steadily been increased
-ever since they were first used, and there is little reason for thinking
-that they have yet reached a limit, although it seems probable
-that some material change of design is impending which will permit
-of better proportions of the parts or organs of the larger sizes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
-The decapod engines built at the Baldwin Locomotive Works, in
-Philadelphia, for the Northern Pacific Railroad, weigh in working
-order 148,000 pounds. This gives a weight of 13,300 pounds on
-each driving-wheel. Some ten-wheeled passenger engines, built at
-the Schenectady Locomotive Works for the Michigan Central Railroad,
-weigh 118,000 pounds, and have 15,666 pounds on each driving-wheel.
-Some recent eight-wheeled passenger locomotives for
-the New York, Lake Erie &amp; Western Railroad weigh 115,000
-pounds, and have 19,500 pounds on each driving-wheel. At the
-Baldwin Works, some "consolidation" engines have recently
-been built which
-are still heavier
-than the decapod
-engines.</p>
-
-<p>The following
-table gives dimensions,
-weight,
-price, and price
-per pound of locomotives
-at the
-present time. If
-we were to quote
-them at 8 to 8¼ cents per pound for heavy engines and 9 to 22¼ for
-smaller sizes, it would not be much out of the way.</p>
-
-<p class="p2 center"><em>Dimensions, Weights, and Approximate Prices of Locomotives.</em></p>
-
-<div class="center fs70">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
-
-<tr><td class="bb" colspan="8">&nbsp;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">Type.</td><td class="tdc bl" colspan="2">Cylinders.</td><td class="tdc bl">Diameter of driving- wheel.</td>
-    <td class="tdc bl">Weight&nbsp;of engine in working order, exclusive of tender</td><td class="tdc bl">Weight&nbsp;of engine&nbsp;and tender without water or fuel.</td>
-    <td class="tdc bl">Approximate price.</td><td class="tdc bl">Price per pound.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bt" colspan="8"></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdly"></td><td class="tdc bl">Diam.</td><td class="tdc">Stroke.</td><td class="tdc bl">Inches.</td><td class="tdc bl">Pounds.</td><td class="tdc bl">Pounds.</td><td class="tdc bl"></td><td class="tdc bl">Cents.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">"American" Passenger</td><td class="tdc bl">8</td><td class="tdc">24</td><td class="tdc bl">62 to 68</td><td class="tdc bl">92,000</td><td class="tdc bl">110,000</td><td class="tdc bl">$8,750</td><td class="tdc bl">7.95</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">"Mogul" Freight</td><td class="tdc bl">19</td><td class="tdc">24</td><td class="tdc bl">50 to 56</td><td class="tdc bl">96,000</td><td class="tdc bl">116,000</td><td class="tdc bl">9,500</td><td class="tdc bl">8.19</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">"Ten-wheel" Freight</td><td class="tdc bl">19</td><td class="tdc">24</td><td class="tdc bl">0 to 58</td><td class="tdc bl">100,000</td><td class="tdc bl">118,000</td><td class="tdc bl">9,750</td><td class="tdc bl">8.26</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">"Consolidation" Freight</td><td class="tdc bl">20</td><td class="tdc">24</td><td class="tdc bl">50</td><td class="tdc bl">120,000</td><td class="tdc bl">132,000</td><td class="tdc bl">10,500</td><td class="tdc bl">7.95</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">"Decapod" Freight</td><td class="tdc bl">22</td><td class="tdc">26</td><td class="tdc bl">46</td><td class="tdc bl">150,000</td><td class="tdc bl">165,000</td><td class="tdc bl">13,250</td><td class="tdc bl">8.03</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Four-wheel Tank Switching</td><td class="tdc bl">15</td><td class="tdc">24</td><td class="tdc bl">50</td><td class="tdc bl">58,000</td><td class="tdc bl">47,000</td><td class="tdc bl">5,500</td><td class="tdc bl">11.70</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">Six-wheel Switching, with tender</td><td class="tdc bl">18</td><td class="tdc">24</td><td class="tdc bl">50</td><td class="tdc bl">84,000</td><td class="tdc bl">98,000</td><td class="tdc bl">8,500</td><td class="tdc bl">8.89</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdly">"Forney" N.Y. Elevated</td><td class="tdc bl">11</td><td class="tdc">16</td><td class="tdc bl">42</td><td class="tdc bl">42,000</td><td class="tdc bl">34,000</td><td class="tdc bl">4,500</td><td class="tdc bl">13.23</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlz">Street-car Motor Locomotive</td><td class="tdc bl">10</td><td class="tdc">14</td><td class="tdc bl">35</td><td class="tdc bl">22,000</td><td class="tdc bl">18,000</td>
-    <td class="tdc bl">$3,500&nbsp;to&nbsp;$4,000<br />according to<br />design</td><td class="tdc bl">19.44<br />to<br />22.22</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb" colspan="8"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p class="p2" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_127.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 33.&mdash;"Hudson" Tank Locomotive. By the Baldwin Locomotive Works.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The speed of locomotives, however, has not increased with their
-weight and size. There is a natural law which stands in the way
-of this. If we double the weight on the driving-wheels, the adhesion,
-and consequent capacity for drawing loads, is also doubled.
-Reasoning in an analogous way, it might be said that if we double
-the circumference of the wheels the distance that they will travel in
-one revolution, and consequently the speed of the engine, will be in
-like proportion. But, if this be done, it will require twice as much
-power to turn the large wheels as was needed for the small ones;
-and we then encounter the natural law that the resistance increases
-as the square of the speed, and probably at even a greater ratio at
-very high velocities. At 60 miles an hour the resistance of a train
-is four times as great as it is at 30 miles. That is, the pull on the
-draw-bar of the engine must be four times as great in the one case
-as it is in the other. But at 60 miles an hour this pull must be exerted
-for a given distance in half the time that it is at 30 miles, so
-that the amount of power exerted and steam generated in a given
-period of time must be eight times as great in the one case as in the
-other. This means that the capacity of the boiler, cylinders, and
-the other parts must be greater, with a corresponding addition to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
-the weight of the machine. Obviously, if the weight per wheel is
-limited, we soon reach a point at which the size of the driving-wheels
-and other parts cannot be enlarged; which means that there
-is a certain proportion of wheels, cylinders, and boiler which will
-give a maximum speed.</p>
-
-<p>The relative speed of trains here and in Europe has been the
-subject of a good deal of discussion and controversy. There appears
-to be very little difference in the speed of the fastest trains
-here and there; but there are more of them there than we have.
-From 48 to 53 miles an hour, including stops, is about the fastest
-time made by our regular trains on the summer time-tables.</p>
-
-<p>When this rate of speed is compared with that of sixty or seventy
-miles an hour, which is not infrequent for short distances, there
-seems to be a great discrepancy. It must be kept in mind, though,
-that these high rates of speed are attained under very favorable
-conditions. That is, the track is straight and level, or perhaps descending,
-and unobstructed. In ordinary traffic it is never certain
-that the line is clear. A locomotive-runner must always be on the
-look-out for obstructions. Trains, ordinary vehicles, a fallen tree
-or rock, cows, and people may be in the way at any moment. Let
-anyone imagine himself in responsible charge of a locomotive and
-he will readily understand that, with the slightest suspicion that the
-line is not clear, he would slacken the speed as a precautionary
-measure. For this reason fast time on a railroad depends as much
-on having a good signal system to assure the locomotive-runners
-that the line is clear, as it does on the locomotives. If he is always
-liable to encounter, and must be on the look-out for, obstructions at
-frequent grade-crossings of common roads, or if he is not certain
-whether the train in front of him is out of his way or not, the locomotive-runner
-will be nervous and be almost sure to lose time. If
-the speed is to be increased on American railroads, the first steps
-should be to carry all streets and common roads either over or under
-the lines, have the lines well fenced, provide abundant side-tracks
-for trains, and adopt efficient systems of signals so that locomotive-runners
-can know whether the line is clear or not.</p>
-
-<p>In what may be called the period of adolescence of railroads
-there was a very decided predilection on the part of locomotive engineers
-for large driving-wheels. Figure 34 represents one of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
-engines built as early as 1848 for the Camden &amp; Amboy Railroad,
-with driving wheels 8 feet in diameter. Other engines with 6 and
-7 feet wheels were not uncommon. In Europe many engines with
-very large wheels were made and are still in use. Here, as well
-as there, excessively large wheels have, however, been abandoned,
-and six feet in diameter is now about the limit of their size in this
-country.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_129.jpg" width="375" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 34.&mdash;Camden &amp; Amboy Locomotive, 1848.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>So far as locomotives are concerned, fast time, especially with
-heavy trains, is generally dependent more upon the supply of steam
-than it is on the size of the wheels. Without steam to turn them,
-big wheels are useless; but with an abundant supply there is no
-difficulty in turning small wheels at a lively rate. Speed, therefore,
-is to a great extent a question of boiler capacity, and the general
-maxim has been formulated that "within the limits of weight and
-space to which a locomotive boiler must be confined, it cannot be
-made too big." But the maximum speed at which a locomotive
-can run when an adequate supply of steam is provided also depends
-on the perfection of the machinery. At 60 miles an hour a
-driving-wheel 5½ feet in diameter revolves five times every second.
-The reciprocating parts of each cylinder of a Pennsylvania Railroad
-passenger engine, including one piston, piston-rod, cross-head, and
-connecting rod,
-weigh about 650
-pounds. These
-parts must move
-back and forth a
-distance equal to
-the stroke, usually
-two feet, every
-time the wheel
-revolves, or in a
-fifth of a second.
-It starts from a
-state of rest at each end of the stroke of the piston and must acquire
-a velocity of 32 feet per second, in one-twentieth of a second,
-and must be brought to a state of rest in the same period of time.
-A piston 18 inches in diameter has an area of 254½ square inches.
-Steam of 150 pounds pressure per square inch would therefore
-exert a force on the piston equal to 38,175 pounds. This force is
-applied alternately on each side of the piston, ten times in a second.
-The control of such forces requires mechanism which works with
-the utmost precision and with absolute certainty, and it is for this
-reason that the speed and the economical working of a locomotive
-depend so much on the proportions of the valves and the "valve-gear"
-by which the "distribution" of steam in the cylinders is
-controlled.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_130.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 35.&mdash;Interior of a Round-house.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The engraving (Fig. 36) on <a href="#Page_133">p. 133</a> represents the cab end of a
-locomotive of the New York Central &amp; Hudson River Railroad,
-looking forward from the tender, and shows the attachments by
-which the engineer works the engine.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> This gives an idea of
-the number of keys on which he has to play in running such a
-machine. There is room here for little more than an enumeration
-of the parts which are numbered:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquoty">
-
-<p>1. Engine-bell rope.</p>
-
-<p>2. Train-bell rope.</p>
-
-<p>3. Train-bell or gong.</p>
-
-<p>4. Lever for blowing whistle.</p>
-
-<p>5. Steam-gauge to indicate pressure in boiler.</p>
-
-<p>6. Steam-gauge lamp to illuminate face of gauge.</p>
-
-<p>7. Pressure-gauge for air-brake; to show pressure in air-reservoirs.</p>
-
-<p>8. Valve to admit steam to air-brake pump.</p>
-
-<p>9. Automatic lubricator for oiling main valves.</p>
-
-<p>10. Cock for admitting steam to lubricator.</p>
-
-<p>11. Handle for opening valves in sand-box to sand the rails.</p>
-
-<p>12. Handle for opening the cocks which drain the water from the cylinders.</p>
-
-<p>13. Valve for admitting steam to the jets which force air into the fire-box.</p>
-
-<p>14, 14′. Throttle-valve lever. This is for opening the valve which admits steam to the
-cylinders.</p>
-
-<p>15. Sector by which the throttle-lever is held in any desired position.</p>
-
-<p>16. "Lazy-cock" handle. A "lazy-cock" is a valve which regulates the water-supply
-to the pumps and is worked by this handle.</p>
-
-<p>17, 17′. Reverse lever.</p>
-
-<p>18. Reverse-lever sector.</p>
-
-<p>19, 19′, 19″. Gauge-cocks for showing the height of the water in the boiler; 19′ is a pipe
-for carrying away the water which escapes when the gauge-cocks are opened.</p>
-
-<p>20, 20. Oil-cups for oiling the cylinders.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
-
-<p>21. Handle for working steam-valve of injector.</p>
-
-<p>22. Handle for controlling water-jet of the injector.</p>
-
-<p>23. Handle for working water-valve of injector.</p>
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
-
-<p>24. Oil-can shelf.</p>
-
-<p>25. Handle for air-brake valve.</p>
-
-<p>26. Valve for controlling air-brake.</p>
-
-<p>27. Pipe for conducting air to brakes under the cars.</p>
-
-<p>28. Pipe connected with air-reservoir.</p>
-
-<p>29. Pipe-connection to air-pump.</p>
-
-<p>30. Handle for working a valve which admits or shuts off the air for driving-wheel
-brakes.</p>
-
-<p>31. Valve for driving-wheel brakes.</p>
-
-<p>32, 32′. Lever for moving a diaphragm in smoke-box, by which the draught is regulated.</p>
-
-<p>33. Handle for raising or lowering snow-scrapers in front of truck-wheels.</p>
-
-<p>34. Handle for opening cock on pump to show whether it is forcing water into the
-boiler.</p>
-
-<p>35. Lamp to light the water-gauge, 51, 51.</p>
-
-<p>36. Air-hole for admitting air to fire-box.</p>
-
-<p>37. Tallow-can for oiling cylinders.</p>
-
-<p>38. Oil-can.</p>
-
-<p>39. Shelf for warming oil-cans.</p>
-
-<p>40. Furnace door.</p>
-
-<p>41. Chain for opening and closing the furnace door.</p>
-
-<p>42. Handles for opening dampers on the ash-pan.</p>
-
-<p>43. Lubricator for air-pump.</p>
-
-<p>44. Valve for admitting steam to the chimney to blow the fire when the engine is
-standing still.</p>
-
-<p>45. Valve for admitting steam to the train-pipes for warming the cars.</p>
-
-<p>46. Valve for reducing the pressure of the steam used for heating cars.</p>
-
-<p>47. Cock which admits steam to the pressure-gauge, 48.</p>
-
-<p>48. Pressure-gauge which indicates the steam-pressure in heater pipes.</p>
-
-<p>49. Pipe for conducting steam to the train to heat the cars.</p>
-
-<p>50. Cock for water-gauge, 51.</p>
-
-<p>51, 51. Glass water-gauge to indicate the height of water in the boiler.</p>
-
-<p>52. Cock for blowing off impurities from the surface of the water in the boiler.</p></div>
-
-<p>Besides being impressive as a triumph of human ingenuity,
-there is much about the construction and working of locomotives
-which is picturesque. A shop where they are constructed or repaired
-is always of interest. An engine-house (Fig. 35) especially
-at night, is full of weird suggestions and food for the imagination.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_133.jpg" width="550" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 36.&mdash;Cab End of a Locomotive and its Attachments.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Figure 37 (<a href="#Page_135">p. 135</a>) is an illustration from a photograph taken
-in the erecting shops of the Baldwin Locomotive Works in Philadelphia;
-and Figure 38 (<a href="#Page_137">p. 137</a>) is a view of a similar shop of the
-Pennsylvania Railroad at Altoona, which suggests at a glance
-many of the processes of construction which go on in these great
-works. At Altoona are immense travelling cranes resting on brick
-arches and spanning the shop from side to side. These are power<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>ful
-enough to take hold of the largest locomotive and lift it bodily
-from the rails and transfer it laterally or longitudinally at will. A
-large consolidation engine is shown in Figure 38, swung clear of
-the rails, and in the act of being moved laterally. The hooks of
-the crane are attached to heavy iron beams, from which the loco<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>motive
-is suspended by strong bars. Figure 39 (<a href="#Page_138">p. 138</a>) is a view
-in the blacksmiths' shop of the Baldwin Works, showing a steam
-hammer and the operation of forging a locomotive frame.</p>
-
-<p>It is quite natural that the engineers, or "runners," as they
-generally call themselves, who have the care of locomotives should
-take a deep interest in and acquire a sort of attachment for them.
-In the earlier days of railroading this was much more the case than
-it is now. Then each locomotive had an individuality of its own.
-It was rare that two engines were exactly alike. Nearly always
-there was some difference in their proportions, or one engine had
-some device in it which the other had not. Now, many locomotives
-are made exactly alike, or as nearly so as the most improved
-machinery will permit. There is nothing to distinguish the one
-from the other. Therefore Bony Smith can claim no superiority
-for his machine which Windy Brown has not the advantage of. In
-the old days, too, each engine had its own runner and fireman, and
-it seldom fell into the hands of anyone else, and those in charge
-of it took as much pride in keeping it bright as the character in
-"Pinafore" did "in polishing up the handle of the big front door."
-On many roads&mdash;particularly the larger ones&mdash;engines are not assigned
-to special men. The system of "first in first out" has been
-adopted; that is, the engines are sent out in the order in which they
-come in, and the men take whichever machine happens to fall to
-their lot. This naturally results in a loss of personal attachment
-to special engines.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span><br />
-   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_135.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 37.&mdash;View In Locomotive Erecting Shop.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Every change in the construction, alteration in the proportions,
-or addition to the attachments of locomotives is a subject of intense
-interest to the men and a topic of endless discussion at all times
-and places. The theories which are propounded, and the yarns
-which are spun while sitting around hot stoves in round-houses, or
-waiting for passing trains on side-tracks, would fill many books.
-Jack never tires of telling what his engine did when "she was going
-up Rattlesnake Grade," and Smoky Bill grows excited when
-he describes how Ninety-six turned her wheels in making up
-forty-nine minutes time in the down run with the "electric express."</p>
-
-<p>Locomotive engineers and firemen read with avidity everything
-which is explanatory of the construction or working of locomotives,
-but generally have a contempt for things which have no practical
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
-bearing. They demand "lucidity" in what they read with as much
-vehemence as Matthew Arnold did, and some editors and college
-professors, whose writing and thinking are foggy, would be greatly
-benefited by the criticisms of the Locomotive Brotherhood.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_137.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 38.&mdash;Interior of Erecting Shop, Showing Locomotive Lifted by Travelling Crane.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Much might be written about the duties of locomotive-runners
-and firemen, and the qualifications required. It is the general
-opinion of locomotive superintendents that it is not essential that
-the men who run locomotives should be good mechanics. The
-best runners or engineers are those who have been trained while
-young as firemen on locomotives. Brunel, the distinguished civil
-engineer, said that he never would trust himself to run a locomotive
-because he was sure to think of some problem relating to his profession
-which would distract his attention from the engine. It is
-probably a similar reason which sometimes unfits good mechanics
-for being good locomotive-runners.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_138.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 39.&mdash;Forging a Locomotive Frame.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>It will perhaps interest some readers to know how much fuel
-a locomotive burns. This, of course, depends upon the quality of
-fuel, work done, speed, and character of the road. With freight
-trains consisting of as many cars as a heavy locomotive can draw
-without difficulty, the consumption of coal will not exceed from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
-1 to 1½ pounds of coal per car per mile if the engine is carefully
-managed. It takes from 15 to 20 pounds of coal per mile to move
-an engine and tender alone, the consumption being dependent upon
-the size of the engine, speed, grades, and number of stops. If this
-amount of coal is allowed for the engine and tender, and the balance
-that is consumed is divided among the cars, it will reduce the quantity
-for hauling the cars alone to even less amounts than those given
-above. In ordinary average practice the consumption is from 3 to
-5 pounds per freight-car per mile, without making any allowance for
-the engine and tender. With passenger trains, the cars of which
-are heavier and the speed higher, the coal consumption is from 10
-to 15 pounds per car per mile. A freight locomotive with a train
-of 40 cars will burn 40 to 200 pounds of coal per mile, the amount
-depending on the care with which it is managed, quality of the
-coal, grades, speed, weather, and other circumstances.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>AMERICAN CARS.</h3>
-
-<p>Peter Parley's illustration (<a href="#Page_101">p. 101</a>) of the Baltimore &amp; Ohio
-Railroad represents one of the earliest passenger-cars used in this
-country. The accuracy of the illustration may, however, be questioned.
-Probably the artist depended upon his imagination and
-memory somewhat when he drew it. The engraving below (Fig.
-40) is from a drawing made by the resident engineer of the
-Mohawk &amp; Hudson Railroad, and from which six coaches were
-made by James Goold for the Mohawk &amp; Hudson Railroad in 1831.
-It is an authentic representation of the cars as made at that time.
-Other old prints of railroad cars represent them as substantially
-stage-coach bodies mounted on four car-wheels, as shown by Figure
-41. The next step in the development of cars was that of joining
-together several coach-bodies. This form was continued after
-the double-truck system was adopted, as shown by Figure 42, which
-represents an early Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad car, having three
-sections, united. It was soon displaced by the rectangular body,
-as shown in Figure 43, which is a reproduction from an old print.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_139.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 40.&mdash;Mohawk &amp; Hudson Car, 1831.
-<span class="pad10">Fig. 41.&mdash;Early Car.</span><br />
-(From the original drawing by the resident engineer.)
-<span class="pad6">(From an old print.)</span></div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_140a.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 42.&mdash;Early Car on the Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Figure 44 is an illustration of a car used for the transportation
-of flour on the Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad, while horses were still
-used as the motive power. To show how nearly all progress is a
-process of evolution, it was asserted, in one of the trials of the validity
-of Winans' patent on eight-wheeled cars with two trucks, that
-before the date of his patent it was a practice to load firewood by
-connecting two such cars with long timbers, which rested on bolsters<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
-attached by kingbolts to the cars. The wood was loaded on
-top of these timbers, as shown in Figure 45. An old car (Fig. 46),
-which antedated Winans' patent and was used at the Quincy
-granite quarries for carrying
-large blocks of stone, was also
-introduced as evidence for the
-defendants in that suit. Although
-Winans was not able to
-establish the validity of his patent
-on eight-wheeled cars with
-two trucks, he was undoubtedly one of the first to put it into practical
-form, and did a great deal to introduce the system.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_140b.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 43.&mdash;Early American Car, 1834.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The progress in the construction of cars has been fully as great
-as in that of locomotives. If the old stage-coach bodies on wheels
-are compared with a vestibule train of to-day the difference will be
-very striking. Most of us who are no longer young can recall the
-days when sleeping-cars were unknown, when a journey from an
-Eastern city to Chicago meant forty-eight hours or more of sitting
-erect in a car with thirty or more passengers, and an atmosphere
-which was fetid. Happily those days are past, although the improvement
-in the ventilation of cars has been very slow, and is
-still very imperfect.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_141a.jpg" width="200" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 44.&mdash;Old Car for Carrying Flour<br />
-on the Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Improvement has also lagged in the matter of coupling cars.
-It has been shown by statistics and calculations that some hundreds
-of persons are killed and some thousands injured in this country
-annually in coupling cars. The use of automatic coupling, by which
-cars could be connected together without going between them, it has
-been supposed, would greatly lessen, if it would not entirely prevent,
-this fearful sacrifice of life and limb. To accomplish this end,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
-though, it is essential that some one form of coupler shall be generally
-adopted by all railroads. One of the obstacles in the way of
-this has been the mechanical difficulty of finding a mechanism which
-will satisfactorily accomplish the purpose for
-which it was intended. After thirty or forty
-years of invention and experiment, no automatic
-coupler has been produced, which has
-been approved by competent judges with a
-sufficient degree of unanimity to justify its
-general adoption. The patents on that class of inventions are
-numbered by thousands, so that it is no light task to select the
-best one or even the best kind. Besides this difficulty, there is
-the other equally formidable one of inducing railroad men, of various
-degrees of knowledge, ignorance, and prejudice regarding this
-subject, and who are scattered all over the continent, to agree in
-adopting some one form or kind of automatic coupler. Various
-cliques had also been organized on different roads in the interest of
-some patents, and in such cases argument and reason addressed to
-them were generally wasted. Public indignation was, however,
-aroused; and the stimulus of legislation in different States compelled
-railroad officers to give serious attention to the subject.
-After devoting some years to the investigation, the Master Car-Builders'
-Association&mdash;which is composed of officers of railroad
-companies, who are in charge of
-the construction and repair of cars
-on the different lines&mdash;has recommended
-the adoption of a coupler
-of the type represented by Figures
-47 to 49, which has been
-already applied to many cars and the indications are that it will be
-very generally adopted for freight and probably for passenger cars.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
-If it should be, it will relieve railroad employees of the dangerous
-duty of going between cars to couple them. Figure 47 shows a
-plan looking down on the couplers with one of the latches, <em>A</em>,
-open; Figure 48 shows it with the two couplers partly engaged;
-and Figure 49 shows them when the coupling is completed.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_141b.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 45.&mdash;Old Car for Carrying Firewood on the Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_141c.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 46.&mdash;Old Car on the Quincy Granite Railroad.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>One of the first problems which presented itself in the infancy
-of railroads was how to keep the cars on the rails.</p>
-
-<p>Anyone who will stand close to a line of railroad when a train
-is rushing by at a speed of forty, fifty, or sixty miles an hour must
-wonder how the engine and cars are kept on the track; and even
-those familiar with the construction of railroad machinery often express
-astonishment that the flanges of the wheels, which are merely
-projecting ribs about 1<sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub> inches deep and 1¼ inches thick, are sufficient
-to resist the impetus and swaying of a locomotive or car at
-full speed. The problem of the manufacture of wheels which will
-resist this wear, and will not break, has occupied a great deal of
-the attention of railroad managers and manufacturers.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_142.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
-<div class="center caption">
-Fig. 47.<span class="pad4">Fig. 48.</span><span class="pad4">Fig. 49.</span><br />
-Janney Car Coupler, showing the Process of Coupling.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Locomotive driving-wheels in this country are always made of
-cast-iron, with steel tires which are heated and put on the wheels
-and then cooled. They
-are thus contracted
-and "shrunk" on the
-wheel. The tread, that
-is, the surface which
-bears on the rail, and the
-flange of the tire are then
-turned off in a lathe,
-shown in Figure 25, on <a href="#Page_121">p.
-121</a>, made especially for the
-purpose. For engine-truck,
-tender, and car-wheels, until
-within a few years, "chilled"
-cast-iron wheels have
-been used almost exclusively
-on American railroads. If the tread and flange of a wheel were
-made of ordinary cast-iron they would soon be worn out in service,
-as such iron has ordinarily little capacity for resisting the wear to
-which wheels are subjected. Some cast-iron, however, has the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
-singular property which causes it to assume a peculiar, hard crystalline
-form if, when it is melted, it is allowed to cool and solidify
-in contact with a cold iron mould. The iron which is thus cooled
-quickly, or "chilled," becomes very hard, and resists wear very
-much better than iron which is not chilled. Car-wheels which are
-made of this material are therefore cast in what is called a chill-mould.
-Figure 50 represents a section of such a mould and flask in
-which wheels are cast.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_143.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 50.&mdash;Mould and Flask in which Wheels are Cast.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><em>A A</em> is the wheel, which is moulded in sand in the usual way.
-The part <em>B B</em> of the mould, which forms the rim or tread of the
-wheel, consists of a heavy cast-iron ring. The melted iron is poured
-into this mould and
-comes in contact
-with <em>B B</em>. This
-has the effect of
-chilling the hot
-iron, as has been
-explained. In
-cooling, the wheel
-contracts; and for
-that reason the part
-between the rim <em>C</em> and the hub <em>D</em> is made of a curved form, as
-shown in the section, so that if one part should cool more rapidly
-than another these parts can yield sufficiently to permit contraction
-without straining any portion of the wheels injuriously. For the
-same reason the ribs on the back of the wheels, as shown in Figure
-51, are also curved. As an additional safeguard to the unequal
-contraction in cooling, the wheels are taken out of the mould while
-they are red-hot, and placed in ovens where they are allowed to
-remain several days so as to cool very slowly.</p>
-
-<p>Figure 52, on <a href="#Page_145">p. 145</a>, represents a section of the tread and
-flange of a chilled wheel, showing the peculiar crystalline appearance
-of the chilled iron.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_144.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 51.&mdash;Cast-iron Car Wheels.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In making cast-iron wheels the quality of the iron used is of the
-utmost importance. The difficulty in making good wheels lies in
-the fact that most iron which is ductile and tough will not chill,
-whereas hard white iron, which has the chilling property in a very
-high degree, is brittle, and wheels which are made of it are liable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
-to break. There are some kinds of cast-iron produced in this
-country which have the two qualities combined, in a very remarkable
-degree; that is, they are ductile and tough, and will also chill.
-Wheel-founders also mix different qualities of irons to produce
-wheels with the required strength, and which will resist wear;
-that is, they use a certain amount of hard white iron which will
-chill, with that which is ductile and soft. By changing the proportions,
-any required amount of chill can be produced. The danger
-is that iron which has little strength or ductility will be fortified
-with hard chilling iron, and a very weak wheel will thus be the result.
-Thousands of such wheels have been bought and used because
-they are cheap, and many lamentable accidents are undoubtedly
-due to this cause. To guard against this, car-wheels should
-always be subjected to rigid tests and inspection.</p>
-
-<p>In Europe wheels are made of wrought-iron, with tires which
-were also made of the same material before the discovery of the
-improved processes of manufacturing steel, but since then they
-have been made of the latter material. Owing to the breakage
-of a great many cast-iron wheels of poor quality, steel-tired wheels
-are now coming into very general use on American roads under
-passenger-cars and engines. A great variety of such wheels is
-now made. The "centres" or parts inside the tires of some of
-them are cast-iron, and others are wrought-iron constructed in
-various ways.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_145a.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 52.&mdash;Section of the Tread and Flange of a Car Wheel.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>What is known as the Allen paper wheel is used a great deal in
-this country, especially under sleeping-cars. A section and front
-view of one of these wheels is shown by Figure 53. It consists of a
-cast-iron hub, <em>A</em>,
-which is bored out
-to fit the axle. An
-annular disk, <em>B B</em>,
-is made of layers
-of paper-board
-glued together
-and then subjected
-to an enormous
-pressure.
-The disk is then
-bored out to fit
-the hub, and its
-circumference is
-turned off, and the tire <em>C C</em> is fitted to it. Two wrought-iron
-plates, <em>P P</em>, are then placed on either side of it, and the disk,
-plates, tire, and hub are all bolted together. The paper, it will
-be seen, bears the weight which rests on the hub of the axle and
-the hub of the wheel.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_145b.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 53.&mdash;Allen Paper Car Wheel.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Steel tires have the advantage that when they become worn
-their treads and flanges may be turned off anew, whereas chilled
-cast-iron wheels are so hard
-that it is almost impossible
-to cut them with any turning
-tool. For this reason machines
-have been constructed
-for grinding the tread with a
-rapidly revolving emery-wheel.
-In these the cast-iron
-wheel is made to turn slowly,
-whereas the emery-wheel revolves
-very rapidly. The
-emery-wheel is then brought
-close to the cast-iron wheel, so that as they revolve the projections
-on the latter are cut away, and the tread is thus reduced to a true<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
-circular form. These machines are much used for "truing-up"
-wheels which have been made flat by sliding, owing to the brakes
-being set too hard.</p>
-
-<p>It would require a separate article to give even a brief description
-of the different kinds of cars which are now used. The following
-list could be increased considerably if all the different varieties
-were included.</p>
-
-<div class="textcol4">
-<p>Baggage-car,<br />
-Boarding-car,<br />
-Box-car,<br />
-Buffet-car,<br />
-Caboose or<br />
-&nbsp; &nbsp; conductor's car,<br />
-Cattle- or stock-car,<br />
-Coal-car,<br />
-Derrick-car,<br />
-Drawing-room car,</p>
-</div>
-<div class="textcol4">
-<p>Drop-bottom car,<br />
-Dump-car,<br />
-Express-car,<br />
-Flat or platform car,<br />
-Gondola-car,<br />
-Hand-car,<br />
-Hay-car,<br />
-Hopper-bottom car,<br />
-Horse-car,<br />
-Hotel-car,</p>
-</div>
-<div class="textcol4">
-<p>Inspection-car,<br />
-Lodging-car,<br />
-Mail-car,<br />
-Milk-car,<br />
-Oil-car,<br />
-Ore-car,<br />
-Palace-car,<br />
-Passenger-car,<br />
-Post-office car,<br />
-Push-car,</p>
-</div>
-<div class="textcol4">
-<p>Postal-car,<br />
-Refrigerator-car,<br />
-Restaurant-car,<br />
-Sleeping-car,<br />
-Sweeping-car,<br />
-Tank-car,<br />
-Tip-car,<br />
-Tool or wrecking car,<br />
-Three-wheeled<br />
-&nbsp; &nbsp; hand-car.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The following table gives the size, weight, and price of cars at
-the present time. The length given is the length over the bodies
-not including the platforms.</p>
-
-<div class="center fs80">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="bt">&nbsp;</td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc"></td><td class="tdc bl">Length, feet.</td><td class="tdc bl">Weight, lbs.</td><td class="tdc bl">Price.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb">&nbsp;</td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl tdpp">Flat-car</td><td class="tdc bl">34</td><td class="tdc bl">16,000 to 19,000</td><td class="tdl bl pad2">$380</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl tdpp">Box-car</td><td class="tdc bl">34</td><td class="tdc bl">22,000 to 27,000</td><td class="tdl bl pad2">$550</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Refrigerator-car</td><td class="tdc bl">30 to 34</td><td class="tdc bl">28,000 to 34,000</td><td class="tdl bl pad2">$800 to $1,100</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl tdpp">Passenger-car</td><td class="tdc bl">50 to 52</td><td class="tdc bl">45,000 to 60,000</td><td class="tdl bl pad2">$4,400 to $5,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Drawing-room car</td><td class="tdc bl">50 to 65</td><td class="tdc bl">70,000 to 80,000</td><td class="tdl bl pad2">$10,000 to $20,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl tdpp">Sleeping-car</td><td class="tdc bl">50 to 70</td><td class="tdc bl">60,000 to 90,000</td><td class="tdl bl pad2">$12,000 to $20,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Street-car</td><td class="tdc bl">16</td><td class="tdc bl">&nbsp; 5,000 to 6,000</td><td class="tdl bl pad2">$800 to $1,200</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p class="p2" />
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_147.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Fig. 54.&mdash;Modern Passenger-car and Frame.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Some years ago the master car-builders of the different railroads
-experienced great difficulty in the transaction of their business
-from the fact that there were no common names to designate
-the parts of cars in different places in the country. What was
-known by one name in Chicago had quite a different name in
-Pittsburg or Boston. A committee was therefore appointed by
-the Master Car-Builders' Association to make a dictionary of terms<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
-used in car-construction and repairs. Such a dictionary has been
-prepared, and is a book of 560 pages, and has over two thousand
-illustrations. It has some peculiar features, one of which is described
-as follows in the preface: "To supply the want which
-demanded such a vocabulary, what might be called a double dictionary
-is needed. Thus, supposing that a car-builder in Chicago
-received an order for a 'journal-box'; by looking in an alphabetical
-list of words he could readily find that term and a description and
-definition of it. But suppose that he wanted to order such castings
-from the shop in Albany, and did not know their name; it would
-be impracticable for him to commence at A and look through to Z,
-or until he found the proper term to designate that part." To
-meet this difficulty the dictionary has very copious illustrations in
-which the different parts of cars are represented and numbered, and
-the names of the parts designated by the numbers are then given
-in a list accompanying the engraving. An alphabetical list of
-names and definitions is also given, as in an ordinary dictionary.
-The definition usually contains a reference to a number and a figure
-in which the object described is illustrated. In making the dictionary
-the compilers selected terms from those in use, where appro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>priate
-ones could be found. In other cases new names were devised.
-The book is a curious illustration of a more rapid growth
-of an art than of the language by which it is described.</p>
-
-<p>The following table, compiled from "Poor's Manual of Railroads,"
-gives the number of locomotives and of different kinds of
-cars in this country, beginning with 1876, and for each year thereafter.
-If the average length of locomotives and tenders is taken at
-50 feet, those now owned by the railroads would make a continuous
-train 280 miles long; and the 1,033,368 cars, if they average
-35 feet in length, would form a train which would be more than
-6,800 miles long.</p>
-
-<p class="center"><em>Statement of the Rolling Stock of Railroads in the United States; from
-"Poor's Manual" for 1889.</em></p>
-
-<div class="center fs80">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="bt tdpp"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bll" colspan="2"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc wd10" rowspan="3">Year.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="3">Miles of railroad.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="3">Locomotives.</td><td class="tdc bll" colspan="2">Passenger-train cars.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="3">Freight cars.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="3">Total.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb bll tdpp" colspan="2"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc bll">Passenger.</td><td class="tdc bl">Baggage, mail,<br />and Express.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bll"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">1876</td><td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;76,305</td><td class="tdc bl">14,562</td><td class="tdc bll">&mdash;</td><td class="tdc bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdc bl">358,101</td><td class="tdc bl wd15">358,101</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">1877</td><td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;79,208</td><td class="tdc bl">15,911</td><td class="tdc bll">12,053</td><td class="tdc bl">3,854</td><td class="tdc bl">392,175</td><td class="tdc bl">408,082</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">1878</td><td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;80,832</td><td class="tdc bl">16,445</td><td class="tdc bll">11,683</td><td class="tdc bl">4,413</td><td class="tdc bl">423,013</td><td class="tdc bl">439,109</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">1879</td><td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;84,393</td><td class="tdc bl">17,084</td><td class="tdc bll">12,009</td><td class="tdc bl">4,519</td><td class="tdc bl">480,190</td><td class="tdc bl">496,718</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">1880</td><td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;92,147</td><td class="tdc bl">17,949</td><td class="tdc bll">12,789</td><td class="tdc bl">4,786</td><td class="tdc bl">539,255</td><td class="tdc bl">556,930</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">1881</td><td class="tdc bl">103,530</td><td class="tdc bl">20,116</td><td class="tdc bll">14,548</td><td class="tdc bl">4,976</td><td class="tdc bl">648,295</td><td class="tdc bl">667,819</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">1882</td><td class="tdc bl">114,461</td><td class="tdc bl">22,114</td><td class="tdc bll">15,551</td><td class="tdc bl">5,566</td><td class="tdc bl">730,451</td><td class="tdc bl">751,568</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">1883</td><td class="tdc bl">120,552</td><td class="tdc bl">23,623</td><td class="tdc bll">16,889</td><td class="tdc bl">5,848</td><td class="tdc bl">778,663</td><td class="tdc bl">801,400</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">1884</td><td class="tdc bl">125,152</td><td class="tdc bl">24,587</td><td class="tdc bll">17,303</td><td class="tdc bl">5,911</td><td class="tdc bl">798,399</td><td class="tdc bl">821,613</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">1885</td><td class="tdc bl">127,729</td><td class="tdc bl">25,937</td><td class="tdc bll">17,290</td><td class="tdc bl">6,044</td><td class="tdc bl">805,519</td><td class="tdc bl">828,853</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">1886</td><td class="tdc bl">133,606</td><td class="tdc bl">26,415</td><td class="tdc bll">19,252</td><td class="tdc bl">6,325</td><td class="tdc bl">845,914</td><td class="tdc bl">871,491</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">1887</td><td class="tdc bl">147,999</td><td class="tdc bl">27,643</td><td class="tdc bll">20,457</td><td class="tdc bl">6,554</td><td class="tdc bl">950,887</td><td class="tdc bl">977,898</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">1888</td><td class="tdc bl">154,276</td><td class="tdc bl">29,398</td><td class="tdc bll">21,425</td><td class="tdc bl">6,827</td><td class="tdc bl">1,005,116</td><td class="tdc bl">1,033,368</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bll"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p class="p2" />
-<p>The number of cars, it will be seen, has more than doubled in
-ten years, so that if the same rate of increase continues for the
-next decade there will be over two millions of them on the railroads
-of this country alone. Beyond a certain point, numbers convey
-little idea of magnitude. Our railroad system and its equipment
-seem to be rapidly outgrowing the capacity of the human imagination
-to realize their extent. What it will be with another half-century
-of development it is impossible even to imagine.</p>
-
-
-<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> An engraving of a team and of a "Conestoga" wagon&mdash;which was used in this traffic&mdash;taken from
-a photograph of one which has survived to the present day, is given opposite (Fig. 1).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> It was not really the first train, as the Baltimore &amp; Ohio and the South Carolina roads were in
-operation earlier.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> The truck was first applied by Mr. Jervis to an engine built by R. Stephenson &amp; Co., of England.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> It should be mentioned that this is not one of the most recent types of engines. The arrangement
-of parts in the cab has been somewhat simplified in later locomotives.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> This engine had two different appliances for oiling the cylinders, a pair of oil-cups, 20, 20, and
-an automatic oiler, 9.</p></div></div>
-
-
-    <div class="chapter"></div>
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">RAILWAY MANAGEMENT.</a></h2>
-
-<p class="pfs90 smcap">By E. P. ALEXANDER.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Relations of Railway Management to all Other Pursuits&mdash;Developed by the Necessities of
-a Complex Industrial Life&mdash;How a Continuous Life is Given to a Corporation&mdash;Its Artificial
-Memory&mdash;Main Divisions of Railway Management&mdash;The Executive and Legislative
-Powers&mdash;The Purchasing and Supply Departments&mdash;Importance of the Legal
-Department&mdash;How the Roadway is Kept in Repair&mdash;The Maintenance of Rolling
-Stock&mdash;Schedule-making&mdash;The Handling of Extra Trains&mdash;Duties of the Train-despatcher&mdash;Accidents
-in Spite of Precautions&mdash;Daily Distribution of Cars&mdash;How Business
-is Secured and Rates are Fixed&mdash;The Interstate Commerce Law&mdash;The Questions
-of "Long and Short Hauls" and "Differentials"&mdash;Classification of Freight&mdash;Regulation
-of Passenger-rates&mdash;Work of Soliciting Agents&mdash;The Collection of Revenue
-and Statistics&mdash;What is a Way-bill&mdash;How Disbursements are Made&mdash;The Social
-and Industrial Problem which Confronts Railway Corporations.</p></div>
-
-<div><img class="drop-cap" src="images/i_149dc.jpg" alt="" /></div>
-<p class="drop-cap">The world was born again with the building of
-the first locomotive and the laying of the first
-level iron roadway. The energies and activities,
-the powers and possibilities then developed have
-acted and reacted in every sphere of life&mdash;social,
-industrial, and political&mdash;until human progress,
-after smouldering like a spark for a thousand
-years, has burst into a conflagration which will
-soon leave small trace of the life and customs, or even the modes of
-thought, which our fathers knew. But, in it all, the railroad remains
-the most potent factor in every development. By bringing men
-more and more closely together, and supplying them more and
-more abundantly and cheaply with all the varied treasures of the
-earth, stored up for millions of years for the coming of this generation,
-it adds continually more fuel to the flame it originated. And
-as it is necessarily reacted upon equally by every new invention or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
-discovery, and by all progress in other departments of human activity,
-the demands upon it, and its points of contact with everyday
-life, are still increasing in geometrical progression.</p>
-
-<p>Hence, in the practical management of railroad affairs, problems
-are of constant occurrence which touch almost every pursuit
-to which men give themselves, whether of finance, agriculture,
-commerce, manufactures, science, or politics; and the methods,
-forms, and principles under which current railroad management
-is being developed (for it is by no means at a stand-still) are
-the result of the necessities imposed by these multiplying problems
-acting within the constraints of corporate existences.</p>
-
-<p>For while the life of a corporation is perpetual, its powers are
-constrained, and the individuals exercising them are constantly
-changing. It is but an artificial individual existing for certain purposes
-only, and, as it lacks some human qualities, all its methods
-of doing business are influenced thereby. The business affairs
-of an individual, for instance, are greatly simplified by his memory
-of his transactions from day to day and from year to year.
-But a corporation having no natural memory, all of its transactions
-and relations must be minutely and systematically noted in its
-archives. Every contract and obligation must be of record, all
-property bought or constructed must go upon the books, and,
-when expended or used up, must go off in due form; and especially
-must an accurate system of checks guard all earnings and
-expenditures, and a comprehensive system of book-keeping consolidate
-innumerable transactions into the great variety of boiled-down
-figures and statistics necessary for officers and stockholders
-to fully understand what the property is doing.</p>
-
-<p>Under such circumstances, then, our railroads and their systems
-of organization and management, like the Darwinian Topsy, have
-not "been made" but have "growed."</p>
-
-<p>Naturally, both the direction and extent of the development have
-varied in different localities and under different conditions. Within
-the limits of this article it would be impossible to give anything
-like an exhaustive or complete account of the organization, distribution
-of duties, systems of working, and of checks in the various
-departments of even a single road. Most roads publish more or
-less elaborate small volumes of regulations on such subjects for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
-use of their various employees. The task would also be endless
-to describe technically the variations of practice and of nomenclature
-in different sections and on different systems. The shades of
-difference, too, between managers, superintendents, or masters;
-comptrollers, auditors, book-keepers, and accountants; secretaries,
-cashiers, treasurers, and paymasters in different localities would
-be tedious to draw. A technical account of them would be almost
-a reproduction of the volumes above-mentioned. I can only
-attempt to outline and illustrate very briefly the general principles
-which underlie the present practice, and are more or less elaborated
-as circumstances may require.</p>
-
-<p>The principal duties connected with the management of a railroad
-may be classified as follows:</p>
-
-<p>1. The physical care of the property.</p>
-
-<p>2. The handling of the trains.</p>
-
-<p>3. The making rates and soliciting business.</p>
-
-<p>4. The collection of revenue and keeping statistics.</p>
-
-<p>5. The custody and disbursement of revenue.</p>
-
-<p>The president is, of course, the executive head of the company,
-but in important matters he acts only with the consent and approval
-of the Board of Directors, or of an executive committee
-clothed with authority of the board, which may be called the legislative
-branch of the management. More or less of the executive
-power and supervision of the president may be delegated to one or
-more vice-presidents. Often all of it but that relating to financial
-matters is so delegated, but, as their functions are subdivisions of
-those of the president, they have no essential part in a general
-scheme of authority.</p>
-
-<p>Of the five subdivisions of duties indicated above, the first four
-are usually confided to a general manager, who may also be a vice-president,
-and the fifth is in charge of a treasurer, reporting directly
-to the president.</p>
-
-<p>The special departments under charge of the general manager
-are each officered by trained experts:</p>
-
-<p>A superintendent of roadway or chief engineer has charge of
-the maintenance of the track, bridges, and buildings.</p>
-
-<p>A superintendent of machinery has charge of the construction
-and maintenance of all rolling stock.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>A superintendent of transportation makes all schedules, and has
-charge of all movements of trains.</p>
-
-<p>A car accountant keeps record of the location, whereabout, and
-movements of all cars.</p>
-
-<p>A traffic manager has charge of passenger and freight rates, and
-all advertising and soliciting for business.</p>
-
-<p>A comptroller has charge of all the book-keeping by which the
-revenue of the company is collected and accounted for. All statistics
-are generally prepared in his office.</p>
-
-<p>A paymaster receives money from the treasurer and disburses,
-under the direction of the comptroller, for all expenses of operation.</p>
-
-<p>All dividend and interest payments are made by the treasurer,
-under direction of the president and board.</p>
-
-<p>There are, besides the above, two general departments with
-which all the rest have to do, to a greater or less extent&mdash;the legal
-department and the purchasing department. The quantity and
-variety of articles used and consumed in the operation of a railroad
-are so great that it is a measure of much economy to concentrate
-all purchases into the hands of a single purchasing agent, rather
-than to allow each department to purchase for itself. This agent
-has nothing to do but to study prices and markets. His pride is
-enlisted in getting the lowest figures for his road, and the large
-amount of his purchases enables him to secure the best rates. And
-last, but not least, in matters where dishonesty would find so great
-opportunities, it is safer to concentrate responsibility than to diffuse
-it.</p>
-
-<p>As I shall not again refer to this department, what remains of
-interest for me to say about it will be said here. As an adjunct to
-it, storehouses are established at central points in which stocks of
-articles in ordinary use are kept on hand. Whenever supplies are
-wanted in any other department&mdash;as, for instance, a bell-cord and
-lantern by a conductor&mdash;requisitions are presented, approved by a
-designated superior. These requisitions state whether the articles
-are to be charged to legitimate wear and tear, and if so,
-whether to the passenger or the freight service, and of which subdivision
-of the road; or whether they are to be charged to the
-conductor for other articles not properly accounted for. Without<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
-going into further detail, it can be readily seen how the comptroller's
-office can, at the end of each month, from these requisitions,
-have a complete check upon all persons responsible for the care of
-property. The purchasing agent, too, from his familiarity with
-prices, is usually charged with the sale of all condemned and worn-out
-material.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p>
-
-<p>Before returning to a more detailed review of the operating departments
-of a railroad, its legal department requires a few words.
-Not only is a railroad corporation, being itself a creation of the law,
-peculiarly bound to conform all its actions to legal forms and tenets,
-but it is also a favorite target for litigation. The popular prejudice
-against corporations, it may be said in passing, is utterly illogical.
-The corporation is the poor man's opportunity. Without it he
-could never share in the gains and advantages open to capital in
-large sums. With it a thousand men, contributing a thousand dollars
-each, compete on equal terms with the millionaire. Its doors
-are always open to any who may wish to share its privileges or its
-prosperity, and no man is denied equal participation according to
-his means and inclinations. It is the greatest "anti-poverty" invention
-which has ever been produced, and the most democratic.
-But, for all that, instead of possessing the unbounded power usually
-ascribed to it, no creature of God or man is so helpless as a corporation
-before the so-called great tribunal of justice, the American
-jury. It may not be literally true that a Texas jury gave damages to
-a tramp against a certain railroad because a section-master's wife
-gave him a meal which disagreed with him, but the story can be
-nearly paralleled from the experience of many railroads. Hence
-settlements outside of the law are always preferred where they are
-at all possible, and an essential part of an efficient legal organization
-is a suitable man always ready to repair promptly to the scene of
-any loss or accident, to examine the circumstances with the eye of
-a legal expert on liabilities.</p>
-
-<p>But the management of claims, and of loss and damage suits,
-though a large part, is by no means all of the legal business connected
-with a railroad. Every contract or agreement should pass
-under scrutiny of counsel, and in the preparation of the various
-forms of bonds, mortgages, debentures, preferred stocks, etc.,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
-which the wants of the day have brought forth, the highest legal
-talent finds employment. For, as development has multiplied the
-types of cars
-and engines to
-meet special
-wants, so have
-a great variety
-of securities
-been developed
-to meet the
-taste and prejudices
-of investors of all nations.
-There is, in fact, a certain
-fashion in the forms of
-bonds, and the conditions incorporated
-in mortgages,
-which has to be observed to
-adapt any bond to its proposed
-market.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_154a.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>We shall now return to the
-operating departments under
-their respective heads, and
-glance briefly at the methods
-and detail pursued in each.
-On roads of large mileage the general manager is assisted by general
-or division superintendents in charge of roadway, motive
-power, and trains of one or more separate divisions; but for our
-purposes we may consider the different departments without reference
-to these superintendents.</p>
-
-<div class="sandbagbox" id="img154">
- <div id="i154b1">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i154b2">&nbsp;</div>
-
-<p>The superintendent of roadway or chief engineer comes first,
-having charge of track, bridges, and buildings. In his office are
-collected maps of all important stations and junction points, kept
-up to date with changes and additions; scale drawings of all
-bridges and trestles, of all standard depots, tanks, switches, rails,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
-fastenings, signals, and everything necessary to secure uniformity
-of patterns and practice over the entire road. Under him are
-supervisors of bridges and supervisors of road, each assigned to a
-certain territory. The supervisors of bridges make frequent and
-minute examinations of every piece or member of every bridge and
-trestle, report in advance all the repairs that become necessary,
-and make requisition for the material needed.</p>
-</div>
-
-    <div class="HandHeld">
-    <div class="figleft">
-    <img src="images/i_154b.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-    </div>
-
-    <p>The superintendent of roadway or chief engineer comes first,
-    having charge of track, bridges, and buildings. In his office are
-    collected maps of all important stations and junction points, kept
-    up to date with changes and additions; scale drawings of all
-    bridges and trestles, of all standard depots, tanks, switches, rails,
-    fastenings, signals, and everything necessary to secure uniformity
-    of patterns and practice over the entire road. Under him are
-    supervisors of bridges and supervisors of road, each assigned to a
-    certain territory. The supervisors of bridges make frequent and
-    minute examinations of every piece or member of every bridge and
-    trestle, report in advance all the repairs that become necessary,
-    and make requisition for the material needed.</p>
-    </div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_155.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">A Type of Snow-plough.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Under the bridge supervisor are organized "bridge gangs,"
-each consisting of a competent foreman with carpenters and laborers
-skilled in bridge work and living in "house" or "boarding"
-cars, and provided with pile-drivers, derricks, and all appliances
-for handling heavy timbers and erecting, tearing down, and repairing
-bridges. These cars form a movable camp, going from place
-to place as needed, and being side-tracked as near as possible to
-the work of the gang. Long experience begets great skill in their
-special duties, and the feats which these gangs will perform are
-often more wonderful than many of the more showy performances
-of railroad engineering. It is an every-day thing with such gangs
-to take down an old wooden structure, and erect in its place an
-iron one, perhaps with the track raised several feet above the level<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
-of the original, while fifty trains pass every day, not one of which
-will be delayed for a moment.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_156.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">A Rotary Steam Snow-shovel in Operation.<br />
-(From an instantaneous photograph.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Each of the supervisors of road has his assigned territory divided
-into "sections," from five to eight miles in
-length. At a suitable place on each section are erected houses
-for a resident section-master and from six to twelve hands. These
-are provided with hand- and push-cars, and spend their whole
-time in keeping their sections in good condition. Upon many
-roads annual inspections are made and prizes offered for the best
-sections. At least twice a day track-walkers from the section-gangs
-pass over the entire line of road. To simplify reports and
-instructions, frequently every bridge or opening in the track is
-numbered, and the number displayed upon it; and every curve is
-also posted with its degree of curvature and the proper elevation
-to be given to the outer rail.</p>
-
-<p>The work of the section-men is all done under regular system.
-In the spring construction-trains deliver and distribute ties and
-rails on each section, upon requisitions from supervisors. Then
-the section-force goes over its line from end to end, putting in first<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
-the new ties and then the new rails needed. Next the track is
-gone over with minute care and re-lined, re-surfaced, and re-ballasted,
-to repair the damages of frost and wet, the great enemies
-of a road-bed. Then ditches, grass, and the right-of-way have attention.
-These processes are continually repeated, and especially
-in the fall in preparation for winter. During the winter as little
-disturbance of track is made as possible, but ditches are kept
-clean, and low joints are raised by "shims" on top of joint ties. Essential
-parts of the equipment of any large road are snow-ploughs
-(<a href="#Page_154">pp. 154&ndash;5&ndash;6</a>) and wrecking cars, with powerful derricks and
-other appliances for clearing obstructions. When wrecks or blockades
-occur these cars, with extra engines, section-hands, bridge
-gangs, and construction-trains, are rushed to the spot, and everything
-yields to the
-work of getting the
-road clear.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_157.jpg" width="350" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Railway-crossing Gate.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>We come next
-to the superintendent
-of machinery,
-whose duty it is to
-provide and maintain
-locomotives
-and cars of all
-kinds to handle the
-company's traffic.
-His department is
-subdivided between
-a master mechanic,
-in charge of
-locomotives and
-machine-shops,
-and a master car-builder,
-in charge
-of car-shops.</p>
-
-<p>The master
-mechanic selects and immediately controls all engine-runners and
-firemen, and keeps performance sheets of all locomotives, showing
-miles run, cars hauled, wages paid, coal and oil consumed, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
-other details giving results accomplished by different runners and
-firemen, and by different types of engine, or on different divisions
-or roads. Premiums are often paid the runners and firemen accomplishing
-the best results.</p>
-
-<p class="center"><em>Report of Performance of Engines, Repairs, and all other Costs
-Incident thereto, for the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1888.</em></p>
-
-<div class="p2 pad6 fs80">
-[Key for column headings. Column A has been repeated in each Part.]<br />
-<br />
- A. Number of Engine.<br />
- B. Passenger<br />
- C. Freight.<br />
- D. Gravel or Construction.<br />
- E. Switching.<br />
- F. Total.<br />
- G. Eighth Cords of wood.<br />
- H. Bushels Coal.<br />
- I. Cost of Fuel.<br />
-</div>
-
-<p class="pfs90">[Table&mdash;Part 1 of 4]</p>
-
-
-<div class="p1 center fs80">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="bt bl tdpp"></td><td class="bt bl" colspan="5"></td><td class="bt bl" colspan="3"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl tdpp"></td><td class="tdc bl smcap" colspan="5">Miles Run.</td><td class="tdc bl smcap" colspan="3">Fuel.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bl tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl" colspan="5"></td><td class="bb bl" colspan="3"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc bl tdpp">A.</td><td class="tdc bl">B.</td><td class="tdc bl">C.</td><td class="tdc bl">D.</td><td class="tdc bl">E.</td><td class="tdc bl">F.</td><td class="tdc bl">G.</td><td class="tdc bl">H.</td><td class="tdc bl">I.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb bl tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl tdpp"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">12,084</td><td class="tdr bl">4,253</td><td class="tdr bl">64</td><td class="tdr bl">16,401</td><td class="tdr bl">118</td><td class="tdr bl">10,699</td><td class="tdr bl">$1,090.25</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 2</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">2,672</td><td class="tdr bl">11,779</td><td class="tdr bl">954</td><td class="tdr bl">15,405</td><td class="tdr bl">193</td><td class="tdr bl">10,913</td><td class="tdr bl">1,131.77</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 3</td><td class="tdr bl">5,402</td><td class="tdr bl">14,471</td><td class="tdr bl">408</td><td class="tdr bl">120</td><td class="tdr bl">20,407</td><td class="tdr bl">189</td><td class="tdr bl">10,590</td><td class="tdr bl">1,101.08</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 4</td><td class="tdr bl">28,643</td><td class="tdr bl">4,168</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">32,811</td><td class="tdr bl">297</td><td class="tdr bl">11,875</td><td class="tdr bl">1,212.20</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 5</td><td class="tdr bl">28,275</td><td class="tdr bl">4,490</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">72</td><td class="tdr bl">32,837</td><td class="tdr bl">301</td><td class="tdr bl">12,961</td><td class="tdr bl">1,335.31</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 6</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">32,370</td><td class="tdr bl">32,370</td><td class="tdr bl">33</td><td class="tdr bl">10,360</td><td class="tdr bl">1,042.26</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 8</td><td class="tdr bl">3,229</td><td class="tdr bl">11,799</td><td class="tdr bl">4,779</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">19,807</td><td class="tdr bl">150</td><td class="tdr bl">13,233</td><td class="tdr bl">1,356.30</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 9</td><td class="tdr bl">1,050</td><td class="tdr bl">23,203</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">24,253</td><td class="tdr bl">155</td><td class="tdr bl">16,344</td><td class="tdr bl">1,663.41</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">10</td><td class="tdr bl">874</td><td class="tdr bl">24,729</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">96</td><td class="tdr bl">25,699</td><td class="tdr bl">158</td><td class="tdr bl">17,039</td><td class="tdr bl">1,741.67</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">11</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">23,609</td><td class="tdr bl">23,609</td><td class="tdr bl">205</td><td class="tdr bl">7,661</td><td class="tdr bl">811.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">12</td><td class="tdr bl">1,527</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">4,369</td><td class="tdr bl">12,060</td><td class="tdr bl">17,956</td><td class="tdr bl">142</td><td class="tdr bl">8,875</td><td class="tdr bl">918.75</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">30</td><td class="tdr bl">41,345</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">41,345</td><td class="tdr bl">237</td><td class="tdr bl">17,702</td><td class="tdr bl">1,821.37</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">31</td><td class="tdr bl">37,450</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">37,450</td><td class="tdr bl">215</td><td class="tdr bl">16,695</td><td class="tdr bl">1,716.56</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">32</td><td class="tdr bl">4,233</td><td class="tdr bl">13,516</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">120</td><td class="tdr bl">17,869</td><td class="tdr bl">115</td><td class="tdr bl">10,918</td><td class="tdr bl">1,117.10</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">34</td><td class="tdr bl">13,742</td><td class="tdr bl">5,217</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">1,224</td><td class="tdr bl">20,183</td><td class="tdr bl">149</td><td class="tdr bl">6,691</td><td class="tdr bl">704.07</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"></td><td class="tdr bl">165,770</td><td class="tdr bl">116,349</td><td class="tdr bl">25,588</td><td class="tdr bl">70,695</td><td class="tdr bl">378,402</td><td class="tdr bl">2657</td><td class="tdr bl">182,556</td><td class="tdr bl">$18,768.13</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-
-<div class="p2 pad6 fs80 pg-brk">
- A. Number of Engine.<br />
- J. Gallons of Engine Oil.<br />
- K. Signal Oil.<br />
- L. Head-Light Oil.<br />
- M. Lbs. of Cyl. Oil.<br />
- N. Car Grease.<br />
- O. Waste.<br />
- P. Packing.<br />
- Q. Gallons Kerosene.<br />
-</div>
-
-<p class="pfs90">[Table&mdash;Part 2 of 4]</p>
-
-<div class="p1 center fs80">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="bt bl tdpp"></td><td class="bt bl" colspan="8"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl tdpp"></td><td class="tdc bl smcap" colspan="8">Oil, Waste and Other Stores.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bl tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl" colspan="8"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc bl tdpp">A.</td><td class="tdc bl">J.</td><td class="tdc bl">K.</td><td class="tdc bl">L.</td><td class="tdc bl">M.</td><td class="tdc bl">N.</td><td class="tdc bl">O.</td><td class="tdc bl">P.</td><td class="tdc bl">Q.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb bl tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl tdpp"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl">124</td><td class="tdr bl">10</td><td class="tdr bl">29</td><td class="tdr bl">59½</td><td class="tdr bl">45</td><td class="tdr bl">347</td><td class="tdr bl">72</td><td class="tdr bl">&ndash;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 2</td><td class="tdr bl">121½</td><td class="tdr bl">13½</td><td class="tdr bl">35½</td><td class="tdr bl">69½</td><td class="tdr bl">69</td><td class="tdr bl">466</td><td class="tdr bl">102</td><td class="tdr bl">2</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 3</td><td class="tdr bl">132½</td><td class="tdr bl">10½</td><td class="tdr bl">38</td><td class="tdr bl">74½</td><td class="tdr bl">69</td><td class="tdr bl">350</td><td class="tdr bl">61</td><td class="tdr bl">&ndash;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 4</td><td class="tdr bl">258</td><td class="tdr bl">14</td><td class="tdr bl">49</td><td class="tdr bl">125</td><td class="tdr bl">106</td><td class="tdr bl">659</td><td class="tdr bl">76</td><td class="tdr bl">&ndash;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 5</td><td class="tdr bl">256</td><td class="tdr bl">12</td><td class="tdr bl">39</td><td class="tdr bl">99½</td><td class="tdr bl">75</td><td class="tdr bl">622</td><td class="tdr bl">82½</td><td class="tdr bl">&ndash;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 6</td><td class="tdr bl">30½</td><td class="tdr bl">12½</td><td class="tdr bl">188½</td><td class="tdr bl">111¼</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">298</td><td class="tdr bl">160½</td><td class="tdr bl">&ndash;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 8</td><td class="tdr bl">134</td><td class="tdr bl">10½</td><td class="tdr bl">41</td><td class="tdr bl">65¼</td><td class="tdr bl">60</td><td class="tdr bl">327</td><td class="tdr bl">98</td><td class="tdr bl">&ndash;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 9</td><td class="tdr bl">135</td><td class="tdr bl">12½</td><td class="tdr bl">45½</td><td class="tdr bl">73</td><td class="tdr bl">70</td><td class="tdr bl">374</td><td class="tdr bl">87</td><td class="tdr bl">&ndash;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">10</td><td class="tdr bl">131½</td><td class="tdr bl">13½</td><td class="tdr bl">63</td><td class="tdr bl">69</td><td class="tdr bl">70</td><td class="tdr bl">372</td><td class="tdr bl">96</td><td class="tdr bl">&ndash;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">11</td><td class="tdr bl">136</td><td class="tdr bl">1¾</td><td class="tdr bl">96</td><td class="tdr bl">81</td><td class="tdr bl">40</td><td class="tdr bl">354</td><td class="tdr bl">81</td><td class="tdr bl">2</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">12</td><td class="tdr bl">105</td><td class="tdr bl">9¼</td><td class="tdr bl">58</td><td class="tdr bl">95½</td><td class="tdr bl">20</td><td class="tdr bl">360</td><td class="tdr bl">75</td><td class="tdr bl">&ndash;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">30</td><td class="tdr bl">223</td><td class="tdr bl">23¾</td><td class="tdr bl">44½</td><td class="tdr bl">69</td><td class="tdr bl">106</td><td class="tdr bl">726</td><td class="tdr bl">51</td><td class="tdr bl">&ndash;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">31</td><td class="tdr bl">243</td><td class="tdr bl">15¼</td><td class="tdr bl">46</td><td class="tdr bl">92</td><td class="tdr bl">110</td><td class="tdr bl">660</td><td class="tdr bl">68</td><td class="tdr bl">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">32</td><td class="tdr bl">138</td><td class="tdr bl">10½</td><td class="tdr bl">41</td><td class="tdr bl">71½</td><td class="tdr bl">130</td><td class="tdr bl">361</td><td class="tdr bl">63</td><td class="tdr bl">7</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">34</td><td class="tdr bl">186</td><td class="tdr bl">10</td><td class="tdr bl">32</td><td class="tdr bl">71</td><td class="tdr bl">75</td><td class="tdr bl">409</td><td class="tdr bl">43</td><td class="tdr bl">2</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"></td><td class="tdr bl">2,554</td><td class="tdr bl">179½</td><td class="tdr bl">846</td><td class="tdr bl">1,226½</td><td class="tdr bl">1045</td><td class="tdr bl">6685</td><td class="tdr bl">1214</td><td class="tdr bl">14</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<div class="p2 pad6 fs80 pg-brk">
- A. Number of Engine.<br />
- R. Cost of Stores.<br />
- S. Wages of Engineer and Fireman.<br />
- T. Cost of Cleaning.<br />
- U. Labor.<br />
- V. Material.<br />
- W. Total Cost of Repairs.<br />
- X. Total Expenses and Repairs.<br />
-</div>
-
-<p class="pfs90">[Table&mdash;Part 3 of 4]</p>
-
-<div class="p1 center fs80">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="bt bl tdpp"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl" colspan="3"></td><td class="bt bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl tdpp"></td><td class="tdr bl"></td><td class="tdr bl"></td><td class="tdr bl"></td><td class="tdc bl smcap" colspan="3">Cost of Repairs.</td><td class="tdr bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bl tdpp"></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc bl tdpp">A.</td><td class="tdc bl">R.</td><td class="tdc bl">S.</td><td class="tdc bl">T.</td><td class="tdc bl">U.</td><td class="tdc bl">V.</td><td class="tdc bl">W.</td><td class="tdc bl">X.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb bl tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl tdpp"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl">$ 87.64</td><td class="tdr bl">$ 1,293.80</td><td class="tdr bl">$ 115.00</td><td class="tdr bl">$ 223.40</td><td class="tdr bl">$ 66.32</td><td class="tdr bl">$ 289.72</td><td class="tdr bl">$ 2,876.41</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 2</td><td class="tdr bl">106.85</td><td class="tdr bl">1,646.90</td><td class="tdr bl">82.50</td><td class="tdr bl">69.65</td><td class="tdr bl">75.14</td><td class="tdr bl">144.79</td><td class="tdr bl">3,112.81</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 3</td><td class="tdr bl">93.85</td><td class="tdr bl">1,489.65</td><td class="tdr bl">187.50</td><td class="tdr bl">178.25</td><td class="tdr bl">63.61</td><td class="tdr bl">241.86</td><td class="tdr bl">3,113.94</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 4</td><td class="tdr bl">171.85</td><td class="tdr bl">1,719.55</td><td class="tdr bl">212.50</td><td class="tdr bl">203.95</td><td class="tdr bl">100.13</td><td class="tdr bl">304.08</td><td class="tdr bl">3,620.18</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 5</td><td class="tdr bl">144.86</td><td class="tdr bl">1,628.80</td><td class="tdr bl">202.00</td><td class="tdr bl">240.55</td><td class="tdr bl">114.98</td><td class="tdr bl">355.53</td><td class="tdr bl">3,666.50</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 6</td><td class="tdr bl">173.92</td><td class="tdr bl">1,884.50</td><td class="tdr bl">10.00</td><td class="tdr bl">172.35</td><td class="tdr bl">63.65</td><td class="tdr bl">236.00</td><td class="tdr bl">3,346.68</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 8</td><td class="tdr bl">97.34</td><td class="tdr bl">1,593.05</td><td class="tdr bl">150.00</td><td class="tdr bl">110.75</td><td class="tdr bl">106.69</td><td class="tdr bl">217.44</td><td class="tdr bl">3,414.13</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 9</td><td class="tdr bl">108.53</td><td class="tdr bl">1,625.80</td><td class="tdr bl">200.00</td><td class="tdr bl">139.80</td><td class="tdr bl">175.48</td><td class="tdr bl">315.28</td><td class="tdr bl">3,918.02</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">10</td><td class="tdr bl">108.38</td><td class="tdr bl">1,669.55</td><td class="tdr bl">205.00</td><td class="tdr bl">207.55</td><td class="tdr bl">109.78</td><td class="tdr bl">317.33</td><td class="tdr bl">4,041.93</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">11</td><td class="tdr bl">111.83</td><td class="tdr bl">1,126.75</td><td class="tdr bl">5.00</td><td class="tdr bl">413.95</td><td class="tdr bl">89.76</td><td class="tdr bl">503.71</td><td class="tdr bl">2,558.29</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">12</td><td class="tdr bl">106.31</td><td class="tdr bl">1,405.10</td><td class="tdr bl">25.00</td><td class="tdr bl">37.45</td><td class="tdr bl">27.17</td><td class="tdr bl">64.62</td><td class="tdr bl">2,519.78</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">30</td><td class="tdr bl">142.71</td><td class="tdr bl">1,719.56</td><td class="tdr bl">212.50</td><td class="tdr bl">144.50</td><td class="tdr bl">77.52</td><td class="tdr bl">222.02</td><td class="tdr bl">4,118.15</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">31</td><td class="tdr bl">152.16</td><td class="tdr bl">1,554.55</td><td class="tdr bl">205.00</td><td class="tdr bl">642.50</td><td class="tdr bl">432.86</td><td class="tdr bl">1,075.36</td><td class="tdr bl">4,703.66</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">32</td><td class="tdr bl">108.40</td><td class="tdr bl">1,186.40</td><td class="tdr bl">172.00</td><td class="tdr bl">1,729.70</td><td class="tdr bl">438.40</td><td class="tdr bl">2,168.10</td><td class="tdr bl">4,752.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">34</td><td class="tdr bl">108.40</td><td class="tdr bl">1,186.40</td><td class="tdr bl">137.00</td><td class="tdr bl">1,522.10</td><td class="tdr bl">781.64</td><td class="tdr bl">2,303.74</td><td class="tdr bl">4,313.48</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"></td><td class="tdr bl">1,823.80</td><td class="tdr bl">22,603.45</td><td class="tdr bl">2,121.00</td><td class="tdr bl">6,036.45</td><td class="tdr bl">2,723.13</td><td class="tdr bl">8,759.58</td><td class="tdr bl">54,075.96</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<div class="p2 pad6 fs80 pg-brk">
- A. Number of Engine.<br />
- Y. Bushel Coal.<br />
- Z. Gal. Engine Oil.<br />
-AA. Pound of Tallow.<br />
-BB. Repairs.<br />
-CC. Fuel.<br />
-DD. Stores.<br />
-EE. Wages E. and F.<br />
-FF. Cleaning.<br />
-GG. Total.<br />
-HH. Car Mileage.<br />
-</div>
-
-<p class="pfs90">[Table&mdash;Part 4 of 4]</p>
-
-<div class="center fs80">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="bt bl tdpp"></td><td class="bt bl" colspan="3"></td><td class="bt bl" colspan="6"></td><td class="bt bl br"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl tdpp"></td><td class="tdc bl smcap" colspan="3">M'ls run to one.</td><td class="tdc bl smcap" colspan="6">Cost per Mile Run For.</td><td class="tdr bl br"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bl tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bl br"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc bl tdpp">A.</td><td class="tdc bl">Y.</td><td class="tdc bl">Z.</td><td class="tdc bl">AA.</td><td class="tdc bl">BB.</td><td class="tdc bl">CC.</td><td class="tdc bl">DD.</td><td class="tdc bl">EE.</td><td class="tdc bl">FF.</td><td class="tdc bl">GG.</td><td class="tdc bl br">HH.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb bl tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl br"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl tdpp"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl">1.5</td><td class="tdr bl">122.3</td><td class="tdr bl">34.5</td><td class="tdr bl">01.76</td><td class="tdr bl">06.64</td><td class="tdr bl">00.53</td><td class="tdr bl">07.89</td><td class="tdr bl">00.61</td><td class="tdr bl">17.43</td><td class="tdr bl br">177,659</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 2</td><td class="tdr bl">1.1</td><td class="tdr bl">126.8</td><td class="tdr bl">27.7</td><td class="tdr bl">00.94</td><td class="tdr bl">07.34</td><td class="tdr bl">00.69</td><td class="tdr bl">10.69</td><td class="tdr bl">00.53</td><td class="tdr bl">20.19</td><td class="tdr bl br">197,203</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 3</td><td class="tdr bl">0.9</td><td class="tdr bl">77.7</td><td class="tdr bl">17.4</td><td class="tdr bl">02.32</td><td class="tdr bl">10.58</td><td class="tdr bl">00.90</td><td class="tdr bl">14.31</td><td class="tdr bl">02.04</td><td class="tdr bl">30.15</td><td class="tdr bl br">182,402</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 4</td><td class="tdr bl">2.7</td><td class="tdr bl">127.2</td><td class="tdr bl">32.8</td><td class="tdr bl">00.92</td><td class="tdr bl">03.69</td><td class="tdr bl">05.23</td><td class="tdr bl">05.24</td><td class="tdr bl">00.64</td><td class="tdr bl">15.72</td><td class="tdr bl br">139,422</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 5</td><td class="tdr bl">2.5</td><td class="tdr bl">128.2</td><td class="tdr bl">41.2</td><td class="tdr bl">01.08</td><td class="tdr bl">04.06</td><td class="tdr bl">00.44</td><td class="tdr bl">04.96</td><td class="tdr bl">00.61</td><td class="tdr bl">11.15</td><td class="tdr bl br">135,780</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 6</td><td class="tdr bl">3.1</td><td class="tdr bl">140.4</td><td class="tdr bl">36.3</td><td class="tdr bl">00.72</td><td class="tdr bl">03.22</td><td class="tdr bl">00.53</td><td class="tdr bl">05.82</td><td class="tdr bl">00.03</td><td class="tdr bl">10.32</td><td class="tdr bl br">&mdash;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 8</td><td class="tdr bl">1.5</td><td class="tdr bl">147.8</td><td class="tdr bl">37.9</td><td class="tdr bl">01.09</td><td class="tdr bl">06.84</td><td class="tdr bl">00.49</td><td class="tdr bl">08.04</td><td class="tdr bl">00.76</td><td class="tdr bl">17.22</td><td class="tdr bl br">305,024</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 9</td><td class="tdr bl">1.4</td><td class="tdr bl">150.0</td><td class="tdr bl">48.5</td><td class="tdr bl">01.30</td><td class="tdr bl">06.88</td><td class="tdr bl">00.40</td><td class="tdr bl">06.70</td><td class="tdr bl">00.82</td><td class="tdr bl">16.10</td><td class="tdr bl br">383,682</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">10</td><td class="tdr bl">1.5</td><td class="tdr bl">195.4</td><td class="tdr bl">46.5</td><td class="tdr bl">01.23</td><td class="tdr bl">06.77</td><td class="tdr bl">00.31</td><td class="tdr bl">06.49</td><td class="tdr bl">00.79</td><td class="tdr bl">15.59</td><td class="tdr bl br">409,035</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">11</td><td class="tdr bl">3.0</td><td class="tdr bl">173.6</td><td class="tdr bl">36.4</td><td class="tdr bl">02.13</td><td class="tdr bl">03.43</td><td class="tdr bl">00.47</td><td class="tdr bl">04.77</td><td class="tdr bl">00.02</td><td class="tdr bl">10.82</td><td class="tdr bl br">&mdash;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">12</td><td class="tdr bl">2.0</td><td class="tdr bl">171.0</td><td class="tdr bl">23.5</td><td class="tdr bl">00.36</td><td class="tdr bl">05.11</td><td class="tdr bl">00.59</td><td class="tdr bl">07.82</td><td class="tdr bl">00.14</td><td class="tdr bl">14.02</td><td class="tdr bl br">66,834</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">30</td><td class="tdr bl">2.3</td><td class="tdr bl">185.4</td><td class="tdr bl">74.9</td><td class="tdr bl">00.53</td><td class="tdr bl">04.40</td><td class="tdr bl">00.34</td><td class="tdr bl">04.15</td><td class="tdr bl">00.51</td><td class="tdr bl">09.93</td><td class="tdr bl br">231,554</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">31</td><td class="tdr bl">2.2</td><td class="tdr bl">154.1</td><td class="tdr bl">50.8</td><td class="tdr bl">02.87</td><td class="tdr bl">04.58</td><td class="tdr bl">00.40</td><td class="tdr bl">04.15</td><td class="tdr bl">00.54</td><td class="tdr bl">12.54</td><td class="tdr bl br">202,289</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">32</td><td class="tdr bl">1.6</td><td class="tdr bl">129.5</td><td class="tdr bl">31.2</td><td class="tdr bl">12.11</td><td class="tdr bl">06.25</td><td class="tdr bl">00.60</td><td class="tdr bl">06.64</td><td class="tdr bl">00.96</td><td class="tdr bl">26.56</td><td class="tdr bl br">184,083</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">34</td><td class="tdr bl">3.2</td><td class="tdr bl">108.5</td><td class="tdr bl">35.5</td><td class="tdr bl">11.41</td><td class="tdr bl">03.48</td><td class="tdr bl">00.54</td><td class="tdr bl">05.29</td><td class="tdr bl">00.67</td><td class="tdr bl">21.39</td><td class="tdr bl br">107,060</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl br"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl"></td><td class="tdr bl">2.5</td><td class="tdr bl">148.1</td><td class="tdr bl">38.5</td><td class="tdr bl">02.31</td><td class="tdr bl">04.98</td><td class="tdr bl">00.48</td><td class="tdr bl">05.97</td><td class="tdr bl">00.55</td><td class="tdr bl">14.29</td><td class="tdr bl br">2,722,027</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl br"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-
-<p class="p2" />
-<p>The master car-builder has charge of the shops where cars are
-built and repaired, and of the car-inspectors who are stationed at
-central and junction points to prevent defective cars being put into
-the trains.</p>
-
-<p>Formerly each railroad used its own cars exclusively, and
-through freights were transferred at every junction point. This involved
-such delay and expense that railroads now generally permit
-all loaded cars to go through to destination without transfer,
-and allow each other a certain sum for the use of cars. Usually
-this is about three-quarters of a cent for each mile which the car
-travels on a foreign road. This involves a great scattering of cars,
-and an extensive organization to keep record of their whereabouts
-and of the accounts between the companies for mileage.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> This organization
-will be referred to more fully in connection with the department
-of transportation. But the joint use of each other's cars<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
-makes it necessary that there should be at least enough similarity
-in their construction and their coupling appliances to permit their
-indiscriminate use upon all roads. And conventions of master car-builders
-have recommended certain forms and dimensions as standards,
-which are now in general use.</p>
-
-<p>There is much convenience in this, but one disadvantage. It
-requires almost unanimous action to introduce any change of form
-or of construction, however advantageous it may be. And to secure
-unanimous action in such matters is almost as hard as it would
-be to secure unanimity in a change in the spelling of English words.
-Still there is progress, though slow, toward several desirable reforms,
-the most important of which is the adoption of a standard
-automatic coupler (see <a href="#Page_142">p. 142</a>).</p>
-
-<p>Having shown how the property of all kinds is kept in efficient
-condition, we next come to its operation. This is called "conducting
-transportation," and the officer in charge is usually called
-the superintendent of transportation. All train-despatchers, conductors,
-train-men, and telegraph operators are under his immediate
-control. He makes all schedules and provides all extra and
-irregular service that the traffic department makes requisition for,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
-himself calling upon the superintendent of machinery for the necessary
-locomotives, switching engines, and cars. It is his especial
-province to handle all trains as swiftly as possible, and to see that
-there are no collisions. It is impossible to detail fully the safeguards
-and precautions used to this end, but the general principles
-observed are as follows:</p>
-
-<p>First, a general time-table or schedule is carefully made out for
-all regular trains upon each division, showing on one sheet the
-time of each train at each station.</p>
-
-<p>This schedule is all that is needed so long as all trains are able
-to keep on time, and there are no extras. Trouble begins when
-regular trains cannot keep on schedule, or when extra trains have
-to be sent out, not provided for on the schedule. A diagram,
-or graphic representation of this schedule, upon a board or large
-sheet of paper, is an important feature of the office regulating
-train-movements. Twenty-four vertical lines divide the board into
-equal spaces representing the twenty-four hours of the day, numbered
-from midnight to midnight. Horizontal lines at proportionate
-distances from the top represent the stations in their order between
-the termini, represented by the top and bottom lines of the
-diagram. The course of every train can now be plotted on this
-diagram in an oblique line joining the points on each station line
-corresponding to the time the train arrives at and leaves that station.
-The cut on the opposite page will illustrate. It represents a
-road 130 miles long from A to N, with intermediate stations B, C,
-D, etc., at different distances from each other, and six trains are
-shown as follows:</p>
-
-<p>A passenger train, No. 1, leaving A at 12 midnight and arriving
-at N at 4.05 <span class="fs70">A.M.</span> A fast express, No. 2, leaving N at 12.45
-and arriving at A at 3.30. A local passenger train, No. 4, which
-leaves N at 1.15, runs to E by 4 <span class="fs70">A.M.</span>, stops there until 4.10, and
-returns to N by 7 <span class="fs70">A.M.</span>; being called No. 3 on the return, as the
-direction is always indicated by the train-number's being odd or
-even. No. 5 is a way freight, leaving A at 12.05 and making long
-stops at each station. No. 6 is an opposing train of the same
-character.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_161.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Diagram Used in Making Railway Time-Tables.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_162a.jpg" width="250" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">A lamp swung across the track is the signal to stop.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The diagram shows at a glance how, when, and where all these
-trains meet and pass each other, and where every train is at any
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
-moment. Should it be desired to
-send an extra train at any time,
-a line drawn or a string stretched
-on the board will indicate what
-opposing trains must be guarded
-against. For instance, to send
-an extra through in three hours,
-leaving A between 1 and 2 <span class="fs70">A.M.</span>,
-a trial line will show that Nos. 5,
-2, 4, and 6 must all be met or
-passed, and as (on a single-track
-road) this can only be done at
-stations, the extra must leave at
-1.35 <span class="fs70">A.M.</span>, pass No. 5 at E, meet
-No. 2 at F, No. 4 at I, and No.
-6 at J. A dotted line on the diagram
-indicates its run, and that
-No. 2 is held at F for 5 minutes
-to let it pass. If the road is
-double-tracked, only trains going
-in the same direction need be
-regarded.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_162b.jpg" width="250" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">A lamp raised and lowered vertically is<br />the signal to
-move ahead.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>But the more usual way of
-handling extra trains, when circumstances
-will permit, is to let
-them precede or follow a regular
-train upon the same schedule.
-The train is then said to be run
-in "sections," and a ten minutes'
-interval is allowed between them.
-That opposing trains may be informed,
-the leading section (and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
-when there are more than two
-all but the last) wears on its locomotive
-two green flags by day
-and two green lights by night,
-indicating that a train follows
-which is to be considered as a
-part of the train leading, and
-having the same rights.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_163a.jpg" width="250" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">A lamp swung vertically in a circle across the track,<br />when
-the train is standing, is the signal to move back.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>So far the rules are very simple,
-and they would be all that is
-necessary if all trains could always
-be kept exactly on time.
-But as that cannot be, provision
-must be made for all the complications
-which will result. The
-first and most important rule is
-that no train must ever, under
-any circumstances, run <em>ahead</em> of
-time. The next is that any train
-making a stop not on its schedule
-must immediately send out flagmen
-with red flags, lights, and
-torpedoes to protect it. This
-rule is a very difficult one to enforce
-without rigid discipline, and
-its neglect is the cause of a large
-percentage of the accidents "that
-will happen." The flagman who
-must go to the rear, often a half-mile,
-at night, across trestles and
-in storms, must frequently be left
-behind, to take his chances of
-getting home by being picked
-up by a following train. There
-is no one to watch him, and he
-will often take chances, and not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
-go as far back or as fast as he should; and if all goes well no one
-is ever the wiser.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_163b.jpg" width="250" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">A lamp swung vertically in a circle at arm's length<br /> across
-the track, when the train is running,<br />is the signal that
-the train has parted.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Now, when a train is prevented from arriving on time at its
-meeting-point, we must have some rules by which the opposing
-train may proceed, or all business on the road would be suspended
-by the delay of a single train. Only the general principles of these
-rules can be stated within limits. They are as follows:</p>
-
-<p>1. All freight trains must wait indefinitely for all passenger
-trains.</p>
-
-<p>2. When one train only is behind time, the opposing train
-of the same class will wait for it a specified time, usually ten
-minutes, and five minutes more for possible variation of watches,
-then go ahead, keeping fifteen minutes behind its schedule.</p>
-
-<p>3. But should such a train, running on delayed time, lose
-more time, or in any other way should both trains get behind time,
-then the one which is bound in a certain direction&mdash;for instance,
-north&mdash;has the right to the track, and the other must lie by indefinitely.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span><br />
-   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_165.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">The General Despatcher.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>These principles, duly observed, will prevent collisions, but they
-will often cause trains to lose a great deal of time. The train-despatcher,
-therefore, has authority to handle extra and delayed
-trains by direct telegraphic order. Every possible precaution is
-taken to insure that such orders are received and correctly understood.
-As there are great advantages following uniformity of
-usages and rules among connecting roads, after years of conference,
-in conventions and by committees, approved forms of all running
-rules and signals have recently been adopted and are now in very
-general use over the United States. Yet, in spite of all possible
-precautions, accidents will sometimes happen. Richard Grant
-White gave a name to a mental habit which, in train-despatchers,
-has caused many fatal accidents. It is "heterophemy," or
-thinking one thing while saying, hearing, or reading another. A
-case within my knowledge, which cost a dozen lives, was as follows:
-Two opposing trains were out of time, and the train-despatcher
-wished to have them meet and pass at a certain station
-we will call "I," as Nos. 1 and 2 are represented as doing on the
-diagram (see diagram of schedule board, <a href="#Page_161">p. 161</a>). So he telegraphed
-the following message, to be delivered to No. 1 at "H"
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
-and to No. 2 at "J": "Nos. 1 and 2 will meet at 'I.'" This message
-was correctly received at "J" and delivered to No. 2. But at
-"H" the operator had just sold a passenger a ticket to "K," and,
-getting this name in his head, he wrote out the message: "Nos. 1
-and 2 will meet at 'K.'" But the mistake was not yet past correction.
-The operator had to repeat the message back to the despatcher,
-that the latter might be sure it was correctly understood.
-He repeated it as he had written it&mdash;"K." But the despatcher
-was also "heterophemous." He <em>saw</em> "K," but he <em>thought</em> "I,"
-and replied to the operator that the message was O. K.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_167.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Entrance Gates at a Large Station.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>So it was delivered to No. 1, and that train left "H" at full
-speed, expecting to run thirty-five miles to "K" before meeting
-No. 2. There was no telegraph office at "I," and there were no
-passengers to get off or on, and it passed there without stopping,
-and three miles below ran into No. 2 on a curve.</p>
-
-<p>By one of those strange impulses which seem to come from
-some unconscious cerebration, the train-despatcher meanwhile had
-a feeling that something was wrong, and looked again at the message
-received from "H" and discovered his mistake. But the
-trains were then out of reach. He still hoped that No. 2 might arrive
-at "I" first, or that they might meet upon a straight portion
-of road, and as the time passed he waited at the instrument in a
-state of suspense which may be imagined. When the news came
-he left the office, and never returned.</p>
-
-<p>Double tracks make accidents of this character impossible; but
-introduce a new possibility, that a derailment from any cause upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
-one track may obstruct the
-other track so closely ahead
-of an opposing train that
-no warning can be given.</p>
-
-<div class="sandbagbox" id="img168">
- <div id="i168b1">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i168b2">&nbsp;</div>
-
-<div class="center fs70">Central Switch and Signal Tower.</div>
-
-<p>Where trains become
-very numerous additional
-safeguards are added by multiplying telegraph stations at short intervals,
-and giving them conspicuous signals of semaphore arms and
-lanterns, until finally the road is divided into a number of so-called
-"blocks" of a few miles each; and no train is permitted to enter
-any block until the train preceding has passed out. And in the
-approaches to some of our great depots, where trains and tracks are
-multiplied and confused with cross-overs and switching service, all
-switches are set and all movements controlled by signals from a single
-central tower. Sometimes, by very expensive and complicated
-apparatus, it is made mechanically impossible to open a track for the
-movement of a train without previously locking all openings by which
-another train might interfere. The illustrations on pages 169, 171,
-and above will serve to give some general idea of these appliances.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
-</div>
-
-
-    <div class="HandHeld">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_168.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">Central Switch and Signal Tower.</div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p>Where trains become
-    very numerous additional
-    safeguards are added by multiplying telegraph stations at short intervals,
-    and giving them conspicuous signals of semaphore arms and
-    lanterns, until finally the road is divided into a number of so-called
-    "blocks" of a few miles each; and no train is permitted to enter
-    any block until the train preceding has passed out. And in the
-    approaches to some of our great depots, where trains and tracks are
-    multiplied and confused with cross-overs and switching service, all
-    switches are set and all movements controlled by signals from a single
-    central tower. Sometimes, by very expensive and complicated
-    apparatus, it is made mechanically impossible to open a track for the
-    movement of a train without previously locking all openings by which
-    another train might interfere. The illustrations on pages 169, 171,
-    and above will serve to give some general idea of these appliances.<a name="FNanchor_17_17h" id="FNanchor_17_17h"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
-    </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span><br />
-   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_169.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Mantua Junction, West Philadelphia, showing a Complex System of Interlacing Tracks.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>There remains one other branch of the duties of the master of
-transportation&mdash;the proper daily distribution of cars to every station
-according to its needs, and the keeping record of their whereabouts.
-And now that the gauges of all roads are similar, and
-competition enforces through shipments, roads are practically making
-common property of each other's cars, and the detail and
-trouble of keeping record of them become enormous.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
-<img src="images/i_171.jpg" width="500" height="586" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p>Interior of a Switch-tower, showing the Operation of Interlocking Switches.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The records are made up from daily reports, by every conductor,
-of every car, home or foreign, handled in his train, and from
-every station-agent of all cars in his yard at certain hours. From
-these returns the car accountant reports to their respective owners
-all movements of foreign cars and gives the transportation department
-information where cars are lying. The honesty of each
-other's reports concerning car movements is generally relied upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
-by railroads, but "lost car agents" are kept travelling to hunt up
-estrays, and to watch how the cars of their roads are being handled.</p>
-
-<p>It has been suggested that a great step in advance would be to
-have all the roads in the United States unite and put all cars
-into a common stock and let them be distributed, record kept of
-movements, and mileage paid through a general clearing house.
-This would practically form a single rolling-stock company owned
-by the roads contributing their cars to it. It could gradually introduce
-uniform patterns of construction, improved couplers, and
-air-brakes, and could concentrate cars in different sections of the
-country in large numbers as different crops required movement,
-thus avoiding the blockades which often occur in one section while
-cars are superabundant in another. Consolidations usually render
-more efficient and cheaper service than separate organizations can
-do, and this may come about in the course of time.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p>
-
-<p>We have now seen how the road is maintained and its trains
-safely handled. The next step in order is to see how business is
-secured and the rates to be charged are fixed. This department
-may be controlled by a traffic manager, with two assistants&mdash;the
-general freight agent and the general passenger agent&mdash;or the officers
-may report directly to the general manager without the intervention
-of a traffic manager. But it would be a more accurate expression
-to say, not that these officers "fix" the rates, for if they
-did few railroads would ever fail, but that they accept and announce
-the rates that are fixed by conditions of competition between different
-markets and products, and between different railroads and water
-lines. Among these complex forces a railroad freight agent is
-nearly as powerless to regulate rates as a professor of grammar is
-to regulate the irregularities of English verbs. He can accept them
-and use them, or he may let them alone, but the irregularities will
-remain, all the same. There is no eccentricity, for example, more
-idiotic or indefensible to the ordinary citizen than a habit railroads
-have of sometimes charging less money for a long haul than they
-charge for a shorter haul. Yet I believe there is not a railroad
-line in the United States which will not be found guilty of this apparent
-folly of charging "less for the long haul" if its rates to distant
-points are followed far enough. For if followed far enough we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
-shall come to the ocean, and find the railroad accepting business
-between two seaports. For instance, all railroads running westward
-from New York through some of their connections finally
-reach San Francisco, and compete for freight between these ports.
-But the rates they are able to obtain are limited by steamers using
-the ocean for a highway, and sailing vessels using the wind for
-motive power, and able to carry heavy freights at one-tenth the
-average cost to railroads across mountains and deserts. This
-average cost must fix the average rates charged by the railroads
-to intermediate points, such as to Ogden, in Utah. So the railroad
-must either charge less for the long haul to San Francisco, or leave
-that business to be done solely by water. Yet it may be profitable
-to the railroad to accept the business at such rates as it can obtain;
-for, as in all business ventures, manufacturing or mercantile, <em>new</em>
-business can be profitably added at less than the average cost.
-And if profitable to the railroad its tendency is beneficial, even to
-the intermediate points which pay higher rates, as promoting better
-service, besides being advantageous to the whole Pacific Coast in
-tending to keep down the rates by water.</p>
-
-<p>But it would lead too far from our subject to follow this and
-several other questions which are suggested by it. Only it may
-be said briefly that the original Interstate Commerce Bill, introduced
-by Mr. Reagan, absolutely prohibited "less for the long
-haul." The Senate amended by adding "under similar circumstances
-and conditions," and the Interstate Commerce Commission
-has held that "water competition" makes dissimilar circumstances
-and thus legalizes it.</p>
-
-<p>And in this connection it may be added that the other Senate
-amendment to the Reagan bill, creating an Interstate Commerce
-Commission, was, next to the above amendment, the wisest measure
-of the bill. It forms a body of experts whose opinions and
-decisions must gradually educate the public, on the one hand, to a
-better understanding of transportation problems, and restrain the
-railroads, on the other, from many of the abuses incident to unchecked
-competition among them. For, however theorists may
-differ as to the advantages or disadvantages of competition in manufactures
-and commerce, either absolutely unchecked or checked
-only by high or low tariffs, I think all will agree that unchecked<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
-<em>railroad</em> competition is a great evil, because it results in fluctuating
-rates and private rebates to large shippers. The rebates, to be
-sure, are forbidden by law, but they can be disguised past recognition.
-I have known a case, for instance, where a receipt was
-given for 75 barrels of whiskey, when only 73 were shipped. The
-shipper was to make claim for two barrels lost and be paid an agreed
-value as a rebate on his freight bill. In another case, a road
-agreed with a certain shipper to pay his telegraph bills for a certain
-period in order to control his shipments. Understating the weight
-or class of the shipment is another common device for undercharging
-or rebating.</p>
-
-<p>In nearly every foreign country there is either a railroad pool
-or a division of territory, to prevent this sort of competition, which
-is only pernicious. A merchant needs to feel assured that rates
-are stable and uniform to all, and not that he must go shopping for
-secret rates, in order to be on an equality with his competitor.
-In the United States the railroads had largely resorted to pools
-before the Interstate Commerce Law forbade them. The result
-of this prohibition has generally been very advantageous to the
-best lines, which, under the pool, really paid a sort of blackmail to
-the poorer lines to maintain rates. If the penalties of the law can
-restrain such lines from rebating and under-billing, to be rid of the
-pool will be a great blessing to the well-located roads. If not,
-then the roads will be driven into consolidation, for the end of
-fighting will be bankruptcy and sale. Fortunately consolidation
-has already gone so far in many sections of the country that the
-difficulties of abolishing rebates have been greatly reduced. And
-as far as it has gone it has proved of much advantage both to the
-public and to the stockholders.</p>
-
-<p>Fortunately, too, the other results attendant upon consolidation
-have been sufficiently demonstrated to remove any intelligent fear
-of extortion in rates or deterioration of service. Who would to-day
-desire to undo the consolidations which have built up the
-Pennsylvania Railroad or the New York Central, and call back to
-life the numberless small companies which preceded them? The
-country has outgrown such service as they could render, and the
-local growth and development along the lines of these consolidated
-companies certainly indicates improved conditions. In this con<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>nection,
-too, the improvement in cost and character of service is
-instructive. In 1865 the average rate per ton per mile on the principal
-Eastern lines was about 2.900 cents; in 1887 it was 0.718
-for a service twice as speedy and efficient.</p>
-
-<p>There are many other live issues of great interest and importance
-in transportation suggested by this subject, such as "re-billing"
-or "milling in transit," and "differentials," but space forbids
-more than an explanation of the meaning of these two especially
-prominent ones.</p>
-
-<div class="center">
-<br />
-A<span class="pad10">B</span><span class="pad10">C</span><br />
-<hr class="chapa" />
-<br />
-</div>
-
-<p>Let A B and B C be two railroads connecting at B. Let the
-local rates A to B be 10 cents per 100 lbs. on grain, and B to C
-also 10 cents. Let the through rate A to C be 18, since longest
-hauls are usually cheapest per mile. Let A be a large grain market,
-such as Chicago. Now a merchant at C can save 2 cents per
-100 lbs. by buying direct from A instead of buying from a merchant
-at B. For the grain will pay less for the single long haul
-than for the two short hauls. But perhaps the town of B has for
-many years enjoyed the trade of C, and there are large mills and
-warehouses erected there. B will then say it is "discriminated
-against," and will demand the privilege of "re-billing" or "milling
-in transit." That is to say, when a merchant or miller at B
-ships to C grain, or flour made of grain, which he received from A,
-the two roads consent to make a new way-bill and treat the shipment
-as a through shipment from A to C. The road B C charges
-but 8 cents, and the road A B gives B C one cent from the 10 it
-originally collected. This involves much trouble and a loss of revenue
-to the roads, and is, apparently, a discrimination against the
-home products of B, but roads frequently do it where there is competition
-at C by rival lines, and also at local points along their lines
-to build up mills, distilleries, and factories of all kinds in competition
-with those located elsewhere. As yet the Interstate Commerce
-Commission has not pronounced upon this practice.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_176.jpg" width="275" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The question of differentials is as follows: Suppose there are
-three lines, B, D, and E, between the cities A and C (Diagram,
-<a href="#Page_176">page 176</a>). B, being the shortest, will get most of the business when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
-rates are the same (10 cents, for instance) by each line. But D
-and E insist upon participating, so they demand that B shall allow
-them to operate lower or "differential"
-rates&mdash;that is, B must
-maintain his rate at 10 while allowing
-D to charge only 8 and
-E 6 cents, on account of their
-disadvantages. So that a differential is practically a premium
-offered for business by an inferior line.</p>
-
-<p>The foregoing will illustrate how the rivalry of railroads with
-each other complicates the making of rates. But even more difficult
-to manage is the rivalry of markets, and of products, and of
-new methods which threaten property invested in old methods; as,
-for instance, the dressed-beef traffic from the West threatens the
-investments in slaughter-houses and stock-yards in the East.</p>
-
-<p>As the roads have found it necessary to act together in establishing
-running rules and regulations, so, in spite of all rivalries,
-there must also be joint agreements reached in some way concerning
-rates. Usually the roads serving a certain territory form an
-"association," and their freight agents form "rate committees,"
-which fix and publish joint rates. A tariff published by one of the
-trunk lines from the Eastern cities forms a good example. As the
-result of many long and bitter wars and many compromises, it has
-been agreed among these roads that the rates from New York to
-Chicago shall form a basis for all other rates, and a scale has been
-fixed showing the percentage of the Chicago rate to be used as
-the rate to each important point in the West. Thus Pittsburgh,
-Pa., is 60 per cent. of Chicago rate; Indianapolis is 93; Vandalia,
-116. The tariff above referred to gives an alphabetical list of some
-5,000 towns reached over these roads, and opposite each town the
-figure showing its percentage of the Chicago rate. The list begins
-with Abanaka, O., 90, and ends with Zoar, O., 74.</p>
-
-<p>The tariff next gives what is called the "Trunk Line Classification,"
-which is a list comprising every article known to commerce,
-in all the different conditions, shapes, and packages in which it is
-offered for transportation, and opposite each article is given its assigned
-"class." This particular classification assigns every article
-to one of six regular, or two special, classes, and the present rates<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
-to Chicago in cents per 100 lbs. are given as 75, 65, 50, 35, 30, 25,
-26, 21. The list of articles begins with Acetate of Lime, in car-loads,
-5th class; in less quantities, 4th; and ends with Zinc, in various
-forms from 1st to 6th&mdash;comprising in all nearly 6,000 articles.
-From these tables any desired rate readily appears. Thus, 500
-pounds of acetate of lime would cost, from New York to Zoar, O.,
-74 per cent. of Chicago's 4th class rate, or 74 per cent. of 35&mdash;say,
-26 cents per 100 lbs., or $1.30.</p>
-
-<p>There is also given in the tariff pamphlet a list of some 300
-manufacturing towns in New England, from each of which the same
-rates apply as from New York. So, on the whole, the pamphlet
-gives rates on about 6,000 articles from 300 points of origin to
-5,000 destinations.</p>
-
-<p>In different sections of the country different classifications are
-in use, some of them embracing twenty or more classes, and allowing
-finer shades of difference between articles according to their
-value, bulk, or many other varying conditions which determine the
-class into which each article is put.</p>
-
-<p>Great efforts have been made to bring about a uniformity of
-classification over the whole United States, and the number of classifications
-in extensive use has been reduced from a very large number
-to perhaps a dozen.</p>
-
-<p>But absolute uniformity cannot be obtained under the widely
-different conditions which prevail in different sections, without great
-loss and sacrifices somewhere. A road, for instance, competing with
-a river or canal must adjust the classification of the particular kinds
-of freight best adapted to river or canal transportation so as to
-secure the traffic in competition with boats. It must almost entirely
-disregard bulk, value, and all other conditions upon which a
-road not affected by this particular kind of competition arranges its
-classification. Uniformity would either force one of them to lose
-a legitimate business, or the other to reduce reasonable rates.</p>
-
-<p>These rates and classifications are the battle-ground for all the
-innumerable rivalries of trade and commerce. Every city is here
-at war with every other city, every railroad with every other road,
-every industry with those which rival it, and every individual shipper
-is a skirmisher for a little special rate, or advantage, all to himself.
-State legislatures and commissions, Congress, and the Inter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>state
-Commerce Commission are the heavy artillery which different
-combatants manage to bring into the contest. On these rates
-probably a million dollars are collected every day, yet it is very
-rarely that the <em>positive</em> rates are fought over or complained of.
-Their average is considerably below that of the average rates of
-any other country in the world, even though other nations have
-cheaper labor and denser populations. Fifty cents for carrying a
-barrel of flour a thousand miles cannot be called exorbitant, and, indeed,
-the retail prices paid for bread and clothing would probably
-not be reduced in the slightest were the transportation of all such
-articles absolutely free. But the battle is over the <em>comparative</em>
-rates to different points, over different routes, and for different commodities.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
-
-<p>Passenger rates are established in much the same manner as
-freight rates. There are passenger-agents' associations and conventions,
-and they fight as do the freight men over comparative
-rates and differentials, and commissions to agents. The last within
-a few years has been a fearful abuse, and is not yet entirely
-abolished. This will illustrate:</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_179.jpg" width="275" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The road A B has two connections, C and D, to reach E. It
-sells tickets over each at the same rate, and stands neutral between
-them. But C agrees with A's ticket-seller that he will give him a
-dollar for every ticket he can sell over C's line. D finds that he is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>
-losing travel, and offers, privately, a larger commission. Neither
-knows what the other is doing. The ticket-seller gets his regular
-salary from A, and from C and
-D often enormous sums as commissions,
-and is interested, not
-in sending ignorant travellers over the line which might suit them
-best, but over the one paying him the largest secret commission.
-This should be held as against public policy, because it tends to
-prevent reductions in rates to the public by robbing the roads of
-much of their revenue, and it also demoralizes the officers who
-handle a business which is practically but the giving away of large
-sums of money as bribes.</p>
-
-<p>There is another practice in the passenger business which is
-unfair at the best and is the source of many abuses. It is charging
-the same to the man with no baggage as to the man with a Saratoga
-trunk. If the baggage service were specially organized as a
-trunk express, it could be more efficiently handled and without any
-"baggage smashing," while the total cost of travelling to persons
-with baggage would be no more than at present, and to those
-without, much less.</p>
-
-<p>As an illustration of the sort of abuses to which it is now liable,
-I may cite a single case. I have known a merchant buy a lot of
-twenty trunks for his trade, pack them all full of dry-goods, check
-them to a city 1,000 miles away by giving a few dollars to baggage-men,
-and himself buy a single ticket and go by a different route.
-The roads which handled that baggage imagined that it belonged
-to their passengers, and were never the wiser. While the baggage
-service is free, no efficient checks can be provided against such frauds.</p>
-
-<p>Essential parts of both freight and passenger departments are
-the soliciting agents. They are like the cavalry pickets and scouts
-of an army, scattered far and wide over the country and looking
-after the interests of their lines, making personal acquaintances of
-all shippers and travellers, advertising in every possible manner,
-and reporting constantly all that the enemy&mdash;the rival lines&mdash;are
-doing, and often a great deal that they are not. For the great
-railroad wars usually begin in local skirmishes brought on by the
-zeal of these pickets when the officers in command would greatly
-prefer to live in peace.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Besides their receipts from freight and passenger traffic, railroads
-derive revenue also from the transportation of mails and express
-freight on passenger trains, from the sleeping-car companies,
-and from news companies for the privilege of selling upon trains.
-Of the total revenue about 70 per cent. is usually derived from
-freight, 25 per cent. from passengers, and 5 per cent. from mail, express,
-sleeping-cars, and privileges. When it is considered that
-high speed involves great risks and necessitates a far more perfect
-roadway, more costly machinery and appliances, and a higher grade
-and a greater number of employees, the fast passenger, mail, and
-express traffic hardly seems at present to yield its due proportion
-of income.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>We have now followed the line of organization and management
-through the physical maintenance of the road and rolling
-stock, the safe handling of the trains, the establishment of rates,
-and solicitation of business. It only remains to show how the revenue
-is collected, how the expenses of operation are paid, and all
-statistics of the business prepared. These duties are usually united
-under charge of an officer called the comptroller, general auditor,
-or some equivalent title. His principal subordinates, whose duties
-are indicated by their titles, are the auditor of receipts, auditor of
-disbursements, local treasurer, paymaster, and clerk of statistics.</p>
-
-<p>The record of a single shipment of freight will illustrate methods,
-so far as limits will permit. A shipper sending freight for shipment
-sends with each dray-load a "dray ticket" in duplicate, showing
-the articles, weight, marks, and destination. If he has prepaid
-the freight, or advanced any charges which are to be paid at destination,
-it is also noted on the dray ticket. When the drayman
-reaches the outbound freight depot with his load, he is directed to
-a certain spot where all freight for the same destination is being
-collected for loading. A receiving clerk checks off his load against
-the duplicate dray tickets, keeps one and files it, and gives the
-drayman the other, receipted. In case of any loss arising afterward,
-the original dray ticket, made by the shipper himself, with
-his marks and instructions, becomes a valuable record. When the
-entire shipment has been delivered at the loading point, the shipper
-takes the dray tickets representing it to the proper desk, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
-receives "a bill of lading." This bill of lading is made in triplicate.
-The original and a duplicate are given to the shipper. He keeps
-the last and sends the former to the consignee. It represents the
-obligation of the railroad to transport and deliver the articles named
-on it to the person named, or his assignee. It is negotiable, and
-banks advance money upon it. But the shipper may still, by a
-legal process, have the goods stopped <em>en route</em> should occasion
-arise, as, for instance, by the bankruptcy of the consignee. The
-goods are also liable for garnishments in certain cases, and there
-is much railroad and commercial law which it behooves the officials
-interested to be well posted in. When the goods arrive at destination
-the possession of the bill of lading is the evidence of the
-consignee's right to receive them.</p>
-
-<p>Now we will return to the shipment itself and see how it is
-taken care of. The whole structure of the system of collecting
-freight revenue, holding accountable all agents who assess it and
-collect it, dividing it in the agreed proportions between all the railroads,
-boats, bridges, wharves, and transfer companies who may
-handle it in its journeys, even across the continent, and the tabulating
-of the immense mass of statistics which are kept to show, separately,
-the quantities of freight of every possible class and variety,
-by every possible route, and to and from every possible point of
-destination and departure&mdash;all this system, neither the magnitude
-nor the minute elaboration of which can be adequately described
-within limits, is founded upon a paper called the way-bill.</p>
-
-<p>The theory of the way-bill is that no car must move without
-one accompanying it, describing it by its number and the initials of
-the road owning it, and showing its points of departure and destination,
-its entire contents, with marks and weights of each package,
-consignors and consignees, freight and charges prepaid or to
-be collected at destination, and the proportion of the same due to
-each carrier or transfer in the line. And not only must a way-bill
-accompany the car, but a duplicate of it must be sent immediately
-and directly, by the office making the original, to the office of the
-auditor of freight receipts. If the railroad is a member of any association,
-as the Trunk Line Association in New York, another duplicate
-is sent to its office, that it may supervise all rates, and see
-what each road is doing. The sum of all the way-bills is the total<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>
-of a road's freight business. To facilitate taking copies they are
-printed with an ink which will give several impressions on strong,
-thin tissue-paper, forming "soft copies," while the "hard copy," or
-original, goes with the freight to be checked against it when the
-car is unloaded.</p>
-
-<p>And while the original way-bill fulfils its important function of
-conducting the freight to destination and delivery, the duplicate
-which was forwarded directly to the auditor of freight receipts has
-no less important purposes. It is the initial record that freight
-has been earned, and it shows which agent of the company has
-been charged with its collection. Before making any entries from
-it its absolute correctness must be assured. For this purpose all
-its figures are first checked by a rate-clerk, who is kept constantly
-supplied by the traffic department with all current rates, classifications,
-and percentage tables by which through freights are divided.
-These way-bills, coming in daily by hundreds and thousands, are
-then the grist upon which the office of the auditor of receipts
-grinds, and from which come forth the accounts with every agent,
-showing his debits for freight received, and the consolidations
-showing the freight earnings of the road. Agents remit the moneys
-they collect direct to the treasurer, who makes daily reports
-of the credits due to each one. A travelling auditor visits every
-station at irregular intervals and checks the agent's accounts, requiring
-him to justify any difference between his debits and credits
-by an exhibit of undelivered freight.</p>
-
-<p>The passenger earnings are obtained from daily reports by all
-conductors of their collections, and by all ticket-sellers of tickets
-sold. These reports are also checked by a passenger rate-clerk,
-and the travelling auditor frequently examines and verifies the
-tickets reported by agents as on hand unsold.</p>
-
-<p>After the auditor of receipts has finished with the way-bills and
-ticket reports, they go to the statistical department, where are
-prepared the great mass and variety of statistics required by different
-officers to keep themselves thoroughly posted on the growth
-or decrease of business of every variety, and from and to every
-market reached by the road. Finally, the way-bills are filed away
-for reference in case of claims for overcharges, or lost or damaged
-goods.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The auditor of disbursements has supervision of all expenditures
-of money, which is only paid out by the paymaster or treasurer
-upon vouchers and pay-rolls approved by proper authority.
-The vouchers and pay-rolls then form the grist upon which his
-office works, and from which are produced the credits to be given
-all officers and agents who disburse money, and the classified
-records of expenses, and comparison of the same with previous
-months and years, and between different divisions.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>I have thus outlined the skeleton of a railroad organization,
-and suggested briefly the relations between its most important
-parts, and some of the principles upon which its work is conducted.
-The scheme of authority is outlined in the diagram on
-<a href="#Page_185">page 185</a>. But space is utterly lacking to clothe the skeleton with
-flesh and go into the innumerable details and adjustments involved
-in the economical and efficient discharge of all of its
-functions.</p>
-
-<p>It seems a very simple matter for a railroad to place a barrel of
-flour in a car, to carry it to its destination, and to collect fifty cents
-for the service. It is done apparently so spontaneously that even
-the fifty cents may seem exorbitant, and I have actually heard appeals
-for free transportation on the ground that the cars were
-going anyhow. So it also seems a very simple matter for a man
-to pick up a stone and place it on a wall. But this simple act involves
-in the first place the existence of a bony frame, with joints,
-sinews, and muscles, sustained by a heart, lungs, and digestive
-system, with eyes to see, a brain to direct, nerves to give effect to
-the will-power, and a thousand delicate adjustments of organs and
-functions without which all physical exertion would soon cease.
-Similarly, a railroad organized to respond efficiently to all the
-varied demands upon it as a common carrier, by the public, and
-as an investment by its owners, becomes almost a living organism.
-That the barrel of flour may be safely delivered and the fifty cents
-reach the company's treasury, and a part of it the stockholder's
-pocket, the whole organization outlined in the diagram must thrill
-with life, and every officer and employee, from president to car-greaser,
-must discharge his special functions. All must be coordinated,
-and the organization must have and use its eyes and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>
-its ears, its muscle, its nerves, and its brain. It must immediately
-feel and respond to every demand of our rapidly advancing
-civilization.</p>
-
-<p>Each road usually has its own individuality and methods, and
-its employees are animated with an <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">esprit de corps</i>, as are the soldiers
-in an army. There is much about the service that is attractive,
-and, on the whole, the wages paid railroad employees are
-probably in excess of the rates for similar talent in any other industry,
-although labor in every other industry in the United
-States is protected by high tariffs, while in this it is under the
-incubus of legislation as oppressive as constitutional limits will
-permit.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span></p>
-
-    <div class="screenonly">
-<div class="center fs70">
-<table class="org" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="99%" summary="">
-<tr><th class="wd20"></th><th class="wd3"></th><th class="wd25"></th><th class="wd25"></th><th class="wd25"></th><th></th></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc medium smcap" colspan="3">President &nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc"></td><td></td><td class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bt bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl"><em>Secretary and Treasurer</em></td><td class="tdc" colspan="3"><em>General Manager</em></td><td class="tdr"><em>General&nbsp;Counsel</em></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl bt">&nbsp;</td><td class="bt">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bt">&nbsp;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Auditor of Receipts</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Auditor&nbsp;of&nbsp;Disbursements</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Comptroller&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&ndash;</td><td class="tdl">&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Travelling Auditor</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Local Treasurers</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Local Paymasters</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Clerk of Statistics</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Purchasing Agent&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl">&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Local Storekeepers</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">&mdash;Receiving Clerks and Laborers</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">&mdash;Loading Clerks and Laborers</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">&mdash;Billing Clerks</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl btx blx"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Station Agents&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">&mdash;Discharging Clerks and Laborers</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl blx"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Delivery Clerks</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Superintendent of </td><td class="tdl blx"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Collectors</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Yard Engines</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">Transportation&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl blx"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Yard Master&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Switchmen</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Brakemen</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Train Despatchers</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Train Master&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Operators</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Conductors</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Trainmen</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Division</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">Superintendents&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl">&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl "></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Engine Runners</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Firemen</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Foreman</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Hostelers and</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdr bl">Machine Shop&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; Cleaners</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Mechanics</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Laborers</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Superintendent of</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">Machinery&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl">&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Master Mechanic&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Car Inspectors</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Foreman</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Greasers</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdr">Car Shop&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Mechanics</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Laborers</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Bridge Foremen</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Supervisors of </td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Watchmen</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdr bl">Bridges&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Carpenter Gangs</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Superintendent of </td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Mason Gangs</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bl">Roadway&mdash;</td><td class="tdl">&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Road Master&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Section Foremen</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Gangs and Track Walkers</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Supervisors of </td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Wood and Water</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">Road&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; Tenders</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Floating Gangs</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Construction Trains</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Car Accountant&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl">&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl">&mdash;Lost Car Agents</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Travelling Agents</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;General Passenger</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Local Agents</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr bl"> Agent&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">&mdash;Rate and Division Clerks</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Traffic Manager&mdash;&mdash;&ndash;</td><td class="tdl">&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Claim Agent</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Travelling Agents</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;General Freight</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Local Agents</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr"> Agent&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">&mdash;Rate and Division Clerks</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="5">Diagram showing the Skeleton of a Railroad Organization, and Lines of Responsibility.</td></tr>
-</table></div>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="handonly">
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_185.jpg" width="475" alt="" />
-</div>
-    </div>
-
-<p class="p2" />
-<p>In Europe, where the pooling system practically prevails, the
-service is much more stable than in the United States, and in
-many instances there are pensions and insurances and disability
-funds, and regular rules for promotion and retirement, and provision
-for the children of employees being brought into service in
-preference to outsiders. Such relations between a company and
-its employees as must result from arrangements of this character
-are surely of great benefit to both. They are the natural outgrowth
-of <em>stability of business</em>. Their most advanced form is
-found in France, where each road is practically protected from
-dangerous competition by means of a division of territory. In the
-United States we are still in the midst of a fierce competition for
-territory and business, and, as pooling is forbidden, the railroad
-companies will be in unstable equilibrium until consolidation takes
-place. As that goes on, and large and rich corporations are
-formed, with prospects of stability in management and in business,
-we may hope to see similar relations established between our companies
-and their employees. Already there is a beginning upon
-some of the largest roads, such as the Baltimore &amp; Ohio and the
-Pennsylvania Central. But the ground still needs preparation also
-on the employees' side, for our American spirit is aggressive and
-is sometimes rather disposed to resent, as interfering with its independence,
-any paternal relations with a corporation. And as we
-have before found railroad management in intimate contact with
-every problem of finance and commerce, it is here confronted with
-the social and industrial questions involved in labor unions and
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
-problems of co-operation. As to the results, we can only say that,
-as war is destructive, no state of warfare, even between capital and
-labor, can be permanent. Peaceful solutions must prevail in the
-end, and progress toward stability, peace, and prosperity in railroad
-operation and ownership will be progress toward the happy
-solution of many vexed social questions.</p>
-
-
-<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> See "How to Feed a Railway," <a href="#Page_302">page 302.</a></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> See "The Freight-car Service," <a href="#Page_275">page 275.</a></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Of course, this "stringing" of an extra train
-is not always done in actual operation. Practice
-and experience will give as wonderful expertness
-to a train-despatcher in handling trains "in his
-head" as to a mathematician in solving problems,
-and often all trains on a road will be handled entirely
-"by order," or as extras. But the example
-given illustrates the principle upon which expert
-practice is based.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a>
-   <span class="screenonly"><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a></span>
-   <span class="handonly"><a href="#FNanchor_17_17h"><span class="label">[17]</span></a></span>
-See "Safety in Railroad Travel," <a href="#Page_204">page 204.</a></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> See "The Freight-car Service," <a href="#Page_288">page 288.</a></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> An idea may be gained of the extent and minuteness of the classification, and of the constant
-changes and adjustments, both of rates and classifications, perpetually going on from the following partial
-list of subjects submitted to a recent meeting of the Rate Committee of the Southern Railway and
-Steamship Association.
-</p>
-<p>
-<span class="smcap">Rates.</span>&mdash;Watermelon rates; canned goods, Richmond to Atlanta; rates on cement from Eastern
-cities to Association territory; rates on sulphuric acid from Atlanta; rates from Atlanta, etc., to California
-and Transcontinental terminals; special iron rates from Cincinnati, etc., to Carolina points;
-rates on earthenware, East Liverpool to S. E. territory; rates on cotton bags to Memphis from Atlanta;
-rates on fertilizers to Mobile, Ala.; beer rates; rates on special iron articles from Chattanooga;
-rates from the West to Camden, S. C.; rates from Evansville and Cairo, on business from points between
-Cairo, Evansville, and Chicago.
-</p>
-<p>
-<span class="smcap">Classification.</span>&mdash;Classification of paper twine; beer packages, empty returned; old machinery
-returned for repairs; steel car springs; cotton softener; iron safes or vaults weighing over 12,000
-lbs.; toys, etc.; portable powder magazines; coffee extract; empty lard tierces returned; bolts and
-nuts in barrels; box and barrel material; glass oil bottles in tin jackets; cast-iron radiators; malleable
-iron castings; dried beef; sausage; straw paper; burlaps; tobacco stems; hinges; straw braids;
-lawn hose reels; excelsior; car-load rates.
-</p>
-<p>
-<span class="smcap">Subjects not on the Regular List.</span>&mdash;Demurrage rules; adjustment of rates as per instructions
-from the Executive Board; rates from Cincinnati to Columbus, Eufaula, Opelika, etc.; classification
-of iron tanks; classification of whiting; rates to Eufaula, Ala., from East; rates to Milledgeville,
-Ga.; classification of cast-iron cane mills; classification of locomotives and tenders.</p></div></div>
-
-
-    <div class="chapter"></div>
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">SAFETY IN RAILROAD TRAVEL</a></h2>
-
-<p class="pfs90 smcap">By H. G. PROUT.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The Possibilities of Destruction in the Great Speed of a Locomotive&mdash;The Energy of
-Four Hundred Tons Moving at Seventy-five Miles an Hour&mdash;A Look ahead from a
-Locomotive at Night&mdash;Passengers Killed and Injured in One Year&mdash;Good Discipline
-the Great Source of Safety&mdash;The Part Played by Mechanical Appliances&mdash;Hand-brakes
-on Old Cars&mdash;How the Air brake Works&mdash;The Electric Brake&mdash;Improvements
-yet to be Made&mdash;Engine Driver Brakes&mdash;Two Classes of Signals: those
-which Protect Points of Danger, and those which Keep an Interval between Trains
-on the Same Track&mdash;The Semaphore&mdash;Interlocking Signals and Switches&mdash;Electric
-Annunciators to Indicate the Movements&mdash;The Block Signal System&mdash;Protection for
-Crossings&mdash;Gates and Gongs&mdash;How Derailment is Guarded Against&mdash;Safety Bolts&mdash;Automatic
-Couplers&mdash;The Vestibule as a Safety Appliance&mdash;Car Heating and
-Lighting.</p></div>
-
-
-<div><img class="drop-cap" src="images/i_187dc.jpg" alt="" /></div>
-
-<p class="drop-cap">In 1829, when Ericsson's little locomotive "Novelty,"
-weighing two and a half tons, ran a short
-distance at the rate of thirty miles an hour, a
-writer of the time said that "it was the most
-wonderful exhibition of human daring and human
-skill that the world had ever seen." To-day
-trains weighing four hundred tons thunder by at
-seventy-five miles an hour, and we hardly note
-their passage. We take their safety as a matter of course, and seldom
-think of the tremendous possibilities of destruction stored up
-in them. But seventy-five miles an hour is one hundred and ten feet
-a second, and the energy of four hundred tons moving at that rate
-is nearly twice as great as that of a 2,000-pound shot fired from a
-100-ton Armstrong gun. This is the extreme of weight and speed
-now reached in passenger service, and, indeed, is very rarely attained,
-and then but for short distances; but sixty miles is a common
-speed, and a rate of forty or fifty miles is attained daily on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
-almost every railroad in the country. We cannot tell from the
-time-tables how fast we travel. The schedule times do not indicate
-the delays that must be made up by spurts between stations.
-The traveller who is curious to know just how fast he is going,
-and likes the stimulus of thinking that he is in a little danger, may
-find amusement in taking the time between mile-posts; and when
-these are not to be seen, he can often get the speed very accurately
-by counting the rails passed in a given time. This may be
-done by listening attentively at an open window or door. The
-regular clicks of the wheels over the rail-joints can usually soon be
-singled out from the other noises, and counted. The number of
-rail-lengths passed in twenty seconds is almost exactly the number
-of miles run in an hour.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span><br />
-   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_189.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Danger Ahead!</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>But if one wants to get a lively sense of what it means to rush
-through space at fifty or sixty miles an hour, he must get on a
-locomotive. Then only does he begin to realize what trifles stand
-between him and destruction. A few months ago a lady sat an
-hour in the cab of a locomotive hauling a fast express train over a
-mountain road. She saw the narrow bright line of the rails and
-the slender points of the switches. She heard the thunder of the
-bridges, and saw the track shut in by rocky bluffs, and new perils
-suddenly revealed as the engine swept around sharp curves. The
-experience was to her magnificent, but the sense of danger was
-almost appalling. To have made her experience complete, she
-should have taken one engine ride in a dark and rainy night. In
-a daylight ride on a locomotive, we come to realize how slender is
-the rail and how fragile its fastenings, compared with the ponderous
-machine which they carry. We see what a trifling movement
-of a switch makes the difference between life and death. We learn
-how short the look ahead must often be, and how close danger
-sits on either hand. But it is only in a night ride that we learn
-how dependent the engineer must be, after all, upon the faithful
-vigilance of others. We lean out of the cab and strain our eyes
-in vain to see ahead. The head-light reveals a few yards of glistening
-rail, and the ghostly telegraph poles and switch targets.
-Were a switch open, a rail taken up, or a pile of ties on the track,
-we could not possibly see the danger in time to stop. The
-friendly twinkle of a signal lamp, shining faintly, red or white, tells
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
-the engineer that the way is blocked or is clear, and he can only
-rush along trusting that no one of a dozen men on whom his life
-depends has made a mistake.</p>
-
-<p>When one reflects upon the destructive energy which is contained
-in a swiftly moving train, and sees its effects in a wreck;
-when he understands how many minute mechanical details, and
-how many minds and hands must work together in harmony to insure
-its safe arrival at its destination, he must marvel at the safety
-of railroad travel. In the year 1887, the passengers killed in train
-accidents in the United States were 207; those injured were 916.
-The employees killed were 406, and injured 890.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> These were in
-train accidents only, it must be remembered, and do not include
-persons killed at crossings, or while trespassing on the track, or
-employees killed and injured making up trains. As will be seen
-later, the casualties in these two classes are much greater than
-those from train accidents. The total passenger movement in
-1887 was equal to one passenger travelling 10,570,306,710 miles.
-That is to say, a passenger might have travelled 51,000,000 miles
-before being killed, or 12,000,000 miles before being injured. Or
-he might travel day and night steadily at the rate of 30 miles an
-hour for 194 years before being killed. Mark Twain would doubtless
-conclude from this that travelling by rail is much the safest
-profession that a man could adopt. It is unquestionably true that
-it is safer than travelling by coach or on horseback, and probably
-it is safer than any other method of getting over the earth's surface
-that man has yet contrived, unless it may be by ocean steamer.
-If one wants anything safer he must walk.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_192a.jpg" width="275" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Stephenson's Steam Driver-brake. Patented 1833.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In considering the means that have been adopted to make railroad
-travel safe, it must be remembered that there are very few
-devices in use that are purely safety appliances. Nearly everything
-used on a railroad has an economic or mechanical value, and
-if it promotes safety that is but part of its duty. The great source
-of safety in railroad working is good discipline. Of all the train
-accidents which have happened in the United States in the last<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>
-sixteen years, nearly ten per cent. were due to negligence in operation,
-and seventeen per cent. were unexplained. Of these no
-doubt many were due to negligence, and many that were attributed
-to defects of track and equipment
-would have been prevented, had
-men done their duty. The value
-of mechanical appliances for safety
-is perhaps as often overrated
-as underrated. Undoubtedly the
-best, and in the long run the
-cheapest, practice will be that
-which combines in the highest
-degree both elements&mdash;disciplined
-intelligence and perfection of mechanical details.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_192b.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Driver-brake on Modern Locomotive.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>First in importance among the mechanisms which demand attention
-here is the brake. From the beginning of railroads the
-necessity for brakes was apparent, and in 1833 Robert Stephenson
-patented a steam driver-brake (the brake on the driving-wheels).
-This was but four years after the Rainhill trials, which settled the
-question of the use of locomotives on the Liverpool &amp; Manchester
-Railroad. This
-early brake contained
-the principle
-of the driver-brake,
-operated
-by steam or air,
-which has in late
-years come into
-wide use. The
-apparatus is so
-simple that the
-cut representing
-it hardly needs
-explanation. Admission
-of steam
-into the cylinder
-raised the piston, which through a lever and rod raised the toggle-joint
-between the brake-blocks and forced them against the treads<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>
-of the wheels. Essentially the same method of applying the retarding
-force can now be seen on most passenger engines, and
-often, but not so commonly, on engines for freight service. For
-various reasons Stephenson's
-driver-brake did not come into
-use.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_193a.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">English Screw-brake, on the Birmingham and Gloucester
-Road, about 1840.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Innumerable devices for car-brakes
-have been invented, but
-they divide themselves into two
-groups: those in which the retarding
-force is applied to the circumference of the wheel, and
-those in which it is applied to the rail. The class of brakes in
-which the retarding force is applied to the rail has been little used,
-although various contrivances have been devised to transfer a portion
-of the weight of the car from the wheels to runners sliding on
-the rails. There are many objections to the principle, and it will
-probably never again be seriously considered by railroad men.
-The apparatus is necessarily heavy, the power required to apply
-it is great, and its action is slow. When brought into action it is
-not as efficient as the brake applied to the tread of the wheels, and
-the transfer of the load increases the chance of derailment.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_193b.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">English Foot-brake on the Truck of a Great Western
-Coach, about 1840.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Many different devices have been used to apply the brake-shoes
-to the wheels, and various sources of power. Hand-power
-brakes have been used, worked by
-levers, or by screws, or by winding
-a chain on a staff; or, in still other
-forms, springs wound up by hand
-are released and apply the brakes
-by their pressure. The momentum
-of the train has been employed to wind up chains by the rotation
-of the axles. This is the principle of the chain-brake, very
-much used in England. This same source of power has been utilized
-by causing the drawheads, when thrust in as the cars run together,
-to wind up the brake-chains. Hydraulic pressure has been
-used in cylinders under the cars; and finally air, either under pressure
-or acting against a vacuum, has been found to be the most
-useful of all means of operating train-brakes. Early forms of hand-brakes
-are seen in the illustrations of some old English cars. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span>
-coach shows a hand-brake operated by a screw and system of
-levers. By turning a crank the guard puts in operation the system
-of levers which apply the brake with great force; but the operation
-is slow. The common hand-brake of the United States is too
-well known to need illustration. With this brake a chain is wound
-around the foot of a staff, and the pull of this chain is transmitted
-by a rod to the brake-levers. This apparatus is simple, and when
-a train is manned by a sufficient number of smart brakemen it is
-capable of doing good service. This simple form of hand-brake
-will probably be used in freight-car service until it is replaced by
-air-brakes, and the various forms of chain and momentum brakes
-do not appear likely to be much more used in the future than they
-have been in the past. Therefore, no further space will be given
-to them.</p>
-
-<p>The expression, electric brake, is now often heard, and requires
-a word of explanation. There are various forms of so-called electric
-brakes which are practicable, and even efficient, working devices.
-In none of them, however, does electricity furnish the
-power by which the brakes are applied; it merely puts in operation
-some other power. In one type of electric brake the active
-braking force is taken from an axle of each car. A small friction-drum
-is made fast to the axle. Another friction-drum hung from
-the body of the car swings near the axle. If, when the car is in
-motion, these drums are brought in contact, that one which hangs
-from the car takes motion from the other, and may be made to
-wind a chain on its shaft. Winding in this chain pulls on the
-brake-levers precisely as if it had been wound on the shaft of the
-hand-brake. The sole function of electricity in this form of brake
-is to bring the friction-drums together. In a French brake which
-has been used experimentally for some years with much success,
-an electric current, controlled by the engine-driver, energizes an
-electro-magnet which forms part of the swinging-frame in which the
-loose friction-pulley is carried. This electro-magnet being vitalized,
-is attracted toward the axle, thus bringing the friction-drums
-in contact. In an American brake lately exhibited on a long freight
-train, a smaller electro-magnet is used, but the same end is accomplished
-by multiplying the power by the intervention of a lever and
-wheel. The other type of so-called electric brake is that in which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>
-the motive power is compressed air, and the function of the electric
-device is simply to manipulate the valves under each car, by
-which the air is let into the brake-cylinder or allowed to escape,
-thus putting on or releasing the brakes. All of these devices have
-this advantage, that, whatever the length of the train, the application
-of the brakes is simultaneous on all the wheels, and stops can
-be made from high speed with little shock. Up to two years ago
-it seemed as if this advantage might be a controlling one, and compel
-the introduction of electric brakes for freight service. Since
-then the new "quick-acting" form of the air-brake has been developed,
-by which the brakes are applied on the rear of a fifty-car
-train in two seconds, and there is no longer any necessity to turn
-to other devices. It is doubtful, therefore, if the additional complication
-of electricity is widely introduced into brake mechanism
-for many years, if ever.</p>
-
-<p>It is now universally held that the brake, both for freight and
-for passenger service, must be continuous; that is, it must be applied
-to every wheel of every car of the train from some one point,
-and ordinarily that point must be the engineer's cab. With the
-valve of an efficient continuous brake constantly under his left
-hand, the engine-driver can play with the heaviest and fastest train.
-Without that instrument his work is far more anxious, and much
-less certain.</p>
-
-<p>The continuous brake which to-day prevails all over the world,
-is the automatic air-brake. In the United States much the largest
-part of the rolling stock used in passenger service is equipped
-with the Westinghouse automatic brake. A few roads peculiarly
-situated use the Eames vacuum-brake. That brake is used on the
-elevated roads of New York, and on the Brooklyn bridge roads.
-The Westinghouse brake is also largely used in England, on the
-Continent of Europe, in India, Australia, and South America. In
-the United States it is being rapidly applied to freight cars also.
-This brake, therefore, being the highest development of the automatic
-air-brake, and the one most widely used, will be briefly described,
-as best representing the most approved type of the most
-important of all safety appliances.</p>
-
-<p>The general diagram which is given on pages 196&ndash;97 shows
-all of the principal parts as applied to a locomotive, a tender, and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>
-passenger car. The diagram is reduced from one prepared by
-Mr. M. N. Forney for a new edition of his "Catechism of the
-Locomotive." In the plan view are shown very clearly the hand-wheels,
-the chains, the rods, and the levers by which the brake
-is applied by hand. In passenger service the hand-wheels are
-rarely used, but they are retained for convenience in switching
-cars in the yard, and for those rare emergencies in which the air-brakes
-fail. Under the middle of the car the ordinary pull-rod of
-the old hand-brake is cut and two levers are inserted. One lever
-is connected with the brake-cylinder, and the other with the piston
-which slides in that cylinder. When air is admitted to the
-cylinder the piston is driven out, and the brakes are applied
-exactly as they would be were the chains wound up by turning the
-hand-wheels. Compressed air is supplied to the cylinder from the
-reservoir near it, in which pressure is maintained at from 70 to 80
-pounds per square inch by a pump placed on one side of the locomotive.
-The pump fills the main reservoir on the engine, and also the
-car-reservoirs, by means of the train-pipe which extends under all
-the cars. When the brakes are off there is a full pressure of air in
-all of the car-reservoirs and train-pipes. It is a <em>reduction</em> of the
-pressure in the train-pipes which causes the brakes to be applied.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<a href="images/i_197ab-large.jpg">
-<img src="images/i_197ab.jpg" width="650" alt="" /></a>
-<div class="caption">Plan and Elevation of Air-brake Apparatus.&mdash;Reservoirs and piping in solid black; brake gear shaded.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>This fact must be borne in mind, for it is on this principle that
-the automatic action of the brakes depends. If a train parts, or if
-the air leaks out of the train-pipe, the brakes go on. This automatic
-principle is a vital one in most safety appliances, and it is
-secured in the case of the air-brake by one of the most ingenious
-little devices that man ever contrived, that is, the triple valve, which
-is placed in the piping system between the brake-cylinder and
-the car-reservoir. This triple valve has passages to the brake-cylinder,
-to the car-reservoir, to the train-pipe, and to the atmosphere.
-Which of these passages are open and which are closed
-depends upon the position of a piston inside of the triple valve,
-and the position of that piston is determined by the difference in
-air-pressure on either side of it. Thus, when the pressure in the
-train-pipe is greater than that in the car-reservoir, the triple valve
-piston is forced over, say to the left, a communication is opened
-from the train-pipe to the car-reservoir, and the air pressure in the
-latter is restored from the main reservoir on the locomotive. At
-the same time a passage is opened from the brake-cylinder to the
-atmosphere, the compressed air escapes, the brake-piston is driven
-back by a spring, and the brakes are released. If the pressure in
-the train-pipe is reduced, the triple-valve piston is driven to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>
-right (we will assume) by the pressure from the car-reservoir, the
-passage to the atmosphere is closed, air flows freely from the car-reservoir
-to the brake-cylinder, and the brakes are applied.</p>
-
-<p>The function of the engineer's valve is to control these operations.
-Naturally the runner's left hand rests on this instrument,
-which is fixed to the back head of the boiler. To apply the brakes
-he turns the handle to such a position as to allow air to escape
-from the train-pipe; to release, he turns it to allow air to pass
-from the main or locomotive reservoir into the train-pipe, and
-thence into the car-reservoir. It is hardly necessary to say that
-the operation of the brake, which has been described for one car,
-is practically simultaneous throughout the train. The brakes on
-the driving-wheels of the engine are also automatically applied at
-the same time as those of the cars and the tender.</p>
-
-<p>In the plan on <a href="#Page_197">page 197</a> the several different positions of the
-handle of the engineer's valve are indicated, and among them the
-service-stop and the emergency-stop positions. The quickness of
-the stop can be to some degree controlled by the rapidity with
-which the air-pressure in the train-pipe is reduced. To make a
-stop in the shortest possible time, the runner moves the throttle
-lever with his right hand and shuts off steam, and with his left
-hand moves the handle of the engineer's valve to the emergency
-position, then pulls the sand-rod handle to let sand down to the
-rails, and finally, if the engine is not fitted with driver-brakes, he
-must reverse the engine and again open the throttle. These
-movements must be made in order and with precision; and to
-make them instantly and without mistake in the face of sudden
-danger requires coolness and presence of mind. It sometimes
-happens that an engine-runner reverses his engine before shutting
-off steam, in which case the cylinder-heads will very likely be
-blown out and the engine be instantly disabled. Then, if there
-are no driver-brakes, the locomotive is worse than useless, for instead
-of aiding in making the stop, its momentum adds to the work
-to be done by the train-brakes. Again, if the air-pressure in the
-brake-cylinders is so high, and the adjustment of the levers such
-that an instant application of the full pressure will stop the rotation
-of the wheels, and cause them to slide on the rails, the stop will
-take longer than if the wheels continued to revolve. The maximum<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>
-braking effect is obtained when the pressure on the wheels is as
-great as it can be without causing them to slide, and it may happen
-that a quicker stop can be made by putting the engineer's
-valve to the service-stop position than by trying to make an
-emergency-stop. The runner must, therefore, be familiar with the
-special conditions of his brakes, and must have that kind of mind
-which can be depended upon to work clearly and quickly in a
-moment of tremendous responsibility. Fortunately, such minds
-are not very rare. The world is full of heroes who want only
-discipline, habit, and opportunity.</p>
-
-<p>The pressure of air in the main reservoir and the train-pipe is
-maintained by the air-pump on the locomotive, the speed of which
-is automatically regulated by an ingenious governor. It is the
-throbbing of this vigilant machine which one hears during short
-stops at stations. The air-pressure has been reduced in applying
-the brakes, and the governor has set the pump at work.</p>
-
-<p>All of those parts of the air-brake apparatus which are shown
-in the diagram (<a href="#Page_196">pp. 196&ndash;97</a>) can be easily seen on a train standing
-at a station; but the curious traveller must be careful not to
-mistake the gas-tank carried under some cars for the car-reservoir.
-The gas-tank is about eight feet long; the car-reservoir is
-about thirty-three inches.</p>
-
-<p>Although the air-brake can almost talk, it is still not perfect.
-There are several fortunes to be made yet in improving it. For
-instance, it is desirable, in descending long and steep grades, that
-the brake-pressure should be just sufficient to control the speed of
-the train, and should be steadily applied; otherwise the descent
-will be by a succession of jerks which may become dangerous.
-With the automatic the brakes must be occasionally released to recharge
-the reservoirs, or when the speed of the train is too much
-reduced; and it is difficult to keep a uniform speed. So far, the
-means devised to overcome this difficulty and keep a constant and
-light pressure on the wheels have been thought too costly or complicated
-for general use. With hand-brakes long trains are controlled
-by the brakes of but a few of the cars in any one train. It
-follows that in the descent of grades the braked wheels must often
-run for miles with the pressure as great as it can be without sliding
-the wheels. The rim of the wheel is rapidly heated by the friction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
-of the brake-shoe, and the unequal expansion of the heated and the
-unheated parts of the wheel causes a fracture. This is why so
-many broken car-wheels are found at the foot of grades&mdash;of all
-places the worst for such an accident to happen. With "straight
-air," that is, with the pressure from the main reservoir, or the air-pump,
-going directly to the brake-cylinder, the engineer can apply
-the brakes to all the wheels of his train simultaneously, and with
-great delicacy of graduation; and by turning a three-way cock
-which is placed in the piping of each car, the air can be used
-"straight." This is regularly done on some mountain-roads. At
-summits the trains are stopped and the brakes are changed from
-"automatic" to "straight." This practice is dangerous, however,
-and is not approved by the best brake-experts, for if a hose
-bursts, or through some other accident the air in the train-pipe escapes,
-the brakes are useless. The automatic arrangement by
-which a reduction of air-pressure in the train-pipe applies the
-brakes, as previously explained, is much preferred, although no entirely
-satisfactory means has yet been devised for automatically
-regulating the air-pressure in the brake-cylinder.</p>
-
-<p>There is not space here to enter into the history of the air-brake.
-It was first practically applied to passenger trains in 1868.
-The first great epoch in its subsequent development was the invention,
-by Mr. George Westinghouse, Jr., of the triple valve. The
-introduction of the triple valve at once reduced the time of full
-application of the brake for a ten-car train from twenty-five seconds
-to about eight seconds. This means, at forty miles an hour,
-a reduction by more than one thousand feet in the distance in
-which a train can be stopped. The next great epoch in the history
-of the air-brake was made by the celebrated Burlington brake-trials
-of 1886 and 1887. These trials were undertaken by a committee
-of the Master Car-builders' Association, to determine whether or
-not there was any power-brake fit for freight service. For general
-freight service the brake must be capable of arresting a very long
-train, with cars loosely coupled, running at a fair average passenger
-speed, without producing objectionable shocks in the rear of
-the train. The two series of trials were carried out in July, 1886,
-and May, 1887. The competing brake-companies brought to the
-trials trains of fifty cars each, equipped with their devices. Skilled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
-mechanical engineers from various railroad and private companies
-assisted both years. These trials were most exhaustive, and have
-contributed more to the art of braking than any that preceded or
-have followed them. The first year's trials developed the fact that
-the air-brakes could not be applied on the rear of a fifty-car train
-in less than eighteen seconds, whereas the head of a train moving
-twenty miles an hour could be completely stopped in fifteen seconds.
-The result was that disastrous collisions between the cars of any
-one train were produced in the act of stopping. Men in the rear
-cars were thrown down and injured, and much damage was done
-to the cars. At the end of nineteen days the brake-companies
-went home to work another year over the new problem. In 1887
-they reappeared on the same ground, and in eighteen days proved
-that no simple air-brakes, as then operated, could prevent disastrous
-shocks in a long train; but it was shown that by bringing
-in electricity to actuate the air-valves, the application of the brakes
-could be made practically simultaneous throughout the train. Mr.
-Westinghouse, however, during the summer following, made such
-modifications in the triple valve and in the train-pipe that he succeeded
-in applying the brakes throughout a fifty-car train in two
-seconds. That settled the matter. He at once equipped a train
-of fifty cars, and in October and November, 1887, that train made
-a journey of about three thousand miles, making exhibition stops
-at various cities. The journey was a splendid and conclusive demonstration
-that the air-brake is now a thoroughly efficient and
-reliable contrivance for freight as well as for passenger service.
-The result has been a very rapid application of the new quick-acting
-brake to freight cars. The performance of this train was to
-railroad men most impressive. A freight train of fifty cars is about
-one-third of a mile long. To see such a train, running forty miles
-an hour, smoothly stopped in one-third of its own length, without
-shock or fuss, was an object-lesson that no one could fail to understand
-or to remember. Some of the stops made by this train will
-give a fair notion of the relative power of hand- and air-brakes
-for quick stops. The following figures are averages of stops made
-in six different cities. They give the distances run in feet from
-the instant of applying the brakes till the train was brought to
-a stand-still:</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="center fs80">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr fs90">Feet.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Hand-brakes, 50 cars, 20 miles an hour</td><td class="tdr">794</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Air-brakes, 50 cars, 20 miles an hour</td><td class="tdr">166</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Air-brakes, 50 cars, 40 miles an hour</td><td class="tdr">581</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Air-brakes, 20 cars, 20 miles an hour</td><td class="tdr">99</td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p>With twenty cars at twenty miles an hour even shorter stops
-were made than those recorded above. In the Burlington trials
-the hand-brake stops, with fifty-car trains at forty miles an hour,
-were made in from two thousand five hundred to three thousand
-feet.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_202.jpg" width="250" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Dwarf Semaphores and Split Switch.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The air-brake is somewhat complicated, but the complicated
-mechanism is strong, has little movement, and is securely protected
-from dirt and the elements. It is therefore little liable to derangement.
-It is, however, becoming better understood that brake-gear
-must be good, and employees carefully instructed in the care and
-use of the air-brake to get its best results; and in recent years
-two or three elaborate instruction-cars have been fitted up for the
-education of the enginemen and
-trainmen.</p>
-
-<p>Space does not permit more
-than an allusion to driver-brakes,
-which are operated by steam
-and by air. The forms in constant
-use are made by the
-Eames, the American, the Westinghouse,
-and the Beals companies.
-Nor can much be said
-here of the water-brake, used
-to some extent on locomotives
-working heavy grades. It consists
-of a simple arrangement of
-admitting a little hot water, instead
-of steam, to the cylinders.
-The engine is reversed and the
-cylinder-cocks are opened to
-the air. The cylinders then act
-as air-pumps, and the retarding effect is due to the back pressure.
-The use of the water is to prevent overheating of the parts.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="sandbagbox" id="img203">
- <div id="i203b1">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i203b2">&nbsp;</div>
-
-<div class="caption">Semaphore Signal with Indicators.<br />
-
-(One arm governs several tracks. The number of the track<br />which is clear is
-shown on the indicator disk.)</div>
-
-<p>If it is important to have efficient means of stopping trains, it is
-scarcely less important to have timely information of the need of
-stopping them. To give such information is the function of signals,
-which, among safety appliances, must
-stand next after brakes. Signals fall naturally
-into two great classes: Those
-which protect points of danger and govern
-the movements of engines in yards, and
-those which keep an interval of space between
-two trains running on one track.
-For the protection of switches, crossings,
-junctions, and the like, signals in immense
-variety have been used, and, unfortunately,
-are still used; but
-in the last ten or fifteen
-years the semaphore
-signal has
-become the general
-standard in the
-United States, as it
-long has been in
-England. This consists
-of a board,
-called the blade or
-arm, pivoted on the
-post, and back of the
-pivot is a heavy casting
-which carries a
-colored glass lens,
-either green or red.
-On the post is hung
-a lantern. The danger position is with the blade horizontal. In
-this position the lens is in front of the lamp, and the light shows
-red or green, as the case may be. The safety position is with the
-blade hanging about sixty degrees from the horizontal. In this
-position the light of the lantern shows white. Red is the universal
-danger color, and green the color of caution. Therefore, a semaphore
-signal at a point of danger shows by day a blade painted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>
-red, with the end of the blade cut square. At night it shows a
-red light. At a position some distance from the point of actual
-danger, but where it is desirable to warn an engine-runner that
-he is likely to find the danger signal against him, a caution signal
-is placed. This is a semaphore blade painted green, with the end
-notched in a V-shape, or, as it is called, a fish-tail. At night this
-signal shows a green light. There is nothing very remarkable
-about a piece of board arranged to wag up and down on a pin
-stuck through a post, but it is wonderful how much of good brains
-and good breath have been expended in getting these boards to
-wag harmoniously, and in getting railroad officers to understand
-that a plain board, having two possible positions, is a better signal
-than any more complicated form.</p>
-</div>
-
-    <div class="HandHeld">
-    <div class="figleft">
-    <img src="images/i_203.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">Semaphore Signal with Indicators.<br />
-
-    (One arm governs several tracks. The number of the track<br />which is clear is
-    shown on the indicator disk.)</div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p>If it is important to have efficient means of stopping trains, it is
-    scarcely less important to have timely information of the need of
-    stopping them. To give such information is the function of signals,
-    which, among safety appliances, must
-    stand next after brakes. Signals fall naturally
-    into two great classes: Those
-    which protect points of danger and govern
-    the movements of engines in yards, and
-    those which keep an interval of space between
-    two trains running on one track.
-    For the protection of switches, crossings,
-    junctions, and the like, signals in immense
-    variety have been used, and, unfortunately,
-    are still used; but
-    in the last ten or fifteen
-    years the semaphore
-    signal has
-    become the general
-    standard in the
-    United States, as it
-    long has been in
-    England. This consists
-    of a board,
-    called the blade or
-    arm, pivoted on the
-    post, and back of the
-    pivot is a heavy casting
-    which carries a
-    colored glass lens,
-    either green or red.
-    On the post is hung
-    a lantern. The danger position is with the blade horizontal. In
-    this position the lens is in front of the lamp, and the light shows
-    red or green, as the case may be. The safety position is with the
-    blade hanging about sixty degrees from the horizontal. In this
-    position the light of the lantern shows white. Red is the universal
-    danger color, and green the color of caution. Therefore, a semaphore
-    signal at a point of danger shows by day a blade painted
-    red, with the end of the blade cut square. At night it shows a
-    red light. At a position some distance from the point of actual
-    danger, but where it is desirable to warn an engine-runner that
-    he is likely to find the danger signal against him, a caution signal
-    is placed. This is a semaphore blade painted green, with the end
-    notched in a V-shape, or, as it is called, a fish-tail. At night this
-    signal shows a green light. There is nothing very remarkable
-    about a piece of board arranged to wag up and down on a pin
-    stuck through a post, but it is wonderful how much of good brains
-    and good breath have been expended in getting these boards to
-    wag harmoniously, and in getting railroad officers to understand
-    that a plain board, having two possible positions, is a better signal
-    than any more complicated form.</p>
-    </div>
-
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_204.jpg" width="250" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Section of Saxby &amp; Farmer Interlocking Machine.<br />
-
-(Showing two levers and locking mechanism.<br />
-<em>A</em> is normal, <em>B</em> is reversed.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The arrangement of a group of signals and switches in such a
-way that their movements are made
-mutually dependent one upon the
-other, and so that it is impossible to
-make these movements in any but
-prearranged sequences, is called, in
-railroad vernacular, "interlocking,"
-and in this sense the word will be
-used here. Interlocking has become
-a special art. The objects which it
-is sought to accomplish by interlocking,
-and the admirable way in which
-those objects are attained, may best
-be understood from an actual example.
-For that purpose we shall take
-a double-track junction completely
-equipped with signals, facing-point
-locks, and derailing switches (<a href="#Page_205">p. 205</a>).</p>
-
-<p>A general view of an interlocking
-frame was given on <a href="#Page_171">page 171</a> of this
-volume. Two levers from such a
-frame are here shown. The normal
-position of the levers is forward, as lever <em>A</em>. When pulled back,
-as lever <em>B</em>, the lever is said to be reversed.</p>
-
-<p>Let it be supposed that a main-line train is to be passed eastward<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
-in the direction of the arrow <em>B</em>. The first movement of the
-signalman in the signal-tower would naturally be to lower signals
-1 and 2. He attempts to pull over lever 1, but cannot move it,
-and, in spite of any effort or ingenuity on his part, that signal remains
-at danger. The reason is that lever 2 when normal locks
-lever 1 normal. The logic of this will be at once apparent.
-Clearing signal 1 is an indication to the engineer that the way is
-clear, and that he may pass the junction at speed. So long as this
-signal (which, it must be remembered, is a <em>caution</em> signal) stands
-at danger he knows that he may pass it, but must be ready to stop
-before he reaches No. 2, the home-signal. Therefore No. 1 must
-never be lowered till all is arranged for passing the junction at
-speed. As the signalman cannot lower signal 1, he attempts to
-lower signal 2. Again he finds that he cannot budge the lever.
-It is locked by lever No. 3. This lever works a facing-point lock,
-which must be described just at this point (<a href="#Page_206">p. 206</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_205.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Diagram of a Double-track Junction with Interlocked Switches and
-Signals.<br />
-
-<p><em>A</em> is the west-bound main line track; <em>B</em>, the east-bound; <em>C</em> and <em>D</em> are the west-bound
-and east-bound branch-tracks. Nos. 1, 10, and 12 are distant signals; Nos. 2,
-9, and 11, home signals; Nos. 3, 6, and 8, facing-point locks; and Nos. 4, 5, and 7
-are switches. The levers which move all of these parts are placed side by side in a frame in the signal-tower. It will
-be noticed that No. 7 is a switch designed merely to derail an engine on track A. A similar switch is provided on
-track <em>C</em>, and is worked by the same lever which works junction switch No. 5. In the sketch all levers are supposed to
-stand in their "normal" position, all signals are at danger, and the switches are set for the main line. The switches
-themselves are not locked in this position of the facing-point lock levers.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The front rod of the switch, that is, the rod which connects the
-points of the two moving rails of the switch, is pierced with two
-holes placed a distance apart just equal to the throw of the switch.
-In front of these holes is a bolt which is worked by a lever in the
-signal-tower. After the switch is set the lock-lever is reversed
-and the bolt enters one of the holes, thus securely locking the
-switch in position. There is one other interesting feature of this
-facing-point lock. It has happened very often that a switch has
-been thrown under a moving train, splitting the train and derailing
-more or less of it. This class of accidents is especially likely to
-happen when train movements are very frequent, and may be prevented
-by the use of the "detector-bar." This is a bar about forty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>
-feet long, placed alongside the rail, and carried on swinging links,
-like those of a parallel ruler, in such a way that any effort to move
-the bar lengthwise of the rail must raise it above the top of the
-rail. This bar is moved by the same lever which moves the locking-bolt.
-So long as there is a wheel on the rail above the detector-bar
-it cannot be moved, therefore the locking-bolt cannot be
-withdrawn, and the switch cannot be moved until the train has
-passed completely off it.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_206.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Split Switches with Facing-point Locks and Detector-bars.<br />
-
-(The rod on the right of the track is the mechanical connection to the lever in the signal-tower by which the locks and
-detector-bars are moved.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_207.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Derailing Switch.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>We left the signalman trying to lower signal No. 2; vainly, because
-No. 3 lever was still normal and the switch unlocked (Diagram,
-p. 205). Probably he would not have begun his operations
-in the bungling way that has
-been supposed, but would have
-first reversed lever 3. That
-locks the switch by the facing-point
-lock, and locks also
-switch-lever 4 in the frame in
-the signal-tower and releases
-lever 2. Then he reverses
-lever 2. That locks lever 3
-and releases lever 1. Then he
-reverses lever 1, which locks
-lever 2. Now the way is made
-for a train to pass east on the
-main line, and the signals are
-clear. The last signal could
-not have been lowered until
-the chain of operations was complete; none of the levers can now
-be moved until lever 1 is again put normal and signal 1 made
-to show danger. There is one point of great danger in this particular
-train-movement which has not been mentioned; that is, the
-crossing of main-line east-bound track <em>B</em> by the branch-line west-bound
-track <em>C</em>. It will be noticed that with the levers normal, derailing
-switch 5 is open, and it is impossible for a locomotive to
-pass beyond it. Lever 5 is interlocked in the tower with lever 4
-in such a way that, before 5 can be reversed to let a train pass
-west from <em>C</em>, lever 4 must be reversed to trap any train on <em>B</em> and
-turn it down the branch <em>D</em>. It must not be understood that the
-use of "derailers" is universal. In fact, they are not recommended
-by the best signal engineers, except in special conditions. In the
-absence of derailer No. 5, signals 11 and 12 would be interlocked
-with switch 4, so that, so long as that switch stands open for the
-main line a clear signal cannot be given to a train coming west on
-<em>C</em>. It will be noticed that signal 2 carries two semaphores on one
-post. The upper one is for the main line and the lower one for
-the branch. Both are operated by one lever, 2, and whether reversing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>
-lever 2 lowers the main-line signal or the branch signal
-depends on the position of the switch. The switch is made to pick
-out its signal by an ingenious but very simple little arrangement,
-called a selector, which is placed somewhere in the line of ground
-connections.</p>
-
-<p>It would be an interesting study, were there space, to follow
-the possible and proper combinations of movements to pass trains
-over the various tracks. It will be seen that, by concentrating the
-levers which move switches and signals in one place and interlocking
-them, it is made mechanically impossible for a signalman
-to give a signal which would lead to a collision or a derailment
-within the region under his control. The only danger at such
-points is that an engineer may overrun the signals. This description
-of the objects and the capacity of the system of interlocking is
-no fancy sketch. The system has been in use for many years,
-doing just what has been here described, and more. A recent
-close estimate gave the number of interlocked levers now in use in
-the United States as about eight thousand, and the number is rapidly
-increasing. Recent official reports showed that in Great
-Britain and Ireland there were thirty-eight thousand cases in which
-a passenger line was connected with or crossed by another line,
-siding, or cross-over. In eighty-nine per cent. of these cases the
-levers operating the switches and protecting signals were interlocked.</p>
-
-<p>The example of interlocking which has been given is one of the
-simplest; the principle is capable of almost indefinite expansion,
-and any one lever may be made to lock any one or more levers
-among hundreds in the same frame. The greatest number of
-levers assembled in any one signal-tower in this country is one
-hundred and sixteen, at the Grand Central Station in New York.
-In the London Bridge tower there are two hundred and eighty
-levers. This is probably the greatest number in any one tower in
-the world. All of these levers may be more or less interlocked.
-The same principle is applied to the locking of two levers at a single
-switch, and to the protection of drawbridges and highway
-crossings.</p>
-
-<p>The mechanism by which the interlocking is done is strong and
-comparatively simple, but a detailed description of it seems out of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
-place here. Two levers from a Saxby &amp; Farmer machine are
-shown on <a href="#Page_204">page 204</a>, with lever <em>A</em> normal and <em>B</em> reversed. The
-locking mechanism is in front of the levers, and is actuated not by
-the levers themselves, but by their catch-rods. It follows that it is
-not the actual movement of a signal which prevents the movement
-of other signals, or of switches, but it is the intention to move that
-signal. This principle of "preliminary locking" is one of great
-importance.</p>
-
-<p>Switches and signals are often worked at such distances from
-the tower that it is impossible for the operator to know whether or
-not the movement contemplated has taken place. The British
-Board of Trade does not permit switches to be worked more than
-750 feet away. In this country there is no limit, but probably 800
-feet is very rarely exceeded. Signals are worked in England up
-to 3,000 or 3,500 feet very commonly, and they are even worked
-a mile away, but not satisfactorily. This is with direct mechanical
-connection, by rod or wire, from the levers. It is obvious that a
-break in the connections between the lever and the switch or
-signal might take place, and the lever be pulled over, without having
-produced the corresponding movement at the far end. The
-locking mechanism in the tower would not be affected by such an
-accident, and consequently conflicting signals might be given.
-Even this contingency is provided against with almost perfect
-safety. If a signal connection breaks, the signal is counter-weighted
-to go to danger. The worst that can happen is to delay
-traffic. If a switch connection breaks, the locking-bolt, in the
-latest form of facing-point lock, will not enter the hole in the
-switch-rod, and consequently warning is given in the tower that
-the switch has not moved. Electric annunciators are often placed
-in the signal-tower, to show on a board before the operator
-whether or not the movements of switches and signals have taken
-place.</p>
-
-<p>Considerable work must be done in the movement of each
-lever. The ground connections must be put down with great care,
-as nearly straight and level as may be, well drained, and protected
-from ice and snow. All of these difficulties have been overcome
-in a beautiful pneumatic interlocking apparatus which has been introduced
-within the last two or three years. In this system the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>
-motive power is compressed air. Near each switch is a small
-cylinder, containing a piston which is attached directly to the
-switch movement. Compressed air admitted to one side or the
-other of this piston moves the switch one way or the other. But,
-as it would take some time for the necessary quantity of air to flow
-from the signal-tower to a distant switch, a small reservoir is
-placed near the switch, and the air from this reservoir is admitted
-to one end or the other of the switch cylinder according to the
-position of a valve. For transmitting the motion from the tower
-to the valve compressed air might be used, but, as air is elastic, a
-quicker movement is got by using in the pipes some liquid which
-does not readily freeze, and which, being practically non-compressible,
-transmits an impulse given at one end almost instantly to
-the other. The signals are worked in essentially the same manner
-as the switches, except that the pneumatic valves are moved by
-electricity. The tower apparatus of a pneumatic system in the
-yard of the Pennsylvania Railroad at Pittsburg is shown in the
-engraving opposite. In the front of the apparatus is seen a rank
-of small handles, which can be turned from side to side with as
-much ease as the keys of a piano can be depressed. Turning one
-of these handles admits compressed air to the end of a pipe containing
-liquid. Instantly the pressure is transmitted 500 or 1,000
-feet to the valve at the switch to be moved. The small levers are
-interlocked perfectly, and in that particular perform the duties of
-the ordinary machine. A model of the tracks controlled is placed
-before the operator, showing the switches and signals, and when
-a movement is made on the ground it is at once repeated back by
-electricity and duplicated on the model. This beautiful system is
-due to the same genius that gave us the perfected air-brake and
-the triple valve, and is the greatest improvement that has been
-made in interlocking in the last dozen years.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span><br />
-   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_211.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Interlocking Apparatus for Operating Switches and Signals by Compressed Air, Pittsburg Yards, Pennsylvania Railroad.<br />
-
-(A model of the track is shown above the levers, on which the movements of the switches and signals are electrically indicated after they are completed.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_213.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Torpedo Placer.<br />
-
-(The torpedo is carried forward by the plunger<br />and exploded
-by the depression of the hammer shown<br />near the
-rail.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>If the reader has grasped the full significance of interlocking,
-he understands that it makes it impossible to give a signal that
-would lead to a collision or to a derailment at a misplaced switch.
-The worst that a stupid, or drunken, or malicious signalman could
-do would be to delay traffic, if the signals were obeyed. Here
-comes in the failing case. The brake-power may be insufficient
-to stop a train after a danger signal is given. That is a rare occurrence,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>
-but may happen. The engineer may not see the danger
-signal because of fog, or he may carelessly run past it. Provision
-against a failure to see and to obey a signal may be made by placing
-on the track a torpedo, which will explode with a loud report
-when struck by a wheel. The
-use of hand-torpedoes in fogs,
-and for emergencies in places
-unprovided with fixed signals,
-is very common. These are
-little disks filled with a detonating
-powder, and provided with
-tin straps that are bent down to
-clasp over the top of the rail.
-A simple and very efficient torpedo
-machine, which has been
-used for some years on the
-Manhattan Elevated and elsewhere,
-is here shown. This
-machine has a magazine holding
-five torpedoes. It is connected to a signal-lever in such a
-way that, when the signal is put to danger, one torpedo is placed
-in a position to be exploded by the first passing wheel. When the
-signal returns to the clear position the torpedo, if unexploded, is
-withdrawn to the magazine. If the torpedo is exploded another
-one takes its place at the next movement of the signal-lever. One
-of these machines on the Elevated Road moves about five thousand
-times every day. In such a case a torpedo would soon be
-worn out if it was not exploded or frequently changed. When
-this apparatus is in operation, an unmistakable alarm is at once
-given to the engineer and to others if a danger signal is passed.
-On the Manhattan Elevated lines an engineman who overruns a
-danger signal and can show no good reason for it is suspended
-for the first offence, and discharged for the second. The torpedo
-makes it impossible for him to escape detection.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_214.jpg" width="350" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Old Signal Tower on the Philadelphia &amp; Reading, at Phœnixville.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The second great class of signals comprises those which are
-intended to keep fixed intervals of space between trains running
-on the same track. These are block signals. The block system<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>
-is used on a few of the
-railroads of the United
-States which have the
-heaviest and fastest
-traffic. Much the most
-common practice in this
-country, however, is to
-run trains by time intervals,
-and under the
-constant control of the
-train despatcher. In
-England the block system
-is almost universal.
-About ninety per cent.
-of all the passenger
-lines of that country are
-worked under the absolute
-block system.</p>
-
-<p>When the block system
-is not used, it is
-quite common to protect
-particularly dangerous
-points, such as
-curves and deep cuts,
-by stationing watchmen
-there with flags or with
-some form of fixed signal.
-The watchman can notify an approaching engine-runner
-that a preceding train has or has not passed beyond his own range
-of vision; or can notify him that it has been gone a certain time.
-Travellers by the Philadelphia &amp; Reading must have noticed
-the queer structures, with revolving vanes on top, looking like a
-feeble sort of windmill, which appear in positions to command a
-view of cuts, curves, etc. These are examples of the devices for
-local protection. The non-automatic block signal develops naturally
-from the protection of scattered points. Instead of placing
-watchmen at points of especial danger, they are placed at regular
-intervals of one mile, two miles, or five miles. Instead of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
-watchman looking to see that a train has disappeared from his
-field of vision before he lets another train pass, he uses the eyes
-of the next watchman ahead, who telegraphs back that the train
-has passed his station. Suppose A, B, and C to be three block-signal
-stations placed at intervals of two miles. When a train
-passes A, the operator at that point at once puts a signal to danger
-behind it. This signal stands at danger until the train passes B,
-and the operator puts his signal to danger, and telegraphs back to
-A to announce that train No. 1 has passed out of the block A B,
-and is protected by the signal at B. Then, and not until then, the
-operator clears the signal at A and allows train No. 2 to enter the
-block. Meanwhile train No. 1 is proceeding through the block
-B C, its rear protected at B; and the same sequence of events
-happens when it arrives at C as happened at B. This is the simplest
-form of block signalling. In the more elaborate form there
-are at each block-station three signals&mdash;the distant, the home, and
-the starting. The signals are often electrically interlocked, from
-one station to another, in such a way that it is mechanically impossible
-for the operator at A to give a signal for a train to pass that
-station until the signal at B has been put to danger behind the
-preceding train.</p>
-
-<div class="center">
-<br />
-A<span class="pad10">B</span><span class="pad10">C</span><br />
-<hr class="chapa" />
-<br />
-</div>
-
-<p>It is seen that no two trains can be in the same block and on
-the same track at the same time. If all run at a uniform speed,
-they will be kept just the length of a block apart. If No. 2 is
-faster than No. 1, it will arrive at B before No. 1 gets to C, but
-will have to wait there. The block system, therefore, while it
-gives security, does not always facilitate traffic. The longer the
-blocks the greater will be the delay to trains; but the shorter the
-blocks, the greater the cost of establishment, maintenance, and
-operation.</p>
-
-<p>Various systems have been contrived to have block signals displayed
-automatically by the passage of trains. This, if it can be
-done reliably, will do away with the wages of part of the operators,
-and will also eliminate the dangers arising from human carelessness.
-But there are very great objections to relying solely upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>
-the automatic action of signals, and automatic block signals are
-little used except as auxiliary to a system employing operators
-also. So used, they are of decided advantage, as they make sure
-that a danger signal is set behind every train in spite of the operator,
-and that it cannot be again set to the all-clear position till
-the train has passed out of the block. All this is accomplished by
-electricity.</p>
-
-<p>Brakes, interlocking, and the apparatus of signalling have been
-considered at length because they are very much the most important
-of all the appliances which go to increase the safety of operating
-railroads. They act chiefly to prevent collisions, but often prevent
-or mitigate accidents from derailments and other causes. Of
-all train-accidents happening in the last sixteen years, over one-third
-have been from collisions, and more than one-half from derailments.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_217.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Crossing Gates worked by Mechanical Connection from the Cabin.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>After brakes and signals, the devices next in importance as
-means of saving life are those for the protection of highway crossings
-at the grade of railroads. In years to come, as wealth increases
-and as traffic becomes more crowded, we may suppose
-there will be few such crossings; but their abolition must be slow,
-and meantime the loss of life at them is great. The most accurate
-and complete statistics bearing on this matter are those collected
-by the Railroad Commissioners of Massachusetts. In 1888, of all
-those killed in the operation of the railroads of the State, seven per
-cent. were passengers, thirty-three per cent. were employees, and
-sixty per cent. were others. The others include trespassers, forty-seven
-per cent.; and killed at grade crossings, eleven per cent.
-More trespassers were killed than any other class; but the deaths
-at highway crossings considerably exceeded those among passengers.
-The difficulty of preventing this class of accidents is strikingly
-shown by the fact that, of all crossing accidents, forty-two per
-cent. were due to the victims' disregard of warnings given by closed
-gates or flags. It is evident that the efforts of the railroad companies
-to save people's lives at crossings are largely nullified by the
-carelessness of the public, and the lack of proper laws to punish
-those who venture upon railroad tracks when they should keep off
-them. Still, it remains the duty and the policy of the railroads to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>
-protect street crossings by all practicable means. The best protection
-is afforded by gates with watchmen, and of all forms of
-gate the most common, because it is the simplest and most convenient
-to operate, is the familiar arm-gate. This is usually worked
-by a man turning a crank, but it is also worked by compressed air.
-On this page is shown a group of gates worked from an elevated
-cabin by a mechanical connection. A bell fixed at a crossing, to
-be rung by an approaching train, is a very useful auxiliary to gates
-and to watchmen with flags, and is considerably used where the
-traffic does not warrant the expense of maintaining a watchman.
-There are several good devices of this sort, either electric or magneto-electric.
-One of the latter class has a lever alongside the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>
-rail, which is depressed by each wheel that passes over it. This
-lever is geared to a fly-wheel, which is set rapidly revolving and
-causes an armature to revolve in the field of a magnet, and thus
-generates a current and rings a gong, precisely as is done with the
-familiar magnetic bell used with the telephone.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_218.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Some Results of a Butting Collision&mdash;Baggage and Passenger Cars Telescoped.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_219.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Wreck at a Bridge.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>About thirteen per cent. of the train-accidents in the United
-States, in the last sixteen years, were derailments due to defects
-of road. These include not only defective rails, switches, and
-frogs, but bridge wrecks. There are, however, few devices used
-in the track, other than those already mentioned, that can be called
-safety appliances. This class of accidents is to be provided against
-only by good material, good workmanship, and unceasing care.
-Many so-called safety switches and safety frogs are offered to railroad
-officers, but those actually in wide use are confined to a very
-few standard forms. The split-switch, which is shown in the engravings
-on pages 206 and 207, has gradually replaced the old
-stub-switch, as well as most of the "safety" switches that have
-been from time to time introduced; although the stub-switch is
-still in considerable use in yards where movements are slow, and
-in the main tracks of the less progressive roads. It consists of a
-pair of moving rails the ends of which are brought opposite to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
-ends of the main-line rails, or to those of the turnout, as the case
-may be. It follows that but one of these tracks is continuous at
-any one time, and a train reaching the switch by the other track
-must be derailed. The distressing accident which happened at
-Rio, Wis., in 1886, where seventeen people lost their lives, was a derailment
-of this sort. Since that time the railroad on which the accident
-happened has taken out all stub-switches on thousands of
-miles of main-line track. The split-switch provides against such
-derailments, for if the switch is set for the turnout, and a train
-approaches it from the main line in the "trailing" direction, the
-flanges of the wheels move the switch-rails to make the track
-continuous. The terms "facing" and "trailing," as applied to
-switches, are almost self-explanatory. If a train approaches toward
-the points of the moving rails, the switch is said to be facing.
-If it runs through the switch from the rear of the moving
-rails, the switch is said to be trailing. This will be made clear
-by reference to the illustration on <a href="#Page_206">page 206</a>. If a train were coming
-from the bridge, the first switch reached by it would be a
-trailing and the second a facing switch. In the newspaper reports
-an accident will very often be assigned to one of two causes, failure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>
-of the air-brakes or spreading of the rails. The chances are that
-it will be found on investigation to be due to neither of these
-causes. Those interested to maintain the credit of the air-brake
-or of the track department are not often on the ground when the
-reporter gets his information, and the temptation is always great
-to shift the responsibility to the shoulders of the absent. Probably
-the displacement of the rail will have taken place after the derailment;
-but rails do sometimes spread. Loose spikes and rotten
-ties allow the outer edge of the rail-flange to sink into the wood,
-and the rail to roll outward enough to let the wheels drop. Sound
-ties are the first safeguard against such accidents. Metal plates
-under the rails are useful also; but one of the most efficient means
-of preventing displacement of the rails is the interlocking bolt
-shown above. These bolts cross in the timber, and slots cut in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
-the two bolts engage with each other in such a way that when the
-nuts are screwed down on the rail-flange it is impossible to pull
-the bolts out. They can only be moved by tearing through the
-wood contained in the angle between them. This bolt is much
-used on bridges and trestles, where it is of vital importance that
-the rails should be held in place and no part of the floor broken.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_220.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">New South Norwalk Drawbridge. Rails held by safety bolts.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In 1853 an express train went through an open draw at South
-Norwalk, Conn., and forty-six lives were lost. This, one of the
-most serious railroad accidents that ever happened, is still remembered
-as an historical calamity. The bridge which stands on the
-same site is shown opposite. In May, 1888, a west-bound express
-train, consisting of an engine and seven cars, was derailed just as
-it was entering the draw-span. The train ran three hundred feet
-on the sleepers before it was stopped. Then it was found that all
-of the driving-wheels of the engine had regained the rails, but all
-the other wheels were off, except those of two sleeping-cars in
-the rear. This was a remarkable escape from a bad accident, and
-much of the credit of it has been given to the interlocking bolts
-with which the rails were fastened. They are supposed to have prevented
-the rails being crowded aside, and thus to have made possible
-the rerailing of the engine. Besides, they helped the oak
-guard-timbers to hold the ties in place. The destruction of a
-bridge in an accident frequently begins by the ties bunching in
-front of the wheels and allowing the wheels to drop through and
-strike the floor-beams below. For this reason guard-timbers,
-notched down over the ties, should always be used.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_222.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Engines Wrecked during the Great Wabash Strike.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The traveller will have noticed, on all bridges of various roads,
-two rails placed inside the track-rails, and curved to meet in a point
-at either end of the bridge. These are known as inside guard-rails,
-and their function is to keep derailed trucks in line till the
-train can be stopped. Besides the bunching of the ties, there is
-danger in a bridge derailment that a truck may swing around and
-strike one of the trusses. Then the bridge is very likely to be
-wrecked. A further provision for the protection of bridges is the
-rerailing frog invented by the late Charles Latimer, whose name
-is dear to railroad men all over America. This consists of a pair
-of castings combined with inside guard-rails, designed to raise the
-derailed wheels and guide them on to the rails. There is no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>
-doubt that it has prevented several wrecks, although it has never
-been widely used. The subject of bridges should not be left without
-a word of explanation of the stout timber-posts often seen at
-either end placed in line with the trusses. These are designed to
-stop any derailed vehicle which might otherwise strike against and
-destroy a truss.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>There is one track-fixture that has no duty or value except as
-it promotes safety. It helps only one humble class of railroad employees.
-That device is the foot-guard. At all places where two
-rails cross or approach each other, as at frogs and guard-rails,
-dangerous boot-jacks are formed by the rail-heads. The overhang
-of the heads of the rail makes it easy for one to so fasten his foot
-in one of those boot-jacks that it is hard to get it out. If a man
-finds himself in this position in front of an approaching train, he
-sometimes has the alternative of standing up to be struck by the
-engine or lying down and having his foot cut off. Fortunately
-this class of accidents is comparatively rare; probably not more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>
-than two or three per cent. of all deaths and injuries to passengers
-and employees is caused in this way. Nevertheless, the means of
-guarding against accidents of this class is so cheap that it should
-be more generally adopted than it is. It consists simply in partly
-filling the space between the rail-heads by putting in wooden
-blocks or strips of metal, or even packing with cinders, gravel, or
-any sort of ballast. Various wooden and metal foot-guards have
-been patented. They are all too simple to require description.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_224a.jpg" width="250" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Link-and-pin Coupler.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Of all accidents to employees the most numerous are those
-which arise in coupling and uncoupling cars. In Massachusetts, in
-1888, the employees killed and injured were 391; of these casualties
-154 occurred in coupling accidents. The commissioners of
-other States, especially of Iowa, have for years published statistics
-showing nearly the same ratio. Fortunately accidents of this class,
-although numerous, are not proportionately fatal. Far the greater
-part of them result in the loss of part of a hand; but they are so
-frequent as to have caused much discussion, legislation, and invention.
-Several States have, one time and another, passed laws requiring
-the use of automatic couplers; and two or three years ago
-there were on record in the United States over four thousand
-coupler patents. The laws have been futile because impracticable;
-and most of the patents have been worthless for the same reason.
-It was obvious that the business of supplying couplers for the one
-million freight cars of the country could not be put into the hands
-of some one patentee unless his device was manifestly and pre-eminently
-superior to all others. It became important, therefore,
-to select as a standard some type of coupler general enough to include
-the patents of various men, and at the same time so definite
-that all couplers made to conform to the standard could work together
-interchangeably. Those who read Mr. Voorhees' story<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>
-of the wanderings of a freight car will understand that any one
-freight car in the United States or Canada should be prepared to
-run in the same train with any other car. A few years ago a committee
-of the Master Car-builders' Association was appointed to
-choose and recommend a type of coupler to be adopted as the
-standard of the association. After prolonged and careful study of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
-the subject, the committee recommended the type of which the
-Janney is the best known example, and that has now become the
-standard of the association. This
-action does not give a monopoly to
-the Janney company, as there are already
-half a dozen couplers which
-conform to the type. This coupler
-is shown by diagrams in the article
-by M. N. Forney, <a href="#Page_142">page 142</a>. A perspective
-view is herewith given. This
-device couples automatically, and thus
-does away with the necessity for the
-brakeman going between the cars.
-It can also be unlocked by the rod
-shown extending to the side of the
-car, and the locking device can be set
-not to couple, to facilitate switching
-and yard work. The mechanical principles of this coupler are a
-great and important improvement upon any form of link-and-pin
-coupler; and the coupler question has now come to this point:
-A type of coupler has been selected by a technical body representing
-most of the railroads of the United States. It is general
-enough to avoid the
-evils of a patent monopoly.
-It promises
-to be economical in
-operation, and will
-certainly do away
-with the terrible loss
-of life and limb which
-results from the use
-of the non-automatic
-coupler. The railroads
-are adopting it
-with reasonable
-speed, perhaps, but
-not as rapidly as simple considerations of humanity would dictate.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_224b.jpg" width="350" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Janney Automatic Coupler applied to a Freight Car.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Closely related to the coupler is the vestibule, which within the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>
-last two years has become so fashionable. The vestibule is not
-merely a luxury, but has a certain value as a safety device.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> The
-full measure of this value has not yet been proved. Occasionally
-lives are lost by passengers falling from or being blown from the
-platforms of moving trains. Such accidents the vestibule will prevent,
-and, further, it decreases the oscillation of the cars, and thus
-to some degree helps to prevent derailment. It is also some protection
-against telescoping. A few months ago a coal train on a
-double-track road was derailed, and four cars were thrown across
-in front of a solid vestibule train of seven Pullman cars approaching
-on the other track. The engine of the vestibuled train was
-completely wrecked. Even the sheet-iron jacket was stripped
-off it. The engineer and fireman were instantly killed, but not
-another person on the train was injured. They escaped partly because
-the cars were strong, and partly, doubtless, because the
-vestibules helped to keep the platforms on the same level and in
-line, and thus to prevent crushing of the ends of the cars.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_225.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Signals at Night.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The number of passengers burned in wrecks is greatly exaggerated
-in the public mind; but that fate is so horrible that it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>
-not wonderful that "the deadly car-stove" should be the object of
-persistent and energetic attacks by the press and in State legislatures.
-The result has been the development, in the last three
-years, of the entirely new business of inventing and trying to sell
-systems of heating by steam or hot water from the locomotive, and
-even by electricity. In fact, the manufacture of such apparatus has
-already become an industry of some importance, several thousand
-cars being equipped with it. This whole matter of steam-heating
-is still in a somewhat crude state, and it does not seem desirable to
-force it by legislation. It has been demonstrated that it is the
-cheapest way of heating trains, and the most easily regulated; and
-it has become a good advertisement to attract passengers. Consequently
-the whole subject may be safely left in the hands of the
-railroad companies, and allowed to develop itself naturally in a
-business way. There is not yet any system of continuous heating
-so perfected that a railroad company could without hardship be
-compelled to adopt it for all its passenger equipment.</p>
-
-<p>Fires in wrecked trains have originated probably quite as often
-from kerosene lamps as from the stoves. The danger of fire from
-this source, and the desire to give passengers the luxury of
-sufficient light, have led to methods of lighting by gas and, more
-recently by electricity. Lighting by compressed gas ceased years
-ago to be an experiment. In Germany it is almost universal, but
-in this country it has been brought into use very slowly. The
-system is almost absolutely safe, not unreasonably expensive, and
-may be made to give satisfactory and even brilliant illumination;
-but the ideal light for railroad trains will probably be found in
-electricity. It is even safer than gas, and is the most adaptable of
-any known method of lighting. Some sleeping-cars that have been
-recently put in service on the Chicago, Milwaukee &amp; St. Paul Railway
-are provided with small electric lamps in the sides of the car,
-between each two adjoining seats, so that the occupants can read
-comfortably either when sitting in their seats or lying in their
-berths.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>It is not to be supposed that so large a subject as that of safety
-appliances can be exhaustively treated within the limits of one
-article. It has been thought best, therefore, to give most of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>
-space available to the two or three devices of greatest and most
-useful application. There remain various others that are in daily
-use, and that have important offices, which have not even been
-mentioned. If the reader has gleaned from these very incomplete
-notes some clearer notions than he had before of the means by
-which the power of the locomotive is guided into safe and useful
-paths, the writer's object has been accomplished.</p>
-
-
-<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> The statistics of train accidents used in this article are those collected and published monthly for
-many years by the <cite>Railroad Gazette</cite>. In the nature of things such statistics cannot be absolutely accurate,
-but no others are in existence for the whole country. These are sufficiently accurate for all
-practical purposes.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> See "The Freight-car Service," <a href="#Page_267">page 267.</a></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> See "Railway Passenger Travel," <a href="#Page_249">page 249.</a></p></div></div>
-
-
-    <div class="chapter"></div>
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">RAILWAY PASSENGER TRAVEL.</a></h2>
-
-<p class="pfs90 smcap">By HORACE PORTER.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The Earliest Railway Passenger Advertisement&mdash;The First Time-table Published in
-America&mdash;The Mohawk and Hudson Train&mdash;Survival of Stage-coach Terms in English
-Railway Nomenclature&mdash;Simon Cameron's Rash Prediction&mdash;Discomforts of
-Early Cars&mdash;Introduction of Air-brakes, Patent Buffers and Couplers, the Bell-cord,
-and Interlocking Switches&mdash;The First Sleeping-cars&mdash;Mr. Pullman's Experiments&mdash;The
-"Pioneer"&mdash;Introduction of Parlor and Drawing-room Cars&mdash;The Demand for
-Dining-cars&mdash;Ingenious Devices for Heating Cars&mdash;Origin of Vestibule-cars&mdash;An
-Important Safety Appliance&mdash;The Luxuries of a Limited Express&mdash;Fast Time in
-America and England&mdash;Sleeping-cars for Immigrants&mdash;The Village of Pullman&mdash;The
-Largest Car-works in the World&mdash;Baggage-checks and Coupon Tickets&mdash;Conveniences
-in a Modern Depot&mdash;Statistics in Regard to Accidents&mdash;Proportion of Passengers
-in Various Classes&mdash;Comparison of Rates in the Leading Countries of the
-World.</p></div>
-
-
-<div><img class="drop-cap" src="images/i_228dc.jpg" alt="" /></div>
-<p class="p1 drop-cap">From the time when Puck was supposed to
-utter his boast to put a girdle round about
-the earth in forty minutes to the time when
-Jules Verne's itinerant hero accomplished the
-task in twice that number of days, the restless
-ingenuity and energy of man have been unceasingly
-taxed to increase the speed, comfort, and safety
-of passenger travel. The first railway on which passengers
-were carried was the "Stockton &amp; Darlington," of England,
-the distance being 12 miles. It was opened September 27,
-1825, with a freight train, or, as it is called in England, a "goods"
-train, but which also carried a number of excursionists. An engine
-which was the result of many years of labor and experiment on the
-part of George Stephenson was used on this train. Stephenson
-mounted it and acted as driver; his bump of caution was evidently
-largely developed, for, to guard against accidents from the recklessness
-of the speed, he arranged to have a signalman on horse-back
-ride in advance of the engine to warn the luckless trespasser<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
-of the fate which awaited him if he should get in the way of a
-train moving with such a startling velocity. The next month,
-October, it was decided that it would be worth while to attempt
-the carrying of passengers, and a daily "coach," modelled after
-the stage-coach and called the "Experiment," was put on, Monday,
-October 10, 1825, which carried six passengers inside and
-from fifteen to twenty outside. The engine with its light load
-made the trip in about two hours. The fare from Stockton to
-Darlington was one shilling, and each passenger was allowed fourteen
-pounds of baggage. The limited amount of baggage will appear
-to the ladies of the present day as niggardly in the extreme,
-but they must recollect that the
-bandbox was then the popular
-form of portmanteau for women,
-the Saratoga trunk had not been
-invented, and the muscular baggage-smasher
-of modern times
-had not yet set out upon his
-career of destruction. The advertisement
-which was published
-in the newspapers of the day is here given, and is of peculiar interest
-as announcing the first successful attempt to carry passengers by rail.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_229a.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Stockton &amp; Darlington Engine and Car.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_229b.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The Liverpool &amp; Manchester road was opened in 1829.
-The first train was hauled by an improved engine called the
-"Rocket," which attained a speed of 25 miles an hour, and some
-records put it as high as 35 miles. This speed naturally attracted
-marked attention in the mechanical world, and first demonstrated
-the superior advantages of railways for passenger travel. Only
-four years before, so eminent a writer upon railways as Wood had
-said: "Nothing can do more harm to the adoption of railways
-than the promulgation of such nonsense as that we shall see locomotives
-travelling at the rate of 12 miles an hour."</p>
-
-<p>America was quick to adopt the railway system which had had
-its origin in England. In 1827 a crude railway was opened between
-Quincy and Boston, but it was only for the purpose of transporting
-granite for the Bunker Hill Monument. It was not until
-August, 1829, that a locomotive engine was used upon an American
-railroad suitable for carrying passengers. This road was constructed
-by the Delaware &amp; Hudson Canal Company, and the
-experiment was made near Honesdale, Pa. The engine was imported
-from England and was called the "Stourbridge Lion."</p>
-
-<p>In May, 1830, the first division of the Baltimore &amp; Ohio road
-was opened. It extended from Baltimore to Ellicott's Mills, a distance
-of 15 miles. There being a scarcity of cars, the regular passenger
-business did not begin till the 5th of July following, and
-then only horse-power was employed, which continued to be used
-till the road was finished to Frederick, in 1832. The term Relay
-House, the name of a well-known station, originated in the fact
-that the horses were changed at that place.</p>
-
-<p>The following notice, which appeared in the Baltimore newspapers,
-was the first time-table for passenger railway trains published
-in this country:</p>
-
-
-<p class="p2 pfs80">RAILROAD NOTICE.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquoty">
-
-<p>A sufficient number of cars being now provided for the accommodation of passengers,
-notice is hereby given that the following arrangements for the arrival and departure of carriages
-have been adopted, and will take effect on and after Monday morning next the 5th
-instant, viz.:</p>
-
-<p>A brigade of cars will leave the depot on Pratt St. at 6 and 10 o'clock A. M., and at 3
-to 4 o'clock P. M., and will leave the depot at Ellicott's Mills at 6 and 8½ o'clock A. M.,
-and at 12½ and 6 P. M.</p>
-
-<p>Way passengers will provide themselves with tickets at the office of the Company in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
-Baltimore, or at the depots at Pratt St. and Ellicott's Mills, or at the Relay House, near
-Elk Ridge Landing.</p>
-
-<p>The evening way car for Ellicott's Mills will continue to leave the depot, Pratt St., at
-6 o'clock P. M. as usual.</p>
-
-<p>N. B. Positive orders have been issued to the drivers to receive no passengers into
-any of the cars without tickets.</p>
-
-<p>P. S. Parties desiring to engage a car for the day can be accommodated after July 5th.</p></div>
-
-<p>It will be seen that the word train was not used, but instead
-the schedule spoke of a "brigade of cars."</p>
-
-<p>The South Carolina Railroad was begun about the same time
-as the Baltimore &amp; Ohio, and ran from Charleston to Hamburg,
-opposite Augusta. When the first division had been constructed,
-it was opened November 2, 1830.</p>
-
-<p>Peter Cooper, of New York, had before this constructed a locomotive
-and made a trial trip with it on the Baltimore &amp; Ohio
-Railroad, on the 28th of August, 1830, but, not meeting the requirements
-of the company, it was not put into service.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_231.jpg" width="350" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Mohawk &amp; Hudson Train.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>A passenger train of the Mohawk &amp; Hudson Railroad which
-was put on in October,
-1831, between Albany
-and Schenectady, attracted
-much attention.
-It was hauled
-by an English engine
-named the "John
-Bull," and driven by
-an English engineer named John Hampson. This is generally
-regarded as the first fully equipped passenger train hauled by a
-steam-power engine which ran in regular service in America.
-During 1832 it carried an average of 387 passengers daily. The
-accompanying engraving is from a sketch made at the time.</p>
-
-<p>It was said by an advocate of mechanical evolution that the
-modern steam fire-engine was evolved from the ancient leathern
-fire-bucket; it might be said with greater truth that the modern
-railway car has been evolved from the old-fashioned English stage-coach.</p>
-
-<p>England still retains the railway carriage divided into compartments,
-that bear a close resemblance inside and outside to stage-coach
-bodies with the middle seat omitted. In fact, the nomen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>clature
-of the stage-coach is in large measure still preserved in
-England. The engineer is called the driver, the conductor the
-guard, the ticket-office is the booking-office, the cars are the carriages,
-and a rustic traveller may still be heard occasionally to object
-to sitting with his back to the horses. The earlier locomotives,
-like horses, were given proper names, such as Lion, North Star,
-Fiery, and Rocket; the compartments in the round-houses for
-sheltering locomotives are termed the stalls, and the keeper of the
-round-house is called the hostler. The last two are the only items
-of equine classification which the American railway system has
-permanently adopted.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_232.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">English Railway Carriage, Midland Road. First and Third Class and Luggage Compartments.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>America, at an early day, departed not only from the nomenclature
-of the turnpike, but from the stage-coach architecture, and
-adopted a long car in one compartment and containing a middle
-aisle which admitted of communication throughout the train.
-The car was carried on two trucks, or bogies, and was well adapted
-to the sharp curvature which prevailed upon our railways.</p>
-
-<p>The first five years of experience showed marked progress in
-the practical operation of railway trains, but even after locomotives
-had demonstrated their capabilities and each improved engine had
-shown an encouraging increase in velocity, the wildest flights of
-fancy never pictured the speed attained in later years.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_233a.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">One of the Earliest Passenger Cars Built in this Country;<br />used on the Western
-Railroad of Massachusetts (now the Boston &amp; Albany).</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>When the roads forming the line between Philadelphia and
-Harrisburg, Pa., were chartered in 1835, and town meetings were
-held to discuss their practicability, the Honorable Simon Cameron,
-while making a speech in advocacy of the measure, was so far<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
-carried away by
-his enthusiasm
-as to make the
-rash prediction
-that there were
-persons within
-the sound of his
-voice who would
-live to see a
-passenger take
-his breakfast in
-Harrisburg and
-his supper in
-Philadelphia on the same day. A friend of his on the platform
-said to him after he had finished: "That's all very well, Simon,
-to tell to the boys, but you and I are no such infernal fools as to
-believe it." They both lived to travel the distance in a little over
-two hours.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_233b.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Bogie Truck.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The people were far from being unanimous in their advocacy
-of the railway system, and charters were not obtained without severe
-struggles. The topic was the universal subject of discussion
-in all popular assemblages. Colonel Blank, a well-known politician
-in Pennsylvania, had been loud in his opposition to the new
-means of transportation. When one of the first trains was running
-over the Harrisburg &amp; Lancaster road, a famous Durham bull
-belonging to a Mr. Schultz became seized with the enterprising
-spirit of Don Quixote,
-put his head down and
-tail up, and made a
-desperate charge at
-the on-coming locomotive,
-but his steam-breathing
-opponent
-proved the better butter
-of the two and the
-bull was ignominiously
-defeated. At a public banquet held soon after in that part of
-the State, the toast-master proposed a toast to "Colonel Blank<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
-and Schultz's bull&mdash;both opposed
-to railroad trains." The
-joke was widely circulated and
-had much to do with completing
-the discomfiture of the
-opposition in the following
-elections.</p>
-
-<div class="sandbagbox" id="img234">
- <div id="i234b1">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i234b2">&nbsp;</div>
-
-<div class="caption">Rail and Coach Travel in the White Mountains.</div>
-
-<p>The railroad was a decided
-step in advance, compared
-with the stage-coach
-and canal-boat, but, when we
-picture the surroundings of
-the traveller upon railways
-during the first ten or fifteen
-years of their existence,
-we find his journey was not
-one to be envied. He was
-jammed into a narrow seat with a stiff back, the deck of the car
-was low and flat, and ventilation in winter impossible. A stove at
-each end did little more than generate carbonic oxide. The passenger
-roasted if he sat at the end of the car, and froze if he sat
-in the middle. Tallow candles furnished a "dim religious light,"
-but the accompanying odor did not savor of cathedral incense.
-The dust was suffocating in dry weather; there were no adequate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
-spark-arresters on the engine, or screens at the windows, and the
-begrimed passenger at the end of his journey looked as if he had
-spent the day in a blacksmith-shop. Recent experiments in obtaining
-a spectrum-analysis of the component parts of a quantity of
-dust collected in a railway car show that minute particles of iron
-form a large proportion, and under the microscope present the appearance
-of a collection of tenpenny nails. As iron administered
-to the human system through the respiratory organs in the form
-of tenpenny nails mixed with other undesirable matter is not especially
-recommended by medical practitioners, the sanitary surroundings
-of the primitive
-railway car cannot be
-commended. There
-were no double tracks,
-and no telegraph to
-facilitate the safe despatching
-of trains.
-The springs of the car
-were hard, the jolting
-intolerable, the windows
-rattled like those
-of the modern omnibus,
-and conversation
-was a luxury that
-could be indulged in
-only by those of recognized
-superiority in
-lung power. The
-brakes were clumsy
-and of little service.</p>
-</div>
-
-    <div class="HandHeld">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_234.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">Rail and Coach Travel in the White Mountains.</div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p>The railroad was a decided
-    step in advance, compared
-    with the stage-coach
-    and canal-boat, but, when we
-    picture the surroundings of
-    the traveller upon railways
-    during the first ten or fifteen
-    years of their existence,
-    we find his journey was not
-    one to be envied. He was
-    jammed into a narrow seat with a stiff back, the deck of the car
-    was low and flat, and ventilation in winter impossible. A stove at
-    each end did little more than generate carbonic oxide. The passenger
-    roasted if he sat at the end of the car, and froze if he sat
-    in the middle. Tallow candles furnished a "dim religious light,"
-    but the accompanying odor did not savor of cathedral incense.
-    The dust was suffocating in dry weather; there were no adequate
-    spark-arresters on the engine, or screens at the windows, and the
-    begrimed passenger at the end of his journey looked as if he had
-    spent the day in a blacksmith-shop. Recent experiments in obtaining
-    a spectrum-analysis of the component parts of a quantity of
-    dust collected in a railway car show that minute particles of iron
-    form a large proportion, and under the microscope present the appearance
-    of a collection of tenpenny nails. As iron administered
-    to the human system through the respiratory organs in the form
-    of tenpenny nails mixed with other undesirable matter is not especially
-    recommended by medical practitioners, the sanitary surroundings
-    of the primitive
-    railway car cannot be
-    commended. There
-    were no double tracks,
-    and no telegraph to
-    facilitate the safe despatching
-    of trains.
-    The springs of the car
-    were hard, the jolting
-    intolerable, the windows
-    rattled like those
-    of the modern omnibus,
-    and conversation
-    was a luxury that
-    could be indulged in
-    only by those of recognized
-    superiority in
-    lung power. The
-    brakes were clumsy
-    and of little service.</p>
-    </div>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_235.jpg" width="375" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">From an Old Time-table (furnished by the "A B C Pathfinder Railway Guide").</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The ends of the flat-bar
-rails were cut
-diagonally, so that
-when laid down they
-would lap and form a
-smoother joint. Occasionally
-they became sprung; the spikes would not hold, and
-the end of the rail with its sharp point rose high enough for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
-wheel to run under it, rip it loose, and send the pointed end
-through the floor of the car. This was called a "snake's head,"
-and the unlucky being sitting
-over it was likely to be
-impaled against the roof.
-So that the traveller of that
-day, in addition to his other
-miseries, was in momentary
-apprehension of being spitted
-like a Christmas turkey.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_236a.jpg" width="350" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Old Boston &amp; Worcester Railway Ticket (about 1837).</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Baggage-checks and coupon
-tickets were unknown.
-Long trips had to be made over lines composed of a number of short
-independent railways; and at the terminus of each the bedevilled
-passenger had to transfer, purchase another ticket, personally pick
-out his baggage, perhaps on an uncovered platform in a rain-storm,
-and take his chances of securing a seat in the train in which he
-was to continue his weary journey.</p>
-
-<p>After the principal companies had sent agents to Europe to
-gather all the information possible regarding the progress made
-there, they soon began to aim at perfecting what may justly be
-called the American system of railways. The roadbed, or what in
-England is called the "permanent way," was constructed in such a
-manner as to conform to the requirements of the new country, and
-the equipment was adapted to the wants of the people. In no
-branch of industry has the inventive genius of the race been more
-skilfully or
-more successfully
-employed
-than in the
-effort to bring
-railway travel
-to its present
-state of perfection.
-Every year has shown progress in perfecting the comforts
-and safety of the railway car. In 1849 the Hodge hand-brake was
-introduced, and in 1851 the Stevens brake. These enabled the cars
-to be controlled in a manner which added much to the economy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
-and safety of handling the trains. In 1869 George Westinghouse
-patented his air-brake, by which power from the engine was transmitted
-by compressed air carried through hose and acting upon the
-brakes of each car in the train.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> It was under the control of the
-engineer, and its action was so prompt and its power so effectual
-that a train could be stopped in an incredibly short time, and the
-brakes released in an instant. In 1871 the vacuum-brake was devised,
-by means of which the power was applied to the brakes by
-exhausting the air.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 450px;">
-<img src="images/i_236b.jpg" width="450" height="127" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p>Obverse and Reverse of a Ticket Used in 1838, on the New York &amp; Harlem Railroad.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>A difficulty under which railways suffered for many years was
-the method of coupling cars. The ordinary means consisted of
-coupling-pins inserted into links attached to the cars. There was
-a great deal of "slack," the jerking of the train in consequence was
-very objectionable, and the distance between the platforms of the
-cars made the crossing of them dangerous. In collisions one platform
-was likely to rise above that of the adjoining car, and "telescoping"
-was not an uncommon occurrence.</p>
-
-<p>The means of warning passengers against standing on the platform
-were characteristic of the dangers which threatened, and were
-often ingenious in the devices for attracting attention. On a New
-Jersey road there was painted on the car-door a picture of a new-made
-grave, with a formidable tombstone, on which was an inscription
-announcing to a terrified public that it was "Sacred to the
-memory of the man who had stood on a platform."</p>
-
-<p>The Miller coupler and buffer was patented in 1863, and obviated
-many of the discomforts and dangers arising from the old
-methods of coupling. This was followed by the Janney coupler<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a>
-and a number of other devices, the essential principle of all being
-an automatic arrangement by which the two knuckles of the coupler
-when thrust together become securely locked, and a system of
-springs which keep the buffers in close contact and prevent jerking
-and jarring when the train is in motion.</p>
-
-<p>The introduction of the bell-cord running through the train and
-enabling conductors to communicate promptly by means of it with
-the engineer, and signal him in case of danger, constitutes another
-source of safety, but is still a wonder to Europeans, who cannot understand
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>why passengers do not tamper with it, and how they can
-resist the temptation to give false signals by means of it. The only
-answer is that our people are educated up to it, and being accustomed
-to govern themselves, they do not require any restraint to make
-them respect so useful a device. Aside from the inconveniences
-which used to arise occasionally from a rustic mistaking the bell-cord
-for a clothes-rack, and hanging his overcoat over it, or from
-an old gentleman grabbing hold of it to help him climb into an
-upper berth in a sleeping-car, it has been singularly exempt from
-efforts to pervert it to unintended uses.</p>
-
-<p>The application of the magnetic telegraph to railways wrought
-the first great revolution in despatching trains, and introduced an
-element of promptness and safety in their operation of which the most
-sanguine of railroad advocates had never dreamed. The application
-of electricity was gradually availed of in many ingenious signal
-devices for both day and night service, to direct the locomotive engineer
-in running his train, and interpose precautions against accidents.
-Fusees have also been called into requisition, which burn
-with a bright flame a given length of time; and when a train is behind
-time and followed by another, by igniting one of these lights,
-and leaving it on the track, the train following can tell by noting
-the time of burning about how near it is the preceding train.
-Torpedoes left upon the track, which explode when passed over by
-the wheels of a following train and warn it of its proximity to a
-train ahead, are also used.</p>
-
-<p>In the early days more accidents arose from switches than from
-any other cause; but improvement in their construction has progressed
-until it would seem that the dangers have been effectually
-overcome. The split-rail switch prevents a train from being thrown
-off the track in case the switch is left open, and the result is that
-in such an event the train is only turned on another track. The
-Wharton switch, which leaves the main line unbroken, marks
-another step in the march of improvement. Among other devices
-is a complete interlocking-switch system, by means of which
-one man standing in a switch-tower, overlooking a large yard with
-numerous tracks, over which trains arrive and depart every few
-minutes, can, by moving a system of levers, open any required
-track and by the same motion block all the others, and prevent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
-the possibility of collisions or other accidents resulting from trains
-entering upon the wrong track.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p>
-
-<p>The steam-boats on our large rivers had been making great
-progress in the comforts afforded to passengers. They were providing
-berths to sleep in, serving meals in spacious cabins, and
-giving musical entertainments and dancing parties on board. The
-railroads soon began to learn a lesson from them in adding to the
-comforts of the travelling public.</p>
-
-<p>The first attempt to furnish the railway passenger a place to
-sleep while on his journey was made upon the Cumberland Valley
-Railroad of Pennsylvania, between Harrisburg and Chambersburg.
-In the winter season the east-bound passengers arrived at Chambersburg
-late at night by stage-coach, and as they were exhausted
-by a fatiguing trip over the mountains and many wished to continue
-their journey to Harrisburg to catch the morning train for
-Philadelphia, it became very desirable to furnish sleeping accommodations
-aboard the cars. The officers of this road fitted up a
-passenger car with a number of berths, and put it into service as a
-sleeping-car in the winter of 1836&ndash;37. It was exceedingly crude
-and primitive in construction. It was divided by transverse partitions
-into four sections, and each contained three berths&mdash;a lower,
-middle, and upper berth. This car was used until 1848 and then
-abandoned.</p>
-
-<p>About this time there were also experiments made in fitting
-up cars with berths something like those in a steam-boat cabin,
-but these crude attempts did not prove attractive to travellers.
-There were no bedclothes furnished, and only a coarse mattress
-and pillow were supplied, and with the poor ventilation and the
-rattling and jolting of the car there was not much comfort afforded,
-except a means of resting in a position which was somewhat
-more endurable than a sitting posture.</p>
-
-<p>Previous to the year 1858 a few of the leading railways had
-put on sleeping-cars which made some pretensions to meet a
-growing want of the travelling public, but they were still crude,
-uncomfortable, and unsatisfactory in their arrangements and appointments.</p>
-
-<p>In the year 1858 George M. Pullman entered a train of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>
-Lake Shore Railroad at Buffalo, to make a trip to Chicago. It
-happened that a new sleeping-car which had been built for the
-railroad company was attached to this train and was making its
-first trip. Mr. Pullman stepped in to take a look at it, and finally
-decided to test this new form of luxury by passing the night in
-one of its berths. He was tossed about in a manner not very conducive
-to the "folding of the hands to sleep," and he turned out
-before daylight and took refuge upon a seat in the end of the car.
-He now began to ponder upon the subject, and before the journey
-ended he had conceived the notion that, in a country of magnificent
-distances like this, a great boon could be offered to travellers
-by the construction of cars easily convertible into comfortable and
-convenient day or night coaches, and supplied with such appointments
-as would give the occupants practically the same comforts as
-were afforded by the steam-boats. He began experiments in this
-direction soon after his arrival in Chicago, and in 1859 altered
-some day-cars on the Chicago &amp; Alton Railroad, and converted
-them into sleeping-cars which were a marked step in advance of
-similar cars previously constructed. They were successful in
-meeting the wants of passengers at that time, but Mr. Pullman did
-not consider them in any other light than experiments. One
-night, after they had made a few trips on the line between Chicago
-and St. Louis, a tall, angular-looking man entered one of the cars
-while Mr. Pullman was aboard, and after asking a great many intelligent
-questions about the inventions, finally said he thought he
-would try what the thing was like, and stowed himself away in an
-upper berth. This proved to be Abraham Lincoln.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_240.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">The "Pioneer." First complete Pullman Sleeping-car.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_241.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>In 1864 Mr. Pullman perfected his plans for a car which was to
-be a marked and radical departure from any one ever before attempted,
-and that year invested his capital in the construction of
-what may be called the father of the Pullman cars. He built it in
-a shed in the yard of the Chicago &amp; Alton Railroad at a cost of
-$18,000, named it the "Pioneer," and designated it by the letter
-"A." It did not then occur to anyone that there would ever be
-enough sleeping-cars introduced to exhaust the whole twenty-six
-letters of the alphabet. The sum expended upon it was naturally
-looked upon as fabulous at a time when such sleeping-cars as
-were used could be built for
-about $4,500. The constructor
-of the "Pioneer" aimed to produce
-a car which would prove
-acceptable in every respect to
-the travelling public. It had
-improved trucks and a raised
-deck, and was built a foot wider
-and two and a half feet higher
-than any car then in service.
-He deemed this necessary for
-the purpose of introducing a
-hinged upper berth, which, when
-fastened up, formed a recess behind
-it for stowing the necessary
-bedding in the daytime. Before
-that the mattresses had been
-piled in one end of the car, and
-had to be dragged through the
-aisle when wanted. It was
-known to him that the dimensions
-of the bridges and station-platforms would not admit of its
-passing over the line, but he was singularly confident in the belief
-that an attractive car, constructed upon correct principles, would find
-its way into service against all obstacles. It so happened that soon
-after the car was finished, in the spring of 1865, the body of President
-Lincoln arrived at Chicago, and the "Pioneer" was wanted
-for the funeral train which was to take it to Springfield. To enable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>
-the car to pass over the road, the station-platforms and other
-obstructions were reduced in size, and thereafter the line was in a
-condition to put the car into service. A few months afterward
-General Grant was making a trip West to visit his home in Galena,
-Ill., and as the railway companies were anxious to take him from
-Detroit to his destination in the car which had now become quite
-celebrated, the station-platforms along the line were widened for
-the purpose, and thus another route was opened to its passage.</p>
-
-<p>The car was now put into regular service on the Alton road.
-Its popularity fully realized the anticipations of its owner, and its
-size became the standard for the future Pullman cars as to height
-and width, though they have since been increased in length.</p>
-
-<p>The railroad company entered into an agreement to have this
-car, and a number of others which were immediately built, operated
-upon its lines. They were marvels of beauty, and their construction
-embraced patents of such ingenuity and originality that
-they attracted marked attention in the railroad world and created
-a new departure in the method of travel.</p>
-
-<p>In 1867 Mr. Pullman formed the Pullman Car Company and
-devoted it to carrying out an idea which he had conceived, of organizing
-a system by which passengers could be carried in luxurious
-cars of uniform pattern, adequate to the wants of both night
-and day travel, which would run through without change between
-far-distant points and over a number of distinct lines of railway, in
-charge of responsible through agents, to whom ladies, children,
-and invalids could be safely intrusted. This system was especially
-adapted to a country of such geographical extent as America. It
-supplied an important want, and the travelling public and the railways
-were prompt to avail themselves of its advantages.</p>
-
-<p>Parlor or drawing-room cars were next introduced for day runs,
-which added greatly to the luxury of travel, enabling passengers
-to secure seats in advance, and enjoy many comforts which were
-not found in ordinary cars. Sleeping and parlor cars were soon
-recognized as an essential part of a railway's equipment and became
-known as "palace cars."</p>
-
-<p>The Wagner Car Company was organized in the State of New
-York, and was early in the field in furnishing this class of vehicles.
-It has supplied all the cars of this kind used upon the Vanderbilt<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>
-system of railways and a number of its connecting roads. Several
-smaller palace-car companies have also engaged in the business at
-different times. A few roads have operated their own cars of this
-class, but the business is generally regarded as a specialty, and the
-railway companies recognize the advantages and conveniences resulting
-from the ability of a large car-company to meet the irregularities
-of travel, which require a large equipment at one season and
-a small one at another, to furnish an additional supply of cars for a
-sudden demand, and to perform satisfactorily the business of operating
-through cars in lines composed of many different railways.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_243.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Pullman Parlor Car.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Next came a demand for cars in which meals could be served.
-Why, it was said, should a train stop at a station for meals any
-more than a steam-boat tie up to a wharf for the same purpose?<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>
-The Pullman Company now introduced the hotel-car, which
-was practically a sleeping-car with a kitchen and pantries in one end
-and portable tables which could be placed between the seats of
-each section and upon which meals could be conveniently served.
-The first hotel-car was named the "President," and was put into
-service on the Great Western Railway of Canada, in 1867, and soon
-after several popular lines were equipped with this new addition to
-the luxuries of travel.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_244.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Wagner Parlor Car.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>After this came the dining-car, which was still another step beyond
-the hotel-car. It was a complete restaurant, having a large
-kitchen and pantries in one end, with the main body of the car
-fitted up as a commodious dining-room, in which all the passengers
-in the train could enter and take their meals comfortably. The
-first dining-car was named the "Delmonico," and began running
-on the Chicago &amp; Alton Railroad in the year 1868.</p>
-
-<p>The comforts and conveniences of travel by rail on the main
-lines now seemed to have reached their culmination in America.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span>
-The heavy <span class="bold fs120">T</span>-rails had replaced the various forms previously used;
-the improved fastenings, the reductions in curvature, and the greater
-care exercised in construction had made the trip delightfully
-smooth, while the improvements in rolling-stock had obviated the
-jerking, jolting, and oscillation of the cars. The roadbeds had
-been properly ditched, drained, and ballasted with broken stone
-or gravel, the dust overcome, the sparks arrested, and cleanliness,
-that attribute which stands next to godliness, had at last been
-made possible, even on a railway train.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_245.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Dining-car (Chicago, Burlington, &amp; Quincy Railroad.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The heating of cars was not successfully accomplished till a
-method was devised for circulating hot water through pipes running
-near the floor. The suffering from that bane of the traveller&mdash;cold
-feet&mdash;was then obviated and many a doctor's bill saved.
-The loss of human life from the destruction of trains by fires originating
-from stoves aroused such a feeling throughout the country
-that the legislatures of many States have passed laws within the
-last three years prohibiting the use of stoves, and the railway managers
-have been devising plans for heating the trains with steam
-furnished from the boiler of the locomotive. The inventive genius
-of the people was at once brought into requisition, and several
-ingenious devices are now in use which successfully accomplish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>
-the purpose in solid trains with the locomotive attached, but the
-problem of heating a detached car without some form of furnace
-connected with it is still unsolved.</p>
-
-<p>But notwithstanding the high standard of excellence which
-had been reached in the construction and operation of passenger
-trains, there was one want not yet supplied, the importance of
-which did not become fully recognized until dining-cars were introduced,
-and men, women, and children had to pass across the
-platforms of several cars in order to reach the one in which the
-meals were served. An act which passengers had always been
-cautioned against, and forbidden to undertake&mdash;the crossing of
-platforms while the train is in motion&mdash;now became necessary,
-and was invited by the railway companies.</p>
-
-<p>It was soon seen that a safe covered passageway between the
-cars must be provided, particularly for limited express trains.
-Crude attempts had been made in this direction at different times.
-As early as the years 1852 and 1855 patents were taken out for
-devices which provided for diaphragms of canvas to connect adjoining
-cars and form a passageway between them. These were applied
-to cars on the Naugatuck Railroad, in Connecticut, in 1857,
-but they were used mainly for purposes of ventilation, to provide
-for taking in air at the head of the train, so as to permit the car
-windows to be kept shut, to avoid the dust that entered through
-them when they were open. These appliances were very imperfect,
-did not seem to be of any practical advantage, even for the
-limited uses for which they were intended, and they were abandoned
-after a trial of about four years.</p>
-
-<p>In the year 1886 Mr. Pullman went practically to work to devise
-a perfect system for constructing continuous trains, and at the
-same time to provide for sufficient flexibility in connecting the
-passageways to allow for the motion consequent upon the rounding
-of curves. His efforts resulted in what is now known as the
-"vestibuled" train.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span><br />
-   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_247.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Pullman Vestibuled Cars.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_249.jpg" width="350" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">End View of a Vestibuled Car.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>This invention, which was patented in 1887, succeeded not only
-in supplying the means of constructing a perfectly enclosed vestibule
-of handsome architectural appearance between the cars, but it accomplished
-what is even still more important, the introduction of a
-safety appliance more valuable than any yet devised for the protection
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span>
-of human life in case of collisions. The elastic diaphragms
-which are attached to the ends of the cars have steel frames, the
-faces or bearing surfaces
-of which are pressed firmly
-against each other by
-powerful spiral springs,
-which create a friction
-upon the faces of the
-frames, hold them firmly
-in position, prevent the
-oscillation of the cars, and
-furnish a buffer extending
-from the platform to the
-roof which precludes the
-possibility of one platform
-"riding" the other and
-producing telescoping in
-case of collision. The
-first of the vestibuled
-trains went into service
-on the Pennsylvania Railroad in June, 1886, and they are rapidly
-being adopted by railway companies. The vestibuled limited trains
-contain several sleeping-cars, a dining-car, and a car fitted up with a
-smoking saloon, a library with books, desks, and writing materials,
-a bath-room, and a barber-shop. With a free circulation of air
-throughout the train, the cars opening into each other, the electric
-light, the many other increased comforts and conveniences introduced,
-the steam-heating apparatus avoiding the necessity of using
-fires, the great speed, and absence of stops at meal-stations, this
-train is the acme of safe and luxurious travel. An ordinary passenger
-travels in as princely a style in these cars as any crowned
-head in Europe in a royal special train.</p>
-
-<p>The speed of passenger trains has shown steady improvement
-from year to year. In the month of June in our Centennial year,
-1876, a train ran from New York to San Francisco, a distance of
-3,317 miles, in 83 hours and 27 minutes actual time, thus averaging
-about 40 miles an hour, but during the trip it crossed four
-mountain-summits, one of them over 8,000 feet high. This train<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span>
-ran from Jersey City to Pittsburg over the Pennsylvania Railroad,
-a distance of 444 miles, without making a stop. In 1882 locomotives
-were introduced which made a speed of 70 miles per hour.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_250.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Pullman Sleeper on a Vestibuled Train.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In July, 1885, an engine with a train of three cars made a trip
-over the West Shore road which is the most extraordinary one
-on record. It started from East Buffalo, N. Y., at 10.04 <span class="fs70">A.M.</span>,
-and reached Weehawken, N. J., at 7.27 <span class="fs70">P.M.</span> Deducting the
-time consumed in stops, the actual running time was 7 hours and
-23 minutes, or an average of 56 miles per hour. Between Churchville
-and Genesee Junction this train attained the unparalleled
-speed of 87 miles per hour, and at several other parts of the line
-a speed of from 70 to 80 miles an hour. The superior physical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span>
-characteristics of this road were particularly favorable for the attainment
-of the speed mentioned.</p>
-
-<p>The trains referred to were special or experimental trains, and
-while American railways have shown their ability to record the
-highest speed yet known, they do not run their trains in regular
-service as fast as those on the English railways. The meteor-like
-names given to our fast trains are somewhat misleading.
-When one reads of such trains as the "Lightning," the "Cannonball,"
-the "Thunderbolt," and the "G&mdash;whiz-z," the suggestiveness
-of the titles is enough to make one's head swim, but, after all,
-the names are not as significant of speed as the British "Flying
-Scotchman" and the "Wild Irishman;" for the former do not
-attain an average rate of 40 miles an hour, while the latter exceed
-45 miles. A few American trains, however, those between Jersey
-City and Philadelphia, for instance, make an average speed of over
-50 miles per hour.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_251.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Immigrant Sleeping-car (Canadian Pacific Railway.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The transportation of immigrants has recently received increased
-facilities for its accommodation upon the principal through
-lines. Until
-late years economically
-constructed
-day-cars
-were
-alone used,
-but in these
-the immigrants
-suffered
-great discomfort
-in
-long journeys.
-An immigrant
-sleeper is now
-used, which is
-constructed
-with sections
-on each side of the aisle, each section containing two double
-berths. The berths are made with slats of hard wood running<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span>
-longitudinally; there is no upholstery in the car, and no bedding
-supplied, and after the car is vacated the hose can be turned in
-upon it, and all the wood-work thoroughly
-cleansed. The immigrants usually carry with
-them enough blankets and wraps to make them
-tolerably comfortable in their berths; a cooking
-stove is provided in one end of the car, on
-which the occupants can cook their food, and
-even the long transcontinental journeys of the
-immigrants are now made without hardship.</p>
-
-<div class="sandbagbox" id="img252">
- <div id="i252b1">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i252b2">&nbsp;</div>
-
-<div class="caption">View of Pullman, Ill.</div>
-
-<p>The manufacture of railway passenger cars is a large item of
-industry in the country. The tendency had been for many years
-to confine the building of ordinary passenger coaches to the shops
-owned by the railway companies, and they made extensive provision
-for such work; but recently they have given large orders for
-that class of equipment to outside manufacturers. This has resulted
-partly from the large demand for cars, and partly on account
-of the excellence of the work supplied by some of the manufacturing
-companies. In 1880 the Pullman Company erected the
-most extensive car-works in the world at Pullman, fourteen miles
-south of Chicago; and, besides its extensive output of Pullman
-cars and freight equipment, it has built for railway companies large
-numbers of passenger coaches. The employees now number
-about 5,000, and an idea of the capacity and resources of the shops<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span>
-may be obtained from the fact that one hundred freight cars, of
-the kind known as flat cars, have been built in eight hours. The
-business of car-building has therefore given rise to the first model
-manufacturing town in America, and it is an industry evidently
-destined to increase as rapidly as any in the country.</p>
-</div>
-
-    <div class="HandHeld">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_252.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">View of Pullman, Ill.</div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p>The manufacture of railway passenger cars is a large item of
-    industry in the country. The tendency had been for many years
-    to confine the building of ordinary passenger coaches to the shops
-    owned by the railway companies, and they made extensive provision
-    for such work; but recently they have given large orders for
-    that class of equipment to outside manufacturers. This has resulted
-    partly from the large demand for cars, and partly on account
-    of the excellence of the work supplied by some of the manufacturing
-    companies. In 1880 the Pullman Company erected the
-    most extensive car-works in the world at Pullman, fourteen miles
-    south of Chicago; and, besides its extensive output of Pullman
-    cars and freight equipment, it has built for railway companies large
-    numbers of passenger coaches. The employees now number
-    about 5,000, and an idea of the capacity and resources of the shops
-    may be obtained from the fact that one hundred freight cars, of
-    the kind known as flat cars, have been built in eight hours. The
-    business of car-building has therefore given rise to the first model
-    manufacturing town in America, and it is an industry evidently
-    destined to increase as rapidly as any in the country.</p>
-    </div>
-
-<p>The transportation of baggage has always been a most important
-item to the traveller, and the amount carried seems to increase
-in proportion to the advance in civilization. The original allowance
-of fourteen pounds is found to be increased to four hundred
-when ladies start for fashionable summer-resorts.</p>
-
-<p>America has been much more liberal than other countries to
-the traveller in this particular, as in all others. Here few of the
-roads charge for excess of baggage unless the amount be so large
-that patience with regard to it ceases to be a virtue.</p>
-
-<p>The earlier method, of allowing each passenger to pick out his
-own baggage at his point of destination and carry it off, resulted
-in a lack of accountability which led to much confusion, frequent
-losses, and heavy claims upon the companies in consequence.
-Necessity, as usual, gave birth to invention, and the difficulty was
-at last solved by the introduction of the system known as "checking."
-A metal disk bearing a number and designating on its face
-the destination of the baggage was attached to each article and a
-duplicate given to the owner, which answered as a receipt, and
-upon the presentation and surrender of which the baggage could
-be claimed. Railways soon united in arranging for through checks
-which, when attached to baggage, would insure its being sent safely
-to distant points over lines composed of many connecting roads.
-The check system led to the introduction of another marked convenience
-in the handling of baggage&mdash;the baggage express or
-transfer company. One of its agents will now check trunks at the
-passenger's own house and haul them to the train. Another
-agent will take up the checks aboard the train as it is nearing its
-destination, and see that the baggage is delivered at any given
-address.</p>
-
-<p>The cases in which pieces go astray are astonishingly rare, and
-some roads found the claims for lost articles reduced by five thousand
-dollars the first year after adopting the check system, not to
-mention the amount saved in the reduced force of employees en<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>gaged
-in assorting and handling the baggage. Its workings are
-so perfect and its conveniences so great that an American cannot
-easily understand why it is not adopted in all countries; but he is
-forced to recognize the fact that it seems destined to be confined
-to his own land. The London railway managers, for instance,
-give many reasons for turning their faces against its adoption.
-They say that there are few losses arising from passengers taking
-baggage that does not belong to them; that most of the passengers
-take a cab at the end of their railway journey to reach
-their homes, and it costs but little more to carry their trunk with
-them; that in this way it gets home as soon as they, while the
-transfer company, or baggage express, would not deliver it for an
-hour or two later; that the cab system is a great convenience, and
-any change which would diminish its patronage would gradually
-reduce the number of cabs, and these "gondolas of London"
-would have to increase their charges or go out of business. It is
-very easy to find a stick when one wants to hit a dog, and the
-European railway officials seem never to be at a loss for reasons
-in rejecting the check system.</p>
-
-<p>Coupon tickets covering trips over several different railways
-have saved the traveller all the annoyance once experienced in
-purchasing separate tickets from the several companies representing
-the roads over which he had to pass. Their introduction necessitated
-an agreement among the principal railways of the country
-and the adoption of an extensive system of accountability for
-the purpose of making settlements of the amounts represented by
-the coupons.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span><br />
-   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_255.jpg" width="475" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">In a Baggage-room.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Like every other novelty the coupon ticket, when first introduced,
-did not hit the mark when aimed at the understanding of
-certain travellers. A United States Senator-elect had come on by
-sea from the Pacific Coast who had never seen a railroad till he
-reached the Atlantic seaboard. With a curiosity to test the workings
-of the new means of transportation, of which he had heard so
-much, he bought a coupon ticket and set out for a railway journey.
-He entered a car, took a seat next to the door, and was just beginning
-to get the "hang of the school-house" when the conductor,
-who was then not uniformed, came in, cried "Tickets!" and reached
-out his hand toward the Senator. "What do you want of me?"
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span>
-said the latter. "I want your ticket," answered the conductor.
-Now it occurred to the Senator that this might be a very neat job
-on the part of an Eastern ticket-sharp, but it was just a little too
-thin to fool a Pacific Coaster, and he said: "Don't you think I've
-got sense enough to know that if I parted with my ticket right at
-the start I wouldn't have anything to show for my money during
-the rest of the way? No, sir, I'm going to hold on to this till I
-get to the end of the trip."</p>
-
-<p>"Oh!" said the conductor, whose impatience was now rising
-to fever heat, "I don't want to take up your ticket, I only want to
-look at it."</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_257.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Railway Station at York, England, built on a curve.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Senator thought, after some reflection, that he would risk
-letting the man have a peep at it, anyhow, and held it up before
-him, keeping it, however, at a safe distance. The conductor, with
-the customary abruptness, jerked it out of his hand, tore off the
-first coupon, and was about to return the ticket, when the Pacific
-Coaster sprang up, threw himself upon his muscle, and delivered a
-well-directed blow of his fist upon the conductor's right eye, which
-landed him sprawling on one of the opposite seats. The other
-passengers were at once on their feet, and rushed up to know the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>
-cause of the disturbance. The Senator, still standing with his
-arms in a pugnacious attitude, said:</p>
-
-<p>"Maybe I've never ridden on a railroad before, but I'm not
-going to let any sharper get away with me like that."</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_258.jpg" width="575" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Outside the Grand Central Station, New York.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>"What's he done?" cried the passengers.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>"Why," said the Senator, "I paid seventeen dollars and a half
-for a ticket to take me through to Cincinnati, and before we're five
-miles out that fellow slips up and says he wants to see it, and when
-I get it out, he grabs hold of it and goes to tearing it up right before
-my eyes." Ample explanations were soon made, and the new
-passenger was duly initiated into the mysteries of the coupon system.</p>
-
-<p>The uniforming of railway employees was a movement of no
-little importance. It designated the various positions held by
-them, added much to the neatness of their appearance, enabled
-passengers to recognize them at a glance, and made them so conspicuous
-that it impressed them with a greater sense of responsibility
-and aided much in effecting a more
-courteous demeanor to passengers.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<div class="sandbagbox" id="img259">
- <div id="i259b1">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i259b2">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i259b3">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i259b4">&nbsp;</div>
-
-<div class="caption">Boston Passenger Station, Providence Division, Old Colony Railroad.</div>
-
-<p>Many conveniences have been introduced
-which greatly assist the passenger
-when travelling upon unfamiliar
-roads. Conspicuous
-clock-faces stand in
-the stations with
-their hands set to the
-hour at which the
-next train is to start,
-sign-boards are
-displayed
-with horizontal
-slats
-on which the
-stations are
-named at
-which departing
-way-trains
-stop,
-and employees
-are stationed to call out necessary information and direct passengers
-to the proper entrances, exits, and trains. A "bureau of
-information" is now to be seen in large passenger-stations, in
-which an official sits and with a Job-like patience repeats to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span>
-curiously inclined passengers the whole railway catechism, and successfully
-answers conundrums that would stump an Oriental pundit.</p>
-
-<p>The energetic passenger-agent spares no pains to thrust information
-directly under the nose of the public. He uses every
-means known to Yankee ingenuity to advertise his regular trains
-and his excursion business, including large newspaper head-lines,
-corner-posters, curb-stone dodgers, and placards on the breast and
-back of the itinerant human sandwich who perambulates the streets.</p>
-</div>
-
-    <div class="HandHeld">
-    <div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_259.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">Boston Passenger Station, Providence Division, Old Colony Railroad.</div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p>Many conveniences have been introduced
-    which greatly assist the passenger
-    when travelling upon unfamiliar
-    roads. Conspicuous
-    clock-faces stand in
-    the stations with
-    their hands set to the
-    hour at which the
-    next train is to start,
-    sign-boards are
-    displayed
-    with horizontal
-    slats
-    on which the
-    stations are
-    named at
-    which departing
-    way-trains
-    stop,
-    and employees
-    are stationed to call out necessary information and direct passengers
-    to the proper entrances, exits, and trains. A "bureau of
-    information" is now to be seen in large passenger-stations, in
-    which an official sits and with a Job-like patience repeats to the
-    curiously inclined passengers the whole railway catechism, and successfully
-    answers conundrums that would stump an Oriental pundit.</p>
-
-    <p>The energetic passenger-agent spares no pains to thrust information
-    directly under the nose of the public. He uses every
-    means known to Yankee ingenuity to advertise his regular trains
-    and his excursion business, including large newspaper head-lines,
-    corner-posters, curb-stone dodgers, and placards on the breast and
-    back of the itinerant human sandwich who perambulates the streets.</p>
-    </div>
-
-<p>Railway accidents have always been a great source of anxiety
-to the managers, and the shocks received by the public when
-great loss of life occurs from such causes deepen the interest
-which the general community feels in the means taken to avoid
-these distressing occurrences.</p>
-
-<p>American railway officials have made encouraging progress in
-reducing the number and the severity of accidents, and while the
-record is not so good on many of our cheaply constructed roads,
-our first-class roads now show by their statistics that they compare
-favorably in this respect with the European companies.</p>
-
-<p>The statistics regarding accidents<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> are necessarily unreliable,
-as railway companies are not eager to publish their calamities from
-the house-tops, and only in those States in which prompt reports
-are required to be made by law are the figures given at all accurately.
-Even in these instances the yearly reports lead to wrong
-conclusions, for the State Railroad Commissioners become more
-exacting each year as to the thoroughness of the reports called
-for, and the results sometimes show an increase compared with previous
-years, whereas there may have been an actual decrease.</p>
-
-<p>In 1880, the last census year, an effort was made to collect statistics
-of this kind covering all the railways in the United States,
-with the following result:</p>
-
-<div class="p2 center fs80">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt bl" colspan="2"></td><td class="bt bl" colspan="2"></td><td class="bt bl" colspan="2"></td><td class="bt bl"></td></tr>
-<tr class="fs85"><td class="tdc" rowspan="2">To whom happened.</td><td class="tdc bl" colspan="2">Through causes beyond their control.</td><td class="tdc bl" colspan="2">Through their own carelessness.</td>
-    <td class="tdc bl" colspan="2">Aggregate.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Total accidents.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb bl" colspan="2"></td><td class="bb bl" colspan="2"></td><td class="bb bl" colspan="2"></td></tr>
-<tr class="fs85"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc bl">Killed.</td><td class="tdc bl">Injured.</td><td class="tdc bl">Killed.</td><td class="tdc">Injured.</td><td class="tdc bl">Killed.</td><td class="tdc bl">Injured.</td><td class="tdc bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Passengers</td><td class="tdrx bl">61</td><td class="tdrx bl">331</td><td class="tdrx bl">82</td><td class="tdrx bl">213</td><td class="tdrx bl">143</td><td class="tdrx bl">544</td><td class="tdrx bl">687</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Employees</td><td class="tdrx bl">261</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,004</td><td class="tdrx bl">663</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,613</td><td class="tdrx bl">924</td><td class="tdrx bl">3,617</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,541</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">All others</td><td class="tdrx bl">43</td><td class="tdrx bl">103</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,429</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,348</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,472</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,451</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,923</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Unspecified</td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">3</td><td class="tdrx bl">62</td><td class="tdrx bl">65</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl pad4">Total</td><td class="tdrx bl">365</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,438</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,174</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,174</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,542</td><td class="tdrx bl">5,674</td><td class="tdrx bl">8,216</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span><br />
-   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_261.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">"Show Your Tickets!"<br />
-(Passenger Station, Philadelphia.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Mulhall, in his "Dictionary of Statistics," an English work, uses
-substantially these same figures and makes the following comparison
-between European and American railways:</p>
-
-<p class="pfs90"><em>Accidents to Passengers, Employees, and Others.</em></p>
-
-<div class="p1 center fs80">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td></tr>
-<tr class="fs85"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc bl">Killed.</td><td class="tdc bl">Wounded.</td><td class="tdc bl">Total.</td><td class="tdc bl">Per million<br />passengers.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">United States</td><td class="tdrxx bl">2,349</td><td class="tdrxx bl">5,867</td><td class="tdrxx bl">8,216</td><td class="tdrxx bl">41.1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">United Kingdom</td><td class="tdrxx bl">1,135</td><td class="tdrxx bl">3,959</td><td class="tdrxx bl">5,094</td><td class="tdrxx bl">8.1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Europe</td><td class="tdrxx bl">3,213</td><td class="tdrxx bl">10,859</td><td class="tdrxx bl">14,072</td><td class="tdrxx bl">10.8</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p>That the figures given above are much too high as regards the
-United States, there can be no doubt. For the fiscal year 1880&ndash;81
-the data compiled by the Railroad Commissioners of Massachusetts
-and published in their reports give as the total number of persons
-killed and injured in the United States 2,126, as against 8,216
-upon which the comparisons in the above table are based. If we
-substitute in this table the former number for the latter, it would
-reduce the number of injured per million passengers in the
-United States to 10.6, about the same as on the European railways.</p>
-
-<p>Edward Bates Dorsey gives the following interesting table of
-comparisons in his valuable work, "English and American Railroads
-Compared:"</p>
-
-<p class="negin2"><em>Passengers Killed and Injured from Causes beyond their own Control on all the Railroads
-of the United Kingdom and those of the States of New York and Massachusetts in
-1884.</em></p>
-
-<div class="p1 center fs80">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt" colspan="2"></td><td class="bt bl" colspan="2"></td><td class="bt bl" colspan="2"></td></tr>
-<tr class="fs85"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Total length of line operated.</td><td class="tdc bl bb" colspan="2">Total mileage.</td>
-    <td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Killed.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Injured.</td></tr>
-<tr class="fs85"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc"></td><td class="tdc bl">Train.</td><td class="tdc bl">Passengers.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">United Kingdom</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">18,864</td><td class="tdrx bl">272,803,220</td><td class="tdrx bl">6,042,659,990</td><td class="tdrx bl">31</td><td class="tdrx bl">864</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">New York</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">7,298</td><td class="tdrx bl">85,918,677</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,729,653,620</td><td class="tdrx bl">10</td><td class="tdrx bl">124</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Massachusetts</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">2,852</td><td class="tdrx bl">32,304,333</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,007,136,376</td><td class="tdrx bl">2</td><td class="tdrx bl">42</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">In&nbsp;1,000,000,000</td><td class="tdl">{&nbsp;United&nbsp;Kingdom</td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">5.15</td><td class="tdrx bl">143</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">passengers&nbsp;trans-</td><td class="tdl">{ New York</td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">5.78</td><td class="tdrx bl">70</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">ported 1 mile.</td><td class="tdl">{ Massachusetts</td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">2.00</td><td class="tdrx bl">42</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="p2 center fs80">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="bt tdpp"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt"></td></tr>
-<tr class="fs85"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc bl">Miles.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl tdpp"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl wd40" rowspan="3">The average number of miles a passenger can travel without being killed.</td><td class="tdl">{&nbsp;United&nbsp;Kingdom</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">194,892,255</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">{ New York</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">172,965,362</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">{ Massachusetts</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">503,568,188</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl" rowspan="3">The average number of miles a passenger can travel without being injured.</td><td class="tdl">{ United Kingdom</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">6,992,662</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">{ New York</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">13,940,754</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">{ Massachusetts</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">23,955,630</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p class="p1" />
-<p>From this it will be seen that in the United Kingdom the average
-distance a passenger may travel before being killed is about
-equal to twice the distance of the Earth from the Sun. In New York
-he may travel a distance greater than that of Mars from the Sun;
-and in Massachusetts he can comfort himself with the thought
-that he may travel twenty-seven millions of miles farther than
-the distance of Jupiter to the Sun before suffering death on the
-rail.</p>
-
-<p>The most encouraging feature of these statistics is the fact that
-the number of railway accidents per mile in the United States has
-shown a marked decrease each year. Taking the figures adopted
-by the Massachusetts commissions, the number of persons injured
-in the year 1880&ndash;81 was 2,126, and in 1886&ndash;87, 2,483, while in
-the same time the number of miles in operation increased from
-93,349 to 137,986.</p>
-
-<p>The amounts paid annually by railways in satisfaction of claims
-for damages to passengers are serious items of expenditure, and in
-the United States have reached in some years nearly two millions
-of dollars. About half of the States limit the amount of damages
-in case of death to $5,000, the States of Virginia, Ohio, and Kansas
-to $10,000, and the remainder have no statutory limit.</p>
-
-<p>In the year 1840 the number of miles of railway per 100,000 inhabitants
-in the different countries named was as follows: United
-States, 20; United Kingdom, 3; Europe, 1; in the year 1882,
-United States, 210; United Kingdom, 52; Europe, 34.</p>
-
-<p>In the year 1886 the total number of miles in the United
-States was 137,986; the number of passengers carried, 382,284,972;
-the number carried one mile, 9,659,698,294; the average distance
-travelled per passenger, 25.27 miles.</p>
-
-<p>In Europe the first-class travel is exceedingly small and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span>
-third class constitutes the largest portion of the passenger business,
-while in America almost the whole of the travel is first class,
-as will be seen from the following table:</p>
-
-<div class="p1 center fs80">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="bt tdpp"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td></tr>
-<tr class="fs85"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc bl" colspan="3">Percentage of passengers carried.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl" colspan="3"></td></tr>
-<tr class="fs85"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc bl">First Class.</td><td class="tdc bl">Second Class.</td><td class="tdc bl">Third Class.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">United Kingdom</td><td class="tdrx bl wd10">6</td><td class="tdrx bl wd10">10</td><td class="tdrx bl wd10">84</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">France</td><td class="tdrx bl">8</td><td class="tdrx bl">32</td><td class="tdrx bl">60</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Germany</td><td class="tdrx bl">1</td><td class="tdrx bl">13</td><td class="tdrx bl">86</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">United States</td><td class="tdrx bl">99</td><td class="tdrx bl">½ of 1</td><td class="tdrx bl">½ of 1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p class="p1" />
-<p>The third-class travel in this country is better known as immigrant
-travel. The percentages given in the above table for the
-United States are based upon an average of the numbers of passengers
-of each class carried on the principal through lines. If
-all the roads were included, the percentages of the second- and
-third-class travel would be still less.</p>
-
-<p>That which is of more material interest to passengers than anything
-else is the rate of fare charged.</p>
-
-<p>The following table gives an approximate comparison between
-the rates per mile in the leading countries in the world:</p>
-
-<div class="p1 center fs80">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="bt tdpp wd70"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td></tr>
-<tr class="fs85"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc bl">First Class.</td><td class="tdc bl">Second Class.</td><td class="tdc bl">Third Class.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-<tr class="fs85"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">Cents.</td><td class="tdrx bl">Cents.</td><td class="tdrx bl">Cents.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">United Kingdom</td><td class="tdrx bl">4.42</td><td class="tdrx bl">3.20</td><td class="tdrx bl">1.94</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">France</td><td class="tdrx bl">3.86</td><td class="tdrx bl">2.88</td><td class="tdrx bl">2.08</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Germany</td><td class="tdrx bl">3.10</td><td class="tdrx bl">2.32</td><td class="tdrx bl">1.54</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">United States</td><td class="tdrx bl">2.18</td><td class="tdrx bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdrx bl">&mdash;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p class="p1" />
-<p>The rates above given for the United Kingdom, France, and
-Germany are the regular schedule-rates. An average of all the
-fares received, including the reduced fares at excursion rates, would
-make the figures somewhat less.</p>
-
-<p>The rate named as the first-class fare for the railways in the
-United States is, strictly speaking, the average earnings per passenger
-per mile, and includes all classes; but as the first-class
-passengers constitute about ninety-nine per centum of the travel
-the amount does not differ materially from the actual first-class fare.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span>
-In the State of New York the first-class fare does not exceed two
-cents, which is not much more than the third-class fare in some
-countries of Europe, and heat, good ventilation, ice-water, toilet
-arrangements, and free carriage of a liberal amount of baggage
-are supplied, while in Europe few of these comforts are furnished.</p>
-
-<p>On the elevated railroads of New York a passenger can ride
-in a first-class car eleven miles for 5 cents, or about one-half cent a
-mile, and on surface-roads the commutation rates given to suburban
-passengers are in some cases still less.</p>
-
-<p>The berth-fares in sleeping-cars in Europe largely exceed those
-in America, as will be seen from the following comparisons, stated
-in dollars:</p>
-
-<div class="p1 center fs80">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="bt tdpp wd70"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td></tr>
-<tr class="fs85"><td class="tdc">Route.</td><td class="tdc bl">Distance in<br />Miles.</td><td class="tdc bl">Berth fare.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Paris to Rome</td><td class="tdrx bl">901</td><td class="tdrx bl">$12.75</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">New York to Chicago</td><td class="tdrx bl">912</td><td class="tdrx bl">5.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Paris to Marseilles</td><td class="tdrx bl">536</td><td class="tdrx bl">11.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">New York to Buffalo</td><td class="tdrx bl">440</td><td class="tdrx bl">2.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Calais to Brindisi</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,373</td><td class="tdrx bl">22.25</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Boston to St. Louis</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,330</td><td class="tdrx bl">6.50</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p class="p1" />
-<p>While it would seem that the luxuries of railway travel in America
-have reached a maximum, and the charges a minimum, yet in
-this progressive age it is very probable that in the not far distant
-future we shall witness improvements over the present
-methods which will astonish us as much as the present methods
-surprise us when we compare them with those of the past.</p>
-
-
-<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> See "Safety in Railroad Travel," <a href="#Page_195">page 195.</a></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> See "Safety in Railroad Travel," <a href="#Page_224">page 224</a>; also, "American Locomotives and Cars," <a href="#Page_142">page 142.</a></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> See "Safety in Railroad Travel," <a href="#Page_204">page 204.</a></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> See "Safety in Railroad Travel," <a href="#Page_191">page 191.</a></p></div></div>
-
-
-    <div class="chapter"></div>
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">THE FREIGHT-CAR SERVICE.</a></h2>
-
-<p class="pfs90 smcap">By THEODORE VOORHEES.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Sixteen Months' Journey of a Car&mdash;Detentions by the Way&mdash;Difficulties of the Car Accountant's
-Office&mdash;Necessities of Through Freight&mdash;How a Company's Cars are Scattered&mdash;The
-Question of Mileage&mdash;Reduction of the Balance in Favor of Other Roads&mdash;Relation
-of the Car Accountant's Work to the Transportation Department&mdash;Computation
-of Mileage&mdash;The Record Branch&mdash;How Reports are Gathered and Compiled&mdash;Exchange
-of "Junction Cards"&mdash;The Use of "Tracers"&mdash;Distribution of
-Empty Cars&mdash;Control of the Movement of Freight&mdash;How Trains are Made Up&mdash;Duties
-of the Yardmaster&mdash;The Handling of Through Trains&mdash;Organization of Fast
-Lines&mdash;Transfer Freight Houses&mdash;Special Cars for Specific Service&mdash;Disasters to
-Freight Trains&mdash;How the Companies Suffer&mdash;Inequalities in Payment for Car Service&mdash;The
-Per Diem Plan&mdash;A Uniform Charge for Car Rental&mdash;What Reforms might
-be Accomplished.</p></div>
-
-
-<h3>I.<br />
-
-<span class="fs70">THE WANDERINGS OF A CAR.</span></h3>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_267.jpg" width="150" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p class="drop-capx">On the 14th of December, 1886, there was
-loaded in Indianapolis a car belonging to
-one of the roads passing through that city. It
-was loaded with corn consigned to parties in
-Boston. The car was delivered to the Lake
-Shore road at Cleveland on the 16th; but, owing
-to bad weather and various other local causes, it
-did not reach East Buffalo until December 28th.
-It was turned over by the New York Central &amp;
-Hudson River Railroad to the West Shore road the next day, and
-by this company was taken to Rotterdam Junction, and there delivered
-on December 31st to the Western Division of the Fitchburg
-Railroad, or what was then known as the Boston, Hoosac
-Tunnel &amp; Western. They took it promptly through to Boston.
-After a few days the corn was sold by the consignees for delivery
-in Medfield, on the New York &amp; New England Railway. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span>
-car was delivered to this road on January 24, 1887, and taken
-down to Medfield. There it remained among a large number of
-other cars, until it suited the convenience of the purchaser to put
-the corn into his elevator.</p>
-
-<p>On the 17th of March the car was unloaded, taken back to
-Boston, and delivered to the Fitchburg road to be sent West,
-homeward. That company took it promptly, but instead of delivering
-it to the West Shore road at Rotterdam Junction, as would
-have been the regular course, either through some mistake of a
-yardmaster at the junction station, or in pursuance of general instructions
-to load all Western cars home whenever practicable, the
-car was not delivered to the West Shore, but was turned over to
-the Delaware &amp; Hudson Canal Co's. Railroad, taken down to
-the coal regions, and on March 31st delivered to the Delaware,
-Lackawanna &amp; Western Railroad, by whom it was loaded with coal
-for Chicago. That company promptly delivered it to the Grand
-Trunk at Buffalo, and on April 10th the car reached Chicago. It
-was immediately reconsigned by the local agents of the coal company
-to a dealer in the town of Minot, 523 miles west of St. Paul,
-on the St. Paul, Minneapolis &amp; Manitoba Railroad. To reach that
-point, it was delivered to the Chicago, Rock Island &amp; Pacific on
-April 10th, then to the Burlington, Cedar Rapids &amp; Northern,
-Minneapolis &amp; St. Louis, St. Paul &amp; Duluth, St. Paul, Minneapolis
-&amp; Manitoba, arriving at its destination on the 14th of April.</p>
-
-<p>Winter still reigned in that locality, and the car was promptly
-unloaded, and returned to St. Paul, where it was loaded with wheat
-consigned to New York. It left St. Paul on the 26th of April, was
-promptly moved through to Chicago, and delivered to the Grand
-Trunk. Coming east, in Canada, the train of which this car
-formed a part, while passing through a small station, in the night
-ran into an open switch. The engine dashed into a number of
-loaded cars standing on the siding, and the cars behind it were
-piled up in bad confusion, a number of them being destroyed, and
-the freight scattered in all directions. Our car, whose history we
-are tracing, suffered comparatively slight damage. The drawheads
-were broken, and some castings on one truck, not sufficient
-to affect in any way the loading of the car. It was sent to the
-shops of the road; and it became necessary for them, on examina<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span>tion,
-to send to the owners of the car for a casting to replace that
-broken on the truck. This resulted in serious detention. The
-requisition for this casting had to be approved by the Superintendent
-and by the General Manager, and was forwarded, after a considerable
-delay, to the officers of the road owning the car. There
-it was sent through a number of offices before it finally reached the
-hands of the man who was able to supply the required casting.
-This in turn was sent by freight, and passed over the intervening
-territory at a slow rate; the whole involving a detention which
-held the car from April 28th, when it was delivered at Chicago to
-the Grand Trunk, until July 18th, when finally the Grand Trunk
-delivered it to the Delaware, Lackawanna &amp; Western at Buffalo.
-It came through promptly to New York, the grain was put in an
-elevator, the car was sent back once more to the mines at Scranton,
-and again loaded with coal for Chicago. On August 9th the
-record says the car was delivered by the Delaware, Lackawanna &amp;
-Western to the Grand Trunk, and on the 12th of August it was in
-Chicago.</p>
-
-<p>About this time the owners of the car began to make vigorous
-appeals to the various roads, urging them to send the car home.
-One of these tracers reached the Grand Trunk road while they
-still held the car in their possession; so that orders were sent that
-the coal must be unloaded at once, and the car returned. In order
-to unload it, it was necessary to switch it to the Illinois Central for
-some local consignee, and it was unloaded within four days and
-delivered back to the Grand Trunk at Chicago. This was on
-August 16th. During the few days that had elapsed since the
-order was given to send this car home, there had been an active
-demand for cars, and knowing that this one had to be sent to Buffalo
-in order to be delivered to the Lake Shore road, from which it
-had originally been received, the car was loaded for that point.
-This again resulted in detention, for we find that the car was held
-on the Grand Trunk tracks at Black Rock, awaiting the pleasure of
-the consignee to unload the freight, until the 27th of September;
-and then, instead of being unloaded and delivered to the Lake
-Shore road, as had been the intention of the Grand Trunk officials,
-the consignee sold the wheat in the car to a local dealer on the
-line of the Erie Railway, and the car was sent down on that road<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span>
-on October 1st, and not returned to the Grand Trunk again until
-the 10th day of October.</p>
-
-<p>Unfortunately, the Erie was as anxious at that time to load cars
-west with coal as the other roads, and when they brought the car
-back to the Grand Trunk, they brought it once more filled with
-coal, and back the car went to Chicago, reaching there on the 13th
-of October.</p>
-
-<p>It had now been away from home and diverted from its legitimate
-uses for nine months, and apparently was as far from home
-as ever. The delivery of the coal this time at Chicago put the car
-in the hands of the Louisville, New Albany &amp; Chicago Railway,
-and they promptly gave it a lading by the southern route to Newport
-News; for we find the car delivered by the Louisville, New
-Albany &amp; Chicago to the Chesapeake &amp; Ohio route on October
-28th, and at Newport News on the 10th of November. The
-owners of the car were meanwhile not idle. The occasional stray
-junction cards which came in notified them of the passage of the car
-by different junction points, giving them clews to work by, and
-they were in vigorous correspondence with the various roads over
-which the car had gone, urging, begging, and imploring the railway
-officers to make all efforts in their power to get the car back
-to its home road.</p>
-
-<p>On its last trip from Chicago to Newport News, the car passed
-through Indianapolis, the very point from which it began its long
-journey and many wanderings. Unfortunately, however, it passed
-there loaded, without detention, and the owners of the car did not
-discover until it had been for some time at Newport News, that
-the car had been anywhere near its home territory. By the time
-they made this discovery the car had been unloaded, and had
-started west once more. The records of the movement of the car
-here become dim. It was apparently diverted from its direct route
-back, which would have taken it once more to Indianapolis, and so
-home, for we find, after waiting at Newport News for some time
-to be unloaded, it was delivered to the Nashville, Chattanooga &amp;
-St. Louis, next on the Western &amp; Atlantic, and so down into
-Georgia and South Carolina. Again, on January 14, 1888, the
-car was reported on the Richmond &amp; Danville. They sent it
-once more down into South Carolina and Georgia. From there it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span>
-was loaded down to Selma, Ala., on the Atlanta &amp; West Point
-Railroad. They returned it promptly to Atlanta, and so to the
-Central Railroad of Georgia; and the car, after being used backward
-and forward between Montgomery and Atlanta and Macon,
-finally appeared at Augusta, Ga., where it stood on February 11,
-1888. Here the car remained for some time, long enough for the
-owners to get advices as to its whereabouts, and communicate with
-the road on whose territory the car was, before it was again
-moved. An urgent representation of the case having been laid
-before the proper authorities, they agreed, if possible, to load it in
-such a way that it should go back to Indianapolis. This could not
-be done at once, however; but about the 12th of March the car was
-sent to a near-by point in South Carolina loaded, and worked back
-over the Georgia road and the Western Atlantic, delivered to the
-Louisville &amp; Nashville on April 3d, and finally, after its many and
-long wanderings, was by that road delivered to the home road at
-Cincinnati on the 17th of April; having been away from home
-sixteen months and one day.</p>
-
-<p>This is a case taken from actual records, and is one that could
-be duplicated probably by any railroad in the country.</p>
-
-
-<h3>II.<br />
-
-<span class="fs70">THE CAR ACCOUNTANT'S OFFICE.</span></h3>
-
-<div class="blockquoty">
-
-<p class="right"><span class="smcap">The Winnipeg &amp; Athabaska Lake Railway Co.</span>,</p>
-<p class="right padr4"><em>General Superintendent's Office</em>,</p>
-<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Winnipeg</span>, December 31, 1888.</p>
-
-<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">To John Smith, Esq.</span>,</p>
-<p class="pad2"><em>Supt. of Trans'n, L. &amp; N. R. R. Co., Louisville, Ky.</em></p>
-
-<br />
-<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>: Our records show forty-five of our box-cars on your line, some of which have
-been away from home over three weeks. I give below the numbers of those which have
-been detained over thirty days, viz.:</p>
-
-
-<div class="center">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="tdl">Nos.</td><td class="tdl">28542</td><td class="tdl">34210</td><td class="tdl">34762</td><td class="tdl">29421</td><td class="tdl">28437</td><td class="tdl">29842</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">34628</td><td class="tdl">34516</td><td class="tdl">29781</td><td class="tdl">28274</td><td class="tdl">34333</td><td class="tdl">28873</td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p>There is at this time a strong demand for cars for the movement of the wheat crop,
-and I must beg that you will send home promptly all that you have on your line.</p>
-
-<p class="right padr8">I remain,</p>
-<p class="right padr4">Yours very truly,</p>
-<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Thomas Brown</span>.
-</p></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="p2" />
-<div class="blockquoty">
-
-<p class="right padr2"><span class="smcap">Louisville &amp; Norfolk R. R. Co.</span>,</p>
-<p class="right"><em>Office of Superintendent of Transportation</em>,</p>
-<p class="right padr2"><span class="smcap">Louisville, Ky.</span>, Jan'y 3, 1889.</p>
-
-
-<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">To Thomas Brown, Esq.</span>,</p>
-<p class="pad2"><em>Gen'l Supt., W. &amp; A. L. R. W. Co., Winnipeg, Canada</em>.</p>
-
-<br />
-<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>: Your favor of the 31st ulto. was duly received and contents noted.</p>
-
-<p>I call your attention to the enclosed mem. from our Car Accountant, which shows
-that we have but seven of your cars now on our road; of these but three are bad cases,
-Nos. 28437, 34516, and 28873. One of these cars was crippled, and is in the shops; the
-other two are loaded with wheat consigned "to order."</p>
-
-<p>The necessary instructions have been given our agents, and we will do all in our
-power to hurry the return of your cars.</p>
-
-<p class="right padr8">I am,</p>
-<p class="right padr2">Very truly yours,</p>
-<p class="right"><span class="smcap">John Smith</span>.</p>
-
-<p>(Mem. enclosed.)</p>
-
-<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Memorandum.</span></p>
-
-<p class="center">W. &amp; A. L. Nos.</p>
-
-<div class="center">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="tdlw wd10">28542&nbsp;to</td><td class="tdlw wd40">Ohio Northern, Dec. 5th.</td><td class="tdlw">29781&nbsp;to</td><td class="tdlw">Ohio Northern, Nov. 27th.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlw">34210 "</td><td class="tdlw">Ohio Northern, Dec. 10th.</td><td class="tdlw">28274 "</td><td class="tdlw">Niantic, Dec. 12th, loading home.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlw">34762 "</td><td class="tdlw">Kanawha Junc., 12/15 crippled.</td><td class="tdlw">34333 "</td><td class="tdlw">Louisville Belt, Dec. 8th.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlw">29421 "</td><td class="tdlw">Elmwood, 12/15 unloading.</td><td class="tdlw">29842 "</td><td class="tdlw">Brockton, Dec. 14th, empty, will load home.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlw">28437 "</td><td class="tdlw">Norfolk Shops, Dec. 6th.</td><td class="tdlw"></td><td class="tdlw"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlw">34628 "</td><td class="tdlw">No account.</td><td class="tdlw">28873 "</td><td class="tdlw">Blue Ridge, Nov. 18th, ordered out.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlw">34516 "</td><td class="tdlw">Blue Ridge, 12/4 ordered out.</td><td class="tdlw"></td><td class="tdlw"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-</div>
-
-<p>This is but an example of a correspondence that is constantly
-being exchanged between the officials who are in charge of the
-Transportation Department of the various railways of the country.</p>
-
-<p>The demands of trade necessitate continually the transportation
-of all manner of commodities over great distances.</p>
-
-<p>Thus, wheat is brought from the Northwest to the seaboard,
-corn from the Southwest, cotton from the South, fruit comes from
-California, black walnut from Indiana, and pine from Michigan.
-In the opposite direction, merchandise and manufactured articles
-are sent from the East to all points in the West, the North, and
-Southwest. The interchange is constant and steadily increasing
-in all directions.</p>
-
-<p>In the early period of railways in this country, when they were
-built chiefly to promote local interests, and the movement of either
-freight or passengers over long distances was a comparatively
-small portion of the traffic, it was customary for all roads to do
-their business in their own cars, transferring any freight destined
-to a station on a connecting road at the junction or point of interchange<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span>
-of the two roads. While this system had the advantage
-of keeping at home the equipment of each road, it resulted in a
-very slow movement of the freight. As the volume of traffic grew,
-and the interchange of commodities between distant points increased,
-this slow movement became more and more vexatious.
-Soon the railway companies found it necessary to allow their cars
-to run through to the destination of the freight without transfer, or
-they would be deprived of the business by more enterprising rivals.
-So that to-day a very large proportion of the freight business of
-the country is done without transfer; the same car taking the load
-from the initial point direct to destination. The result of this is,
-however, that a considerable share of all the business of any railway
-is done in cars belonging to other companies, for which mileage
-has to be paid; while, in turn, the cars of any one company
-may be scattered all over the country from Maine to California,
-Winnipeg to Mexico.</p>
-
-<p>The problem that constantly confronts the general superintendent
-of a railway is, how to improve the time of through freight,
-thereby improving the service and increasing the earnings of the
-company; and, at the same time, how to secure the prompt movement
-of cars belonging to the company, getting them home from
-other roads, and reducing as far as possible upon his own line the
-use of foreign cars, and the consequent payment of mileage therefor.</p>
-
-<p>By common consent the mileage for the use of all eight-wheel
-freight cars has been fixed at three-quarters of a cent per mile run;
-four-wheel cars being rated at one-half this amount, or three-eighths
-of a cent. This amount would at first sight appear to be
-insignificant, yet in the aggregate it comes to a very considerable
-sum. In the case of some of the more important roads in the
-country, even those possessing a large equipment, the balance
-against them for mileage alone often amounts to nearly half a million
-annually.</p>
-
-<p>It becomes therefore of the first importance to reduce to a
-minimum the use of foreign cars, thereby reducing the mileage
-balance; at the same time avoiding any action that will interfere
-with or impede in any way the prompt movement of traffic.</p>
-
-<p>The first step toward accomplishing this result is to organize<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span>
-and fully equip the Car Accountant's Department. The importance
-of this office has been recognized only of late years. Formerly,
-and on many lines even now, the Car Accountant was merely
-a subordinate in the Auditing Department of the company. His
-duties were confined strictly to computing the mileage due to other
-roads. This he did from the reports of the freight-train conductors,
-often in a cumbrous and mechanical manner, making no allowance
-for possible errors. At the same time, he received reports of
-foreign roads without question and without check. He was not
-interested in any way in the operations of the Transportation
-Department; and, as a consequence, it never occurred to him to
-make inquiries as to the proper use of the cars belonging to his
-own company. That he left entirely to the Superintendent. The
-latter, on the other hand, his time incessantly filled with many
-duties, could give but scant attention to his cars.</p>
-
-<p>The Superintendent of a railway in this country who has, let
-us say, three hundred miles of road in his charge, has perhaps as
-great a variety of occupation, and as many different questions of
-importance depending upon his decision, as any other business or
-professional man in the community. Fully one-half of his time
-will be spent out-of-doors looking after the physical condition of
-his track, masonry, bridges, stations, buildings of all kinds. Concerning
-the repair or renewal of each he will have to pass judgment.
-He must know intimately every foot of his track and, in
-cases of emergency or accident, know just what resources he can
-depend upon, and how to make them most immediately useful.
-He will visit the shops and round houses frequently, and will know
-the construction and daily condition of every locomotive, every
-passenger and baggage car. He will consult with his Master
-Mechanic, and often will decide which car or engine shall and
-which shall not be taken in for repair, etc. He has to plan and
-organize the work of every yard, every station. He must know
-the duties of each employee on his pay-rolls, and instruct all new
-men, or see that they are properly instructed. He must keep incessant
-and vigilant watch on the movement of all trains, noting the
-slightest variation from the schedules which he has prepared, and
-looking carefully into the causes therefor, so as to avoid its recurrence.
-The first thing in the morning he is greeted with a report<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span>
-giving the situation of business on the road, the events of the
-night, movement of trains, and location and volume of freight to
-be handled. The last thing at night he gets a final report of the
-location and movement of important trains; and he never closes
-his eyes without thinking that perhaps the telephone will ring and
-call him before dawn. During the day in his office he has reports
-to make out, requisitions to approve, a varied correspondence, not
-always agreeable, to answer. Added to this, frequent consultations
-with the officers of the Traffic Department, or with those of
-connecting lines, in reference to the movement of through or local
-business, completely fill his time.</p>
-
-<p>It is not to be wondered at that such a man gives but slight attention
-in many cases to the matter of car mileage. He frequently
-satisfies himself by arranging a system of reports from his agents
-to his office that give a summary each twenty-four hours of the
-cars of every kind on hand at each station; and leaves the distribution
-and movement of the cars in the hands of his agents. He
-will give some attention to the matter whenever he goes over his
-road on other and more pressing duties. Occasionally he will
-even take a day or two and visit every station, inquiring carefully
-as to each car he finds; why it is being held, for what purpose,
-and how long it has stood. Then, satisfied with having, as he
-says, "shaken up the boys," he will turn his attention to other
-matters, and let the cars take care of themselves. When the
-monthly or quarterly statements are made up, and he sees the
-amount of balance against his road for car mileage, he gives it but
-little thought, regarding it as one of the items like taxes, important,
-of course, but hardly one for which he is responsible.</p>
-
-<p>His General Manager, however, will note the car-mileage balance
-with more concern; and, looking into the matter carefully, he
-will discover that the remedy is to put the Car Accountant into
-the Transportation Department; thus at once interesting him in
-the economical use of the equipment, and also placing in the hands
-of the Superintendent the machinery he needs to enable him to
-promptly control and direct the use of all cars.</p>
-
-<p>The Car Accountant's Office may properly be divided into two
-main branches&mdash;mileage and record. The computation of mileage
-is made in most cases directly from the reports of each train.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span>
-These reports are made by the train conductors, and give the initials
-and number of each car in their train, whether loaded or
-empty, and the station whence taken and where left. To facilitate
-the computation of mileage of each car, the stations on the road
-are consecutively numbered, beginning at nought&mdash;each succeeding
-station being represented by a number equivalent to the
-number of miles it is distant from the initial station; excepting divisional
-and terminal stations, where letters are used, to reduce the
-work in recording. The conductors report the stations between
-which each car moves by their numbers or letters. So that all
-that is necessary for the mileage clerk to do is to take the difference
-between the station numbers in each case, and he has the miles
-travelled by that car. The mileage of each car having been so
-noted on the conductor's report, it is then condensed, the mileage
-of all cars of any given road or line being added together, and
-the results entered into the ledgers. At the close of the month
-these books are footed, and a report is rendered to each road in
-the country of the mileage and amount in money due therefor, in
-each case; and settlements are made accordingly, either in full or
-by balance. This is purely the accounting side of the Car Accountant's
-Office.</p>
-
-<p>There remains the record branch, equally important, and to
-the operating department far more interesting. This consists
-broadly in a complete record being kept of the daily movement
-and location of every car upon the road, local or foreign. At
-first sight this may seem to be a difficult and complicated operation,
-but, in fact, it is simple. The record is first divided between
-local and foreign; local cars being all cars owned by the home
-road, foreign being all those owned by other roads. The local
-books are of large size, ruled in such a way as to allow space for
-the daily movement or location of each car for one month, and
-admit of twenty-five or fifty cars being recorded upon each page.
-The record books for foreign cars are similarly ruled, a slight
-change being necessary to allow for the numbers and initials of the
-foreign cars, which cannot well be arranged for in advance.</p>
-
-<p>The train conductors' reports are placed in the hands of the
-record clerks, each one recording the movements of certain initials,
-or series of numbers, under the date as shown by the report; the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span>
-reports being handed from one to another until every car has been
-entered and the report checked.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_277.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">A Page from the Car Accountant's Book.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In addition to the conductors' train reports, the Car Accountant
-receives reports from all junction stations daily, showing all
-cars received from or delivered to connecting roads, whether
-loaded or empty, and the destination of each. He also has reports
-from all stations showing cars received and forwarded, from midnight
-to midnight, cars remaining on hand loaded or empty; and
-if loaded, contents and consignee, and also cars in process of loading
-or unloading, and reports from shops or yards showing cars
-undergoing repairs, or waiting for the same. In fine, he endeavors<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span>
-to get complete reports showing every car that either may be
-in motion or standing at any point on his road. All of these are
-entered on his record books. The station reports check those of
-the conductor, and <em>vice versa</em>. It will thus be seen that the record
-gives a complete history of the movement and daily use of
-each car on the road.</p>
-
-<p>In case of stock and perishable freight, or freight concerning
-whose movements quick time is of the utmost importance, this
-record is kept not only by days but by hours; that is, the actual
-time of each movement is entered on the record. This is done by
-a simple system of signs, so that an exact account of the movement,
-giving date and hour of receipt and delivery, can be taken
-from the record. This is frequently of the greatest value.</p>
-
-<p>In addition to this, it is customary now for nearly all roads to
-exchange what are known as "junction cards." They are reports
-from one to another giving the numbers of all cars of each road
-passing junction stations. These junction reports when received
-are also carefully noted in the record, so that an account is kept in
-a measure of the movement of home cars while on foreign roads,
-and their daily location.</p>
-
-<p>It would be difficult, and beyond the scope of this article, to
-tell of the great variety of uses these records are put to. They
-serve as a check upon reports of the mileage clerks, insuring
-their accuracy. The junction reports serve also in a measure to
-check the reports of foreign roads. Then, at frequent intervals, a
-clerk will go over the record and note every car that is not shown
-to have moved within, say, five days, putting down on a "detention
-report" for each station the car number and date of its arrival.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span>
-These reports are sent to the agents for explanation, and then submitted
-to the Superintendent. In a similar manner reports will
-be made showing any use locally of foreign cars. From the record
-can be shown almost at a glance the location of all idle cars,
-information that is often very valuable, and that when wanted is
-wanted promptly. Also, from the record, reports are constantly
-being made out&mdash;"tracers," as they are termed&mdash;showing the location
-and detention of home cars on foreign roads. In turn, foreign
-tracers are taken to the record, and the questions therein asked
-are readily answered by the Car Accountant.</p>
-
-<p>Whenever possible, the distribution of empty cars upon the
-line should be under the direct supervision of the Car Accountant.
-Where this matter is left to a clerk in the Superintendent's office,
-or, as has often been the case, is left to the discretion of yardmasters
-and agents, the utmost waste in the use of cars is inevitable.
-An agent at a local station will want a car for a particular
-shipment. If he has none at his station suitable he will ask some
-neighboring agent; failing there, he will ask the Superintendent's
-office, and frequently also the nearest yardmaster. Some other
-agent at a distant station may want the same kind of car; orders
-in this way become duplicated, and the road will not only have to
-haul twice the number of cars needed, but very often haul the same
-kind of cars empty in opposite directions at the same time. This
-is no uncommon occurrence even on well-managed roads, and, it
-is needless to say, is most expensive.</p>
-
-<p>Where the cars are distributed under the direct supervision of
-the Car Accountant, he has the record at hand constantly, and
-knows exactly where all cars are, and the sources of supply to
-meet every demand. Not only that, but every improper use of
-cars is at once brought to light and corrected.</p>
-
-<p>The <em>theory</em> of the use of foreign cars is that they are permitted
-to run through to destination with through freight, on condition
-that they shall be promptly unloaded on arrival at destination;
-that they shall be returned at once to the home road, being loaded
-on the return trip if suitable loading is available; but by no means
-allowed to be used in local service, or loaded in any other direction
-than homeward.</p>
-
-<p>The <em>practice</em> of many agents, and many roads, too, unfortu<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span>nately,
-is hardly in keeping with this theory. Agents, especially
-if not closely watched, are prone to put freight into any car that
-is at hand, regardless of ownership, being urged to such course
-by the importunities of shippers and, at times, by the scarcity of
-cars. Frequently such irregularities are the result of pure carelessness,
-agents using foreign cars for local shipments, simply because
-they are on hand, rather than call for home cars which it
-may take some trouble and delay to procure. In this way at times
-a large amount of local business may be going on on one part of
-the road in foreign cars, while but a few miles distant the company's
-cars may be standing idle. The Car Accountant from his
-record can at once put a stop to this, and prevent its recurrence.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_280.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Freight Pier, North River, New York.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Another valuable use to which the Car Accountant's Office may
-be put is to trace and keep a record of the movement of freight,
-locating delays, and tracing for freight lost or damaged. By a
-moderate use of the telegraph wire the Car Accountant can keep<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span>
-track of the movement of special freight-trains concerning which
-time is important, and so insure regularity and promptness in their
-despatch and delivery. From the mileage records may be obtained
-the work of each engine in freight service, the miles run,
-the number of loaded and empty cars hauled; and by considering
-two, or perhaps three, empty cars as equivalent to one loaded car,
-the average number of loaded cars hauled per mile is obtained.
-The information is often valuable, as on many roads the ability of
-a Superintendent is measured to a considerable extent by the
-amount of work performed by the engines at his command.</p>
-
-<p>In many other ways the resources of the Car Accountant's
-office will be found of the greatest value to the Superintendent.
-When the office is once fully organized and systematized, and all
-in good working order, the Superintendent will find that his capacity
-for control of his cars has been more than doubled, while
-the demands on his time for their care has been really lessened.
-He has all the information he needs supplied at his desk, far more
-accurate than any he was ever able to secure before, and in the
-most condensed form; while, at the same time, he will find his
-freight improving in time over his line, his agents will have cars
-more promptly and in greater abundance than ever, and last, and
-most gratifying of all, his monthly balance-sheets will show a
-steady decrease in the amount his road pays for foreign-car mileage,
-until probably the balance will be found in his favor, although
-his business and consequent tonnage may have increased meanwhile.</p>
-
-
-<h3>III.<br />
-
-<span class="fs70">USE AND ABUSE OF CARS.</span></h3>
-
-<p>A package of merchandise can be transported from New York
-to Chicago in two days and three nights. This is repeated day
-after day with all the regularity of passenger service. So uniform
-is this movement, that shippers and consignees depend upon it
-and arrange their sales and stocks of goods in accordance therewith.
-Any deviation or irregularity brings forth instant complaint
-and a threatened withdrawal of patronage. This is true of hun<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span>dreds
-of other places and lines of freight service. To accomplish
-it, there is necessary, first, a highly complicated and intricate organization,
-and, next, incessant watchfulness.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_282.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Hay Storage Warehouses, New York Central &amp; Hudson River Railroad, West Thirty-third Street, New York.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The shipper delivers the goods at the receiving freight-house
-of the railway company. His cartman gets a receipt from the
-tallyman. This receipt may be sent direct to the consignee, or
-more frequently is exchanged for a bill of lading. There the responsibility
-of the shipper ends. His goods are in the hands of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span>
-the railway company, which to all intents and purposes guarantees
-their safe and prompt delivery to the consignee.</p>
-
-<p>The tallyman's receipt is taken in duplicate. The latter is
-kept in the freight-house until the freight is loaded in a car, and is
-then marked with the initials and number of the car into which
-the freight has been loaded. After that it is taken to the bill clerk
-in the office, and from it and others is made the waybill or bills
-for that particular car.</p>
-
-<p>Where the volume of freight received at a given station is
-large, it is customary to put all packages for a common destination,
-as far as possible, in a car by themselves, thus making what
-are termed "straight" cars. This is not always possible, however,
-or if attempted would lead to loading a very large number
-of cars with but light loads. So that it becomes necessary to
-group freight for contiguous stations in one car, and again often
-to put freight for widely distant cities in the same car. These
-latter are known as "mixed" cars.</p>
-
-<p>We will assume the day's receipt of freight finished, and most
-of the cars loaded. About 6 <span class="fs70">P.M.</span> the house will be "pulled," that
-is, those cars already loaded will be taken away, and an empty
-"string" of cars put in their place. An hour later, this "string"
-will in turn be loaded and taken out, and the operation repeated,
-until all the day's receipt of freight is loaded. Meanwhile other
-freight will have been loaded direct from the shippers' carts on to
-cars on the receiving tracks. For all cars, there is made out in the
-freight-office a running slip or memorandum bill, which gives simply
-the car number, initials, and destination. These are given to the
-yardmaster or despatcher, and from them he "makes up" the trains.</p>
-
-<p>To a very great degree, the good movement of freight depends
-upon the vigilance of the yardmasters and the care with which
-they execute their duties. In an important terminal yard, the
-yardmaster may have at all times from one to two thousand cars,
-loaded and empty. He must know what each car contains, what
-is its destination, and on what track it is. To enable him to do
-this, he has one or more assistants, day and night. They, in turn,
-will have foremen in charge of yard crews, each of the latter having
-immediate charge of one engine. The number of engines employed
-will vary constantly with the volume of the freight handled,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span>
-but it is safe to assume that there will be at all times nearly as
-many engines employed in shifting in the various yards and important
-stations on a line as there are road engines used in the
-movement of the freight traffic.</p>
-
-<p>The work of the yard goes on without intermission day and
-night, Sundays as well as week-days. The men there employed
-know no holidays, get no vacations. The loaded cars are coming
-from the freight-houses all day long, in greater numbers perhaps
-in the afternoon and evening, but the work of loading and moving
-cars goes on somewhere or other, at nearly all times. As often
-as the yardmaster gets together a sufficient number of cars for a
-common destination to make up a train, he gathers them together,
-orders a road engine and crew to be ready, and despatches them.
-In the make up of "through" trains, care has to be exercised to
-put together cars going to the same point, and to "group" the
-trains so that as little shifting as possible may be required at any
-succeeding yard or terminal, where the trains may pass. To accomplish
-this, a thorough knowledge of all the various routes is
-necessary, and minute acquaintance with the various intermediate
-junction yards and stations.</p>
-
-<p>The train once "made up" and in charge of the road crew, its
-progress for the next few hours is comparatively simple. It will
-go the length of the "run" at a rate of probably twenty miles per
-hour, subject only to the ordinary vicissitudes of the road. At
-the end of the division, if a through train, it will be promptly transferred
-to another road crew with another engine, and so on.
-Each conductor takes the running slip for each car in his train.
-He also makes a report, giving the cars in his train by numbers
-and initials, whether loaded or empty, how secured; and detailed
-information in regard to any car out of order, or any slight mishap
-or delay to his train. These reports go to the Car Accountant.
-The running slips stay with the cars, being transferred from hand
-to hand until the cars reach their destination. At junction yards
-where one road terminates and connects with one or more foreign
-roads, a complete record is kept, in a book prepared especially
-for the purpose, of every car received from and delivered to each
-connecting road. A copy of this information is sent daily to the
-Car Accountant.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span><br />
-   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_285.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Freight Yards of the New York Central &amp; Hudson River Railroad, West Sixty-fifth Street, New York.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="sandbagbox" id="img287">
- <div id="i287b1">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i287b2">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i287b3">&nbsp;</div>
-
-<div class="caption">"Dummy" Train and Boy on Hudson Street, New York.</div>
-
-<p>A road is expected
-to receive back from a connecting
-line any car that it has
-previously delivered loaded. It
-becomes very necessary to know
-just what cars have been so delivered.
-Without such a record
-a road is at the mercy of its connections,
-and may be forced to
-receive and move over its length empty foreign cars that it never
-had in its possession before, thus paying mileage and being at the
-expense of moving cars that brought it no revenue whatever. The
-junction records put a complete check on such errors, and by
-their use thousands of dollars are saved annually.</p>
-</div>
-
-    <div class="HandHeld">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_287.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">"Dummy" Train and Boy on Hudson Street, New York.</div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p>A road is expected
-    to receive back from a connecting
-    line any car that it has
-    previously delivered loaded. It
-    becomes very necessary to know
-    just what cars have been so delivered.
-    Without such a record
-    a road is at the mercy of its connections,
-    and may be forced to
-    receive and move over its length empty foreign cars that it never
-    had in its possession before, thus paying mileage and being at the
-    expense of moving cars that brought it no revenue whatever. The
-    junction records put a complete check on such errors, and by
-    their use thousands of dollars are saved annually.</p>
-    </div>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_288a.jpg" width="175" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>To still more expedite the movement of through freight, very
-many so-called fast freight lines exist in this country, as, for example,
-the Traders' Despatch, the Star Union, the Merchants' Despatch
-Transportation Company, the Red, the White, the Blue,
-the National Despatch, etc. Some of these lines are simply co-operative
-lines, owned by the various railway companies whose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span>
-roads are operated in connection with one another. Their organization
-is simple. A number of companies organize a line, which
-they put in charge of a general manager. Each company will assign
-to the line a number of cars, the quota
-of each being in proportion to its miles of
-road. The general manager has control
-of the line cars. He has agents who solicit
-business and employees who watch the
-movement of his line cars, and report the
-same to him. He keeps close record of
-his business, and reports promptly to the
-transportation officer of any road in his
-line any neglect or delinquency he may
-discover. The earnings of the line and its
-expenses are all divided <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pro rata</i> among
-the roads interested. Such a line is simply an organization to insure
-prompt service and secure competitive business, and the entire
-benefit goes to the railway companies.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_288b.jpg" width="175" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Other lines are in the nature of corporations, being owned by
-stockholders and operating on a system of roads in accordance
-with some agreement or contract. Others, again, are organized
-for some special freight, and are owned wholly by firms or individuals,
-such as the various dressed-beef lines and some lines of
-live-stock cars. These are put in service
-simply for the mileage received for their use,
-and in many cases the railway companies have
-no interest in them whatever.</p>
-
-<p>The movement of "straight" cars and
-"solid" trains is comparatively simple. But
-there is a very large amount of through freight,
-particularly of merchandise, that cannot be put
-into a "straight" car. A shipper in New York
-can depend on his goods going in a straight
-car to St. Louis, Denver, St. Paul, etc., but he
-can hardly expect a straight car to any one of hundreds of intermediate
-cities and towns. Still less is it possible for a road at a
-small country-town, where there are perhaps but one or two factories,
-to load straight cars to any but a very few places. To over<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span>come
-this difficulty, transfer freight-houses have to be provided.
-These are usually located at important terminal stations.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_289a.jpg" width="200" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p>Coal Car, Central Railroad of New Jersey.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>To them are billed all mixed cars containing through freight.
-These cars are unloaded and reloaded, and out of a hundred
-"mixed" cars will be made probably
-eighty straight and the balance local.
-This necessarily causes some delay, but
-it is practically a gain in time in the end,
-as otherwise every car would have to be
-reloaded, and held at every station for
-which it contained freight.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_289b.jpg" width="200" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The variety of articles that is offered
-to a railway company for transportation is endless. Articles of all
-sizes and weights are carried, from shoe-pegs by the carload to a
-single casting that weighs thirty tons. The values also vary as
-widely. Some cars will carry kindling wood or refuse stone that
-is worth barely the cost of loading and carrying a few miles, while
-others will be loaded with teas, silks, or merchandise, where perhaps
-the value of a single carload will exceed twenty-five or thirty
-thousand dollars. The great bulk of all freight is carried in the
-ordinary box-cars, coal in cars especially planned for it, and coarse
-lumber and stone on flat or platform cars. But very many cases
-arise that require especial provision to be made for each. Chicago
-dressed beef has made the use of the refrigerator cars well known.
-These cars are also used for carrying fruit and provisions. They
-are of many kinds, built under various patents,
-but all with a common purpose; that is, to
-produce a car wherein the temperature can
-be maintained uniformly at about 40 degrees.
-On the other hand, potatoes in bulk are
-brought in great quantities to the Eastern
-seaboard in box-cars, fitted with an additional
-or false lining of boards, and in the centre an ordinary stove
-in which fire is kept up during the time the potatoes are in
-transit.</p>
-
-<p>An improvement on this plan is afforded by the use of cars
-known as the Eastman Heater Cars. They are provided with an
-automatic self-feeding oil-stove, so arranged that fire can be kept<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span>
-up under the car for about a fortnight without attention. These
-are largely used in the fruit trade.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_290.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Unloading a Train of Truck-wagons, Long Island Railroad.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>For carrying milk, special cars have to be provided, as particular
-attention has to be given to the matter of ventilation in connection
-with a small amount of cooling for the proper carrying of
-the milk. Not only the cars but the train service has to be especially
-arranged for in particular cases.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span><br />
-   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_291.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Freight from all Quarters&mdash;Some Typical Trains.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>As an instance, the Long Island Railroad Company makes a
-specialty of transporting farmers' truck-wagons to market. For
-this purpose they have provided long, low, flat cars, each capable
-of carrying four truck-wagons. The horses are carried in box-cars,
-and one farmer or driver is carried with each team, a coach
-being provided for their use. During the fall of the year, they frequently
-carry from 45 to 50 wagons on one train, charging a small
-sum for each wagon, and nothing for the horses or men. These
-trains run three times weekly, and are arranged so as to arrive
-in the city about midnight, returning the next day at noon. The
-trains by themselves are not very remunerative, but by furnishing
-this accommodation, farmers who are thirty or forty miles out on
-Long Island can have just as good an opportunity for market-gardening
-as those who live within driving distance of the city.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span>
-This builds up the country farther out on the island, which in turn
-gives the road other business.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>The movement of freight is not always successfully accomplished.
-In spite of good organization, every facility, incessant
-watchfulness, accidents will occur, freight will be delayed, cars will
-break down, trains will meet with disaster. The consequences
-sometimes fall heavily on the railway companies. The loss is frequently
-out of all proportion to the revenue. The following instance
-is from the writers own experience:</p>
-
-<p>Some carpenters repairing a small low trestle left chips and
-shavings near one of the bents. A passing train dropped some
-ashes. The shavings caught fire and burnt one or two posts in one
-bent. The section-men failed to notice the fire. Toward evening
-a freight train came to the trestle, the burnt bent gave way, and
-the train was derailed. Two men were killed, one severely injured,
-and eighteen freight cars were burned. The resulting loss
-to the railroad company was $56,113. Of this amount, the loss
-paid on freight was $39,613.12. As a matter of interest, and to
-show the disparity between the value of the commodities and the
-earnings from freight charges received by the railway company,
-the amount of each is given here in detail, taken from the actual
-records of the case:</p>
-
-<div class="p1 center fs80">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc wd60">Property destroyed.</td><td class="tdc bl">Amount paid by railroad company.</td><td class="tdc bl">Freight charges on the same.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl tdpp">Butter, 200 pounds at 35 cents</td><td class="tdrx bl">$70.00</td><td class="tdrx bl">$0.50</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Ore, 75.9 tons at $3.50</td><td class="tdrx bl">265.80</td><td class="tdrx bl">56.91</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Paper, 4,600 pounds</td><td class="tdrx bl">269.10</td><td class="tdrx bl">8.74</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Pulp, 10,400 pounds</td><td class="tdrx bl">160.00</td><td class="tdrx bl">12.65</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Shingles, 85 M</td><td class="tdrx bl">192.50</td><td class="tdrx bl">11.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Horsenails</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,986.06</td><td class="tdrx bl">37.44</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Lumber</td><td class="tdrx bl">252.00</td><td class="tdrx bl">18.40</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Apples, 159 barrels</td><td class="tdrx bl">508.80</td><td class="tdrx bl">15.26</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Hops, 209 bales, 37,014 pounds</td><td class="tdrx bl">34,908.86</td><td class="tdrx bl">59.22</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl tdpp"></td><td class="tdrx bl">$39,613.12</td><td class="tdrx bl">$220.12</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p class="p1" />
-<p>This was during the fall of 1882, when hops sold in New York
-for over $1 per pound.</p>
-
-<p>The plan of payment for car service by the mile run, without
-reference to time, has the merit of simplicity and long-established<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span>
-usage. It is, however, in reality, crude and unscientific, and has
-brought with it, in its train, numerous disadvantages.</p>
-
-<p>The owner of a car is entitled, first, to the proper interest in
-his investment, that is, on the value of the car; second, to a proper
-amount for wear and tear or for repairs. The life of a freight car
-may be reasonably estimated at ten years, so that ten per cent. on
-its value would be a fair interest-charge. The average amount
-for repairs varies directly as to the distance the car moves, and
-may be put at one-half cent per mile run.</p>
-
-<p>It will be seen that by the ordinary method of payment the car-owner
-is compensated for interest at the rate of ¼ of a cent for the
-time that the car is in motion, but receives nothing for all the time
-the car is at rest. If cars could be kept in motion for any considerable
-portion of each twenty-four hours, this would prove ample.
-But in practice it is found that few roads succeed in getting an
-average movement of all cars for more than one hour and a half in
-each twenty-four. This gives about five per cent. interest on the
-value of the car, only one-half of what is generally conceded to be
-a fair return. Still further, there is no inducement to the road on
-which a foreign car is standing to hasten its return home. On the
-contrary, there is a direct advantage in holding the car idle until
-a proper load can be found for it, rather than return it home empty.
-The most serious abuses of the freight business of the country
-have grown from this state of affairs. It costs nothing but the use
-of the track to hold freight in cars; consequently freight is held in
-cars instead of being put in storehouses, frequently for weeks and
-months at a time.</p>
-
-<p>There is but little earnest attempt made to urge consignees to
-remove freight; on the contrary, the consignees consider that they
-can leave their freight as long as they choose, and that the railroad
-companies are bound to hold it indefinitely.</p>
-
-<p>One special practice has grown up as a result of this condition,
-that of shippers sending freight to distant points to their own
-order. This practice is most prolific of detention to cars, and yet
-is so strongly rooted in the traffic arrangements of the country
-that it is most difficult to put an end to it. Cars "to order" will
-frequently stand for weeks before the contents are sold and the
-consignee is discovered, during which time the cars accumulate,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span>
-stand in the way, occupy
-valuable space, and have
-to be handled repeatedly
-by the transportation department
-of the road, all
-at the direct cost of
-handling to the road itself,
-and loss of interest
-to the owner of the car.</p>
-
-<div class="sandbagbox" id="img295">
- <div id="i295b1">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i295b2">&nbsp;</div>
-
-<div class="caption">Floating Cars, New York Harbor.</div>
-
-<p>Only two methods have so far been suggested to abate or put
-an end to the evils which have been but slightly indicated above.
-The first is a change in the method of payment for car service to a
-compensation based upon time as well as mileage, which is commonly
-known as the "per diem plan."</p>
-
-<p>This plan consists in paying for the use of all foreign cars a
-fixed sum per mile run, based on the supposed cost of repairs of
-the car, and a price per day based upon what is estimated to be a
-fair return for the interest on its value. This plan was originally
-suggested by a convention of car accountants, and was brought up
-and advocated by Mr. Fink, the Chairman of the Trunk Line Commission,
-in New York, in the fall of 1887. At his suggestion, and
-largely through his influence, it was tried by a few of the roads
-(the Trunk Lines and some of their immediate connections) during
-the early part of the year 1888; the amounts as then fixed being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span>
-one-half cent per mile run, and fifteen cents per day. The results
-of this experiment, while they were quite satisfactory to the friends
-of the proposed change, yet were not sufficiently conclusive to
-demonstrate the value of the plan to those who were indifferent or
-hostile to it.</p>
-</div>
-
-    <div class="HandHeld">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_295.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">Floating Cars, New York Harbor.</div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p>Only two methods have so far been suggested to abate or put
-    an end to the evils which have been but slightly indicated above.
-    The first is a change in the method of payment for car service to a
-    compensation based upon time as well as mileage, which is commonly
-    known as the "per diem plan."</p>
-
-    <p>This plan consists in paying for the use of all foreign cars a
-    fixed sum per mile run, based on the supposed cost of repairs of
-    the car, and a price per day based upon what is estimated to be a
-    fair return for the interest on its value. This plan was originally
-    suggested by a convention of car accountants, and was brought up
-    and advocated by Mr. Fink, the Chairman of the Trunk Line Commission,
-    in New York, in the fall of 1887. At his suggestion, and
-    largely through his influence, it was tried by a few of the roads
-    (the Trunk Lines and some of their immediate connections) during
-    the early part of the year 1888; the amounts as then fixed being
-    one-half cent per mile run, and fifteen cents per day. The results
-    of this experiment, while they were quite satisfactory to the friends
-    of the proposed change, yet were not sufficiently conclusive to
-    demonstrate the value of the plan to those who were indifferent or
-    hostile to it.</p>
-    </div>
-
-<p>For various reasons, chiefly local to the roads in question, the
-plan was discontinued after a few months' trial. The experiment
-resulted, however, in the collection of a large mass of statistics
-and other data, the study of which has led many to believe that
-the plan is the proper solution of the difficulties experienced, and, if
-adjusted so as not to add too much to the burden of those railway
-companies who are borrowers of cars, that it would meet with the
-approval of the railway companies throughout the country. It certainly
-provided a strong inducement to all roads to promptly handle
-foreign cars, and in that particular it proved a great advance over
-the existing methods of car service. The charge per day of fifteen
-cents was found too high in practice. Ten cents per day and a half-cent
-per mile would produce a net sum to the car-owner very
-slightly in excess of three-fourths of a cent per mile run. While
-this appears but small, yet it would be quite sufficient to amount
-in the aggregate to a considerable sum, and would serve to urge
-all railway companies to promptly unload and send home foreign
-cars. This plan would result, if generally adopted, in largely increasing
-the daily movement or mileage of all cars, or, what would
-be equivalent, would practically amount to a very considerable increase
-in the equipment of the country.</p>
-
-<p>The plan has recently been approved by the General Time
-Convention, and there is strong probability that it will be very extensively
-adopted and given a trial by all the railways during the
-year 1890.</p>
-
-<p>The second method of remedying the existing evils of car service
-is in a uniform and regular charge for demurrage, or car rental,
-to be collected by all railroad companies with the same regularity
-and uniformity that they now collect freight charges. This car
-rental, or demurrage charge, would not be in any sense a revenue
-to the car-owner; the idea of it being that it is a rental to the delivering
-company, not only for the use of the car but for the track
-on which it stands, and the inconvenience and actual cost that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span>
-company is put to in repeated handling a car that is held awaiting
-the pleasure of the consignee to unload. The difficulty in the
-way of making such a charge has been the unwillingness of any
-railroad company to put any obstacle in the way of the free movement
-of freight to its line, and the fear that an equivalent charge
-would not be made by some one of its competitors. Of late, however,
-the serious disadvantages resulting from the privileges given
-to consignees at competing points, by allowing them to hold cars
-indefinitely, have led the different railway companies to come together
-and agree upon a uniform system of demurrage charges at
-certain competing points.</p>
-
-<p>If these two plans could be put into operation simultaneously,
-a fair and uniform method of charging demurrage, coupled with
-the per diem and mileage plan for car service, the results would
-be most satisfactory not only to the railway companies and car-owners,
-but also to the community.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>The matter of freight transportation is a vast one, and whole
-chapters might be written on any one of the various topics that
-have been but slightly mentioned in this sketch.</p>
-
-<p>The subject is fraught with difficulties; new complications
-arise daily which, each in its turn, have to be met and mastered.
-The publicity recently given to the various phases of the railway
-problem has done much to enlighten the public mind in regard to
-these difficulties.</p>
-
-<p>The result has already been evident in the growing spirit of
-mutual forbearance and good-will between the railway companies
-and the public. Let us hope that this will continue, and that as
-time goes on their relations will steadily improve, so that the public,
-while yielding nothing of their legitimate demand for safe, prompt,
-and convenient service, will at the same time see that this can only
-be secured by allowing the railways a fair return for the services
-rendered; while the railways will learn that their true interest lies
-in the best service possible at moderate, uniform rates.</p>
-
-
-<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Explanation.</span> Each connecting road at each junction station is assigned a number, and when
-a car is received from a connection the record is shown by entering the road number in the upper
-space of the block under the proper date, followed by the character × if loaded; or, if empty, together
-with the time, as for example: Car 29421 is shown as received, Dec. 2d, from the Amherst &amp; Lincoln
-Ry. at Port Chester (10), loaded (×), at 21 o'clock, or 9 <span class="fs70">P.M.</span> A similar entry in the lower space of the
-block indicates a <em>delivery</em> to connecting line. The middle space of the block is used for the car movement,
-the first number or letter showing the station from which the car moved. The character × as a
-prefix to a station number indicates that the car is being loaded at that station. The &mdash;, when used as
-a prefix, shows that the car is being unloaded; as an <em>affix</em> it indicates a movement empty, or on hand
-empty. When the &mdash; is used <em>under</em> a station number it indicates a change date record, that is, leaving
-a station on one date and arriving at another on the following date. Station numbers or letters without
-other characters show that the car is loaded.</p>
-
-<p>
-The sign (B) is used when a car is left at a station for repairs, while in transit. The sign (T) denotes
-that the lading was transferred to another car, a transfer record being kept showing to what car
-transferred; the sign (R), when a car is on hand at a station or yard for repairs. Shops are assigned
-numbers with an O prefix; the upper and lower spaces being used to show delivery to, or receipt from
-the shop, similar to the interchange record.</p>
-
-<p>
-For convenience the twenty-four hour system is used for recording time, and is shown in quarter-hours;
-thus, 10, 12<sup>1</sup>, 18<sup>2</sup>, 21<sup>3</sup>, representing 10 <span class="fs70">A.M.</span>, 12.15 <span class="fs70">P.M.</span>, 6.30 <span class="fs70">P.M.</span>, and 9.45 <span class="fs70">P.M.</span> This,
-used in the movement record, shows the running time on each division, or detention at train terminals.</p>
-
-<p>
-The "transfer" column shows the station at which the car was reported on the last day of the previous
-month, and the <em>arriving date</em>; also from what road received, with date.</p></div></div>
-
-
-    <div class="chapter"></div>
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">HOW TO FEED A RAILWAY.</a></h2>
-
-<p class="pfs90 smcap">By BENJAMIN NORTON.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The Many Necessities of a Modern Railway&mdash;The Purchasing and Supply Departments&mdash;Comparison
-with the Commissary Department of an Army&mdash;Financial Importance&mdash;Immense
-Expenditures&mdash;The General Storehouse&mdash;Duties of the Purchasing Agent&mdash;The
-Best Material the Cheapest&mdash;Profits from the Scrap-heap&mdash;Old Rails Worked
-over into New Implements&mdash;Yearly Contracts for Staple Articles&mdash;Economy in Fuel&mdash;Tests
-by the Best Engineers and Firemen&mdash;The Stationery Supply&mdash;Aggregate
-Annual Cost of Envelopes, Tickets, and Time-tables&mdash;The Average Life of Rails&mdash;Durability
-of Cross-ties&mdash;What it Costs per Mile to Run an Engine&mdash;The Paymaster's
-Duties&mdash;Scenes during the Trip of a Pay-car.</p></div>
-
-<div><img class="drop-cap" src="images/i_298dc.jpg" alt="" /></div>
-
-<p class="drop-cap">The commissary or supply department of a railroad
-is not unlike that of a large army. Like a vast
-army, its necessities are many, and the various departments
-which make up the whole system must
-be provided with their necessary requirements in
-order to accomplish the end for which it is operated.</p>
-
-<p>If, again, we regard a railroad as a huge animal, the quantity
-of supplies needed to fill its capacious maw is something overwhelming.
-It is always hungry, and the daily bill of fare (which
-includes pretty much everything known to trade) is gone through
-with an appetite as vigorous and healthy at the end as it exhibits
-in the beginning. Yet how few there are who realize the important
-part this one feature plays in the operation of the thousands of
-miles of railroad throughout the world! Upon the proper conduct
-of this department depends very largely the success of any road,
-so far as its relation to the stockholders is concerned; for while,
-as has been the case in the past, combinations and pools have
-aided in maintaining rates, and have served to increase the income,
-and attention has been paid to securing additional business
-in every possible way, the "out-goes" have often been overlooked,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span>
-to the detriment of dividends and the general welfare of
-the property.</p>
-
-<p>The supplies must be furnished in any event, in order that the
-various departments may perform their allotted duties&mdash;coal for the
-engines, stationery for the clerks, ties and rails for the tracks, oils
-for the lubrication of the thousands of axles daily turning, passage-tickets
-for the travellers, and a thousand and one things which are
-absolutely necessary for the safe and efficient conduct of every railroad
-in active operation. Each item serves its purpose, and,
-properly assimilated, keeps alive all the functions of one vast and
-complicated system. It is easy to see, then, the importance, first,
-of proper economy in buying, and then a correct and systematic
-distribution of all supplies. On the Philadelphia &amp; Reading
-Railroad, for instance, the annual supply bills aggregate more than
-$3,000,000, covering such supplies as those just mentioned, and, in
-fact, everything which is purchased and used in the operation of
-the road; so that on a large system like that, the commissary department
-requires no end of detail, both in the purchase and the
-distribution of all material.</p>
-
-<p>The expenditure for lubricating oils, waste, and greases alone
-amounts to more than $150,000 per annum, while the outlay for fuel
-represents about $1,200,000, and this is comparatively a small sum,
-since that road is a coal road, so called, and the cost for fuel, as a
-matter of course, is reduced to a minimum. There the store-room
-system, which has now been pretty generally adopted by many of
-the larger roads, is fully exemplified. With a General Store-keeper
-in charge, all supplies purchased are accounted for through
-him, and distributions are made daily among the sub-store rooms,
-which are located at convenient points; and they in turn distribute
-among the various departments, for consumption, all accounting
-daily to the General Store-keeper at Reading.</p>
-
-<p>To give an idea as to the quantity of material required in the
-service on such a road, it may be stated that from twelve to fifteen
-car-loads of supplies per day are shipped to various points.
-When we consider that an ordinary car will carry from fifteen to
-twenty tons of freight, we find that the annual requirements will
-average about four thousand car-loads, or, say, about fifty thousand
-tons, and if all the cars were made up into one solid train<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span>
-they would occupy fully twenty-five miles of track, and consume
-an hour and a half passing a given point running at the ordinary
-speed of freight-trains.</p>
-
-<p>To account carefully for all this requires necessarily a large
-army of clerks and other assistants, though, with the fundamental
-principles correct, it is no more difficult to account for large quantities
-than for small. The supplies are purchased in the first instance,
-delivered at the General Storehouse, are there weighed
-or measured and receipted for, are then distributed on requisition,
-and finally delivered to the several departments when needed;
-are charged out to the various accounts, after consumption, and
-all returns and records are finally kept on the books of the General
-Store-keeper.</p>
-
-<p>It would be a large army indeed which would require so much
-for its maintenance; and, remembering the hundreds of roads,
-small and large, throughout the country, the measure of one's
-comprehension is nearly reached in estimating the amount of
-money and the thousands of tons of material represented.</p>
-
-<p>If the buyer of railroad stocks for investment, besides looking
-into the returns of freight and passenger business for his decision,
-would investigate carefully the method adopted for the purchase
-and distribution of supplies on any road in which he may be interested,
-he might get information enough to satisfy himself that a
-large portion of the earnings were dribbling out through this department,
-and that, as a result, his stock might eventually cease
-to be a dividend payer.</p>
-
-<p>In the matter of buying, the result depends entirely upon the
-purchasing agent, and this position must necessarily be occupied
-by a man of honor and integrity, coupled with a reasonable amount
-of shrewdness and aptitude for such business. As this department
-covers to a greater or less degree pretty much all the known
-branches of trade, the buyer cannot, under ordinary circumstances,
-thoroughly master the whole field as an expert; but he can nevertheless
-inform himself in the most important articles of manufacture
-to the extent of preventing deception or fraud. The field is
-extensive, and the sooner railroad companies realize that the purchasing
-agent is not a mere order clerk, the sooner they will discover
-that their disbursements for supplies are very much less,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span>
-and that the chief part of the leakage has found its source in this
-very department.</p>
-
-<p>Exactly the same principles are involved in this matter as in
-the case of a thrifty proprietor of a country-store, whose profits
-each year depend materially upon the closeness and care with
-which his stock in trade is purchased from the wholesale dealers
-in a large city. A purchasing agent's experience is varied in the
-extreme, dealing as he does with all classes of salesmen and business
-houses. There is no end to the operations which skilful
-salesmen go through in offering their stock; but after some experience
-a sharp buyer will be able to fortify himself against the
-best of them&mdash;even against the clever vender of varnishes who
-disposed of one hundred barrels of his wares in small lots to different
-buyers, on a sample of maple-sirup. On the other hand,
-a salesman who, when a buyer asked him if his oil gummed, replied
-that "it gummed beautifully," lost the chance of ever selling
-any goods in that quarter.</p>
-
-<p>As has been said, the ordinary or general supplies consumed
-in the operation of the average railroad include almost everything
-known to trade. Tobacco, for the gratification of the taste of a
-gang of men out on the road with the snow-plough, is not outside
-the list; and even pianos, for some trains (since the days of absolute
-comfort and possible extravagance have begun) for the benefit
-of passengers setting out on long journeys; nor do we lose sight
-of books, bath-tubs, and barbers. The practical feature involved,
-however, calls for an endless variety of expensive as well as inexpensive
-materials.</p>
-
-<p>It is a safe rule to follow that anything which goes into the
-construction either of track, equipment, or buildings, should be
-the best. Care should always be exercised against the use of any
-material the failure of which might be the cause of loss of life, and
-consequently result in heavy damages to the company. Iron alone
-enters so extensively into railroad construction and operation that
-it is safe to say three-fourths of all manufactured in this country is
-consumed directly or indirectly in this way; and besides its use in
-rails and fastenings (the latter including spikes, fish-plates, and bolts
-and nuts), and in the many thousand tons of car-wheels and axles
-annually required, there must be reckoned the almost unlimited number<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span>
-of castings daily required in the way of brake-shoes, pedestals,
-draw-heads, grate-bars, etc. The lumber and timber for buildings,
-bridges, platforms, and crossings, and the large quantity of glass
-which is necessary, are among other large items of expenditure.</p>
-
-<p>Lubricating and illuminating oils, paints and varnishes, soaps,
-chalk, bunting, hardware, lamps, cotton and woollen waste, clocks,
-brooms, and such metals as copper, pig tin, and antimony are only
-a few of the many articles of diet which a railroad requires to keep
-body and soul together, and give it strength to perform the great
-duty it owes to commerce and the public. After they have all
-served their purposes, such as cannot be worked over again in the
-shops, and are not entirely consumed, are consigned to the scrap-heap
-under the head of "old material"&mdash;an all-important consideration
-in the economical management of any road. On many
-roads very little attention is paid to the sale of scrap. As a general
-rule, the purchasing agent has charge of it, and if he shows
-any shrewdness in buying, he will exercise more or less ingenuity
-in selling. Most railroad scrap has a fixed value in the market.
-Quotations for old rails, car-wheels, and wrought iron are found
-in all the trade journals; but as in buying one can usually buy of
-someone at prices less than market price, so in selling he can often
-find a buyer who is willing to pay more than the regular quotation.
-As it is found not wise in the long run to purchase ahead
-on some prospective rise, so in selling it is equally true that holding
-scrap over upon the possibility of a rise in prices is not always
-for the best advantage.</p>
-
-<p>There has always been a demand for old iron rails, and recently
-use for old steel rails has been found. They are worked over at
-the rolling mills into crowbars and shovels, spikes, fish-plates,
-bolts, and other necessary things to be employed in construction
-and maintenance. Not long since an experiment with old steel
-rails was successfully performed, whereby they were melted and
-poured into moulds for use as brake-shoes. The result showed a
-casting of unusual hardness which would outwear three ordinary
-cast-iron shoes. This opens up an entirely new field in railroad
-economy, for with ordinary foundry appliances accumulations of
-old steel rails can be worked over and cast into all sorts of shapes
-and patterns to better advantage than selling them at a nominal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span>
-price to outside buyers. While worn-out car-wheels will generally
-bring more money from wheel manufacturers than they command
-in the open market, it has not always been found the best
-policy to compel the mill from which the new wheels are purchased
-to take too many of them. It is apt to encourage the use
-of too much old material in the manufacture of the new; and while
-the company may consider that it is realizing much more money
-on sales of the old wheels than the market price, it does not take
-into account the inferior stock it is getting back, or the fact that
-possibly when the mileage is reckoned the wheels have signally
-failed to run as long as they ought. In the aggregate about ten
-per cent. of the original cost of all supplies purchased is realized
-out of the sales of old material. From cast-iron wheels and old
-rails, however, the percentage is much larger, for while at present
-new passenger car-wheels of this class, weighing about five hundred
-and fifty pounds, are worth about ten dollars each, they will
-bring in the market, when worn out after running say fifty thousand
-miles, about twenty dollars per ton. Four wheels go to the
-ton, which represents five dollars per wheel, or fifty per cent.
-of the original cost. With old rails the percentage is even higher,
-in the present condition of the rail market. Old iron rails are
-worth within four or five dollars of the price of new steel, and the
-old steel about seventy per cent. of the price of the new. These
-high percentages assist in making up for the materials which are
-entirely consumed in the service, and which never form a part of
-the ordinary scrap-heap, such as oils, waste, and paints.</p>
-
-<p>While the majority of general supplies just mentioned briefly
-may be arranged for as required and purchased from month to
-month upon regular requisitions, there are certain staple articles
-which are provided for in advance by contract. Among them
-principally are the engine-coal, rails and ties, stationery, passage-tickets,
-and time-tables. More money is expended for such supplies
-than for any others, and contracts with responsible business
-houses, for their delivery at fixed prices for the limit of at least a
-year, are generally made to insure, in the first place, the lowest
-market rates and, again, to make the delivery certain.</p>
-
-<p>Locomotive fuel is the largest single item of expense in the
-operation of any road, the consumption of it running up as high as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span>
-a million tons per annum on some large roads; and while there are
-a few exceptional cases where wood is used as fuel, coal is the
-necessary element in nearly every case in America to-day.</p>
-
-<p>Of the two general varieties&mdash;bituminous or soft, and anthracite
-or hard&mdash;it is safe to say that bituminous coal is the more
-economical, assuming that the grade employed is the best, this
-economy lying both in the original cost and the fact that the bulk
-of it goes to serve its purpose, there being comparatively little
-waste in the way of ashes; while the anthracite produces many
-ashes and clinkers, requires much more care and attention on the
-part of the stoker or fireman, and costs, as a general rule, about
-thirty per cent. more. Economy, however, should not be carried
-too far in any branch of the service, and if the passenger traffic be
-heavy the use of soft coal may be a great detriment. To a traveller
-there can be nothing more disagreeable than the smoke and
-cinders emanating from it; and if, besides this, the road be an
-especially dusty one, the combination of dust, smoke, and cinders
-will be quite sufficient to turn the tide of travel in some other
-direction and over another route.</p>
-
-<p>For freight service bituminous coal is decidedly the best, and
-perhaps might not be out of place on short local passenger trains;
-but the company that provides hard-coal-burning engines for
-passenger trains, and soft-coal burners for freight, does about the
-right thing, and economizes as far as practicable in this particular.
-In making contracts for this important commodity the necessity of
-careful tests in advance is very apparent, and such trials are
-generally left with the best engineers and firemen; otherwise it
-might be difficult to get at all the qualifications. On some roads
-inducements offered to firemen have brought the consumption of
-fuel down to the most economical point, and it is surprising how
-much depends upon their good judgment in this matter.</p>
-
-<p>Now that heating cars direct from the engines is coming into
-general use, and State legislatures have given the subject their consideration,
-the consumption of the domestic sizes of coal as fuel in
-cars is growing less; but this, too, is still a very important matter.</p>
-
-<p>Stationery is not only a very significant item, but also an expensive
-one. This includes all the forms and blanks used in the conduct
-of the freight and passenger business, and there is an endless<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span>
-variety of them&mdash;the inks, pens, pencils, mucilage, sealing-wax, and
-envelopes, besides many other odds and ends. Perhaps the envelopes
-represent one of the largest single items of expense in
-this line. The hundreds of thousands of them used in the course
-of a year, even at low prices, mean an outlay of many thousands
-of dollars. Agents must send in daily reports, there must be covers
-for all the correspondence passing between the different departments,
-while the daily average amount of outside correspondence
-is very considerable. It is surprising how many dollars might be
-saved in this direction, not only by a judicious contract, but by a
-careful use of the supply.</p>
-
-<p>When a railroad company takes up the question of time-tables,
-it has a matter of importance to handle which on many roads receives
-very little consideration. When the passenger traffic is
-heavy, the number of travellers during the year running into the
-millions, the demand for time-tables is very large. This refers
-directly to the time-table sheets or folders, which every company
-must keep on hand at its stations, and in other public places and
-hotels, for the convenience of the traveller, in addition to the
-printed schedules which are framed and hung up conspicuously on
-the walls of its waiting-rooms. A neat and attractive folder for
-general circulation is very desirable, particularly if competition is
-very strong. There is more virtue in a neatly made up schedule
-of trains than one would suppose. One in doubt is apt to reason
-that the road is kept up in a corresponding condition, and that the
-trains are made up on the same plan, and consequently would prefer
-to go by that route rather than by one whose trains were advertised
-on cheap leaflets.</p>
-
-<p>Fifteen thousand to twenty thousand dollars per annum for
-envelopes alone is spent on some roads, and twice as much more
-perhaps for time-tables.</p>
-
-<p>Passage-tickets, including all varieties of regular and special
-tickets, such as mileage books or coupons, family trip-books, and
-school-tickets are also an item of large expense, the annual consumption
-covering many tons, which once used are of no value
-save as waste paper; yet they are absolutely indispensable in the
-operation of the road. Yearly contracts for these are made, and
-while the actual cost of a single ticket may not exceed <em>one mill</em>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span>
-the aggregate on a road carrying fifteen millions to twenty millions
-or more passengers per annum is considerable.</p>
-
-<p>To induce the public to travel, and encourage shippers to send
-their freight to market over any road, attention must first be paid
-to the condition of the track and rolling stock.</p>
-
-<p>It is not economy to allow anything to be out of repair, on the
-supposition that it is less expensive than it would be to spend comparatively
-little from day to day to keep it up. The day of reckoning
-will come in the end, and the sacrifice will be considerable.
-As the track is the fundamental feature, the cross-ties or sleepers
-and rails should be the best. Iron rails are practically out of date,
-and it is fair to assume that the time is approaching when wooden
-ties will be things of the past. Where the traffic is light, heavy
-steel rails may not be necessary; but it has been generally found
-economical to put in use rails which do not weigh less than sixty-seven
-or seventy pounds to the yard; an even greater weight than
-this is not ill-advised&mdash;they require fewer cross-ties to the mile,
-and in consequence the force of men required to keep the track in
-condition is less. Light rails are soon worn and battered out on a
-road over which heavy engines are run and large trains are hauled.
-The powerful locomotives now built require a well-kept track and
-a solid and substantial road-bed. Heavier and faster trains have
-tended to reduce the average life of rails, even though the weight
-of the rails has also been steadily increasing. Circumstances vary
-on the different roads, but it is safe to say that eight to ten per
-cent. of all rails in the track must be renewed every year. This
-brings the average life of the steel rails down to about twelve years,
-under ordinary conditions. On some divisions, however, where
-the traffic is frequent, and in yards where a good deal of switching
-is done, and the rails are under pressure constantly, the average
-is, of course, very much less&mdash;even as low as two or three years.</p>
-
-<p>Aside from the durability of the timber employed, plenty of face
-for the rail bearings, and uniform thickness and length, are very
-important requirements in contracts for ties. While white oak is
-generally considered the most durable for this purpose, the growth
-of this timber is limited except in certain sections of the country,
-so that cedar, cypress, chestnut, and yellow pine are more commonly
-used than any other class. The millions of them used for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span>
-renewals and new roads each year are gradually reducing our
-forests; and, like some of the European roads, we shall some day
-fall back upon metal, which (while its life may not be measured)
-will make so rigid a track that the traveller over long distances
-will be worn out with his journey, and the rolling stock will require
-frequent repairs and overhauling. The practice of creosoting
-cross-ties is growing rapidly, and this tends to increase their durability
-three or four times. While the first cost of such ties may be
-double that for the unprepared timbers, the result in the end is
-economical, for the labor alone required to take out an old tie and
-put in a new one costs at least twelve cents.</p>
-
-<p>The general store-room is properly the intermediate stage, so
-far as supplies are concerned, between the different departments of
-the road and the Auditor, who charges up all material used to the
-different accounts into which his system is divided. Properly,
-everything in the nature of material, however small, directly or indirectly
-passes through the Store-keeper's books. An account is
-kept with each locomotive, station agent, switchman, and flagman,
-so that to a penny everything consumed in the operation of a road
-is accurately known. To accomplish this the Store-keeper, of
-course, must be a good accountant, and at the same time be more
-or less of an expert in railroad material. Under an economical administration
-of his affairs he is able to save a great deal of money
-for his company. By his system, with the aid of data from the mechanical
-department, he can tell the average number of miles run
-during the year to a pint of oil or a ton of coal; the number of
-pounds of coal consumed per mile run, as well as the number of
-pints of oil for the same distance. He can give in detail the cost
-in cents per mile run for all the oil, tallow, and waste, fuel, and
-other supplies consumed, and can account to a nicety for all the
-lanterns, brooms, hardware, and other material which he has received
-and distributed.</p>
-
-<p>The following statement of averages represents fairly what it
-costs to run a locomotive under ordinary conditions:</p>
-
-<p class="pfs90"><em>Averages.</em></p>
-
-<div class="center fs80">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="tdl">Number of miles run to pint of oil</td><td class="tdrx">15.32</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Number of miles run to ton of coal</td><td class="tdrx">46.17</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Number of pounds of coal per mile run</td><td class="tdrx">48.62</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Number of pints of oil per mile run</td><td class="tdrx">0.06</td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="p2 pfs90"><em>Cost in Cents per Mile Run.</em></p>
-
-<div class="center fs80">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrx fs85">Cents.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">For oil, tallow, and waste</td><td class="tdrx">0.32</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">For fuel</td><td class="tdrx">7.42</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">For engineers</td><td class="tdrx">3.60</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">For firemen</td><td class="tdrx">1.79</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">For wipers and watchmen</td><td class="tdrx">1.25</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">For water supply</td><td class="tdrx">0.49</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">For supplies (miscellaneous)</td><td class="tdrx">0.10</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">For repairs</td><td class="tdrx">2.40</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrx">&mdash;&mdash;&ndash;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl pad6">Total</td><td class="tdrx">17.37</td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p class="p1" />
-<p>He will find that some engineers and firemen are more extravagant
-than others, and that some station agents and flagmen do
-not perform their respective duties with near so much regard for
-economy as others do under exactly similar circumstances. In
-such cases a report is made and a reminder from the Superintendent
-follows, calling attention to such carelessness. The result is
-apparent at the next monthly comparison.</p>
-
-<p>Prompt payment of all supply bills helps to insure economy,
-and any company unable to make its payments promptly and regularly,
-suffers to a greater or less extent always; for a firm not able
-to know whether its accounts are to be settled in thirty or ninety
-days cannot afford to allow all the discounts which it otherwise
-might, and this may mean an extra expense every year of many
-thousands of dollars.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>So far as the employees are concerned, it is for the best interests
-of the company to have a fixed time for the pay-day. They
-need their money and should get it regularly. Any road on which
-the men are paid at uncertain times may be subject to incalculable
-losses. It is apt to provoke dishonesty and carelessness. The
-road which is bankrupt and forced to pass its pay-day to some indefinite
-time is always hampered by some of the most inferior class
-of servants in the market. Except in some instances where special
-laws have been passed requiring railroad companies to meet
-their pay-rolls oftener, once each month is generally recognized as
-pay-time, and on large roads it would be simply out of the question
-for the pay-rolls to be made up correctly and the men paid off
-sooner. The paymaster is the wage-distributing medium, and by
-virtue of his generosity will command as much respect as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span>
-President of the road. No officer's face is more familiar than his,
-and surely no one connected with the institution is looked for with
-more eagerness by the hard-working employees. It is no easy
-task he has to perform, and the responsibility for the millions of
-dollars paid out in this way annually is very great. This responsibility,
-however, has been very much reduced on some roads,
-where wages are paid by checks entirely. Under some circumstances
-this system will not work satisfactorily, especially on a road
-running through a sparsely settled country. The employees may
-have to stand a good round discount to some store-keeper or
-tradesman in order to secure their money. The best and most
-satisfactory return for services can be nothing less than solid cash;
-it encourages better attention to business and relieves the men
-from possible annoyance and inconvenience. The Paymaster's
-car, which is virtually a moving bank or cashier's office, and arranged
-conveniently for the payment of money to the men as they
-pass through, is generally run "special," upon notice in advance
-to all foremen or heads of departments, either by telegraph or, as
-on some roads, by the display of special signal flags, which are carried
-on the front end of the locomotive of some regular train the
-day before the car is run over any division. In this way all men
-employed along the line of the road, whether at or between stations,
-are notified of the Paymaster's coming, and it does not usually
-require any other inducement than this to bring them all out.
-There is nothing that will prompt them to jump higher and run
-faster than the whistle of the pay-train as it comes around the
-curve to the station. Men have been known to forget their names,
-and do other foolish things under the excitement of drawing their
-month's pay. The fellow who said he could not write all his name
-when requested by the Paymaster to sign the pay-roll, but offered
-to write as much of it as he could, after some deliberation made a
-cross on the sheet with all the care and nicety he could muster.
-Others who could not write have been very slow to admit it, and
-have pleaded haste as an excuse for not doing so. So far as Italians
-are concerned (and what railroad service is now complete without
-its gang of Italian laborers?), they are usually designated by numbers,
-and in some cases their foremen have thought it well to name
-them after prominent statesmen or other public men, or possibly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span>
-some of the head officials of the company. To run across twenty-five
-or thirty Daniel Websters on the same road is not surprising,
-and the President of the company himself is liable to have a half-dozen
-namesakes throughout the different divisions of his road. A
-cage of jabbering monkeys is not a more amusing spectacle than
-some gangs of Italian laborers receiving their month's pay.</p>
-
-<p>The pay-department can be made very systematic, and to promote
-economy and accuracy it is absolutely necessary that it should
-be. The Paymaster is not simply a medium through whom wages
-are distributed. He may be one of the most important officers of his
-company, and ferret out frauds and dishonesty which otherwise might
-never be discovered. He knows all the men, and they, of course,
-know him. In fact, he is the only one connected with the road
-whose recognition among all the employees is absolutely certain.</p>
-
-<p>Some idea of the enormous amount of money earned annually
-by the railroad men in this country may be formed from the statement
-that it requires about $1,000,000 per month to pay twenty
-thousand men, and there are a good many roads on which the
-average monthly pay-roll embraces from fifteen thousand to twenty
-thousand names; in some cases even more.</p>
-
-<p>When the pay-rolls are all turned over to the Paymaster, properly
-approved by each head of department, he notifies the Superintendent
-or Trainmaster of his proposed trip, mapping out in detail
-the route, which is usually the same each month. The signals
-or telegrams are sent ahead to the various foremen, and the car is
-ordered ready for the journey. The funds are arranged in denominations
-to suit the circumstances, with plenty of small change,
-and enough money for a day or two only at a time is provided.
-The pay for the flagmen at crossings, and switchmen on the road,
-as well as for the agents at small stations, is generally done up in
-envelopes, and, as the train speeds by, the packages are handed or
-thrown out at the proper places; and sometimes, to warrant a safe
-delivery, a forked stick is used, into which the envelope is put, thus
-giving it plenty of weight and saving it from being tumbled about
-promiscuously on the ground. Much time is saved in this way, and
-the pay-train is able to keep well out of the way of any regular
-train which may be following. So the pay-car flies along, only
-stopping at some large station where the number of employees engaged<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span>
-is sufficient to warrant it. These are quickly paid off, however,
-and the journey is continued. Perhaps at some junction a
-freight crew is met; and as these fellows have to get their money
-when they can, a stop is made on the road to give them a chance
-to do it. At some stations are found two or three gangs of section
-or track men, a watchman, an agent and his assistant, a pumper,
-and possibly a mail-carrier. Perhaps a discharged trainman will
-turn up also, who may have part of a month's pay coming to him.</p>
-
-<p>Later in the day it may be a shop gang of five hundred or one
-thousand men, consisting of carpenters, painters, machinists, and
-boiler-makers, and these are paid in order, each set of men by itself.
-There is no noise or disturbance, everything goes like clock-work,
-as all pass through in regular order, each gang or class preceded
-by its foreman, and the men arranged in line in the order in
-which their names appear on the pay-rolls. When night comes,
-and two or three hundred miles of road have been covered, the
-balance of the funds is carefully locked up in the safe on board, the
-car run in upon some convenient siding, and the engine housed for
-a wiping and a thorough preparation for the next day's run. The
-car is generally provided with comfortable beds for the Paymaster
-and his clerks, and during the paying-off time they practically live
-in the car. This insures early starts in the morning, and on large
-roads the necessity for haste is very apparent, where possibly two
-or three weeks are consumed each month in paying off the rolls.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>The average traveller, spinning across the country at forty
-miles an hour, is not apt to think of the countless details involved
-in the make-up of the train in which he rides or the track over
-which he is wheeled; but when he considers how safely the millions
-of passengers are annually carried over the one hundred and
-fifty thousand miles or more of railroad in this country alone, he
-may be brought to realize that quite as much depends upon the
-quality of the material entering into the construction of the train
-and tracks as upon the efficiency of the engineer in the cab, or the
-conductor, brakeman, switchmen, and train-despatcher who perform
-their respective responsible duties in connection therewith.
-Feeding a railroad, then, means a great deal more than the majority
-of mankind supposes.</p>
-
-
-    <div class="chapter"></div>
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">THE RAILWAY MAIL SERVICE.</a></h2>
-
-<p class="pfs90 smcap">By THOMAS L. JAMES.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>An Object Lesson in Postal Progress&mdash;Nearness of the Department to the People&mdash;The
-First Travelling Post-Office in the United States&mdash;Organization of the Department
-in 1789&mdash;Early Mail Contracts&mdash;All Railroads made Post-routes&mdash;Compartments
-for Mail Clerks in Baggage-cars&mdash;Origin of the Present System in 1862&mdash;Important
-Work of Colonel George S. Bangs&mdash;The "Fast Mail" between New York and Chicago&mdash;Why
-it was Suspended&mdash;Resumption in 1877&mdash;Present Condition of the Service&mdash;Statistics&mdash;A
-Ride on the "Fast Mail"&mdash;Busy Scenes at the Grand Central
-Depot&mdash;Special Uses of the Five Cars&mdash;Duties of the Clerks&mdash;How the Work is
-Performed&mdash;Annual Appropriation for Special Mail Facilities&mdash;Dangers Threatening
-the Railway Mail Clerk's Life&mdash;An Insurance Fund Proposed&mdash;Needs of the
-Service&mdash;A Plea for Radical Civil Service Reform.</p></div>
-
-<div><img class="drop-cap1" src="images/i_312dc.jpg" alt="" /></div>
-
-<p class="drop-cap1">At the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia, in the
-Post-Office exhibit, was a double picture showing
-the postal service at the beginning of the century
-and as it is to-day. On one side was a postman&mdash;perhaps
-Franklin&mdash;on horseback, jogging over
-a corduroy road, "through the forest primeval,"
-making a mile or two an hour; and on the other
-a representation of the fast mail train, the "catcher"
-taking a pouch from the "crane" as it passes at the rate of fifty
-miles an hour! Standing in the foreground is the pretty daughter
-of the village postmaster with the mail pouch just thrown from the
-car in her hand, a group of rustics, with ill-concealed admiration
-in their eyes, watching her as the swiftly passing train goes on its
-journey. This picture is not, perhaps, a work of art, but it is an
-"object lesson," giving at a glance the progress that our country
-has made in a hundred years.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_313.jpg" width="375" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Postal Progress, 1776&ndash;1876.<br />
-(Facsimile of a print in the Post-Office Department.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Of all the executive departments of the Government, the Post-Office
-is the one nearest the people, and the one with which they
-are the most familiar. In addition to its work of collecting, transporting,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span>
-and delivering legitimate mail matter, viz., letters, newspapers,
-and magazines, it is the greatest express company of the
-continent, since it has
-an office at almost every
-cross-roads, even
-carrying merchandise
-cheaper (considering
-the distance) than its
-rivals. Its registration
-system affords a
-means of forwarding
-valuable packages, at
-a slight additional
-cost, with almost absolute
-security. It is
-the greatest banking
-institution on this side
-of the Atlantic. The
-transactions of its
-money-order system,
-not only in our own
-country, but with almost
-every nation in
-the civilized world
-(Russia and Spain excepted), run up to wellnigh fabulous sums.
-Its drafts are easily obtained and cheap. Its notes are "gilt
-edged," and have never been repudiated. With the creation of
-the Postal Savings Bank system, the working people's department
-in its organization will approach perfection.</p>
-
-<p>The first mention of a travelling post-office occurs in a memorial
-addressed to Congress in November, 1776, by Ebenezer
-Hazard, Postmaster-General under the Continental Congress, in
-which he states that, owing to the frequent removals of the Continental
-Army, he was subjected to extraordinary expense, difficulties,
-and fatigues, "having paid an exorbitant price for every
-necessary of life, and having been obliged, for want of a horse&mdash;which
-could not be procured&mdash;to follow the army on foot."</p>
-
-<p>Directly after the inauguration of General Washington, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span>
-April, 1789, the organization of the Post-Office Department followed,
-and Samuel Osgood, of Massachusetts, was appointed
-Postmaster-General. That the people might derive the greatest
-possible advantage from an institution peculiarly their own, this
-gigantic monopoly&mdash;for it is nothing else&mdash;was created, and all
-competition forbidden. The Postmaster-General had then but one
-clerk, and there were but 75 post-offices and 1,875 miles of post-roads
-in the United States; the cost of mail transportation being
-$22,081, the total revenue, $37,935, the total expenditures, $32,140;
-leaving a surplus of $5,795. From this time until 1836 the
-contracts made for the transportation of the mails do not mention
-any kind of service on post-roads except stages, sulkies, four-horse
-post-coaches, horseback, packets, and steam-boats.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_314.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">The Pony Express&mdash;The Relay.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The growth of the Railway Mail Service has been coincident
-with that of the railway itself, and the importance of both cannot
-be underestimated in considering the future development of the
-country. Almost as soon as a railroad is fully organized it becomes
-a mail contractor with the Department.</p>
-
-<p>The Act of Congress constituting every railroad in the United
-States a post-route was approved July 7, 1838. Postmaster-General
-Barry, in his annual report for 1836, speaks of the multiplication<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span>
-of railroads in many parts of the country, and suggests it
-as a subject worthy of inquiry, whether measures may not be taken
-to secure the transportation of the mail on them, and adds: "Already
-have the railroads between Frenchtown, in Maryland, and
-Newcastle, in Delaware, and between Camden and South Amboy,
-in New Jersey, afforded great and important facilities to the transmission
-of the great eastern mail." At this time a railroad between
-Washington and New York was in process of construction,
-and Postmaster-General Barry dwelt in his report on the importance
-of the facilities that would be afforded for speedy service between
-the two cities, predicting that the run between them would
-probably be made in sixteen hours. The service is now performed
-in about five hours.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_315.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">The Overland Mail Coach&mdash;A Star Route.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>At first the facilities for mail services were very limited. Postmaster-General
-Kendall, in 1835, suggested that the Baltimore &amp;
-Ohio Railroad Company might be asked to close in some portion
-of their baggage-cars, a strong lock being placed on the apartment,
-to which only the postmasters at Washington and Baltimore should
-have keys. In the same report he adds: "If wheels can be constructed
-which can be used alike upon the railroads and the streets
-of the cities respectively, the Department will furnish an entire car
-containing the mail to be delivered at one depot, and received at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span>
-the other, asking nothing of the company but to haul it." It was
-even proposed at this time that the Government should have its
-own locomotives, everything else on the road giving the right of
-way to the mail train. This proposition was not adopted. The
-fear was expressed,
-however, that
-if the Department
-did not have absolute
-control
-over the road,
-the people would
-have to depend
-on stage or other
-horse transportation
-for mail service.
-All these
-early troubles in
-time passed away,
-and, through concessions
-on both sides, the railways soon became the most important
-agent of the Post-Office Department.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_316.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Mail Carrying in the Country.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>This, of course, was not accomplished without many trials and
-tribulations. It seems strange, in the light of the present, to read
-in an official report a remonstrance from route agents that nearly
-every night dead bodies were placed in the mail crates between
-Philadelphia and New York, and the mails packed around the
-coffins. This breach of good order disappeared after that time,
-and with it came to an end the freight methods and the old stage-coach
-ideas of dealing with the mails.</p>
-
-<p>A separate compartment in a baggage-car, fitted up with few
-conveniences necessary for the distribution of local way-mail, was
-the beginning of the system which has developed into the luxurious
-postal cars of the present time. As a matter of history, however,
-it is only fair to say that the system which we then adopted
-had been in use for some time by our northern neighbors of
-Canada, who had taken it from the mother country.</p>
-
-<p>The credit of suggesting the first step toward the present system
-has generally been given to Colonel G. B. Armstrong, who in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span>
-1864 was Assistant Postmaster at Chicago. This is incorrect;
-Mr. W. A. Davis, a clerk of the St. Joseph, Mo., Post-Office,
-where the overland mail was made up, conceived the idea, in 1862,
-that if the letters and papers could be assorted on the cars between
-Quincy and St. Joseph, the overland mail could start promptly on
-time. He was given permission to carry out this idea, and there
-are vouchers on file in the Department at Washington showing
-that he was paid for that specific work. In 1864 Colonel Armstrong
-was authorized and encouraged by the Hon. Montgomery
-Blair, then Postmaster-General, to undertake the difficult task of
-arranging and introducing the service. On August 31, 1864, he
-wrote: "To-day I commenced the new distribution." Subsequently,
-Colonel Armstrong became the first General Railway Mail
-Superintendent, and held this office until ill-health compelled him
-to resign, in 1871. To Colonel George S. Bangs, of Illinois, and
-his successors, Theodore N. Vail, William B. Thompson, and
-John Jameson, is due the excellence of the present system. Colonel
-Bangs was a thoroughly equipped post-office man, energetic,
-courageous, and progressive. Brimful of ideas, he was ever on
-the lookout for improvement. Never satisfied with old ways, he
-was constantly striving to simplify and better the service. He forgot
-himself in his work, and died a martyr to his duty, leaving the
-Travelling Post-Office of to-day a monument to his memory.
-While to Colonel Armstrong is due the credit for the skeleton of
-the system, it was the genius of Colonel Bangs that clothed the
-bones with flesh, developed the sinew, put the blood in circulation,
-and breathed into its body the breath of life. Colonel Bangs
-found, in 1871, that everything was disjointed, disconnected, and
-sluggish. There was no attempt at "certainty, security, or celerity."
-It was a "go-as-you-please" condition of affairs. He grappled
-at once with it and brought order out of chaos. He introduced
-a system of emulation among the employees, rewarding
-those who displayed proficiency by promotion over the sluggish,
-and thus, in fact, was probably the father of what is now known as
-Civil Service Reform. In 1874 he discussed the propriety of establishing
-a fast and exclusive mail train between New York and
-Chicago, "this train" (quoting his report to the Postmaster-General)
-"to be under the control of the Department, so far as it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span>
-necessary for the purposes designed, and to run the distance in
-about twenty-four hours. It is conceded by railway officials that
-this can be done. The importance of a line like this cannot be
-overestimated. It would reduce the actual time of mail between
-the east and west from twelve to twenty-four hours. As it would
-necessarily be established upon one or more of the trunk lines,
-having an extended system of connections, its benefit would be
-in no case confined, but extended through all parts of the country
-alike."</p>
-
-<p>This report met with the approval of Postmaster-General Jewell,
-who ordered Bangs to negotiate with the New York Central
-&amp; Hudson River Railroad and the Lake Shore Railroad for a fast
-mail train, leaving New York at four o'clock in the morning, and
-arriving at Chicago in about twenty-four hours. It was the old
-story of making bricks without straw. The Post-Office Department
-had no appropriation to pay for such facilities, hence it had
-to depend at first on the public spirit of the railroad authorities.
-Commodore Vanderbilt, the president of the companies whose
-lines were to be used, had had dealings with the Department, and
-was perhaps not altogether sanguine as to the practical issue of
-the experiment, or in respect to the countenance it would receive
-from Congress; but Mr. William H. Vanderbilt, the vice-president,
-lent a willing ear to Mr. Bangs's proposition, and did his utmost
-to aid him in putting it into effect. There being no special
-appropriation available for the purpose in hand, "the devil was
-whipped around the stump" by Colonel Bangs stipulating that if
-Mr. Vanderbilt would have twenty cars built and the service performed,
-all matter originating at or coming into the New York
-Post-Office, which could reach its destination at the same time by
-this line, should be sent by this train, and that the railway companies
-could have the right to demand a weighing of the mail matter
-at will, all railroads being paid according to weight. When
-the details of the plan were communicated to Commodore Vanderbilt,
-he is reported to have said to his son: "If you want to do this,
-go ahead, but I know the Post-Office Department, and you will,
-too, within a year." Mr. Vanderbilt did "go ahead." He constructed
-and equipped the finest mail train ever seen on the planet,
-ran it for ten months, never missed a connection at Chicago, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span>
-was always on time at New York. He did not have to wait a
-year, however, for a realization of the sagacious old commodore's
-prophecy. Within three weeks, despite the indignant protest of
-Colonel Bangs, the mails of three States were ordered to be taken
-from this and given to another route. A grosser and more wanton
-breach of plighted faith it would be hard to find, and its results
-were far-reaching and disastrous.</p>
-
-<p>This train was a marvel of completeness and efficiency. It was
-manned by picked men, and the only complaint ever made against
-it was that it ran so fast that the clerks had not time to sort the
-mails for the post-offices between New York and Poughkeepsie.
-To obviate this, Colonel Bangs requested the postmaster at New
-York to have two hundred mail-bags dyed red, which should contain
-the mail for those offices nearest together, so that the crew in
-the train could distribute them first. There was no complaint after
-that. But when the dyer's bill was sent by the postmaster to the
-Department, it was disallowed by a clerk of the Second Assistant
-Postmaster-General, who, in a letter announcing the fact, said that
-there was no necessity for the outlay if the postal clerks did their
-duty. Bangs, who had just arrived at the post-office from a day
-and night's ride on his favorite train, was lying on a sofa half
-asleep in the postmaster's private office, as that official was opening
-his mail. When he came to that letter he handed it to Bangs.
-He was wide-awake in an instant. "Mr. Postmaster," said he,
-"do you know the man who signed this letter? He is a wheezy
-priest, a fool, and a Baptist, at that. Give me the letter." The
-bill was allowed as soon as Bangs reached the Department. He
-was wrong, however, in crediting the subordinate to the Baptist
-faith. He was an ornament of another persuasion.</p>
-
-<p>So carefully had the project been considered and adapted that
-the service on the Central, from the start, moved with the precision
-of clock-work, and was an immediate success. It is proper to
-say that word of what was going on between the Department and
-the Vanderbilt system reached the Hon. Thomas A. Scott, President
-of the Pennsylvania Railroad, and he at once made up his
-mind that the corporation under his management could not afford
-to be behind its great rival. One Saturday morning he telegraphed
-to J. D. Layng (now General Manager of the West Shore<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span>
-and President of the C. C. C. &amp; I.), then General Manager of the
-Pennsylvania lines west of Pittsburg, to know if by the following
-Monday week, the date on which the train was to start, four postal
-cars could be built and the first one be in Chicago ready to start
-on its eastern trip. The answer came back, "Yes." The order
-was given to the Allegheny shops on Saturday afternoon, and on
-the following Saturday the first of the cars, complete and equipped
-for mail service, started for Chicago, and began its east-bound trip
-on Monday morning. The second and third cars were finished on
-Monday night, and the fourth&mdash;thus fully equipping the line&mdash;on
-Tuesday.</p>
-
-<p>Thus had been established two splendid fast trains, and the
-outlook was bright for the future, when Congress, in spite of the
-efforts of the Post-Office Department, passed an Act reducing
-the already inadequate compensation to the trunk lines, for the
-carrying of the mails. This action brought official notice from
-Messrs. Vanderbilt and Scott of the discontinuance of the fast mail
-trains between New York City and Chicago, and that service
-ended.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span><br />
-   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_321.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">At a Way-station&mdash;The Postmaster's Assistant.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Colonel Bangs was greatly mortified at this result, but he stood
-his ground and remained at his post until the close of the year.
-Then, worn out with never-ending toil, and disheartened by the
-action of Congress, he tendered his resignation and insisted on its
-acceptance. Parted from the Post-Office, President Grant, knowing
-his worth and wishing to recognize his services, appointed him
-Assistant Treasurer of the United States at Chicago. He lived to
-perform the duties of this office only a few months, as death overtook
-him suddenly, while on a visit to Washington on official business,
-December, 1876. His work, however, was not permitted to
-drop. He had left in the service three assistants, Theodore N. Vail,
-William B. Thompson&mdash;afterward Second Assistant Postmaster-General&mdash;and
-John Jameson, who were fully imbued with the ideas
-of their late chief and were fully loyal to them. They, in the order
-named, became his successors, and never permitted opportunities
-to escape wherein there was a possible benefit to the service to be
-secured. Although the fast mail service was suspended for lack of
-support from Congress, its usefulness and practicability had been
-so thoroughly demonstrated that an appropriation of $150,000 was
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span>
-made in March, 1877, for its resumption on the trunk lines. This
-victory was not reached without untiring efforts on the part of Mr.
-Vail, and by generous support in both houses of Congress; in the
-Senate by the Hon. Hannibal Hamlin and James G. Blaine, of
-Maine, and in the House of Representatives by such broad and
-liberal statesmen as Mr. Waddell, of North Carolina, Mr. Randall,
-of Pennsylvania, and Mr. Cox, of New York.</p>
-
-<p>Since then, Messrs. Thompson and Jameson have watched the
-progress of the work with jealous eyes, and have succeeded in extending
-it practically to the whole country. The present service
-is due not alone to the liberality of Congress, because the appropriations
-have been parsimonious, but to the generosity of the railways,
-which have performed a valuable work for a price which in
-many cases does not pay the expense of the necessary additional
-labor involved.</p>
-
-<p>The Railway Mail Service at the close of the fiscal year ending
-June 30, 1888, gave employment to 5,094 clerks. Matter was distributed
-on 126,310 miles of railway, and on 17,402 miles additional
-closed pouches were carried. There were also operated 41 inland
-steam-boat lines on which postal clerks were employed. The
-postal clerks travelled (in crews) 122,031,104 miles by railway, and
-1,767,649 miles by steam-boats. They distributed 6,528,772,060
-pieces of ordinary mail matter, and handled 16,001,059 registered
-packages and cases, and 1,103,083 through registered pouches and
-inner registered sacks. The service is in charge of one General
-Superintendent, who has his headquarters at Washington, and it
-is divided into eleven divisions with a superintendent in charge of
-each.</p>
-
-<p>The majority of people who travel on railways (and how many
-Americans are there who do not?) have paid passing attention to
-the railway mail cars as they have stood at the station preparatory
-to the starting of the train, and have glanced through the open
-doors with more or less curiosity at the scene of energy and bustle
-witnessed within. At such a moment, no matter how great the
-curiosity, it is not feasible to investigate closely, for the workers
-must not be hampered by the prying public, however praiseworthy
-the motive. To supply this pardonable desire to know how it is
-done, I invite my readers to accompany me in spirit on a visit to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span>
-the Grand Central Station, to witness the preparations for the departure
-of train No. 11, known in railway parlance as "the New
-York and Chicago Fast Mail," which leaves New York every night
-at nine o'clock.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_324.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Loading for the Fast Mail, at the General Post-Office, New York.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>It must not be supposed that everything has been left until the
-last moment, and that the mail matter has been tumbled into the
-cars on the eve of departure, to be handled as best it may in the
-short run to Albany; for under such conditions the task would be
-an impossibility even to an army of trained hands. Work has
-been in progress since four o'clock in the afternoon, and it has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span>
-been steady, hard labor every minute of the time. The five cars
-have been backed down to the tracks opposite Forty-fifth Street,
-and have been so placed that they are convenient of access to the
-big lumbering mail wagons which are familiar sights in the streets
-of the metropolis. The crew of nineteen men, skilled in the handling
-of mail matter, and thorough experts in the geography of the
-country, reported to the chief clerk and took up their stations in
-the various cars at the hour named. At the same time the wagons
-began arriving from the General Post-Office with their tons of matter
-which had "originated" in New York, and were soon transferring
-their loads to the cars, where agile hands were in waiting
-to receive them. Since the removal of the deadly stoves from the
-railway trains the occupants of the postal cars have suffered to no
-small extent owing to the lack of heat. These cars are provided
-with steam-heating apparatus which is worked from the engine,
-but they are occupied for five hours before the engine comes near
-them, and in cold weather the hands of the men employed in distributing
-letters become numb with cold. This is a matter which
-should receive prompt attention.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_326.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">At the Last Moment.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Before we deal with the mail matter, let us look at the cars and
-the men who occupy them. The train, as it leaves New York, is
-made up of five cars which are placed immediately behind the engine,
-and are followed by express and baggage cars and one passenger
-coach. The car next to the engine is devoted entirely to
-letter mail, and the four following it to papers and packages. The
-letter car is fifty feet in length, while those for the newspaper mail
-are ten feet longer. All are uniform in width, nine feet eight
-inches, and are six feet nine inches high in the clear. When newly
-built, before long and hard service had told on their appearance,
-their outsides were white in color, with cream-tinted borderings and
-gilt ornamentations, and were highly varnished. Midway on the
-outside, and below; the windows of each car, is a large oval gilt-finished
-frame within which is painted the name of the car, with
-the words, "United States Post Office" above and below. The
-cars used by the New York Central are named for the Governors
-of the State and the members of President Garfield's cabinet.
-Along the upper edge and centre are painted in large gilt letters
-the words, "The Fast Mail Train," while on a line with these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span>
-letters at the other end, in a square, are the words, in like lettering,
-"New York Central" and "Lake Shore." The frieze and minute
-trimmings around the windows are of gilt finish. The body of
-the car also contains other ornamentation, including the coat-of-arms
-of the United States. The running gear is of the most approved
-pattern. The platforms are enclosed by swinging doors
-which, when opened, afford a protected passage between the cars.
-This arrangement no doubt suggested the modern improvement
-now known as the vestibuled train. The letter car is provided with
-a "mail catcher," which is placed at a small door through which
-mail pouches are snatched from conveniently placed posts at wayside
-stations where stops are not made. Each car is divided into
-three sections, all fitted up alike with conveniences for the service
-to be performed. The letter car, however, is somewhat differently
-arranged from the others, to meet the requirements of that particular
-branch of the work.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span><br />
-   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_327.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Transfer of Mail at the Grand Central Station, New York.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_329.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Pouching the Mail in the Postal Car.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the first section of the letter car are received the pouches
-from the General Post-Office, which when opened are found to contain
-letters done up in packages of about a hundred, marked for
-Michigan, Indiana, New York, Ohio, Western Pennsylvania, Montana,
-Dakota, and California. When this mass of matter has been
-emptied out of the pouches and, in the vernacular of the service,
-"dumped up" preparatory to distribution, the section is clear for
-the registered mail which is worked in it. Before this is accomplished,
-however, much work is done; in fact, a sort of rough distribution
-is made. All packages which are directed to one office
-are distributed into pouches, which are afterward stored away until<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span>
-the towns are reached. The other packages are carried into the
-letter department for distribution, where a rack, similar to those
-seen in almost every post-office, although space is thoroughly
-economized, is used for the purpose. To give a slight idea of the
-work done in this section, it may be mentioned that the distribution
-for New York State alone requires 325 boxes. Still there is
-plenty of space, otherwise the third section of the car would not
-be used, as it is, for the distribution of Montana and Dakota newspapers.
-How closely everything is packed, and all available space
-utilized, may be imagined when it is stated that for this newspaper
-mail ninety-five pouches are hung in the section, and that there is
-still sufficient room for the storage of pouches locked up and ready
-for delivery, and also for the sealed registered mail. A separation
-of the California mail is also made in this car, so that when it
-reaches Chicago the pouches into which the matter is placed are
-transferred without delay, thus saving twenty-four hours on the
-time to the Pacific Coast, not by any means an unimportant accomplishment.</p>
-
-<p>There have been received in this car before it moves out of
-the Grand Central Station between 1,000 and 1,500 packages of
-letters and, in addition, forty or fifty sacks of Dakota and Montana
-papers. To handle this mass of correspondence there are six men
-in addition to the chief clerk, or superintendent. This official is
-not assigned to any particular duty, but he supervises the general
-work and lends aid where it is most required. The second clerk
-handles letters for Ohio, Dakota, and Montana; the third clerk
-takes charge of those for New York State; the fourth, Illinois; the
-fifth opens all pouches labelled, "New York and Chicago Railway
-Post-Office," distributes their contents, and afterward works
-on Dakota and Montana papers; the sixth, Michigan State letters,
-and the seventh, California letter mail. The salaries of these
-men, intrusted with so much responsibility and of whom so much
-is expected, range from $900 per annum for the lowest grade to
-$1,300 per annum for the superintendent.</p>
-
-<p>The second, or "Illinois Car," is devoted, as are the others
-which follow it, to the newspaper and periodical mail. In it are
-handled papers for Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, New York, Oregon,
-and Wyoming. Two clerks and two assistants man this car. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span>
-first assistant, who "faces up" papers ready to be distributed,
-draws mails from stalls to case, and removes boxes as fast as they
-are filled, has gained the sobriquet of the "Illinois derrick," owing
-to the heavy nature of his duties. The second, who lends
-what aid he can in the heavy work on the run between New York
-and Albany, has become known on the train as "the short stop."
-The third section of the car is used for storing the bags of assorted
-matter.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_331.jpg" width="525" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">A Very Difficult Address&mdash;known as a "sticker."</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The third car is used for storing through mail for San Francisco,
-Omaha, and points west of Chicago. In it are also carried
-stamped envelopes from the manufacturer at Hartford, Conn., to
-postmasters in the West. This car is frequently fully loaded with
-matter from the New York office when the journey is begun, and
-it is then found necessary to add a similar car to the train on its
-arrival at Albany for the accommodation of matter taken on by the
-way and bound for the same destination.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_332.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Distributing the Mail by States and Routes.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span><br />
-   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_333.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Sorting Letters in Car No. 1&mdash;The Fast Mail.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Michigan paper car is the fourth. In it are handled papers
-for Michigan, Iowa, and the mixed Western States. In the first
-section are piled the Iowa pouches and those for points out of
-Utica, which have been distributed in the centre section, and in
-the third section the distribution for Michigan, Nebraska, and
-Minnesota, as well as for points reached from Buffalo, is made.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span>
-Two men perform the work of the car, one of whom has already
-handled the registered mail and Indiana letters in the first car.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_335.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Pouching Newspapers for California&mdash;in Car No. 5.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The fifth, or California paper car, is the last mail coach on the
-train, as it is made up when leaving the Grand Central Station.
-Besides the papers for the Golden State the car carries through
-registered pouches to Chicago
-and the West, which
-have been made up in the
-New York office, and, as a
-usual thing, a large lot of
-stamped envelopes for postmasters
-in the West. The
-California letter man from the
-first car looks after the papers
-for the same State, and has
-an eye to the safety of the
-car. On reaching Albany
-another car is added to the
-train, making six in all from
-that point. This last addition
-comes from Boston,
-brings the morning mail from
-Bangor, Me., and is manned
-by four men.</p>
-
-<p>The run to Chicago for
-post-office purposes is divided
-into three divisions: from New York to Syracuse, from Syracuse to
-Cleveland, and from Cleveland to Chicago. Each division has its
-own crew, so that the men leaving New York are relieved at Syracuse
-by others, and these in turn at Cleveland. The New York
-crew go to work, as has been said, at 4 <span class="fs70">P.M.</span>, and if the train is on
-time at Syracuse, as it usually is, they arrive there at 5.35 <span class="fs70">A.M.</span>,
-after thirteen and a half hours of as hard work as men are called
-upon to do. The same evening at 8.40 they relieve the east-bound
-crew, and are in New York again at six o'clock on the following
-morning. Half an hour later they are to be found on the top
-floor of the General Post-Office building, comfortably ensconced
-in bunks and in a large and airy room, provided as a dormitory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span>
-for their use by the postmaster of New York at the time of
-the inauguration of the fast mail service. Each crew makes
-three round trips and is then laid off for six days, but its members
-are all this time subject to extra duty, which they are called
-upon to perform with unpleasant frequency, particularly in holiday
-times.</p>
-
-<p>After leaving New York, the first stop the train makes is at
-Poughkeepsie, but no mail is taken on there. At Albany the second
-halt is made, and there twenty minutes are spent in taking on
-the mail from New England and northeastern New York. At
-Palatine Bridge there is a brief stop, and after that comes Utica,
-where the Delaware, Lackawanna &amp; Western, the Ontario &amp;
-Western, and the Rome, Watertown &amp; Ogdensburg roads exchange
-mail matter. At Syracuse more mails come, this time from
-the Oswego, Binghamton &amp; Syracuse, and the Auburn &amp; Rochester
-branch of the New York Central. Here also comes welcome
-relief for the crew which left New York. Those who follow have
-much to keep them busy, but the heaviest part of the work has
-been already performed.</p>
-
-<p>From Syracuse to Cleveland there are several distributing
-points where mail matter is also received on the train, and the
-routine is continued much as already described until the crew is
-relieved at Cleveland. There the men of the Western Division
-take charge and continue the work until Elkhart, Ind., is reached.
-There a special force from Chicago meets the train, takes possession
-of a portion of the letter car, and makes the distribution for
-the main office and stations of the city of Chicago, thus saving
-much time. When the train arrives in Chicago, it makes connection
-with a fast mail train on the Chicago, Burlington &amp; Quincy, as
-also on a like train on the Chicago, Milwaukee &amp; St. Paul. The
-former train arrives at Council Bluffs about 7 <span class="fs70">P.M.</span>, and there overtakes
-the train which left Chicago on the previous evening. The
-Pacific Coast mail is thus expedited just twenty-four hours. A
-similar train on the St. Paul road also saves twenty-four hours' time
-on the trip to the northwestern portion of the Pacific Coast.</p>
-
-<p>The appropriation for special facilities for the year ending June
-30, 1889, was $295,987.53. The uses to which the appropriation
-referred to is put are explained in the following table.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="p1 center fs80">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td></tr>
-<tr class="fs85"><td class="tdc tdpp">Termini.</td><td class="tdc bl">Railroad Company.</td><td class="tdc bl">Miles.</td><td class="tdc bl">Pay.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlw">New York to Springfield</td><td class="tdlw bl">New York, New Haven &amp; Hartford</td><td class="tdrx bl">136&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdrx bl">$17,647.06</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlw">4.35 <span class="fs70">A.M.</span> train</td><td class="tdlw bl">New York Central &amp; Hudson River</td><td class="tdrx bl">144&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdrx bl">25,000.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlw">Philadelphia to Bay View</td><td class="tdlw bl">Philadelphia, Wilmington &amp; Baltimore</td><td class="tdrx bl">91.80</td><td class="tdrx bl">20,000.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlw">Bay View to Quantico</td><td class="tdlw bl">Baltimore &amp; Potomac</td><td class="tdrx bl">79.80</td><td class="tdrx bl">21,900.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlw">Quantico to Richmond</td><td class="tdlw bl">Richmond, Fredericksburg &amp; Potomac</td><td class="tdrx bl">81.50</td><td class="tdrx bl">17,419.26</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlw">Richmond to Petersburg</td><td class="tdlw bl">Richmond &amp; Petersburg</td><td class="tdrx bl">23.39</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,268.67</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlw">Petersburg to Weldon</td><td class="tdlw bl">Petersburg</td><td class="tdrx bl">64&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdrx bl">11,680.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlw">Weldon to Wilmington</td><td class="tdlw bl">Wilmington &amp; Weldon</td><td class="tdrx bl">162.07</td><td class="tdrx bl">29,541.27</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlw">Wilmington to Florence</td><td class="tdlw bl">Wilmington, Columbia &amp; Augusta</td><td class="tdrx bl">110&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdrx bl">20,075.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlw">Florence to Charleston Junction</td><td class="tdlw bl">Northeastern</td><td class="tdrx bl">95&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdrx bl">17,337.50</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlw">Charleston Junction to Savannah</td><td class="tdlw bl">Charleston &amp; Savannah</td><td class="tdrx bl">108&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdrx bl">19,710.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlw">Savannah to Jacksonville</td><td class="tdlw bl">Savannah, Florida &amp; Western</td><td class="tdrx bl">171.50</td><td class="tdrx bl">31,309.70</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlw">Baltimore to Hagerstown</td><td class="tdlw bl">Western Maryland</td><td class="tdrx bl">86.60</td><td class="tdrx bl">15,804.50</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlw">Jacksonville to Tampa<br /><br /></td><td class="tdlw bl">Jacksonville, Tampa &amp; Key West &amp; South Florida</td><td class="tdrx bl">242.57</td><td class="tdrx bl">43,962.42</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdlw tdpp pad6">Total</td><td class="tdrx"></td><td class="tdrx"></td><td class="tdrx bl">$295,655.38</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p class="p1" />
-<p>A careful perusal of this table develops the fact that the greater
-portion of this money is expended south of Philadelphia, the railroad
-companies in that section not having sufficient weight of mails
-to warrant fast trains without some additional compensation. It
-will also be noted that with the exception of the sum of $25,000
-for a special train to Poughkeepsie, which leaves New York City
-at 4.35 in the morning, the New York Central receives no compensation
-except that earned by them as common carriers of so many
-pounds of freight-mail matter carried, being paid for in accordance
-with its weight. It will also be observed that the Pennsylvania
-Railroad, on its trunk line, is not even so fortunate as its great rival.</p>
-
-<p>There may be more dangerous pursuits in life than that of the
-railway post-office clerk, but there are not many so, and there are
-few in which the risk to life and limb is so constant. The everyday
-citizen who is called upon occasionally to make a railroad
-journey of a few hundred miles feels it to be incumbent upon himself
-on such occasions to make special provision for those dependent
-on him in case injury or death should come while riding in
-the thoroughly appointed and luxurious coach placed in a portion
-of the train least likely to suffer from accident. But too little
-thought is devoted to the safety of those poorly paid but efficient
-servants of the State, in the forward cars, without whose services
-the business of the country, as conducted to-day, would come to a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span>
-stand-still. To show that the importance of this service is not here
-exaggerated, it is only necessary to recall the condition of affairs
-in New York City, and other cities as well, in March, 1888, when
-the great blizzard fell upon the land. There were then no mails
-for several days, and the prostration which came upon the community
-is too well remembered to need comment. The danger to
-those within the postal cars, however, is recognized by the railway
-people, and efforts have been made in the way of providing safety
-appliances, but it is, of course, impossible to lessen the danger to
-any great extent. All that American ingenuity suggests in the
-way of construction, both inside and outside of the cars, is provided.
-The body of the car is most substantially built, the platforms
-and couplings are of the most approved patterns, the trucks
-are similar to those used under the best passenger coaches, and
-the air-brakes and other safety apparatus are all brought into requisition.
-Within the cars are saws, axes, hammers, and crowbars
-conveniently placed in case of wreck, and safety-bars extend the
-length of the cars overhead to which the clerks may cling when the
-cars leave the track and roll down embankments, as they often do.
-In the year ending June, 1888, there were 248 accidents to trains
-upon which postal clerks were employed. In these wrecks four
-clerks were killed; sixty-three were seriously, several of the number
-permanently, and forty-five slightly injured. The official report of
-the accidents shows that the majority of them resulted from collisions,
-while others were due to the spreading of the rails, the failure
-of air-brakes to work at critical moments, and obstructions on
-the track.</p>
-
-<p>In every case where cars were wrecked the postal car was
-among the number.</p>
-
-<p>In many instances the cars were telescoped, and on such occasions
-the clerks were found buried in the wreckage or pinned
-under the engine or its tender. And many times true heroism was
-shown by the injured men. Over and over again the General
-Superintendent reports that, notwithstanding severe injuries received
-by the clerks, the scattered mail matter was collected by
-them and transferred either to another train or to the nearest post-office.
-Several times trains in the West were held up by robbers,
-who, after sacking the express car, visited the postal car, introducing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span>
-themselves with pistol-shots. One clerk was seriously wounded
-in the shoulder. An instance of self-possession is reported
-in Arkansas, where the robbers, before visiting the postal car, had
-secured $10,000
-from the
-express safe.
-When they
-came to clerk
-R. P. Johnson
-he suggested
-that they had
-secured booty
-enough, and
-that under the
-circumstances
-they might let
-the mail matter
-alone. The
-masked men
-agreed with
-him, and did
-not molest the
-mails.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_339.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Catching the Pouch from the Crane.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In view of
-the dangers to
-which employees of the
-Railway Mail Service are
-exposed, it may be permitted
-to quote from the last annual report
-of General Superintendent
-Bancroft on the subject of insurance.
-No action, he points out,
-has ever been taken by Congress
-toward providing for the care of clerks permanently injured in the
-service, or those dependent upon them in case of death, notwithstanding
-frequent recommendations by the Department. He
-attributes this to insurmountable objections on the part of the
-people's representatives to the creation of anything of the nature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span>
-of a civil pension-roll. He therefore suggests that there shall be
-deducted from the pay of each and every railway postal clerk ten
-cents per month, to be paid into "The Railway Postal Clerks' Insurance
-Fund," the custodian of which is to be the United States
-Treasury. In case of death from injuries while on duty, $1,000 is
-to be paid to the clerk's heirs. While this proposition is in the
-right direction, it hardly goes far enough. Provision should be
-made for the disabled, and to do so, the clerks doubtless would
-not object to an assessment of double the amount suggested. That
-they should be compelled to resort to such a mode of relief, however,
-is a reflection upon the Government of the United States.</p>
-
-<p>The first great need of the Railway Mail Service is an adequate
-appropriation by Congress to extend its usefulness, and to keep it
-up to the demands and the needs of the public. Where speed is required
-to make connections, the Department should have the cash
-on hand to buy what is necessary. The railways are business institutions,
-managed as such, and when the Department desires extra
-facilities it should be prepared to pay in coin and not in talk. In
-this connection it is a pleasant duty for the writer of this very imperfect
-sketch to say that during his term of service in the post-office
-at New York, and at the Department, he always found Mr. William
-H. Vanderbilt, Mr. Cornelius Vanderbilt, Mr. J. H. Rutter, of
-the New York Central; Mr. John Newell, of the Lake Shore; Mr.
-George B. Roberts, Mr. A. J. Cassatt, and Mr. Frank Thomson, of
-the Pennsylvania system; Mr. R. R. Bridgers and Mr. H. B. Plant,
-of the Atlantic Coast Line, ready to grant any reasonable request
-for the improvement and extension of the service. Time after time
-Mr. Roberts has run a special train with the Australian transcontinental
-mail from Pittsburg to New York, that it might catch an
-outgoing steamer; and he and Mr. Vanderbilt practically re-established
-the fast mail, by taking letters on their limited trains. Mr.
-Roberts gave, in addition, an extra mail train from Philadelphia
-west at four o'clock in the morning, and Mr. Vanderbilt placed a
-postal car on the 4 <span class="fs70">P.M.</span> train from New York, receiving in return&mdash;what
-they had a right to demand&mdash;an extra weighing of the
-mails, and, what was not a matter of surprise to them, unmeasured
-abuse on the floor of Congress for giving these additional facilities
-to the people of the country.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The last and greatest need of the postal service is the total
-and complete elimination of partisan considerations as affecting appointments
-and removals in the working force. The spoils method
-invariably brings into the service a lot of do-nothings or a race of
-experimenters, whose performances never fail to breed disaster
-and to crush out substantial progress.</p>
-
-<p>There is no position in the Government more exacting than that
-of a postal clerk, and none that has so many requirements. He
-must not only be sound "in wind and limb," but possessed of more
-than ordinary intelligence, and a retentive memory. His work is
-constant, and his only recreation, study. He must not only be proficient
-in his own immediate work, but he must have a general
-knowledge of the entire country, so that the correspondence he
-handles shall reach its destination at the earliest possible moment.
-He must know no night and no day. He must be impervious
-to heat or cold. Rushing along at a rate of forty or fifty
-miles an hour, in charge of that which is sacred&mdash;the correspondence
-of the people&mdash;catching his meals as he may; at home only
-semi-occasionally, the wonder is that men competent to discharge
-the duties of so high a calling can be found for so small a compensation,
-and for so uncertain a tenure of official life. They have
-not only to take the extra-hazardous risks of their toilsome duties,
-but they are at the mercy of the practical politicians who believe
-that "to the victor belong the spoils." There are no public offices
-which are so emphatically "public trusts" as those whose duties
-comprise that of handling the correspondence of the people, because
-upon the proper and skilful performance of that duty depend&mdash;to
-a far greater degree than in the care of any other function
-accomplished through government agency&mdash;the business and social
-welfare of the entire community. The effects of ignorance,
-carelessness, and dishonesty in any other branch of the public
-service, although to be deplored, are not to be compared to those
-which follow the existence of such evils in the Post-Office. Can
-there be a more flagrant abuse of a "public trust" than the perversion
-of a branch of the public service into an agency for furthering
-the ambitious ends of local politicians and their partisans by
-allowing them to distribute its "patronage" as rewards for party
-services among those who, by reason of inexperience&mdash;if for no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span>
-graver cause&mdash;are incompetent to replace the skilled workman who
-must be routed out in order to give them room? This evil should
-be corrected at once. The Railway Mail Service must no longer
-be left at the mercy of the local partisans. The reform is not only
-a present necessity, but it was one in the past and will be in the
-future, until the force of public sentiment shall compel acquiescence
-in the reasonable demand that what was so eminently meant for
-mankind shall not be given up to party; that the non-political
-business of letter-carrying, which the Government has monopolized,
-shall be conducted by it solely with a view to prompt and
-expeditious carrying of mail matter, and not with the object of
-bolstering up local "statesmen" or carrying elections.</p>
-
-<p>At the coming in of Mr. Cleveland's administration, William B.
-Thompson was Second Assistant Postmaster-General&mdash;in charge
-of the contract office&mdash;and John Jameson was General Railway
-Mail Superintendent. Both of these gentlemen had worked their
-way from the ranks by sheer merit. In private business the value
-of their services would have been so highly appreciated that, no
-matter who became senior partner of the firm, under no circumstances
-would they have been permitted to retire. The case of
-these gentlemen is mentioned now simply to illustrate an idea and
-not to found a complaint. On the incoming of the new administration,
-General Thompson, in accordance with precedent,
-promptly tendered his resignation, and it was as promptly accepted;
-while General Superintendent Jameson struggled along
-doing his work until, to relieve his chief from embarrassment, he,
-too, tendered his resignation. The country was thus deprived of
-the services of two men who were experts in their profession,
-simply to give place to others, of high character, no doubt, but
-with no knowledge and special aptitude for the great trust that
-was committed to them. And now, in the first year of another
-administration, the experience that many valuable officials have
-gained has counted for nothing, and they have been rotated out.
-In no other civilized country would such an atrocity be possible.
-An attempt to remove, for similar reasons, such postal authorities
-as Messrs. Rich, of Liverpool, Johnston, of Manchester, or Hubson,
-of Glasgow, all of whom, under a sound, logical, just, and
-economical business system, have reached their present positions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span>
-by merit and efficiency from more or less inferior places, would
-hurl an administration in Great Britain from power, and justly
-too. The possession of the immense patronage of the Government
-did not save the Republican party from defeat in 1884, or keep
-the Democratic party in power in 1888. Ideas are stronger than
-"soap," and principles more potent than spoils. It is due to
-President Cleveland to state that toward the close of his administration
-he recognized the importance of permanency in the Railway
-Mail Service, and that he made a long step in advance by
-approving a series of rules submitted by the Civil Service Commission
-having for its object the removal of the service from the
-influences of politicians. It needs more than this, however; it
-needs the sanctity of the statute law, declaring that the clerks
-should not only keep their offices during good behavior, but that
-after twenty years of faithful and efficient service, or before that
-time, if injured in the discharge of their duty, they should retire
-on half-pay. In case of death from accident while on duty, proper
-provision should be made for the family of the official. Whenever
-justice is done by Congress in these particulars, the United States
-will have the best and most efficient Railway Mail Service in the
-world.</p>
-
-
-    <div class="chapter"></div>
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">THE RAILWAY IN ITS BUSINESS RELATIONS.</a></h2>
-
-<p class="pfs90 smcap">By ARTHUR T. HADLEY.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Amount of Capital Invested in Railways&mdash;Important Place in the Modern Industrial
-System&mdash;The Duke of Bridgewater's Foresight&mdash;The Growth of Half a Century&mdash;Early
-Methods of Business Management&mdash;The Tendency toward Consolidation&mdash;How
-the War Developed a National Idea&mdash;Its Effect on Railroad Building&mdash;Thomson
-and Scott as Organizers&mdash;Vanderbilt's Capacity for Financial Management&mdash;Garrett's
-Development of the Baltimore &amp; Ohio&mdash;The Concentration of Immense
-Power in a Few Men&mdash;Making Money out of the Investors&mdash;Difficult Positions of
-Stockholders and Bondholders&mdash;How the Finances are Manipulated by the Board of
-Directors&mdash;Temptations to the Misuse of Power&mdash;Relations of Railroads to the Public
-who Use Them&mdash;Inequalities in Freight Rates&mdash;Undue Advantages for Large
-Trade Centres&mdash;Proposed Remedies&mdash;Objections to Government Control&mdash;Failure
-of Grangerism&mdash;The Origin of Pools&mdash;Their Advantages&mdash;Albert Fink's Great
-Work&mdash;Charles Francis Adams and the Massachusetts Commission&mdash;Adoption of
-the Interstate Commerce Law&mdash;Important Influence of the Commission&mdash;Its Future
-Functions&mdash;Ill-judged State Legislation.</p></div>
-
-
-<div><img class="drop-cap" src="images/i_344dc.jpg" alt="" /></div>
-<p class="drop-cap">The railroads of the world are to-day worth from
-twenty-five to thirty thousand million dollars.
-This probably represents one-tenth of the total
-wealth of civilized nations, and one-quarter, if not
-one-third, of their invested capital. It is doubtful
-whether the aggregate plant used in all manufacturing
-industries can equal it in value. The capital engaged in
-banking is but a trifle beside it. The world's whole stock of
-money of every kind&mdash;gold, silver, and paper&mdash;would purchase
-only a third of its railroads.</p>
-
-<p>Yet these facts by no means measure the whole importance of
-the railroad in the modern industrial system. The business methods
-of to-day are in one sense the direct result of improved means
-of transportation. The railroad enables the large establishment
-to reach the markets of the world with its products; it enables the
-large city to receive its food-supplies, if necessary, from a distance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span>
-of hundreds or thousands of miles. And while it thus favors the
-concentration of capital, it is in itself an extreme type of this
-concentration. Almost every distinctive feature of modern business,
-whether good or bad, finds in railroad history at once its
-chief cause and its fullest development.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_345.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">George Stephenson.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>As befits a nineteenth century institution, the railroad dates
-from 1801. In that year Benjamin Outram built in the suburbs of
-London a short line of horse
-railroad&mdash;or tramroad, as it was
-named in honor of the inventor.
-Other works of the same
-kind followed in almost every
-succeeding year. They were
-recognized as a decided convenience,
-but nothing more. It
-was hard to imagine that a revolution
-in the world's transportation
-methods could grow out
-of this beginning. Least of all
-could such a result be foreseen
-in England, whose admirable
-canal system seemed likely to
-defy competition for centuries
-to come. And yet, curiously
-enough, it was a man wholly
-identified with canal business who first foresaw the future importance
-of the railroad. The Duke of Bridgewater had built
-canals when they were regarded as a hazardous speculation; but
-they proved a success, and in the early years of the century he
-was reaping a rich reward for his foresight. One of his fellow-shareholders
-took occasion to congratulate the Duke on the fact
-that their property was now the surest monopoly in the land, and
-was startled by the reply, "I see mischief in these&mdash;tramroads."
-The prophecy is all the more striking as coming from an enemy.
-Like Balaam, the Duke of Bridgewater had a pecuniary interest
-in cursing, but was so good a prophet that he had to tell the truth
-in spite of himself, even though his curse was thereby turned into
-a blessing.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>It is hardly necessary to tell in detail how this prediction was
-realized. Thanks to the skill and perseverance of George Stephenson,
-the difficulties in the use of steam as a mode of propulsion
-were rapidly overcome. What was a doubtful experiment as late
-as 1815 had become an accomplished fact in 1830. The successful
-working of the Liverpool &amp; Manchester Railway gave an impulse
-to similar enterprises all over the world. In 1835 there were
-1,600 miles of railroad in operation&mdash;more than half of it in the
-United States. In 1845 the length of the world's railroads had increased
-to more than 10,000 miles; in 1855 it was 41,000 miles;
-in 1865, 90,000; in 1875, 185,000; in 1885, over 300,000.</p>
-
-<p>There were perhaps a few men who foresaw this growth;
-there were almost none who foresaw the changes in organization
-and business methods with which it was attended. People at first
-thought of the railroad as merely an improved highway, which
-should charge tolls like a turnpike or canal, and on which the public
-should run cars of its own, independent of the railroad company
-itself. In many cases, especially in England, long sheets of tolls
-were published, based on the model of canal charters, and naming
-rates under which the use of the road-bed should be free to all.
-This plan soon proved impracticable. If independent owners tried
-to run trains over the same line, it involved a danger of collision
-and a loss of economy. The former evil could perhaps be avoided;
-the latter could not. The advantages of unity of management
-were so great that a road running its own trains could do a
-much larger business at lower rates than if ownership and carriage
-were kept separate. The old plan was as impracticable as it
-would be for a manufacturing company to own the buildings and
-engines, while each workman owned the particular piece of machinery
-which he handled. Almost all the technical advantages
-of the new methods would be lost for lack of system. The railroad
-company, to serve the public well, could not remain in the
-position of a turnpike or canal company, but must itself do the
-work of carriage.</p>
-
-<p>This was not all. The same economy which resulted from the
-union of road and rolling-stock under one management was still
-further subserved by the consolidation of connecting lines. This
-change did not come about so suddenly as the other. Half a century<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span>
-had elapsed before it was fully carried out. At first there
-was no need of it. The early railroads were chiefly built for local
-traffic, and especially for the carriage of local passengers. They
-were like the horse railroads of the present day in the simplicity
-of their organization and the shortness of their lines. England in
-1847 had chartered 700 companies, with an average authorized
-length of hardly fifteen miles each. The line from Albany to
-Buffalo and Niagara Falls was in the hands of a dozen independent
-concerns. These were but types of what existed all
-over the world. As through traffic, and especially through freight
-traffic, grew in importance, this state of things became intolerable.
-Frequent transshipment was at once an expense to
-the railroad and a burden to the public. Even when this could
-be avoided, there was a multiplication of offices and a loss of
-responsibility. The system of ownership and management had to
-adapt itself to the technical necessities of the business. The
-change was not the result of legislation; nor was it, except in a
-limited sense, the work of men like Vanderbilt or Scott. It occurred
-in all parts of the world at about the same time. It was
-the result of business necessity, strong enough to shape legislation,
-and to find administrative leaders who could meet its demands.</p>
-
-<p>From the very first there were some men who felt the importance
-of the railroads as national lines of communication. The
-idea was present in the minds of the projectors of the Baltimore
-&amp; Ohio, of the Erie, and of the Boston &amp; Albany. But it was
-not until 1850 that it became a controlling one; nor was it universally
-accepted even then. As late as 1858 we find that there
-was a violent popular agitation in the State of New York to prohibit
-the New York Central from carrying freight in competition
-with the Erie Canal. It was gravely urged that the railroad had
-no business to compete with the canal; that the latter had a natural
-right to the through traffic from the West, with which the
-railroads must not interfere. It is less than thirty years since a
-convention at Syracuse, representing no small part of the public
-sentiment of New York, formally recommended "the passage of
-a law by the next Legislature which shall confine the railroads of
-this State to the business for which they were originally created."</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>But matters had gone too far for effective action of this kind.
-Besides the New York Central, the Erie and the Pennsylvania
-were in condition to handle the through traffic which Western connections
-were furnishing. These connections themselves were
-rapidly growing in importance. Prior to 1850 there were very few
-railroads west of the Alleghanies. In 1857 there were thousands
-of miles. The policy of land-grants acted as an artificial stimulus
-to the building of such roads; and a land-grant road, when once
-built, was almost necessarily dependent on through traffic for its
-support. It could not be operated locally; it was forced into close
-traffic arrangements which paved the way for actual consolidation.</p>
-
-<p>The war brought this development to a stand-still for the time
-being; but it was afterward resumed with renewed vigor. It is
-probable that the final effect of the war was to hasten rather than
-to retard the growth of large systems. In the first place, it familiarized
-men's minds with national ideas instead of those limited
-to their own State. It is hard for us to realize that our business
-ideas were ever thus confined by artificial boundaries; but if we
-wish proof, we have only to look at the original location of the Erie
-Railway from Piermont to Dunkirk. Both were unnatural and undesirable
-terminal points; but people were willing to submit to inconvenience
-and to actual loss in order that the railroad might run
-as far as the New York State limits would allow, and not one whit
-farther. Similar instances can be found in other States. Hard as
-it is to understand, there seems to have been a positive jealousy of
-interstate traffic. The war did much to remove this by making
-the different sections of the country feel their common interest and
-their mutual dependence. It also had more direct effects. It produced
-special legislation for the Pacific railroads as a measure of
-military necessity; and this was but the beginning of a renewal of
-the land-grant policy, no longer through the medium of the States,
-but in the Territories and by the direct action of Congress. All
-the results in the way of extension or consolidation which had been
-noted in the first land-grant period were more intensely felt in the
-second. Never was there a time when business foresight and
-administrative power were more needed or more richly rewarded
-than in railroad management during the third quarter of the
-century.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_349.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">J. Edgar Thomson.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In 1847 J. Edgar Thomson, an engineer of experience, entered
-the service of the Pennsylvania Railroad, of which he afterward became
-president. Three years later, a young man without experience
-in railroad business applied to him for a position as clerk in
-the station at Duncansville, and was, with some hesitation, accepted.
-Not long after&mdash;so runs the story&mdash;an influential shipper entered
-the station, and demanded that some transfers should be made in
-a manner contrary to the rules of the company. This the clerk
-refused to do; and when the influential shipper tried to attend to
-the matter himself, he was forcibly ejected from the premises. Indignant
-at this, he complained to the authorities, demanding that
-the obnoxious employee be removed from his position. He was&mdash;and
-was promoted to a much higher one. This is said to have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span>
-been the beginning of the railroad career of Thomas Alexander
-Scott. Edgar Thomson was a sufficiently able man to appreciate
-Scott's talent at its full worth, and took every opportunity to make
-it useful in the service of the company. Both before and after the
-war the system was extended in every direction; and the man who
-in 1850 had need of all his nerve to defy a single influential shipper
-was a quarter of a century later at the head of 7,000 miles of the
-most valuable railroad in the country.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_350.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Thomas A. Scott.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>As an enterprising and active railroad organizer, Scott was
-probably unrivalled&mdash;especially when aided by the soberer judgment
-of Thomson; nor has the operating department of any other
-railroad in the country reached the standard established on the
-Pennsylvania by Scott and Thomson and the men trained up
-under their eyes. But in business sagacity and those qualities
-which pertain to the financial management of property, Scott was
-surpassed by Vanderbilt. The work of the two men was so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span>
-totally different in character that it is hard to compare them.
-Vanderbilt was not so distinctively a railroad man as Scott. He
-had already made his mark as a ship-owner before he went into
-railroads. But he was a man who was bound to take the lead in
-the business world; and he saw that the day for doing it with
-steamships was passing away, and that the day of railroads was
-come. He therefore presented his best steamship to the United
-States Government in a time when it was sorely needed, disposed
-of the others in whatever way he could, and turned his undivided
-attention to railroads.</p>
-
-<p>In 1863 Vanderbilt began purchasing Harlem stock on a large
-scale. The road was unprofitable, but he at once improved its
-management and made it pay. Speculators on the other side of
-the market had not foreseen the possibility of this course of action,
-and were badly deceived in their calculations. Vanderbilt had begun
-buying at as low a figure as 3; within little more than a year
-he had forced some of its opponents to buy it of him at 285. He
-soon extended his operations to Hudson River, and somewhat later
-to New York Central. Defeated in an attempt to gain control of
-Erie, he turned his attention farther west; and was soon in virtual
-possession of a system which, in his hands at any rate, was fully a
-match for all competitors.</p>
-
-<p>These systems did not long remain without rivals. The Baltimore
-&amp; Ohio, whose development had been interrupted by the
-war, soon resumed, under the leadership of John W. Garrett, its
-old commanding position in the railroad world. Farther west, in
-the years succeeding, systems were developed and consolidated
-which surpassed their eastern connections in aggregate mileage.
-The combined Wabash and Missouri Pacific system in its best days
-included about 10,000 miles of line under what was virtually a single
-management. The Southern Pacific, the Atchison, the Northwestern,
-and the St. Paul systems control each of them in one way or
-another decidedly over 5,000 miles; and a half-dozen others might
-be named, scarcely inferior either in magnitude or in commercial
-power.</p>
-
-<p>The result of all this was to place an enormous and almost
-irresponsible power in the hands of a few men. The directors
-of such a system stand for thousands of investors, tens of thousands<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span>
-of employees, and hundreds of thousands of shippers. They
-have the interests of all these parties in their hands for good or ill.
-If they are fit men for their places, they will work for the advantage
-of all. A man like Vanderbilt gave higher profits, larger employment,
-and lower rate as the result of his railroad work. But if the
-head of such a system is unfit for his trust intellectually or morally,
-the harm which he can do is almost boundless.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_352.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Cornelius Vanderbilt.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Of intellectual unfitness the chance is perhaps not great. The
-intense competition of the modern business world makes sure that
-any man, to maintain his position, must have at least some of the
-qualities of mind which it exacts. But of moral unfitness the danger
-is all the greater, because some of the present conditions of
-business competition directly tend to foster it. A German economist
-has said that the so-called survival of the fittest in modern industry
-is really a double survival, side by side, of the most talented<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span>
-on the one hand and the most unscrupulous on the other. The
-truth of this is already apparent in railroad business. A Vanderbilt
-on the Central meets a Fisk on the Erie. In spite of his superior
-power and resources he is virtually beaten in the contest&mdash;beaten,
-as was said at the time, because he could not afford to go
-so close to the door of State's prison as his rival.</p>
-
-<p>The manager of a large railroad system has under his control a
-great deal of property besides his own&mdash;the property of railroad
-investors which has been placed in his charge. Two lines of action
-are open to him. He may make money <em>for</em> the investors, and
-thereby secure the respect of the community; or he may make
-money <em>out</em> of the investors, and thereby get rich enough to defy
-public opinion. The former course has the advantage of honesty,
-the latter of rapidity. It is a disgrace to the community that the
-latter way is made so easy, and so readily condoned. A man has
-only to give to charitable objects a little of the money obtained by
-violations of trust, and a large part of the world will extol him as a
-public benefactor. Nay, more; it seems as if some of our financial
-operators really mistook the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vox populi</i> for the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vox Dei</i>, and believed
-that a hundred thousand dollars given to a theological seminary
-meant absolution for the past and plenary indulgence for the
-future. It is charged that one financier, when he undertook any
-large transaction which was more than usually questionable, made
-a covenant that if the Lord prospered him in his undertaking he
-would divide the proceeds on favorable terms. But&mdash;as Wamba
-said of the outlaws and "the fashion of their trade with Heaven"&mdash;"when
-they have struck an even balance, Heaven help them
-with whom they next open the account!"</p>
-
-<p>A word or two as to the methods by which such operations are
-carried on, and the system which makes them possible. From the
-very first, railroads have been built and operated by corporations.
-A number of investors, too large to attend personally to the management
-of the enterprise, took shares of stock and elected officers
-to represent them. These officers had almost absolute power;
-but while matters were in this simple stage, there was no great
-opportunity for its abuse. The losses of investors were due to
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bona fide</i> errors of judgment rather than to misuse of power. But
-soon the corporations found it convenient to borrow money by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span>
-mortgaging their property. We then had two classes of investors&mdash;stockholders
-and bondholders, the former taking the risks and
-having the full control of the property, the latter receiving a relatively
-sure though perhaps smaller return, but having no control
-over the management as long as their interest was regularly paid.</p>
-
-<p>Of course there is always some danger when the men who
-furnish the money do not have much control of the enterprise;
-but as long as the relations of stock and bonds were in practice
-what they pretended to be in theory, the resulting evils were not
-very great. Matters soon reached another stage. The amount
-of money furnished by the bondholders increased out of all proportion
-to that furnished by the stockholders. Sometimes the
-nominal amount of stock was unduly small; more commonly only
-a very small part of the nominal value was ever paid in.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> The
-stock was nearly all water, simply issued by the directors as a
-means of keeping control of the property. After the crisis of
-1857, people had become shy of buying railroad stock; but they
-bought railroad bonds because they thought they were safe. This
-was the case only when there was an actual investment of stockholders
-behind them; without this assurance, bonds were more
-unsafe than stock had been, because the bondholders had still less
-immediate control over the directors and officials. If there was
-money to be made at the time, the directors made it; if there was
-loss in the end, it fell upon the bondholders.</p>
-
-<p>Let us take a specific case. An inside ring issues stock certificates
-to the value of a million dollars, on which perhaps a hundred
-thousand is paid in. They then publish their prospectus and
-place on the market two million of bonds with which the road is
-to be built. They sell the bonds at 80, reimburse themselves for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span>
-the $100,000 advanced by charging the moderate commission of 5
-per cent. for services in placing the loan, and have at their disposal
-$1,500,000 cash. These same directors now appear as a
-construction company, and award themselves a contract to pay
-$1,500,000 for work which is worth $1,200,000 only. The road is
-finished, and probably does not pay interest on its bonds. It
-passes into the hands of a receiver. Possibly the old management
-may have an influence in his appointment. At the worst, they
-have got back all the money they put in, <em>plus</em> the profits of the
-construction company; in the case supposed, 300 per cent. The
-bondholders, on the other hand, have paid $1,600,000 for a $1,200,000
-road.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_355.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">John W. Garrett.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>But the troubles of the bondholders and the advantages of the
-old directors by no means end here. When the receiver takes
-possession he discovers that valuable terminals, necessary for the
-successful working of the road, are not the property of the company,
-but of the old directors. He finds that the road owns a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span>
-very inadequate supply of rolling-stock, and that the deficiency
-has been made up by a car-trust&mdash;also under the control of the
-old directors. Each of these things, and perhaps others, must be
-made the subject of a fight or of a compromise. The latter is
-often the only practicable alternative, and almost always the
-cheaper one; by its terms the ring perhaps secures hundreds of
-thousands more, at the expense of the actual investors.</p>
-
-<p>These are but a few of the many ways in which a few years'
-control of property may be made profitable to the officials at the
-expense of legitimate interests. In a case like this, all depends
-upon the possibility of selling bonds. It is usually impossible to
-place the whole loan before construction; and if the market-price
-falls below the cost of the work undertaken, as was the case with
-the West Shore, the loss falls upon the construction company.
-Such accidents were for a long time rare. It took the public
-nearly twenty years to learn the true character of imperfectly secured
-railroad bonds. Within the past five years it seems to have
-become a trifle wiser. The crisis of 1873 was insufficient to teach
-the lesson; but that of 1885 has been at least partially successful
-in this respect.</p>
-
-<p>In cases like the one just described the bondholders are largely
-to blame for their own folly. But sometimes the loss falls on
-those who are in no way responsible for it. A railroad may be
-built as a blackmailing job. If a company is sound and prosperous,
-speculators may be tempted to build a parallel road, not with
-the idea of making it pay, but because they can so damage the
-business of the old road as to force it to buy them out. They
-build the road to sell.</p>
-
-<p>It is but fair to say that operations as bad as those just described
-are the exception rather than the rule. But the fact that they can
-exist at all is by no means creditable to our financial methods.
-The whole system by which directors can use their positions of
-trust to make contracts in which they are personally interested
-puts a premium on dishonesty. Such contracts are forbidden in
-England. It may be true, as is urged by many railroad officials
-of undoubted honesty, that it would be inconvenient to apply the
-same law here; but on the whole, the gain would far outweigh
-the loss.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>At the very best, a railroad president is subject to temptations
-to misuse his financial powers, all the more dangerous because it
-is impossible to draw the line between right and wrong. He
-knows the probable value of his railroad and of the property affected
-by its action a great deal better than any outsider possibly
-can. The published figures of earnings of the road are the result
-of estimates by himself and his subordinates. Out of the current
-earnings he pays current expenses, and probably charges permanent
-expenditures to capital account. But what expenditures are
-current and what are permanent? This division is itself the result
-of an estimate, and a very doubtful one at that. There are
-some well-established general principles, but none which will apply
-themselves automatically. With the best will in the world he
-cannot make his annual reports give a thoroughly clear idea of
-what has been done. Is he to be forbidden to buy stock when it
-seems too low, or sell it when it is high? Shall we refuse him the
-right to invest in other property which he sees will advance in
-value? Apparently not; and yet, if we allow this, we open the
-door for some of the worst abuses of power which have occurred
-in railroad history. The line between good faith and bad faith in
-these matters is a narrow one, and the average conscience cannot
-be trusted to locate it with accuracy.</p>
-
-<p>But the relations to the investors cover but a small part either
-of the work or of the responsibility of the railroad authorities.
-They are managing not merely a piece of property, but a vast and
-complicated organization of men, and an instrument of public service.
-In all these capacities their cares are equally great. The
-operating and the traffic departments are not less important than
-the financial department. The relations of the railroad to its employees,
-and to the business community at large, are even more
-perplexing than its relations to the investors.</p>
-
-<p>Of the questions arising between the railroad and its employees
-we are just beginning to realize the full importance. They are
-not matters to be settled by private agreement or private war. If
-they involve a serious interruption of the business of the community
-they concern public interests most vitally. The community
-cannot afford to have its business interrupted by railroad strikes.
-On the other hand, it cannot allow the men to make this public<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span>
-duty of the railroads a means of enforcing their own will on every
-occasion, to the detriment of all discipline and responsibility, or in
-disregard of investors' rights. How to compromise between these
-two conflicting requirements is one of the most serious problems
-of the immediate future.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> Little progress in this direction has as
-yet been made, or even systematically attempted.</p>
-
-<p>The questions arising from the relations of the railroads to
-those who use them are wider and older. From the very outset
-attempts were made to regulate railroad charges by law in various
-ways. The fear at that time was that they might be made unreasonably
-high. This fear proved groundless. From the outset
-the rates were rather lower than had been expected, and much
-lower than by many of the means of transportation which railroads
-superseded. These low rates caused a great development in
-business; and this, in turn, gave a chance for such economy in
-handling it that rates went still lower. Each new invention rendered
-it easier to do a large business at cheap rates. The substitution
-of steel rails for iron, which began shortly after the close of
-the war, had an enormous influence in this respect. This was not
-merely due to the direct saving in repairs, which, though appreciable,
-was moderate in amount. It was due still more to improvements
-in transportation which followed. It was found that steel
-rails would bear heavier rolling-stock. Instead of building ten-ton
-cars to carry ten tons of cargo, companies built twelve-ton cars
-to carry twenty tons of cargo, or fourteen-ton cars to carry thirty
-tons; and they made the locomotives heavy enough to handle
-correspondingly larger trains. A given amount of fuel was made
-to haul more weight; and of the weight thus hauled, the freight
-formed a constantly increasing proportion as compared with the
-rolling-stock itself. The system of rates was adopted to meet the
-new requirements. Charges were made incredibly low in order
-to fill cars that would otherwise go empty, or to use the road as
-nearly as possible to its full capacity. In the twenty years following
-the introduction of steel rails the traffic of the New York
-Central increased from less than 400,000,000 ton-miles to decidedly
-over 2,000,000,000; while the average rates fell from 3.09 cents
-per ton per mile in 1866 to 0.76 cent in 1886. This is but a single<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span>
-instance of a process which has gone on all over the country.
-The average freight charge on all railroads of the country to-day
-is a little over one cent per ton a mile: less than half what would
-have been deemed possible on any railroad a few years ago.</p>
-
-<p>The progress of railroad consolidation contributed greatly
-to this economy. It saved multiplication of offices; it saved re-handling
-of freight; it enabled long-distance business to be done
-systematically. So great were its advantages that co-operation
-between connecting lines was carried far beyond the limits of actual
-consolidation. Through traffic was handled without transshipment,
-sometimes by regularly incorporated express companies or
-freight companies on the same plan, but more commonly by what
-are known as fast-freight lines.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> These are little more than combinations
-for keeping account of through business; they are by no
-means ideal in their working, but they have the advantage of few
-expenses and no income, so that the temptation to steal, which
-is the bane of such organizations, is here reduced to a minimum.</p>
-
-<p>But all these things, while they increased the efficiency of the
-service, also increased the power of the railroad authorities and
-rendered the shipper more helpless. The very cheapness of rates
-only made a recourse to other means of transportation more difficult.
-If <em>A</em> was charged 30 cents while his competitor <em>B</em> was paying
-only 20 cents for the same service, he was worse off than
-when they were both paying a dollar; and the fact that no other
-means of conveyance could be found to do the work for less than
-a dollar simply put <em>A</em> all the more completely at the mercy of
-the railroad freight-agent. In other words, the fact that rates
-were so low made any inequality in rates all the more dangerous.
-The lower the rate and the wider the monopoly, the less was the
-chance of relief.</p>
-
-<p>Such inequalities existed on a large scale: and they were all
-the more difficult to deal with because there was a certain reason
-for some of them arising from the nature of railroad business.
-The expenses of a railroad are of two kinds. Some, like train and
-station service, locomotive fuel, or repairs of rolling-stock, are
-pretty directly chargeable to the different parts of the traffic. It
-costs a certain amount in wages and in materials to run a particular<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span>
-train; if that train is taken off, that part of the expense is
-saved. But there is another class of items, known as fixed
-charges, that do not vary with the amount of business done. Interest
-on bonds must be paid, whether the volume of traffic be
-large or small. The services of track-watchmen must be paid for,
-whether there be a hundred trains daily or only a dozen. In
-short, most of the expenses for interest and maintenance of way
-are chargeable to the business as a whole, but not to particular
-pieces of work done. The practical inference from this is obvious.
-In order that the railroad as a whole may be profitable, the fixed
-charges must be paid somehow. The railroad manager will try
-to get them as he can from different parts of his traffic. But if,
-for any reason, a particular piece of business cannot or will not
-pay its share of the fixed charges, it is better to secure it at any
-price above the bare expense of loading and hauling, without
-regard to the fixed charges. For if the business is lost, these
-charges will run on just the same, without any added means of
-meeting them.</p>
-
-<p>The consequence is that there is no natural standard of rates;
-or, rather, that there are two standards, so far apart that the difference
-between the two is quite sufficient to build up one establishment
-or one locality and ruin another, in case of an arbitrary exercise
-of power on the part of the freight-agent. In the use of such
-a power it was inevitable that there should be a great many mistakes,
-and some things which were worse than mistakes. Colbert
-once cynically defined taxation as "the art of so plucking the
-goose as to secure the largest amount of feathers with the least
-amount of squealing." Some of our freight-agents have taken
-Colbert's tax theories as a standard, and have applied them only
-too literally. It is this short-sighted policy which has made the
-system of charging "what the traffic will bear" a synonyme for extortion.
-Interpreted rightly, this phrase represents a sound principle
-of railroad policy&mdash;putting the burden of the fixed charges on
-the shipments that can afford to pay them. But practically&mdash;in
-the popular mind at least&mdash;it has come to mean almost exactly the
-opposite.</p>
-
-<p>The points which got the benefit of the lowest rates were the
-large trade centres, which had the benefit of competing lines of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span>
-railroad, and often of water competition also. The threat to ship
-goods by a rival route was the surest way of making a freight-agent
-give low rates. The result was that the growth of such
-places was specially stimulated. In addition to their natural advantages
-they had an artificial one due to the policy of competing
-lines of railroad. It may well be the case, as is argued by railroad
-men, that sound railroad economy demands that goods in
-large masses should be carried much more cheaply than those
-which are furnished in smaller quantities. But it is certain the
-practice went far beyond the limits of any such justification. There
-was a time when cattle were carried from Chicago to New York
-at a dollar a car-load; and many other instances, scarcely less
-marked, could be cited from the history of trunk-line competition.
-The fact was, that in an active railroad war freight-agents
-would generally accede to a demand for reduced rates at a competing
-point, whether well founded or not, and would almost always
-turn a deaf ear to similar demands from local shippers, however
-strongly supported by considerations of far-sighted business
-policy.</p>
-
-<p>But this was not the worst. Inequalities between different
-places might after some hardship correct themselves; differences
-of treatment between individuals could not be thus adjusted. And
-the system of making rates by special bargain almost always led
-to differences between individuals, where favors were too often
-given to those who needed or deserved them least. The fluctuation
-of rates was first taken advantage of by the unscrupulous
-speculator. Often, if he controlled large sources of shipment, he
-might receive the benefit of a secret agreement by which he could
-obtain lower rates than his rivals under all circumstances. A more
-effective means for destroying straightforwardness in business
-dealings than the old system of special rates was never devised.
-Sometimes, where one competitor was overwhelmingly strong, the
-pretence of secrecy was thrown aside, and the railroad companies
-so far forgot their public duties as almost openly to assist one concern
-in crushing its rivals. The state of things in this respect
-twelve or fifteen years ago was so bad that it is painful to dwell
-upon; but the reformation to-day is not so complete that we can
-wash our hands of past sins.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Less was said or felt of similar evils in passenger traffic, because
-the passenger business of the country generally is of much
-less importance than its freight business, either to the railroad investors
-or to the producers themselves. But there was the same
-fluctuation in passenger rates; and there was an outrageous form
-of discrimination in the development of the free-pass system; a
-practice which would have fully deserved the name of systematic
-bribery, had it not become so universal that most men hardly recognized
-any personal obligation connected with the acceptance of
-a pass. Officials and other citizens of influence had come to regard
-it as a right; it was not so much bribery on the part of the
-companies as blackmail levied against them.</p>
-
-<p>The remedies proposed for all these evils have been various.
-From the very beginning until now there have been some who
-held that such abuses could be avoided only by State railroad ownership.
-Such experiments in the United States have not gone far
-enough to furnish conclusive evidence either way; but the experience
-of other countries indicates that State railroads, as such, do not
-avoid these evils. Where they have been worked in competition
-with other lines, they have been as deeply involved in these abuses
-as their private competitors&mdash;perhaps more so. Where the government
-has obtained control of all the railroads of the country,
-and made such arrangements with the water-routes as to render
-competition impossible, the abuses have vanished, because there
-was no longer any conceivable motive to continue them. But this
-was the result of the monopoly, not of the State ownership; and
-the advantage was purchased by a sacrifice of all the stimulus of
-competition toward the development of new facilities.</p>
-
-<p>Many people assume that, because the government represents
-the nation as a whole, therefore government officials will not be
-under the same temptations to act unjustly which are felt by the
-representatives of a private corporation. This is a mistake. It is
-not as representatives of the investor that railroad agents do much
-injustice; this motive has practically nothing to do with it. Most
-of the abuses complained of are positively injurious to the investor
-in the long run. When officials really represent the interests of
-the property with wise foresight, they, as a rule, give the public no
-ground to complain. The question reduces itself to this: Will the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span>
-State choose better representatives and agents than a private corporation?
-Will it secure a higher grade of officials, more competent,
-more honest, and more enterprising? The difference between
-state and private railroads is not so much on matters of
-policy as on methods of administration. The success of government
-administration varies with different countries. In Prussia,
-where it is seen at its best, the results are in some respects remarkably
-good; yet even here the roads are not managed on anything
-like the American standard of efficiency, either in amount of
-train service, in speed, or in rapidity of development. And what
-is barely successful in Prussia, with its trained civil service on the
-one hand and its less intense industrial demands on the other, can
-hardly be considered possible or desirable in America. No one
-who has watched the workings of a government contract can desire
-to have the whole trade of the country put to the expense of
-supporting such methods in its transportation business.</p>
-
-<p>A more easy method of trying to regulate railroad charges has
-been by forced reductions in rates. This was tried on the largest
-scale in the Granger movement fifteen years ago. A fall in the
-price of wheat had rendered it difficult for the farmers to make
-money. The Patrons of Husbandry, in investigating the causes,
-saw that the larger trade centres, where there was competition,
-were getting lower rates than the local producer. They reasoned
-that if all the farmers could get such low rates, they could make
-money; and that, if the roads could afford to make these low
-rates for any points, they could afford to do it for all. The railroad
-agents, instead of foreseeing the storm and trying to prevent
-it, assumed a defiant attitude. The result was that legislatures
-of the States in the upper Mississippi Valley passed laws of more
-or less rigidity, scaling down all rates to the general level of competitive
-ones. After a period of some doubt, the right of the States
-to do this was admitted by the courts. But before the legal
-possibility had been decided, the practical impossibility of such a
-course had been shown. If all rates were reduced to the level of
-competitive ones, it left nothing to pay fixed charges. On such
-terms, foreign capital would not come into the State; nor could it
-be enticed by such a clumsy effort as that of one of the States,
-which provided "that no road <em>hereafter constructed</em> shall be subject<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span>
-to the provisions of this act." The goose which laid the
-golden eggs was not such a goose as to be deceived by this. The
-untimely death of several of her species meant more than any
-promises of immunity to those who should follow in her footsteps.
-In those States which had passed the most severe laws capital
-would not invest; railroads could not pay interest, their development
-stopped, and the growth of the community was seriously
-checked thereby. The most obnoxious laws were either repealed
-or allowed to remain in abeyance. Where the movement was
-strongest in 1873 it had practically spent its force in 1876. There
-have been many similar attempts in all parts of the country since
-that time; just now they are peculiarly active; but nothing which
-approaches in recklessness some of the legislation of 1873 and 1874.
-The lesson was at least partly learned.</p>
-
-<p>We had hardly passed the crisis of the effort to level down,
-when some of the more intelligent railroad men made an effort to
-level up. Recognizing that discriminations and fluctuating rates
-were an evil, they sought to avoid it by common action with regard
-to the business at competing points. A mere agreement as to
-rates to be charged was not enough to secure this end. Such an
-agreement was sure to be violated. Even if the leading authorities
-meant to observe it, their agents could always evade its requirements
-to some extent. Such evasion was favored by loose arrangements
-between connecting roads, and by the somewhat irresponsible
-system of fast freight lines. Wherever it existed, it
-gave rise to mutual suspicion. <em>A</em> believed that his road did it because
-he could not help it, but that <em>B</em> and <em>C</em> were allowing their
-roads to do it maliciously; while <em>B</em> and <em>C</em> had the same consciousness
-of individual rectitude and the same unkind suspicions with
-regard to <em>A</em>. It was at best a rather hollow truce, which did not
-really accomplish its purpose, and which might change to open
-war on very slight provocation.</p>
-
-<p>To avoid this difficulty a pool, or division of traffic, was arranged.
-It is a fact that, whatever wars of rates there may be,
-the percentage of traffic carried by the different lines varies but
-little. If an arbitrator can examine the books and decide what
-these percentages have been in the past, he can make an award for
-the future, under which the competitive traffic of the different roads<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span>
-may be fairly divided. The arrangements for doing this are various.
-Sometimes the roads carry such traffic as may happen to be
-offered, and settle the differences with one another by money balances;
-sometimes they actually divert traffic from one line to
-another. But the advantage of either of these arrangements over
-a mere agreement to maintain rates is that they cannot be violated
-without direct action on the part of the leading authorities of the
-roads concerned&mdash;either in open withdrawal, or in actual bad faith.
-The ordinary irregularities of agents do not, under a pooling
-system, give rise to much suspicion, because they do not benefit
-the road in whose behalf they are undertaken. Its percentage
-being fixed there is no motive for rate-cutting. So great is this
-advantage that pooling is accepted in almost all other countries as
-a natural means of maintaining equality of rates; the state railroads
-of Central Europe entering into such contracts with competing
-private lines and even with water-routes. In America itself,
-pools have had a longer and wider history than is generally supposed.
-In New England they arose and continued to exist on a
-moderate scale without attracting much attention. In the Mississippi
-Valley, the Chicago-Omaha pool was arranged as early as
-1870, and formed the model for a whole system of such arrangements
-extending as far as the Pacific Coast. But, as involving
-wider questions of public policy, the activity of the Southern and
-the Trunk Line Associations has attracted chief attention.</p>
-
-<p>The man whose name is most prominently identified with both
-these systems is Albert Fink. A German by birth and education,
-his long experience as a practical railroad engineer did not deprive
-him of a taste for studying traffic problems on their theoretical
-side. As Vice-President of the Louisville &amp; Nashville, he had
-given special attention to the economic conditions affecting the
-Southern roads; and when, in the years 1873&ndash;75, a traffic association
-was formed by a number of these roads to secure harmony of
-action on matters of common interest, he became the recognized
-leader. His success in arrangements for through traffic was so
-conspicuous that when, in 1877, the trunk lines were exhausted
-with an unusually destructive war of rates, they looked to him as
-the only man who could deliver them from their trouble. In some
-lines, division of traffic had already been resorted to; but it was in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span>
-the hands of outside parties, like the Standard Oil Company or the
-cattle eveners, and was made a means of oppression against shippers
-not in the combination itself.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_366.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Albert Fink.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The conditions were not favorable; the result of Fink's efforts
-to bring order out of chaos was slow and by no means uninterrupted.
-Yet on the whole, as was admitted even by opponents of
-the pooling system, it contributed to steadiness and equality of
-rates. The arrangement of these agreements was hampered by
-their want of legal status. While the law did not at that time actually
-prohibit them, it refused to enforce them. Existing thus on
-sufferance, they depended on the good will of the contracting parties.
-None but a man of Fink's unimpeached integrity and high
-intellectual power could have kept matters running at all; and even
-he could not prevent the adoption of a policy of making hay while
-the sun shines, more or less regardless of the future. The results
-of the trunk-line pool were unsatisfactory&mdash;most of all to those who
-believed in pools as a system; but it is fair to attribute a large part<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span>
-of this failure to the absence of legal recognition, which in a manner
-compelled the agreements to be arranged to meet the demands
-of the day rather than of the future.</p>
-
-<p>Meantime an equally important contribution to the solution of
-the railroad question was being worked out in another quarter. In
-the year 1869 the Massachusetts Railroad Commission was established.
-Its powers were so slight that it was not regarded as likely
-to be an influential public agency. Fortunately it numbered among
-its members Charles Francis Adams, Jr.; a man whose efficiency
-more than made up for any want of nominal powers. In his hands
-the mere power to report became the most effective of all weapons.
-Representing at once enlightened public judgment and far-sighted
-railroad policy, he did much to bring the two into harmony and
-protect the legitimate interests on both sides from short-sighted
-misuse for the benefit of either party. The detail of his work is
-matter of past history; perhaps its most prominent result was to
-introduce to State legislation the idea of a railroad commission as
-an administrative body. Those States which had no stringent
-laws appointed commissions to
-take their place; those which
-had overstringent ones appointed
-commissions to use discretion
-in applying them. In
-either case, the existence of a
-body of men representing the
-State, but possessing the technical
-knowledge to see what
-the exigencies of railroad business
-demanded, was a protection
-to all parties concerned.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_367.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Charles Francis Adams.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>But matters were rapidly
-passing beyond the sphere of
-State legislation. Each new
-consolidation of systems, each
-additional development of through traffic, made it more impossible
-to control railroad policy by the action of individual States. It
-could only be done by a development of the law in the United
-States courts or by Congressional legislation. The former result<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368]</a></span>
-was necessarily slow; each year showed an increased demand for
-special action on the part of Congress. But such action was hindered
-by divergence of opinion in that body itself. One set of
-men wished a moderate law, prohibiting the most serious abuses
-of railroad power, and enforced under the discretionary care of a
-commission. These men were for the most part not unwilling to
-see pools legalized if their members could thereby be held to a
-fuller measure of responsibility. On the other hand, the extremists
-wished to prescribe a system of equal mileage rates; they would
-hear of no such thing as a commission, and hated pools as an invention
-of the adversary. Between the two lay a large body of
-members who had no convictions on the matter, but were desirous
-to please everybody and offend nobody&mdash;a hard task in this particular
-case. It was nearly nine years from the time Mr. Reagan
-introduced his first bill when a compromise was finally effected&mdash;largely
-by the influence of Senator Cullom. As compromises go,
-it was a tolerably fair one. The extremists sacrificed their opposition
-to a commission, but secured the prohibition of pools; the
-disputed points with regard to rates were left in such a shape that
-no man knew what the law meant, and each was, for the time being,
-able to interpret it to suit the wishes of his Congressional district.</p>
-
-<p>The immediate effects of the law were extremely good. There
-were certain sections of it, like those which secured publicity of
-rates and equal treatment for different persons in the same circumstances,
-whose wisdom was universally admitted. Indeed it was
-rather a disgrace, both to the railroad agents and to the courts,
-that we had to wait for an act of Congress to secure these ends;
-and most of the railroads made up for past remissness in this respect
-by quite a spasm of virtue. In some instances it was even
-thought that they "stood up so straight as to lean over backward."
-But this was not the only part of the law which proved
-efficient. The very vagueness of the clause concerning the relative
-rates for through and local traffic, which under other circumstances
-might have proved fatal, put a most salutary power into
-the hands of the Interstate Commerce Commission, and one which
-they were not slow to use.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_369.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Thomas M. Cooley.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The President was fortunate in his selection of commissioners;
-above all in the chairman, Judge T. M. Cooley, of Michigan, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span>
-man whose character, knowledge of public law, and technical familiarity
-with railroad business made him singularly well fitted for the
-place. The work of the Interstate Commission, like that of its
-Massachusetts prototype, shows
-how much more important is
-personal power than mere technical
-authority. It was supposed
-at first that the commission would
-be a purely administrative body,
-with discretion to suspend the
-law. Instead of this, they have
-enforced and interpreted it; and
-in the process of interpretation
-have virtually created a body of
-additional law, which is read and
-quoted as authority. With but
-little ground for expecting it from
-the letter of the act, they have become a judicial body of the highest
-importance. Their existence seems to furnish a possibility for
-an elastic development of transportation law, neither so weak as
-to be ineffective nor so strong as to break by its own rigidity.</p>
-
-<p>But the final test of their success is yet to come. They have
-laid down a few principles as to the cases when competition justifies
-through rates lower than those at intermediate points. But
-the application of these principles is as yet far from settled; and it
-is rendered doubly hard by the clause against pools, which does
-much to hamper the roads in any attempt to secure common action
-on the matter of through rates. Each ill-judged piece of State
-legislation, and each reckless attempt to attack railroad profits, increases
-the difficulty. There was a time when the powers of railroad
-managers were developed without corresponding responsibility.
-In many parts of the country we are now going to the
-other extreme&mdash;increasing the responsibility of railroad authorities
-toward shipper and employees, State law and national commission,
-and at the same time striving to restrict their powers to the utmost.
-Such a policy cannot be continued indefinitely without a disastrous
-effect upon railroad service, and, indirectly, upon the business of
-the country as a whole.</p>
-
-
-<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> In 1886 the capital stock and the indebtedness of the railroads of the United States amounted to
-about four thousand million dollars each. Most of the debt represents money actually paid in; but a
-very large fraction of the stock is a merely nominal liability on which no payments have been made.
-Some was issued as here described merely as a means of keeping control of the property; some, as
-the easiest method of balancing unequal values in reorganization; some, to represent increased value
-of the property, so as to be able to divide all the current earnings without calling public attention too
-prominently to the very profitable character of the business. On the other hand, some stock on which
-money was actually paid has been wiped out of existence; and something has been paid out of earnings
-for capital account without corresponding issue of securities. The net amount of "water," or
-excess of nominal liabilities over actual investments, in the capital account of the railroads of the country
-can only be made the subject of guesswork. Estimates of responsible authorities vary all the way
-from nothing to $4,000,000,000.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> See following article on <a href="#Page_370">"The Prevention of Railway Strikes."</a></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> See "The Freight-car Service," <a href="#Page_287">page 287.</a></p></div></div>
-
-
-    <div class="chapter"></div>
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">THE PREVENTION OF RAILWAY STRIKES.</a>
-    <a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor"><span class="xs">[31]</span></a></h2>
-
-<p class="pfs90 smcap">By CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Railways the Largest Single Interest in the United States&mdash;Some Impressive Statistics&mdash;Growth
-of a Complex Organization&mdash;Five Divisions of Necessary Work&mdash;Other
-Special Departments&mdash;Importance of the Operating Department&mdash;The Evil of
-Strikes&mdash;To be Remedied by Thorough Organization&mdash;Not the Ordinary Relation
-between Employer and Employee&mdash;Of what the Model Railway Service Should
-Consist&mdash;Temporary and Permanent Employees&mdash;Promotion from One Grade to
-the Other&mdash;Rights and Privileges of the Permanent Service&mdash;Employment during
-Good Behavior&mdash;Proposed Tribunal for Adjusting Differences and Enforcing Discipline&mdash;A
-Regular Advance in Pay for Faithful Service&mdash;A Fund for Hospital
-Service, Pensions, and Insurance&mdash;Railroad Educational Institutions&mdash;The Employer
-to Have a Voice in Management through a Council&mdash;A System of Representation.</p></div>
-
-
-<div><img class="drop-cap" src="images/i_370dc.jpg" alt="" /></div>
-
-<p class="drop-cap">In 1836&mdash;fifty years ago&mdash;there were but a little more than
-1,000 miles of railroad on the American continents, representing
-an outlay of some $35,000,000, and controlled by
-a score or so of corporations. There are now (1886) about 135,000
-miles in the United States alone, capitalized at over eight
-thousand millions of dollars.</p>
-
-<p>The railroad interest is thus the largest single interest in the
-country. Probably 600,000 men are in its employ as wage-earners.
-It is safe to say that over two millions of human beings are
-directly dependent upon it for their daily support. The Union
-Pacific, as a single and by no means the largest member of this
-system, controls 5,150 miles of road, represented by stock and
-bonds to the amount of $275,000,000. More than 15,000 names<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span>
-are borne upon its pay-rolls. Its yearly income has exceeded
-$29,000,000, and in 1885 was $26,000,000. Large as these aggregates
-sound, there are other corporations which far exceed the
-Union Pacific both in income and in capitalization, and not a few
-exceed it in mileage. The Pennsylvania, for instance, either owns
-or directly controls 7,300 miles of road. It is represented by a
-capitalization of $670,000,000; its annual income is $93,000,000;
-it carries 75,000 names on its pay-rolls.</p>
-
-<p>This has been the outgrowth of a single half-century. The
-vast and intricate organization implied in the management of such
-an interest had, as it were, to be improvised. The original companies
-were small and simple affairs. Some retired man of business
-held, as a rule, the position of president; while another
-man, generally a civil engineer, and as such supposed to be
-more or less acquainted with the practical working of railroads,
-acted as superintendent. The superintendent, in point of fact, attended
-to everything. He was the head of the commercial department;
-the head of the operating department; the head of
-the construction department; and the head of the mechanical department.
-But there is a limit to what any single man can do;
-and so, as the organization developed, it became necessary to relieve
-the railroad superintendent of many of his duties. Accordingly,
-the working management naturally subdivided itself into
-separate departments, at the head of which men were placed who
-had been trained all their lives to do the particular work required
-in each department. In the same way, the employees of the company&mdash;the
-wage-earners, as they are called&mdash;originally few in
-number, held toward the company relations similar to those which
-the employees in factories, shops, or on farms, held to those who
-employed them. In other words, there was in the railroad system<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span>
-no organized service. As the employees increased until they
-were numbered by hundreds, better organization became a necessity.
-The community was absolutely dependent upon its railroad
-service for continued existence, for the running of trains is to the
-modern body politic very much what the circulation of blood is to
-the human being. An organized system, therefore, had to grow
-up. This fact was not recognized at first; and, indeed, is only
-imperfectly recognized yet. Still the fact was there; and inasmuch
-as it was there and was not recognized, trouble ensued. No
-rationally organized railroad service&mdash;that is, no service in which
-the employer and employed occupy definite relations toward each
-other, recognized by each, and by the body politic&mdash;no such service
-exists. Approaches to it only have been made. A discussion,
-therefore, of the form that such a service would naturally
-take if it were organized, cannot be otherwise than timely.</p>
-
-<p>It has already been noticed that in the process of organization
-the railroad, following the invariable law, naturally subdivides itself
-into different departments.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> In the case of every corporation
-of magnitude there are of these departments, whether one man is
-at the head of one or several of them, at least five. These are:</p>
-
-<p>1st. The financial department, which provides the ways and
-means.</p>
-
-<p>2d. The construction department, which builds the railroad
-after the means to build it are provided.</p>
-
-<p>3d. The operating department, which operates the road after
-it is built.</p>
-
-<p>4th. The commercial department, which finds business for the
-operated road to do, and regulates the rates which are to be
-charged for doing it.</p>
-
-<p>5th. The legal department, which attends to all the numerous
-questions which arise in the practical working of everyone of the
-other departments.</p>
-
-<p>These five divisions of necessary work exist in the organization
-of every company, no matter how small it may be, or how few
-officers it may employ. In the larger companies the need is found
-for yet other special departments. In the case of the Union
-Pacific, for instance, there are two such: First, the comptroller's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span>
-department, which establishes and is responsible for the whole
-method of accounting; second, a department which is responsible
-for all the numerous interests which a large railroad company
-almost of necessity develops outside of its strict, legitimate work
-as a common carrier.</p>
-
-<p>When it comes to dealing with the employees of the company,
-it will be found that the vast majority of those whose names are
-on the pay-rolls belong to the operating department. This department
-is responsible not only for the running of trains and,
-usually, for the maintenance of the permanent way, but also for
-the repairs of rolling stock. All the train-hands, all the section-men
-and bridge-gangs, and all the mechanics in the repair shops
-thus belong to the operating department. The accounting department
-employs only clerks. The same is true of the commercial
-department, though the commercial department has also agents at
-different business centres who look after the company's interests
-and secure traffic for it. The construction department is in the
-hands of civil engineers, and the force employed by it depends entirely
-upon the amount of building which may at any time be going
-on. As a rule, the bulk of the employees in the construction department
-are paid by contractors, and not directly by the railroad
-company. The legal department consists only of lawyers and
-the few clerks necessary to aid them in transacting their business.</p>
-
-<p>In the operating department of the Union Pacific at the present
-time (1886) about 14,000 names are carried upon the pay-roll.
-The number varies according to the season of the year and the
-pressure of traffic. In January, and during the winter months, the
-average will fall to 12,000, while in June and during the summer it
-rises to 14,000.</p>
-
-<p>Of these, 2,800, or 20 per cent., are engaged in train movement;
-4,200, or 30 per cent, are in the machine-shops and in
-charge of motive power and rolling-stock; 7,000, or 50 per cent.,
-are employed in various miscellaneous ways, as flag-men, section-hands,
-station agents, switch-men, etc., etc.</p>
-
-<p>So far as the wage-earner is concerned, it is, therefore, this
-portion of the force of a railroad company which may be called
-distinctively "the service." If good relations exist between the
-men employed in its operating department and the company no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374]</a></span>
-serious trouble can ever arise in the operation of the road. The
-clerks in the financial department, or the engineers in the construction
-department, might leave the company's employ in a body,
-and their places could soon be filled. In point of fact, they never
-do leave it; but should they do so, the public would experience no
-inconvenience. The inconvenience&mdash;and it would be very considerable&mdash;would
-be confined to the office of the company, and
-their work would fall into arrears. It is not so with the operating
-department. So far as the community at large is concerned, whatever
-difficulties arise in the working of railroads develop themselves
-here. All serious railroad strikes take place among those
-engaged in the shops, on the track, or in handling trains. That
-these difficulties should be reduced to a minimum is therefore a
-necessity. They can be reduced to a minimum only when the railroad
-service is thoroughly organized.</p>
-
-<p>How then can this service be better organized than it is? It
-is usually maintained that only the ordinary relation of employer
-and employed should exist between the railroad company and the
-men engaged in operating its road. If the farmer is dissatisfied with
-his hands, he can dismiss them. In like manner, if the laborer is
-dissatisfied with the farmer, he can leave his employ. It is argued
-that exactly the same relation should exist between the great
-railroad corporation and the tens of thousands of men in its operating
-department. The proposition is not tenable. The circumstances
-are different. In the first place, it is of no practical consequence
-to the community whether difficulties which prevent the
-work of the farm from going on arise or do not arise between
-an individual farmer and his laborers. The work of innumerable
-other farms goes on all the same, and it is a matter of indifference
-what occurs in the management of the particular farm. So it is
-even with large factories, machine-shops&mdash;in fact, with all industrial
-concerns which do not perform immediate public functions. A
-railroad company does perform immediate public functions. The
-community depends upon it for the daily and necessary movements
-of civilized existence. This fact has to be recognized. For a railroad
-to pause in its operation implies paralysis to the community
-which it serves.</p>
-
-<p>Such being the fact, it is futile to argue that the ordinary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[375]</a></span>
-relations of employer and employed should obtain in the railroad
-service. Something else is required; and because something else
-is required but has not yet been devised we have had the numerous
-difficulties which have taken place during the present year&mdash;difficulties
-which have occasioned the community much inconvenience
-and loss.</p>
-
-<p>The model railroad service, therefore, is now to be considered.
-Of what would it consist? At present, there is practically no
-difference between individuals in the employ of a great railroad
-corporation. All the wage-earners in its pay stand in like position
-toward it. There should be a difference among them; and a
-marked difference, due to circumstances which should receive recognition.
-Take again the case of the Union Pacific. The Union
-Pacific, it has already been mentioned, numbers 14,000 employees
-in its operating department as a maximum, and 12,000 as a
-minimum. They vary with the season of the year, increasing in
-summer and diminishing in winter. Consequently there is a large
-body of men who are permanently in its employ; and there is a
-smaller body, although a very considerable portion of the whole,
-who are in its employ only temporarily. Here is a fact, and facts
-should be recognized. If this particular fact is recognized, the
-service of the company should be organized accordingly, and each
-of the several divisions of the operating department would have on
-its rolls two classes of men: First, those who have been admitted
-into the permanent service of the company; and, second, those
-who for any cause are only temporarily in that service. And no
-man should be admitted into the permanent service until after he
-has served an apprenticeship in the temporary service. In other
-words, admission into the permanent service would be in the nature
-of a promotion from an apprenticeship in the temporary service.</p>
-
-<p>Those in the temporary service need not, therefore, be at present
-considered. They hold to the companies only the ordinary
-relation of employee to employer. They may be looked upon as
-candidates for admission into the permanent service&mdash;they are on
-probation. So long as they are on probation they may be engaged
-and discharged at pleasure. The permanent service alone
-is now referred to.</p>
-
-<p>The permanent service of a great railroad company should in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[376]</a></span>
-many essential respects be very much like a national service, that of
-the army or navy, for instance, except in one particular, and a very
-important particular: to wit, those in it must of necessity always
-be at liberty to resign from it&mdash;in other words, to leave it. The
-railroad company can hold no one in its employ one moment against
-his will. Meanwhile, to belong to the permanent service of a
-railroad company of the first class, so far as the employee is concerned,
-should mean a great deal. It should carry with it certain
-rights and privileges which would cause that service to be eagerly
-sought. In the first place, he who had passed through his period
-of probation and whose name was enrolled in the permanent service
-would naturally feel that his interests were to a large extent
-identified with those of the company; and that he on the other
-hand had rights and privileges which the company was bound to
-respect. It has been a matter of boast in France that every private
-soldier in the French army carried the possibility of the field-marshal's
-baton in his knapsack. It should be the same with every
-employee in the permanent service of a great American railroad
-company. The possibility of his rising to any position in that
-service for which he showed himself qualified should be open before
-him and constantly present in his mind. Many of the most
-remarkable and successful men who have handled railroads in the
-United States began their active lives as brakemen, as telegraph
-operators, even as laborers on the track. Such examples are of
-inestimable value. They reveal possibilities open to all.</p>
-
-<p>Beyond this, the man who is permanently enrolled should feel
-that, though he may not rise to a high position, yet, as a matter of
-right, he is entitled to hold the position to which he has risen just
-so long as he demeans himself properly and does his duty well.
-He should be free from fear of arbitrary dismissal. In order that
-he may have this security, a tribunal should be devised before
-which he would have the right to be heard in case charges of misdemeanor
-are advanced against him.</p>
-
-<p>No such tribunal has yet been provided in the organization of
-any railroad company; neither, as a rule, has the suggestion of
-such a tribunal been looked upon with favor either by the official or
-the employee. The latter is apt to argue that he already has such
-a tribunal in the executive committee of his own labor organization;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[377]</a></span>
-and a tribunal, too, upon which he can depend to decide always
-in his favor. The official, on the other hand, contends that
-if he is to be responsible for results he must have the power of
-arbitrarily dismissing the employee. Without it he will not be
-able to maintain discipline. The two arguments, besides answering
-each other, divide the railroad service into hostile camps. The
-executive committees of the labor organizations practically cannot
-save the members of those organizations from being got rid of,
-though they do in many cases protect them against summary discharge;
-and, on the other hand, the official, in the face of the executive
-committee, enjoys only in theory the power of summary discharge.
-The situation is accordingly false and bad. It provokes
-hostility. The one party boasts of a protection which he does not
-enjoy; the other insists upon a power which he dares not exercise.
-The remedy is manifest. A system should be devised based on
-recognized facts; a system which would secure reasonable protection
-to the employee, and at the same time enable the official to
-enforce all necessary discipline. This a permanent service, with
-a properly organized tribunal to appeal to, would bring about.
-Meanwhile the winnowing process would be provided for in the
-temporary service. Over that the official would have complete
-control, and the idle, the worthless, and the insubordinate would
-be kept off. The wheat would there be separated from the chaff.
-Until such a system is devised the existing chaos, made up of
-powerless protection and impotent power, must apparently continue.
-None the less it is a delusion on the one side and a mockery
-on the other.</p>
-
-<p>How the members of such a court as has been suggested
-would be appointed and by whom is matter for consideration. It
-would, of course, be essential that the appointees should command
-the confidence of all in the company's service, whether officials or
-employees. The possible means of reaching this result will
-presently be discussed.</p>
-
-<p>Not only should permanent employees be entitled to retain
-their position during good behavior, but they should also look
-forward to the continual bettering of their condition. That is,
-apart from promotion, seniority in the service should carry with
-it certain rights and privileges. Take the case of conductors,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[378]</a></span>
-brakemen, engineers, machinists, and the like; there seems to be
-no reason why length of faithful service should not carry with it a
-stipulated increase of pay. If conductors, for example, have a
-regular pay of $100 a month, there seems no good reason why
-the pay should not increase by steps of $5 with each five years'
-service, so that when the conductor has been twenty-five years in
-the service his pay should be increased by one-quarter, or $25 a
-month. The increase might be more or less. The figures suggested
-merely illustrate. So also with the engineer, the brakeman,
-the section-man, the machinist. A certain prospect of increased
-pay, if a man demeans himself faithfully, is a great incentive
-to faithful demeanor. This is another fact which it would
-be well not to lose sight of.</p>
-
-<p>There ought likewise to be connected with every large railroad
-organization certain funds, contributed partly by the company
-and partly by the voluntary action of employees, which would provide
-for hospital service, retiring pensions, sick pensions, and insurance
-against accident and death. Every man whose name has
-once been enrolled in the permanent employ of the company
-should be entitled to the benefit of these funds; and he should be
-deprived of it only by his own voluntary act, or as the consequence
-of some misdemeanor proved before a tribunal. At present the
-railroad companies of this country are under no inducement to
-establish these mutual insurance societies, or to contribute to them.
-Their service, in principle at least, is a shifting service; and so
-long as it is shifting the elaborate organizations which are essential
-to the safe management of the funds referred to cannot be
-called into existence. A tie-up, as it might be called, between the
-companies and their employees is a condition precedent. Were
-this once effected the rest would follow by steps both natural and
-easy. For a company like the Union Pacific to contribute $100,000
-a year to a hospital fund and retiring pension and insurance
-associations would be a small matter, if the thing could be so
-arranged that the permanent employees themselves would contribute
-a like sum; and permanent employees only would contribute
-at all. Once let the growth of associations like these begin,
-and it proceeds with almost startling rapidity. At the end of ten
-years the accumulated capital on the basis of contribution suggested<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[379]</a></span>
-would probably amount to millions. Every man who was
-so fortunate as to become a permanent employee of the company
-would then be assured of provision in case of sickness or disability,
-and his family would be assured of it in case of his death.</p>
-
-<p>The moment a permanent service was thus established it would
-also involve further provision of an educational nature. That is,
-the companies must continually provide a stock of men for the
-future. Where a boy&mdash;the son of an employee&mdash;grows up always
-looking forward to entering the company's service, he becomes to
-that company very much what a cadet at West Point or Annapolis
-is to the army or the navy of the United States; the idea of
-loyalty to the company and of pride in its service grows up with
-him. Railroad educational institutions of this sort have already
-been created by at least one corporation in the country, and they
-should be created by all railroad corporations of the first class.
-The children of employees would naturally go into these schools,
-and the best of them would at the proper age be sent out upon
-the road to take their places in the shops, on the track, or at the
-brake. From those thus educated the higher positions in the
-company would thereafter be filled. The cost of maintaining
-these schools, at least in part, would become a regular item in the
-operating expenses of the road. Properly handled, a vast economy
-would be effected through them. The morale of the service would
-gradually be raised, and the morale of a railroad is, if properly
-viewed, no less important than the morale of an army or navy. It
-is invaluable.</p>
-
-<p>But it is futile to suppose that such a service as that outlined
-could be organized, in America at least, unless those concerned in
-it were allowed a voice in its management. Practically the most
-important feature of the whole is therefore yet to be considered.
-How is the employee to be assured a voice in the management
-of these joint interests, without bringing about demoralization?
-No one has yet had the courage to face this question; and yet it
-is a question which must be faced if a solution of existing difficulties
-is to be found. If the employees contribute to the insurance
-and other funds, it is right that they should have a voice in the
-management of those funds. If an employee holds his situation
-during good behavior, he has a right to be heard in the organization<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[380]</a></span>
-of the board which, in case of his suspension for alleged
-cause, is to pass upon his behavior. No system will succeed
-which does not recognize these rights. In other words, it will be
-impossible to establish perfectly good faith and the highest
-morale in the service of the companies until the problem of giving
-this voice to employees, and giving it effectively, is solved. It
-can be solved in but one way: that is, by representation. To
-solve it may mean industrial peace.</p>
-
-<p>It is, of course, impossible to dispose of these difficult matters
-in town-meeting. Nevertheless, the town-meeting must be at the
-base of any successful plan for disposing of them. The end in
-view is to bring the employer&mdash;who in this case is the company,
-represented by its president and board of directors&mdash;and the employees
-into direct and immediate contact through a representative
-system. When thus brought into direct and immediate contact,
-the parties must arrive at results through the usual method:
-that is, by discussion and rational agreement. It has already been
-noticed that the operating department of a great railroad company
-naturally subdivides itself into those concerned in the train movement,
-those concerned in the care of the permanent way, and those
-concerned in the work of the mechanical department. It would
-seem proper, therefore, that a council of employees should be
-formed, of such a number as might be agreed on, containing representatives
-from each of these departments. In order to make
-an effective representation, the council would have to be a large
-body. For present purposes, and for the sake of illustration
-merely, it might be supposed that, in the case of the Union Pacific,
-each department in a division of the road would elect its own
-members of the employees' council. There are five of these divisions
-and three departments in every division. The operating-men,
-the yard and section-men, and the machinists of the division
-would, therefore, under this arrangement choose a given number
-of representatives. If one such representative was chosen to each
-hundred employees in the permanent service those thus selected
-would constitute a division council. To perfect the organization,
-without disturbing the necessary work of the company, each of
-these division councils would then select certain (say, for example,
-three) of their number, representing the mechanical, the operating,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[381]</a></span>
-and the permanent way departments, and these delegates from
-each of the departments would, at certain periods of the year, to
-be provided for by the articles of organization, all meet together
-at the head-quarters of the company in Omaha. The central
-council, under the system here suggested, would consist of fifteen
-men; that is, one representing each of the three departments of
-the five several divisions. These fifteen men would represent the
-employees. It would be for them to select a board of delegates,
-or small executive committee, to confer directly with the president
-and board of directors. Here would be found the organization
-through which the voice of the employees would make itself heard
-and felt in matters which directly affect the rights of employees,
-including the appointment of a tribunal to pass upon cases of misdemeanor,
-and the management of all institutions, whether financial
-or educational, to which the employees had contributed and
-in which they had a consequent interest.</p>
-
-<p>There is no reason whatever for supposing that, within the
-limits which have been indicated, such an organization would lead
-to difficulty. On the contrary, where it did not remove a difficulty
-it might readily be made to open a way out of it. The employees,
-feeling that they too had rights which the company frankly
-recognized and was bound to respect, would in all cases of agitation
-proceed through the regular machinery, which brought them
-into easy and direct contact with the highest authority in the
-company's service. They would not, therefore, be driven into outside
-organizations. Meanwhile, on the other hand, the highest
-officers of the company, including the president and the board of
-directors, would be brought into immediate relations with the representatives
-of the employees on terms of equality. Each would
-have an equal voice in the management of common interests; and
-it would only remain to make provision for arriving at a solution
-of questions in case of deadlock. This would naturally be done
-by the appointment of a permanent arbitrator, who would be
-selected in advance.</p>
-
-<p>The organization suggested includes, it will be remembered,
-only those employees whose names are on the permanent rolls of
-the operating department. For reasons which have been sufficiently
-referred to, those whose names are on the rolls of the other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[382]</a></span>
-four departments have not been considered. But there would be
-no difficulty in making provision for them also, should it be found
-expedient or desirable so to do. Through the system of representation
-the organization could in fact be made to include every
-employee in the permanent service of the company, not excepting
-the president, the general manager, or the general counsel. Each
-employee included would have one vote, and each division and
-department its representatives. The organization in other words
-is elastic. No matter how large it might be it would never become
-unwieldy so long as it resulted in the small committee which met
-in direct conference face to face with the board of directors.</p>
-
-<p>Could such a system as that which has been suggested be
-devised and put in practical operation there is reason to hope that
-the difficulties which have hitherto occurred between the great
-railroad companies and those in their pay would not occur in future.
-The movement is the natural and necessary outcome of the vast
-development referred to in the opening paragraphs of this paper.
-It is based on a simple recognition of acknowledged facts, and follows
-the lines of action with which the people of this country are
-most familiar. The path indicated is that in which for centuries
-they have been accustomed to tread. It has led them out of many
-difficulties. Why not out of this difficulty?</p>
-
-
-<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Note</span>.&mdash;The following paper was prepared for a special purpose in June, 1886, and then submitted
-to several of the leading officials directly engaged in the local management of the lines operated by
-the Union Pacific Railway Company, of which the writer had been president for two years. It drew
-forth from them various criticisms, which led to the belief that the publication of the paper at that time
-might easily result in more harm than good. It was accordingly laid aside, and no use made of it.
-</p>
-<p>
-Nearly three years have since elapsed, and the events of the year 1888&mdash;with its strike of engineers
-on the Chicago, Burlington &amp; Quincy&mdash;seem to indicate that the relations of railroad employees to the
-railroad companies have undergone no material change since the year 1886, when the strike on the
-Missouri Pacific took place. The same unsatisfactory condition of affairs apparently continues.
-There is a deep-seated trouble somewhere.
-</p>
-<p>
-No sufficient reason, therefore, exists for longer suppressing this paper. Provided the suggestions
-contained in it have any value at all, they may at least be accepted as contributions to a discussion
-which of itself has an importance that cannot be either denied or ignored.
-</p>
-<p>
-The paper is printed as it was prepared. The figures and statistics contained in it have no application,
-therefore, to the present time; nor has it been thought worth while to change them, inasmuch as
-they have little or no bearing upon the argument. That is just as applicable to the state of affairs
-now as it was to that which existed then. The only difference is that the course of events during the
-three intervening years has demonstrated that the paper, if it does no good, will certainly do no harm.
-</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap pad2">Boston</span>, February 4, 1889.</p>
-<p class="rt">C. F. A.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> See "Railway Management," <a href="#Page_151">page 151.</a></p></div></div>
-
-
-    <div class="chapter"></div>
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[383]</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">THE EVERY-DAY LIFE OF RAILROAD MEN.</a></h2>
-
-<p class="pfs90 smcap">By B. B. ADAMS, Jr.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The Typical Railroad Man&mdash;On the Road and at Home&mdash;Raising the Moral Standard&mdash;Characteristics
-of the Freight Brakeman&mdash;His Wit the Result of Meditation&mdash;How
-Slang is Originated&mdash;Agreeable Features of his Life in Fine Weather&mdash;Hardships
-in Winter&mdash;The Perils of Hand-brakes&mdash;Broken Trains&mdash;Going back to Flag&mdash;Coupling
-Accidents&mdash;At the Spring&mdash;Advantages of a Passenger Brakeman&mdash;Trials
-of the Freight Conductor&mdash;The Investigation of Accidents&mdash;Irregular Hours
-of Work&mdash;The Locomotive Engineer the Hero of the Rail&mdash;His Rare Qualities&mdash;The
-Value of Quick Judgment&mdash;Calm Fidelity a Necessary Trait&mdash;Saving Fuel on a
-Freight Engine&mdash;Making Time on a Passenger Engine&mdash;Remarkable Runs&mdash;The
-Spirit of Fraternity among Engineers&mdash;Difficult Duties of a Passenger-train Conductor&mdash;Tact
-in Dealing with Many People&mdash;Questions to be Answered&mdash;How
-Rough Characters are Dealt with&mdash;Heavy Responsibilities&mdash;The Work of a Station
-Agent&mdash;Flirtation by Telegraph&mdash;The Baggage-master's Hard Task&mdash;Eternal Vigilance
-Necessary in a Switch-tender&mdash;Section-men, Train Despatchers, Firemen,
-and Clerks&mdash;Efforts to Make the Railroad Man's Life Easier.</p></div>
-
-
-<div><img class="drop-cap" src="images/i_383dc.jpg" alt="" /></div>
-<p class="drop-cap">The typical railroad man "runs on the road;" he
-is not the one whose urbane presence adorns the
-much-heralded offices of the railroad companies on
-Broadway, where the gold letters on the front window
-are each considerably larger than the elbow-room
-allowed the clerks inside; nor, indeed, is he,
-generally speaking, the one with whom the public or
-the public's drayman comes in contact when visiting
-a large city station to ship or receive freight. These and others,
-whose part in the complex machinery of transportation is in a degree
-auxiliary, are indeed largely imbued with the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">esprit de corps</i>
-which originates in the main body of workers; but their duties are
-such that their interest is not especially lively. Even the men
-employed at stations in villages and large towns acquire a share
-of their railroad spirit at second hand, as life on a train is necessary
-to get the experience which embodies the true fascination
-which so charms Young America.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[384]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The railroad man's home-life is not specially different from
-other people's. There have been Chesterfields among conductors,
-and mechanical geniuses have grown up among the locomotive
-engineers, but these were products of an era now past. Station-men
-are a part of the communities where their duties place
-them. Trainmen and their families occupy a modest though
-highly respectable place in the society they live in. Trainmen
-who live in a city generally receive the same pay that is given to
-their brothers, doing the same work, whose homes are in the
-country. The families of the latter therefore enjoy purer air, lessened
-expenses, and other advantages which are denied the
-former.</p>
-
-<p>On most railroads the freight trainmen&mdash;engineers, conductors,
-brakemen, and firemen&mdash;are the most numerous and prominent
-class, as the number of freight trains is generally larger than
-that of passenger trains; and among these men there are more
-brakemen than anything else, because there are two or more on
-every train, while there is but one of each of the other classes.
-And as the ranks of the passenger-train service are generally recruited
-from the freight trainmen, it follows that the <em>freight brakeman</em>
-impresses his individuality quite strongly upon not only the
-circles in which he moves but the whole train-service as well.
-Freight conductors are promoted brakemen, and most (though
-not by any means all) passenger conductors are promoted freight
-conductors; so that the brakeman's prominent traits of character
-continue to appear throughout the several grades of the service.
-As he is promoted he of course improves. The general character
-of the <em>personnel</em> of the freight-train service has undergone a considerable
-change in the last twenty years. Whiskey drinkers have
-been weeded out, and pilferers with them. Improved discipline
-has effected a general toning up, raising the moral standard perceptibly.
-One reforming superintendent, a few years ago, on undertaking
-an aggressive campaign found himself compelled to discharge
-three-fifths of all his brakemen before he could regard the
-force as reasonably cleared of the rowdy element.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>The brakeman, like the "drummer," is a characteristic American
-product. Each has his wits sharpened by peculiar experiences,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[385]</a></span>
-and, while important lines of intellectual training are almost
-wholly neglected, there is contact with the world in various directions,
-which develops qualities that tend to elevate the individual
-in many ways. Although freight brakemen do not have any intercourse
-with the public, they somehow learn the ways of the
-world very quickly, and the brightest ones among them need very
-little training to fit them for a place on a passenger train where
-they are expected to deal with gentle ladies and fastidious millionaires,
-and bear themselves with the grace of a hotel clerk.
-Perhaps one reason why brakemen impress their characteristics
-on the whole <em>personnel</em> of the service is because they have abundance
-of opportunity for meditation. Many of them have a superfluity
-of hours and half-hours when they have nothing to do but
-ride on the top of a car and keep a general watch of the train, and
-they have ample time to think twice before speaking once. Even
-a circus clown or the vender of shoestrings or ten-cent watches
-has to study the arts of expression; why should not the intelligent
-trainman, who wishes to let people know that he is of some account
-in the world? If he wants a favor from a superior he knows
-just the best way of approach to secure success. If he deems it
-worth while to complain of anything, he formulates his appeal in a
-way that is sure to be telling. Everyone knows the old story of
-the brakeman who was refused a free pass home on Saturday
-night with the argument that his employer, if a farmer, could not
-be reasonably expected to hitch up a horse and buggy for such a
-purpose. The reply that, admitting this, the farmer who had his
-team already harnessed up and was going that way with an empty
-seat would be outrageously mean to refuse his hired man a ride,
-is none too 'cute to be characteristic. The brakeman who is not
-able to puncture the sophistries of narrow-souled or disingenuous
-superiors is the exception and not the rule.</p>
-
-<p>The brakeman gives the prevailing tone to the "society" of
-despatchers' lobbies and other lounging places which he frequents.
-If he be profane or fault-finding or sour, he can easily spread the
-influence of these unpleasant traits. A lazy brakeman becomes
-more lazy, because his work is in many respects easy. Having
-little to do he demands still less. A foul-mouthed one gives himself
-free rein because many usual restraints are absent. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[386]</a></span>
-prevalence of profanity, which, aside from the question of sinfulness,
-hampers a man in any aspirations he may have toward more
-elevating society, is perhaps the worst blot on the reputation of
-brakemen as a class. Many worthy men among them, and especially
-among conductors and engineers, have, however, done much
-to improve the tone of conversation in trainmen's haunts, and on
-the better disciplined roads decorum is the rule, and rowdyism the
-exception. There is abundance of humor and spirit, however. The
-brakeman originates whatever slang may be deemed necessary to
-give spice to the talk of the caboose and round-house. He calls a
-gravel train a "dust express," and refers to the pump for compressing
-air for the power-brakes as a "wind-jammer." The fireman's
-prosaic labors are lightened by being poetically mentioned as the
-"handling of black diamonds," and the mortification of being called
-into the superintendent's office to explain some dereliction of duty
-is disguised by referring to the episode as "dancing on the carpet."</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_386.jpg" width="350" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">"Dancing on the Carpet."</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The disagreeable features of a freight brakeman's life are chiefly
-those dependent upon
-the weather. If he
-could perform his duties
-in Southern California
-or Florida in
-winter, and in the
-Northern States in
-summer, his lot would
-ordinarily be a happy
-one, though the annoyance
-of tramps is
-almost universal in
-mild climates, and in
-many cases takes the
-shape of positive danger.
-These vagabonds
-persist in riding
-on or in the cars, while
-the faithful trainman
-must, according to his instructions, keep them off. In some sections
-of the country they will board a train in gangs of a dozen, armed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[387]</a></span>
-with pistols, and dictate where a train shall carry them. Not long
-ago in Chicago a conductor, while ejecting a tramp from the caboose,
-was shot and killed by the ruffian.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_387.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Trainman and Tramps.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The hardships of cold and stormy weather are serious, both because
-of the test of endurance involved and the added difficulties in
-handling a train. The Westinghouse automatic air-brake, which
-has served so admirably on passenger trains for the past fifteen
-years, has only recently been adapted and cheapened so as to make
-it available for long freight trains, but it is now so perfected that
-in a few years the brakeman who now has to ride on the outside of
-cars in a freezing condition for an hour at a time will be privileged
-to sit comfortably in his caboose while the speed of the train is
-governed by the engineer through the instantaneous action of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[388]</a></span>
-air-brake. On the steep roads of the Rocky Mountains, and a
-few other lines, this brake is already in use.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_389.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Braking in Hard Weather.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>But "braking by hand" is still the rule. In running on ascending
-grades or at slow speeds, the brakemen can ride under
-cover, but in descending grades, or on levels when the speed is
-high, they must be on the tops of the cars ready to instantly apply
-the brakes, for the reason that there are generally only three or
-four men to a long train weighing from 500 to 1,000 tons, whose
-momentum cannot be arrested very quickly. In descending steep
-grades, only the most constant and skilful care prevents the train
-from rushing at breakneck speed to the foot of the incline, or to a
-curve, where it would be precipitated over an embankment and
-crushed into splinters. One of the mountain roads in Colorado
-which now uses air-brakes is said to be lined its whole length with
-the ruins of cars lying in the gorges, where they were wrecked in
-the former days of hand-brakes. Even on grades much less steep
-than those in Colorado the danger of this sort of disaster is one
-that has to be constantly guarded against. Take the case of a
-40-car train descending a 1½ per cent. grade (79<sup>2</sup>/<sub>10</sub> feet per mile).
-Before all of the cars have passed over the summit and commenced
-to descend, the forward part of the train will have increased its velocity
-very perceptibly and will thus by its weight exert a strong
-pull on the rear portion, "yanking" it very roughly sometimes, and
-if one of the couplings between the cars chances to be weak it
-breaks, separating the train into two parts. Mishaps of this kind
-are frequent, and two or more breakages often occur at the same
-time, dividing the train so that one of the parts&mdash;between the two
-end portions&mdash;is perhaps left with no brakeman upon it. The
-engineman then has the choice of slackening his speed and allowing
-the unmanageable cars to violently collide with his portion, or
-of increasing his own speed to such a rate that he is soon in danger
-of suddenly overtaking a train ahead of him. To avoid this breaking-in-two
-the brakemen must be wide awake on the instant and
-see that their brakes are tightened before the speed even begins
-to elude control. As soon as the whole train has got beyond the
-summit, and the speed is reduced to a proper rate by the application
-of the brakes on, say, one-third or one-half the cars, it will
-perhaps be found that one or two brakes too many have been put<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[389]</a></span>
-on and that the train is running
-too slowly. Some of them must
-then be loosened. Or perhaps some are set so tightly that the
-friction heats the wheels unduly or causes them to slide along the
-track instead of rolling; then those brakes must be released and
-some on other cars applied instead; and all this must be done
-(sometimes for an hour) when the temperature is 20 degrees below
-zero, or the wind is blowing a gale, just as under more favorable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[390]</a></span>
-circumstances. A train moving at 20 miles an hour against a wind
-with a velocity of 30 miles increases the latter to 50, so far as the
-brakeman is concerned; and if rain or sleet is falling, the force of
-it on his hands and face is very severe. If we add to this the danger
-attendant upon stepping from one car to another over a gap of
-27 to 30 inches, in a dark night, when the cars are constantly moving
-up and down on their springs and are swaying to one side or
-the other every few seconds, we get some idea of, though we cannot
-realize, the sensations that must at such times fill the minds of
-the men whose pleasant berth seems so enjoyable on a mild summer's
-day. And this is not an overdrawn picture or the worst that
-might be given; for rain and snow combined often coat the roofs
-of cars so completely and solidly that they are worse than the
-smoothest skating-pond, and moving upon them is attended with
-danger at every step. Jumping&mdash;it cannot be called walking&mdash;from
-one car to another is in such cases positively reckless. The brake-apparatus
-will in a snow-storm be coated with ice so rapidly that
-vigorous action is required to keep it in working condition. Even
-a wind alone, in dry weather, sometimes compels the men to <em>crawl</em>
-from one car to another, grasping such projections as they may.
-The brakeman who forgets to take his rubber coat and overalls
-sometimes suffers severely from sudden changes of temperature.
-In spring or fall a lively shower will be encountered in a sheltered
-valley, and the clothing be completely drenched, and then within
-perhaps half an hour the ascent of a few hundred feet brings the
-train into an atmosphere a few degrees below the freezing point, so
-that with the aid of the wind, fanned by the speed of the train, the
-clothes are very soon frozen stiff.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_391.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Flagging in Winter.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Another feature which often involves discomfort, and occasionally
-positive suffering and danger, is "going back to flag." When
-a train is unexpectedly stopped upon the road, the brakeman at
-the rear end must immediately take his red flag or lantern and go
-back a half-mile or more to give the "stop" signal to the engine-men
-of any train that may be following. This rule is sometimes
-disregarded in clear weather on straight lines, and is even evaded
-by lazy or unfaithful brakemen where the neglect is positively dangerous,
-but still many a faithful man has to go out and stand for a
-long time in a severe snow-storm or risk his life in walking several<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[391]</a></span>
-miles to a station. The record of individual perils and heroisms
-in the New York blizzard of March, 1888, are paralleled, or at least
-repeated, on a slightly milder scale, by brakemen every winter.
-Even in the blizzard country of the Northwest, where a half hour's
-exposure is often fatal, the system of train-running is such that
-the stopping of a train at an unexpected place involves danger of
-collision if the brakeman does not at once go back and <em>stay back</em>.
-A "tail-end" brakeman has various anxieties, which cannot be detailed
-here. Often there is a possibility that the advancing engineer
-will not see his red lantern. One brakeman in New Brunswick
-several years ago ignominiously deserted his post, leaving<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[392]</a></span>
-his train to look out for itself, because of a visit from a huge bear
-whose residence was in the woods near the point on the railroad
-where the brakeman
-was keeping his lonely
-night-vigil.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_392.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Coupling.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The danger of sudden
-accidental death
-or maiming is constant
-and great, and the
-bare record of the numerous
-cases is acutely
-suggestive of inexpressible
-suffering;
-but, strange to say, it
-does not worry the
-average brakeman
-much. Though probably a thousand trainmen are killed in this
-country every year, and four or five thousand injured, by collisions
-and derailments, in coupling cars, falling off trains, striking low
-overhead bridges, and from other causes, <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;Original text: 'no one brakeman'">not one brakeman</ins>, from
-what he sees in his own experience, realizes the danger very vividly.
-As in other dangers which are constant but inevitable, familiarity
-breeds carelessness which is closely akin to contempt. Falling
-from trains is really a serious danger, because the most
-ceaseless caution&mdash;next to impossible for the average man to
-maintain&mdash;is necessary to avoid missteps. This will be practically
-abolished when the long-wished-for air-brake comes into use, as
-that will obviate the necessity of riding on the tops of the cars.</p>
-
-<p>Coupling accidents are practically unavoidable because, although
-the necessary manipulations <em>can</em> be made without going
-between the cars or placing the hands in dangerous situations, the
-men as a general thing prefer to take the risk of the more dangerous
-method. With the ordinary freight-car apparatus (which,
-however, is destined to be superseded by an automatic coupler)
-the link by which the cars are connected is retained by a pin in
-the drawbar of either car; as one car approaches another at considerable
-speed, this link, which hangs loosely down at an angle of
-thirty degrees, must be lifted and guided into the opening in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[393]</a></span>
-opposite drawbar. This operation must, according to the regulations
-of most roads, be performed by the aid of a short stick; but,
-disregarding the regulation, partly to save time and partly because
-of fear of the ridicule that would be called out by the exhibition
-of a lack of dexterity, the average brakeman uses his fingers.
-He must lift the link and hold it horizontally until the end enters
-the opening, and then withdraw his hand before the heavy drawbars
-come together. A delay of a fraction of a second would
-crush the hand or finger as under a trip-hammer. And, in point
-of fact, this delay does, for various reasons, frequently happen, and
-the number of trainmen with wounded hands to be found in every
-large freight-yard is sad evidence of the fact. But again, assuming
-that this part of the operation is accomplished in safety, there
-is another and worse danger in the possibility of being crushed
-bodily. Cars are built with projecting timbers on their ends at or
-near the centre, for the purpose of keeping the main body of each
-car twelve or fifteen inches from its neighbor; but cars of dissimilar
-pattern sometimes meet in such a way that the projections on
-one lap past those on the other, and the space which should afford
-room for the man to stand in safety is not maintained. If the
-brakeman, in the darkness of night or the hurry of his work, fails
-to note the peculiarities of the cars, he is mercilessly crushed, the
-ponderous vehicles often banging together with a force of many
-tons. A constant danger in coupling and uncoupling is the liability
-to catch the feet in angles in the track.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> Freight conductors
-are peculiarly liable to this, as the duty of uncoupling (pulling out
-the coupling-pin) generally devolves upon them, and must be
-done while the train is in motion. Walking rapidly along, in the
-dark, with the right hand holding a lantern and grasping the car,
-while the left is tugging at a pin which sticks, involves perplexities
-wherein a moment's hesitation may prove fatal.</p>
-
-<p>The dangers here recounted are those which only brakemen
-(or those acting as brakemen) have to meet. The liability of all
-trainmen to be killed by the cars tumbling down a bank, colliding
-with another train, and a hundred other conditions, is also considerable.
-The horror which the public feels on the occurrence of
-such a disaster as that at Chatsworth, Ill., in the summer of 1887,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[394]</a></span>
-or the half-dozen other terrible ones within the past few years,
-could reasonably be repeated every month if railroad employees
-instead of passengers were considered. There are no accurate
-official statistics kept of the train accidents in the country, but the
-accounts compiled monthly by the <cite>Railroad Gazette</cite> always show
-a large number of casualties to railroad men from causes <em>beyond
-their own control</em> (collisions, running off the track, etc.), no mention
-being made of the larger number resulting from the victims'
-own want of caution. In the month of March, 1887, in which
-occurred the terrible Bussey Bridge disaster, near Boston, 25 passengers
-were killed in the United States; but the same month
-recorded 34 employees killed. At Chatsworth 80 passengers were
-killed; but in that and the following month the number of employees
-killed in the country reached 97. In both of these comparisons
-the number of passengers is exceptional, while that of
-employees is ordinary. But, as already intimated, these dangers
-and discouragements are distributed over such a large territory
-and among such a large number of individuals that the general
-serenity of the brakeman's life is not much disturbed by them. In
-spite of them all, he enjoys his work and, if he is adapted to the
-calling, he sticks to it.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_395.jpg" width="550" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">The Pleasant Part of a Brakeman's Life.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The brakeman must be on hand promptly at the hour of his
-train's preparation for departure, and generally he must do his
-part in 15, 30, or 60 minutes' lively work in assembling cars from
-different tracks, changing them from the front to the rear or middle
-of the train, and setting aside those that are broken or disabled;
-but, once on the road, by far the greater portion of his time
-is his own, for his own enjoyment, almost as fully as that of the passenger
-who travels for the express purpose of entertaining himself.
-In mild weather and in daylight, life on the top of a freight train is
-almost wholly devoid of unpleasant features, and it takes on the
-nature of work only for the same reason that any routine becomes
-more or less irksome after a time. Much of the time there are a
-few bushels of cinders from the engine flying in the air, which a
-novice can get into his eyes with great facility, but the brakeman
-gets used to them. He sees every day (on many roads) the
-beauties of nature in great variety. Much of the scenery of the
-adjoining country is 500 per cent. more enjoyable from the brakeman's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[395]</a></span>
-perch on the roof than from the car windows, for the reason
-that the increased height gives such an enlarged horizon. This
-education from nature is an element in railroad men's lives not to
-be despised. The trainman whose daily trips take him past the
-panoramic charms of the Connecticut Valley in summer, through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[396]</a></span>
-the gorgeous-hued mountain-foliage along the Erie in autumn, or
-the perennial grandeur of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado, certainly
-enjoys a privilege for which many a city worker would gladly
-make large sacrifices. But to trainmen the refining influence of
-these surroundings is often an unconscious influence, and with the
-majority of them is perhaps generally so, because of the prosaic
-round of every-day thoughts filling their minds. There are also
-some other advantages, not wholly unæsthetic, which a millionaire
-might almost envy the freight trainman. Every twenty miles or
-so the engine must stop for water, and it often happens that this
-is in a cool place where the men can at the same time refresh
-themselves with spring water whose sparkling purity is unknown
-in New York or Chicago. Though brakemen who love beer are
-not by any means scarce, an accessible spring or well of pure water
-along the line always finds appreciative users during warm weather;
-and the Kentuckian who sojourned six months in Illinois without
-thinking to try the water there is not represented in the ranks of
-level-headed brakemen. A certain railroad president regales himself
-in summer on spring water brought in jugs from 100 miles
-up the road by trainmen who find in this service an opportunity to
-"make themselves solid" at headquarters. Freight trainmen get
-all the delicious products of the soil at first hands. In their stops
-at way-stations they get acquainted with the farmers, and can make
-their selection of the best things at low prices, thus (if they keep
-house) living on fruits, vegetables, etc., of a quality fit for a king.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<div class="sandbagbox" id="img397">
- <div id="i397b1">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i397b2">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i397b3">&nbsp;</div>
- <div id="i397b4">&nbsp;</div>
-
-<div class="caption right">At the Spring.</div>
-
-<p>The passenger-train brakeman differs from the freight trainman
-chiefly in the fact that he must deal with the public, and so
-must have a care for his personal appearance and behavior, and in
-the fact that he is <em>not a brakeman</em>, the universal air-brake relieving
-him of all work in this line. His chief duties are those of a
-porter, though the wide-awake American brakeman, with an eye
-to future promotion to a conductorship, maintains his dignity and
-is not by any means the servile call-boy that the English railway
-porter is. The wearing of uniforms has been introduced here from
-England and is, in the main, a good feature, though some roads,
-whose discipline is otherwise quite good, allow their men to appear
-in slovenly and even ragged clothes. Superintendents should give<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[397]</a></span>
-more care to this matter, as it is not an unimportant one. It
-affects the men's self-respect and influences their usefulness in other
-ways. The frugal brakeman cannot
-wear his blue suit on Sunday
-or a-visiting, and his Sunday
-suit when old cannot
-be used up by week-day
-wear, so he naturally
-concludes that his
-employer is guilty of a little
-undue severity toward him. Brakemen on the modern "limited"
-trains (a three hours' run without a stop constituting a day's
-work) have in some respects too easy a task, and their minds are
-more likely to rust out than to wear out. They have a constant
-care, to be sure, and sometimes must "go back to flag," the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[398]</a></span>
-as a freight trainman, but, in the main, their berth would about fill
-the ideal of the Irish shoveller who confided to his fellow-workman
-that "for a nice, clane, aisy job" he would like to be a bishop.</p>
-</div>
-
-    <div class="HandHeld">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_397.jpg" width="575" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">At the Spring.</div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p>The passenger-train brakeman differs from the freight trainman
-    chiefly in the fact that he must deal with the public, and so
-    must have a care for his personal appearance and behavior, and in
-    the fact that he is <em>not a brakeman</em>, the universal air-brake relieving
-    him of all work in this line. His chief duties are those of a
-    porter, though the wide-awake American brakeman, with an eye
-    to future promotion to a conductorship, maintains his dignity and
-    is not by any means the servile call-boy that the English railway
-    porter is. The wearing of uniforms has been introduced here from
-    England and is, in the main, a good feature, though some roads,
-    whose discipline is otherwise quite good, allow their men to appear
-    in slovenly and even ragged clothes. Superintendents should give
-    more care to this matter, as it is not an unimportant one. It
-    affects the men's self-respect and influences their usefulness in other
-    ways. The frugal brakeman cannot
-    wear his blue suit on Sunday
-    or a-visiting, and his Sunday
-    suit when old cannot
-    be used up by week-day
-    wear, so he naturally
-    concludes that his
-    employer is guilty of a little
-    undue severity toward him. Brakemen on the modern "limited"
-    trains (a three hours' run without a stop constituting a day's
-    work) have in some respects too easy a task, and their minds are
-    more likely to rust out than to wear out. They have a constant
-    care, to be sure, and sometimes must "go back to flag," the same
-    as a freight trainman, but, in the main, their berth would about fill
-    the ideal of the Irish shoveller who confided to his fellow-workman
-    that "for a nice, clane, aisy job" he would like to be a bishop.</p>
-    </div>
-
-<p>Brakemen have had the reputation of doing a good deal of
-flirting, and many a country-girl has found a worthy husband
-among them; but there is not so much of this method of diversion
-as formerly; both passenger and freight men now have to attend
-more strictly to business, and they cannot conveniently indulge in
-side play. There are still, however, enough short branch-lines
-and slow-going roads in backwoods districts to insure that flirting
-shall not become a lost art in this part of the world.</p>
-
-<p>The freight conductor is simply a high grade of brakeman.
-His work is almost wholly supervisory and clerical, and so, after
-several years' service, he becomes more sober and business-like in
-his bearing, the responsibilities of his position being sufficient to
-effect this change; but he generally retains his sympathies with his
-old associates who have become subordinates. His duties are to
-keep the record of the train, the time, numbers of cars, etc.; to see
-that the brakemen regulate the speed when necessary, and to keep
-a general watch. The calculations necessary to make a 75-mile
-trip and get over the line without wasting time are often considerable,
-and an inexperienced conductor can easily keep himself in a
-worry for the whole trip. Often he cannot go more than ten miles
-after making way for a passenger train before another overtakes
-him; so that he must spend a good share of his time sitting in his
-caboose with the time-table in one hand and his watch in the other,
-calculating where and when to side-track the train. On single-track
-roads perplexities of this kind are generally more numerous
-than on double lines, because trains both in front and behind must
-be guarded against, and because the regulations are frequently
-modified by telegraphic instructions from headquarters. A mistake
-in reading these instructions, which are written in pencil, often by
-a slovenly penman, and on tissue-paper, may, and occasionally does,
-cause a disastrous collision. These duties of conductors are especially
-characteristic of trains that must keep out of the way of passenger
-trains, so that in this particular line it will be seen that
-the passenger conductor has much the easier berth. The freight
-and "work-train" conductor must really be a better calculator, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[399]</a></span>
-many ways, than the wearer of gilt badges and buttons, though the
-latter receives the higher pay.</p>
-
-<p>The <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">bête noire</i> of the freight conductor is an investigation at
-headquarters concerning delinquencies in which the blame is divided.
-A typical case of this kind is that of a freight train which
-has stopped at some unusual place and been run into by a following
-train, doing some hundreds of dollars damage, if not killing or injuring
-persons. "Strict adherence to rules will avert all such
-accidents," the code says; but they do happen, and the inquiry as
-to whether the conductor used due diligence in sending a man with
-a red flag to warn the oncoming train, or the engineer of the
-latter was heedless, or what was the trouble, is the occasion of
-much anxiety.</p>
-
-<p>Conductors, concerning whose life I have only noted a few of
-the duties and perplexities, are not so much subject to the vicissitudes
-of cold and wet weather, and therefore have in many respects
-better opportunities than the brakemen to avail themselves
-of the enjoyments of a trainman's life. The risk to life and limb
-from coupling cars, etc., is also somewhat less, though many a
-faithful conductor has lost his life in the performance of a dangerous
-duty which he had assumed out of generous consideration for
-an inexperienced or overworked subordinate. The beneficial influences
-on health, mind, and morals coming from contact with nature
-are, as before remarked, largely unconscious influences, because
-of the counteracting effect of the immediate surroundings.
-The irregular hours are unfavorable to health. The crews run in
-turn; if there are forty crews and forty trains daily, each crew will
-start out at about the same hour each day. But if on Monday
-there are forty trains, on Tuesday thirty, and on Wednesday fifty,
-it will be seen that the starting time must be very irregular. Ten
-of the crews which worked on Monday will have nothing to do on
-Tuesday, but on Wednesday or Thursday will have to do double
-service. The first trip will be all in the daytime, and the next all
-in the night, perhaps. This irregularity is constant, and it is impossible
-to tell on Monday morning where one will be on Wednesday.
-All the week's sleep may have to be taken in the daytime
-or all at night. There may be five days' work to do between
-Monday morning and the following Monday morning, or there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[400]</a></span>
-may be nine. The trainman has to literally board in his "mammoth"
-dinner-pail, and his wife or boarding mistress knows less
-about his whereabouts than if he were on an Arctic whaling vessel.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>The locomotive engineer is the popular "hero of the rail," and
-the popular estimate in this respect is substantially just. Others
-have to brave dangers and perform duties under trying circumstances;
-but the engine-runner has to ride in the most dangerous
-part of the train, take charge of a steam-boiler that may explode
-and blow him to atoms, and of machinery that may break and kill
-him, and try to keep up a vigilance which only a being more than
-human could successfully maintain. He must be a tolerably skilful
-machinist&mdash;he cannot be too good&mdash;and have nerves that will
-remain steady under the most trying circumstances. If running a
-fast express through midnight darkness over a line where a similar
-train has been tipped off a precipice (and a brother runner
-killed) by train-wreckers the night before, he must dash forward
-with the same confidence that he would feel in broad daylight on
-an open prairie. But he does not "heroically grasp the throttle"
-in the face of danger, when the throttle has been already shut,
-nor does he "whistle down brakes," in order to add a stirring element
-to the reporter's tale, when by the magic of the air-brake he
-can, with a turn of his hand, apply every brake in the train with
-the grip of a vise in less time than it would take him to reach the
-whistle-pull. When there is danger ahead there is generally just
-one thing to do, and that is to stop as soon as possible. An instant
-suffices for shutting off the steam and applying the brake.
-With modern trains this is all that is necessary or can be done.
-Reversing the engine is necessary on many engines, and formerly
-was on all; this would, in fact, be done instinctively by old runners,
-in any case, but this also is done in a second. After taking
-these measures there is nothing for the engineman to do but look
-out for his own safety. In some circumstances, as in the case of
-a partially burned bridge which may possibly support the train
-even in a weakened condition, it may be best to put on all steam.
-The runner is then in a dilemma, and a right decision is a matter
-of momentary inspiration. Many lives have been saved by
-quick-witted runners in such cases, but there is no ground for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[401]</a></span>
-censure of the engineer who, in the excitement of the moment, decides
-to slacken instead of quicken his speed. The rare cases of
-this kind are what show the value of experience, and of men of
-the right temperament and degree of intelligence to acquire experience-lessons
-readily. The writer recalls an instance several
-years ago where an alert, steady, and experienced runner found
-himself on the crossing of another railroad with a heavy train rushing
-toward him on the transverse track at uncontrollable speed.
-It was too late to retreat, and in less than ten seconds the oncoming
-train would crash broadside into his cars, filled with passengers.
-A frantic effort to increase the speed and clear the crossing
-would have either broken the weak couplings then in use or
-would have simply whirled the driving-wheels with such excessive
-force as to slacken the speed of the train rather than accelerate it.
-In point of fact, the rear car just escaped being struck by the ponderous
-engine bearing down upon it at the rate of twenty or thirty
-feet a second; and the preservation of the lives of the passengers
-was due to the fact that the engineer was well-balanced, quick to
-act, and not excitable. What did he do? He instantly put on
-more steam, but with unerring judgment opened the valve just far
-enough and no more.</p>
-
-<p>But the terrible cloud constantly hanging over the engineer and
-fireman of a fast train is the chance of encountering an obstacle
-which cannot possibly be avoided, and which leaves them no alternative
-but to jump for their lives, if, indeed, it does not take away even
-that. To the fact that this cloud is no larger than it is, and that
-these men have sturdy and courageous natures, must be attributed
-the lightness with which it rests upon them. On one road or another,
-from a washout, or inefficient management, or a collision
-caused by an operator's forgetfulness, or some one of a score of
-other causes, there are constantly occurring cases of men heroically
-meeting death under the most heart-rending circumstances.
-Every month records a number of such, though happily they are
-not frequent on any one road. The case of Engineer Kennar, a
-year or more ago, is a typical one. Precipitated with his engine
-into a river by a washout which the roadmaster's vigilance had
-failed to discover, his first thought, as zealous hands tried to rescue
-him, was for the safety of his train; and, forgetting his own<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[402]</a></span>
-anguish, he warned those about him to attend first to the sending
-of a red lantern to warn a following train against a collision. The
-significance of facts like this is not so much in the service to humanity
-done at the time, or even in the example set for those who
-shall meet such crises in the future, but rather in the evidence they
-give of the firm and lofty conscientiousness that inspires the every-day
-conduct of thousands of engineers all over the land. As has
-already been said, the critical occasions on which engineers are
-supposed to be heroic often allow them no chance at all to be
-either heroic or cowardly, and their heroism must be, and is, manifested
-in the calm fidelity with which they, day after day and year
-after year, perform their exacting and often monotonous round of
-duties while all the time knowing of the possibilities before them.</p>
-
-<p>On the best of roads a freight train wrecked by a broken wheel
-under a borrowed car may be thrown in the path of a passenger
-train on another track, just as the latter approaches. This has
-happened more than once lately. No amount of fidelity or forethought
-(except in the maker of the wheels) can prevent this kind
-of disaster. There is constant danger, on most roads, of running
-off the track at misplaced switches, many switches being located
-at points where the runner can see them only a few seconds before
-he is upon them; but the chance is so small&mdash;perhaps one in ten
-or a hundred thousand&mdash;that the average runner forgets it, and it
-is only by severe self-discipline that he can hold himself up to compliance
-with the rule which requires him to be on the watch for
-every switch-target as long before reaching it as he possibly can.
-He finds the switches all right and the road perfectly clear so regularly,
-day after day and month after month, that he may easily
-fall into the snare of thinking that they will always be so. But,
-like other trainmen, the engineman finds enough more agreeable
-thoughts to fill his mind, and reflects upon the hazards of his vocation
-perhaps too little.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_403.jpg" width="375" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Just Time to Jump.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The freight engineman's every-day thoughts are largely about
-the care of his engine and the perplexities incident to getting out
-of it the maximum amount of work with the minimum amount of
-fuel. The constant aim of his superiors is to have the engine draw
-every pound it possibly can. To haul a train up a long and steep
-grade when the cars are so heavily loaded that a single additional<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[403]</a></span>
-one would bring the whole to a dead stand-still requires a knack
-that can be appreciated only by viewing the performance on the
-spot. Failure not only wastes
-time and fuel (it may necessitate
-a return to the foot
-of the hill or going to
-the top with only
-half the load), but
-it raises a suspicion
-that some other
-runner might
-have succeeded
-better. The runner
-whose engine
-"lays down on the
-road" (fails to draw
-its load because of
-insufficient fire and
-consequent low
-steam-pressure) is
-liable to the jeers of his comrades on his return home, if not to
-some sharp inquiries from his superior.</p>
-
-<p>The passenger runner's greatest concern is to "make time."
-Some trains are scheduled so that the engineman must keep his locomotive
-up to its very highest efficiency over every furlong of its
-journey in order to arrive at his destination on time. A little carelessness
-in firing, in letting cold water into the boiler irregularly, or
-in slackening more than is necessary where the right to the track is
-in doubt for a few rods; these and a score of similar circumstances
-may make five minutes' delay in the arrival at the terminus and
-necessitate an embarrassing interview with the trainmaster. A
-trip on a crowded line may involve watching for danger-signals
-every quarter of a mile and the maintenance of such high speed
-that they must be obeyed the instant they are espied in order to
-avoid the possibility of collision.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[404]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The passenger runner finds himself now and then with a disabled
-engine on his hands, and two or three hundred passengers
-standing around apparently ready to eat him up if he does not
-remedy the difficulty in short order. Often in such cases he is in
-doubt himself whether the repairs necessary to enable his engine
-to proceed will occupy fifteen minutes or an hour. This, with
-the knotty question of where the nearest relief engine is, causes
-the brow to knit and the sweat to start, and to the young runner
-proves an experience which he long remembers.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[405]</a></span><br />
-   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[406]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_405.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">A Breakdown on the Road.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Stories of fast running are common but unreliable; and when
-truthful, important considerations are often omitted. There are
-so many elements to be considered, that usually the verdict can be
-justly rendered only after a careful comparison with previous records.
-Most regular runs include a number of stops, and are subject
-to numerous slackenings of the speed, thus dimming the lustre
-of the record of the trip as a whole. Frequently, quick runs which
-have been reported as noteworthy have had favoring circumstances
-not told of. The most remarkable single run on record was that
-of Jarrett &amp; Palmer's special train chartered to carry their theatrical
-company from New York to San Francisco (Jersey City to
-Oakland), June 1&ndash;4, 1876, which is well known to all Americans.
-Perhaps the fastest long run ever made in this country was that of
-a special train over the West Shore Railroad from East Buffalo to
-Frankfort, N. Y., two hundred and one miles, on July 9, 1885,
-which ran this distance in four hours, including several stops.
-This train ran thirty-six miles in thirty minutes, and ran many single
-miles in forty-three seconds each. An engine with two cars ran
-over the Canada Southern Division of the Michigan Central from
-St. Clair Junction to Windsor, Ont., on November 16, 1886, a distance
-of one hundred and seven miles, in ninety-seven minutes;
-and this included two or three stops. The average rate of speed
-was about sixty-nine miles an hour, and in places it rose to seventy-five
-and over. The engineers and their firemen, and all connected
-with the handling of the trains, certainly deserve credit for performances
-like these, and they receive it; but the supplying of the
-perfect machine, the smooth and safe roadway comparatively clear
-of other trains, and other conditions, is so manifestly beyond their
-control, while at the same time constituting such an important factor
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[407]</a></span>
-in the result, that praise should be given discriminatingly. An
-engineer who makes a specially quick trip feels proud of his engine,
-and of the honor of having been chosen for an important run,
-and he shares with the passengers the exhilaration produced by
-such a triumph of science and skill in annihilating space; but in
-the matter of credit to himself for experience and judgment, patience
-and forethought, he feels and knows that many a trip in his
-every-day service is worthy of greater recognition. Many a runner
-has to urge his engine, day after day, with a load twenty-five per
-cent. heavier than it was designed for, over track that is fit only
-for low speeds, at a rate which demands the most constant care.
-He must run fast enough over the better portions of the track to
-allow of slackening where prudence demands slackening. The
-tracks of many roads are rendered so uneven by the action of
-frost in winter that with an unskilful runner the passengers would
-be half-frightened by the unsteady
-motion of the cars.
-This condition is not common
-on the important trunk-lines,
-of course; but it does prevail
-on roads that carry a great
-many passengers, nevertheless;
-and engineers who
-guide trains over such difficult
-journeys, gently luring
-the passengers, with the aid
-of the excellent springs under
-the cars, into the belief
-that they are riding over a
-track of uniform smoothness,
-should not be forgotten in
-any estimate of the fraternity
-as a whole.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_407.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Timely Warning.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The engineer whose humanity
-is not hardened has
-his feelings harrowed occasionally by pedestrians who risk their
-lives on the track. Tramps and other careless persons are so numerous
-that the casual passenger in a locomotive cab generally cannot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[408]</a></span>
-ride fifty miles without seeing what seems to him a hair-breadth
-escape, but which is nevertheless treated by the engineer as a commonplace
-occurrence. These heedless wayfarers do, however, occasionally
-carry their indifference to danger too far, and they are
-tossed in the air like feathers.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> Doubtless there are those who,
-like the fireman who talked with the tender-hearted young lady,
-regret the killing of a man chiefly "because it musses up the engine
-so;" but, taking the fraternity as a whole, warmth of heart
-and tenderness of feeling may be called not only well-developed
-but prominent traits of character. The great strike on the Chicago,
-Burlington &amp; Quincy road in 1888, which proved to have been
-ill-advised, would have been possible only in a body of men actuated
-by the most loyal friendship. Undoubtedly a large conservative
-element in the Brotherhood of Engineers believed the move
-injudicious, but they joined in it out of an intense spirit of fidelity
-to their brethren and leaders.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_409.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">The Passenger Conductor.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The passenger-train conductor has in many respects the most
-difficult position in the railroad ranks. He should be a first-class
-freight conductor and a polished gentleman to boot. But in his
-long apprenticeship on a freight train he has very likely been
-learning how <em>not</em> to fulfil the additional requirements of a passenger
-conductorship. In that service he could be uncouth and
-even boorish, and still fill his position tolerably well; now he feels
-the need of a life-time of tuition in dealing with the diverse phases
-of human nature met with on a passenger train. He must now
-manage his train in a sort of automatic way, for he has his mind
-filled with the care of his passengers and the collection of tickets.
-He must be good at figures, keeping accounts, and handling
-money, though the freight-train service has given him no experience
-in this line. Year by year the clerical work connected with
-the taking up of tickets and collecting of cash fares has been increased
-until now, on many roads, an expert bank clerk would be
-none too proficient for the duties imposed. The conductor who
-grumblingly averred that "it would take a Philadelphia lawyer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[409]</a></span>
-with three heads" to fill his shoes was not far out of the way.
-Every day, and perhaps a number of times a day, he must collect
-fares of fifty or a hundred persons in less time than he ought to
-have for ten. Of that large number a few will generally have a
-complaint to make, or an objection to offer, or an impudent assertion
-concerning a fault of the railroad company which the conductor
-cannot remedy and is not responsible for. A woman will
-object to paying half-fare for a ten-year-old girl or to paying full
-rates for one of fifteen. A person whose income is ten times
-larger than he deserves will argue twenty minutes to avoid paying
-ten cents more (in cash) than he would have been charged for a
-ticket. Passengers with legitimate questions to ask will couch
-them in vague and backhanded terms, and those with useless ones
-will take inopportune times to propound them. These are not occasional
-but every-day experiences. The very best and most intelligent
-people in the community (excepting those who travel much)
-are among those who oftenest leave their wits at home when they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[410]</a></span>
-take a railroad trip. All these people must be met in a conciliatory
-manner, but without varying the strict regulations in the least
-degree. The officers of the revenue department are inexorable
-masters, and passengers offended by alleged uncivil treatment are
-likely to make absurd complaints at the superintendent's office. A
-conductor dreads an investigation of this sort, however unreasonable
-the passengers' complaints may be, because it may tend to
-show that he lacked tact in handling the case. But after becoming
-habituated to this sort of dealings, there are still left the occasional
-disturbances which no amount of philosophy can make
-pleasant. These are the encounters with drunken and disorderly
-passengers. The conductor, starting at the forward end of his
-train, finds, perhaps, in the first car one or two "toughs" who refuse
-payment of fare and are spoiling for a fight. Care must be
-taken with this sort of character not to punish him or use the least
-bit of unnecessary severity, for he will, when sobered off, quite
-likely be induced by a sharp lawyer to sue the railroad company
-for damages by assault. The conductor, however, if he be one
-who has (in his freight-train experience) dealt with tramps, is able
-to cope with his customer and confine him to the baggage-car or
-put him off the train. But a tussle of this kind is at best far from
-soothing to the temper, and the very next car may contain the
-wife of a nabob, who will expect the most genteel treatment
-and critically object to any behavior on the part of the conductor
-which is not fully up to the highest drawing-room standard. Experiences
-of this kind, it can be readily imagined, are exceedingly
-trying. The conductor cannot give himself up completely to learning
-gentility, for he still has need for his old severity.</p>
-
-<p>The difficulty of always finding the ideal person when wanted
-has led to the employment of men of good address who have had
-little or no training on freight trains; so that we find some conductors
-who are able to deal with all sorts of passengers with a
-good degree of success, but who are far from brilliant as managers
-of trains, technically speaking; while others, who from their early
-experience have first-class executive ability, are slow in discarding
-the somewhat rough habits of the freight train. While there are
-not wanting those who strive faithfully to reach the ideal, and succeed
-admirably, it may be said that the average conductor retains<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[411]</a></span>
-more of the severe than of the gentle side of his character, at least
-so far as outward behavior goes. The rigid requirements of his
-financial superiors, which compel him to actually fight for his
-rights with dishonest and stingy passengers, make it almost impossible
-that he should be otherwise. Ignorant foreigners, poor
-women and girls who have lost their way, and other unfortunates
-are, however, encountered often enough to preclude the conductor's
-forgetting how to be compassionate.</p>
-
-<p>The heroic element is not wholly lacking in the conductor's
-life. The temporary guardianship of several hundred people is an
-important trust even in smooth sailing, but the conductor's possibilities
-are entirely different from the engineer's. He has so much
-to do to attend to the petty wants of passengers that their remoter
-but more important interests are not given much thought.
-The anxieties of a hundred nervous passengers who terribly
-dread the loss of an hour by a missed connection are much more
-likely to weigh down a conductor's mind than any thoughts of his
-duty to them in a possible emergency that will happen only once
-in five years. And yet the last-mentioned contingency is a real
-one. Only last year, in the great Eastern blizzard, conductors
-risked their lives in protecting their passengers. One spent
-three or four hours in travelling a mile and a half to a telegraph-office;
-in consequence of the six feet of snow, the blinding storm,
-and the darkness, he had to constantly hug a barbed-wire fence to
-avoid losing his way, and was on the point of exhaustion when
-he reached the station.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>The term "station-agent" means, practically, the person in
-charge of a small or medium-sized station. When one of these
-men is promoted to the charge of a large city station, either
-freight or passenger, he becomes really a local superintendent,
-his duties then consisting very largely in the supervision of an
-army of clerks and laborers who must, each in his place, be as
-capable as the agent himself. The agent at a small station has
-a great multiplicity of duties to perform. He must sell tickets,
-be a good book-keeper, and a faithful switch-tender. He generally
-must be a telegraph-operator and must be vigorous physically.
-He must be ready, like the conductor, to submit to some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[412]</a></span>
-abuse from ill-bred customers, and should be the peer of the business
-men of his town. He often encounters almost as great a
-variety of knotty problems as the superintendent himself, though
-he has the advantage that he can generally turn them over to a
-superior if he feels unequal to them. The practical difficulties
-that most beset him are those incident to doing everything in a
-hurry. People who buy tickets wait until the train is about to
-start before presenting themselves at the office. Then the agent
-has a dozen other things to attend to, and must therefore detect
-counterfeit ten-dollar bills with the expertness of a Washington
-treasury-clerk. Just as a train reaches his station the train despatcher's
-click is heard on the wires, and he must drop everything
-and receive (for the conductor) a telegram in which an error
-of a single word would very likely involve the lives of passengers.
-At a very small station the checking of baggage devolves on the
-agent, his overburdened back being thus loaded with one more
-straw. He is in many cases agent for the express company, and
-so must count, seal, superscribe, and way-bill money packages
-and handle oyster-kegs and barrels of beer at a moment's notice.
-Women with wagon-loads of loose household effects to go by
-freight, and shippers of car-loads of cattle, for which a car must be
-specially fitted up, will appear just as the distracted station-man is
-receiving a telegram with one side of his brain and selling a ticket
-with the other. The household goods must be weighed and
-tagged, the sewing-machine tied up, and tables repaired; the
-cattle-shipper must be given a short lecture on the legal bearings
-of the bargain for transportation which he is about to make, and his
-demand that his live-stock shall be carried 500 miles more quickly
-than human animals are taken over the same road is to be gently
-repressed. It is not every day that a small station is enlivened
-by this sort of excitement, yet it is common, and is familiar to
-every station agent. The variety in the duties of this position is,
-however, a great advantage to the ambitious young man, because
-it serves to give him a good lift toward a valuable business education.
-He can learn about the methods and knacks and tricks of
-many different kinds of business, and can profit by the knowledge
-thus gained. Thomas J. Potter, the lately deceased vice-president
-of the Union Pacific Railway, whose memory it is proposed to perpetuate
-by a bronze statue, began his railroad career as agent at a
-small station in Iowa. Others of equal ability and perfection of
-character have risen from similar places and by the same means.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[413]</a></span><br />
-   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[414]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_413.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">In the Waiting Room of a Country Station.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[415]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The agent at a small station catches his breath between trains.
-There is then generally ample time for calming the nerves and preparing
-for the next onslaught. If he is a telegraph-operator he
-can chat with the operators at other stations&mdash;a common resource
-if the wires are not occupied with more important affairs. In the
-class periodicals of operators and railroad men, reference to this
-phase of their life may be constantly seen, and incidents of even
-romantic interest are not infrequent. Many of the men at small
-stations are young and unmarried, while at places where the business
-has increased enough to warrant the employment of an assistant,
-a young woman to do the telegraphing is frequently the first
-helper engaged. With this combination it is unnecessary to tell
-what follows. If iron bars and stone walls are things which Cupid
-holds in contempt, an electric telegraph wire is the thing
-which makes him "snicker right out," if we may use the language
-of the circus ring. A distance of 100 miles, instead of
-being a barrier, is, under these circumstances, an advantage.
-There is, to be sure, a slight disadvantage in the fact that any
-tender communication confided to the wires will be liable to fall on
-the ears of unfeeling persons at intermediate offices, but the overcoming
-of this obstacle provides the agreeable incidental excitement
-which is always necessary in genuine love-making. Young
-persons (or old, either) can study each other's characters, in important
-phases at least, at a distance better than at short range.
-The telegraphic mode of sending communications discloses one's
-disposition far better than does handwriting. Working on the
-same wire with another for a few months enables one to form judgments
-of that other's generosity or narrowness, serenity or excitability,
-industry or laziness, refinement or boorishness, kindliness of
-heart or otherwise, which are quite sure to be correct judgments.
-Judgments ripen into attachments, and romances of the wire are
-common.</p>
-
-<p>At the railroad station next larger in size, the work is more
-divided. One man sells tickets, another attends to the freight
-office, another to the baggage, and so on. The ticket-seller must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[416]</a></span>
-make five-cent bargains with the same urbanity that is given to a
-$100 trade, and must be able to toss off the latter in two minutes
-if occasion requires, or to spend an hour in helping the passenger
-choose the best route among a score of possible ones. The <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;Original text: 'fusilade'">fusillade</ins>
-of questions that must be met by the ticket-seller every time he
-opens his window is familiar to everyone who has ever watched a
-place of the kind for ten minutes. The inexperienced traveller
-wants to be fully posted as to the exact hour of departure of a tri-weekly
-stage with which he is to connect at a railroad station a thousand
-miles away, and the more intelligent ones demand an oral
-time-table covering the trains for the ensuing week on all railroads
-within a radius of 50 miles. Those who cannot read or understand
-the time-tables are too modest to ask aid, and their misfortune is
-disclosed only after their train has gone and they are found in
-tears; while those who can read the table ignore it and ask questions
-simply to be sociable.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[417]</a></span><br />
-   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[418]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_417.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">The Trials of a Baggage-master.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_416.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Station Gardening.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The station baggage-master has an important but rather thankless
-place. He must handle 200-pound trunks with as much ease
-as though they contained feathers, and, if he break a moulding off
-one, must meet the reproaches
-of the owner, who imagines that
-the time available for handling
-the trunk was five minutes instead
-of two seconds. He must
-handle much dirty and otherwise
-unpleasant stuff, and on the
-whole pursue a very unpoetic
-life. He has little to do with
-train-handling, but he "keeps in
-with" the trainmen and furnishes
-them with a share of their entertainment.
-They lounge in
-his room sometimes and he
-keeps on tap a supply of jokes
-such as that about the new brakeman
-who sent to headquarters for a supply of red oil for his red
-lantern, and the engineer who lost time with an excursion train on
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[419]</a></span>
-the Fourth of July because the extremely hot weather had elongated
-the rails and thus materially increased the distance to be travelled
-over. When "hot boxes" (friction-heated axles) are given as the
-cause of a delay the real cause of which is concealed (by the conductor
-who is ashamed of it), the baggage-master gently punctures the
-deception by suggesting that perhaps a hot <em>fire</em>-box (in the engine)
-is what is meant. Whether the roguish clerk of an inexperienced
-general manager, who slyly induced his chief to issue an order to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[420]</a></span>
-station agents directing that "all freight cars standing for any
-length of time on side tracks must be occasionally moved a short
-distance in order to prevent flattening of the wheels," had formerly
-been a baggage-master, history does not state.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_419.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">In the Yard at Night.</div>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>The switch-tender, whose momentary carelessness has many a
-time caused terrible disaster, but whose constant faithfulness outweighs
-a million-fold even that painful record, is one of the essential
-figures around a station. Nothing but eternal vigilance will
-suffice to keep switches always in safe position, and the conscientious
-custodian of these always possible death-traps often takes his
-burden of care to his pillow. The mishaps which do occur strikingly
-illustrate the practical impossibility of holding the human
-brain always to the highest pitch. A conductor in New Jersey
-(trainmen have to set switches at many places where no switchmen
-are employed) recently caused a slight collision by misplacing a
-switch, and on seeing the consequences exclaimed, "I deserve to
-be discharged; my mistake was inexcusable." And yet an honest
-man of that type is the kind demanded for such a place. The
-interlocking of switches and signals (the arrangement in a frame
-of the levers moving the switches and those moving signals in
-such a way that the signal which tells the engineer to come on
-<em>cannot be given</em> until the switch is actually in proper position) is one
-of the notable improvements of the last twenty years, and is a great
-boon to switchmen, as well as to passengers and the owners of railroads.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>
-By the aid of this apparatus and its distant signals, connected
-by wire ropes, the switchman's anxieties are reduced immeasurably.
-By concentrating the levers of a number of switches
-in a single room one man can do the work of several, and to the
-looker-on the perplexities of the position seem to have been increased
-instead of diminished. But the switchman's task now is of
-a different sort. Under the old plan he was constantly on guard
-lest he make a mistake and throw an engine or car off the track.
-Under the new, his calculations are chiefly about saving time and
-facilitating the work of the trainmen. Questions of danger rarely
-come up, being provided against by the perfection of the machinery.
-By long familiarity with the ground and the ways of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[421]</a></span>
-handling the trains, the switch-tender in an "interlocking tower"
-is enabled to safely conduct a score of trains through a labyrinth
-of switches in the time that the novice would take to make the first
-move for a single train. Without this admirable apparatus, and
-skilful and experienced attendants, the business of great stations
-like the Grand Central at New York would be impossible in the
-space allowed.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_421.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">A Track-walker on a Stormy Night.</div>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>One of the habitués of every station is the section-master, who
-looks after three, five, or ten miles of track and a gang of from five<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[422]</a></span>
-to twenty-five men who keep it in repair. He is not much seen,
-because he is out on the road most of the time; and his duties are
-not of a kind that the reader could study, on paper, to much advantage;
-but he deserves mention because his place is a really important
-one. Railroad tracks cannot be made, like a bridge, five
-times as strong as is necessary, and thus a large margin be allowed
-for deterioration; they must be constantly watched to see
-that they do not fall even a little below their highest standard.
-This care-taking can be intrusted only to one who has had long
-experience at the work. In violent rain-storms the trackman must
-be on duty night and day and patrol the whole length of his division
-to see that gravel is not washed over the track or out from
-under it. Though roughly dressed and sunburnt, he is an important
-personage in the eye of the engineer of a fast express train,
-and if he be the least bit negligent, even to the extent of letting a
-few rails get a quarter of an inch lower than they ought to, he
-hears a prompt appeal from the engine-runner. The latter could
-not feel the confidence necessary to guide his 50-ton giant over the
-road at lightning speed with its precious human freight if he had
-not a trusty trackman every few miles; and passengers who feel
-like expressing gratitude for a safe railroad journey should never
-forget this unseen guardian.</p>
-
-<p>A number of classes of men in the railroad service must be
-turned off with a word for lack of space. The train despatcher,
-with his constant burden of care, deserves a chapter. The locomotive
-fireman, who has not been directly alluded to, is practically
-an apprentice to the engineer, and, like apprentices in some other
-callings, has a good deal of hard work to do. He generally has
-longer hours than the engineer, as he has to clean a portion of the
-polished brass- and iron-work of the engine. He has to throw into
-the fire-box several tons of coal a day, and gets so black that his
-best friends would not know him when washed up. Those who
-begin young and are intelligent, and conserve their strength, are
-at length promoted to be engineers. The fireman's twin brother
-is the "hostler," who is employed at the larger termini to get the
-iron horse out of its stable, lead it to the watering place and feed-trough
-(coal-bin), and harness it to the train.</p>
-
-<p>The clerk in the freight office has almost as much variety of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[423]</a></span>
-work as the ticket-seller, and is by no means a mere book-keeper.
-The workmen at the freight station are not common
-laborers. Their work requires peculiar skill and experience, and
-they have diversions worth telling
-of, if there were space. The
-men in the shops, and those who
-go out with derricks and chains
-to pick up wrecks, are an important
-class by themselves, and
-bridge-builders, gate-tenders,
-and various others bring up the
-rear.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_423.jpg" width="275" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">A Crossing Flagman.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In conclusion, railroad men
-as a body are industrious, sober
-when at work, and lively when
-at play, using well-trained minds,
-in their sphere, and possessing
-capacity for a high degree of
-further training. The public is
-not without its duty toward the
-million or so of men in the railroad service. The liability to death
-or maiming from accident is such a real factor in railroad men's
-lives that the public, and especially shareholders in railroads, are
-bound to not only uphold officers in providing every possible appliance
-and regulation for safety, but to demand the introduction
-of such devices. Some of the State railroad commissioners have
-done and are doing noble service in this direction, and should be
-vigorously supported by their constituencies. The demands of
-the public, re-enforced by the exigencies of competition, have made
-Sunday trains in many localities almost as common as on week-days,
-so that many train and station men work seven days in the
-week. In addition to this, holidays oftener increase their work
-than diminish it, so that there is room for a considerable reform
-in this regard.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_424.jpg" width="275" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">A Little Relaxation.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The general moral welfare of railroad men has received much
-attention in late years, and affords a wide field for work by all who
-will. Many railroads have co-operated with the Young Men's
-Christian Association branches, started by a few of the employees,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[424]</a></span>
-in building and equipping reading-rooms, libraries, etc., and the
-companies give many hundred dollars annually toward the support
-of these resorts, which serve to keep many a young trainman away
-from loafing places of a questionable
-character or worse. Mr.
-Cornelius Vanderbilt, whose millions
-came largely out of the profits
-of the New York Central &amp;
-Hudson River Railroad, has set
-a good example to other railroad
-millionaires in the erection of a
-building for the employees of that
-road in New York City, whose
-luxuriousness is an evidence that
-he loves his neighbor as himself,
-even if that neighbor be a plain
-brakeman earning but low wages.
-That the resorts provided for railroad men are appreciated is evidenced
-by their records. Of the trainmen who regularly come
-into the Grand Central Station in New York, 46 per cent. are
-members of the Association occupying the building given by Mr.
-Vanderbilt, and 65 per cent. make use of the rooms more or less
-regularly. Rooms in numerous other cities also make encouraging
-showings.</p>
-
-<p>Railroad officers, with their great advantages for enlightenment,
-owe it to themselves and their men to see that the thousands
-under them have fair opportunities for rising in the world,
-and that the owners of the immense corporations which stand as
-masters of such vast armies fully understand their measure of responsibility
-in the premises. Science and invention, machinery
-and improved methods, have effected great changes in the railroad
-art, but the American nation, which travels more than any other,
-still recognizes the fact that faithful and efficient <em>men</em> are an essential
-factor in the prosecution of that art. People desire to deal
-with a personality, and therefore wish to see the <em>personnel</em> of the
-railroad service fostered and perfected.</p>
-
-
-<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> See "Safety in Railroad Travel," <a href="#Page_222">page 222.</a></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> The New York elevated roads run 3,500 trains a day, each one passing signals (likely to indicate
-danger) every hundred rods, almost. Who can expect engineers never to blunder in such innumerable
-operations?</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Mr. Porter King, of Springfield, Mass., who has run an engine on the Boston &amp; Albany road for
-forty-five years, and who served on the Mohawk &amp; Hudson, the Long Island, and the New Jersey Railroads
-in 1833&ndash;44, when horses were the motive power and the reverse lever consisted of a pair of reins,
-ran until December, 1887, before his engine ever killed a person.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> See "Safety in Railroad Travel," <a href="#Page_204">page 204.</a></p></div></div>
-
-
-    <div class="chapter"></div>
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[425]</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">STATISTICAL RAILWAY STUDIES.</a><a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor"><span class="fs70">[37]</span></a></h2>
-
-<p class="pfs90 smcap">By FLETCHER W. HEWES.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Railway Mileage of the World&mdash;Railway Mileage of the United States&mdash;Annual Mileage
-and Increase&mdash;Mileage Compared with Area&mdash;Geographical Location of Railways&mdash;Centres
-of Mileage and of Population&mdash;Railway Systems&mdash;Trunk Lines
-Compared: By Mileage; Largest Receipts; Largest Net Results&mdash;Freight Traffic&mdash;Reduction
-of Freight Rates&mdash;Wheat Rates&mdash;The Freight Haul&mdash;Empty Freight
-Trains&mdash;Freight Profits&mdash;Passenger Traffic&mdash;Passenger Rates&mdash;Passenger Travel&mdash;Passenger
-Profits&mdash;General Considerations&mdash;Dividends&mdash;Net Earnings per Mile
-and Railway Building&mdash;Ratios of Increase&mdash;Construction and Maintenance&mdash;Employees
-and their Wages&mdash;Rolling Stock&mdash;Capital Invested.</p></div>
-
-<div><img class="drop-cap" src="images/i_425adc.jpg" alt="" /></div>
-<p class="drop-cap">Although the United States was the second
-nation to open a line of railway, it operates to-day
-nearly half the mileage of the world, and it has
-so many miles of double, triple, and quadruple
-track that, were the data of trackage available,
-such a comparison would undoubtedly show it to more than
-equal all the rest of the world combined.</p>
-
-<p>Below is given a chart comparing the mileage of the principal
-railway countries. The list contains all countries having a mileage
-of over ten thousand kilometers.</p>
-
-<p class="p1" />
-<div class="bbox">
-<div class="center fs80">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
-<tr><td class="tdc bll btt wd20">Countries.</td><td class="tdc bl btt brr">Kilo-</td><td class="tdla"></td><td class="tdla"></td><td class="tdl large bll btt brr bbb" colspan="9" rowspan="2">Principal Railway Countries, 1887.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bll"></td><td class="tdc bl brr">meters.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bll bt"></td><td class="tdla bl bt brr"></td><td class="tdla"></td><td class="tdla" colspan="4">25,000 Kilometers</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bll">Italy</td><td class="tdr bl brr">11,759</td><td class="tdla">»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla" colspan="2">50,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bll">Australia</td><td class="tdr bl brr">15,297</td><td class="tdla">»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td>
-    <td class="tdla" colspan="2">75,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bll">Canada</td><td class="tdr bl brr">19,883</td><td class="tdla">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td>
-    <td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla" colspan="2">100,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bll">British India</td><td class="tdr bl brr">22,665</td><td class="tdla">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td>
-    <td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla" colspan="2">125,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bll">Austria-Hungary</td><td class="tdr bl brr">24,432</td><td class="tdla">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td>
-    <td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla" colspan="2">150,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bll">Russia</td><td class="tdr bl brr">28,517</td><td class="tdla">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td>
-    <td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla" colspan="2">175,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bll">France</td><td class="tdr bl brr">31,208</td><td class="tdla">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td>
-    <td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla" colspan="2">200,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bll">Great Britain</td><td class="tdr bl brr">31,521</td><td class="tdla">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td>
-    <td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla" colspan="2">225,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bll">Germany</td><td class="tdr bl brr">39,785</td><td class="tdla">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td>
-    <td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla" colspan="2">250,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bll bbb">United States</td><td class="tdr bl brr bbb">241,210</td><td class="tdla">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td>
-    <td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-</div>
-
-<p class="p1" />
-<p>The most prominent fact is impressed by the very long line
-representing the mileage of the United States. A second impressive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[426]</a></span>
-fact is that the United States has more than six times the
-mileage of any other country. A third, that there are but five
-other countries that have even a tenth as much railway.</p>
-
-
-<h3 class="fs70">RAILWAY MILEAGE OF THE UNITED STATES.</h3>
-
-<p><em>Total Annual Mileage and Increase.</em>&mdash;On <a href="#Page_429">page 429</a> is given
-a chart which, beginning with the 23 miles of 1830 and ending
-with the 156,082 miles of 1888, delineates our ever-increasing
-total mileage. It also portrays the fluctuations in the number of
-miles built annually. This latter study is the more interesting,
-especially during the last twenty-five years, which cover the periods
-of extreme activity.</p>
-
-<p><em>Mileage Compared with Area.</em>&mdash;The shaded map on the same
-page pictures the railway mileage of each State as compared with
-its total area. The eleven States bearing the deepest shade (5)
-are those having the larger proportions of mileage to area. Of
-these, New Jersey stands first, having almost exactly one-fourth of
-a mile of railroad for each square mile of land. The proportion of
-total area occupied by this mileage is measured to the eye by the
-accompanying diagram.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_426.jpg" width="200" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Mileage to Area in New Jersey.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The entire square stands for one square mile of land, and the
-space at the upper left-hand corner stands for that part of the
-square mile which the railroad occupies, counting from fence to
-fence on each side of the road. This comparison
-is made on the basis of one hundred
-feet for the "right of way" (the
-width allowed in government grants), and
-is useful in connection with the study of
-the historical maps, especially those of
-1880 and 1889, on which the area of some
-of the States seems to be nearly all taken
-up with roads, owing to the small scale of
-the maps. Iowa has the smallest proportion
-of any in Group 5. The figures show her proportion to be a
-little over one-seventh of a mile of road to one square mile of area.
-(Nevada has the smallest proportion of all the States and Territories,
-viz., a trifle over <sup>1</sup>/<sub>117</sub> of a mile of line to one square mile.)</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[427]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>That part of the map bearing the deepest shade shows at a
-glance that an unbroken belt, averaging some two hundred miles
-wide, stretching from Cape Cod to beyond the Mississippi River,
-is that part of the country best supplied with railways.</p>
-
-<p>The lighter shades grouped on either side of this belt show
-how the mileage grades away north and south.</p>
-
-
-<h3 class="fs70">GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF RAILWAYS.</h3>
-
-<p>On pages 430 to 433 is a series of historical maps showing
-the location of railway lines at each census-year from 1830 to
-1880, and in 1889. Charts comparing and ranking the mileage
-by States accompany the maps of 1870, 1880, and 1889. These
-maps and charts give a better idea of the location and extent of
-progress than could be given by a dozen pages of description and
-a hundred columns of figures.</p>
-
-<p><em>Centre of Mileage and of Population.</em>&mdash;The space for notes
-on the maps permits the bare mention of the meaning of the series
-of stars in the 1889 map (<a href="#Page_433">page 433</a>), which mark the centres of
-mileage and of population. It is well to state the manner of determining
-the centres of mileage, that it may have its proper
-bearing in any study of the subject into which the showing may
-enter.</p>
-
-<p>The locations are necessarily approximate. Each centre was
-determined by selecting, on the proper map, a line running east
-and west which seemed, to the eye, to nearly divide the mileage
-into equal parts. The sum of the mileage of the States north,
-was then compared with that of the States south of the line.
-By this means the position of the line chosen by the eye was
-corrected and the right parallel determined. The meridian dividing
-the total mileage into equal parts was ascertained in like
-manner. The point of intersection of the parallel and meridian is
-marked in the map by a star, having the proper date printed to
-the right of it.</p>
-
-<p>The upper series of stars locates the centres of railway mileage,
-and the lower series the centres of population, as given by
-the returns of the census of 1880.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[428]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The following table describes the several locations thus ascertained:</p>
-
-<p class="p1 pfs90"><em>Centres of Railway Mileage.</em></p>
-
-<div class="center fs80">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="bt tdpp"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl wd10">Date.</td><td class="tdl bl wd15">Latitude.</td><td class="tdl bl wd15">Longitude.</td><td class="tdl bl">Approximate location by towns.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">1840</td><td class="tdl bl">40° 50′ N.</td><td class="tdl bl">76° 10′ W.</td><td class="tdl bl">Twenty miles west of Mauch Chunk, Pa.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">1850</td><td class="tdl bl">41° 30′ N.</td><td class="tdl bl">77° 27′ W.</td><td class="tdl bl">Twenty-five miles northwest of Williamsport, Lycoming County, Pa.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">1860</td><td class="tdl bl">40° 40′ N.</td><td class="tdl bl">82° 30′ W.</td><td class="tdl bl">Ten miles south of Mansfield, O.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">1870</td><td class="tdl bl">41° 10′ N.</td><td class="tdl bl">84° 35′ W.</td><td class="tdl bl">Paulding, Paulding County, O.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">1880</td><td class="tdl bl">41° 05′ N.</td><td class="tdl bl">86° 50′ W.</td><td class="tdl bl">Thirty miles northwest of Logansport, Ind.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">1888</td><td class="tdl bl">39° 50′ N.</td><td class="tdl bl">88° 40′ W.</td><td class="tdl bl">Pontiac, Ill., about ninety miles S. S. W. of Chicago.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p class="p1" />
-<p>The remarkable movement of the centre of mileage from 1850
-to 1860 is easily understood when one turns to the maps of those
-dates (<a href="#Page_430">page 430</a>) and locates the fields of activity. The wonderful
-increase in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa gave the
-Western impulse, while the growth in Tennessee and the States
-south of it furnishes the principal explanation of the southerly
-motion.</p>
-
-<p>Although the study of this period is the most interesting of
-the series, in the space passed over, yet each period has its points
-of special interest, which the reader will easily solve by referring
-to the proper maps on pages 430 to 433.</p>
-
-<p><em>Railway Systems.</em>&mdash;The consolidation of separate lines under
-central controlling interests has resulted in several "systems" of
-great extent. Five such are mapped on pages 434 and 435. The
-roads controlled by them are printed in broad lines, while all others
-are printed in narrow lines. It needs but a glance to see whether
-any of them has so far absorbed the roads of a given region as
-to be able to control rates. The systems selected are believed to
-be representative ones, and the mapping of a dozen others would
-not tell the story any more plainly.</p>
-
-
-<h3 class="fs70">TRUNK LINES COMPARED.</h3>
-
-<p><em>Compared by Mileage.</em>&mdash;At present there are twenty-four corporations
-reporting over one thousand miles of line each. A comparison
-of these roads by mileage is profitless, as it furnishes no
-just clew to their importance in point of business transacted.
-Several of the shorter of these twenty-four lines largely exceed
-some of the longer ones in the volume of business transacted. As
-an example of the little value of comparison by mileage, the New
-York Central &amp; Hudson River Road, with but 1,421 miles of line,
-reports $63,132,920 receipts, while the Union Pacific, with 6,288
-miles, reports but $19,898,817. Two of the twenty-four roads,
-viz., the Southern Pacific Railroad (5,931 miles) and the Richmond,
-West Point &amp; Terminal Railroad (6,869 miles) report
-neither gross or net earnings. The remaining twenty-two report
-both, and these reports furnish a satisfactory basis for study.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[429]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<a href="images/i_429-large.jpg">
-<img src="images/i_429.jpg" width="600" alt="" /></a></div>
-
-<div class="captionx">
-<p>Railway Mileage of the United States.<span class="pad6">Compared with Area, 1888.</span></p>
-
-
-<p><b>Explanatory.</b>&mdash;The horizontal black lines
-below interpret the right-hand column of figures,
-and therefore picture the annual total mileage of
-railways operated.&mdash;The color below interprets
-the left-hand column, and therefore pictures the
-fluctuations in the number of miles built annually.</p>
-
-<p>The <b>Key</b> explains the shades on the map. The
-lightest shade indicates an average of less than
-one-fiftieth of a mile of railway for each square
-mile of land. The second shade, from one-fiftieth
-to one-twentieth of a mile of railway, for each
-square mile of land, etc.</p>
-
-
-<p class="center">KEY TO SHADES ON THE MAP.</p>
-
-<div class="center">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="tdl">Less than</td><td class="tdl"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>50</sub> m. to 1 sq. m.</td><td class="tdc bl bt br "><b>1</b></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>50</sub> m. &mdash;</td><td class="tdl"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>20</sub> m. &nbsp;" &nbsp;" &nbsp;" &nbsp;&nbsp;"</td><td class="tdc bl bt br"><b>2</b></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>20</sub> m. &mdash;</td><td class="tdl"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>15</sub> m. &nbsp;" &nbsp;" &nbsp;" &nbsp;&nbsp;"</td><td class="tdc bl bt br"><b>3</b></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>15</sub> m. &mdash;</td><td class="tdl"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub> &nbsp;m. &nbsp;" &nbsp;" &nbsp;" &nbsp;&nbsp;"</td><td class="tdc bl bt br"><b>4</b></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub> m. and</td><td class="tdl">over, per &nbsp;&nbsp; " &nbsp; "</td><td class="tdc bl bt br bb"><b>5</b></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p class="p2 center">Total and Increase.</p>
-
-<div class="center">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl bt" rowspan="2">Years</td><td class="tdc bl bt br" colspan="2">Miles.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl bt">Built</td><td class="tdrx bl bt br">Operated</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl bt">1830</td><td class="tdrx bl bt">&mdash;</td><td class="tdrx bl bt br">23</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1831</td><td class="tdrx bl">72</td><td class="tdrx bl br">95</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1832</td><td class="tdrx bl">134</td><td class="tdrx bl br">229</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1833</td><td class="tdrx bl">151</td><td class="tdrx bl br">380</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1834</td><td class="tdrx bl">253</td><td class="tdrx bl br">633</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1835</td><td class="tdrx bl">465</td><td class="tdrx bl br">1,098</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1836</td><td class="tdrx bl">175</td><td class="tdrx bl br">1,273</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1837</td><td class="tdrx bl">224</td><td class="tdrx bl br">1,497</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1838</td><td class="tdrx bl">416</td><td class="tdrx bl br">1,913</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1839</td><td class="tdrx bl">389</td><td class="tdrx bl br">2,302</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1840</td><td class="tdrx bl">516</td><td class="tdrx bl br">2,818</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1841</td><td class="tdrx bl">717</td><td class="tdrx bl br">3,535</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1842</td><td class="tdrx bl">491</td><td class="tdrx bl br">4,026</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1843</td><td class="tdrx bl">159</td><td class="tdrx bl br">4,185</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1844</td><td class="tdrx bl">192</td><td class="tdrx bl br">4,377</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1845</td><td class="tdrx bl">256</td><td class="tdrx bl br">4,633</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1846</td><td class="tdrx bl">297</td><td class="tdrx bl br">4,930</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1847</td><td class="tdrx bl">668</td><td class="tdrx bl br">5,598</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1848</td><td class="tdrx bl">398</td><td class="tdrx bl br">5,996</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1849</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,369</td><td class="tdrx bl br">7,365</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1850</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,656</td><td class="tdrx bl br">9,021</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1851</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,961</td><td class="tdrx bl br">10,982</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1852</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,926</td><td class="tdrx bl br">12,908</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1853</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,452</td><td class="tdrx bl br">15,360</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1854</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,360</td><td class="tdrx bl br">16,720</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1855</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,654</td><td class="tdrx bl br">18,374</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1856</td><td class="tdrx bl">3,642</td><td class="tdrx bl br">22,016</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1857</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,487</td><td class="tdrx bl br">24,503</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1858</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,465</td><td class="tdrx bl br">26,963</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1859</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,821</td><td class="tdrx bl br">28,789</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1860</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,846</td><td class="tdrx bl br">30,635</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1861</td><td class="tdrx bl">651</td><td class="tdrx bl br">31,286</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1862</td><td class="tdrx bl">834</td><td class="tdrx bl br">32,120</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1863</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,050</td><td class="tdrx bl br">33,170</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1864</td><td class="tdrx bl">738</td><td class="tdrx bl br">33,908</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1865</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,177</td><td class="tdrx bl br">35,085</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1866</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,716</td><td class="tdrx bl br">36,801</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1867</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,249</td><td class="tdrx bl br">39,250</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1868</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,979</td><td class="tdrx bl br">42,229</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1869</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,615</td><td class="tdrx bl br">46,844</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1870</td><td class="tdrx bl">6,070</td><td class="tdrx bl br">52,914</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1871</td><td class="tdrx bl">7,379</td><td class="tdrx bl br">60,293</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1872</td><td class="tdrx bl">5,878</td><td class="tdrx bl br">66,171</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1873</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,097</td><td class="tdrx bl br">70,268</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1874</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,117</td><td class="tdrx bl br">72,385</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1875</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,711</td><td class="tdrx bl br">74,096</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1876</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,712</td><td class="tdrx bl br">76,808</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1877</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,280</td><td class="tdrx bl br">79,088</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1878</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,679</td><td class="tdrx bl br">81,767</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1879</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,817</td><td class="tdrx bl br">86,584</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1880</td><td class="tdrx bl">6,712</td><td class="tdrx bl br">93,296</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1881</td><td class="tdrx bl">9,847</td><td class="tdrx bl br">103,143</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1882</td><td class="tdrx bl">11,569</td><td class="tdrx bl br">114,712</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1883</td><td class="tdrx bl">6,743</td><td class="tdrx bl br">121,455</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1884</td><td class="tdrx bl">3,924</td><td class="tdrx bl br">125,379</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1885</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,930</td><td class="tdrx bl br">128,309</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1886</td><td class="tdrx bl">8,100</td><td class="tdrx bl br">136,409</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1887</td><td class="tdrx bl">12,872</td><td class="tdrx bl br">149,281</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1888</td><td class="tdrx bl">6,801</td><td class="tdrx bl br">156,082</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb br"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[430]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<a href="images/i_430-large.jpg">
-<img src="images/i_430.jpg" width="600" alt="" /></a></div>
-
-<div class="captionx">
-<p class="pfs120">Railways in the United States, 1830&ndash;1860.</p>
-
-<p class="pfs70">(From Scribner's Statistical Atlas.)</p>
-
-<p><b>Note.</b>&mdash;These maps are reductions of larger maps referred to in the titles.
-This makes it possible to bring them within very convenient space for comparison,
-and compensates for any indistinctness of lettering in the maps.</p>
-
-<p>The railways of 1830 are pointed out by red arrows. Those of the other maps are
-easily seen. The growth by decades is thus quickly located. In 1840, one continuous
-line stretched from New York to Washington, D. C. Another considerable line
-was that from Fredericksburg, Va., to Wilmington, N. C. In 1850, one could not go
-by direct railway from New York to either Albany or Boston. In 1860, several direct
-routes stretched from New York to far west of the Mississippi.</p>
-
-<p><em><b>Note.</b></em>&mdash;In 1860 there was also in California,
-a railway from Sacramento to Folsom City (22 miles).</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[431]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<a href="images/i_431-large.jpg">
-<img src="images/i_431.jpg" width="600" alt="" /></a></div>
-
-<div class="captionx">
-<p class="pfs120">Railways in the United States. 1870</p>
-
-<p class="pfs70">(From Scribner's Statistical Atlas.)</p>
-
-<p class="p1 pad6">Railway Mileage by States, 1870.</p>
-
-<div class="center">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="">
-<tr><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl bl">Rank</td><td class="tdl bl">State</td><td class="tdl bl">Miles</td><td class="tdrx bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">41</td><td class="tdl bl">Dak.</td><td class="tdrx bl">65</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">40</td><td class="tdl bl">R.I.</td><td class="tdrx bl">136</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">39</td><td class="tdl bl">Colo.</td><td class="tdrx bl">157</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">38</td><td class="tdl bl">Oreg.</td><td class="tdrx bl">159</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">37</td><td class="tdl bl">Del.</td><td class="tdrx bl">197</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">36</td><td class="tdl bl">Ark.</td><td class="tdrx bl">256</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">35</td><td class="tdl bl">Utah</td><td class="tdrx bl">257</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">34</td><td class="tdl bl">W.&nbsp;Va.</td><td class="tdrx bl">387</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla" colspan="2">1,000 Miles</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">33</td><td class="tdl bl">Fla.</td><td class="tdrx bl">446</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">32</td><td class="tdl bl">La.</td><td class="tdrx bl">450</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">31</td><td class="tdl bl">Wyo.</td><td class="tdrx bl">459</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">30</td><td class="tdl bl">Nev.</td><td class="tdrx bl">593</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">29</td><td class="tdl bl">Vt.</td><td class="tdrx bl">614</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">28</td><td class="tdl bl">*Md.</td><td class="tdrx bl">671</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">27</td><td class="tdl bl">Nebr.</td><td class="tdrx bl">705</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">26</td><td class="tdl bl">Tex.</td><td class="tdrx bl">711</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla">2,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">25</td><td class="tdl bl">N.H.</td><td class="tdrx bl">736</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">24</td><td class="tdl bl">Conn.</td><td class="tdrx bl">742</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">23</td><td class="tdl bl">Me.</td><td class="tdrx bl">786</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla">3,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">22</td><td class="tdl bl">Cal.</td><td class="tdrx bl">925</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">21</td><td class="tdl bl">Miss.</td><td class="tdrx bl">990</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">20</td><td class="tdl bl">Ky.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,017</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">19</td><td class="tdl bl">Minn.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,092</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">18</td><td class="tdl bl">N.J.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,125</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla">4,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">17</td><td class="tdl bl">S.C.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,139</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">16</td><td class="tdl bl">Ala.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,157</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">15</td><td class="tdl bl">N.C.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,178</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">14</td><td class="tdl bl">Mass.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,480</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla">5,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">13</td><td class="tdl bl">Va.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,488</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">12</td><td class="tdl bl">Tenn.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,492</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">11</td><td class="tdl bl">Kans.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,501</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">10</td><td class="tdl bl">Wis.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,525</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 9</td><td class="tdl bl">Mich.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,638</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 8</td><td class="tdl bl">Ga.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,845</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 7</td><td class="tdl bl">Mo.</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,000</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 6</td><td class="tdl bl">Iowa</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,683</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 5</td><td class="tdl bl">Ind.</td><td class="tdrx bl">3,177</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 4</td><td class="tdl bl">Ohio</td><td class="tdrx bl">3,538</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 3</td><td class="tdl bl">N.Y.</td><td class="tdrx bl">3,924</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 2</td><td class="tdl bl">Pa.</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,658</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 1</td><td class="tdl bl">Ill.</td><td class="tdrx bl">&nbsp;4,823</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»&nbsp;</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p class="pad6">* Includes District of Columbia.</p>
-
-<p>In 1850 Chicago had one short road. In 1860 she had
-several main lines, reaching hundreds of miles.&mdash;east,
-west, north, and south. In 1850, Ohio, Indiana, and
-Illinois were open fields. In 1860 they were crossed and
-recrossed many times A similar change had taken place
-in the south east. The 1860 map marks the condition at
-the breaking out of the Civil War.&mdash;In 1870 there does not
-appear to have been much change except in the north-west,
-and the completion of the first Pacific line, and
-yet there were 22,296 more miles than in 1860, nearly 700
-miles more than the 1850&ndash;1860 growth, but being spread
-over a wider area it does not appear as clearly. A little
-careful study shows that many States had added considerably
-to their mileage.&mdash;The names in the maps are
-given mainly to mark terminal points.&mdash;While the map
-locates the mileage, the chart at the left accurately
-measures and compares it State by State.</p>
-
-<p>Before turning to the 1880 map, let the eye go carefully
-over the 1870 lines, that the comparison may be the more
-properly made.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[432]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<a href="images/i_432-large.jpg">
-<img src="images/i_432.jpg" width="600" alt="" /></a></div>
-
-<div class="captionx">
-
-<p class="pfs120">Railways in the United States. 1880</p>
-
-<p class="pfs70">(From Scribner's Statistical Atlas.)</p>
-
-<p class="p1 pad6">Railway Mileage by States, 1880.</p>
-
-<div class="center">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
-<tr><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc bl">Rank</td><td class="tdc bl">State</td><td class="tdc bl">Miles</td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">47</td><td class="tdl bl">Mont.</td><td class="tdrx bl">106</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">46</td><td class="tdl bl">Ida.</td><td class="tdrx bl">206</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">45</td><td class="tdl bl">R.I.</td><td class="tdrx bl">210</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">44</td><td class="tdl bl">Del.</td><td class="tdrx bl">275</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">43</td><td class="tdl bl">Wash.</td><td class="tdrx bl">289</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">42</td><td class="tdl bl">I. T.</td><td class="tdrx bl">289</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">41</td><td class="tdl bl">Ariz.</td><td class="tdrx bl">349</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">40</td><td class="tdl bl">Oreg.</td><td class="tdrx bl">508</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">39</td><td class="tdl bl">Wyo.</td><td class="tdrx bl">512</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">38</td><td class="tdl bl">Fla.</td><td class="tdrx bl">518</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">37</td><td class="tdl bl">La.</td><td class="tdrx bl">652</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">36</td><td class="tdl bl">W.&nbsp;Va.</td><td class="tdrx bl">691</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">35</td><td class="tdl bl">Nev.</td><td class="tdrx bl">739</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">34</td><td class="tdl bl">N.Mex.</td><td class="tdrx bl">758</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">33</td><td class="tdl bl">Utah</td><td class="tdrx bl">842</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">32</td><td class="tdl bl">Ark.</td><td class="tdrx bl">859</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">31</td><td class="tdl bl">Vt.</td><td class="tdrx bl">914</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">30</td><td class="tdl bl">Conn.</td><td class="tdrx bl">923</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">29</td><td class="tdl bl">Me.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,005</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">28</td><td class="tdl bl">N.H.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,015</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla" colspan="2">2,000 Miles</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">27</td><td class="tdl bl">*Md.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,040</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">26</td><td class="tdl bl">Miss.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,127</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">25</td><td class="tdl bl">Dak.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,225</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">24</td><td class="tdl bl">S.C.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,427</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">23</td><td class="tdl bl">N.C.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,486</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">22</td><td class="tdl bl">Ky.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,530</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">21</td><td class="tdl bl">Colo.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,570</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">20</td><td class="tdl bl">N.J.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,684</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">19</td><td class="tdl bl">Tenn.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,843</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">18</td><td class="tdl bl">Ala.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,843</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">17</td><td class="tdl bl">Va.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,893</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">16</td><td class="tdl bl">Mass.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,915</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla">4,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">15</td><td class="tdl bl">Nebr.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,953</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">14</td><td class="tdl bl">Cal.</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,195</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">13</td><td class="tdl bl">Ga.</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,459</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">12</td><td class="tdl bl">Minn.</td><td class="tdrx bl">3,151</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">11</td><td class="tdl bl">Wis.</td><td class="tdrx bl">3,155</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">10</td><td class="tdl bl">Tex.</td><td class="tdrx bl">3,244</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 9</td><td class="tdl bl">Kans.</td><td class="tdrx bl">3,400</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 8</td><td class="tdl bl">Mich.</td><td class="tdrx bl">3,938</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla">6,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 7</td><td class="tdl bl">Mo.</td><td class="tdrx bl">3,965</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 6</td><td class="tdl bl">Ind.</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,373</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla">8,000<span class="pad2">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 5</td><td class="tdl bl">Iowa</td><td class="tdrx bl">5,400</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 4</td><td class="tdl bl">Ohio</td><td class="tdrx bl">5,792</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla">10,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 3</td><td class="tdl bl">N.Y.</td><td class="tdrx bl">5,991</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 2</td><td class="tdl bl">Pa.</td><td class="tdrx bl">6,191</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 1</td><td class="tdl bl">Ill.</td><td class="tdrx bl">&nbsp;7,851</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»&nbsp;</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p class="pad6">* Includes District of Columbia.</p>
-
-<p>It is difficult to believe that so many roads could have been added in
-ten years. All the 1870 area north of the Ohio River seems crowded at
-nearly every point, and the network of advance westward, in the
-States of Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, and Dakota,
-is equally surprising. The growth in Texas was also very large, and
-many new lines appear in other Southern States. The total increase
-of the ten years was over forty thousand miles (40,374).</p>
-
-<p>It would not seem possible that this rate of building could be longer
-maintained, and yet the 1889 map shows a still greater growth. At
-the close of 1888 (only eight years), the increase was 62,785 miles.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[433]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<a href="images/i_433-large.jpg">
-<img src="images/i_433.jpg" width="600" alt="" /></a></div>
-
-<div class="captionx">
-
-<p class="pfs120">Railways in the United States, 1889</p>
-
-<p class="pfs70">(From the "Scribner-Black Atlas of the World.")</p>
-
-<p class="p1 noindent pad6">Railway Mileage by States,<br />
-Dec. 31, 1888.</p>
-
-<div class="center">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc bl">R'k</td><td class="tdc bl">States</td><td class="tdc bl">Miles</td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">&nbsp;&nbsp;48</td><td class="tdl bl">D.C.</td><td class="tdrx bl">21</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">47</td><td class="tdl bl">R.I.</td><td class="tdrx bl">214</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">46</td><td class="tdl bl">Del.</td><td class="tdrx bl">315</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">45</td><td class="tdl bl">Ida.</td><td class="tdrx bl">868</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">44</td><td class="tdl bl">Wyo.</td><td class="tdrx bl">902</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">43</td><td class="tdl bl">Nev.</td><td class="tdrx bl">948</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">42</td><td class="tdl bl">Vt.</td><td class="tdrx bl">959</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">41</td><td class="tdl bl">I. T.</td><td class="tdrx bl">973</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">40</td><td class="tdl bl">Conn.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,006</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">39</td><td class="tdl bl">N.H.</td><td class="tdla bl">l,079</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">38</td><td class="tdl bl">Ariz.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,095</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">37</td><td class="tdl bl">Utah</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,133</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">38</td><td class="tdl bl">Md.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,162</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">35</td><td class="tdl bl">W.&nbsp;Va.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,281</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla" colspan="2">2,000 Miles</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">34</td><td class="tdl bl">Wash.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,319</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">33</td><td class="tdl bl">Me.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,321</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">32</td><td class="tdl bl">N.Mex.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,321</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">31</td><td class="tdl bl">Oreg.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,412</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">30</td><td class="tdl bl">La.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,505</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">29</td><td class="tdl bl">Mont.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,804</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">28</td><td class="tdl bl">N.J.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,981</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">27</td><td class="tdl bl">Ark.</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,046</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">26</td><td class="tdl bl">Mass.</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,074</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">25</td><td class="tdl bl">N.C.</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,084</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">24</td><td class="tdl bl">Miss.</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,218</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">23</td><td class="tdl bl">Fla.</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,250</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">22</td><td class="tdl bl">Tenn.</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,488</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td><td class="tdla">4,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">21</td><td class="tdl bl">N.C.</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,529</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">20</td><td class="tdl bl">Ky.</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,585</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">19</td><td class="tdl bl">Va.</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,931</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">18</td><td class="tdl bl">Ala.</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,986</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">17</td><td class="tdl bl">Ga.</td><td class="tdrx bl">3,928</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">16</td><td class="tdl bl">Colo.</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,038</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">15</td><td class="tdl bl">Cal.</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,128</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">14</td><td class="tdl bl">Dak.</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,465</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td><td class="tdla">6,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">13</td><td class="tdl bl">Nebr.</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,980</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">12</td><td class="tdl bl">Wis.</td><td class="tdrx bl">5,330</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">11</td><td class="tdl bl">Minn.</td><td class="tdrx bl">5,375</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">10</td><td class="tdl bl">Ind.</td><td class="tdrx bl">5,890</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 9</td><td class="tdl bl">Mo.</td><td class="tdrx bl">5,901</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 8</td><td class="tdl bl">Mich.</td><td class="tdrx bl">6,490</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td><td class="tdla">8,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 7</td><td class="tdl bl">N.Y.</td><td class="tdrx bl">7,598</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 6</td><td class="tdl bl">Ohio</td><td class="tdrx bl">7,636</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 5</td><td class="tdl bl">Tex.</td><td class="tdrx bl">8,211</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td><td class="tdla">10,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 4</td><td class="tdl bl">Pa.</td><td class="tdrx bl">8,225</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 3</td><td class="tdl bl">Iowa</td><td class="tdrx bl">8,365</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 2</td><td class="tdl bl">Kans.</td><td class="tdrx bl">8,755</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 1</td><td class="tdl bl">Ill.</td><td class="tdrx bl">&nbsp;9,901</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p>The figures in the two charts show that four States alone claim more
-than one-fourth of the growth (Kansas, 5,354; Texas, 4,967; Dakota,
-8,240 and Nebraska, 3,207 miles; total, 16,768 miles.) Six other States
-(Iowa, Mich., Col., Minn., Wis., and Penn.) had each an increase of
-over 2,000 miles.&mdash;The charts give Illinois the longest line from 1870,
-but the position of Texas in the three charts seems to prophesy that
-Illinois must soon yield. In 1860, Ohio led; in 1850, New York, and in
-1840, Pennsylvania.&mdash;The upper series of stars in the 1880 map locate
-the center of railway mileage. See <a href="#Page_427">page 427</a>, preceding.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[434]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<a href="images/i_434a-large.jpg">
-<img src="images/i_434a.jpg" width="600" alt="" /></a>
-<div class="caption">Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul System, 1889.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<a href="images/i_434b-large.jpg">
-<img src="images/i_434b.jpg" width="600" alt="" /></a>
-<div class="caption">Chicago, Burlington and Quincy System, 1889.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<a href="images/i_434c-large.jpg">
-<img src="images/i_434c.jpg" width="600" alt="" /></a>
-<div class="caption">Chicago and Northwestern System, 1889.</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[435]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<a href="images/i_435a-large.jpg">
-<img src="images/i_435a.jpg" width="600" alt="" /></a>
-<div class="caption">Pennsylvania System, 1889.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<a href="images/i_435b-large.jpg">
-<img src="images/i_435b.jpg" width="600" alt="" /></a>
-<div class="caption">Vanderbilt System, 1889.</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<a href="images/i_435c-large.jpg">
-<img src="images/i_435c.jpg" width="600" alt="" /></a></div>
-
-<div class="captionx">
-
-<p class="pfs120">Largest Receipts, 1888.</p>
-
-<p class="pfs70">(See <a href="#Page_437">page 437</a>, following)</p>
-
-<div class="center">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc bl">R.</td><td class="tdc bl wd25">Corporation</td><td class="tdc bl">Receipts</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla">$10M</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">&nbsp;&nbsp;15</td><td class="tdl bl">Ill. Cent.</td><td class="tdrx bl">$13,660,245</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">14</td><td class="tdl bl">Mich. Cent.</td><td class="tdrx bl">13,770,593</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td><td class="tdla">$20M</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">13</td><td class="tdl bl">A. T. &amp; St. F.</td><td class="tdrx bl">15,612.913</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">12</td><td class="tdl bl">N. Pacific</td><td class="tdrx bl">15,846,328</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">11</td><td class="tdl bl">L. &amp; N.</td><td class="tdrx bl">17,122,026</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla">$30M</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">10</td><td class="tdl bl">L. S. &amp; M. S.</td><td class="tdrx bl">18,029,627</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">9</td><td class="tdl bl">U. Pacif.</td><td class="tdrx bl">19,898,817</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">8</td><td class="tdl bl">B. &amp; O.</td><td class="tdrx bl">20,353,492</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla">$40M</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">7</td><td class="tdl bl">C. B. &amp; Q.</td><td class="tdrx bl">23,789,168</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">6</td><td class="tdl bl">C. M. &amp; St. P.</td><td class="tdrx bl">24,867,730</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">5</td><td class="tdl bl">C. &amp; N. W.</td><td class="tdrx bl">26,697,559</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla">$50M</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">4</td><td class="tdl bl">N. Y. L. E. &amp; W.</td><td class="tdrx bl">27,217,990</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">3</td><td class="tdl bl">N. Y. C. &amp; H. R.</td><td class="tdrx bl">36,139,920</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">2</td><td class="tdl bl">Penn. W. of P.</td><td class="tdrx bl">37,894,370</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1</td><td class="tdl bl">Penn. E. of P.</td><td class="tdrx bl">58,172,078</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p class="p1 pfs120">Largest Net Results, 1888.</p>
-
-
-<p class="pfs70">(See <a href="#Page_437">page 437</a>, following)</p>
-
-<div class="center">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc bl">R.</td><td class="tdc bl wd25">Corporation</td><td class="tdc bl">Net %</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla">10%</td><td class="tdla">20%</td><td class="tdla">30%</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">&nbsp;&nbsp;15</td><td class="tdl bl">N. Y. C. &amp; H. R.</td><td class="tdrx bl">31.85</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">14</td><td class="tdl bl">Penn. E. of P.</td><td class="tdrx bl">33.39</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">13</td><td class="tdl bl">D. &amp; R. G.</td><td class="tdrx bl">33.43</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">12</td><td class="tdl bl">A. T. &amp; St. F.</td><td class="tdrx bl">33.47</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">11</td><td class="tdl bl">N. Y. L. E. &amp; W.</td><td class="tdrx bl">33.85</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl">10</td><td class="tdl bl">Ill. Cent.</td><td class="tdrx bl">34.41</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 9</td><td class="tdl bl">C. R. I. &amp; P.</td><td class="tdrx bl">35.29</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 8</td><td class="tdl bl">E. T. V. &amp; G.</td><td class="tdrx bl">36.06</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 7</td><td class="tdl bl">L. &amp; N.</td><td class="tdrx bl">36.11</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdrx">40%</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 6</td><td class="tdl bl">L. S. &amp; M. S.</td><td class="tdrx bl">37.27</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 5</td><td class="tdl bl">C. &amp; N. W.</td><td class="tdrx bl">37.56</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 4</td><td class="tdl bl">U. Pacif.</td><td class="tdrx bl">40.80</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 3</td><td class="tdl bl">N. Pacif.</td><td class="tdrx bl">41.52</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 2</td><td class="tdl bl">St. L. &amp; San F.</td><td class="tdrx bl">41.88</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 1</td><td class="tdl bl">St. P. M. &amp; M.</td><td class="tdrx bl">&nbsp;46.08</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-</div>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[436]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<a href="images/i_436-large.jpg">
-<img src="images/i_436.jpg" width="600" alt="" /></a></div>
-
-<div class="captionx">
-
-<p class="pfs120">AVERAGE CHARGE PER MILE FOR EACH TON OF FREIGHT HAULED.</p>
-
-<p class="pad4">
-TRUNK LINES. 1870&mdash;1889<br />
-Chicago and Northwestern<br />
-Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul<br />
-Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific<br />
-<b>Av. of 6 Lines West of Chicago</b><br />
-Chicago, Burlington and Quincy<br />
-Illinois Central<br />
-Chicago and Alton<br />
-Boston and Albany<br />
-Michigan Central<br />
-New York Central<br />
-<b>Av. of 7 Lines East of Chicago</b><br />
-Pennsylvania<br />
-Lake Shore and Michigan Southern<br />
-New York, Lake Erie and Western<br />
-Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago<br />
-</p>
-
-<p><b>Explanatory.</b>&mdash;The upper edge of the deep shade marks the
-fluctuations of the average rate charged by the seven lines east of
-Chicago.&mdash;The upper edge of the light shade marks the fluctuations
-of the average rate charged by the six lines west of Chicago.&mdash;Each
-particular road has a distinctive line, which makes it easy to trace
-it among other lines.&mdash;All Western lines are accompanied by lines
-of color, to distinguish them plainly from the Eastern lines, and to
-make their relation to their own average more easily discovered.
-The Boston and Albany is the only Eastern line whose rate places
-it near the Western lines, but the absence of color prevents it from
-being taken for a Western line, which it might otherwise be, especially
-during the last three years, in its journey through and above
-them all.&mdash;The C. B. &amp; Q. Road makes no report later than 1879.&mdash;The
-Chicago and Alton report begins at 1874.</p>
-
-<p><b>Explanatory.</b>&mdash;The diagram upon which the rates are charted (like all such
-diagrams) is constructed of perpendicular and horizontal lines. Each line, and
-each space between lines, has a particular meaning. The perpendicular spaces
-represent years, indicated by the figures at the top of each space. The horizontal
-spaces represent money values, each space representing .2c (two mills). Each
-horizontal line represents a particular money value, marked by the figures at the
-end of the line. Each black dot represents the average annual rate of some particular
-road. For example, take the Boston and Albany Road. Starting with the
-name and following the tracing line, the 1870 dot is found just below the 2.2c
-(2 cents and 2 mills) line. This indicates that the average rate charged by that
-road in 1870 was a trifle less than 2.2c. Following the line leading from the 1870
-dot into the 1871 space, the 1871 dot is found a little below the center of the space
-between the 2c line and the 2.2c line, indicating a rate of a little less than 2 cents
-and 1 mill for 1871. The next year it is lower still. In this way the history of
-any road is quickly traced.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[437]</a></span></p>
-
-<p><em>Largest Receipts.</em>&mdash;A comparison on the basis of gross receipts
-gives the best means of judging of the financial importance of the
-several roads, for it measures the volume of business done. On
-<a href="#Page_435">page 435</a> is given such a comparison of the fifteen roads (of the
-twenty-two referred to above) reporting the largest gross receipts.</p>
-
-<p><em>Largest Net Results.</em>&mdash;While the gross receipts measure the
-volume of business they may not give any indication of net results.
-A chart, immediately under that comparing gross receipts,
-compares the net receipts of the fifteen roads (of the same twenty-two)
-which report the highest per centages.</p>
-
-<p>Of the ten reporting largest net results, seven are west of
-Chicago. This fact, coupled with the desire of the great western
-systems to possess new territory in advance of others, suggests a
-reason for the large railway growth in that part of the country.</p>
-
-
-<h3 class="fs70">FREIGHT TRAFFIC.</h3>
-
-<p>The gross traffic receipts of the railways of the United States
-are divided between freight and passenger business in very nearly
-the proportion of three to one in favor of the freight traffic. For
-this reason, and because the data are still more largely available on
-the same side, the freight service receives herein the fuller treatment.</p>
-
-<p><em>Reduction of Freight Rates.</em>&mdash;On the opposite page is a chart
-delineating the fluctuations in freight rates since 1870. To one
-not familiar with the subject the picture presented is a most remarkable
-one. It looks as though the roads are all in a mad
-scramble to see which can reach the bottom of the hill first. To
-railway managers the picture is a painful reminder of a serious
-struggle, the end of which no one can yet predict.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[438]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The lines selected are representative lines of the east and west
-divisions of the country, north of the Ohio River, where the great
-number of competing roads has induced sharp competition.</p>
-
-<p>The history of the <em>averages</em> is very clear, and it is easy to see
-that they are steadily approaching common ground, for while in
-1870 the eastern average marked almost exactly one cent six
-mills, the western marked two cents four mills, a separation of
-eight mills; in 1888 they recorded seven mills and a trifle over
-nine mills, a separation of about one-quarter of the 1870 record.</p>
-
-<p><em>Wheat Rates.</em>&mdash;The chart below repeats the lesson of the
-larger chart as to reduction of rates. The persistency with
-which water rates have kept below rail rates, emphasizes the
-fact that wherever water-ways exist, they are stubborn competitors
-for such freight traffic as will not suffer by the longer
-time required for the journey.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_438.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Average Freight Rates
-per Bushel of Wheat from
-Chicago to New York.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><em>The Freight Haul.</em>&mdash;It costs as much to load and unload a
-train that hauls its freight ten miles as it does one that carries it a
-thousand miles. In other words, the longer the haul the less the
-proportional cost to the carriers. The great extension of long
-lines westward in the last few years naturally raises the question
-whether the average freight haul has increased. The largely diminished
-rates suggest that probably producers have been led
-thereby to ship both agricultural and manufactured products
-greater distances to market. One or both of these conditions
-may have operated favorably for some roads, but, plausible as
-the theories seem, the facts prove that neither of them is supported<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[439]</a></span>
-in a study of the average haul of the country. The available
-figures permit us to go back only to 1882. Within that period
-the little chart given herewith delineates
-the fluctuations, but indicates no
-permanency in either direction. It is
-a matter of regret that in this, as in
-many other studies, the history is not
-available for earlier years, as the more
-extended the view the better the judgment
-of such questions becomes.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img src="images/i_439a.jpg" width="250" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Average Number of Miles each Ton of
-Freight was Hauled.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><em>Empty Freight Trains.</em>&mdash;One of the considerable items of expense
-in the freight traffic is that of returning empty cars to their
-point of starting. Just how large an item this is depends chiefly
-upon the demands of the population at either end of the operating
-line for the product of the population at the opposite end. Thus
-the carriage of the great agricultural product of the West to feed
-the denser population of the East, and for export to foreign countries,
-may or may not be met by the demand of the western people
-for the manufactures of the East and the imports from foreign
-countries arriving at the eastern seaboard. It is scarcely probable
-that any line, short or long, running east and west or north
-and south, finds its traffic in opposite directions balanced.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_439b.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Percentage of East-Bound and West-Bound Freight carried by the Lake Shore
-and Michigan Southern Railway Co.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>An interesting study of this problem is presented in the accompanying
-chart, the road selected for the illustration being one
-of the large carriers between Chicago and Buffalo. The upper
-chart-line marks the proportion of freight carried from west to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[440]</a></span>
-east, while the lower line (at the top of the shaded part of the diagram)
-marks the portion carried from east to west. It is readily
-seen that in 1877 the west-bound freight was less than half as
-much as the east-bound, for they stand 30.8 per cent, and 69.2 per
-cent., respectively; and in 1878 the difference is still greater. From
-that year, however, there has been great improvement, so that
-now it would appear that there is on that road a much diminished
-need for hauling empty cars. The history of the Pennsylvania
-Road is similar to that shown in the chart, but the ratios have not
-come so nearly together. That of the New York Central &amp;
-Hudson River Road shows very little change in the ratios since
-1870, and all the time both these roads report a very large excess
-of east-bound freight.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_440.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Profit per Ton per Mile.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><em>Freight Profits.</em>&mdash;The change in rates are of great moment to
-the producer; that of profits is the important one to the carrier.
-No matter how great the reduction of rates, if the reduction of expense
-is as great, the profits are not disturbed. This question
-can be studied best by examining the figures which measure the
-actual profits. But few corporations furnish such figures, and the
-two whose history is delineated on the accompanying chart are
-among those giving the most readily available data. It will be
-seen that the reduction of profits is no less remarkable than the reduction
-of rates, which shows that the reduction of rates has far
-exceeded that of expense of carriage; for, had the reduction of expenses
-kept pace with that of rates, the profits would have remained
-level. As it is, the reduction of profits in the history of these roads,
-as shown, is from about six mills per ton per mile in 1870, to about
-two mills in 1888. These two roads are probably good representatives<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[441]</a></span>
-of the experience of the general freight service of all railways
-north of the Ohio River. If so, the prospect of the future
-of freight traffic is not cheerful.</p>
-
-
-<h3 class="fs70">PASSENGER TRAFFIC.</h3>
-
-<p>The study of passenger traffic is less satisfactory than that of
-freight traffic. Fewer lines furnish a history of their passenger
-rates, and ordinarily those histories cover shorter periods. The
-study is therefore confined to narrower limits and its lessons are
-necessarily less conclusive.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_441.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Passenger Rates per Mile.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><em>Passenger Rates.</em>&mdash;Below is given a chart interpreting the available
-data of six representative lines. The first lesson impressed is
-that no such reduction marks the history of passenger rates as is
-shown in freight rates, although the general trend of the chart-lines
-is plainly downward. The line indicating the average rate for all
-the roads in the country (marked U. S. in the chart) shows a reduction
-of over one-fourth of a cent per passenger per mile since
-1882.</p>
-
-<p>Certain features of this chart attract special attention. The reduction
-of rates by the Pennsylvania, and the New York Central
-&amp; Hudson River roads in 1876, and that by the same roads in
-1885, are suggestive. Equally noticeable are the reductions of
-the Illinois Central in 1871, 1872, 1880, and 1888.</p>
-
-<p>This chart would seem to indicate that competition has not
-operated as sharply on passenger as on freight traffic.</p>
-
-<p><em>Passenger Travel.</em>&mdash;The average distance that passengers ride
-is not as important an element of railway business as is the average<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[442]</a></span>
-freight haul, for the passengers load and unload themselves; so
-that, whether they ride few or many miles, the cost of loading and
-unloading is neither increased nor diminished. On the contrary, if
-a thousand tons of freight, once loaded, is to be hauled one hundred
-miles instead of fifty, the proportional cost of loading and unloading
-is reduced one-half.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img src="images/i_442a.jpg" width="250" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Average Number of Miles each Passenger
-was Carried.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Still, the average distance passengers ride is important; for, if
-the number of passengers remains the same and their ride is shorter,
-the receipts are diminished. The returns show that while the
-number of passengers has increased since 1882 about fifty-six per
-cent., the total miles travelled have not increased quite fifty per
-cent., marking a falling off in the average number of miles each
-passenger rode. The reduction is
-graphically shown in the little chart
-given herewith. This result is no
-doubt largely due to the great increase
-of suburban travel which has
-developed about our large cities within
-the past few years.</p>
-
-<p>It is necessary to state, however,
-that the figures embraced in this study do not include the traffic of
-the elevated roads of New York and Brooklyn.</p>
-
-<p><em>Passenger Profits.</em>&mdash;Again a marked difference between freight
-and passenger traffic appears in comparing the chart given below
-with the corresponding chart on <a href="#Page_440">page 440</a>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_442b.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Profit per Passenger per Mile.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The study covers the history of the same roads in each case.
-The history of freight profits shows a persistent falling off, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[443]</a></span>
-in the nineteen years amounts to four mills per ton per mile, a loss
-of two-thirds of the six mills of 1870. The history delineated on
-this chart shows the average profit of the two roads to be almost
-exactly at the same point that it was in 1870, while the profits for
-most of the intervening years have been much greater.</p>
-
-<p>Were this the record of the freight traffic, it would be much
-more gratifying to the managers of the roads, for the New York
-Central &amp; Hudson River Railway receives about twice as much,
-and the Pennsylvania Railway receives four times as much, from
-freights as from passengers. Attention is invited to the opposite
-results of the same policy on these two roads in 1876. The chart
-of passenger rates on <a href="#Page_441">page 441</a> marks a decided reduction of rates
-by the Pennsylvania Road, and a slight reduction by the New York
-Central &amp; Hudson River Road. The chart of profits records an
-increase for the former and a decrease for the latter. This year
-(1876) is the date of the Centennial World's Fair at Philadelphia.
-The Pennsylvania Road had an enormous increase of passenger
-traffic (double that of the following year), a record which it did
-not equal until 1887. The New York Central &amp; Hudson River
-Road had but a slightly increased traffic, the record of which it
-passed in 1881.</p>
-
-
-<h3 class="fs70">GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.</h3>
-
-<p><em>Dividends.</em>&mdash;While many readers are probably not holders of
-railway stocks, yet a look at the dividends received by those who
-are will not be without interest. The little chart given below tells
-an interesting, although a not over-attractive story.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_443.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Average Dividend Paid on Total Capital Stock.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>It shows that, comparing the aggregate of all the railroad
-stocks of the country with the aggregate of all dividends paid,
-the holders of stock realized an average of 3.03% on their investment
-in 1876. In 1878 it had fallen to less than 2½%. From that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[444]</a></span>
-date to 1885 the record makes a curve ending just above 2%. A
-slight rally is indicated for 1886 and 1887, but 1888 carries it down
-to 1.81%. The stock of many roads has paid no dividend whatever
-these later years, and the lines whose stock proves a good
-investment at par are very few.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_444.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Net Earnings and Mileage Built.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><em>Net Earnings per Mile.</em>&mdash;Although the studies of the financial
-question already made undoubtedly point out the true drift of
-railway business, yet one more comparison is worth making, both
-for its bearing on the question of profits and the study of the influence
-of profits on railway building. The upper one of the two
-charts given herewith is the record of net earnings per mile of
-road in operation, and is based on the reported net earnings less
-the interest-charge. It therefore shows the average number of
-dollars each mile had earned, after paying all expenses and the interest
-on its debt. This money, then, is the clear amount each
-mile could apply each year to pay the principal of its debt and
-the dividends on its capital stock, or to use for improvements, such
-as rolling stock, stations, better road-bed, new rails, or any other
-betterments which might seem advisable.</p>
-
-<p>In 1876 this sum was $1,264; in 1880 it was $1,798, since
-which time it has suffered a serious decline, until in 1888 it was
-only $650. It is the story of the previous studies repeated, and
-needs no further reiteration.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[445]</a></span></p>
-
-<p><em>Railway Building.</em>&mdash;The larger chart given on <a href="#Page_429">page 429</a>,
-gives the history of railway building from 1831 to 1888. The
-lower chart of the two given together on <a href="#Page_444">page 444</a>, repeats the
-annual record from 1876, for the purpose of studying the influence
-of profits on the progress of building. The net earnings
-per mile show a reduction in 1877. The following year
-shows an increase of earnings, and the building responded somewhat
-feebly the same year. The next two years (1879 and 1880)
-show great gains in net earnings, and the impetus given thereby
-to building, carries its increase steadily forward even two years
-beyond the turning-point of the earnings. The decline is then
-mutual to 1885. In 1886 the advance in earnings was responded
-to by such a remarkable increase in building that the stimulus
-is to be sought for partly outside of the increase of earnings,
-and is undoubtedly found in the desire to occupy the newly
-opening fields of western settlement; for the records mark unparalleled
-activity among the great trunk lines of the West in
-pushing their advances in Dakota, Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado,
-in 1886 and 1887. This is graphically shown in the
-map of 1889, when compared with that of 1880 (pages 432 and
-433).</p>
-
-<p><em>Ratios of Increase.</em>&mdash;It is difficult to obtain a just impression of
-values when expressed by figures alone. It is easy when these
-values are expressed in lines or colors. The greater difficulties
-come in the effort to compare values expressed in differing terms.
-To read that the increase of population was 23,400,000 from
-1870 to 1888; and that of railway mileage was 62,785 miles; and
-that of freight traffic was nearly 30,000,000,000 tons, in the same
-period, and then to attempt the comparison of increase without
-further aid, is a hopeless task.</p>
-
-<p>As a study of financial economy the comparison is worth making,
-for evidence of the over-development of an industry or a financial
-interest, rightly considered, may prevent suicidal development.
-The chart given on the next page makes the comparison easy.
-The actual increase in each instance is reduced to percentages, and
-the several chart-lines measure the progress. The increase of
-population is estimated on the basis of 62,000,000 persons in 1888.
-(So far as the lesson conveyed by the chart is concerned, the estimate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[446]</a></span>
-might as well have been 60,000,000, the variation in the location
-of the line would be trifling.)</p>
-
-<p>It appears, then, that railway mileage has increased nearly two
-hundred per cent. and that the rate of increase of freight traffic
-(as measured by ton-miles<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a>) has been enormously larger, considering
-the history of the thirteen trunk lines as indicative of the
-whole. It further appears that the freight traffic of the West has
-developed much more rapidly than that of the East, during the
-last eight years.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_446.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption">Ratios of Increase.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><em>Construction and Maintenance.</em>&mdash;The tabulated statistics of
-these subjects are not of special interest, as the annual variation of
-cost is slight. In both these elements the wage-question is so
-large a factor that a comparative level is maintained from year to
-year. The available figures touching these subjects are few. The
-first table on the opposite page gives the average cost of construction
-per mile of the <em>total mileage of the country</em>; and the cost of
-maintenance per mile as reported by the New York, Lake Erie
-&amp; Western Road. The second table furnishes interesting <em>details</em>
-of the cost of maintenance.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[447]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="p1 pfs90"><em>Construction and Maintenance for Ten Years.</em></p>
-
-<div class="p1 center fs80">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
-<tr><td class="tdrx bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">Years.</td><td class="tdc bl">Cost of construction<br /> per mile.</td><td class="tdc bl">Cost of maintenance<br /> per mile.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">&nbsp;1879</td><td class="tdrx bl">$57,730</td><td class="tdrx bl">$1,671</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1880</td><td class="tdrx bl">58,624</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,371</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1881</td><td class="tdrx bl">60,645</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,448</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1882</td><td class="tdrx bl">61,303</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,335</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1883</td><td class="tdrx bl">61,800</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,533</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1884</td><td class="tdrx bl">61,400</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,281</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1885</td><td class="tdrx bl">61,400</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,082</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1886</td><td class="tdrx bl">61,098</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,496</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1887</td><td class="tdrx bl">58,603</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,533</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1888</td><td class="tdrx bl">60,732</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,226</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p class="p2 pfs90 pg-brk"><em>Comparative Statement of Maintenance of Way of the Illinois Central Road for Ten Years.</em></p>
-
-<p class="p1 pfs90">[Table&mdash;Part 1 of 2]</p>
-
-<div class="p1 center fs80">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
-<tr><td class="tdrx bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Year.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Miles of road<br /> at end of year.</td><td class="tdc bl smcap" colspan="5">Maintenance of Way.<br /><br /></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc bt bl tdpp">Labor on track.</td><td class="tdc bl bt" colspan="2">New rails.</td><td class="tdc bl bt" colspan="2">Cross-ties.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bb tdpp"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bb"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx tdpp"></td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdc bl">$</td><td class="tdc bl">Tons.</td><td class="tdc">$</td><td class="tdc bl">Number.</td><td class="tdc">$</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1879</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,286.72</td><td class="tdrx bl">297,363.40</td><td class="tdrx bl">9,276.00</td><td class="tdrx">125,062.70</td><td class="tdrx bl">264,520</td><td class="tdrx">93,107.51</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1880</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,320.35</td><td class="tdrx bl">343,982.23</td><td class="tdrx bl">9,767.49</td><td class="tdrx">215,365.32</td><td class="tdrx bl">260,116</td><td class="tdrx">93,330.32</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1881</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,320.35</td><td class="tdrx bl">411,018.91</td><td class="tdrx bl">10,098.47</td><td class="tdrx">169,718.80</td><td class="tdrx bl">345,260</td><td class="tdrx">127,279.76</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1882</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,908.65</td><td class="tdrx bl">690,112.59</td><td class="tdrx bl">8,438.00</td><td class="tdrx">128,521.48</td><td class="tdrx bl">604,096</td><td class="tdrx">201,648.26</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1883</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,927.99</td><td class="tdrx bl">742,476.20</td><td class="tdrx bl">8,191.79</td><td class="tdrx">183,239.65</td><td class="tdrx bl">425,627</td><td class="tdrx">153,739.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1884</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,066.35</td><td class="tdrx bl">706,751.86</td><td class="tdrx bl">6,342.73</td><td class="tdrx">93,446.25</td><td class="tdrx bl">462,665</td><td class="tdrx">154,083.19</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1885</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,066.35</td><td class="tdrx bl">749,254.19</td><td class="tdrx bl">8,747.31</td><td class="tdrx">87,331.95</td><td class="tdrx bl">508,756</td><td class="tdrx">176,835.69</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1886</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,149.07</td><td class="tdrx bl">705.553.82</td><td class="tdrx bl">6,376.40</td><td class="tdrx">63,238.84</td><td class="tdrx bl">492,524</td><td class="tdrx">174,515.72</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1887</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,355.12</td><td class="tdrx bl">760,093.33</td><td class="tdrx bl">6,092.66</td><td class="tdrx">79,917.84</td><td class="tdrx bl">573,898</td><td class="tdrx">197.989.47</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1888</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,552.55</td><td class="tdrx bl">847,806.67</td><td class="tdrx bl">8,172.36</td><td class="tdrx">106,372.94</td><td class="tdrx bl">654,141</td><td class="tdrx">214,130.73</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bb tdpp"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bb"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-
-<p class="p2 pfs90">[Table&mdash;Part 2 of 2]</p>
-
-<div class="p1 center fs80">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
-<tr><td class="tdrx bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Year.</td><td class="tdc bl smcap" colspan="3">Maintenance of Way.<br /><br /></td><td class="tdc bl wd10" rowspan="2">Expense per mile run by engines.</td><td class="tdc bl wd15" rowspan="2">Repairs of fences.</td>
-    <td class="tdc bl wd15" rowspan="2">Repairs of station building and water-works.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc bl bt tdpp">Repair of<br />bridges.</td><td class="tdc bl bt">Other items.</td><td class="tdc bl bt">Total.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bb tdpp"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx"></td><td class="tdc bl">$</td><td class="tdc bl">$</td><td class="tdc bl">$</td><td class="tdc bl">Cents.</td><td class="tdc bl">$</td><td class="tdc bl">$</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1879</td><td class="tdrx bl">73,119.56</td><td class="tdrx bl">125,041.92</td><td class="tdrx bl">640,575.53</td><td class="tdrx bl">11.73</td><td class="tdrx bl">$33,416.86</td><td class="tdrx bl">45,755.09</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1880</td><td class="tdrx bl">105,551.62</td><td class="tdrx bl">49,399.09</td><td class="tdrx bl">807,628.58</td><td class="tdrx bl">12.39</td><td class="tdrx bl">36,981.94</td><td class="tdrx bl">80,887.34</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1881</td><td class="tdrx bl">114,193.18</td><td class="tdrx bl">30,399.46</td><td class="tdrx bl">852,610.11</td><td class="tdrx bl">12.16</td><td class="tdrx bl">36,690.33</td><td class="tdrx bl">70,699.58</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1882</td><td class="tdrx bl">174,826.24</td><td class="tdrx bl">17,277.34</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,212,385.91</td><td class="tdrx bl">11.87</td><td class="tdrx bl">31,032.57</td><td class="tdrx bl">87,588.26</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1883</td><td class="tdrx bl">121,101.03</td><td class="tdrx bl">72,294.71</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,272,850.59</td><td class="tdrx bl">11.89</td><td class="tdrx bl">30,084.49</td><td class="tdrx bl">87,291.93</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1884</td><td class="tdrx bl">173,831.23</td><td class="tdrx bl">107,236.13</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,235,348.66</td><td class="tdrx bl">12.20</td><td class="tdrx bl">21,394.71</td><td class="tdrx bl">94,122.03</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1885</td><td class="tdrx bl">164,586.39</td><td class="tdrx bl">88,126.28</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,266,134.50</td><td class="tdrx bl">11.27</td><td class="tdrx bl">21,932.48</td><td class="tdrx bl">94,518.19</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1886</td><td class="tdrx bl">172,144.65</td><td class="tdrx bl">63,976.69</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,179,429.72</td><td class="tdrx bl">10.15</td><td class="tdrx bl">26,668.91</td><td class="tdrx bl">123,519.83</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1887</td><td class="tdrx bl">250,337.47</td><td class="tdrx bl">61,441.88</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,349.779.99</td><td class="tdrx bl">9.95</td><td class="tdrx bl">31,905.46</td><td class="tdrx bl">129,526.76</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1888</td><td class="tdrx bl">310,908.42</td><td class="tdrx bl">115,898.04</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,595,116.80</td><td class="tdrx bl">10.74</td><td class="tdrx bl">40,423.39</td><td class="tdrx bl">170,023.85</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bb tdpp"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p class="p2" />
-<p><em>Employees.</em>&mdash;This item is also one touching which railways
-make few reports. The New York Central &amp; Hudson River Road
-reports as follows: "Average number of employees, 20,659, being
-at the rate of 14.54 per mile of road worked; aggregate wages,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[448]</a></span>
-$12,460,708.89, or $603.16 each. Payments in wages equalled
-50.60 per cent. of the total working expenses, against 51.90 per
-cent. in 1886&ndash;87." Reckoning that each employee's wages supports
-an average of three persons, we have a total of 61,977 persons
-clothed, housed, and fed by this one corporation.</p>
-
-<p>"Poor's Manual" discusses this subject at some length, but
-mainly on theoretical ground.</p>
-
-<p><em>Rolling Stock.</em>&mdash;A table showing the history of the growth of
-the rolling stock of the country is given on <a href="#Page_148">page 148</a>; it is therefore
-unnecessary to repeat it here.</p>
-
-<p><em>Capital Invested.</em>&mdash;It is folly for the human mind to attempt to
-grasp the immensity of the financial interest expressed in the statement,
-that the combined capital invested in the railways of the
-United States is $9,369,398,954. No more can it comprehend
-that this vast aggregate has been the growth of about fifty years
-in a single interest, in a single country.</p>
-
-<p class="p1 pfs90"><em>Capital Invested.</em></p>
-
-<div class="p1 center fs80">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
-<tr><td class="tdrx bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bll bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">Year.</td><td class="tdc bl">Capital.</td><td class="tdc bll">Year.</td><td class="tdc bl">Capital.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bb tdpp"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bll bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1876</td><td class="tdrx bl">&nbsp;$4,468,592,000</td><td class="tdrx bll">1883</td><td class="tdrx bl">&nbsp;$7,477,866,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1877</td><td class="tdrx bl">5,106,202,000</td><td class="tdrx bll">1884</td><td class="tdrx bl">7,676,399,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1878</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,772,297,000</td><td class="tdrx bll">1885</td><td class="tdrx bl">7,842,533,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1879</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,872,017,000</td><td class="tdrx bll">1886</td><td class="tdrx bl">8,163,149,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1880</td><td class="tdrx bl">5,402,038,000</td><td class="tdrx bll">1887</td><td class="tdrx bl">8,673,187,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1881</td><td class="tdrx bl">6,278,565,000</td><td class="tdrx bll">1888</td><td class="tdrx bl">9,369,399,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx">1882</td><td class="tdrx bl">7,016,750,000</td><td class="tdrx bll"></td><td class="tdrx bl"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdrx bb tdpp"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bll bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p class="p2" />
-<p>The first date in the table marks the close of the first century
-of our national life. Since that time the investment has more than
-doubled; an increase of nearly five billion dollars in twelve years&mdash;an
-average of over four hundred million dollars per year. More
-exactly expressed, this means $1,118,906 per day, or $46,621 for
-every hour, day and night, during the first twelve years of our
-second century.</p>
-
-<p>It is safe to say that no other financial interest shows a total of
-such wonderful magnitude. And with greater emphasis may it
-be said, that the finances of the world, record, in all the ages, to
-the present day, no such astounding increase of investment.</p>
-
-
-<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Data drawn from "Poor's Manual of Railroads," 1889, and the "Statistical Abstract of the United
-States," 1888, and carefully revised, form, in large part, the basis of the several studies; and the writer
-hereby expresses obligation to Mr. John P. Meany, editor of the "Manual," for kindly aid in his work.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> A ton-mile means a ton of freight hauled one mile; ten ton-miles, a ton of freight
-hauled ten miles, or two tons hauled five miles.</p></div></div>
-
-
-    <div class="chapter"></div>
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[449]</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">INDEX.</a></h2>
-
-
-<div class="fs85">
-
-<p class="noindent">
-Accidents, chances of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">at crossings, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">from coupling cars, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">investigation of, <a href="#Page_399">399</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">to railway bridges, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">South Norwalk, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">statistics of, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">to trainmen, <a href="#Page_393">393</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">to trains, origin of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Adams, Charles Francis, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a><br />
-<br />
-Air-brake, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br />
-<br />
-Allen, Horatio, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br />
-<br />
-Arbitration between railways and their employees, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a><br />
-<br />
-Armstrong, Colonel G. G., <a href="#Page_316">316</a><br />
-<br />
-Atkinson, Edward, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
-<br />
-Auditor's duties, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br />
-<br />
-<br />
-Baggage-check system, <a href="#Page_253">253</a><br />
-<br />
-Baggage-master, work of, <a href="#Page_416">416</a><br />
-<br />
-Baggage service, abuses in, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
-<br />
-Baggage transportation, <a href="#Page_253">253</a><br />
-<br />
-Baldwin Locomotive Works, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br />
-<br />
-Ballast of a railway, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
-<br />
-Baltimore &amp; Ohio, the, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">cars, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">early passenger-trains, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">in 1830, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Bangs, George S., <a href="#Page_317">317</a><br />
-<br />
-Bell-cord train-signal, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br />
-<br />
-Bessemer, Sir Henry, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
-<br />
-Bessemer steel, invention of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
-<br />
-Blaine, James G., <a href="#Page_323">323</a><br />
-<br />
-Blair, Montgomery, <a href="#Page_317">317</a><br />
-<br />
-Block-signal, automatic, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">system, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Boilers, construction of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br />
-<br />
-Bonds and stock, relative position of, <a href="#Page_354">354</a><br />
-<br />
-Brake, air-, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">advantages of air-, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">improvements suggested to air-, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">American, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">and coupler, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Beals, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">chain, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">continuous, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">early forms of, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">electric, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">hand, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">perils of, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">how to manage, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">hydraulic, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">steam driver-, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">trials at Burlington, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">vacuum, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">water, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Westinghouse air-, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Brakemen, characteristics of, <a href="#Page_384">384</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">duties of, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">life, agreeable and disagreeable features of, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">passenger-train, advantages of, <a href="#Page_396">396</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">pleasures of, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">wit of, the result of meditation, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Bridges, railway, accidents to, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">American iron, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">American, development of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">length of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">American wooden, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">and culverts, how built, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Bismarck, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Britannia, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">builders, <a href="#Page_423">423</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">cantilever, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">connecting two tunnels, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">connections, types of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></span><br />
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[450]</a></span><span class="pad1">foundations by crib or open caisson, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Bridges, foundations by pneumatic caisson, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">foundations, how made, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">foundations under water, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">gangs, work of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">great, over cañons and valleys, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">guard-rails and frogs for, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Hawkesbury River, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Howe truss, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">how to build safe, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Kentucky River, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Kinzua, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Lachine, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">masonry arch, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Niagara cantilever, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Portage, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Poughkeepsie, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">steel truss, development of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">strength of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">St. Louis, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">trusses, types of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">tubular, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">typical American truss, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Verrugas, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Victoria, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Washington, over Harlem River, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">wooden, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">wood, stone, and iron, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Bridgers, R. R., <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br />
-<br />
-Bridgewater, Duke of, <a href="#Page_345">345</a><br />
-<br />
-Broken trains, dangers of, <a href="#Page_388">388</a><br />
-<br />
-Burr &amp; Wernwag, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
-<br />
-<br />
-Caissons for bridge foundations, how made, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">open, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">pneumatic, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Camden &amp; Amboy locomotives, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br />
-<br />
-Cameron, Simon, prediction of, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br />
-<br />
-Campbell, Henry R., <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br />
-<br />
-Cantilever bridges, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br />
-<br />
-Capital invested in railways, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a><br />
-<br />
-Car-accountant, and the transportation department, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">office of, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Car-accounting, benefits of a good system, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br />
-<br />
-Car-builders' dictionary, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br />
-<br />
-Car-couplers, imperfections of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">need of uniformity in, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Car-coupling, accidents from, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a><br />
-<br />
-Cars, American and English, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">American, evolution of, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Baltimore &amp; Ohio freight-, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">different kinds of, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">old, discomforts of, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">distribution of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">empty, distribution of, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">first American passenger-, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">first sleeping-, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">for special uses, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">freight-, wanderings of a, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">heating by gas, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">heating by steam, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">heating, methods of, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">lighting safely, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">mileage and records, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">mileage charges, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Mohawk &amp; Hudson passenger-, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">number of, in the United States, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">records of movement, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">service charges, per diem plan, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">service of, payment for, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">service records and reports, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">tracers for, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">trucks, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">invention of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">use and abuse of, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Car-wheels, European, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">how made, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">paper, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Cassatt, A. J., <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br />
-<br />
-Check system for baggage, <a href="#Page_253">253</a><br />
-<br />
-Chief engineer, duties of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br />
-<br />
-Chimbote Railway in the Andes, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
-<br />
-Civil service reform in the mail service, <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br />
-<br />
-Classifications of freight, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br />
-<br />
-Clerks, railway, <a href="#Page_422">422</a><br />
-<br />
-Coffer-dam foundations for bridges, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
-<br />
-Commissions to passenger agents, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
-<br />
-Competing points and pools, <a href="#Page_364">364</a><br />
-<br />
-Concentration of power, <a href="#Page_351">351</a><br />
-<br />
-Conducting transportation, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br />
-<br />
-Conductors, freight, trials of, <a href="#Page_398">398</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">heroism of, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">passenger, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Consolidation, effects of, <a href="#Page_351">351</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">tendency to, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Construction companies, <a href="#Page_355">355</a><br />
-<br />
-Contractors, railway, work of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br />
-<br />
-Conveniences at stations, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>
-<br />
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[451]</a></span><br />
-Cooley, Judge Thomas M., <a href="#Page_368">368</a><br />
-<br />
-Cooper, Peter, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br />
-<br />
-Council, proposed railway, <a href="#Page_380">380</a><br />
-<br />
-Couplers and brakes, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">imperfections of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">uniform automatic, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Coupling cars, accidents from, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a><br />
-<br />
-Coupon tickets, <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">misunderstood, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Cox, S. S., <a href="#Page_323">323</a><br />
-<br />
-Cranes, large travelling, in locomotive shops, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br />
-<br />
-Crib foundations for bridge piers, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br />
-<br />
-Crises of 1873 and 1885, effects of, <a href="#Page_356">356</a><br />
-<br />
-Crossings, accidents at, <a href="#Page_408">408</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">protection for, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Cullom, Senator S. M., <a href="#Page_368">368</a><br />
-<br />
-Culverts, building of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">log, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">masonry, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">on American railways, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Curves, American and European railway, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">least, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Cutting, largest ever made, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
-<br />
-Cylinders, locomotive, construction of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br />
-<br />
-<br />
-Darwin, Erasmus, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
-<br />
-Davis &amp; Gartner, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br />
-<br />
-Davis, Phineas, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br />
-<br />
-Davis, W. A., <a href="#Page_317">317</a><br />
-<br />
-Death and accident provisions for postal clerks, <a href="#Page_343">343</a><br />
-<br />
-Delays in a long journey, <a href="#Page_267">267</a><br />
-<br />
-Delaware &amp; Hudson Canal Company, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br />
-<br />
-Demurrage charges, <a href="#Page_296">296</a><br />
-<br />
-Derailing switches, use of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
-<br />
-Derailments of trains, causes of, <a href="#Page_218">218</a><br />
-<br />
-Destructive force of a locomotive at high speed, <a href="#Page_187">187</a><br />
-<br />
-Detector-bar for switches, <a href="#Page_205">205</a><br />
-<br />
-Differentials, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br />
-<br />
-Dining-cars, introduction of, <a href="#Page_243">243</a><br />
-<br />
-Discipline necessary on a railway, <a href="#Page_377">377</a><br />
-<br />
-Distribution of cars, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br />
-<br />
-Dividends, average, on railway stock, <a href="#Page_443">443</a><br />
-<br />
-Drawbridge accidents, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br />
-<br />
-Driving-wheels, large and small, <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br />
-<br />
-<br />
-Eads, Captain James B., <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br />
-<br />
-Eames vacuum brake, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br />
-<br />
-Eccentric, operation of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br />
-<br />
-Educational institutions for railway employees, <a href="#Page_379">379</a><br />
-<br />
-Electric annunciator for signals, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br />
-<br />
-Electric lights for cars, <a href="#Page_226">226</a><br />
-<br />
-Electricity applied to brakes, <a href="#Page_194">194</a><br />
-<br />
-Elevated Railroad, New York, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
-<br />
-Employees, railway, benefit funds, <a href="#Page_378">378</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">permanent and temporary, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">promotion of, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">number of, in the United States, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">permanency of service during good behavior, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">relations of, to the railway, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">representative system for, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">rights and privileges of permanent, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">to have a voice in management, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">wages of, <a href="#Page_448">448</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Engineer, the, as a public benefactor, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">civil, qualifications of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">responsibilities and duties of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Engineering, good, true test of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
-<br />
-Ericsson, John, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
-<br />
-<br />
-Facing and trailing point switches, <a href="#Page_219">219</a><br />
-<br />
-Facing-point locks, <a href="#Page_205">205</a><br />
-<br />
-Fast freight lines, <a href="#Page_287">287</a><br />
-<br />
-Fast mail service, appropriations for, <a href="#Page_337">337</a><br />
-<br />
-Fast mail train, trip with, <a href="#Page_323">323</a><br />
-<br />
-Fast runs, remarkable instances, <a href="#Page_404">404</a><br />
-<br />
-Fast time on railways, conditions of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br />
-<br />
-Field &amp; Hayes, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br />
-<br />
-Fink, Albert, <a href="#Page_365">365</a><br />
-<br />
-Fisk, James, Jr., <a href="#Page_353">353</a><br />
-<br />
-Flagging trains, <a href="#Page_390">390</a><br />
-<br />
-Foot-guard for frogs, <a href="#Page_222">222</a><br />
-<br />
-Foreign cars, theory and practice in their use, <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br />
-<br />
-Foster, Rastrick &amp; Company, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br />
-<br />
-Free-pass system, <a href="#Page_362">362</a><br />
-<br />
-Freight-car wanderings, <a href="#Page_267">267</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">classifications and rates, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">conductor and his trials, <a href="#Page_398">398</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">department, organization of, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">engines, saving fuel on, <a href="#Page_402">402</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">empty trains of, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">handlers at stations, <a href="#Page_423">423</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">movement, accidents in, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">cost of delays in, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[452]</a></span>
-Freight profits, <a href="#Page_440">440</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">rates, reduction of, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">traffic, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">how handled, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Freight trains, air-brakes for, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">transportation, needs of the service, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Fuel, saving, on freight-engines, <a href="#Page_402">402</a><br />
-<br />
-<br />
-Garrett, John W., <a href="#Page_351">351</a><br />
-<br />
-Gate-tenders on the railway, <a href="#Page_423">423</a><br />
-<br />
-General Freight Agent, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
-<br />
-General Manager, duties of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br />
-<br />
-General Passenger Agent, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
-<br />
-Geographical location of railways in the United States, <a href="#Page_427">427</a><br />
-<br />
-Goold, James, <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br />
-<br />
-Grades, limit of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
-<br />
-Grand Central Station interlocking signals, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br />
-<br />
-Grand River cañon, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
-<br />
-Granger movement, <a href="#Page_363">363</a><br />
-<br />
-Guard-rails and frogs for bridges, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br />
-<br />
-<br />
-Hamlin, Hannibal, <a href="#Page_323">323</a><br />
-<br />
-Hampson, John, <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br />
-<br />
-Harrison, Joseph, Jr., <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br />
-<br />
-Hawkesbury River bridge, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br />
-<br />
-Heater-cars, Eastman, <a href="#Page_289">289</a><br />
-<br />
-Heating cars, <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br />
-<br />
-Highway crossing accidents, <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">crossing gates, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Holley, Alexander L., <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
-<br />
-Hoosac Tunnel, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
-<br />
-Hospital funds for railway employees, <a href="#Page_378">378</a><br />
-<br />
-Hotel-cars, <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br />
-<br />
-Howe truss bridges, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
-<br />
-<br />
-Immigrant sleeping-cars, <a href="#Page_251">251</a><br />
-<br />
-Inclined planes for overcoming elevations, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
-<br />
-Injectors, principle of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br />
-<br />
-Insurance funds for railway employees, <a href="#Page_378">378</a><br />
-<br />
-Interchange of cars, methods of, <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br />
-<br />
-Interlocking bolts, uses of, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">signals and switches, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Interstate commerce law, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">Commerce Commission and its work, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Investigation of accidents, <a href="#Page_399">399</a><br />
-<br />
-Investors and managers, relations of, <a href="#Page_357">357</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">difficult position of, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Irregular hours of work, <a href="#Page_399">399</a><br />
-<br />
-<br />
-Jameson, John, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a><br />
-<br />
-Janney car-coupler, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br />
-<br />
-Jervis, John B., <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a><br />
-<br />
-Johnson, R. P., <a href="#Page_339">339</a><br />
-<br />
-Judgment, value of, in a locomotive-runner, <a href="#Page_407">407</a><br />
-<br />
-Junction-cards and car-reports, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br />
-<br />
-<br />
-Kentucky River cantilever bridge, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br />
-<br />
-King, Porter, <a href="#Page_408">408</a><br />
-<br />
-Kinzua Bridge, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br />
-<br />
-<br />
-Lachine Bridge, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br />
-<br />
-Latimer, Charles, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br />
-<br />
-Latrobe, Benjamin H., <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
-<br />
-Layng, J. D., <a href="#Page_319">319</a><br />
-<br />
-Legal department of a railway, duties of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br />
-<br />
-Lighting cars, safe methods, <a href="#Page_226">226</a><br />
-<br />
-Lincoln, Abraham, in the first sleeping-car, <a href="#Page_240">240</a><br />
-<br />
-Link motion for locomotive valves, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br />
-<br />
-Location, approximate, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">final, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">how governed, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">in old and new countries, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">importance of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[453]</a></span>
-Locomotives, ability to climb grades, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">American type, origin of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Baltimore &amp; Ohio "grasshopper," <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">boiler construction, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">cab, what is in it, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">capacity to draw loads, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">consolidation, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">cost of running, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">cylinders, how supplied with steam, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">decapod, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">destructive force of, at high speed, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">"DeWitt Clinton," <a href="#Page_105">105</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">driving-wheels, how made, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">earliest American, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">early eight-wheeled, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">engineer, the duties and qualifications of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">peculiarities of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">duties and dangers of, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">spirit of fraternity of, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">English type of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">equalizing levers, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">fireman, <a href="#Page_422">422</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">first trial of, in America, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">fuel, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">consumption, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">hostler, <a href="#Page_422">422</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">how to start and stop, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">"John Bull," <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Mogul, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">number of, in the United States, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Peter Cooper's, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">prize offered for, by the Baltimore &amp; Ohio, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">pumps and injectors, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">"Rocket," <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">running, systems of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">cost of, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">running gear, adjustment of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">flexible, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">shops, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">size, weight, and price, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">speed, law of, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">suburban traffic, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">ten-wheeled, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">trials, Liverpool &amp; Manchester Railway, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">truck, invention of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">types of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">valve motion, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></span><br />
-<br />
-London Underground Railway, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
-<br />
-"Long and short haul," <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
-<br />
-<br />
-Mail service, railway, civil service reform in, <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br />
-<br />
-Mail train, fast, <a href="#Page_317">317</a><br />
-<br />
-Managers and investors, relations of, <a href="#Page_357">357</a><br />
-<br />
-Masonry arch bridges, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br />
-<br />
-Massachusetts Railroad Commission and traffic questions, <a href="#Page_367">367</a><br />
-<br />
-Master Car Builders' Association brake-trials, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">type of car-coupler, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Master car-builder's duties, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
-<br />
-Master mechanic's work, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br />
-<br />
-Master of transportation, duties of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br />
-<br />
-Mexican Central Railway, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
-<br />
-Mileage balances, reduction of, <a href="#Page_273">273</a><br />
-<br />
-Miller coupler and buffer, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br />
-<br />
-Miller, Ezra, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br />
-<br />
-Milling in transit, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br />
-<br />
-Model railway service, <a href="#Page_375">375</a><br />
-<br />
-Mohawk &amp; Hudson passenger-cars, <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br />
-<br />
-Mont Cenis Tunnel, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
-<br />
-Moral standard on the railway, improvement in, <a href="#Page_384">384</a><br />
-<br />
-Mount Washington Railway, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
-<br />
-Mountain climbing by rack railways, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">railways, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<br />
-National regulation of railways, <a href="#Page_367">367</a><br />
-<br />
-Newell, John, <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br />
-<br />
-New York Elevated Railways, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
-<br />
-Niagara cantilever bridge, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">suspension bridge, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Nochistongo cut, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
-<br />
-<br />
-Operating department of a railway, importance of, <a href="#Page_373">373</a><br />
-<br />
-Oroya Railway in the Andes, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
-<br />
-Outram, Benjamin, <a href="#Page_345">345</a><br />
-<br />
-<br />
-Paper car-wheels, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br />
-<br />
-Passenger advertisement, first, <a href="#Page_229">229</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">brakeman, <a href="#Page_396">396</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">burned in wrecks, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">cars, early, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">English and American, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">first American, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">manufacture of, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">Mohawk &amp; Hudson, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">conductor, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">fares, comparative rates, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">profits, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">rates and commissions, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">tickets, old, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">traffic, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">trains, first, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">early American, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">making time on, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">travel, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">amount of, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">safety of, in England and America, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">speed of, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Pay-car, trip of the, <a href="#Page_309">309</a><br />
-<br />
-Pay, increase of, for faithful service, <a href="#Page_378">378</a><br />
-<br />
-Paymaster's work, <a href="#Page_308">308</a><br />
-<br />
-Parallel roads, <a href="#Page_356">356</a><br />
-<br />
-Pensions for railway employees, <a href="#Page_378">378</a><br />
-<br />
-Pennsylvania Railroad shops at Altoona, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">maintenance of track, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">system, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Permanent service of a railway, <a href="#Page_375">375</a><br />
-<br />
-Pile-driver, work of a, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br />
-<br />
-Pile foundations for bridges, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br />
-<br />
-Plant, H. B., <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br />
-<br />
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[454]</a></span>
-Pneumatic caissons for bridge foundations, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">interlocking apparatus, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Pœtsch method of building foundations for bridge piers, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br />
-<br />
-Pooling rates, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br />
-<br />
-Pools and competing points, <a href="#Page_364">364</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">railway, origin and nature of, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Pope, Thomas, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br />
-<br />
-Portage Bridge, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
-<br />
-Postal cars, <a href="#Page_325">325</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">first used, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">provision against accident in, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Postal clerks, accidents to, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br />
-<br />
-Postal progress, object lesson in, <a href="#Page_312">312</a><br />
-<br />
-Postal service, early history, <a href="#Page_313">313</a><br />
-<br />
-Potter, Thomas J., <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br />
-<br />
-Poughkeepsie cantilever bridge, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br />
-<br />
-Predecessors of the railway, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br />
-<br />
-Premiums to section-men, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
-<br />
-Promotion of employees, <a href="#Page_376">376</a><br />
-<br />
-Pullman, George M., <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">Palace Car Company, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">sleeper, first, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Purchasing agent's varied duties and experience, <a href="#Page_300">300</a><br />
-<br />
-<br />
-Rails, development of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">increased weight of, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">iron, first used, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">joints for, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">steel, first introduction, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">supply and renewal of, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">weight which they will carry, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Railroading fifty years ago, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
-<br />
-Railways, American, key to the development of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;<br />
-<span class="pad2">rolling stock of, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">and English, essential differences, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">amount of capital invested in, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">and their employees, nature of relations, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">and democracy, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">and their customers, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">beginning of, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">building, cost of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">example of rapid, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">history of, <a href="#Page_445">445</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">competition of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">with canals, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">consolidation, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">council, proposed, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">division of expenses on, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">earnings, average net, per mile, <a href="#Page_444">444</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">earliest, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">in America, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">early systems of management, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">economic view of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">educational institutions, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">employees, permanent and temporary, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">general characteristics of, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">moral welfare of, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">a typical, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">wages of, <a href="#Page_448">448</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">growth of, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">income, sources of, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">influence on the world, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">mail first carried on, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">mail service, growth of, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">importance of, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">needs of, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">organization of, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">party injury to, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">management, development of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">in Europe, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">organization and division of authority, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">results expected from, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">special departments of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">stability of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">subdivisions of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">men's building in New York, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">mileage, comparative, of the principal countries, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">of the United States, <a href="#Page_426">426</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">national idea developed by, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">national regulation, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">officers' duties and responsibilities, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">organization analyzed, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">complex, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">growth of, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">personnel, importance of, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">place in the modern industrial system, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">postal clerks' dangers, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">just claims, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">need of provision against disability, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">work, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">relations of, to their employees, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">shop-men, <a href="#Page_423">423</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">State ownership of, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">statistics of, <a href="#Page_425">425</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">systems, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">the largest single industrial interest, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">United States, extent of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">"wars" between, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Randall, Samuel J., <a href="#Page_323">323</a><br />
-<br />
-Rates and rebates, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">causes of reduction, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">combinations and adjustments, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br />
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[455]</a></span>
-<span class="pad1">forced reductions, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">how made and regulated, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">inequalities of, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">passenger, and commissions, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">plans for regulating, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">special, wars over, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">without a natural standard, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Reagan, John H., <a href="#Page_368">368</a><br />
-<br />
-Reconnoissance, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br />
-<br />
-Refrigerator cars, <a href="#Page_289">289</a><br />
-<br />
-Representation for railway employees, <a href="#Page_380">380</a><br />
-<br />
-Restriction of railways, tendency to, <a href="#Page_369">369</a><br />
-<br />
-Ride on a locomotive at night, <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br />
-<br />
-Righi Railway, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
-<br />
-Road-bed of a railway, how made, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br />
-<br />
-Roadway department of a railway, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br />
-<br />
-Roberts, George B., <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br />
-<br />
-Roebling, John A., <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
-<br />
-Rolling stock, growth of, <a href="#Page_448">448</a><br />
-<br />
-Routine of the railway mail service, <a href="#Page_325">325</a><br />
-<br />
-Rutter, J. H., <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br />
-<br />
-<br />
-Safety appliances, railway, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">devices needed, <a href="#Page_423">423</a></span><br />
-<br />
-St. Gothard Tunnel and spirals, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
-<br />
-St. Louis Bridge, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br />
-<br />
-Schneider, C. C., <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br />
-<br />
-Scott, Thomas Alexander, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a><br />
-<br />
-Scrap-heap, value of, <a href="#Page_302">302</a><br />
-<br />
-Section-master's duties, <a href="#Page_421">421</a><br />
-<br />
-Section-men's work, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br />
-<br />
-Semaphore signals, <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br />
-<br />
-Shepard, General D. C., <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
-<br />
-Signals and switches, interlocking, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">automatic block, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">block system, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">semaphore, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">torpedo, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Sleeping-car rates, comparative, <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br />
-<br />
-Sleeping-cars, first experiments, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">immigrant, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Pullman, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Smith, Colonel C. Shaler, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br />
-<br />
-Snow-sheds and fences, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br />
-<br />
-South American mountain-railways, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
-<br />
-South Carolina Railway, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">early passenger trains, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Special rates, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a><br />
-<br />
-Spoils system, how it works in the railway mail service, <a href="#Page_342">342</a><br />
-<br />
-Spreading of rails, <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br />
-<br />
-State ownership of railways, <a href="#Page_362">362</a><br />
-<br />
-State regulation of railways, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a><br />
-<br />
-Station agent's duties, <a href="#Page_411">411</a><br />
-<br />
-Station indicators, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br />
-<br />
-Station, large, work at, <a href="#Page_415">415</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">small, work at, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Stationery and blanks, quantity used on a railway, <a href="#Page_304">304</a><br />
-<br />
-Statistics, railway, <a href="#Page_425">425</a><br />
-<br />
-Steam driver-brake, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">how distributed to the cylinders, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">shovel, work of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">supply and speed, relations of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Steel bridges, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br />
-<br />
-Steel rails, first introduction, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
-<br />
-Steel truss-bridges, development of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br />
-<br />
-Stephenson, George, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">Robert, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Stock and bonds, relative position, <a href="#Page_354">354</a><br />
-<br />
-Storekeeper's duties on a railway, <a href="#Page_307">307</a><br />
-<br />
-Stockton &amp; Darlington passenger train, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br />
-<br />
-"Stourbridge Lion," <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br />
-<br />
-Strikes, evils of, <a href="#Page_374">374</a><br />
-<br />
-Superintendent, duties of, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">of machinery, powers and duties, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Supply department, <a href="#Page_298">298</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">importance of, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Supplies, aggregate of, on a railway, <a href="#Page_299">299</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">variety required for a railway, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Surveying party, life of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">from a rope ladder, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Surveys, preliminary, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br />
-<br />
-Suspension bridges, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br />
-<br />
-Switchbacks and loops, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;<br />
-<span class="pad1">types of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Switches, interlocking, <a href="#Page_420">420</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">stub, accidents caused by, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Switch-tender's work, <a href="#Page_420">420</a><br />
-<br />
-<br />
-Telegraph in railroading, <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br />
-<br />
-Thompson, William B., <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a><br />
-<br />
-Thomson, Frank, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br />
-<br />
-Thomson, J. Edgar, <a href="#Page_349">349</a><br />
-<br />
-Through and local freight, <a href="#Page_288">288</a><br />
-<br />
-Through lines, growth of, <a href="#Page_348">348</a><br />
-<br />
-Tickets, cost of, on a railway, <a href="#Page_305">305</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">coupon, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">old, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">sales and reports, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Ties and timber supplies, <a href="#Page_306">306</a><br />
-<br />
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[456]</a></span>
-Time, fast, instances of, <a href="#Page_404">404</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">making, on passenger trains, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Time-tables, cost of, <a href="#Page_305">305</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">earliest American, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">how made, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Torpedo signals, <a href="#Page_213">213</a><br />
-<br />
-Track, early experiments with, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">how laid, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">how maintained and kept in order, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">inspection on the Pennsylvania Railroad, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">laid on stone, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">standards of excellence, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Trackmen's duties, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">organization and officers, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Track-walker's duties and trials, <a href="#Page_422">422</a><br />
-<br />
-Trade centres, advantages of, <a href="#Page_360">360</a><br />
-<br />
-Traffic, how influenced and secured, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">manager, duties of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">questions and the Massachusetts Railroad Commission, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">receipts, how returned and accounted for, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Train despatcher and his work, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a><br />
-<br />
-Train despatching, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">old and new, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Train orders and rules, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br />
-<br />
-Train signals, bell-cord and other, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br />
-<br />
-Train work, irregularity of, <a href="#Page_399">399</a><br />
-<br />
-Trainmen, accidents to, <a href="#Page_393">393</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">and tramps, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Trains, rules for running, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br />
-<br />
-Tramways, Roman, of stone, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
-<br />
-Transfer freight stations, <a href="#Page_288">288</a><br />
-<br />
-Transportation, cost of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">conducting, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">department and the car-accountant, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Trestles, wooden, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
-<br />
-Trevithick, Richard, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
-<br />
-Tribunal, proposed, for adjusting differences between railways<br />
-       <span class="pad4">and their employees, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Trucks for cars, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">for locomotives, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Trunk lines compared, <a href="#Page_428">428</a><br />
-<br />
-Trunk-line pool, origin and history, <a href="#Page_365">365</a><br />
-<br />
-Truss-bridge, typical American, <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br />
-<br />
-Tubular bridges, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br />
-<br />
-Tunnels, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">American, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">connected by a bridge, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">difficulties of construction, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">great, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">how avoided, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">located by triangulation, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Mont Cenis, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">St. Gothard, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<br />
-Underground Railway, London, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
-<br />
-Union Pacific Railway system, extent of, <a href="#Page_370">370</a><br />
-<br />
-<br />
-Vacuum-brake, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br />
-<br />
-Vail, Theodore N., <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a><br />
-<br />
-Valleys, how crossed by a railway, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
-<br />
-Valve-motion arrangements, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br />
-<br />
-Vanderbilt business methods, <a href="#Page_351">351</a><br />
-<br />
-Vanderbilt, Commodore, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br />
-<br />
-Vanderbilt, Cornelius, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a><br />
-<br />
-Vanderbilt, William H., <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br />
-<br />
-Verrugas Viaduct, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
-<br />
-Vestibule train, luxury of, <a href="#Page_248">248</a><br />
-<span class="pad1">as a safety device, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Viaducts, American metal, <a href="#Page_79">79</a><br />
-<br />
-Victoria Bridge, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br />
-<br />
-<br />
-Waddell, A., <a href="#Page_323">323</a><br />
-<br />
-Wagner Palace Car Company, <a href="#Page_242">242</a><br />
-<br />
-Wagon cars, <a href="#Page_290">290</a><br />
-<br />
-War, the late, effect of, on railway growth, <a href="#Page_348">348</a><br />
-<br />
-Washington Bridge over the Harlem River, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br />
-<br />
-Waste and saving in supplies, <a href="#Page_302">302</a><br />
-<br />
-Water-jet method of sinking piles, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br />
-<br />
-Watt, James, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
-<br />
-Way-bill and its theory, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br />
-<br />
-Westinghouse air-brake, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br />
-<br />
-Westinghouse, George, Jr., <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br />
-<br />
-West Point Foundry as a locomotive shop, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br />
-<br />
-Whipple, Squire, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br />
-<br />
-Winans, Ross, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br />
-<br />
-<br />
-Yardmaster's duties, <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br />
-<br />
-Young Men's Christian Association, Railway Department, <a href="#Page_424">424</a><br />
-</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<div class="transnote">
-<a name="TN" id="TN"></a>
-<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE</strong></p>
-
-<p>Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been
-corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within
-the text and consultation of external sources.</p>
-
-<p>Basic fractions are displayed as ½ ¼ ¾; other fraction are shown in
-the form <sup>a</sup>/<sub>b</sub> as <sup>1</sup>/<sub>117</sub> or 39<sup>2</sup>/<sub>10</sub> for example.</p>
-
-<p>A large dense table spanning two pages in the original book (<a href="#Page_158">page 158
-and 159</a>) has been split into 4 parts, with column #1 (engine number)
-being repeated in each part. The vertical column headings have been
-replaced by a key, A B etc, with an explanation of the keys at the
-beginning of each part. Some cell values were unclear in the scanned
-image and a best guess of the digit has been made.</p>
-
-<p>Another large table at <a href="#Page_447">page 447</a> has been split into 2 parts.</p>
-
-<p>In several tables with dollar.cent values the decimal point is faint
-or missing. For consistency the decimal point has been inserted in
-all cases.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_370">Footnote #31</a> had no anchor; this has been added in the chapter title.</p>
-
-<p>Two illustrations and their captions were placed sideways in the original
-book at pages 87 and 97. These are displayed normally (horizontally)
-in the etext at <a href="#Page_86">pages 86</a> and <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p>
-
-<p>Nine consecutive full-page illustrations placed after <a href="#Page_428">page 428</a> have
-detailed maps and Gantt charts and many have large amounts of text on them.
-Most of this text, and the Gantt chart information, have been copied
-and placed under the illustration in a dotted-line box. <span class="screenonly">If
-the image is clicked, a larger version of the image is shown.</span></p>
-
-<p>In the organization chart on <a href="#Page_185">page 185</a>, it is very likely that the
-Train Master and the Station Agents were all intended to report to the Superintendant of
-Transportation. <span class="screenonly">The missing connecting line has been inserted using a
-dotted line to indicate this insertion.</span></p>
-
-<p>Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text,
-and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. For example,
-untravelled; sirup; smouldering; box car, box-car; cast iron,
-cast-iron.</p>
-
-<p>
-<a href="#Page_42">Pg 42</a>, 'from 1 to 10' replaced by 'from 0 to 10'.<br />
-<a href="#Page_114">Pg 114</a>, 'have ournal-boxes' replaced by 'have journal-boxes'.<br />
-<a href="#Page_392">Pg 392</a>, 'no one brakeman' replaced by 'not one brakeman'.<br />
-<a href="#Page_416">Pg 416</a>, 'fusilade' replaced by 'fusillade'.<br />
-</p>
-</div>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
-
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