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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The American Railway, by 
+Thomas Curtis Clarke and Theodore Voorhees and John Bogart and and others
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+
+
+Title: The American Railway
+       Its Construction, Development, Management, and Appliances
+
+Author: Thomas Curtis Clarke
+        Theodore Voorhees
+        John Bogart
+        and others
+
+Release Date: March 18, 2017 [EBook #54383]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AMERICAN RAILWAY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, John Campbell and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE
+
+  Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.
+
+  Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=.
+
+  A superscript is denoted by ^x for example 12^1.
+
+  Details on minor changes can be found at the end of the book.
+
+
+
+
+THE AMERICAN RAILWAY
+
+[Illustration: THE LAST SPAN--READY TO JOIN.]
+
+
+
+
+  THE AMERICAN RAILWAY
+
+  _ITS CONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT,_
+  _MANAGEMENT, AND APPLIANCES_
+
+  BY
+
+  THOMAS CURTIS CLARKE
+  JOHN BOGART
+  M. N. FORNEY
+  E. P. ALEXANDER
+  H. G. PROUT
+  HORACE PORTER
+  THEODORE VOORHEES
+  BENJAMIN NORTON
+  ARTHUR T. HADLEY
+  THOMAS L. JAMES
+  CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS
+  B. B. ADAMS, JR.
+
+  WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY
+
+  THOMAS M. COOLEY
+
+  CHAIRMAN OF INTERSTATE COMMERCE COMMISSION
+
+
+  _WITH MORE THAN 200 ILLUSTRATIONS_
+
+
+  NEW YORK
+
+  CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
+
+  1889
+
+
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT, 1888, 1889, BY
+
+  CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
+
+
+  TROW'S
+  PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING COMPANY,
+  NEW YORK.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+  _INTRODUCTION_                                                   xxi
+
+  BY THOMAS M. COOLEY,
+  _Chairman Interstate Commerce Commission_.
+
+
+  THE BUILDING OF A RAILWAY                                          1
+
+  BY THOMAS CURTIS CLARKE,
+  _Civil Engineer_.
+
+  Roman Tramways of Stone--First Use of Iron Rails--The Modern
+  Railway created by Stephenson's "Rocket" in 1830--Early
+  American Locomotives--Key to the Evolution of the American
+  Railway--Invention of the Swivelling Truck, Equalizing Beams,
+  and the Switchback--Locating a Road--Work of the Surveying
+  Party--Making the Road-bed--How Tunnels are Avoided--More
+  than Three Thousand Bridges in the United States--Old Wooden
+  Structures--The Howe Truss--The Use of Iron--Viaducts of
+  Steel--The American System of Laying Bridge Foundations
+  under Water--Origin of the Cantilever--Laying the Track--How
+  it is Kept in Repair--Premiums for Section Bosses--Number
+  of Railway Employees in the United States--Rapid Railway
+  Construction--Radical Changes which the Railway will Effect.
+
+
+  FEATS OF RAILWAY ENGINEERING                                      47
+
+  BY JOHN BOGART,
+  _State Engineer of New York_.
+
+  Development of the Rail--Problems for the Engineer--How
+  Heights are Climbed--The Use of Trestles--Construction on a
+  Mountain Side--Engineering on Rope Ladders--Through the Portals
+  of a Cañon--Feats on the Oroya Railroad, Peru--Nochistongo
+  Cut--Rack Rails for Heavy Grades--Difficulties in Tunnel
+  Construction--Bridge Foundations--Cribs and Pneumatic
+  Caissons--How Men work under Water--The Construction of Stone
+  Arches--Wood and Iron in Bridge-building--Great Suspension
+  Bridges--The Niagara Cantilever and the enormous Forth
+  Bridge--Elevated and Underground Roads--Responsibilities of the
+  Civil Engineer.
+
+
+  AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS                                    100
+
+  BY M. N. FORNEY,
+  _Author of "The Catechism of the Locomotive," Editor "Railroad
+  and Engineering Journal," New York_.
+
+  The Baltimore & Ohio Railroad in 1830--Evolution of the Car
+  from the Conestoga Wagon--Horatio Allen's Trial Trip--The
+  First Locomotive used in the United States--Peter Cooper's
+  Race with a Gray Horse--The "De Witt Clinton," "Planet," and
+  other Early Types of Locomotives--Equalizing Levers--How Steam
+  is Made and Controlled--The Boiler, Cylinder, Injector, and
+  Valve Gear--Regulation of the Capacity of a Locomotive to
+  Draw--Increase in the Number of Driving Wheels--Modern Types of
+  Locomotives--Variation in the Rate of Speed--The Appliances by
+  which an Engine is Governed--Round-houses and Shops--Development
+  of American Cars--An Illustration from Peter Parley--The Survival
+  of Stage Coach Bodies--Adoption of the Rectangular Shape--The
+  Origin of Eight-wheeled Cars--Improvement in Car Coupling--A
+  Uniform Type Recommended--The Making of Wheels--Relative Merits
+  of Cast and Wrought Iron, and Steel--The Allen Paper Wheel--Types
+  of Cars, with Size, Weight, and Price--The Car-Builder's
+  Dictionary--Statistical.
+
+
+  RAILWAY MANAGEMENT                                               149
+
+  BY GEN. E. P. ALEXANDER,
+  _President of the Central Railroad and Banking Company of Georgia_.
+
+  Relations of Railway Management to all Other Pursuits--Developed
+  by the Necessities of a Complex Industrial Life--How a Continuous
+  Life is Given to a Corporation--Its Artificial Memory--Main
+  Divisions of Railway Management--The Executive and Legislative
+  Powers--The Purchasing and Supply Departments--Importance of
+  the Legal Department--How the Roadway is Kept in Repair--The
+  Maintenance of Rolling Stock--Schedule-making--The Handling
+  of Extra Trains--Duties of the Train-despatcher--Accidents
+  in Spite of Precautions--Daily Distribution of Cars--How
+  Business is Secured and Rates are Fixed--The Interstate
+  Commerce Law--The Questions of "Long and Short Hauls" and
+  "Differentials"--Classification of Freight--Regulation of
+  Passenger-rates--Work of Soliciting Agents--The Collection of
+  Revenue and Statistics--What is a Way-bill--How Disbursements are
+  Made--The Social and Industrial Problem which Confronts Railway
+  Corporations.
+
+
+  SAFETY IN RAILROAD TRAVEL                                        187
+
+  BY H. G. PROUT,
+  _Editor "Railroad Gazette," New York_.
+
+  The Possibilities of Destruction in the Great Speed of
+  a Locomotive--The Energy of Four Hundred Tons Moving at
+  Seventy-five Miles an Hour--A Look ahead from a Locomotive at
+  Night--Passengers Killed and Injured in One Year--Good Discipline
+  the Great Source of Safety--The Part Played by Mechanical
+  Appliances--Hand-brakes on Old Cars--How the Air-brake Works--The
+  Electric Brake--Improvements yet to be Made--Engine Driver
+  Brakes--Two Classes of Signals: those which Protect Points
+  of Danger, and those which Keep an Interval between Trains
+  on the Same Track--The Semaphore--Interlocking Signals and
+  Switches--Electric Annunciators to Indicate the Movements--The
+  Block Signal System--Protection for Crossings--Gates and
+  Gongs--How Derailment is Guarded Against--Safety Bolts--Automatic
+  Couplers--The Vestibule as a Safety Appliance--Car Heating and
+  Lighting.
+
+
+  RAILWAY PASSENGER TRAVEL                                         228
+
+  BY GEN. HORACE PORTER,
+  _Vice-President Pullman Palace-Car Company_.
+
+  The Earliest Railway Passenger Advertisement--The First
+  Time-table Published in America--The Mohawk & Hudson
+  Train--Survival of Stage-coach Terms in English Railway
+  Nomenclature--Simon Cameron's Rash Prediction--Discomforts
+  of Early Cars--Introduction of Air-brakes, Patent Buffers
+  and Couplers, the Bell-cord, and Interlocking Switches--The
+  First Sleeping-cars--Mr. Pullman's Experiments--The
+  "Pioneer"--Introduction of Parlor and Drawing-room
+  Cars--The Demand for Dining-cars--Ingenious Devices for
+  Heating Cars--Origin of Vestibule-cars--An Important Safety
+  Appliance--The Luxuries of a Limited Express--Fast Time in
+  America and England--Sleeping-cars for Immigrants--The Village
+  of Pullman--The Largest Car-works in the World--Baggage-checks
+  and Coupon Tickets--Conveniences in a Modern Depot--Statistics
+  in Regard to Accidents--Proportion of Passengers in Various
+  Classes--Comparison of Rates in the Leading Countries of the
+  World.
+
+
+  THE FREIGHT-CAR SERVICE                                          267
+
+  BY THEODORE VOORHEES,
+  _Assistant-General Superintendent, New York Central Railroad_.
+
+  Sixteen Months' Journey of a Car--Detentions by the
+  Way--Difficulties of the Car Accountant's Office--Necessities
+  of Through Freight--How a Company's Cars are Scattered--The
+  Question of Mileage--Reduction of the Balance in Favor of
+  Other Roads--Relation of the Car Accountant's Work to the
+  Transportation Department--Computation of Mileage--The Record
+  Branch--How Reports are Gathered and Compiled--Exchange of
+  "Junction Cards"--The Use of "Tracers"--Distribution of
+  Empty Cars--Control of the Movement of Freight--How Trains
+  are Made Up--Duties of the Yardmaster--The Handling of
+  Through Trains--Organization of Fast Lines--Transfer Freight
+  Houses--Special Cars for Specific Service--Disasters to Freight
+  Trains--How the Companies Suffer--Inequalities in Payment for Car
+  Service--The Per Diem Plan--A Uniform Charge for Car Rental--What
+  Reforms might be Accomplished.
+
+
+  HOW TO FEED A RAILWAY                                            298
+
+  BY BENJAMIN NORTON,
+  _Second Vice-President, Long Island Railroad Company_.
+
+  The Many Necessities of a Modern Railway--The Purchasing and
+  Supply Departments--Comparison with the Commissary Department of
+  an Army--Financial Importance--Immense Expenditures--The General
+  Storehouse--Duties of the Purchasing Agent--The Best Material the
+  Cheapest--Profits from the Scrap-heap--Old Rails Worked over into
+  New Implements--Yearly Contracts for Staple Articles--Economy
+  in Fuel--Tests by the Best Engineers and Firemen--The
+  Stationery Supply--Aggregate Annual Cost of Envelopes, Tickets,
+  and Time-tables--The Average Life of Rails--Durability of
+  Cross-ties--What it Costs per Mile to Run an Engine--The
+  Paymaster's Duties--Scenes during the Trip of a Pay-car.
+
+
+  THE RAILWAY MAIL SERVICE                                         312
+
+  BY THOMAS L. JAMES,
+  _Ex-Postmaster General_.
+
+  An Object Lesson in Postal Progress--Nearness of the Department
+  to the People--The First Travelling Post-Office in the United
+  States--Organization of the Department in 1789--Early Mail
+  Contracts--All Railroads made Post-routes--Compartments for
+  Mail Clerks in Baggage-cars--Origin of the Present System in
+  1862--Important Work of Colonel George S. Bangs--The "Fast Mail"
+  between New York and Chicago--Why it was Suspended--Resumption
+  in 1877--Present Condition of the Service--Statistics--A
+  Ride on the "Fast Mail"--Busy Scenes at the Grand Central
+  Depot--Special Uses of the Five Cars--Duties of the Clerks--How
+  the Work is Performed--Annual Appropriation for Special Mail
+  Facilities--Dangers Threatening the Railway Mail Clerk's Life--An
+  Insurance Fund Proposed--Needs of the Service--A Plea for Radical
+  Civil Service Reform.
+
+
+  THE RAILWAY IN ITS BUSINESS RELATIONS                            344
+
+  BY ARTHUR T. HADLEY,
+  _Professor of Political Science in Yale College, Author of
+  "Railroad Transportation_."
+
+  Amount of Capital Invested in Railways--Important Place in
+  the Modern Industrial System--The Duke of Bridgewater's
+  Foresight--The Growth of Half a Century--Early Methods of
+  Business Management--The Tendency toward Consolidation--How
+  the War Developed a National Idea--Its Effect on Railroad
+  Building--Thomson and Scott as Organizers--Vanderbilt's Capacity
+  for Financial Management--Garrett's Development of the Baltimore
+  & Ohio--The Concentration of Immense Power in a Few Men--Making
+  Money out of the Investors--Difficult Positions of Stockholders
+  and Bondholders--How the Finances are Manipulated by the Board
+  of Directors--Temptations to the Misuse of Power--Relations of
+  Railroads to the Public who Use Them--Inequalities in Freight
+  Rates--Undue Advantages for Large Trade Centres--Proposed
+  Remedies--Objections to Government Control--Failure of
+  Grangerism--The Origin of Pools--Their Advantages--Albert
+  Fink's Great Work--Charles Francis Adams and the Massachusetts
+  Commission--Adoption of the Interstate Commerce Law--Important
+  Influence of the Commission--Its Future Functions--Ill-judged
+  State Legislation.
+
+
+  THE PREVENTION OF RAILWAY STRIKES                                370
+
+  BY CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS,
+  _President of the Union Pacific Railroad_.
+
+  Railways the Largest Single Interest in the United
+  States--Some Impressive Statistics--Growth of a Complex
+  Organization--Five Divisions of Necessary Work--Other Special
+  Departments--Importance of the Operating Department--The Evil
+  of Strikes--To be Remedied by Thorough Organization--Not the
+  Ordinary Relation between Employer and Employee--Of what the
+  Model Railway Service Should Consist--Temporary and Permanent
+  Employees--Promotion from one Grade to the Other--Rights
+  and Privileges of the Permanent Service--Employment during
+  Good Behavior--Proposed Tribunal for Adjusting Differences
+  and Enforcing Discipline--A Regular Advance in Pay for
+  Faithful Service--A Fund for Hospital Service, Pensions, and
+  Insurance--Railroad Educational Institutions--The Employer
+  to Have a Voice in Management through a Council--A System of
+  Representation.
+
+
+  THE EVERY-DAY LIFE OF RAILROAD MEN                               383
+
+  BY B. B. ADAMS, JR.,
+  _Associate Editor, "Railroad Gazette," New York_.
+
+  The Typical Railroad Man--On the Road and at Home--Raising the
+  Moral Standard--Characteristics of the Freight Brakeman--His Wit
+  the Result of Meditation--How Slang is Originated--Agreeable
+  Features of his Life in Fine Weather--Hardships in
+  Winter--The Perils of Hand-brakes--Broken Trains--Going back
+  to Flag--Coupling Accidents--At the Spring--Advantages of
+  a Passenger Brakeman--Trials of the Freight Conductor--The
+  Investigation of Accidents--Irregular Hours of Work--The
+  Locomotive Engineer the Hero of the Rail--His Rare Qualities--The
+  Value of Quick Judgment--Calm Fidelity a Necessary Trait--Saving
+  Fuel on a Freight Engine--Making Time on a Passenger
+  Engine--Remarkable Runs--The Spirit of Fraternity among
+  Engineers--Difficult Duties of a Passenger-train Conductor--Tact
+  in Dealing with Many People--Questions to be Answered--How
+  Rough Characters are Dealt with--Heavy Responsibilities--The
+  Work of a Station Agent--Flirtation by Telegraph--The
+  Baggage-master's Hard Task--Eternal Vigilance Necessary in a
+  Switch-tender--Section-men, Train Despatchers, Firemen, and
+  Clerks--Efforts to Make the Railroad Man's Life Easier.
+
+
+  STATISTICAL RAILWAY STUDIES                                      425
+
+  ILLUSTRATED WITH THIRTEEN MAPS AND NINETEEN CHARTS.
+
+  BY FLETCHER W. HEWES,
+  _Author of "Scribner's Statistical Atlas_."
+
+  Railway Mileage of the World--Railway Mileage of the United
+  States--Annual Mileage and Increase--Mileage Compared with
+  Area--Geographical Location of Railways--Centres of Mileage
+  and of Population--Railway Systems--Trunk Lines Compared:
+  By Mileage; Largest Receipts; Largest Net Results--Freight
+  Traffic--Reduction of Freight Rates--Wheat Rates--The Freight
+  Haul--Empty Freight Trains--Freight Profits--Passenger
+  Traffic--Passenger Rates--Passenger Travel--Passenger
+  Profits--General Considerations--Dividends--Net Earnings per
+  Mile and Railway Building--Ratios of Increase--Construction and
+  Maintenance--Employees and their Wages--Rolling Stock--Capital
+  Invested.
+
+
+  _INDEX_                                                          449
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+  _Title._                                   _Designer._         _Page_
+
+  THE LAST SPAN (Frontispiece)               A. B. Frost                 v
+
+  ALPINE PASS. AVOIDANCE OF A TUNNEL         _From a photograph_     5
+
+  BIG LOOP, GEORGETOWN BRANCH OF THE UNION
+    PACIFIC, COLORADO                        _From a photograph_    11
+
+  SNOW-SHEDS, SELKIRK MOUNTAINS, CANADIAN
+    PACIFIC                                  J. D. Woodward         19
+
+  RAIL MAKING                                Walter Shirlaw         39
+
+  LOOP AND GREAT TRESTLE NEAR HAGERMAN'S,
+    ON THE COLORADO MIDLAND RAILWAY          J. D. Woodward         51
+
+  PORTAL OF A TUNNEL IN PROCESS OF
+    CONSTRUCTION                             Otto Stark             65
+
+  AT WORK IN A PNEUMATIC CAISSON--FIFTY
+    FEET BELOW THE SURFACE OF THE WATER      Walter Shirlaw         73
+
+  BELOW THE BROOKLYN BRIDGE                  J. H. Twachtman        83
+
+  THE ST. LOUIS BRIDGE DURING CONSTRUCTION   M. E. Sands
+                                               & R. Blum            95
+
+  A TYPICAL AMERICAN PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVE    _From a photograph_   111
+
+  INTERIOR OF A ROUND-HOUSE                  M. J. Burns           130
+
+  VIEW IN LOCOMOTIVE ERECTING SHOP           J. D. Woodward
+                                               & R. Blum           135
+
+  DIAGRAM USED IN MAKING RAILWAY TIME-TABLES                       161
+
+  THE GENERAL DESPATCHER                     M. J. Burns           165
+
+  MANTUA JUNCTION, WEST PHILADELPHIA,
+     SHOWING A COMPLEX SYSTEM OF
+     INTERLACING TRACKS                      W. C. Fitler          169
+
+  DANGER AHEAD!                              A. B. Frost           189
+
+  INTERLOCKING APPARATUS FOR OPERATING
+     SWITCHES AND SIGNALS BY COMPRESSED
+     AIR, PITTSBURG YARDS, PENNSYLVANIA
+     RAILROAD                                _From a photograph_   211
+
+  PULLMAN VESTIBULED CARS                    _From a photograph_   247
+
+  IN A BAGGAGE-ROOM                          W. C. Broughton       255
+
+  "SHOW YOUR TICKETS!"                       Walter Shirlaw        261
+
+  FREIGHT YARDS OF THE NEW YORK CENTRAL &
+    HUDSON RIVER RAILROAD, WEST SIXTY-FIFTH
+    STREET, NEW YORK                         W. C. Fitler          285
+
+  FREIGHT FROM ALL QUARTERS--SOME TYPICAL
+  TRAINS                                     W. C. Fitler          291
+
+  AT A WAY-STATION--THE POSTMASTER'S
+    ASSISTANT                                Herbert Denman        321
+
+  TRANSFER OF MAIL AT THE GRAND CENTRAL
+     STATION, NEW YORK                       Herbert Denman        327
+
+  SORTING LETTERS IN CAR NO. 1--THE
+    FAST MAIL                                Herbert Denman        333
+
+  A BREAKDOWN ON THE ROAD                    A. B. Frost           405
+
+  IN THE WAITING ROOM OF A COUNTRY STATION   A. B. Frost           413
+
+  THE TRIALS OF A BAGGAGE-MASTER             A. B. Frost           417
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT.
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+  First Locomotive                                                   2
+
+  Locomotive of To-day                                               3
+
+  A Sharp Curve--Manhattan Elevated Railway, 110th Street,
+    New York                                                         7
+
+  A Steep Grade on a Mountain Railroad                               8
+
+  A Switchback                                                       9
+
+  Plan of Big Loop                                                  10
+
+  Profile of the Same                                               10
+
+  Engineers in Camp                                                 14
+
+  Royal Gorge Hanging Bridge, Denver and Rio Grande, Colorado       16
+
+  Veta Pass, Colorado                                               17
+
+  Sections of Snow-sheds (3 cuts)                                   18
+
+  Making an Embankment                                              21
+
+  Steam Excavator                                                   21
+
+  Building a Culvert                                                22
+
+  Building a Bridge Abutment                                        22
+
+  Rock Drill                                                        23
+
+  A Construction and Boarding Train                                 24
+
+  Bergen Tunnels, Hoboken, N. J.                                    25
+
+  Beginning a Tunnel                                                26
+
+  Old Burr Wooden Bridge                                            28
+
+  Kinzua Viaduct; Erie Railway                                      30
+
+  Kinzua Viaduct                                                    31
+
+  View of Thomas Pope's Proposed Cantilever (1810)                  34
+
+  Pope's Cantilever in Process of Erection                          35
+
+  General View of the Poughkeepsie Bridge                           36
+
+  Erection of a Cantilever                                          37
+
+  Spiking the Track                                                 38
+
+  Track Laying                                                      41
+
+  Temporary Railway Crossing the St. Lawrence on the Ice            44
+
+  View Down the Blue from Rocky Point, Denver, South Park and
+    Pacific Railroad; showing successive tiers of railway           49
+
+  Denver and Rio Grande Railway Entering the Portals of the
+    Grand River Cañon, Colorado                                     54
+
+  The Kentucky River Cantilever, on the Cincinnati Southern
+    Railway                                                         55
+
+  Truss over Ravine, and Tunnel, Oroya Railroad, Peru               56
+
+  The Nochistongo Cut, Mexican Central Railway                      57
+
+  The Mount Washington Rack Railroad                                58
+
+  Trestle on Portland and Ogdensburg Railway, Crawford Notch,
+    White Mountains                                                 58
+
+  A Series of Tunnels                                               59
+
+  Tunnel at the Foot of Mount St. Stephen, on the Canadian
+    Pacific                                                         60
+
+  Peña de Mora on the La Guayra and Carácas Railway, Venezuela      61
+
+  Perspective View of St. Gothard Spiral Tunnels, in the Alps       62
+
+  Plan of St. Gothard Spiral Tunnels                                63
+
+  Profile of the Same                                               63
+
+  Portal of a Finished Tunnel; showing Cameron's Cone, Colorado     64
+
+  Railway Pass at Rocky Point in the Rocky Mountains                67
+
+  Bridge Pier Founded on Piles                                      68
+
+  Pneumatic Caisson                                                 70
+
+  Transverse Section of Pneumatic Caisson                           71
+
+  Pier of Hawkesbury Bridge, Australia                              75
+
+  Foundation Crib of the Poughkeepsie Bridge                        76
+
+  Transverse Section of the Same                                    76
+
+  Granite Arched Approach to Harlem River Bridge in Process
+    of Construction                                                    77
+
+  The Old Portage Viaduct, Erie Railway, N. Y.                      78
+
+  The New Portage Viaduct                                           79
+
+  The Britannia Tubular Bridge over the Menai Straits,
+    North Wales                                                     80
+
+  Old Stone Towers of the Niagara Suspension Bridge                 82
+
+  The New Iron Towers of the Same                                   82
+
+  Truss Bridge of the Northern Pacific Railway over the Missouri
+    River at Bismarck, Dak.--Testing the Central Span               87
+
+  Curved Viaduct, Georgetown, Col.; the Union Pacific Crossing
+    its own Line                                                    88
+
+  The Niagara Cantilever Bridge in Progress                         90
+
+  The Niagara Cantilever Bridge Completed                           91
+
+  The Lachine Bridge, on the Canadian Pacific Railway, near
+    Montreal, Canada                                                92
+
+  The 510-feet Span Steel Arches of the New Harlem River Bridge,
+    New York, during Construction                                   97
+
+  London Underground Railway Station                                98
+
+  Conestoga Wagon and Team                                         101
+
+  Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, 1830-35                               101
+
+  Boston & Worcester Railroad, 1835                                102
+
+  Horatio Allen                                                    103
+
+  Peter Cooper's Locomotive, 1830                                  104
+
+  "South Carolina," 1831, and Plan of its Running Gear             105
+
+  The "De Witt Clinton," 1831                                      105
+
+  "Grasshopper" Locomotive                                         106
+
+  The "Planet"                                                     107
+
+  John B. Jervis's Locomotive, 1831, and Plan of its
+    Running Gear                                                   108
+
+  Campbell's Locomotive                                            109
+
+  Locomotive for Suburban Traffic                                  110
+
+  Locomotive for Street Railway                                    110
+
+  Four-wheeled Switching Locomotive                                113
+
+  Driving Wheels, Frames, Spurs, etc., of American Locomotive      114
+
+  Longitudinal Section of a Locomotive Boiler                      115
+
+  Transverse Section                                               115
+
+  Rudimentary Injector                                             116
+
+  Injector Used on Locomotives                                     117
+
+  Sections of a Locomotive Cylinder                                118
+
+  Eccentric                                                        118
+
+  Eccentric and Strap                                              118
+
+  Valve Gear                                                       119
+
+  Turning Locomotive Tires                                         121
+
+  Six-wheeled Switching Locomotive                                 122
+
+  Mogul Locomotive                                                 123
+
+  Ten-wheeled Passenger Locomotive                                 123
+
+  Consolidation Locomotive (unfinished)                            124
+
+  Consolidation Locomotive                                         124
+
+  Decapod Locomotive                                               125
+
+  "Forney" Tank Locomotive                                         126
+
+  "Hudson" Tank Locomotive                                         127
+
+  Camden & Amboy Locomotive, 1848                                  129
+
+  Cab End of a Locomotive and its Attachments                      133
+
+  Interior of Erecting Shop, showing Locomotive Lifted by
+    Travelling Crane                                               137
+
+  Forging a Locomotive Frame                                       138
+
+  Mohawk & Hudson Car, 1831                                        139
+
+  Early Car                                                        139
+
+  Early Car on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad                       140
+
+  Early American Car, 1834                                         140
+
+  Old Car for Carrying Flour on the Baltimore &
+    Ohio Railroad                                                  141
+
+  Old Car for Carrying Firewood on the Baltimore &
+    Ohio Railroad                                                  141
+
+  Old Car on the Quincy Granite Railroad                           141
+
+  Janney Car Coupler, showing the Process of Coupling              142
+
+  Mould and Flask in which Wheels are Cast                         143
+
+  Cast-iron Car Wheels                                             144
+
+  Section of the Tread and Flange of a Car Wheel                   145
+
+  Allen Paper Car Wheel                                            145
+
+  Modern Passenger-car and Frame                                   147
+
+  Snow-plough at Work                                              154
+
+  A Type of Snow-plough                                            155
+
+  A Rotary Steam Snow-shovel in Operation                          156
+
+  Railway-crossing Gate                                            157
+
+  Signal to Stop                                                   162
+
+  Signal to Move Ahead                                             162
+
+  Signal to Move Back                                              163
+
+  Signal that the Train has Parted                                 163
+
+  Entrance Gates at a Large Station                                167
+
+  Central Switch and Signal Tower                                  168
+
+  Interior of a Switch-tower, showing the Operation of
+    Interlocking Switches                                          171
+
+  Stephenson's Steam Driver-brake, patented 1833                   192
+
+  Driver-brake on Modern Locomotive                                192
+
+  English Screw-brake, on the Birmingham and Gloucester Road,
+    about 1840                                                     193
+
+  English Foot-brake on the Truck of a Great Western Coach,
+    about 1840                                                     193
+
+  Plan and Elevation of Air-brake Apparatus                        196
+
+  Dwarf Semaphores and Split Switch                                202
+
+  Semaphore Signal with Indicators                                 203
+
+  Section of Saxby & Farmer Interlocking Machine                   204
+
+  Diagram of a Double-track Junction with Interlocked
+    Switches and Signals                                           205
+
+  Split Switches with Facing-point Locks and Detector-bars         206
+
+  Derailing Switch                                                 207
+
+  Torpedo Placer                                                   213
+
+  Old Signal Tower on the Philadelphia & Reading, at
+    Phœnixville                                                    214
+
+  Crossing Gates worked by Mechanical Connection from
+    the Cabin                                                      217
+
+  Some Results of a Butting Collision--Baggage and Passenger
+    Cars Telescoped                                                218
+
+  Wreck at a Bridge                                                219
+
+  New South Norwalk Drawbridge. Rails held by Safety Bolts         220
+
+  Engines Wrecked during the Great Wabash Strike                   222
+
+  Link-and-pin Coupler                                             224
+
+  Janney Automatic Coupler applied to a Freight Car                224
+
+  Signals at Night                                                 225
+
+  Stockton & Darlington Engine and Car                             229
+
+  Mohawk & Hudson Train                                            231
+
+  English Railway Carriage, Midland Road. First and Third
+    Class and Luggage Compartments                                 232
+
+  One of the Earliest Passenger Cars Built in this Country;
+    used on the Western Railroad of Massachusetts (now the
+    Boston & Albany)                                               233
+
+  Bogie Truck                                                      233
+
+  Rail and Coach Travel in the White Mountains                     234
+
+  Old Time Table, 1843                                             235
+
+  Old Boston & Worcester Railway Ticket (about 1837)               236
+
+  Obverse and Reverse of a Ticket used in 1838, on the New
+    York & Harlem Railroad                                         236
+
+  The "Pioneer." First Complete Pullman Sleeping-car               240
+
+  A Pullman Porter                                                 241
+
+  Pullman Parlor Car                                               243
+
+  Wagner Parlor Car                                                244
+
+  Dining-car (Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad)               245
+
+  End View of a Vestibuled Car                                     249
+
+  Pullman Sleeper on a Vestibuled Train                            250
+
+  Immigrant Sleeping-car (Canadian Pacific Railway)                251
+
+  View of Pullman, Ill.                                            252
+
+  Railway Station at York, England, built on a Curve               257
+
+  Outside the Grand Central Station, New York                      258
+
+  Boston Passenger Station, Providence Division, Old
+    Colony Railroad                                                259
+
+  A Page from the Car Accountant's Book                            277
+
+  Freight Pier, North River, New York                              280
+
+  Hay Storage Warehouses, New York Central & Hudson River
+    Railroad, West Thirty-third Street, New York                   282
+
+  "Dummy" Train and Boy on Hudson Street, New York                 287
+
+  Red Line Freight-car Mark                                        288
+
+  Star Union Freight-car Mark                                      288
+
+  Coal Car, Central Railroad of New Jersey                         289
+
+  Refrigerator-car Mark                                            289
+
+  Unloading a Train of Truck-wagons, Long Island Railroad          290
+
+  Floating Cars, New York Harbor                                   295
+
+  Postal Progress, 1776-1876                                       313
+
+  The Pony Express--The Relay                                      314
+
+  The Overland Mail Coach--A Star Route                            315
+
+  Mail Carrying in the Country                                     316
+
+  Loading for the Fast Mail, at the General Post-Office,
+    New York                                                       324
+
+  At the Last Moment                                               326
+
+  Pouching the Mail in the Postal Car                              329
+
+  A Very Difficult Address--known as a "Sticker."                  331
+
+  Distributing the Mail by States and Routes                       332
+
+  Pouching Newspapers for California--in Car No. 5                 335
+
+  Catching the Pouch from the Crane                                339
+
+  George Stephenson                                                345
+
+  J. Edgar Thomson                                                 349
+
+  Thomas A. Scott                                                  350
+
+  Cornelius Vanderbilt                                             352
+
+  John W. Garrett                                                  355
+
+  Albert Fink                                                      366
+
+  Charles Francis Adams                                            367
+
+  Thomas M. Cooley                                                 369
+
+  "Dancing on the Carpet"                                          386
+
+  Trainman and Tramps                                              387
+
+  Braking in Hard Weather                                          389
+
+  Flagging in Winter                                               391
+
+  Coupling                                                         392
+
+  The Pleasant Part of a Brakeman's Life                           395
+
+  At the Spring                                                    397
+
+  Just Time to Jump                                                403
+
+  Timely Warning                                                   407
+
+  The Passenger Conductor                                          409
+
+  Station Gardening                                                416
+
+  In the Yard at Night                                             419
+
+  A Track-walker on a Stormy Night                                 421
+
+  A Crossing Flagman                                               423
+
+  A Little Relaxation                                              424
+
+
+
+
+MAPS.
+
+
+  Mileage compared with Area                                       429
+
+  Railways, 1830, 1840, 1850, and 1860                             430
+
+  Railways, 1870                                                   431
+
+  Railways, 1880                                                   432
+
+  Railways, 1889                                                   433
+
+  Five Railway Systems                                        434, 435
+
+
+
+
+CHARTS.
+
+
+  Principal Railway Countries                                      425
+
+  Mileage to Area in New Jersey                                    426
+
+  Total Mileage and Increase, 1830-1888                            429
+
+  Mileage by States, 1870                                          431
+
+  Mileage by States, 1880                                          432
+
+  Mileage by States, 1888                                          433
+
+  Largest Receipts, 1888                                           435
+
+  Largest Net Results, 1888                                        435
+
+  Freight Rates of Thirteen Trunk Lines, 1870-1888                 436
+
+  Wheat Rates, by Water and by Rail, 1870-1888                     438
+
+  The Freight Haul, 1882-1888                                      439
+
+  East-bound and West-bound Freight, 1877-1888                     439
+
+  Freight Profits, 1870-1888                                       440
+
+  Passenger Rates, 1870-1888                                       441
+
+  Passenger Travel, 1882-1888                                      442
+
+  Passenger Profits, 1870-1888                                     442
+
+  Average Dividends, 1876-1888                                     443
+
+  Net Earnings and Mileage Built, 1876-1888                        444
+
+  Increase of Population, Mileage, and Freight Traffic,
+    1870-1888                                                      446
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+BY THOMAS M. COOLEY.
+
+
+The railroads of the United States, now aggregating a hundred
+and fifty thousand miles and having several hundred different
+managements, are frequently spoken of comprehensively as the
+railroad system of the country, as though they constituted a unity
+in fact, and might be regarded and dealt with as an entirety,
+by their patrons and by the public authorities, whenever the
+conveniences they are expected to supply, or the conduct of
+managers and agents, come in question. So far, however, is this
+from being the case, that it would be impossible to name any other
+industrial interest where the diversities are so obvious and the
+want of unity so conspicuous and so important. The diversities
+date from the very origin of the roads; they have not come into
+existence under the same laws nor subject to the same control. It
+was accepted as an undoubted truth in constitutional law from the
+first that the authority for the construction of railroads within
+a State must come from the State itself, which alone could empower
+the promoters to appropriate lands by adversary proceedings for
+the purpose. The grant of corporate power must also come from the
+State, or, at least, have State recognition and sanction; and where
+the proposed road was to cross a State boundary, the necessary
+corporate authority must be given by every State through or into
+which the road was to run. It was conceded that the delegated
+powers of the General Government did not comprehend the granting
+of charters for the construction of these roads within the States,
+and even in the Territories charters were granted by the local
+legislatures. The case of the transcontinental roads was clearly
+exceptional; they were to be constructed in large part over the
+public domain, and subsidies were to be granted by Congress for
+the purpose. They were also, in part at least, to be constructed
+for governmental reasons as national agencies; and invoking State
+authority for the purpose seemed to be as inconsistent as it would
+be inadequate. But, though these were exceptional cases, the
+magnitude and importance of the Pacific roads are so immense that
+the agency of the General Government in making provision for this
+method of transportation must always have prominence in railroad
+history and railroad statistics.
+
+Not only have the roads been diverse in origin, but the
+corporations which have constructed them have differed very
+greatly in respect to their powers and rights, and also to the
+obligations imposed by law upon them. The early grants of power
+were charter-contracts, freely given, with very liberal provisions;
+the public being more anxious that they be accepted and acted upon
+than distrustful of their abuse afterward. Many of them were not
+subject to alteration or repeal, except with the consent of the
+corporators; and some of them contained provisions intended to
+exclude or limit competition, so that, within a limited territory,
+something in the nature of a monopoly in transportation would be
+created. The later grants give evidence of popular apprehension of
+corporate abuses; the legislature reserves a control over them, and
+the right to multiply railroads indefinitely is made as free as
+possible, under the supposition that in this multiplication is to
+be found the best protection against any one of them abusing its
+powers. In very many cases the motive to the building of a new road
+has been antagonism to one already in existence, and municipalities
+have voted subsidies to the one in the hope that, when constructed,
+it would draw business away from the other. The anomaly has thus
+been witnessed of distrust of corporate power being the motive
+for increasing it; and the multiplication of roads has gone on,
+without any general supervision or any previous determination
+by competent public authority that they were needed, until the
+increase has quite outrun in some sections any proper demand for
+their facilities.
+
+Roads thus brought into existence, without system and under diverse
+managements, it was soon seen were capable of being so operated
+that the antagonism of managers, instead of finding expression in
+legitimate competition, would be given to the sort of strife that
+can only be properly characterized by calling it, as it commonly
+is called, a war. From such a war the public inevitably suffers.
+The best service upon the roads is only performed when they are
+operated as if they constituted in fact parts of one harmonious
+system; the rates being made by agreement, and traffic exchanged
+with as little disturbance as possible, and without abrupt break at
+the terminals. But when every management might act independently,
+it sometimes happened that a company made its method of doing
+business an impediment instead of a help to the business done over
+other roads, recognizing no public duty which should preclude
+its doing so, provided a gain to itself, however indirect or
+illegitimate, was probable. Many consolidations of roads have had
+for their motive the getting rid of this power to do mischief on
+the part of roads absorbed.
+
+In nothing is the want of unity so distinctly and mischievously
+obvious as in the power of each corporation to make rates
+independently. It may not only make its own local rates at
+discretion, but it may join or refuse to join with others in
+making through rates; so that an inconsiderable and otherwise
+insignificant road may be capable of being so used as to throw
+rates for a large section of the country into confusion, and to
+render the making of profit by other roads impossible. It is
+frequently said in railroad circles that roads are sometimes
+constructed for no other reason than because, through this power of
+mischief, it will be possible to levy contributions upon others, or
+to compel others, in self-protection, to buy them up at extravagant
+prices. Cases are named in which this sort of scheming is supposed
+to have succeeded, and others in which it is now being tried.
+
+Evils springing from the diversities mentioned have been cured, or
+greatly mitigated, by such devices as the formation of fast-freight
+lines to operate over many roads; by allowing express companies to
+come upon the roads with semi-independence in the transportation
+of articles, where, for special reasons, the public is content to
+pay an extra price for extra care or speed; and by arrangements
+with sleeping-car companies for special accommodations in luxurious
+cars to those desiring them. These collateral arrangements,
+however, have not been wholly beneficial; and had all the roads
+been constructed as parts of one system and under one management,
+some of them would neither have been necessary nor defensible. They
+exist now, however, with more or less reason for their existence;
+and they tend to increase the diversities in railroad work.
+
+The want of unity which has been pointed out tended to breed abuses
+specially injurious to the public, and governmental regulation was
+entered upon for their correction. Naturally the first attempts
+in this direction were made by separate States, each undertaking
+to regulate for itself the transportation within its own limits.
+Such regulation would have been perfectly logical, and perhaps
+effectual, had the roads within each State formed a system by
+themselves; but when State boundaries had very little importance,
+either to the roads themselves or to the traffic done over them,
+unless made important by restrictive and obstructive legislation,
+the regulation by any State must necessarily be fragmentary and
+imperfect, and diverse regulation in different States might
+be harmful rather than beneficial. It must be said for State
+regulation that it has in general been exercised in a prudent and
+conservative way, but it is liable to be influenced by a sensitive
+and excitable public opinion; and as nothing is more common than
+to find gross abuses in the matter of railroad transportation
+selfishly defended in localities, and even in considerable
+sections, which are supposed to receive benefits from them, it
+would not be strange if the like selfishness should sometimes
+succeed in influencing the exercise of power by one State in a
+manner that a neighboring State would regard as unfriendly and
+injurious.
+
+The Federal Government recently undertook the work of regulation,
+and in doing so accepted the view upon which the States had acted,
+and so worded its statute that the transportation which does not
+cross State lines is supposed to be excluded. The United States
+thus undertakes to regulate interstate commerce by rail, and the
+States regulate, or may regulate, that which is not interstate.
+It was perhaps overlooked at first that, inasmuch as Government
+control may embrace the making of classifications, prescribing
+safety and other appliances, and naming rates, any considerable
+regulation of State traffic and interstate traffic separately must
+necessarily to some extent cause interference. The two classes of
+traffic flow on together over the same lines in the same vehicles
+under the management of the same agencies, with little or no
+distinction based on State lines; the rates and the management
+influenced by considerations which necessarily are of general
+force, so that separate regulation may without much extravagance be
+compared to an attempt in the case of one of our great rivers to
+regulate the flow of the waters in general, but without, in doing
+so, interfering with an independent regulation of such portion
+thereof as may have come from the springs and streams of some
+particular section. This is one of many reasons for looking upon
+all existing legislation as merely tentative.
+
+No doubt the time will come when the railroads of the country will
+constitute, as they do not now, a system. There are those who think
+this may, sufficiently for practical purposes, be accomplished by
+the legalization of some scheme of pooling; but this is a crude
+device, against which there is an existing prejudice not easily to
+be removed. Others look for unity through gradual consolidations,
+the tendency to which is manifest, or through something in the
+nature of a trust, or by means of more comprehensive and stringent
+national control. Beyond all these is not infrequently suggested a
+Government ownership.
+
+Of the theories that might be advanced in this direction, or the
+arguments in their support, nothing further will be said here;
+the immediate purpose being accomplished when it is shown how
+misleading may be the term _system_, when applied to the railroads
+of the country as an aggregate, as now owned, managed, and
+controlled.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Every man in the land is interested daily and constantly in
+railroads and the transportation of persons and property over them.
+The price of whatever he eats, or wears, or uses, the cost and
+comfort of travel, the speed and convenience with which he shall
+receive his mail and the current intelligence of the day, and even
+the intimacy and extent of his social relations, are all largely
+affected thereby. The business employs great numbers of persons,
+and the wages paid them affect largely the wages paid in other
+lines of occupation. The management of the business in some of its
+departments is attended by serious dangers, and thousands annually
+lose their lives in the service. Other thousands annually are
+either killed or injured in being transported; the aggregate being
+somewhat startling, though unquestionably this method of travel
+is safer than any other. The ingenuity which has been expended
+in devices to make the transportation rapid, cheap, and safe may
+well be characterized as marvellous, and some feats in railroad
+engineering are the wonder of the world. With all these facts and
+many others to create a public interest in the general subject, the
+editor of _Scribner's Magazine_, some little time ago, applied to
+writers of well-known ability and competency to prepare papers for
+publication therein upon the various topics of principal interest
+in the life and use of railroads, beginning with the construction,
+and embracing the salient facts of management and service. He
+was successful in securing a series of papers of high value,
+the appearance of which has been welcomed from month to month,
+beginning with June, 1888, with constant and increasing interest.
+These papers have a permanent value; and, in obedience to a demand
+for their separate publication in convenient form for frequent
+reference, the publishers now reproduce them with expansions and
+additions. A reference to the several titles will convince anyone
+at all familiar with the general subject that the particular topic
+is treated in every instance by an expert, entitled as such to
+speak with authority.
+
+
+
+
+THE BUILDING OF A RAILWAY.
+
+BY THOMAS CURTIS CLARKE.
+
+  Roman Tramways of Stone--First Use of Iron Rails--The Modern
+  Railway created by Stephenson's "Rocket" in 1830--Early
+  American Locomotives--Key to the Evolution of the American
+  Railway--Invention of the Swivelling Truck, Equalizing Beams,
+  and the Switchback--Locating a Road--Work of the Surveying
+  Party--Making the Road-bed--How Tunnels are Avoided--More
+  than Three Thousand Bridges in the United States--Old Wooden
+  Structures--The Howe Truss--The Use of Iron--Viaducts of
+  Steel--The American System of Laying Bridge Foundations
+  under Water--Origin of the Cantilever--Laying the Track--How
+  it is Kept in Repair--Premiums for Section Bosses--Number
+  of Railway Employees in the United States--Rapid Railway
+  Construction--Radical Changes which the Railway will Effect.
+
+
+The world of to-day differs from that of Napoleon Bonaparte more
+than his world differed from that of Julius Cæsar; and this change
+has chiefly been made by railways.
+
+Railways have been known since the days of the Romans. Their tracks
+were made of two lines of cut stones. Iron rails took their place
+about one hundred and fifty years ago, when the use of that metal
+became extended. These roads were called tram-roads, and were used
+to carry coal from the mines to the places of shipment. They were
+few in number and attracted little attention.
+
+The modern railway was created by the Stephensons in 1830, when
+they built the locomotive "Rocket." The development of the
+railway since is due to the development of the locomotive. Civil
+engineering has done much, but mechanical engineering has done more.
+
+The invention of the steam-engine by James Watt, in 1773, attracted
+the attention of advanced thinkers to a possible steam locomotive.
+Erasmus Darwin, in a poem published in 1781, made this remarkable
+prediction:
+
+      "Soon shall thy arm, unconquered steam! afar
+      Drag the slow barge, or drive the rapid car."
+
+[Illustration: First Locomotive.]
+
+The first locomotive of which we have any certain record was
+invented, and put in operation on a model circular railway in
+London, in 1804, by Richard Trevithick, an erratic genius, who
+invented many things but perfected few. His locomotive could
+not make steam, and therefore could neither go fast nor draw a
+heavy load. This was the fault of all its successors, until the
+competitive trial of locomotives on the Liverpool and Manchester
+Railway, in 1829. The Stephensons, father and son, had invented the
+steam blast, which, by constantly blowing the fire, enabled the
+"Rocket," with its tubular boiler, to make steam enough to draw ten
+passenger cars, at the rate of thirty-five miles an hour.
+
+Then was born the modern giant, and so recent is the date of his
+birth that one of the unsuccessful competitors at that memorable
+trial, Captain John Ericsson, was until the present year (1889)
+living and actively working in New York. Another engineer, Horatio
+Allen, who drove the first locomotive on the first trip ever made
+in the United States, in 1831, still lives, a hale and hearty old
+man, near New York.
+
+The earlier locomotives of this country, modelled after the
+"Rocket," weighed five or six tons, and could draw, on a level,
+about 40 tons. After the American improvements, which we shall
+describe, were made, our engines weighed 25 tons, and could draw,
+on a level, some sixty loaded freight cars, weighing 1,200 tons.
+This was a wonderful advance, but now we have the "Consolidation"
+locomotive, weighing 50 tons, and able to draw, on a level, a
+little over 2,400 tons.
+
+And this is not the end. Still heavier and more powerful engines
+are being designed and built, but the limit of the strength of the
+track, according to its present forms, has nearly been reached. It
+is very certain we have not reached the limit of the size and power
+of engines, or the strength of the track that can be devised.
+
+After the success of the "Rocket," and of the Liverpool and
+Manchester Railway, the authority of George Stephenson and his
+son Robert became absolute and unquestioned upon all subjects
+of railway engineering. Their locomotives had very little side
+play to their wheels, and could not go around sharp curves. They
+accordingly preferred to make their lines as straight as possible,
+and were willing to spend vast sums to get easy grades. Their lines
+were taken as models and imitated by other engineers. All lines in
+England were made with easy grades and gentle curves. Monumental
+bridges, lofty stone viaducts, and deep cuts or tunnels at every
+hill marked this stage of railway construction in England, which
+was imitated on the European lines.
+
+[Illustration: Locomotive of To-day.]
+
+As it was with the railway, so it was with the locomotive. The
+Stephenson type, once fixed, has remained unchanged (in Europe),
+except in detail, to the present day. European locomotives have
+increased in weight and power, and in perfection of material and
+workmanship, but the general features are those of the locomotives
+built by the great firm of George Stephenson & Son, before 1840.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+When we come to the United States we find an entirely different
+state of things. The key to the evolution of the American railway
+is the contempt for authority displayed by our engineers, and the
+untrammelled way in which they invented and applied whatever they
+thought would answer the best purpose, regardless of precedent.
+When we began to build our railways, in 1831, we followed English
+patterns for a short time. Our engineers soon saw that unless vital
+changes were made our money would not hold out, and our railway
+system would be very short. Necessity truly became the mother of
+invention.
+
+The first, and most far-reaching, invention was that of the
+swivelling truck, which, placed under the front end of an engine,
+enables it to run around curves of almost any radius. This enabled
+us to build much less expensive lines than those of England, for
+we could now curve around and avoid hills and other obstacles at
+will. The illustration opposite shows a railroad curving around a
+mountain and supported by a retaining wall, instead of piercing
+through the mountain with a tunnel, as would have been necessary
+but for the swivelling truck. The swivelling truck was first
+suggested by Horatio Allen, for the South Carolina Railway, in
+1831; but the first practical use of it was made on the Mohawk and
+Hudson Railroad, in the same year. It is said to have been invented
+by John B. Jervis, Chief Engineer of that road.
+
+The next improvement was the invention of the equalizing beams or
+levers, by which the weight of the engine is always borne by three
+out of four or more driving-wheels. They act like a three-legged
+stool, which can always be set level on any irregular spot. The
+original imported English locomotives could not be kept on the
+rails of rough tracks. The same experience obtained in Canada when
+the Grand Trunk Railway was opened, in 1854-55. The locomotives of
+English pattern constantly ran off the track; those of American
+pattern hardly ever did so. Finally, all their locomotives were
+changed by having swivelling trucks put under their forward ends,
+and no more trouble occurred. The equalizing levers were patented
+in 1838, by Joseph Harrison, Jr., of Philadelphia.
+
+[Illustration: Alpine Pass. Avoidance of a Tunnel.]
+
+These two improvements, which are absolutely essential to the
+success of railways in new countries, and have been adopted
+in Canada, Australia, Mexico, and South America,[1] to the
+exclusion of English patterns, are also of great value on the
+smoothest and best possible tracks. The flexibility of the American
+machine increases its adhesion and enables it to draw greater loads
+than its English rival. The same flexibility equalizes its pressure
+on the track, prevents shocks and blows, and enables it to keep
+out of the hospital and run more miles in a year than an English
+locomotive.[2]
+
+[Illustration: A Sharp Curve--Manhattan Elevated Railway, 110th
+Street, New York.]
+
+Equally valuable improvements were made in cars, both for
+passengers and freight. Instead of the four-wheeled English car,
+which on a rough track dances along on three wheels, we owe to Ross
+Winans, of Baltimore, the application of a pair of four-wheeled
+swivelling trucks, one under each end of the car, thus enabling it
+to accommodate itself to the inequalities of a rough track and to
+follow its locomotive around the sharpest curves. There are, on
+our main lines, curves of less than 300 feet radius, while, on the
+Manhattan Elevated, the largest passenger traffic in the world is
+conducted around curves of less than 100 feet radius. There are few
+curves of less than 1,000 feet radius on European railways.
+
+[Illustration: A Steep Grade on a Mountain Railroad.]
+
+The climbing capabilities of a locomotive upon smooth rails were
+not known until, in 1852, Mr. B. H. Latrobe, Chief Engineer of the
+Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, tried a temporary zigzag gradient
+of 10 per cent.--that is 10 feet rise in 100 feet length, or 528
+feet per mile--over a hill about two miles long, through which the
+Kingwood Tunnel was being excavated. A locomotive weighing 28 tons
+on its drivers took one car weighing 15 tons over this line in
+safety. It was worked for passenger traffic for six months. This
+daring feat has never been equalled. Trains go over 4 per cent.
+gradients on the Colorado system, and there is one short line, used
+to bring ore to the Pueblo furnaces, which is worked by locomotives
+over a 7 per cent. grade. These are believed to be the steepest
+grades worked by ordinary locomotives on smooth rails.
+
+Another American invention is the switchback. By this plan
+the length of line required to ease the gradient is obtained
+by running backward and forward in a zigzag course, instead of
+going straight up the mountain. As a full stop has to be made at
+the end of every piece of line, there is no danger of the train
+running away from its brakes. This device was first used among the
+hills of Pennsylvania over forty years ago, to lower coal cars
+down into the Nesquehoning Valley. It was afterwards used on the
+Callao, Lima, and Oroya Railroad in Peru, by American engineers,
+with extraordinary daring and skill. It was employed to carry the
+temporary tracks of the Cascade Division of the Northern Pacific
+Railroad over the "Stampede" Pass, with grades of 297 feet per
+mile, while a tunnel 9,850 feet long was being driven through the
+mountains.
+
+[Illustration: A Switchback.]
+
+With the improvement of brakes and more reliable means of stopping
+trains upon steep grades, came a farther development of the above
+device, which was first applied on the Denver and Rio Grande
+Railroad in Colorado, and has since been applied on a grand scale
+on the Saint Gothard road, the Black Forest railways of Germany,
+and the Semmering line in the Tyrol. This device is to connect the
+two lines of the zigzag by a curve at the point where they come
+together, so that the train, instead of going alternately backward
+and forward, now runs continuously on. It becomes possible for the
+line to return above itself in spiral form, sometimes crossing over
+the lower level by a tunnel, and sometimes by a bridge. A notable
+instance of this kind of location is seen on the Tehachapi Pass
+of the Southern Pacific, where the line ascends 2,674 feet in 25
+miles, with eleven tunnels, and a spiral 3,800 feet long.
+
+[Illustration: Plan of Big Loop.]
+
+The "Big Loop," as it is called, on the Georgetown branch of the
+Union Pacific, in Colorado, between Georgetown and a mining camp
+called Silver Plume, has been chosen to illustrate this point. The
+direct distance up the valley is 1¼ miles and the elevation 600
+feet, requiring a gradient of 480 feet per mile. But by curving
+the line around in a spiral, the length of the line is increased
+to 4 miles and the gradient reduced to 150 feet per mile. Zigzags
+were used first for foot-paths, then for common roads, lastly for
+railways. Their natural sequence, spirals, was a railway device
+entirely, and confirms the saying of one of our engineers: "Where
+a mule can go, I can make a locomotive go." This may be called the
+poetry of engineering, as it requires both imagination to conceive
+and skill to execute.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: Profile of the Same.]
+
+There is one thing more which distinguishes the American railway
+from its English parent, and that is the almost uniform practice
+of getting the road open for traffic in the cheapest manner and in
+the least possible time, and then completing it and enlarging its
+capacity out of its surplus earnings, and from the credit which
+these earnings give it.
+
+[Illustration: Big Loop, Georgetown Branch of the Union Pacific,
+Colorado.]
+
+The Pennsylvania Railroad between Philadelphia and Harrisburg
+is a notable example of this. Within the past few years it has
+been rebuilt on a grand scale, and in many places relocated, and
+miles of sharp curves and heavy gradients, originally put in to
+save expense, have been taken out. This system has been followed
+everywhere, except on a few branch lines, and upon one monumental
+example of failure--the West Shore Railroad, of New York. The
+projectors of that line attempted in three years to build a
+double-track railroad up to the standard of the Pennsylvania road,
+which had been forty years in reaching its present excellence.
+Their money gave out, and they came to grief.
+
+
+II.
+
+We have thus briefly reviewed the development of our railways to
+show what they are, and how they came to be what they are, before
+describing the processes of building, in order that the reasons may
+be clearly understood why we do certain things, and why we fail to
+do other things which we ought to do.
+
+In the building of a railway the first thing is to make the surveys
+and locate the position of the intended road upon the ground, and
+to make maps and sections of it, so that the land may be bought and
+the estimates of cost be ascertained. The engineer's first duty
+is to make a survey by eye without the aid of instruments. This
+is called the "reconnoissance." By this he lays down the general
+position of the line, and where he wants it to go if possible.
+Great skill, the result of long experience, or equally great
+ignorance may be shown here. After the general position of the
+line, or some part of it, has been laid down upon the pocket map,
+the engineer sends his party into the field to make the preliminary
+survey with instruments.
+
+In an old-settled country the party may live in farm-houses
+and taverns, and be carried to their daily work by teams. But
+a surveying party will make better progress, be healthier and
+happier, if they live in their own home, even if that home be a
+travelling camp of a few tents. With a competent commissary the
+camp can be well supplied with provisions, and be pitched near
+enough to the probable end of the day's work to save the tired
+men a long walk. When they get to camp and, after a wash in
+the nearest creek, find a smoking-hot supper ready--even though
+it consist of fried pork and potatoes, corn-bread and black
+coffee--their troubles are all forgotten, and they feel a true
+satisfaction which the flesh-pots of Delmonico's cannot give. One
+greater pleasure remains--to fill the old pipe, and recline by the
+camp-fire for a jolly smoke.
+
+[Illustration: Engineers in Camp.]
+
+A full surveying party consists of the front flag-man, with his
+corps of axe-men to cut away trees and bushes; the transit-man,
+who records the distances and angles of the line, assisted by his
+chain-men and flag-men; and lastly the leveller, who takes and
+records the levels, with his rod-men and axe-men. The chief of the
+party exercises a general supervision over all, and is sometimes
+assisted by a topographer, who sketches in his book the contours of
+the hills and direction and size of the watercourses.
+
+One tent contains the cook, the commissary, and the provisions;
+another tent or two the working party, and another the superior
+engineers, with their drawing instruments and boards. In a properly
+regulated party the map and profile of the day's work should be
+plotted before going to bed, so as to see if all is right. If it
+turns out that the line can be improved and easier grades got, or
+other changes made, now is the time to do it.
+
+After the preliminary lines have been run, the engineer-in-chief
+takes up the different maps and lays down a new line, sometimes
+coinciding with that surveyed, and sometimes quite different. The
+parties then go back into the field and stake out this new line,
+called the "approximate location," upon which the curves are all
+run in. In difficult country the line may be run over even a third
+or fourth time; or in an easy country, the "preliminary" surveys
+may be all that is wanted.
+
+The life of an engineer, while making surveys, is not an easy one.
+His duties require the physical strength of a drayman and the
+mental accuracy of a professor, both exerted at the same time, and
+during heat and cold, rain and shine.
+
+An engineer, once on a time, standing behind his instrument, was
+surrounded by a crowd of natives, anxious to know all about it. He
+explained his processes, using many learned words, and flattered
+himself that he had made a deep impression upon his hearers. At
+last, one old woman spoke up, with an expression of great contempt
+on her face, "Wall! If I knowed as much as you do, I'd quit
+ingineerin' and keep a grocery!"
+
+A large part of the financial difficulties of our railways results
+from not taking time enough to properly locate the line. It must
+be remembered that a cheaply constructed line can be rebuilt, but
+with a badly located line nothing can be done except to abandon it
+entirely.
+
+[Illustration: Royal Gorge Hanging Bridge, Denver and Rio Grande,
+Colorado.]
+
+It is well therefore to consider carefully what is the true problem
+of location. It is so to place and build a line of railway that
+it shall get the greatest amount of business out of the country
+through which it passes, and at the same time be able to do that
+business at the least cost, including both expenses of operating
+and the fixed charges on the capital invested. The mere statement
+of this problem shows that it is not an easy one. Its solution
+is different in a new and unsettled country from that in an
+old-settled region. In the new country, the shortest, cheapest, and
+straightest line possible, consistent with the easiest gradients
+that the topography of the land will allow, is the best. The towns
+will spring up after the road is built, and will be built on its
+line, and generally at the places where stations have been fixed.
+
+[Illustration: Veta Pass, Colorado.]
+
+In a mountainous country, like Colorado, the problem is how to
+reach the important mining camps, regardless of the crookedness
+and increased length given to the line. The Denver and Rio Grande
+has been compared to an octopus. This is really a compliment to
+its engineers. It sucks nutriment from every place where nutriment
+is to be found. To do this it has been forced to climb mountains,
+where it was thought locomotives could never climb. In one place,
+called the Royal Gorge, the difficulties of blasting a road-bed
+into the side of the mountain were so great that it was thought
+expedient to carry the track upon a bridge, and this bridge was
+hung from two rafters, braced against the sides of the gorge. In
+surveying some parts of the lines the engineers were suspended by
+ropes from the top of the mountains and made their measurements
+swinging in mid-air.
+
+The problem of location is different in an old-settled country,
+where the position of the towns as trade-centres has been fixed
+by natural laws that cannot be overruled. In this case the best
+thing the engineer can do is to get the easiest gradient possible
+consistent with the topography of the country, and let the curves
+take care of themselves; always to strike the important towns, even
+if the line is made more crooked and longer thereby; to so place
+the line in these towns as to accommodate the public, and still
+be able to buy plenty of land; also to locate for under or over,
+rather than grade crossings.
+
+[Illustration: Sections of Snow-sheds.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+In all countries, old and new, mountainous and level, the rule
+should be to keep the level of track well above the surface of
+the ground, in order to insure good drainage and freedom from
+snow-drifts.
+
+The question of avoidance of obstruction by snow is a very
+serious one upon the Rocky Mountain lines, and they could not
+be worked without the device of snow-sheds--another purely
+American invention. There are said to be six miles of stanchly
+built snow-sheds on the Canadian Pacific and sixty miles on
+the Central Pacific Railway. The quantity of snow falling is
+enormous, sometimes amounting to 250,000 cubic yards, weighing
+over 100,000 tons, in one slide. It is stated by the engineers of
+the Canadian Pacific, that the force of the air set in motion by
+these avalanches has mown down large trees, not struck by the snow
+itself. Their trunks, from one to two feet in diameter, remain,
+split as if struck by lightning.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: Snow-sheds, Selkirk Mountains, Canadian Pacific. The
+winter track under cover; the outer track for summer use.]
+
+After the railway line has been finally located, the next duty of
+the engineers is to prepare the work for letting. Land-plans are
+made, from which the right of way is secured. From the sections,
+the quantities are taken out. Plans of bridges and culverts are
+made; and a careful specification of all the works on the line is
+drawn up.
+
+[Illustration: Making an Embankment.]
+
+The works are then let, either to one large contractor or to
+several smaller ones, and the labor of construction begins.
+The duties of the engineers are to stake out the work for the
+contractors, make monthly returns of its progress, and see that
+it is well done and according to the specifications and contract.
+The line is divided into sections, and an engineer, with his
+assistants, is placed in charge of each. Where the works are heavy,
+the contractors build shanties for their men and teams near the
+heavy cuttings or embankments. It is the custom to take out heavy
+cuttings by means of the machine called a steam shovel, which will
+dig as many yards in a day as 500 men.
+
+[Illustration: Steam Excavator.]
+
+On the prairies of the West the road-bed is thrown up from
+ditches on each side, either by men with wheelbarrows and carts,
+or by means of a ditching-machine, which can move 3,000 yards
+of earth daily. In this case the track follows immediately
+after the embankment, and the men live in cars fitted up as
+boarding-shanties, and moved forward as fast as required. If the
+country contains suitable stone, the culverts and bridge abutments
+are built by gangs of masons and stone-cutters, who move from
+point to point. But the general practice is to put in temporary
+trestle-work of timber resting upon piles, which trestle-work is
+renewed in the shape of stone culverts covered by embankments, or
+iron bridges resting on stone abutments and built after the road is
+running.
+
+[Illustration: Building a Culvert.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The pile-driver plays a very important part therefore in the
+construction of our railroads, and has been brought to great
+perfection. It is worked by a small boiler and engine, and gives
+its blows with great rapidity. It drags the piles up to leaders
+and lifts them into place by steam-power, so that it is worked
+by a small gang of men. Finally, it is as portable as a pedler's
+cart, and as soon as it has finished one job it is taken to pieces,
+packed upon wagons, and moved on to the next job.
+
+[Illustration: (Rock Drill.)]
+
+Tunnels are neither so long nor so frequent upon American railways
+as upon those of Europe. The longest are from two to two and a half
+miles long, except one, the Hoosac, about four miles. Sometimes
+they are unavoidable. The ridge called Bergen Hill, west of
+Hoboken, N. J., is a case in point. This is pierced by the tunnels
+of the West Shore, of the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western, and of
+the Erie, the last two of which, as shown on page 25, are placed at
+different levels to enable one road to pass over the other.
+
+[Illustration: Rock Drill.]
+
+It is by our system of using sharp curves that we avoid tunnels. It
+may be said, in general terms, that American engineers have shown
+more skill in avoiding the necessity of tunnels than could possibly
+be shown in constructing them. When we are obliged to use tunnels,
+or to make deep cuttings in rocks, our labors are greatly assisted
+by the use of power-drills worked by compressed air and by the use
+of high explosives, such as dynamite, giant powder, rend-rock,
+etc. Rocks can now be removed in less than half the time formerly
+required, when ordinary blasting-powder was used in hand-drilled
+holes.[3]
+
+[Illustration: A Construction and Boarding Train.]
+
+
+III.
+
+From data furnished by Mr. D. J. Whittemore, chief engineer of the
+Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul system (which had a total length
+of 5,688 miles on January 1, 1888), the length of open bridges on
+these lines was 115-91/100 miles, and of culverts covered over with
+embankment, 39-2/10 miles. "Everything," says Mr. Whittemore, "not
+covered with earth, except cattle guards, be the span 10 or 400
+feet, is called a bridge. Everything covered with earth is called
+a culvert. Wherever we are far removed from suitable quarries, we
+build a wooden culvert in preference to a pile bridge, if we can
+get six inches of filling over it. These culverts are built of
+roughly squared logs, and are large enough to draw an iron pipe
+through them of sufficient diameter to take care of the water.
+We do this because we believe that we lessen the liability to
+accident, and that the culvert can be maintained after decay has
+begun, much longer than a piled bridge with stringers to carry the
+track. Had we good quarries along our line, stone would be cheaper.
+Many thousands of dollars have been spent by this company in
+building masonry that after twenty to twenty-five years shows such
+signs of disintegration that we confine masonry work now only to
+stone that we can procure from certain quarries known to be good."
+
+[Illustration: Bergen Tunnels, Hoboken, N. J.]
+
+Mr. Whittemore is an engineer of great experience, skill, and
+judgment, and there is food for much reflection in these words of
+his: First--that it is better to use temporary wooden structures,
+to be afterward renewed in good stone, rather than to build of the
+stone of the locality, unless first-class. Second--that a structure
+covered with earth is much safer than an open bridge; which, if
+short and apparently insignificant, may be, through neglect, a most
+serious point of danger, as was shown in the dreadful accident of
+1887 on the Toledo, Peoria, and Western road in Illinois, where
+one hundred and fifty persons were killed and wounded, and by the
+equally avoidable accident on the Florida and Savannah line, in
+March, 1888. Had these little trestles been changed to culverts
+covered with earth, many valuable lives would not have been lost.
+
+[Illustration: Beginning a Tunnel.]
+
+It was safely estimated that there were, in 1888, 208,749 bridges
+of all kinds, amounting in length to 3,213 miles, in the United
+States.[4]
+
+The wooden bridge and the wooden trestle are purely American
+products, although they were invented by Leonardo da Vinci in the
+sixteenth century. From the above statistics it will be seen how
+much our American railways owe to them, for without them over
+150,000 miles could never have been built.
+
+The art of building wooden truss-bridges was developed by Burr &
+Wernwag, two Pennsylvania carpenters, some of whose works are still
+in use after eighty years of faithful duty (p. 28). A bridge built
+by Wernwag across the Delaware in 1803 was used as a highway bridge
+for forty-five years, was then strengthened and used as a railway
+bridge for twenty-seven years more, and was finally superseded by
+the present iron bridge in 1875.
+
+These old bridge-builders were very particular about the quality of
+their timber, and never put any into a bridge less than two years
+old. But when we began to build railways, everything was done in a
+hurry, and nobody could wait for seasoned timber. This led to the
+invention of the Howe truss, by the engineer of that name, which
+had the advantage of being adjustable with screws and nuts, so that
+the shrinkage could be taken up, and which had its parts connected
+in such a way that they were able to bear the heavy concentrated
+weight of locomotives without crushing. This bridge was used on
+all railways, new and old, from 1840 to about 1870. Had it been
+free from liability to decay and burn up, we should probably not be
+building iron and steel bridges now, except for long spans of over
+200 feet; and as the table opposite shows, the largest number of
+our spans are less than 100 feet long.
+
+The Howe truss forms an excellent bridge, and is still used in the
+West on new roads, with the intention of substituting iron trusses
+after the roads are opened.
+
+After 1870, the weights both of locomotives and other rolling
+stock began to be increased very rapidly. This, together with
+the development of the manufacture of iron, and especially the
+invention of rolled beams and of eye-bars, gave a great impetus to
+the construction of iron bridges. At first cast-iron was used for
+the compression members, but the development of the rolling-mill
+soon enabled us to make all parts of rolled iron sections at no
+greater cost, and rolled iron, being a less uncertain material,
+has replaced cast-iron entirely. Iron bridges came in direct
+competition with the less costly Howe truss, and during the first
+decade of their construction every attempt was made to build them
+with as few pounds of iron as would meet the strains.
+
+[Illustration: Old Burr Wooden Bridge.]
+
+S. Whipple, C.E., published a book in 1847 which was the first
+attempt ever made to solve the mathematical questions upon which
+the due proportioning of iron truss-bridges depends. This work
+bore fruit, and a race of bridge designers sprang up. The first
+iron bridges were modelled after their wooden predecessors, with
+high trusses and short panels. Riveted connections were avoided,
+and every part was so designed that it might be quickly and easily
+erected upon staging or false works, placed in the river. This was
+very necessary, for our rivers are subject to sudden freshets,
+and if we had adopted the English system of riveting together all
+the connections, the long time required before the bridge became
+self-sustaining would have been a serious element of danger.
+
+Following the practice of wooden bridge building, iron bridges
+were contracted for by the foot, and not by the pound as is now
+the custom. To this accidental circumstance is greatly due the
+development of the American iron bridge. The engineer representing
+the railway company fixed the lengths of spans, and other general
+dimensions, and also the loads to be carried and the maximum
+strains to be allowed. The contracting engineer was left perfectly
+free to design his bridge, and he strained every nerve to find the
+form of truss and the arrangement of its parts that should give the
+required strength with the least number of pounds weight per foot,
+so that he could beat his competitors. When the different plans
+were handed in, an expert examined them and rejected those whose
+parts were too small to meet the strains. Of those found to be
+correctly proportioned, the lowest bid took the work.
+
+By the rule of the survival of the fittest all badly designed forms
+of trusses disappeared and only two remained: one the original
+truss designed by Mr. Whipple, and the other, the well-known
+triangular, or "Warren" girder, so called after its English
+inventor.
+
+It speaks well for the skill and honesty of American bridge
+engineers that many of their old bridges are still in use, designed
+for loads of 2,500 pounds per lineal foot, and now daily carrying
+loads of 4,000 pounds and over per foot. Sometimes the floor has
+been replaced by a stronger one, but the trusses still remain and
+do good service. The writer may be permitted to point to the bridge
+over the Mississippi River at Quincy, Ill., built in 1869, as an
+example. Most bridge-accidents can be traced to derailed trains
+striking the trusses and knocking them down. Engineers (both those
+specially connected with bridge works, and those in charge of
+railways) know much better now what is wanted, and the managers of
+railways are willing to pay for the best article. The introduction
+of mild steel is a great step in advance. This material has an
+ultimate strength, in the finished piece, of 63,000 to 65,000
+pounds per square inch, or forty per cent. more than iron, and it
+is tough enough to be tied in a knot, or punched into the shape of
+a bowl, while cold. With this material it is as easy to construct
+spans of 500 feet as it was spans of 250 feet in iron.
+
+Bridges are now designed to carry much heavier loads than formerly.
+The best practice adopts riveted connections except at the junction
+of the chord-bars and the main diagonals, where pins and eyes
+are still very properly used. Plate girders below the track are
+preferred up to 60 or 70 feet long, then riveted lattice up
+to 125 feet. The wind strains also are now provided for with a
+considerable excess of material, amounting in very long spans to
+nearly as much as the strains due to gravity. Observing the rule
+that no bridge can be stronger than its weakest part, a vast deal
+of care and skill has been applied in perfecting the connections
+of the parts of a truss, and many valuable experiments have been
+made which have greatly enlarged our knowledge of this difficult
+subject. The introduction of riveting by the power of steam or
+compressed air is another very great improvement.[5]
+
+[Illustration: Kinzua Viaduct; Erie Railway.]
+
+Valleys and ravines are now crossed by viaducts of iron and steel,
+of which the Kinzua viaduct, illustrated here, is an example. A
+branch line from the Erie, connecting that system with valuable
+coal-fields, strikes the valley of the Kinzua, a small creek,
+about 15 miles southwest of Bradford, Pa. At the point suitable
+for crossing, this ravine is about half a mile wide and over 300
+feet deep. At first it was proposed to run down and cross the creek
+at a low level by some of the devices heretofore illustrated in
+this article. But finally the engineering firm of Clarke, Reeves &
+Co. agreed to build the viaduct, shown above, for a much less sum
+than any other method of crossing would have cost. This viaduct
+was built in four months. It is 305 feet high and about 2,400 feet
+long. The skeleton piers were first erected by means of their
+own posts, and afterward the girders were placed by means of a
+travelling scaffold on the top, projecting over about 80 feet. No
+staging of any kind was used, nor even ladders, as the men climbed
+up the diagonal rods of the piers, as a cat will run up a tree.
+
+[Illustration: Kinzua Viaduct.]
+
+The Manhattan Elevated Railway, about 34 miles long, is nothing but
+a long viaduct, and is as strong and durable as iron viaducts on
+railways usually are, while from the slower speed of its trains it
+is much safer.
+
+It may not be out of place for the writer to state here what, in
+his belief, is the next series of steps to be taken to insure
+safety in travelling over our bridges: Replace, wherever possible,
+all temporary trestles by wood or stone culverts covered with
+earth. Where this cannot be done, build strong iron or steel
+bridges and viaducts with as short spans as possible and having
+no trusses above the track where it can possibly be helped. Cover
+these and all new bridges with a solid deck of rolled-steel
+corrugated plates, coated with asphalt to prevent rusting. Place
+on this broken stone ballast, and bed the ties in it as in the
+ordinary form of road-bed.
+
+By this means the usual shock felt in passing from the elastic
+embankment to the comparatively solid bridge will be done away.
+Has a crack formed in a wheel or axle, this shock generally
+develops it into a break, the car or engine is derailed, and if it
+strikes the truss the bridge is wrecked. The cost of this proposed
+safety floor is insignificant, compared with the security resulting
+from it.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The improvements in the processes of putting in the foundations of
+bridges have been as great as those above water. All have shortened
+greatly the time necessary, and have made the results more certain.
+The American system may briefly be described as an abandonment of
+the old engineering device of coffer-dams, by which the bed of the
+river is enclosed by a water-tight fence and the water pumped out.
+For this we substitute driving piles and sawing them off under
+water; or sinking cribs down to a hard bottom through the water. In
+both cases we sink the masonry, built in a great water-tight box
+(called a caisson) with a thick bottom of solid timber, until it
+finally rests on the heads of the piles sawn to a level, or on the
+top of a crib which is filled with stone, dumped out of a barge.
+Sometimes it is filled with concrete lowered through the water by
+special apparatus.[6]
+
+Another process, developed within the last twenty years, is to
+sink cribs through soft or unreliable material to a harder stratum
+by compressed air. This is an improvement on the old diving-bell.
+The air, forced into the bell-shaped cavity, expels the water and
+allows the men to work and remove the material, which is taken up
+by a device called an air-lock. The crib slowly sinks, carrying the
+masonry on its top.
+
+By this means the foundations of the Brooklyn bridge and of the St.
+Louis bridge were sunk a little over 100 feet below water. A recent
+invention is that of a German engineer, Herr Poetsch, who freezes
+the sand by inserting tubes filled with a freezing mixture, and
+then excavates it as if it were solid rock.
+
+The process of sinking open cribs through the water by weighting
+them and dredging out the material was followed at the new bridge
+recently built over the Hudson at Poughkeepsie, where the cribs
+were sunk 130 feet below water, and at the bridge building over the
+Hawkesbury River, in Australia. The Hawkesbury piers are sunk to
+a depth of 175 feet below water, and are the deepest foundations
+yet put in. The writer (who derives his knowledge from being one of
+the designing and executive engineers of both these bridges) sees
+no difficulty in putting down foundations by this process of open
+dredging to even much greater depths. The compressed-air process is
+limited to about 110 feet in depth.
+
+
+IV.
+
+The most notable invention of latter days in bridge construction
+is that of the cantilever bridge, which is a system devised to
+dispense with staging, or false works, where from the great depth,
+or the swift current, of the river, this would be difficult, or,
+as in the case of the Niagara River, impossible to make. The word
+cantilever is used in architecture to signify the lower end of a
+rafter, which projects beyond the wall of a building, and supports
+the roof above. It is from an Italian word, taken from the Latin
+_cantilabrum_ (used by Vitruvius), meaning the _lip of the rafter_.
+If two beams were pushed out from the shores of a stream until they
+met in the centre, and these two beams were long enough to run back
+from the shores until their weight, aided by a few stones, held
+them down, we should have a primitive form of the cantilever, but
+one which in principle would not differ from the actual cantilever
+bridges. This is another American invention, although it has been
+developed by British engineers--Messrs. Fowler & Baker--in their
+huge bridge now building across the Forth, in Scotland, of a size
+which dwarfs everything hitherto done in this country, the Brooklyn
+bridge not excepted.
+
+The first design of which we have any record was that of a bridge
+planned by Thomas Pope, a ship carpenter of New York, who, in 1810,
+published a book giving his designs for an arched bridge of timber
+across the North River at Castle Point, of 2,400 feet span. Mr.
+Pope called this an arch, but his description clearly shows it to
+have been what we now call a cantilever. As was the fashion of the
+day, he indulged in a poetical description:
+
+      "Like half a Rainbow rising on yon shore,
+      While its twin partner spans the semi o'er,
+      And makes a perfect whole that need not part
+      Till time has furnish'd us a nobler art."
+
+[Illustration: View of Thomas Pope's Proposed Cantilever (1810).]
+
+The first railway cantilever bridge in the world was built by the
+late C. Shaler Smith, C.E., one of our most accomplished bridge
+engineers. This was a bridge over the deep gorge of the Kentucky
+River.[7] The next was a bridge on the Canadian Pacific, in British
+Columbia, designed by C. C. Schneider, C.E. A very similar bridge
+is that over the Niagara River, designed by the same engineer in
+conjunction with Messrs. Field & Hayes, Civil Engineers. This
+bridge was the first to receive the distinctive name of cantilever.
+
+The new bridge at Poughkeepsie has three of these cantilevers,
+connected by two fixed spans, as shown in the illustration (pg.
+36). The fixed spans have horizontal lower chords, and really
+extend beyond each pier and up the inclined portions, to where the
+bottom chord of the cantilever is horizontal. At these points the
+junctions between the spans are made, and arranged in such a way,
+by means of movable links, that expansion and contraction due to
+changes of temperature can take place. The fixed spans are 525 feet
+long. Their upper chord, where the tracks are placed, is 212 feet
+above water. These spans required stagings to build them upon.
+These stagings were 220 feet above water, and rested on piles,
+driven through 60 feet of water and 60 feet of mud, making the
+whole height of the temporary staging 332 feet, or within 30 feet
+of the height of Trinity Church steeple, in New York. The time
+occupied in building one of these stagings and then erecting the
+steel-work upon it was about four months.
+
+The cantilever spans were erected, as shown in the illustration on
+page 37, without any stagings at all below, and entirely from the
+two overhead travelling scaffolds, shown in the engraving. These
+scaffolds were moved out daily from the place of beginning over
+the piers, until they met in the centre. The workmen hoisted up
+the different pieces of steel from a barge in the river below and
+put them into place, using suspended planks to walk upon. The time
+saved by this method was so great that one of these spans of 548
+feet long was erected in less than four weeks, or one-seventh of
+the time which would have been required if stagings had been used.
+
+[Illustration: Pope's Cantilever in Process of Erection. (From his
+"Treatise on Bridge Architecture.")]
+
+At the Forth Bridge, all the projecting cantilevers will be built
+from overhead scaffolds, 360 feet above the water. It contains two
+spans of 1,710 feet each. When spans of this length are used, the
+rivets become very long--seven inches--and it would be impossible
+to make a good job by hand riveting. Hence a power-riveter is used
+in riveting the work upon the staging. A steam-engine raises up a
+heavy mass of cast-iron, called "the accumulator;" the weight of
+this in descending is transmitted through tubes of water, and its
+power increased by contracting the area of pressure, until some
+twenty tons can be applied to the head of each rivet. One rivet per
+minute can be put in with this tool.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It will be seen that most of the great saving of time in modern
+construction of bridges and other parts of railways is due to
+improved machinery. The engineer of to-day is probably not more
+skilful than his ancestor, who, in periwig and cue, breeches
+and silk stockings, is represented in old prints supervising a
+gang of laborers, who slowly lift the ram of a pile-driver by
+hauling on one end of a rope passed over a pulley-wheel. The
+modern engineer has that useful servant, steam, and the history
+of modern engineering is chiefly the history of those inventions
+by which steam has been able to supersede manual labor--such as
+pile-drivers, steam-shovels, steam-dredges, and other similar tools.
+
+[Illustration: General View of the Poughkeepsie Bridge.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+After the road-bed of a railway is completed and covered with a
+good coat of gravel or stone-ballast, and after all the temporary
+structures have been replaced by permanent ones, that part of the
+work may be said to be done, requiring only that the damages of
+storms should be repaired. But the track of a railway is never
+done. It is always wearing out and always being replaced.
+
+[Illustration: Erection of a Cantilever.]
+
+Some of the early English engineers, not appreciating this,
+endeavored to lay down solid stone walls coped with stone cut to a
+smooth surface, on which they laid their rails. They called this
+"permanent way," as distinguished from the temporary track of rails
+and cross-ties used by contractors in building the lines. But
+experience soon showed that the temporary track, if supported by
+a bed of broken stone, always kept itself drained and was always
+elastic, and remained in much better order than the more expensive
+so-called "permanent way." When the increase in the weight of our
+rolling stock began to take place, dating from about 1870, iron
+rails were found to be wearing out very fast. Some railway men
+declared that the railway system had reached its full development.
+But in this world the supply generally equals the demand. When a
+thing is very much wanted, it is sure to come, sooner or later.
+The process of making steel invented by, and named after, Henry
+Bessemer, of England, and perfected by A. L. Holley, of this
+country, gave us a steel rail which at the present time costs
+less than one of iron, and has a life five or six times as long,
+even under the heavy loads of to-day. We are now approaching very
+near the limit of what the rail will carry, while the joints are
+becoming less able to do their duty. Bad joints mean rough track.
+Rough track means considerably greater expenditure both for its
+maintenance and that of all the rolling stock, as the blows and
+shocks do reciprocal damage, both to the rails and to that which
+runs on them. Hence all railway managers are now devoting more care
+and attention to their tracks.
+
+In laying track on a new railway, if it be in an old-settled
+country where other railroads are near and the highways good,
+the ties are delivered in piles along the line where wanted, and
+the haul of the rails is comparatively short. The ties are laid
+down, spaced and bedded, adzed off to a true bearing, and the
+rails laid upon them; the workmen being divided into gangs, each
+doing a different part of the work. After the track is laid, the
+ballast-trains come along and cover the roadbed with gravel. The
+track is raised, the gravel tamped well under the ties, and the
+track is ready for use.
+
+[Illustration: Spiking the Track.]
+
+[Illustration: Rail Making.]
+
+The road is then divided into sections about five miles long. On
+each section there is a section-boss, with four to six laborers.
+Their duty is to pass over the track at least twice a day in their
+hand-car, to examine every joint, and where one is found low or out
+of line, to bring it back to its true position by tamping gravel
+under it and moving the track. They have also to see that all
+ditches are kept clear of water, a most essential point, as without
+good drainage the ground under gravel ballast becomes soft, and the
+mud is churned up into the gravel, and the whole soon gets into bad
+order.
+
+They have to see that the fences are all right, that trees and
+telegraph poles do not fall across the track, that wooden bridges
+do not burn down, that iron and stone bridges are not undermined by
+freshets, and always to set up danger signals to warn the trains.
+
+[Illustration: Track Laying.]
+
+It is admitted by competent judges, that the track of the
+Pennsylvania Railroad is the best in this country, and one of the
+best in the world. It is kept up to its high standard of excellence
+by a system of competitive examinations.
+
+About the first of November, in each year, after the season's work
+has been done, a tour of inspection is made over all the lines, on
+a train of cars expressly prepared, consisting of two or more cars
+not unlike ordinary box cars with the front end taken out. Each car
+is pushed in front of an engine, and goes slowly over the line, by
+daylight only, so that the inspecting party may have a full view of
+the road.
+
+The Pennsylvania road is divided into Grand Divisions,
+Superintendents' Divisions, of about 100 miles long, Supervisors'
+Divisions, of about 30 miles, and Subdivisions, of 2½ miles.
+
+The examining committee for each Supervisor's Division consists of
+the supervisors of other divisions. As they pass along, they mark
+on a card. One sub-committee marks the condition of the alignment
+and surfacing of the rails; another the condition of the joints
+and the spacing of the ties; another the ballast, switches, and
+sidings; another the ditches, road-crossings, station grounds.
+The marks range from 0 to 10, 0 being very bad, 5 medium, and 10
+perfection. When the trip is done these reports are all collected
+and the average is taken for each division.
+
+As an inducement to the supervisors and the foremen of the
+Subdivisions to excel on their division, premiums are given as
+follows:
+
+  $100 to the supervisor having the best yard on his Grand Division.
+
+  $100 each to the supervisors having the best Supervisor's
+  Division on each Superintendent's Division of 100 miles.
+
+  $75 to the foreman having the best subdivision of 2½ miles on
+  each Grand Division.
+
+  $60 to each foreman having the best subdivision on his
+  Superintendent's Division, including yards.
+
+  $50 to the foreman having the best subdivision on each
+  Supervisor's Division.
+
+In addition to the above there are two premiums of honor given by
+the general manager, which bring into competition with each other
+those parts of the main line lying on either side of Philadelphia,
+viz.:
+
+  $100 to the supervisor having the best line and surface between
+  Pittsburg and Jersey City.
+
+  $50 to the second best ditto.
+
+If a supervisor or foreman of subdivision receives one of the
+higher premiums, he is not allowed to be a competitor for any
+others premiums, except the premiums of honor.
+
+The advantages of these inspections and premiums are these: Every
+man knows exactly what the standard of excellence is, and strives
+to have his section reach it. Under the old system, a man never got
+off of his own section, and had no means of comparison, and like
+all untravelled persons, became conceited.
+
+The standard of excellence becomes higher and higher every year.
+Perfect fairness prevails, as the men themselves are the judges.
+The officers of the road make no marks, but usually look on and see
+that there is fair play.
+
+This brings the officers and men nearer together, and shows the men
+how all are working for the common good. An agreeable break is made
+in the monotony of the men's lives. They have something to look
+forward to better than a spree.
+
+It is by the adoption of such methods as these that strikes will be
+prevented in the future. It encourages an _esprit de corps_ among
+the men, and educates them in every way.
+
+This system was first devised and put in operation on the
+Pennsylvania Railroad in 1879, by Mr. Frank Thomson, General
+Manager, to whom the credit of it is justly due.
+
+
+V.
+
+I have thus endeavored to trace the history of the building of
+a railway; and it must have been seen, from what has been said,
+that the evolution of the railway and of its rolling stock follows
+the same laws which govern the rest of the world: adaptation to
+circumstances decides what is fittest, and that alone survives. The
+scrap-heap of a great railway tells its own story.
+
+Our railways have now reached a development which is wonderful. The
+railways of the United States, if placed continuously, would reach
+more than half-way to the moon. Their bridges alone would reach
+from New York to Liverpool. Notwithstanding the number of accidents
+that we read of in the daily papers, statistics show that less
+persons are killed annually on railways than are killed annually by
+falling out of windows.
+
+Railways have so cheapened the cost of transportation that, while
+a load of wheat loses all of its value by being hauled one hundred
+miles on a common road, meat and flour enough to supply one man a
+year can, according to Mr. Edward Atkinson, be hauled 1,500 miles
+from the West to the East for one day's wages of that man, if he
+be a skilled mechanic. If freight charges are diminished in the
+future as in the past, this can soon be done for one day's wages of
+a common laborer.
+
+The number of persons employed in constructing, equipping, and
+operating our railways is about two millions.
+
+The combined armies and navies of the world, while on peace
+footing, will draw from gainful occupations 3,455,000 men.
+
+Those create wealth--these destroy it. Is it any wonder that
+America is the richest country in the world?
+
+The rapidity with which it is possible to build railways over the
+prairies of the West is extraordinary. It is true that the amount
+of earth necessary to be moved is much less than on the railways
+of the East. In Iowa and Wisconsin, the amount runs from 20,000 to
+25,000 yards per mile, while in Dakota it is only 12,000 to 15,000
+yards per mile. After making all due allowance for this, the result
+is still remarkable.
+
+[Illustration: Temporary Railway Crossing the St. Lawrence on the
+Ice.]
+
+The Manitoba system was extended in 1887 through Dakota and
+Montana, a distance of 545 miles. A small army of 10,000 men, with
+about 3,500 teams, commanded by General D. C. Shepard, of St. Paul,
+a veteran engineer and contractor, did it all between April 2 and
+October 19. All materials and subsistence had to be hauled to the
+front, from the base of supplies. The army slept in its own tents,
+shanties, and cars. The grading was cast up from the side ditches,
+sometimes by carts, and sometimes by the digging machine.
+
+Everything was done with military organization, except that what
+was left behind was a railway and not earth-work lines of defence.
+Assuming that this railway, ready for its equipment, cost $15,100
+per mile, or $8,175,000, and if it be true, as statisticians tell
+us, that every dollar expended in building railways in a new
+country adds ten to the value of land and other property, then this
+six months' campaign shows a solid increase of the wealth of our
+country of over eighty millions of dollars. Had it been necessary
+for our Government to keep an army of observation of the same size
+on the Canadian frontier, there would have been a dead loss of over
+eight millions of dollars, and the only result would have been a
+slight reduction of the Treasury surplus.
+
+It must be remembered that this railway was built after the
+American system: when the rails were laid, so as to carry trains,
+it was not much more than half finished; the track had to be
+ballasted, the temporary wooden structures replaced by stone and
+iron, and many buildings and miles of sidings were yet to be
+constructed. But it began to earn money from the very day the last
+rail was laid, and out of its earnings, and the credit thereby
+acquired, it will complete itself.
+
+And this is only one instance out of many. The armies of peace are
+working all over our country, increasing our wealth, and binding
+all parts into a common whole. We have here the true answer to the
+Carlyles and the Ruskins who ask: "What is the use of all this? Is
+a man any better who goes sixty miles an hour than one who went
+five miles an hour?" "Were we not happier when our fields were
+covered with their golden harvests, than now, when our wheat is
+brought to us from Dakota?"
+
+The grand function of the railway is to change the whole basis of
+civilization from military to industrial. The talent, the energy,
+the money, which is expended in maintaining the whole of Europe
+as an armed camp is here expended in building and maintaining
+railways, with their army of two millions of men. Without the
+help of railways the rebellion of the Southern States could never
+have been put down, and two great standing armies would have
+been necessary. By the railways, aided by telegraphs, it is easy
+to extend our Federal system over an entire continent, and thus
+dispense forever with standing armies.
+
+The moral effect of this upon Europe is great, but its physical
+effect is still greater. American railways have nearly abolished
+landlordism in Ireland, and they will one day abolish it in
+England, and over the continent of Europe. So long as Europe was
+dependent for food upon its own fields, the owner of those fields
+could fix his own rental. This he can no longer do, owing to the
+cheapness of transportation from Australia and from the prairies
+of America, due to the inventions of Watt, the Stephensons,
+Bessemer, and Holley.
+
+With the wealth of the landlord his political power will pass
+away. The government of European countries will pass out of the
+hands of the great landowners, but not into those of the rabble,
+as is feared. It will pass into the same hands that govern America
+to-day--the territorial democracy, the owners of small farms, and
+the manufacturers and merchants. When this comes to pass, attempts
+will be made to settle international disputes by arbitration
+instead of war, following the example of the Geneva arbitration
+between the two greatest industrial nations of the world. Whether
+our Federal system will ever extend to the rest of the world,
+no one knows, but we do know that without railways it would be
+impossible.
+
+When we consider the effects of all these wonderful changes upon
+the sum of human happiness, we must admit that the engineer should
+justly take rank with statesmen and soldiers, and that no greater
+benefactors to the human race can be named than the Stephensons and
+their American disciples--Allen, Rogers, Jervis, Winans, Latrobe,
+and Holley.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] It is proper here to say that English engineers now appreciate
+the merits of the American swivelling truck or bogie. In the
+article on Railways in the last edition of the "Encyclopædia
+Britannica," speaking of locomotives, the author of the article,
+who is an English engineer of high authority, says: "American
+practice, many years since, arrived at two leading types of
+locomotive for passenger, and for goods traffic. The passenger
+locomotive has eight wheels, of which four in front are framed in
+a bogie, and the four wheels behind are coupled drivers. _This is
+the type to which English practice has been approximating._" The
+italics are ours.
+
+[2] The statistics of ten leading English and ten leading American
+lines, given by Dorsey, show the following results: 1. The cost
+per year of the rations, wages, fuel of an American locomotive
+is $5,590; of an English locomotive, $3,080. 2. Average yearly
+number of train-miles run by American locomotive, 23,928; English
+locomotive, 17,539. 3. Yearly earnings: American locomotive,
+$14,860; English locomotive, $10,940, although the English freight
+charges are much greater than those of the United States.
+
+[3] The writer has obtained many of the statistics used in this
+article from A. M. Wellington's "Economic Theory of Railway
+Location," a perfect mine of valuable information upon all such
+matters.
+
+[4] The amount of permanent wood and iron truss bridges, and of
+temporary wooden trestles on the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul
+is as follows:
+
+  Truss bridges,   700 spans,   average 93 feet,   12-4/5 miles.
+  Trestle  "     7,196   "         "    77  "     103-1/10  "
+                ------                            --------
+        Total,   7,896                            115-9/10  "
+
+The approximate total number of bridges in the United States was in
+1888:
+
+  Iron and wood truss bridges,   61,562 spans,   1,086 miles.
+  Wooden trestles,              147,187          2,127   "
+                               --------         ------
+      Total,                    208,749          3,213   "
+
+Probably three-fourths of the truss bridges are now of iron
+or steel, and may be considered perfectly safe so long as the
+trains remain upon the rails and do not strike the side trusses.
+The wooden trestles are a constant source of danger from decay
+or burning or from derailed trains, and should be replaced by
+permanent structures as fast as time and money will allow.
+
+[5] See following article on "Feats of Railroad Engineering," page
+86.
+
+[6] For fuller description of work in a caisson see "Feats of
+Railway Engineering," page 69.
+
+[7] See "Feats of Railway Engineering," page 55.
+
+
+
+
+FEATS OF RAILWAY ENGINEERING.
+
+BY JOHN BOGART.
+
+  Development of the Rail--Problems for the Engineer--How
+  Heights are Climbed--The Use of Trestles--Construction on a
+  Mountain Side--Engineering on Rope Ladders--Through the Portals
+  of a Cañon--Feats on the Oroya Railroad, Peru--Nochistongo
+  Cut--Rack Rails for Heavy Grades--Difficulties in Tunnel
+  Construction--Bridge Foundations--Cribs and Pneumatic
+  Caissons--How Men work under Water--The Construction of Stone
+  Arches--Wood and Iron in Bridge-building--Great Suspension
+  Bridges--The Niagara Cantilever and the enormous Forth
+  Bridge--Elevated and Underground Roads--Responsibilities of the
+  Civil Engineer.
+
+
+There are one hundred and fifty thousand miles of railway in the
+United States: three hundred thousand miles of rails--in length
+enough to make twelve steel girdles for the earth's circumference.
+This enormous length of rail is wonderful--we do not really grasp
+its significance. But the rail itself, the little section of steel,
+is an engineering feat. The change of its form from the curious and
+clumsy iron pear-head of thirty years ago to the present refined
+section of steel is a scientific development. It is now a beam
+whose every dimension and curve and angle are exactly suited to the
+tremendous work it has to do. The loads it carries are enormous,
+the blows it receives are heavy and constant, but it carries the
+loads and bears the blows and does its duty. The locomotive and the
+modern passenger and freight cars are great achievements; and so is
+the little rail which carries them all.
+
+The railway to-day is one of the matter-of-fact associations of
+our active life. We use it so constantly that it requires some
+little effort to think of it as a wonderful thing; a creation
+of man's ingenuity, which did not exist when our grandfathers
+were young. Its long bridges, high viaducts, and dark tunnels may
+be remarked and remembered by the traveller, but the narrow way
+of steel, the road itself, seems but a simple work. And yet the
+problem of location, the determination, foot by foot and mile by
+mile, of where the line must go, calls in its successful solution
+for the highest skill of the engineer, whose profession before the
+railway was created hardly existed at all. Locomotives now climb
+heights which a few years ago no vehicle on wheels could ascend.
+The writer, with some engineer friends, was in the mountains
+of Colorado during the summer of 1887, and saw a train of very
+intelligent donkeys loaded with ore from the mines, to which no
+access could be had but by those sure-footed beasts. Within a year
+one of that party of engineers had located and was building a
+railway to those very mines. No heights seem too great to-day, no
+valleys too deep, no cañons too forbidding, no streams too wide; if
+commerce demands, the engineer will respond and the railways will
+be built.
+
+The location of the line of a railway through difficult country
+requires the trained judgment of an engineer of special experience,
+and the most difficult country is not by any means that which might
+at first be supposed. A line through a narrow pass almost locates
+itself. But the approach to a summit through rolling country is
+often a serious problem. The rate of grade must be kept as light
+as possible, and must never exceed the prescribed maximum. The
+cuttings and the embankments must be as shallow as they can be
+made--the quantities of material taken from the excavations should
+be just about enough to make adjacent embankments. The curves must
+be few and of light radius--never exceeding an arranged limit.
+The line must always be kept as direct as these considerations
+will allow--so that the final location will give the shortest
+practicable economical distance from point to point. Many a mile
+of railway over which we travel now at the highest speed has been
+a weary problem to the engineer of location, and he has often
+accomplished a really greater success by securing a line which
+seems to closely fit the country over which it runs without marking
+itself sharply upon nature's moulding, than if he had with apparent
+boldness cut deep into the hills and raised embankments and
+viaducts high over lowlands and valleys.
+
+[Illustration: View Down the Blue from Rocky Point, Denver, South
+Park and Pacific Railroad; showing successive tiers of railway.]
+
+But roads must run through many regions where very different
+measures must be taken to secure a location practicable for
+traffic. For instance, a line at a high elevation approaches a wide
+valley which it must cross. The rate of descent is fixed by the
+established maximum grade, and the sides of the valley are much
+steeper than that rate. Then the engineer must gain distance--that
+is to say, he must make the line long enough to overcome the
+vertical height. This can often be accomplished by carrying it
+up the valley on one side and down on the other. Tributary
+valleys can be made use of if necessary, and the desired crossing
+thus accomplished. But at times even these expedients will not
+suffice. Then the line is made to bend upon itself and wind down
+the hillside upon benches cut into the earth, or rock, curving at
+points where nature affords any sort of opportunity, and reaching
+the valley at last in long convolutions like the path of a great
+serpent on the mountain side. These lines often show several tiers
+of railway, one directly above the other, as may be seen in the
+illustrations on pages 49 and 51.
+
+The long trestle shown in the illustration opposite is an
+example of an expedient often of the greatest service in railway
+construction. These trestles are built of wood, simply but strongly
+framed together, and are entirely effective for the transport of
+traffic for a number of years. Then they must be renewed, or, what
+is better, be replaced by embankment, which can be gradually made
+by depositing the material from cars on the trestle itself. The
+trestle illustrated is interesting as conforming to the curve of
+the line, which in that country, the mountains of Colorado, was
+probably a necessity of location.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Where the direct turning of a line upon itself may not be
+necessary, there may and often must be bold work done in the
+construction of the road upon a mountain side. It must be supported
+where necessary by walls built up from suitable foundations,
+often only secured at a great depth below the grade of the road.
+Projecting points of rock must be cut through, and any practicable
+natural shelf or favorable formation must be made use of, as in the
+picture on page 61. In some of the mountain locations, galleries
+have been cut directly into the rock, the cliff overhanging the
+roadway, and the line being carried in a horizontal cut or niche in
+the solid wall.
+
+[Illustration: Loop and Great Trestle near Hagerman's, on the
+Colorado Midland Railway.]
+
+The Oroya and the Chimbote railways in South America demanded
+constant locations of this character. At many points it was
+necessary to suspend the persons making the preliminary
+measurements from the cliff above. The engineer who made these
+locations told the writer that on the Oroya line the galleries
+were often from 100 to 400 feet above the base of the cliff, and
+were generally reached from above. Rope ladders were used to great
+advantage. One 64 feet long and one 106 feet long covered the
+usual practice, and were sometimes spliced together. The side
+ropes were ¾ and 1¼ inches in diameter, and the rounds of wood 1¼
+inches in diameter, and 16 inches and 24 inches long. These were
+notched at the ends and passed through the ropes, to which they
+were afterward lashed. These ladders could be rolled up and carried
+about on donkeys or mules. When swung over the side of a cliff
+and secured at the top, and when practicable at the bottom, they
+formed a very useful instrument in location and construction. For
+simple examination of the cliff, and for rough or broken slopes
+not exceeding 70 to 80 degrees, an active fellow would, after some
+experience, walk up and down such a slope simply grasping the
+rope in his hands. If required to do any work he would secure the
+rope about his body, or wind it around his arm, leaving his hands
+comparatively free for light work.
+
+The boatswain's chair--consisting of a wooden seat 6 inches wide
+and two feet long, through the ends of which pass the side ropes,
+looped at the top, and having their ends knotted--is a particularly
+convenient seat to use where cliffs overhang to a slight degree.
+The riggers were generally Portuguese sailors, who seemed to have
+more agility and less fear than any other men to be found. At
+Cuesta Blanca, on the Oroya, a prominent discoloration on the cliff
+served as a triangulation point for locating the chief gallery.
+Men were swung over the side of the cliff in a cage about 2½ feet
+by 6 feet, open at the top and on the side next the rock. This
+was a peculiar cliff about 1,000 feet high, rising from the river
+at a general slope of about 70 degrees. The grade line of the
+road was 420 feet above the river. The Chileno miners climbed up
+a rope ladder to a large seam near the grade, where they lived;
+provisions, water, etc., being hoisted up to them. The first men
+sent over the cliff to begin the preliminary work were lowered in
+a cage and took their dinners with them, for fear they would not
+return to the work, and that unless a genuine start was made others
+could not be induced to take their places. It is safe to say that
+80 per cent. of the sixty odd tunnels on the Oroya and the seven
+tunnels on the Chimbote lines were located and constructed on lines
+determined by triangulation, and the results were so satisfactory
+that the method may be depended upon as the best system for
+determining topographical data or for locating and constructing the
+lines in any similar locality.
+
+[Illustration: Denver and Rio Grande Railway Entering the Portals
+of the Grand River Cañon, Col.]
+
+Where the rocks close in together, as in some of the cañons of our
+Southwest, the railway curves about them and finds its way often
+where one would hardly suppose a decent wagon road could be built.
+The portals of the Grand River Cañon, as here shown, present such a
+line, passing through narrow gateways of rock rising precipitously
+on either side to enormous heights.
+
+When such a cañon or a narrow valley directly crosses the line of
+the road, it must be spanned by a bridge or viaduct. The Kentucky
+River Bridge, shown below, is an instance. The Verrugas Bridge, on
+the Lima and Oroya Railroad in Peru, is another. This bridge is at
+an elevation of 5,836 feet above sea-level. It crosses a ravine at
+the bottom of which is a small stream. The bridge is 575 feet long,
+in four spans, and is supported by iron towers, the central one
+of which is 252 feet in height. The construction was accomplished
+entirely from above, the material all having been delivered at the
+top of the ravine, and the erection was made by lowering each piece
+to its position. This was done by the use of two wire-rope cables,
+suspended across the ravine from temporary towers at each end of
+the bridge.
+
+[Illustration: The Kentucky River Cantilever, on the Cincinnati
+Southern Railway.]
+
+On the line of the same Oroya Railroad is a striking example of
+the difficulties encountered in such mountain country and of
+the method by which they have been overcome. A tunnel reaches a
+narrow gorge, a truss is thrown across, and the tunnel continued.
+Nature's wildest scenery, the deep ravine, the mountain cliffs, and
+the graceful truss carrying the locomotive and train safely over
+what would seem an impossible pass, here combine to give a vivid
+illustration of an engineering feat.
+
+[Illustration: Truss over Ravine, and Tunnel, Oroya Railroad, Peru.]
+
+The location of a part of the Mexican Central Railway through the
+cut of Nochistongo is peculiarly interesting. Far underneath the
+level of this line of railway there was skilfully constructed,
+in 1608, a tunnel which at that period was a very bold piece of
+engineering. It was designed to drain the Valley of Mexico, which
+has no natural outlet. This tunnel was more than six miles long
+and ten feet wide. It was driven through the formation called
+_tepetate_, a peculiar earth with strata of sand and marl. It was
+finished in eleven months. At first excavated without a lining, it
+was afterward faced with masonry. It was not entirely protected
+when a great flood came, the dikes above gave way, and the tunnel
+became obstructed. The City of Mexico was flooded, and it was
+decided that, instead of repairing the tunnel an open cut should be
+made. The engineer who had constructed the tunnel, Enrico Martinez,
+was put in charge of this enormous undertaking, and others took his
+place after his death. The cut is believed to be the largest ever
+made in the world. For more than a century the work was continued.
+Its greatest depth is now 200 feet. It was cut deeper, but has
+partially filled with the washings from the slopes. The cost
+was enormous, more than 6,000,000 dollars in silver having been
+actually disbursed! Wages for workmen were then from 9 to 12 cents
+a day. All convicts sentenced to hard labor were put at work in the
+great cut. The loss of life was very great. Writers of the time
+state that more than 100,000 Indians perished while engaged in the
+work.
+
+[Illustration: The Nochistongo Cut, Mexican Central Railway.]
+
+[Illustration: The Mount Washington Rack Railroad.]
+
+When a line of railway encountered a grade too steep for ascent
+by the traction of the locomotive, the earlier engineers adopted
+the inclined plane. Such planes were in use at important points
+during many years. Notable instances were those by which traffic
+was carried across the Alleghany Mountains, connecting on each side
+with the Pennsylvania railway lines. These old planes are still
+visible from the present Pennsylvania Railroad where it crosses
+the summit west of Altoona. The planes were operated by stationary
+engines acting upon cables attached to the cars. These cables
+passed around drums at the head of the planes, the weight of the
+cars on one track partially balancing those on the other. Similar
+planes were in use also at Albany, Schenectady, and other places.
+
+[Illustration: Trestle on Portland and Ogdensburg Railway, Crawford
+Notch, White Mountains.]
+
+Another effective expedient is the central rack rail. No better
+or more successful example of this method of construction can be
+given than the Mount Washington Railway, illustrated above. The
+road was completed in 1869. Its length is 3-1/3 miles and its
+total rise 3,625 feet. Its steepest grade is about 1 foot rise in
+every 3 feet in length; the average grade is 1 in 4. It is built
+of heavy timber, well bolted to the rock. Low places are spanned
+by substantial trestle work. The gauge of the road is 4 feet 7½
+inches, and it is provided with the two ordinary rails and also the
+central rack rail, which is really like an iron ladder, the sides
+being of angle iron and the cross-pieces of round iron 1½ inches in
+diameter and 4 inches apart. Into these plays the central cog-wheel
+on the locomotive, which thus climbs this iron ladder with entire
+safety. Very complete arrangements are made to control the descent
+of the train in case of accident to the machinery. The locomotive
+is always below the train, and pushes it up the mountain. Many
+thousands of passengers have been transported every year without
+accident.
+
+[Illustration: A Series of Tunnels.]
+
+The rack railroad ascending the Righi, in Switzerland, was
+copied after the Mount Washington line. Some improvements in the
+construction of the rack rail and attachments have been introduced
+upon mountain roads in Germany, and this system seems very
+advantageous for use in exceptionally steep locations.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+When a line of railway meets in its course a barrier of rock, it
+is often best to cut directly through. If the grade is not too
+far below the surface of the rock, the cut is made like a great
+trench with the sides as steep as the nature of the material will
+allow. Very deep cuts are, however, not desirable. The rains
+bring down upon their slopes the softer material from above, and
+the frost detaches pieces of rock which, falling, may result in
+serious accidents to trains. Snow lodges in these deep cuts, at
+times entirely stopping traffic, as in the blizzard near New York,
+in March, 1888. A tunnel, therefore, while perhaps greater in
+first cost than a moderately deep cut, is really often the more
+economical expedient.
+
+[Illustration: Tunnel at the Foot of Mount St. Stephen, on the
+Canadian Pacific.
+
+(The glacier 8,200 feet above the Railway.)]
+
+[Illustration: Peña de Mora
+
+on the La Guayra and Carácas Railway, Venezuela.]
+
+And here is as good a place, perhaps, as any other in this chapter,
+to say that true engineering is the economical adaptation of
+the means and opportunities existing, to the end desired. Civil
+engineering was defined, by one of the greatest of England's
+engineers, as "the art of directing the great sources of
+power in nature for the use and convenience of man," and that
+definition was adopted as a fundamental idea in the charter of
+the English Institution of Civil Engineers. But the development
+of engineering-works in America has been effected successfully by
+American engineers only because they have appreciated another side
+of the problem presented to them. A past president of the American
+Society of Civil Engineers, a man of rare judgment and remarkable
+executive ability, the late Ashbel Welch, said, in discussing a
+great undertaking proposed by an eminent Frenchman: "That is the
+best engineering, not which makes the most splendid, or even the
+most perfect, work, but that which makes a work that answers the
+purpose well, at the least cost." And it may be remarked, as to
+the project which he was then discussing, that after a very large
+expenditure and an experience of eight years since that discussion,
+the plans of the work were modified and the identical suggestions
+made by Mr. Welch of a radical economical change were adopted
+in 1888.[8] Another eminent American engineer, whose practical
+experience has been gained in the construction and engineering
+supervision of more than five thousand miles of railway, said,
+in his address as President of the American Society of Civil
+Engineers: "The high object of our profession is to consider and
+determine the most economic use of time, power, and matter."
+
+[Illustration: Perspective View of St. Gothard Spiral Tunnels, in
+the Alps.]
+
+That true economy, which finally secures in a completed work the
+best results from the investment of capital, in first cost and
+continued maintenance, is an essential element in the consideration
+of any really great engineering feat.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The difficulties involved in the construction of a tunnel, after
+the line and dimensions have been determined, depend generally
+upon the nature of the material found as the work advances. Solid
+rock presents really the fewest difficulties, but it is seldom
+that tunnels of considerable length occur without meeting material
+which requires special provision for successful treatment. In some
+cases great portions of the rock, where the roof of the tunnel is
+to be, press downward with enormous weight, being detached from the
+adjacent mass by the occurrence of natural seams.
+
+At other places soft material may be encountered, and the passage
+then is attended with great difficulty. Temporary supports,
+generally of timber, and of great strength, have often to be used
+at every foot of progress to prevent the material from forcing its
+way into the excavation already made.
+
+In long tunnels the ventilation is a difficult problem, although
+the use of compressed air drills has aided greatly in its solution.
+
+[Illustration: Plan of St. Gothard Spiral Tunnels.]
+
+Among the great tunnels which have been excavated, the St. Gothard
+is the most remarkable. It is 9¼ miles long, with a section
+26¼ feet wide by 19-2/3 feet high. The work on this tunnel was
+continuous, and it required 9¼ years for its completion.
+
+The Mont Cenis tunnel, 8-1/3 miles in length, was completed in 12
+years.
+
+[Illustration: Profile of the Same.]
+
+The Hoosac Tunnel, 4¾ miles in length, 26 feet wide and 21½ feet
+high, was not prosecuted continuously; it was completed in 1876.
+These tunnels are notable chiefly on account of their great length;
+there are others of more moderate extent which have peculiar
+features; one, illustrated on the preceding page, is unique. This
+tunnel is a portion of the St. Gothard Railway, and not very far
+distant from the great tunnel referred to above. In the descent
+of the mountain it was absolutely necessary to secure a longer
+distance than a straight line or an ordinary curve would give;
+the line was therefore doubly curved upon itself. It enters the
+mountain at a high elevation, describes a circle through the rock
+and, constantly descending, reappears under itself at the side;
+still descending, it enters the mountain at another point and
+continues in another circular tunnel until it finally emerges
+again, under itself, but at a comparatively short horizontal
+distance from its first entry, having gained the required descent
+by a continued grade through the tunnels. The profile above shows
+the descent, upon a greatly reduced scale, the heavy lines marking
+where the line is in the tunnel.
+
+[Illustration: Portal of a Finished Tunnel; showing Cameron's Cone,
+Colorado.]
+
+[Illustration: Portal of a Tunnel in Process of Construction.]
+
+The remarkable success achieved by engineers in securing suitable
+foundations at great depths is, of course, hardly known to the
+thousands who constantly see the structures supported on those
+foundations, but in any fair consideration of such engineering
+achievements this must not be omitted. The beautiful bridge
+built by Captain Eads over the Mississippi River at St. Louis,
+bold in its design and excellent in its execution, is an object
+of admiration to all who visit it, but the impression of its
+importance would be greatly magnified if the part below the surface
+of the water, which bears the massive towers, and which extends to
+a depth twice as great as the height of the pier above the water,
+could be visible.
+
+[Illustration: Railway Pass at Rocky Point in the Rocky Mountains.]
+
+The simplest and most effective foundation is, of course, on solid
+rock. In many localities reliable foundations are built upon
+earth, when it exists at a suitable depth and of such a character
+as properly to sustain the weight. Foundations under water, when
+rock or good material occurs at moderate depth, are constructed
+frequently by means of the coffer-dam, which is simply an enclosure
+made water-tight and properly connected with the bottom of the
+stream. The water is then pumped out and the foundation and
+masonry built within this temporary dam. When the material is not
+of a character to sustain the weight, the next expedient is the
+use of piles, which are driven into the ground, often to a very
+considerable depth, and sustain the load placed upon them by the
+friction upon the sides of the piles of the material in which they
+are driven. It is seldom that dependence is placed upon the load
+being transferred from the top to the point of the pile, even
+though the point may have penetrated to a comparatively solid
+material. Wood is generally used for piles, and where the ground
+is permanently saturated there seems to be hardly any known limit
+to its durability. The substructure of foundations, where it is
+certain that they will always be in contact with water, can be,
+and generally is, of wood, and the permanency of such foundations
+is well established. An exception to this, however, occurs in
+salt-water, particularly in warmer countries, where the ravages
+of the minute _Teredo Navalis_, and of the still more minute
+_Limnoria Terebrans_, destroy the wood in a very short period of
+time. These insects, however, do not work below the ground-line or
+bed of the water. In many special cases hollow iron piles are used
+successfully.
+
+[Illustration: Bridge Pier Founded on Piles.]
+
+The ordinary method of forcing a pile into the ground is by
+repeated blows of a hammer of moderate weight; better success
+being obtained by frequent blows of the hammer, lifted to a slight
+elevation, than results from a greater fall, there being danger
+also in the latter case of injuring the material of the pile. The
+use of the water-jet for sinking piles, particularly in sand, is
+interesting. A tube, generally of ordinary gas-pipe, open at the
+lower end, is fastened to the pile; the upper end is connected by
+a hose to a powerful pump and, the pile being placed in position
+on the surface of the sand, water is forced through the tube and
+excavates a passage for the pile, which, by the application of
+very light pressure, descends rapidly to the desired depth. The
+stream of water must be continuous, as it rises along the side of
+the pile and keeps the sand in a mobile state. Immediately upon
+the cessation of pumping, the sand settles about the pile, and it
+is sometimes quite impossible to afterward move it. The water-jet
+is used in sinking iron piles by conducting the water through the
+interior of the hollow pile and out of a hole at its point. The
+piles of the great iron pier at Coney Island were sunk with great
+celerity in this way. The illustration opposite shows one of the
+piers of a bridge founded upon wooden piling.
+
+In many cases it would be impossible to drive piling in such a way
+as to insure the durability of the structure above it. This is
+particularly true of the foundations of structures crossing many
+of our rivers, where the bottom is of material which, in time of
+flood, sometimes scours to very remarkable depths; the material
+often being replaced when the flood has subsided. The expedient
+adopted is the pneumatic tube, or the caisson. Both are merely
+applications of the well-known principle of the diving-bell. In
+the former case hollow iron tubes, open at the bottom, are sunk to
+considerable depths, the water being expelled by air pumped into
+the tubes at a pressure sufficient to resist the weight of the
+water. Entrance to the tubes is obtained by an air-lock at the top,
+the material is excavated from the inside, and sufficient weight
+placed upon the tube to force it gradually to the desired depth.
+When that depth is attained, the tubes are filled with concrete,
+and thus solid pillars of hydraulic concrete, surrounded by
+cast-iron tubing, are obtained.
+
+The pneumatic caisson is an enlargement of this idea of the
+diving-bell. The caisson is simply a great chamber or box, open
+at the bottom; the outside bottom edges are shod and cased with
+iron so as to give a cutting surface; the roof and sides are made
+of timber, thoroughly bolted together, and of such strength as to
+resist the pressure of the structure to be finally founded upon it.
+The chamber in the open bottom is of sufficient height to enable
+the laborers to work comfortably in it. This caisson is generally
+constructed upon the shore in the vicinity of the structure and
+towed to the point where the foundation is to be sunk. Air is
+supplied by powerful pumps and is forced into the working chamber.
+The pressure of the air of course increases constantly as the
+caisson descends; it must always be sufficient to overbalance the
+weight of the water and thus prevent the water from entering the
+chamber.
+
+Descent to the caisson is made through a tube, generally of wrought
+iron, and having, at a suitable point, an air-lock, which is
+substantially an enlargement of the tube, forming a chamber, and of
+sufficient size to accommodate a number of men. This air-lock is
+provided with doors or valves at the top and at the bottom, both
+opening downward, and also with small tubes connecting the air-lock
+with the chamber below and with the external air above. Entrance
+to the caisson is effected through this air-lock. The lower door,
+or valve, being at the bottom, closes and is kept closed by the
+pressure of the air in the caisson below. After the air-lock is
+entered the upper door or valve is shut, and held shut a few
+moments, and the tube connecting with the outer air is closed; a
+small valve in the tube connecting with the caisson is then opened
+gradually and the pressure in the air-lock becomes the same as
+that in the chamber below; as soon as this is effected the valve,
+or door, at the bottom of the air-lock falls open and the air-lock
+becomes really a part of the caisson.
+
+[Illustration: Pneumatic Caisson.]
+
+A sufficient force of men is employed in the chamber to gradually
+excavate the material from its whole surface and from under the
+cutting edge, and the masonry structure is founded upon the top
+of the caisson and built gradually, so as to give constantly a
+sufficient weight to carry the whole construction down to its final
+location upon the stable foundation, which may be the bed-rock or
+may be some strata of permanent character.
+
+The problem of lighting the chamber was until recently of
+considerable difficulty. The rapid combustion under great pressure
+made the use of lamps and candles very troublesome, particularly on
+account of the dense smoke and large production of lampblack.
+
+The introduction of the electric light has greatly aided in the
+more comfortable prosecution of pneumatic foundation work.
+
+[Illustration: Transverse Section of Pneumatic Caisson.]
+
+The removal of rock, or any large mass, from the caisson is
+effected through the air-chamber; but the removal of finer
+material, as sand or earth, is accomplished by the sand pump or
+by the pressure of the air. A tube, extending from the top of
+the masonry and kept above the surface by additions, as may be
+required, enters the working chamber and is controlled by proper
+valves. Lines of tubing and hose extend to all portions of the
+chamber. A slight excavation is made and kept filled with water.
+The bottom of the tube, or the hose connected with it, is placed in
+this excavation, and, the material being agitated so as to be in
+suspension in the water, the valve is opened, and the pressure of
+the air throws the water and the material held in suspension to the
+surface, through the tube, from the end of which it is projected
+with great velocity and may be deposited at any desired adjacent
+point. This method, however, exhausts the air from the caisson too
+rapidly for continuous service. The Eads sand-pump is therefore
+generally used. This is an ingenious apparatus, somewhat the same
+in principle as the injector which forces water into steam-boilers.
+A stream of water is thrown by a powerful pump through a tube
+which, at a point near the inlet for the excavated material, is
+enlarged so as to surround another tube. The water is forced upward
+with great velocity into the second tube, through a conical annular
+opening, and, expelling the atmosphere, carries with it to the
+surface a continuous stream of sand and water from the bottom of
+the excavation.
+
+This system has been used successfully in the foundations of piers
+and abutments of bridges in all parts of the world. The rapidity
+of the descent of the caisson varies with the material through
+which it has to pass. The speed with which such foundations are
+executed is remarkable, when one remembers with what delicacy and
+intelligent supervision they have to be balanced and controlled. In
+some instances it has been necessary to carry them to great depths,
+one at St. Louis being 107 feet below ordinary water level in the
+river.
+
+The pressure of air in caissons at these depths is very great; at
+110 feet below the surface of the water it would be 50 pounds to
+the square inch. Its effect upon the men entering and working in
+the caisson has been carefully noted in various works, and these
+effects are sometimes very serious; the frequency of respiration
+is increased, the action of the heart becomes excited, and many
+persons become affected by what is known as the "caisson disease,"
+which is accompanied by extreme pain and in some cases results
+in more or less complete paralysis. The careful observations of
+eminent physicians who have given this disease special attention
+have resulted in the formulation of rules which have reduced the
+danger to a minimum.
+
+[Illustration: At Work in a Pneumatic Caisson--fifty feet below the
+surface of the water.]
+
+The execution of work within a deep pneumatic caisson is worth a
+moment's consideration. Just above the surface of the water is a
+busy force engaged in laying the solid blocks of masonry which are
+to support the structure. Great derricks lift the stones and lay
+them in their proper position. Powerful pumps are forcing air,
+regularly and at uniform pressure, through tubes to the chamber
+below. Occasionally a stream of sand and water issues with such
+velocity from the discharge pipe that, in the night, the friction
+of the particles causes it to look like a stream of living fire.
+Far below is another busy force. Under the great pressure and
+abnormal supply of oxygen they work with an energy which makes it
+impossible to remain there more than a few hours. The water from
+without is only kept from entering by the steady action of the
+pumps far above and beyond their control. An irregular settlement
+might overturn the structure. Should the descent of the caisson
+be arrested by any solid under its edge, immediate and judicious
+action must be taken. If the obstruction be a log, it must be cut
+off outside the edge and pulled into the chamber. Boulders must be
+undermined and often must be broken up by blasting. The excavation
+must be systematic and regular. A constant danger menaces the lives
+of these workers, and the wonderful success with which they have
+accomplished what they have undertaken is entitled to notice and
+admiration.
+
+[Illustration: Pier of Hawkesbury Bridge, Australia.]
+
+Another process, which has succeeded in carrying a foundation to
+greater depths than is possible with compressed air, is by building
+a crib or caisson, with chambers entirely open at the top, but
+having the alternate ones closed at the bottom and furnished with
+cutting edges. These closed chambers are weighted with stone or
+gravel until the structure rests upon the bottom of the river;
+the material is then excavated from the bottom through the open
+chambers, by means of dredges, thus permitting the structure
+to sink by its weight to the desired depth. When that depth is
+reached, the chambers which have been used for dredging are filled
+with concrete, and the masonry is constructed upon the top of this
+structure. The use of this system has enabled the engineer to place
+foundations deeper than has been accomplished by any other device,
+one recently built in Australia being 175 feet below the surface of
+the water. The illustrations above and on page 76 show this method
+of construction.
+
+[Illustration: Foundation Crib of the Poughkeepsie Bridge.]
+
+Even more remarkable than the pneumatic caisson is this method
+of sinking these great foundations. The removal of material must
+be made with such systematic regularity that the structure shall
+descend evenly and always maintain its upright position. The dredge
+is handled and operated entirely from the surface. The very idea
+is startling, of managing an excavation more than a hundred feet
+below the operator, entirely by means of the ropes which connect
+with the dredge, and doing it with such delicacy that the movement
+of an enormous structure, weighing many tons, is absolutely
+controlled. This is one of the latest and most interesting advances
+of engineering skill.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: Transverse Section of the same.]
+
+While it is true that the avoidance of large expenditure, when
+possible, is a mark of the best engineering, yet great structures
+often become absolutely necessary in the development of railway
+communication. Wide rivers must be crossed, deep valleys must be
+spanned, and much study has been given to the best methods of
+accomplishing these results. In the early history of railways
+in Europe substantial viaducts of brick and stone masonry were
+generally built; and in this country there are notable instances of
+such constructions. The approach to the depot of the Pennsylvania
+Railroad, in the city of Philadelphia, is an excellent example.
+Each street crossed by the viaduct is spanned by a bold arch of
+brick. Upon a number of our railways there are heavy masonry arches
+and culverts, and at some places these are of a very interesting
+character. The arches in the approach to the bridge over the Harlem
+Valley (recently completed) are shown above. They are of granite,
+having a span of 60 feet. The illustration shows also the method
+of supporting the stone work of such arches during construction.
+Braced timbers form what is called the centre, and support the
+curved frame of plank upon which the masonry is built, which, of
+course, cannot be self-supporting until the keystone is in place;
+then the centre is lowered by a loosening of the wedges which
+support it, and the stone work of the arch is permitted to assume
+its final bearing. It is generally considered that where it is
+practicable to construct masonry arches under railways there is a
+fair assurance of their permanency, but some engineers of great
+experience in railway construction advance the theory that the
+constant jar and tremor produced by passing railway trains is
+really more destructive to masonry work than has been supposed,
+and that it may be true that the elements of the best economy will
+be found in metal structures rather than in masonry. It is a fact
+that repairs and renewals of metal bridges are much more easily
+accomplished than of masonry constructions.
+
+[Illustration: Granite Arched Approach to Harlem River Bridge in
+Process of Construction.]
+
+In this country the wooden bridge has been an important, in fact an
+essential element in the successful building of our railways.
+
+Timber is also used extensively in railroad construction in the
+form of trestles; one example of which has been alluded to on
+page 50. There were also constructed, years ago, some very bold
+viaducts in wood. One of the most interesting is shown above, being
+the viaduct at Portage, N. Y. This construction was over 800 feet
+long, and 234 feet high from the bed of the river to the rail. The
+masonry foundations were 30 feet high, the trestles 190 feet, and
+the truss 14 feet; it contained more than a million and a half
+feet, board measure, of timber. The timber piers, which were 50
+feet apart, are formed by three trestles, grouped together. It was
+framed so that defective pieces could be taken out and replaced
+at any time. This bridge was finished in 1852 and was completely
+destroyed by fire in 1875. The new metal structure which took
+its place is shown on the opposite page, and is an interesting
+example of the American method of metal viaduct construction, an
+essential feature of that construction being the concentration of
+the material into the least possible number of parts. This bridge
+has ten spans of 50 feet, two of 100 feet, and one of 118 feet. The
+trusses are of what is called the Pratt pattern, and are supported
+by wrought-iron columns, two pairs of columns forming a skeleton
+tower 20 feet wide and 50 feet long on the top. There are six of
+these towers, one of which has a total height from the masonry to
+the rail of 203 feet 8 inches. There are over 1,300,000 pounds of
+iron in this structure.
+
+[Illustration: The Old Portage Viaduct, Erie Railway, N. Y.]
+
+The fundamental idea of a bridge is a simple beam of wood. If metal
+is substituted it is still a beam with all superfluous parts cut
+away. This results in what is called an I beam. When greater loads
+have to be carried, the I beam is enlarged and built up of metal
+plates riveted together and thus becomes a plate girder. These are
+used for all short railway spans. For greater spans the truss must
+be employed.
+
+[Illustration: The New Portage Viaduct.]
+
+Before referring, however, to examples of truss bridges, a
+description should be given of the Britannia Bridge, built by
+Robert Stephenson in 1850, over the Menai Straits. This great
+construction carries two lines of rails and is built of two square
+tubes, side by side, each being continuous, 1,511 feet long,
+supported at each extremity and at three intermediate points,
+and having two spans of 460 feet each and two spans of 230 feet
+each. The towers which support this structure are of very massive
+masonry, and rise considerably above the top of the tubes. These
+tubes are each 27 feet high and 14 feet 8 inches wide; they are
+built up of plate iron, the top and bottom being cellular in
+construction, and the sides of a single thickness of iron. The
+tubes for the long spans were built on shore and floated to the
+side of the bridge and then lifted by hydraulic presses to their
+final position. The rapid current, and other considerations, made
+the erection of false works for these spans impracticable. The
+beautiful suspension bridge, built by Telford in 1820, over the
+Menai Straits, is only a mile away from this Britannia Bridge, but,
+at the time of the construction of the latter, it was not deemed
+possible by English engineers to erect a suspension bridge of
+sufficient strength and stability to accommodate railway traffic.
+
+[Illustration: The Britannia Tubular Bridge over the Menai Straits,
+North Wales.]
+
+The Victoria Bridge at Montreal is of the same general character
+of construction as the Britannia Bridge, but is built only for a
+single line of rails; this bridge also was built by Mr. Stephenson,
+in 1859. These two structures were enormous works; their strength
+is undoubted, but they lack that element of permanent economy which
+has been spoken of in this article; their cost was very great, and
+the expense of maintenance is also very great. A very large amount
+of rust is taken from these tubes every year; they require very
+frequent painting, and there are on the Victoria Bridge 30 acres of
+iron surface to be thus painted.
+
+[Illustration: Old Stone Towers of the Niagara Suspension Bridge.]
+
+A remarkable and interesting contrast to these heavy tubes of
+iron is the Niagara Falls railway suspension bridge, completed in
+March, 1855. The span of this bridge is 821 feet, and the track
+is 245 feet above the water surface. It is supported by 4 cables
+which rested on the tops of two masonry towers at each end of
+the central span, the ends of the cables being carried to and
+anchored in the solid rock. The suspended superstructure has two
+floors, one above the other, connected together at each side by
+posts and truss rods, inclined in such a manner as to form an open
+trussed tube, not intended to support the load, but to prevent
+excessive undulations. The floors are suspended from the cables
+by wire ropes, the upper floor carrying the railroad track, and
+the lower forming a foot and carriage way. Each cable has 3,640
+iron wires. This bridge carried successfully a heavy traffic for
+26 years; it was then found that some repairs to the cable were
+required at the anchorage, the portions of the cables exposed to
+the air being in excellent condition. These repairs were made,
+and the anchorage was substantially reinforced. At the same time
+it was found that the wooden suspended superstructure was in
+bad condition, and this was entirely removed and replaced by a
+structure of iron, built and adjusted in such a manner as to secure
+the best possible results. For some time it had been noticed that
+the stone towers which supported the great cables of the bridge
+showed evidences of disintegration at the surface, and a careful
+engineering examination in 1885 showed that these towers were in
+a really dangerous condition. The reason for this was that the
+saddles over which the cables pass on the top of the towers had
+not the freedom of motion which was required for the action of the
+cables, caused by differences of temperature and by passing loads.
+These saddles had been placed upon rollers but, at some period,
+cement had been allowed to be put between these rollers, thus
+preventing their free motion. The result was a bending strain upon
+the towers which was too great for the strength and cohesion of
+the stone. A most interesting and successful feat was accomplished
+in the substitution of iron towers for these stone towers, without
+interrupting the traffic across the bridge. This was accomplished
+within a year or two by building a skeleton iron tower outside of
+the stone tower, and transferring the cables from the stone to the
+iron tower by a most ingenious arrangement of hydraulic jacks.
+The stone towers were then removed. Thus, by the renewal of its
+suspended structure and the replacing of its towers, the bridge has
+been given a new lease of life and is in excellent condition to-day.
+
+[Illustration: The New Iron Towers of the Same.]
+
+This Niagara railway suspension bridge has been so long in
+successful operation that it is difficult now to appreciate the
+general disbelief in the possibility of its success as a railway
+bridge, when it was undertaken. It was projected and executed
+by the late John A. Roebling. Before it was finished, Robert
+Stephenson said to him, "If your bridge succeeds, mine is a
+magnificent blunder." The Niagara bridge did succeed.
+
+[Illustration: Below the Brooklyn Bridge.
+
+From a painting by J. H. Twachtman.]
+
+We are so familiar with the great suspension bridge between New
+York and Brooklyn, that only a simple statement of some of
+its characteristic features will be given. Its clear span is
+1,595½ feet. With its approaches its length is 3,455 feet. The
+clear waterway is 135 feet high. The towers rise 272 feet above
+high water and extend on the New York side down to rock 78 feet
+below. The four suspension cables are of steel wire and support
+six parallel steel trusses, thus providing two carriage ways, two
+lines of railway, and one elevated footway. The cables are carried
+to bearing anchorages in New York and in Brooklyn. The cars on the
+bridge are propelled by cables, and the amount of travel is now
+so great as to demand some radical changes in the methods for its
+accommodation, which a few years ago were supposed to be ample.
+
+Except under special circumstances of location or length of span,
+the truss bridge is a more economical and suitable structure for
+railway traffic than a suspension bridge.
+
+The advance from the wood truss to the modern steel structure has
+been through a number of stages. Excellent bridges were built
+in combinations of wood and iron, and are still advocated where
+wood is inexpensive. Then came the use of cast iron for those
+portions of the truss subject only to compressive strains, wrought
+iron being used for all members liable to tension. Many bridges
+of notable spans were built in this way and are still in use.
+The form of this combination truss varied with the designs of
+different engineers, and the spans extended to over three hundred
+feet. The forms bore the names of the designers, and the Fink, the
+Bollman, the Pratt, the Whipple, the Post, the Warren, and others
+had each their advocates. The substitution of wrought for cast
+iron followed, and until quite recently trusses built entirely of
+wrought iron have been used for all structures of great span. The
+latest step has been made in the use of steel, at first for special
+members of a truss and latterly for the whole structure. The art
+of railway bridge building has thus, in a comparatively few years,
+passed through its age of wood, and then of iron, and now rests in
+the application of steel in all its parts.
+
+Two distinct ways of connecting the different parts of a structure
+are in common use, riveting and pin connections.
+
+In riveted connections the various parts of the bridge are fastened
+at all junctions by overlapping the plates of iron or steel and
+inserting rivets into holes punched through all the plates to be
+connected. The rivets are so spaced as to insure the best result
+as to strength. The pieces of metal are brought together, either
+in the shop or at the structure during erection, and the rivets,
+which are round pieces of metal with a head formed on one end,
+are heated and inserted from one side, being made long enough to
+project sufficiently to give the proper amount of metal for forming
+the other head. This is done while the rivet is still hot, either
+by hammering or by the application of a riveting machine, operated
+by steam or hydraulic pressure. Ingenious portable machines are
+now manufactured which are hung from the structure during erection
+and connected by flexible hose with the steam power, by the use of
+which the rivet heads can be formed in place with great celerity.
+The connections of plates by rivets of proper dimensions and
+properly spaced give great strength and stiffness to such joints.
+
+In pin connections the members of a structure are assembled at
+points of junction and a large iron or steel pin inserted in
+a pin-hole running through all the members. This pin is made
+of such diameter as to withstand and properly transmit all the
+strains brought upon it. Joints made with such pin connections
+have flexibility, and the strains and stresses can be calculated
+with great precision. Eye-bars are forged pieces of iron or steel,
+generally flat, and enlarged at the ends so as to give a proper
+amount of metal around the pin-hole or eye, formed in those ends.
+
+Structures connected by pins at their principal junctions have, of
+course, many parts in which riveting must be used.
+
+The elements which are distinctively American in our railway
+bridges are the concentration of material in few members and
+the use of eye-bars and pin connections in place of riveted
+connections. The riveted methods are, however, largely used in
+connection with the American forms of truss construction.
+
+[Illustration: Truss Bridge of the Northern Pacific Railway over
+the Missouri River at Bismarck, Dak.--Testing the central span.]
+
+An excellent example of an American railway truss bridge is shown
+on the opposite page. This structure spans the Missouri River at
+its crossing by the Northern Pacific Railroad. It has three through
+spans of 400 feet each and two deck spans of 113 feet each. The
+bottom chords of the long spans are 50 feet above high water,
+which at this place is 1,636 feet above the level of the sea. The
+foundations of the masonry piers were pneumatic caissons. The
+trusses of the through spans, 400 feet long, are 50 feet deep and
+22 feet between centres. They are divided into 16 panels of 25 feet
+each. The truss is of the double system Whipple type, with inclined
+end posts. The bridge is proportioned to carry a train weighing
+2,000 pounds per lineal foot, preceded by two locomotives weighing
+150,000 pounds in a length of 50 feet. The pins connecting the
+members of the main truss are 5 inches in diameter.
+
+This bridge is a characteristic illustration of the latest type
+of American methods. The extreme simplicity of its lines of
+construction, the direct transfer of the strains arising from
+loads, through the members, to and from the points where those
+strains are concentrated in the pin connections at the ends of each
+member, are apparent even to the untechnical eye. The apparent
+lightness of construction arising from the concentration of the
+material in so small a number of members, and the necessarily great
+height of the truss, give a grace and elegance to the structure,
+and suggest bold and fine development of the theories of mechanics.
+
+[Illustration: Curved Viaduct, Georgetown, Col.; the Union Pacific
+crossing its own Line.]
+
+An interesting viaduct is shown in the above illustration, where
+the railway crosses its own line on a curved truss.
+
+The truss bridges which have been mentioned as types of the modern
+railway bridge are erected by the use of false works of timber,
+placed generally upon piling or other suitable foundation, between
+the piers or abutments, and made of sufficient strength to carry
+each span of the permanent structure until it is completed and all
+its parts connected, or, as is technically said, until the span
+is swung. Then the false works are removed and the span is left
+without intermediate support. But there are places where it would
+be impossible or exceedingly expensive to erect any false works. A
+structure over a valley of great depth, or over a river with very
+rapid current, are instances of such a situation.
+
+A suspension bridge would solve the problem, but in many cases not
+satisfactorily. The method adopted by Colonel C. Shaler Smith at
+the Kentucky River Bridge [p. 55] shows ingenuity and boldness
+worthy of special remark. The Cincinnati Southern Railroad had
+here to cross a cañon 1,200 feet wide and 275 feet deep. The
+river is subject to freshets every two months, with a range of 55
+feet and a known rise of 40 feet in a single night. Twenty years
+before, the towers for a suspension bridge had been erected at
+this point. The design adopted for the railroad bridge was based
+upon the cantilever principle. The structure has three spans of
+375 feet each, carrying a railway track at a height of 276 feet
+above the bed of the river. At the time of its construction this
+was the highest railway bridge in the world, and it is still the
+highest structure of the kind with spans of over 60 feet in length.
+The bridge is supported by the bluffs at its ends and by two
+intermediate iron piers resting upon bases of stone masonry. Each
+iron pier is 177 feet high, and consists of four legs, having a
+base of 71½ × 28 feet, and terminating at its top in a turned pin
+12 inches in diameter under each of the two trusses. Each iron pier
+is a structure complete in itself, with provision for expansion and
+contraction in each direction through double roller beds interposed
+between it and the masonry, and is braced to withstand a gale of
+wind that would blow a loaded freight-train bodily from the bridge.
+
+The trusses were commenced by anchoring them back to the old
+towers, and were then built out as cantilevers from each bluff to
+a distance of one-half the length of the side spans, and at this
+point rested upon temporary wooden supports. Thence they were again
+extended as cantilevers until the side spans were completed and
+rested upon the iron piers. This cantilever principle is simply the
+balancing of a portion of the structure on one side of a support by
+the portion on the opposite side of the same support. Similarly the
+halves of the middle span were built out from the piers, meeting
+with exactness in mid-air. The temporary support used first at
+the centre of one side span and then at the other, was the only
+scaffolding used in erecting the structure, none whatever being
+used for the middle span.
+
+When the junction was made at the centre of the middle span, the
+trusses were continuous from bluff to bluff, and, had they been
+left in this condition, would have been subjected to constantly
+varying strains resulting from the rise and fall of the iron piers
+due to thermal changes. This liability was obviated by cutting the
+bottom chords of the side spans and converting them into sliding
+joints at points 75 feet distant from the iron piers. This done,
+the bridge consists of a continuous girder 525 feet long, covering
+the middle span of 375 feet, and projecting as cantilevers for 75
+feet beyond each pier, each cantilever supporting one end of a
+300-foot span, which completes the distance to the bluff on each
+side.
+
+[Illustration: The Niagara Cantilever Bridge in Progress.]
+
+A most interesting example of cantilever construction is the
+railway bridge built several years ago at Niagara, only a few rods
+from the suspension bridge and a short distance below the great
+falls. It is shown in the illustrations above and on page 91. The
+floor of the bridge is 239 feet above the surface of the water,
+which at that point has a velocity in the centre of 16½ miles per
+hour and forms constant whirlpools and eddies near the shores.
+The total length of the structure is 910 feet, and the clear span
+over the river between the towers is 470 feet. The shore arms of
+the cantilever, that is to say, those portions of the structure
+which extend from the top of the bank to the top of the tower built
+from the foot of the bank, are firmly anchored at their shore
+ends to a pier built upon the solid rock. These shore-arms were
+constructed on wooden false works, and serve as balancing weights
+to the other or river arms of the lever, which project out over
+the stream. These river-arms were built by the addition of metal,
+piece by piece, the weight being always more than balanced by
+the shore-arms. The separate members of the river-arms were run
+out on the top of the completed part and then lowered from the
+end by an overhanging travelling derrick, and fastened in place
+by men working upon a platform suspended below. This work was
+continued, piece by piece, until the river-arm of each cantilever
+was complete, and the structure was then finished by connecting
+these river-arms by a short truss suspended from them directly
+over the centre of the stream. This whole structure was built in
+eight months, and is an example both of a bold engineering work
+and of the facility with which a pin-connected structure can be
+erected. The materials are steel and iron. The prosecution of this
+work by men suspended on a platform, hung by ropes from a skeleton
+structure projecting, without apparent support, over the rushing
+Niagara torrent, was always an interesting and really thrilling
+spectacle.
+
+[Illustration: The Niagara Cantilever Bridge Completed.]
+
+The Lachine Bridge recently built over the St. Lawrence near
+Montreal, illustrated below, has certain peculiar features. It has
+a total length of 3,514 feet. The two channel spans are each 408
+feet in length and are through spans. The others are deck spans.
+Through spans are those where the train passes between the side
+trusses. Deck spans are those where the train passes over the top
+of the structure. These two channel spans and the two spans next
+them form cantilevers, and the channel spans were built out from
+the central pier and from the adjacent flanking spans without the
+use of false works in either channel. A novel method of passing
+from the deck to the through spans has been used, by curving the
+top and bottom chords of the channel spans to connect with the
+chords of the flanking spans. The material is steel.
+
+[Illustration: The Lachine Bridge, on the Canadian Pacific Railway,
+near Montreal, Canada.]
+
+This structure, light, airy, and graceful, forms a strong contrast
+to the dark, heavy tube of the Victoria Bridge just below.
+
+The enormous cantilever Forth Bridge, with its two spans of 1,710
+feet each, is in steady progress of construction and will when
+completed mark a long step in advance in the science of bridge
+construction.
+
+Of entirely different design and principle from all these trusses
+are the beautiful steel arches of the St. Louis Bridge [p. 95], the
+great work of that remarkable genius, James B. Eads. This structure
+spans the Mississippi at St. Louis. Difficult problems were
+presented in the study of the design for a permanent bridge at that
+point. The river is subject to great changes. The variation between
+extreme low and high water has been over 41 feet. The current
+runs from 2¾ to 8½ miles per hour. It holds always much matter
+in suspension, but the amount so held varies greatly with the
+velocity. The very bed of the river is really in constant motion.
+Examination by Captain Eads in a diving-bell showed that there was
+a moving current of sand at the bottom, of at least three feet in
+depth. At low water, the velocity of the stream is small and the
+bottom rises. When the velocity increases, a "scour" results and
+the river-bed is deepened, sometimes with amazing rapidity. In
+winter the river is closed by huge cakes of ice from the north,
+which freeze together and form great fields of ice.
+
+It was decided to be necessary that the foundations should
+go to rock, and they were so built. The general plan of the
+superstructure, with all its details, was elaborated gradually and
+carefully, and the result is a real feat of engineering. There are
+three steel arches, the centre one having a span of 520 feet and
+each side arch a span of 502 feet. Each span has four parallel
+arches or ribs, and each arch is composed of two cylindrical steel
+tubes, 18 inches in exterior diameter, one acting as the upper
+and the other as the lower chord of the arch. The tubes are in
+sections, each about twelve feet long, and connected by screw
+joints. The thickness of the steel forming the tubes runs from
+1-3/16 to 2-1/8 inches. These upper and lower tubes are parallel
+and are 12 feet apart, connected by a single system of diagonal
+bracing. The double tracks of the railroad run through the bridge
+adjacent to the side arches at the elevation of the highest point
+of the lower tube. The carriage road and footpaths extend the full
+width of the bridge and are carried, by braced vertical posts, at
+an elevation of twenty-three feet above the railroad. The clear
+headway is 55 feet above ordinary high water. The approaches on
+each side are masonry viaducts, and the railway connects with the
+City Station by a tunnel nearly a mile in length. The illustration
+shows vividly the method of erection of these great tubular ribs.
+They were built out from each side of a pier, the weight on one
+side acting as a counterpoise for the construction on the other
+side of the pier. They were thus gradually and systematically
+projected over the river, without support from below, till they met
+at the middle of the span, when the last central connecting tube
+was put in place by an ingenious mechanical arrangement, and the
+arch became self-supporting.
+
+The double arch steel viaduct recently built over the Harlem Valley
+in the city of New York [p. 97] has a marked difference from the
+St. Louis arches in the method of construction of the ribs. These
+are made up of immense voussoirs of plate steel, forming sections
+somewhat analogous to the ring stones of a masonry arch. These
+sections are built up in the form of great I beams, the top and
+bottom of the I being made by a number of parallel steel plates
+connected by angle pieces with the upright web, which is a single
+piece of steel. The vertical height of the I is 13 feet. The span
+of each of these arches is 510 feet. There are six such parallel
+ribs in each span, connected with each other by bracing. These
+great ribs rest upon steel pins of 18 inches diameter, placed at
+the springing of the arch. The arches rise from massive masonry
+piers, which extend up to the level of the floor of the bridge.
+This floor is supported by vertical posts from the arches and is
+a little above the highest point of the rib. It is 152 feet above
+the surface of the river--having an elevation fifty feet greater
+than the well-known High Bridge, which spans the same valley
+within a quarter of a mile. The approaches to these steel arches
+on each side are granite viaducts carried over a series of stone
+arches. The whole structure forms a notable example of engineering
+construction. It was finished within two years from the beginning
+of work upon its foundations, the energy of its builders being
+worthy of special commendation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: The St. Louis Bridge during Construction.]
+
+[Illustration: The 510-feet Span Steel Arches of the New Harlem
+River Bridge, New York, during construction.]
+
+In providing for the rapid transit of passengers in great
+cities the two types of construction successfully adopted are
+represented by the New York Elevated and the London Underground
+railways. The New York Elevated is a continuous metal viaduct,
+supported on columns varying in height so as to secure easy grades.
+The details of construction differ greatly at various parts of the
+elevated lines, those more recently built being able to carry much
+heavier trains than the earlier portions. The roads have been very
+successful in providing the facilities for transit so absolutely
+necessary in New York. The citizens of that city are alive to the
+present necessity of adding very soon to those facilities, and it
+is now only a question of the best method to be adopted to secure
+the largest results in a permanent manner.
+
+The London Underground road has also been very successful. Its
+construction was a formidable undertaking. Its tunnels are not
+only under streets but under heavy buildings. Its daily traffic is
+enormous. The difficult question in its management is, as in all
+long tunnels, that of ventilation, but modern science will surely
+solve that, as it does so many other problems connected with the
+active life of man.
+
+[Illustration: London Underground Railway Station.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Many broad questions of general policy, and innumerable matters of
+detail are involved in the development of railway engineering. In
+the determination, for instance, of the location, the relations
+of cost and construction to future business, the possibilities
+of extensions and connections, the best points for settlements
+and industrial enterprises, the merits and defects of alternative
+routes must be weighed and decided.
+
+Where structures are to be built, the amount and delicacy of detail
+requisite in their design and execution can hardly be described.
+Final pressures upon foundations must be ascertained and provided
+for. Accurate calculations of strains and stresses, involving
+the application of difficult processes and mechanical theories,
+must be made. The adjustment of every part must be secured with
+reference to its future duty. Strength and safety must be assured
+and economy not forgotten. Every contingency must, if possible, be
+anticipated, while the emergencies which arise during every great
+construction demand constant watchfulness and prompt and accurate
+decision.
+
+The financial success of the largest enterprises rests upon
+such practical application of theory and experience. Even more
+weighty still is the fact that the safety of thousands of human
+lives depends daily upon the permanency and stability of railway
+structures. Such are some of the deep responsibilities which are
+involved in the active work of the Civil Engineer.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[8] Reference is made to the substitution of locks in the Panama
+Canal for the original project of a canal at the sea-level.
+
+
+
+
+AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS.
+
+BY M. N. FORNEY.
+
+  The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in 1830--Evolution of the Car
+  from the Conestoga Wagon--Horatio Allen's Trial Trip--The
+  First Locomotive used in the United States--Peter Cooper's
+  Race with a Gray Horse--The "De Witt Clinton," "Planet," and
+  other Early Types of Locomotives--Equalizing Levers--How Steam
+  is Made and Controlled--The Boiler, Cylinder, Injector, and
+  Valve Gear--Regulation of the Capacity of a Locomotive to
+  Draw--Increase in the Number of Driving Wheels--Modern Types of
+  Locomotives--Variation in the Rate of Speed--The Appliances by
+  which an Engine is Governed--Round-houses and Shops--Development
+  of American Cars--An Illustration from Peter Parley--The Survival
+  of Stage Coach Bodies--Adoption of the Rectangular Shape--The
+  Origin of Eight-wheeled Cars--Improvement in Car Coupling--A
+  Uniform Type Recommended--The Making of Wheels--Relative Merits
+  of Cast and Wrought Iron, and Steel--The Allen Paper Wheel--Types
+  of Cars, with Size, Weight, and Price--The Car-Builder's
+  Dictionary--Statistical.
+
+
+Among the readers of this volume there will be some who have
+reached the summit of the "divide" which separates the spring
+and summer of life from its autumn and winter, and whose first
+information about railroads was received from Peter Parley's "First
+Book of History," which was used as a schoolbook forty or fifty
+years ago. In his chapter on Maryland, he says:
+
+  But the most curious thing at Baltimore is the railroad. I must
+  tell you that there is a great trade between Baltimore and the
+  States west of the Alleghany Mountains. The western people buy a
+  great many goods at Baltimore, and send in return a great deal of
+  western produce. There is, therefore, a vast deal of travelling
+  back and forth, and hundreds of teams are constantly occupied in
+  transporting goods and produce to and from market.[9]
+
+  Now, in order to carry on all this business more easily, the
+  people are building what is called a railroad. This consists of
+  iron bars laid along the ground, and made fast, so that carriages
+  with small wheels may run along upon them with facility. In this
+  way, one horse will be able to draw as much as ten horses on a
+  common road. A part of this railroad is already done, and if you
+  choose to take a ride upon it, you can do so. You will mount a
+  car something like a stage, and then you will be drawn along by
+  two horses, at the rate of twelve miles an hour.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Conestoga Wagon and Team. (From a recent
+photograph.)]
+
+The picture reproduced below (Fig. 2) of a car drawn by horses
+was given with the above description of the Baltimore & Ohio
+Railroad. The mutilated copy of the book from which the engraving
+and extract were copied does not give the date when it was written
+or published. It was probably some time between the years 1830 and
+1835. That the car shown in the engraving was evolved from the
+Conestoga wagon is obvious from the illustrations.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, 1830-35.]
+
+This engraving and description, made for children, more than
+fifty years ago, will give some idea of the state of the art of
+railroading at that time; and it is a remarkable fact that the
+present wonderful development and the improvements in railroads and
+their equipments in this country have been made during the lives of
+persons still living.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Boston & Worcester Railroad, 1835.]
+
+In the latter part of 1827, the Delaware & Hudson Canal Company
+put the Carbondale Railroad under construction. The road extends
+from the head of the Delaware & Hudson Canal at Honesdale, Pa., to
+the coal mines belonging to the Delaware & Hudson Canal Company
+at Carbondale, a distance of about sixteen miles. This line was
+opened, probably in 1829, and was operated partly by stationary
+engines, and partly by horses. The road is noted chiefly for being
+the one on which a locomotive was first used in this country. This
+was the "Stourbridge Lion," which was built in England under the
+direction of Mr. Horatio Allen, who afterward was president of the
+Novelty Works in New York, and who is still (1889) living near New
+York at the ripe age of eighty-seven. Before the road was opened,
+he had been a civil engineer on the Carbondale line. In 1828 Mr.
+Allen went to England, the only place where a locomotive was then
+in daily operation, to study the subject in all its practical
+details. Before leaving this country he was intrusted by the
+Delaware & Hudson Canal Company with the commission to have rails
+made for that line, and to have three locomotives built on plans
+to be decided by him when in England. This, it must be remembered,
+was before the celebrated trial of the "Rocket" on the Liverpool
+& Manchester Railway, which was not made until 1829. Previous to
+that trial, it had not been decided what type of boiler was the
+best for locomotives. The result of Mr. Allen's investigations was
+to produce in his mind a decided confidence in the multitubular
+boiler which is now universally used for locomotives. Other persons
+of experience recommended a boiler with small riveted flues of as
+small diameter as could be riveted. An order was therefore given
+to Messrs. Foster, Rastrick & Co., at Stourbridge, for one engine
+whose boiler was to have riveted flues of comparatively large
+size, and another order was given to Messrs. Stephenson & Co., of
+Newcastle-on-Tyne, for two locomotives with boilers having small
+tubes. The engine built by Foster, Rastrick & Co. was named the
+"Stourbridge Lion." It was sent to this country and was tried at
+Honesdale, Pa., on August 9, 1829. On its trial trip it was managed
+by Mr. Allen, to whom belongs the distinction of having run the
+first locomotive that was ever used in this country. In 1884 he
+wrote the following account of this trip:
+
+  When the time came, and the steam was of the right pressure,
+  and all was ready, I took my position on the platform of the
+  locomotive alone, and with my hand on the throttle-valve handle
+  said: "If there is any danger in this ride it is not necessary
+  that the life and limbs of more than one should be subjected to
+  that danger."
+
+  The locomotive, having no train behind it, answered at once to
+  the movement of the hand; ... soon the straight line was run
+  over, the curve was reached and passed before there was time
+  to think as to its not being passed safely, and soon I was
+  out of sight in the three miles' ride alone in the woods of
+  Pennsylvania. I had never run a locomotive nor any other engine
+  before; I have never run one since.
+
+[Illustration: Horatio Allen.]
+
+The two engines contracted for with Messrs. Stephenson & Co. were
+made by them, and Mr. Allen has informed the writer that they were
+built on substantially the same plans that were afterward embodied
+in the famous "Rocket." They were shipped to New York and for a
+time were stored in an iron warehouse on the east side of the city,
+where they were exhibited to the public. They were never sent to
+the Delaware & Hudson Canal Company's road, and it is not now known
+whatever became of them. If they had been put to work on their
+arrival here the use of engines of the "Rocket" type would have
+been anticipated on this side the Atlantic.
+
+The first railroad which was undertaken for the transportation of
+freight and passengers in this country, on a comprehensive scale,
+was the Baltimore & Ohio. Its construction was begun in 1828. The
+laying of rails was commenced in 1829, and in May, 1830, the first
+section of fifteen miles from Baltimore to Ellicott's Mills was
+opened. It was probably about this time that the animated sketch
+of the car given by Peter Parley was made. From 1830 to 1835 many
+lines were projected, and at the end of that year there were over a
+thousand miles of road in use.
+
+Whether the motive power on these roads should be horses or steam
+was for a long time an open question. The celebrated trial of
+locomotives on the Liverpool & Manchester Railway, in England, was
+made in 1829. Reports of these trials, and of the use of locomotive
+engines on the Stockton & Darlington line, were published in this
+country, and, as Mr. Charles Francis Adams says, "The country,
+therefore, was not only ripe to accept the results of the Rainhill
+contest, but it was anticipating them with eager hope." In 1829 Mr.
+Horatio Allen, who had been in England the year before to learn all
+that could then be learned about steam locomotion, reported to the
+South Carolina Railway Company in favor of steam instead of horse
+power for that line. The basis of that report, he says, "Was on the
+broad ground that in the future there was no reason to expect any
+material improvement in the breed of horses, while, in my judgment,
+the man was not living who knew what the breed of locomotives was
+to place at command."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Peter Cooper's Locomotive, 1830.]
+
+As early as 1829 and 1830, Peter Cooper experimented with a little
+locomotive on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad (Fig. 4). At a meeting
+of the Master Mechanics' Association in New York, in 1875--at the
+Institute which bears his name--he related with great glee how on
+the trial trip he had beaten a gray horse, attached to another car.
+The coincidence that one of Peter Parley's horses is a gray one
+might lead to the inference that it was the same horse that Peter
+Cooper beat, a deduction which perhaps has as sound a basis to rest
+on as many historical conclusions of more importance.
+
+The undeveloped condition of the art of machine construction at
+that time is indicated by the fact that the flues of the boiler of
+this engine were made of gun-barrels, which were the only tubes
+that could then be obtained for the purpose. The boiler itself is
+described as about the size of a flour-barrel. The whole machine
+was no larger than a hand-car of the present day.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.--"South Carolina," 1831, and Plan of its
+Running Gear.]
+
+In the same year that Peter Cooper built his engine, the South
+Carolina Railway Company had a locomotive, called the "Best
+Friend," built at the West Point Foundry for its line. In 1831
+this company had another engine, the "South Carolina" (Fig. 5),
+which was designed by Mr. Horatio Allen, built at the same shop.
+It was remarkable in having eight wheels, which were arranged in
+two trucks. One pair of driving-wheels, _D D_ and _D′ D′_, and a
+pair of leading-wheels, _L L_ and _L′ L′_, were attached to frames,
+_c d e f_ and _g h i j_, which were connected to the boiler by
+kingbolts, _K K′_, about which the trucks could turn. Each pair of
+driving-wheels had one cylinder, _C C′_. These were in the middle
+of the engine and were connected to cranks on the axles _A_ and _B_.
+
+The "De Witt Clinton" (Fig. 6) was built for the Mohawk & Hudson
+Railroad, and was the third locomotive made by the West Point
+Foundry Association. The first excursion trip was made with
+passengers from Albany to Schenectady, August 9, 1831. This is
+the engine shown in the silhouette engraving of the "first[10]
+railroad train in America" which in recent years has been so widely
+distributed as an advertisement.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.--The "De Witt Clinton," 1831.]
+
+In 1831 the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Company offered a premium
+of $4,000 "for the most approved engine which shall be delivered
+for trial upon the road on or before the 1st of June, 1831; and
+$3,500 for the engine which shall be adjudged the next best." The
+requirements were as follows:
+
+  The engine, when in operation, must not exceed three and one-half
+  tons weight, and must, on a level road, be capable of drawing day
+  by day fifteen tons, inclusive of the weight of wagons, fifteen
+  miles per hour.
+
+In pursuance of this call upon American genius, three locomotives
+were produced, but only one of these was made to answer any
+useful purpose. This engine, the "York," was built at York, Pa.,
+and was brought to Baltimore over the turnpike on wagons. It was
+built by Davis & Gartner, and was designed by Phineas Davis,
+of that firm, whose trade and business was that of a watch and
+clock maker. After undergoing certain modifications, it was found
+capable of performing what was required by the company. After
+thoroughly testing this engine, Mr. Davis built others, which were
+the progenitors of the "grasshopper" engines (Fig. 7) which were
+used for so many years on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad. It is a
+remarkable fact that three of these are still in use on that road,
+and have been in continuous service for over fifty years. Probably
+there is no locomotive in existence which has had so long an
+_active_ life.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.--"Grasshopper" Locomotive. (From an old
+photograph.)]
+
+In August, 1831, the locomotive "John Bull," which was built by
+George & Robert Stephenson & Company, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
+was received in Philadelphia, for the Camden & Amboy Railroad &
+Transportation Company. This is the old engine which was exhibited
+by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company at the Centennial Exhibition
+in 1876. After the arrival of the "John Bull" a very considerable
+number of locomotives which were built by the Stephensons were
+imported from England. Most of them were probably of what was known
+as the "Planet" class (Fig. 8), which was a form of engine that
+succeeded the famous "Rocket."
+
+The following quotation is from "The Early History of Locomotives
+in this Country," issued by the Rogers Locomotive & Machine Works:
+
+  These locomotives, which were imported from England, doubtless
+  to a very considerable extent, furnished the types and patterns
+  from which those which were afterward built here were fashioned.
+  But American designs very soon began to depart from their
+  British prototypes, and a process of adaptation to the existing
+  conditions of the railroads in this country followed, which
+  afterward "differentiated" the American locomotives more and more
+  from those built in Great Britain. A marked feature of difference
+  between American and English locomotives has been the use of a
+  "truck" under the former.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.--The "Planet."]
+
+In all of the locomotives which have been illustrated, excepting
+the "South Carolina," the axles were held by the frames so that
+the former were always parallel to each other. In going around
+curves, therefore, there was somewhat the same difficulty that
+there would be in turning a corner with an ordinary wagon if both
+its axles were held parallel, and the front one could not turn on
+the kingbolt. The plan of the wheels and running gear of the "South
+Carolina" shows the position that they assumed on a curved track
+(Fig. 5). It will be seen that, by reason of their connection to
+the boiler by kingbolts, _K K′_, the two pairs of wheels could
+adjust themselves to the curvature of the rails. This principle
+was afterward applied to cars, and nearly all the rolling-stock in
+this country is now constructed on this plan, which was proposed
+by Mr. Allen in a report dated May 16, 1831, made to the South
+Carolina Canal & Railroad Company; and an engine constructed on
+this principle was completed the same year.
+
+In the latter part of the year 1831 the late John B. Jervis
+invented what he called "a new plan of frame, with a
+bearing-carriage for a locomotive engine," for the use of the
+Mohawk & Hudson Railroad. Jervis's engine is shown by Figure 9. In
+a letter published in the _American Railroad Journal_ of July 27,
+1833, he described the objects aimed at in the use of the truck as
+follows:
+
+  The leading objects I had in view, in the general arrangement
+  of the plan of the engine, did not contemplate any improvement
+  in the power over those heretofore constructed by Stephenson &
+  Company,[11] but to make an engine that would be better adapted
+  to railroads of less strength than are common in England; that
+  would travel with more ease to itself and to the rail on curved
+  roads; that would be less affected by inequalities of the rail,
+  than is attained by the arrangement in the most approved engines.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.--John B. Jervis's Locomotive, 1831, and Plan
+of its Running Gear.]
+
+In Jervis's locomotive the main driving-axle, _A_, shown in the
+plan of the wheels and running gear, was rigidly attached to the
+engine-frame, _a b c d_, and only one truck, or "bearing-carriage,"
+_e f g h_, consisting of the two pairs of small wheels attached to
+a frame, was used. This was connected to the main engine-frame by a
+kingbolt, _K_, as in Allen's engine.
+
+The position of its wheels on a curve, and the capacity of the
+truck, or "bearing-carriage," to adapt itself to the sinuosities of
+the track are shown in the plan. The effectiveness of the single
+truck for locomotives, in accomplishing what Mr. Jervis intended
+it for, was at once recognized, and its almost general adoption on
+American locomotives followed.
+
+In 1834, Ross Winans, of Baltimore, patented the application of the
+principle which Mr. Allen had proposed and adopted for locomotives
+"to passenger and other cars." He afterward brought a number of
+actions at law against railroads for infringement of his patent,
+which was a subject of legal controversy for twenty years. Winans
+claimed that his invention originated as far back as 1831, and was
+completed and reduced to practice in 1834. The dispute was finally
+carried to the Supreme Court of the United States, and was decided
+against the plaintiff, after an expenditure of as much as $200,000
+by both sides. It involved the principle on which nearly all cars
+in this country are now and were then built; and, as one of the
+counsel for the defendants has said, "It was at one time a question
+of millions, to be assured by a verdict of a jury."
+
+In 1836, Henry R. Campbell, of Philadelphia, patented the use of
+two pairs of driving-wheels and a truck, as shown in Figure 10. The
+driving-wheels were coupled by rods, as may be seen below. This
+plan has since been so generally adopted in this country that it
+is now known as the "American type" of locomotive, and is the one
+almost universally used here for passenger, and to a considerable
+extent for freight, service. An example of a modern locomotive of
+this type is represented by Figure 11.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Campbell's Locomotive.]
+
+From these comparatively small beginnings, the magnificent
+equipment of our railroads has grown. From Peter Cooper's
+locomotive, which weighed less than a ton, with a boiler the
+size of a flour-barrel, and which had difficulty in beating a
+gray horse, we now have locomotives which will easily run sixty
+and can exceed seventy miles an hour, and others which weigh
+seventy-five tons and over. A comparison of the engraving of Peter
+Cooper's engine with that of the modern standard express passenger
+locomotive (Fig. 11) shows vividly the progress which has been made
+since that first experiment was tried--little more than half a
+century ago. In that period there have been many modifications in
+the design of locomotives to adapt them to the changed conditions
+of the various kinds of traffic of to-day. An express train
+travelling at a high rate of speed requires a locomotive very
+different from one which is designed for handling heavy freight
+trains up steep mountain grades. A special class of engines is
+built for light trains making frequent stops, as on the elevated
+railroads in New York, and those provided for suburban traffic
+(Fig. 12)--and still others for street railroads (Fig. 13), for
+switching cars at stations (Fig. 14), etc. [Pp. 110 and 113]. The
+process of differentiation has gone on until there are now as many
+different kinds of these machines as there are breeds of dogs or
+horses.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.--A Typical American Passenger Locomotive.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Locomotive for Suburban Traffic. By the
+Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Locomotive for Street Railway. By the
+Baldwin Locomotive Works.]
+
+Nearly all the early locomotives had only four wheels. In some
+cases one pair alone was used to drive the engine, and in others
+the two pairs were coupled together, so that the adhesion of all
+four could be utilized to draw loads. The four-wheeled type is
+still used a great deal for moving cars at stations, and other
+purposes where the speed is comparatively slow. But to run around
+sharp curves the wheels of such engines must be placed near
+together, just as they are under an ordinary street-car. This
+makes the wheel-base very short, and such engines are therefore
+very unsteady at high speeds, so that they are unsuited for any
+excepting slow service. They have the advantage, though, that the
+whole weight of the machine may be carried on the driving-wheels,
+and can thus be useful for increasing their friction, or adhesion
+to the rails. This gives such engines an advantage for starting and
+moving heavy trains, at stations or elsewhere, which is the kind of
+service in which they are usually employed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Four-wheeled Switching Locomotive. By the
+Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia.]
+
+If the front end of the engine is carried on a truck, as in
+Campbell's plan (Fig. 10)--which is the one that has been very
+generally adopted in this country--the wheel-base can be extended
+and at the same time the front wheels can adjust themselves to
+the curvature of the track. This gives the running-gear lateral
+flexibility. But as the tractive power of a locomotive is dependent
+upon the friction, or adhesion of the wheels to the rails, it is
+of the utmost importance that the pressure of the wheels on the
+rails should be uniform. For this reason the wheels must be able
+to adjust themselves to the vertical as well as the horizontal
+inequalities of the track.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Driving Wheels, Frames, Spurs, etc., of
+American Locomotive.]
+
+Figure 15 shows the driving-wheels, axles, journal-boxes, and
+part of the frame and springs of an American type of engine--the
+circumference of the wheels only being shown. The axles _A A_ each
+have journal-boxes or bearings, _B B_, in which they turn. These
+boxes are held between the jaws _J J J J_ of the frames, and can
+slide vertically in the spaces _c c c c_ between the jaws. The
+frames are suspended on springs, _S S_, which bear on the boxes
+_B B_. The vertical motion of the boxes and the flexibility of
+the springs allow the wheels to adjust themselves to some extent
+to the unevenness of the track. But, in order to distribute the
+weight equally on the two wheels, the springs _S S_ on each side
+of the engine are connected together by an equalizing lever, _E
+E_. These levers each have a fulcrum, _F_, in the middle, and are
+connected by iron straps or hangers, _h h_, to the springs. It is
+evident that any strain or tension on one spring is transferred by
+the equalizing lever to the other spring, and thus the weight is
+equalized on both wheels.
+
+But to give perfect vertical adjustment of such an engine to the
+track, still another provision must be made. Everyone has observed
+that a three-legged stool will always stand firm on any surface,
+no matter how irregular, but one with four legs will not. Now if
+the back end of a locomotive should rest on the fulcrums of the
+equalizing levers, as shown in Figure 15, and the front end should
+rest on the two sides of the truck, it would be in the condition
+of the four legged stool. Therefore, instead of resting on the two
+sides of the truck, locomotives are made to bear on the centre of
+it, so that they are carried on it and on the two fulcrums of the
+equalizing levers, which gives the machine the adjustability due
+to the three-legged principle. When more than four driving-wheels
+are used the springs are connected together by equalizing levers,
+as shown in Figure 29 (p. 124), which represents a consolidation
+engine as it appears before the wheels are put under it.
+
+Having a vehicle which is adapted to running on a railroad track,
+it remains to supply the motive power. This, in all but some very
+few exceptional cases, is the expansive power of steam. What
+the infant electricity has in store for us it would be rash to
+predict, but for locomotives its steps have been thus far weak and
+uncertain, and when we want a giant of steel or a race-horse of
+iron our only sure reliance is steam. This is the breath of life
+to the locomotive, which is inhaled and exhaled to and from the
+cylinders, which act as lungs, while the boiler fulfils functions
+analogous to the digestive organs of an animal. A locomotive is
+as dependent on the action of its boiler for its capacity for
+doing work as a human being on that of his stomach. The mechanical
+appliances of the one and the mental and physical equipment of the
+other are nugatory without a good digestive apparatus.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Longitudinal Section of a Locomotive
+Boiler.
+
+Fig. 17.--Transverse Section.]
+
+A locomotive boiler consists of a rectangular fireplace or
+fire-box, as shown at _A_, in Figure 16, which is a longitudinal
+section, and Figure 17 a transverse section through the fire-box.
+The fire-box is connected with the smoke-box _B_ by a large number
+of small tubes, _a a_, through which the smoke and products of
+combustion pass from the fire-box to the smoke-box, and from the
+latter they escape up the chimney _D_. The fire-box and tubes are
+all surrounded with water, so that as much surface as possible is
+exposed to the action of the fire. This is essential on account of
+the large amount of water which must be evaporated in such boilers.
+To create a strong draught, the steam which is exhausted from the
+cylinders is discharged up the chimney through pipes, and escapes
+at _e_. This produces a partial vacuum in the smoke-box, which
+causes a current of air to flow through the fire on the grate, into
+the fire-box, through the tubes, and thence to the smoke-box and up
+the chimney. Probably many readers have noticed, that of late years
+the smoke-boxes of locomotives have been extended forward in front
+of the chimneys. This has been done to give room for deflectors
+and wire netting inside to arrest sparks and cinders, which are
+collected in the extended front and are removed by a door or spout,
+_L_, below.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Rudimentary Injector.]
+
+To get the water into the boiler against the pressure of steam a
+very curious instrument, called an injector, has been devised.
+Formerly force-pumps were used, but these are now being abandoned.
+The illustration (Fig. 18) shows what may be called a rudimentary
+injector. _B_ is a boiler and _E_ a conical tube open at its
+lower end--and connected to a water-supply tank by a pipe, _C_.
+A pipe, _A_, is connected with the steam-space of the boiler and
+terminates in a contracted mouth, _F_, inside of the cone _E_. If
+steam is admitted to _A_, it flows through the pipe and escapes at
+_F_. In doing so it produces a partial vacuum in _E_, and water
+is consequently drawn up the pipe _C_ from the tank. The current
+of steam now carries with it the water, and they escape at _G_.
+After flowing for a few seconds the water has a high velocity and
+the steam, mingling with the water, is condensed. The momentum
+of the water soon becomes sufficient to force the valve _H_ down
+against the pressure below it, and the jet of water then flows
+continuously into the boiler. A very curious phenomenon of this
+somewhat mysterious instrument is that if steam of a low pressure
+is taken from one boiler it will force water into another against a
+higher pressure. Figure 19 is a section of an actual injector used
+on locomotives.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Injector used on Locomotives.]
+
+Having explained how the steam is generated, it remains to show
+how it propels a locomotive. It does this very much as a person on
+a bicycle propels it--that is, by means of two cranks the wheels
+are made to revolve, and the latter must then either slip or the
+vehicle will move. In a locomotive the driving-wheels are turned
+by means of two cylinders and pistons, which are connected by
+rods to the cranks attached to the driving-wheels or axles. These
+cranks are placed at right angles to each other, so that when one
+of them is at the "dead-point" the piston connected with the other
+can exert its maximum power to rotate the wheels. This enables the
+locomotive to start with the pistons in any position; whereas,
+if one cylinder only was used it would be impossible to turn the
+wheels if the crank should stop at one of its dead-points.
+
+It will probably interest a good many readers to know how the
+steam gets into the cylinders and moves the pistons and then gets
+out again, and how a locomotive is made to run either backward or
+forward at pleasure.
+
+Figure 20 (p. 118) shows a section of a cylinder, _A A′_, with
+the piston _B_ and piston rod _R_. The cylinder has two passages,
+_c c_ and _d d_, which connect its ends with a box, _U_, called a
+steam-chest, to which steam is admitted from the boiler by a pipe,
+_J_. The two passages _c_ and _d_ have another one, _g_, between
+them, which is connected with the chimney. These passages are
+covered by a slide-valve, _V_, which moves back and forth in the
+steam-chest, alternately uncovering the openings _c_ and _d_. When
+the valve is in the position shown in Figure 20, obviously steam
+can flow into the front end _A_ of the cylinder through the passage
+_c_, as indicated by the darts. The valve has a cavity, _H_,
+underneath it. When this cavity is over the passage _d_ and _g_,
+it is plain that the steam in the back end _A′_ of the cylinder
+can flow through _d_ and _g_ and then escape up the chimney. Under
+these circumstances the steam in the front end _A_ of the cylinder
+will force the piston _B_ to the back end. When it reaches the back
+end of the cylinder the valve is moved into the position shown in
+Figure 21, and steam can then enter _d_ and will fill the back end
+_A′_ while that in the front end escapes through _c_ and _g_. The
+piston is then forced to the front end by the pressure of the steam
+behind it. It will thus be seen that the steam enters and escapes
+to and from the cylinder through the same openings.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 20 (above) and 21.--Sections of a Locomotive
+Cylinder.]
+
+From what has been said it is obvious, too, that every time the
+piston moves from one end of the cylinder to the other the valve
+must also be moved back and forth in the steam-chest. This is done
+by what is called an eccentric.
+
+An "eccentric" is a disk or wheel (Fig. 22) with a hole, _S_,
+the size of the axle of the locomotive to which it is attached.
+The centre _n_ of the outside periphery of the eccentric is some
+distance from _S_, the centre of the shaft. A metal ring, _K K_
+(Fig. 23), made in two halves, embraces the eccentric, and the
+latter revolves inside of this ring. A rod, _L_, is attached to
+the strap, and is connected with the valve so that the motion of
+the eccentric is communicated to it. It is obvious that if the
+eccentric revolves it will impart a reciprocating motion to the rod
+_L_, which is communicated to the valve.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Eccentric.
+
+Fig. 23.--Eccentric and Strap.]
+
+If properly adjusted on the axle the eccentric will run the engine
+in one direction. To run the opposite way another eccentric must
+be provided. Therefore locomotives always have two eccentrics for
+each cylinder. These, _J_ and _K_, are shown in Figure 24, which
+represents the "valve-gear" of a locomotive. _S_ is a section of
+the main driving-axle, to which the eccentrics are attached by
+keys or screws. _C_ is the eccentric rod of the forward-motion
+eccentric and _D_ that of the one for running backward. As a
+locomotive must be run either backward or forward, and, as the
+one eccentric moves the valve to run forward and the other to run
+backward, we must be able to connect or disconnect the rods to and
+from the valve at will. The eccentric rods of the early locomotives
+had hooks on the ends by which they were attached to or detached
+from suitable pins connected with the valves. But these hooks were
+very uncertain in their action and therefore were abandoned, and
+now what is known as the "link-motion" is almost universally used
+for the valve-gear of locomotives. It consists of a "link" (_a b_,
+Fig. 24) which has a curved opening or slot, _k_, in it in which
+a block, _B_, fits accurately, so that it can slide from end to
+end of the link. This block has a hole bored in the middle which
+receives a pin, _c_, which is attached to the end of the arm _N_
+of the "rocker" _M O N_. The rocker has a shaft, _O_, which can
+turn in a suitable bearing, and two arms, _M_ and _N_; the latter,
+as explained, is connected to the link by the pin _c_ and block
+_B_. The upper arm _M_ has another pin, _V_, on its end, which
+is connected by a rod, _v V_, to the main slide-valve _V_. The
+rocker-arms, as will be seen, can vibrate about the shaft _O_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.--Valve Gear.]
+
+The link is hung by a pendulous bar, _g h_, to the end _g_ of
+the arm _E_, attached to the shaft _A_. This shaft has another
+upright arm, _F_, which is connected by a rod or bar, _G G′_, to
+a lever, _H I_, called a reverse lever, whose fulcrum is at _I_.
+To save room, in the engraving this lever and the cylinder _G_ are
+drawn nearer to the main axle _S_ than they would be on an engine.
+The lever is located inside the cab of the locomotive, and is
+indicated by the numbers 17 17′ in Figure 36 on p. 133, which is a
+view looking from the tender at the back end of a locomotive. The
+lever has a trigger (_t_, Fig. 24) which is connected by a rod,
+_r_, to a latch, _l_, which engages in the notches of the sector _S
+S′_. This latch holds the lever in any desired position and can be
+disengaged from the notches by grasping the upper end of the lever
+and the trigger.
+
+It is plain that, by moving the upper end of the reverse lever, the
+link _a b_ can be raised up or lowered at will. When the link is
+down, or in the position represented in the engraving, the forward
+eccentric rod imparts its motion to the block _B_, pin _c_, and
+thence to the rocker and valve, and the engine will run forward.
+If, however, the reverse lever is thrown back into the position
+indicated by the dotted line _J I_, the link would then be raised
+up so that the end _e_ of the backward-motion rod would be opposite
+to the block _B_ and pin _c_ and would communicate its motion to
+the rocker and valve, and the wheels would then be turned backward
+instead of forward. It will thus be seen how the movement of the
+reverse lever effects the reversal of the engine.
+
+A locomotive is started by admitting steam to the cylinders by
+means of what is called the "throttle-valve." This is usually
+placed in the upper part of the boiler at _T_ (Fig. 16). The valve
+is worked by a lever at _l_, which is also shown at 14, 14′ (Fig.
+36). The steam is conveyed to the cylinders by a pipe (_s_, Fig.
+16, p. 115).
+
+If steam is admitted to the cylinders and the wheels are turned,
+one of two results must follow: either the locomotive will move
+backward or forward according to the direction of revolution, or
+the wheels will slip, as they often do, on the rails. That is, if
+the resistance of the cars or train is less than the friction or
+"adhesion" of the wheels on the rails, the engine and train will be
+moved; if the adhesion is less than the resistance the wheels will
+turn without moving the train.
+
+The capacity of a locomotive to draw loads is therefore dependent
+on the adhesion, and this is in proportion to the weight or
+pressure of the driving-wheels on the rails. The adhesion also
+varies somewhat with the weather and the condition of the wheels
+and rails. In ordinary weather it is equal to about one-fifth of
+the weight which bears on the track; when perfectly dry, if the
+rails are clean, it is about one-fourth, and with the rails sanded
+about one-third. In damp or frosty weather the adhesion is often
+considerably less than a fifth.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Turning Locomotive Tires.]
+
+It would, then, seem as though all that is needed to increase the
+capacity of a locomotive to draw loads would be to add to the
+weight on its driving-wheels, and provide engine-power sufficient
+to turn them--which is true. But it has been found that if the
+weight on the wheels is excessive both the wheels and rails will be
+injured. Even when they are all made of steel, they are crushed out
+of shape or are rapidly worn if the loads are too great. The weight
+which rails will carry without being injured depends somewhat on
+their size or weight, but ordinarily from 12,000 to 16,000 pounds
+per wheel is about the greatest load which they should carry.
+
+For these reasons, when the capacity of a locomotive must be
+increased beyond a limit indicated by these data, one or more
+additional pairs of driving-wheels must be used. Thus, if a more
+powerful engine was required than that shown in Figure 14 (p. 113),
+another pair of wheels would be added, as shown in Figures 26,
+27, and 28. Or, if you wanted a more powerful engine than these,
+still another pair of driving-wheels would be provided, as shown
+in Figure 30. In this way the Mogul, ten-wheeled and consolidation
+engines have been developed from that shown in Figure 14. The Mogul
+locomotive (Fig. 27) has three pairs of driving-wheels, but only
+one pair of truck-wheels. The engravings shown in Figures 30 and
+31 represent consolidation and decapod types of engines which have
+four and five pairs of driving-wheels.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.--Six-wheeled Switching Locomotive. By the
+Schenectady Locomotive Works.]
+
+From the illustrations, Figures 28, 30, and 31, it will be seen
+that when so many wheels are used, even if they are of small
+diameter, the wheel-base must necessarily be long, so that a limit
+is very soon reached beyond which the number of driving-wheels
+cannot be increased.
+
+Improvements in the processes of manufacturing steel, which
+resulted in the general use of that material for rails and tires,
+have made it possible to nearly double the weight which was carried
+on each wheel when they were made of iron. The weight of rails has
+also been very much increased since they were first made of steel.
+Twenty or twenty-five years ago iron rails weighing 56 pounds per
+yard were about the heaviest that were laid in this country. Now
+steel rails weighing 72 pounds are commonly used, and some weighing
+85 pounds have been laid on American roads, and others weighing 100
+pounds have been laid on the Continent of Europe.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Mogul Locomotive. By the Schenectady
+Locomotive Works.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.--Ten-wheeled Passenger Locomotive. By the
+Schenectady Locomotive Works.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29.--Consolidation Locomotive (unfinished).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Consolidation Locomotive. By the
+Pennsylvania Railroad Company.]
+
+Of late years urban and suburban traffic has created a demand for
+a class of locomotives especially adapted to that kind of service.
+One of the conditions of that traffic is that trains must stop and
+start often, and therefore, to "make fast time," it is essential
+to start quickly. Few persons realize the great amount of force
+which must be exerted to start any object suddenly. A cannon-ball,
+for example, will fall through 16 feet in a second with no other
+resistance than the atmosphere. The impelling force in that case
+is the weight of the ball. If we want it to fall 32 feet during
+the first second, the force exerted on it must be equal to double
+its weight, and for higher speeds the increase of force must be in
+the same proportion. This law applies to the movement of trains.
+To start in half the time, double the force must be exerted. For
+this reason, trains which start and stop often require engines
+with a great deal of weight on the driving-wheels. In accordance
+with these conditions a class of engines has been designed which
+carry all, or nearly all, the weight of the boiler and machinery,
+and sometimes the water and fuel, on the driving-wheels. For
+suburban traffic, the speed between stops must often be quite
+rapid, and consequently the engine must have a long wheel-base
+for steadiness, as well as considerable weight on the wheels for
+adhesion. Four-wheeled engines (Fig. 14) have all their weight on
+the driving-wheels, but the wheel-base is short.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Decapod Locomotive. By the Baldwin
+Locomotive Works, Philadelphia.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32.--"Forney" Tank Locomotive. By the Rogers
+Locomotive and Machine Works, Paterson, N. J.]
+
+To combine the two features, engines have been built with the
+driving-wheels and axles arranged as in Figure 32. The frames are
+then extended backward, and the water-tank and fuel are placed
+on top of the frames, and their weight is carried by a truck
+underneath. This arrangement leaves the whole weight of the boiler
+and machinery on the driving-wheels, and at the same time gives a
+long wheel-base for steadiness. This plan of engine was patented
+by the author of this article in 1866, and has come into very
+general use--since the expiration of the patent. In some cases a
+two-wheeled truck is added at the opposite end, as shown in Figure
+33. For street railroads, in which the speed is necessarily slow,
+engines such as Figure 13 (p. 110) are used. To hide the machine
+from view, and also to give sufficient room inside, they are
+enclosed in a cab large enough to cover the whole machine.
+
+The size and weight of locomotives have steadily been increased
+ever since they were first used, and there is little reason for
+thinking that they have yet reached a limit, although it seems
+probable that some material change of design is impending which
+will permit of better proportions of the parts or organs of the
+larger sizes. The decapod engines built at the Baldwin Locomotive
+Works, in Philadelphia, for the Northern Pacific Railroad, weigh
+in working order 148,000 pounds. This gives a weight of 13,300
+pounds on each driving-wheel. Some ten-wheeled passenger engines,
+built at the Schenectady Locomotive Works for the Michigan Central
+Railroad, weigh 118,000 pounds, and have 15,666 pounds on each
+driving-wheel. Some recent eight-wheeled passenger locomotives for
+the New York, Lake Erie & Western Railroad weigh 115,000 pounds,
+and have 19,500 pounds on each driving-wheel. At the Baldwin Works,
+some "consolidation" engines have recently been built which are
+still heavier than the decapod engines.
+
+The following table gives dimensions, weight, price, and price
+per pound of locomotives at the present time. If we were to quote
+them at 8 to 8¼ cents per pound for heavy engines and 9 to 22¼ for
+smaller sizes, it would not be much out of the way.
+
+_Dimensions, Weights, and Approximate Prices of Locomotives._
+
+  ---------------+----------+--------+---------+----------+--------+-------
+     Type.       |Cylinders.|Diameter|Weight of|Weight of | Approx-| Price
+                 |          |   of   |engine in|engine and|  imate |  per
+                 |          |driving-| working |  tender  |  price.| pound.
+                 |          | wheel. |  order, |  without |        |
+                 |          |        |exclusive| water or |        |
+                 |          |        |of tender|   fuel.  |        |
+  ---------------+----------+--------+---------+----------+--------+-------
+                 |Diam.     | Inches.|  Pounds.|  Pounds. |        | Cents.
+                 |  Stroke. |        |         |          |        |
+  "American"     |          |        |         |          |        |
+     Passenger   |  8  24   |62 to 68|  92,000 |  110,000 | $8,750 |  7.95
+                 |          |        |         |          |        |
+  "Mogul"        |          |        |         |          |        |
+     Freight     | 19  24   |50 to 56|  96,000 |  116,000 |  9,500 |  8.19
+                 |          |        |         |          |        |
+  "Ten-wheel"    |          |        |         |          |        |
+      Freight    | 19  24   | 0 to 58| 100,000 |  118,000 |  9,750 |  8.26
+                 |          |        |         |          |        |
+  "Consolidation"|          |        |         |          |        |
+      Freight    | 20  24   |   50   | 120,000 |  132,000 | 10,500 |  7.95
+                 |          |        |         |          |        |
+  "Decapod"      |          |        |         |          |        |
+      Freight    | 22  26   |   46   | 150,000 |  165,000 | 13,250 |  8.03
+                 |          |        |         |          |        |
+  Four-wheel Tank|          |        |         |          |        |
+      Switching  | 15  24   |   50   |  58,000 |   47,000 |  5,500 | 11.70
+                 |          |        |         |          |        |
+  Six-wheel      |          |        |         |          |        |
+      Switching, |          |        |         |          |        |
+      with tender| 18  24   |   50   |  84,000 |   98,000 |  8,500 |  8.89
+                 |          |        |         |          |        |
+  "Forney" N.Y.  |          |        |         |          |        |
+      Elevated   | 11  16   |   42   |  42,000 |   34,000 |  4,500 | 13.23
+                 |          |        |         |          |        |
+  Street-car     |          |        |         |          | $3,500 | 19.44
+      Motor      |          |        |         |          |   to   |   to
+      Locomotive | 10  14   |   35   |  22,000 |   18,000 | $4,000 | 22.22
+                 |          |        |         |          | accord-|
+                 |          |        |         |          | ing to |
+                 |          |        |         |          | design.|
+  ---------------+----------+--------+---------+----------+--------+-------
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.--"Hudson" Tank Locomotive. By the Baldwin
+Locomotive Works.]
+
+The speed of locomotives, however, has not increased with their
+weight and size. There is a natural law which stands in the way
+of this. If we double the weight on the driving-wheels, the
+adhesion, and consequent capacity for drawing loads, is also
+doubled. Reasoning in an analogous way, it might be said that if
+we double the circumference of the wheels the distance that they
+will travel in one revolution, and consequently the speed of the
+engine, will be in like proportion. But, if this be done, it will
+require twice as much power to turn the large wheels as was needed
+for the small ones; and we then encounter the natural law that
+the resistance increases as the square of the speed, and probably
+at even a greater ratio at very high velocities. At 60 miles an
+hour the resistance of a train is four times as great as it is at
+30 miles. That is, the pull on the draw-bar of the engine must be
+four times as great in the one case as it is in the other. But at
+60 miles an hour this pull must be exerted for a given distance in
+half the time that it is at 30 miles, so that the amount of power
+exerted and steam generated in a given period of time must be eight
+times as great in the one case as in the other. This means that
+the capacity of the boiler, cylinders, and the other parts must
+be greater, with a corresponding addition to the weight of the
+machine. Obviously, if the weight per wheel is limited, we soon
+reach a point at which the size of the driving-wheels and other
+parts cannot be enlarged; which means that there is a certain
+proportion of wheels, cylinders, and boiler which will give a
+maximum speed.
+
+The relative speed of trains here and in Europe has been the
+subject of a good deal of discussion and controversy. There appears
+to be very little difference in the speed of the fastest trains
+here and there; but there are more of them there than we have. From
+48 to 53 miles an hour, including stops, is about the fastest time
+made by our regular trains on the summer time-tables.
+
+When this rate of speed is compared with that of sixty or seventy
+miles an hour, which is not infrequent for short distances, there
+seems to be a great discrepancy. It must be kept in mind, though,
+that these high rates of speed are attained under very favorable
+conditions. That is, the track is straight and level, or perhaps
+descending, and unobstructed. In ordinary traffic it is never
+certain that the line is clear. A locomotive-runner must always
+be on the look-out for obstructions. Trains, ordinary vehicles,
+a fallen tree or rock, cows, and people may be in the way at
+any moment. Let anyone imagine himself in responsible charge
+of a locomotive and he will readily understand that, with the
+slightest suspicion that the line is not clear, he would slacken
+the speed as a precautionary measure. For this reason fast time
+on a railroad depends as much on having a good signal system to
+assure the locomotive-runners that the line is clear, as it does on
+the locomotives. If he is always liable to encounter, and must be
+on the look-out for, obstructions at frequent grade-crossings of
+common roads, or if he is not certain whether the train in front of
+him is out of his way or not, the locomotive-runner will be nervous
+and be almost sure to lose time. If the speed is to be increased on
+American railroads, the first steps should be to carry all streets
+and common roads either over or under the lines, have the lines
+well fenced, provide abundant side-tracks for trains, and adopt
+efficient systems of signals so that locomotive-runners can know
+whether the line is clear or not.
+
+In what may be called the period of adolescence of railroads there
+was a very decided predilection on the part of locomotive engineers
+for large driving-wheels. Figure 34 represents one of the engines
+built as early as 1848 for the Camden & Amboy Railroad, with
+driving wheels 8 feet in diameter. Other engines with 6 and 7 feet
+wheels were not uncommon. In Europe many engines with very large
+wheels were made and are still in use. Here, as well as there,
+excessively large wheels have, however, been abandoned, and six
+feet in diameter is now about the limit of their size in this
+country.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34.--Camden & Amboy Locomotive, 1848.]
+
+So far as locomotives are concerned, fast time, especially with
+heavy trains, is generally dependent more upon the supply of
+steam than it is on the size of the wheels. Without steam to turn
+them, big wheels are useless; but with an abundant supply there
+is no difficulty in turning small wheels at a lively rate. Speed,
+therefore, is to a great extent a question of boiler capacity, and
+the general maxim has been formulated that "within the limits of
+weight and space to which a locomotive boiler must be confined,
+it cannot be made too big." But the maximum speed at which a
+locomotive can run when an adequate supply of steam is provided
+also depends on the perfection of the machinery. At 60 miles an
+hour a driving-wheel 5½ feet in diameter revolves five times every
+second. The reciprocating parts of each cylinder of a Pennsylvania
+Railroad passenger engine, including one piston, piston-rod,
+cross-head, and connecting rod, weigh about 650 pounds. These
+parts must move back and forth a distance equal to the stroke,
+usually two feet, every time the wheel revolves, or in a fifth of
+a second. It starts from a state of rest at each end of the stroke
+of the piston and must acquire a velocity of 32 feet per second,
+in one-twentieth of a second, and must be brought to a state of
+rest in the same period of time. A piston 18 inches in diameter
+has an area of 254½ square inches. Steam of 150 pounds pressure
+per square inch would therefore exert a force on the piston
+equal to 38,175 pounds. This force is applied alternately on each
+side of the piston, ten times in a second. The control of such
+forces requires mechanism which works with the utmost precision
+and with absolute certainty, and it is for this reason that the
+speed and the economical working of a locomotive depend so much on
+the proportions of the valves and the "valve-gear" by which the
+"distribution" of steam in the cylinders is controlled.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35.--Interior of a Round-house.]
+
+The engraving (Fig. 36) on p. 133 represents the cab end of a
+locomotive of the New York Central & Hudson River Railroad, looking
+forward from the tender, and shows the attachments by which the
+engineer works the engine.[12] This gives an idea of the number of
+keys on which he has to play in running such a machine. There is
+room here for little more than an enumeration of the parts which
+are numbered:
+
+  1. Engine-bell rope.
+
+  2. Train-bell rope.
+
+  3. Train-bell or gong.
+
+  4. Lever for blowing whistle.
+
+  5. Steam-gauge to indicate pressure in boiler.
+
+  6. Steam-gauge lamp to illuminate face of gauge.
+
+  7. Pressure-gauge for air-brake; to show pressure in
+  air-reservoirs.
+
+  8. Valve to admit steam to air-brake pump.
+
+  9. Automatic lubricator for oiling main valves.
+
+  10. Cock for admitting steam to lubricator.
+
+  11. Handle for opening valves in sand-box to sand the rails.
+
+  12. Handle for opening the cocks which drain the water from the
+  cylinders.
+
+  13. Valve for admitting steam to the jets which force air into
+  the fire-box.
+
+  14, 14′. Throttle-valve lever. This is for opening the valve
+  which admits steam to the cylinders.
+
+  15. Sector by which the throttle-lever is held in any desired
+  position.
+
+  16. "Lazy-cock" handle. A "lazy-cock" is a valve which regulates
+  the water-supply to the pumps and is worked by this handle.
+
+  17, 17′. Reverse lever.
+
+  18. Reverse-lever sector.
+
+  19, 19′, 19″. Gauge-cocks for showing the height of the water
+  in the boiler; 19′ is a pipe for carrying away the water which
+  escapes when the gauge-cocks are opened.
+
+  20, 20. Oil-cups for oiling the cylinders.[13]
+
+  21. Handle for working steam-valve of injector.
+
+  22. Handle for controlling water-jet of the injector.
+
+  23. Handle for working water-valve of injector.
+
+  24. Oil-can shelf.
+
+  25. Handle for air-brake valve.
+
+  26. Valve for controlling air-brake.
+
+  27. Pipe for conducting air to brakes under the cars.
+
+  28. Pipe connected with air-reservoir.
+
+  29. Pipe-connection to air-pump.
+
+  30. Handle for working a valve which admits or shuts off the air
+  for driving-wheel brakes.
+
+  31. Valve for driving-wheel brakes.
+
+  32, 32′. Lever for moving a diaphragm in smoke-box, by which the
+  draught is regulated.
+
+  33. Handle for raising or lowering snow-scrapers in front of
+  truck-wheels.
+
+  34. Handle for opening cock on pump to show whether it is forcing
+  water into the boiler.
+
+  35. Lamp to light the water-gauge, 51, 51.
+
+  36. Air-hole for admitting air to fire-box.
+
+  37. Tallow-can for oiling cylinders.
+
+  38. Oil-can.
+
+  39. Shelf for warming oil-cans.
+
+  40. Furnace door.
+
+  41. Chain for opening and closing the furnace door.
+
+  42. Handles for opening dampers on the ash-pan.
+
+  43. Lubricator for air-pump.
+
+  44. Valve for admitting steam to the chimney to blow the fire
+  when the engine is standing still.
+
+  45. Valve for admitting steam to the train-pipes for warming the
+  cars.
+
+  46. Valve for reducing the pressure of the steam used for heating
+  cars.
+
+  47. Cock which admits steam to the pressure-gauge, 48.
+
+  48. Pressure-gauge which indicates the steam-pressure in heater
+  pipes.
+
+  49. Pipe for conducting steam to the train to heat the cars.
+
+  50. Cock for water-gauge, 51.
+
+  51, 51. Glass water-gauge to indicate the height of water in the
+  boiler.
+
+  52. Cock for blowing off impurities from the surface of the water
+  in the boiler.
+
+Besides being impressive as a triumph of human ingenuity, there
+is much about the construction and working of locomotives which
+is picturesque. A shop where they are constructed or repaired is
+always of interest. An engine-house (Fig. 35) especially at night,
+is full of weird suggestions and food for the imagination.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36.--Cab End of a Locomotive and its
+Attachments.]
+
+Figure 37 (p. 135) is an illustration from a photograph taken in
+the erecting shops of the Baldwin Locomotive Works in Philadelphia;
+and Figure 38 (p. 137) is a view of a similar shop of the
+Pennsylvania Railroad at Altoona, which suggests at a glance many
+of the processes of construction which go on in these great works.
+At Altoona are immense travelling cranes resting on brick arches
+and spanning the shop from side to side. These are powerful enough
+to take hold of the largest locomotive and lift it bodily from the
+rails and transfer it laterally or longitudinally at will. A large
+consolidation engine is shown in Figure 38, swung clear of the
+rails, and in the act of being moved laterally. The hooks of the
+crane are attached to heavy iron beams, from which the locomotive
+is suspended by strong bars. Figure 39 (p. 138) is a view in the
+blacksmiths' shop of the Baldwin Works, showing a steam hammer and
+the operation of forging a locomotive frame.
+
+It is quite natural that the engineers, or "runners," as they
+generally call themselves, who have the care of locomotives should
+take a deep interest in and acquire a sort of attachment for them.
+In the earlier days of railroading this was much more the case than
+it is now. Then each locomotive had an individuality of its own.
+It was rare that two engines were exactly alike. Nearly always
+there was some difference in their proportions, or one engine had
+some device in it which the other had not. Now, many locomotives
+are made exactly alike, or as nearly so as the most improved
+machinery will permit. There is nothing to distinguish the one
+from the other. Therefore Bony Smith can claim no superiority for
+his machine which Windy Brown has not the advantage of. In the
+old days, too, each engine had its own runner and fireman, and it
+seldom fell into the hands of anyone else, and those in charge
+of it took as much pride in keeping it bright as the character
+in "Pinafore" did "in polishing up the handle of the big front
+door." On many roads--particularly the larger ones--engines are
+not assigned to special men. The system of "first in first out"
+has been adopted; that is, the engines are sent out in the order
+in which they come in, and the men take whichever machine happens
+to fall to their lot. This naturally results in a loss of personal
+attachment to special engines.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37.--View In Locomotive Erecting Shop.]
+
+Every change in the construction, alteration in the proportions, or
+addition to the attachments of locomotives is a subject of intense
+interest to the men and a topic of endless discussion at all times
+and places. The theories which are propounded, and the yarns which
+are spun while sitting around hot stoves in round-houses, or
+waiting for passing trains on side-tracks, would fill many books.
+Jack never tires of telling what his engine did when "she was
+going up Rattlesnake Grade," and Smoky Bill grows excited when he
+describes how Ninety-six turned her wheels in making up forty-nine
+minutes time in the down run with the "electric express."
+
+Locomotive engineers and firemen read with avidity everything which
+is explanatory of the construction or working of locomotives, but
+generally have a contempt for things which have no practical
+bearing. They demand "lucidity" in what they read with as much
+vehemence as Matthew Arnold did, and some editors and college
+professors, whose writing and thinking are foggy, would be greatly
+benefited by the criticisms of the Locomotive Brotherhood.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.--Interior of Erecting Shop, Showing
+Locomotive Lifted by Travelling Crane.]
+
+Much might be written about the duties of locomotive-runners and
+firemen, and the qualifications required. It is the general opinion
+of locomotive superintendents that it is not essential that the men
+who run locomotives should be good mechanics. The best runners or
+engineers are those who have been trained while young as firemen
+on locomotives. Brunel, the distinguished civil engineer, said
+that he never would trust himself to run a locomotive because he
+was sure to think of some problem relating to his profession which
+would distract his attention from the engine. It is probably a
+similar reason which sometimes unfits good mechanics for being good
+locomotive-runners.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39.--Forging a Locomotive Frame.]
+
+It will perhaps interest some readers to know how much fuel a
+locomotive burns. This, of course, depends upon the quality of
+fuel, work done, speed, and character of the road. With freight
+trains consisting of as many cars as a heavy locomotive can draw
+without difficulty, the consumption of coal will not exceed from
+1 to 1½ pounds of coal per car per mile if the engine is carefully
+managed. It takes from 15 to 20 pounds of coal per mile to move
+an engine and tender alone, the consumption being dependent upon
+the size of the engine, speed, grades, and number of stops. If
+this amount of coal is allowed for the engine and tender, and the
+balance that is consumed is divided among the cars, it will reduce
+the quantity for hauling the cars alone to even less amounts than
+those given above. In ordinary average practice the consumption
+is from 3 to 5 pounds per freight-car per mile, without making
+any allowance for the engine and tender. With passenger trains,
+the cars of which are heavier and the speed higher, the coal
+consumption is from 10 to 15 pounds per car per mile. A freight
+locomotive with a train of 40 cars will burn 40 to 200 pounds of
+coal per mile, the amount depending on the care with which it is
+managed, quality of the coal, grades, speed, weather, and other
+circumstances.
+
+
+AMERICAN CARS.
+
+Peter Parley's illustration (p. 101) of the Baltimore & Ohio
+Railroad represents one of the earliest passenger-cars used in
+this country. The accuracy of the illustration may, however, be
+questioned. Probably the artist depended upon his imagination and
+memory somewhat when he drew it. The engraving below (Fig. 40)
+is from a drawing made by the resident engineer of the Mohawk &
+Hudson Railroad, and from which six coaches were made by James
+Goold for the Mohawk & Hudson Railroad in 1831. It is an authentic
+representation of the cars as made at that time. Other old prints
+of railroad cars represent them as substantially stage-coach bodies
+mounted on four car-wheels, as shown by Figure 41. The next step
+in the development of cars was that of joining together several
+coach-bodies. This form was continued after the double-truck system
+was adopted, as shown by Figure 42, which represents an early
+Baltimore & Ohio Railroad car, having three sections, united. It
+was soon displaced by the rectangular body, as shown in Figure 43,
+which is a reproduction from an old print.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40.--Mohawk & Hudson Car, 1831. (From the
+original drawing by the resident engineer.)
+
+Fig. 41.--Early Car. (From an old print.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42.--Early Car on the Baltimore & Ohio
+Railroad.]
+
+Figure 44 is an illustration of a car used for the transportation
+of flour on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, while horses were
+still used as the motive power. To show how nearly all progress
+is a process of evolution, it was asserted, in one of the trials
+of the validity of Winans' patent on eight-wheeled cars with two
+trucks, that before the date of his patent it was a practice to
+load firewood by connecting two such cars with long timbers, which
+rested on bolsters attached by kingbolts to the cars. The wood
+was loaded on top of these timbers, as shown in Figure 45. An old
+car (Fig. 46), which antedated Winans' patent and was used at
+the Quincy granite quarries for carrying large blocks of stone,
+was also introduced as evidence for the defendants in that suit.
+Although Winans was not able to establish the validity of his
+patent on eight-wheeled cars with two trucks, he was undoubtedly
+one of the first to put it into practical form, and did a great
+deal to introduce the system.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43.--Early American Car, 1834.]
+
+The progress in the construction of cars has been fully as great
+as in that of locomotives. If the old stage-coach bodies on wheels
+are compared with a vestibule train of to-day the difference will
+be very striking. Most of us who are no longer young can recall
+the days when sleeping-cars were unknown, when a journey from an
+Eastern city to Chicago meant forty-eight hours or more of sitting
+erect in a car with thirty or more passengers, and an atmosphere
+which was fetid. Happily those days are past, although the
+improvement in the ventilation of cars has been very slow, and is
+still very imperfect.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44.--Old Car for Carrying Flour on the
+Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.]
+
+Improvement has also lagged in the matter of coupling cars. It
+has been shown by statistics and calculations that some hundreds
+of persons are killed and some thousands injured in this country
+annually in coupling cars. The use of automatic coupling, by which
+cars could be connected together without going between them, it
+has been supposed, would greatly lessen, if it would not entirely
+prevent, this fearful sacrifice of life and limb. To accomplish
+this end, though, it is essential that some one form of coupler
+shall be generally adopted by all railroads. One of the obstacles
+in the way of this has been the mechanical difficulty of finding
+a mechanism which will satisfactorily accomplish the purpose for
+which it was intended. After thirty or forty years of invention
+and experiment, no automatic coupler has been produced, which has
+been approved by competent judges with a sufficient degree of
+unanimity to justify its general adoption. The patents on that
+class of inventions are numbered by thousands, so that it is no
+light task to select the best one or even the best kind. Besides
+this difficulty, there is the other equally formidable one of
+inducing railroad men, of various degrees of knowledge, ignorance,
+and prejudice regarding this subject, and who are scattered all
+over the continent, to agree in adopting some one form or kind
+of automatic coupler. Various cliques had also been organized
+on different roads in the interest of some patents, and in such
+cases argument and reason addressed to them were generally wasted.
+Public indignation was, however, aroused; and the stimulus of
+legislation in different States compelled railroad officers to
+give serious attention to the subject. After devoting some years
+to the investigation, the Master Car-Builders' Association--which
+is composed of officers of railroad companies, who are in charge
+of the construction and repair of cars on the different lines--has
+recommended the adoption of a coupler of the type represented by
+Figures 47 to 49, which has been already applied to many cars and
+the indications are that it will be very generally adopted for
+freight and probably for passenger cars. If it should be, it will
+relieve railroad employees of the dangerous duty of going between
+cars to couple them. Figure 47 shows a plan looking down on the
+couplers with one of the latches, _A_, open; Figure 48 shows it
+with the two couplers partly engaged; and Figure 49 shows them when
+the coupling is completed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45.--Old Car for Carrying Firewood on the
+Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46.--Old Car on the Quincy Granite Railroad.]
+
+One of the first problems which presented itself in the infancy of
+railroads was how to keep the cars on the rails.
+
+Anyone who will stand close to a line of railroad when a train is
+rushing by at a speed of forty, fifty, or sixty miles an hour must
+wonder how the engine and cars are kept on the track; and even
+those familiar with the construction of railroad machinery often
+express astonishment that the flanges of the wheels, which are
+merely projecting ribs about 1-1/8 inches deep and 1¼ inches thick,
+are sufficient to resist the impetus and swaying of a locomotive or
+car at full speed. The problem of the manufacture of wheels which
+will resist this wear, and will not break, has occupied a great
+deal of the attention of railroad managers and manufacturers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47.
+
+Fig. 48.
+
+Fig. 49.
+
+Janney Car Coupler, showing the Process of Coupling.]
+
+Locomotive driving-wheels in this country are always made of
+cast-iron, with steel tires which are heated and put on the wheels
+and then cooled. They are thus contracted and "shrunk" on the
+wheel. The tread, that is, the surface which bears on the rail,
+and the flange of the tire are then turned off in a lathe, shown
+in Figure 25, on p. 121, made especially for the purpose. For
+engine-truck, tender, and car-wheels, until within a few years,
+"chilled" cast-iron wheels have been used almost exclusively on
+American railroads. If the tread and flange of a wheel were made
+of ordinary cast-iron they would soon be worn out in service, as
+such iron has ordinarily little capacity for resisting the wear
+to which wheels are subjected. Some cast-iron, however, has the
+singular property which causes it to assume a peculiar, hard
+crystalline form if, when it is melted, it is allowed to cool and
+solidify in contact with a cold iron mould. The iron which is thus
+cooled quickly, or "chilled," becomes very hard, and resists wear
+very much better than iron which is not chilled. Car-wheels which
+are made of this material are therefore cast in what is called a
+chill-mould. Figure 50 represents a section of such a mould and
+flask in which wheels are cast.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50.--Mould and Flask in which Wheels are Cast.]
+
+_A A_ is the wheel, which is moulded in sand in the usual way. The
+part _B B_ of the mould, which forms the rim or tread of the wheel,
+consists of a heavy cast-iron ring. The melted iron is poured into
+this mould and comes in contact with _B B_. This has the effect of
+chilling the hot iron, as has been explained. In cooling, the wheel
+contracts; and for that reason the part between the rim _C_ and
+the hub _D_ is made of a curved form, as shown in the section, so
+that if one part should cool more rapidly than another these parts
+can yield sufficiently to permit contraction without straining any
+portion of the wheels injuriously. For the same reason the ribs on
+the back of the wheels, as shown in Figure 51, are also curved.
+As an additional safeguard to the unequal contraction in cooling,
+the wheels are taken out of the mould while they are red-hot, and
+placed in ovens where they are allowed to remain several days so as
+to cool very slowly.
+
+Figure 52, on p. 145, represents a section of the tread and flange
+of a chilled wheel, showing the peculiar crystalline appearance of
+the chilled iron.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51.--Cast-iron Car Wheels.]
+
+In making cast-iron wheels the quality of the iron used is of
+the utmost importance. The difficulty in making good wheels lies
+in the fact that most iron which is ductile and tough will not
+chill, whereas hard white iron, which has the chilling property in
+a very high degree, is brittle, and wheels which are made of it
+are liable to break. There are some kinds of cast-iron produced
+in this country which have the two qualities combined, in a very
+remarkable degree; that is, they are ductile and tough, and will
+also chill. Wheel-founders also mix different qualities of irons to
+produce wheels with the required strength, and which will resist
+wear; that is, they use a certain amount of hard white iron which
+will chill, with that which is ductile and soft. By changing the
+proportions, any required amount of chill can be produced. The
+danger is that iron which has little strength or ductility will
+be fortified with hard chilling iron, and a very weak wheel will
+thus be the result. Thousands of such wheels have been bought and
+used because they are cheap, and many lamentable accidents are
+undoubtedly due to this cause. To guard against this, car-wheels
+should always be subjected to rigid tests and inspection.
+
+In Europe wheels are made of wrought-iron, with tires which were
+also made of the same material before the discovery of the improved
+processes of manufacturing steel, but since then they have been
+made of the latter material. Owing to the breakage of a great many
+cast-iron wheels of poor quality, steel-tired wheels are now coming
+into very general use on American roads under passenger-cars and
+engines. A great variety of such wheels is now made. The "centres"
+or parts inside the tires of some of them are cast-iron, and others
+are wrought-iron constructed in various ways.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52.--Section of the Tread and Flange of a Car
+Wheel.]
+
+What is known as the Allen paper wheel is used a great deal in this
+country, especially under sleeping-cars. A section and front view
+of one of these wheels is shown by Figure 53. It consists of a
+cast-iron hub, _A_, which is bored out to fit the axle. An annular
+disk, _B B_, is made of layers of paper-board glued together and
+then subjected to an enormous pressure. The disk is then bored out
+to fit the hub, and its circumference is turned off, and the tire
+_C C_ is fitted to it. Two wrought-iron plates, _P P_, are then
+placed on either side of it, and the disk, plates, tire, and hub
+are all bolted together. The paper, it will be seen, bears the
+weight which rests on the hub of the axle and the hub of the wheel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53.--Allen Paper Car Wheel.]
+
+Steel tires have the advantage that when they become worn their
+treads and flanges may be turned off anew, whereas chilled
+cast-iron wheels are so hard that it is almost impossible to
+cut them with any turning tool. For this reason machines have
+been constructed for grinding the tread with a rapidly revolving
+emery-wheel. In these the cast-iron wheel is made to turn slowly,
+whereas the emery-wheel revolves very rapidly. The emery-wheel is
+then brought close to the cast-iron wheel, so that as they revolve
+the projections on the latter are cut away, and the tread is thus
+reduced to a true circular form. These machines are much used for
+"truing-up" wheels which have been made flat by sliding, owing to
+the brakes being set too hard.
+
+It would require a separate article to give even a brief
+description of the different kinds of cars which are now used. The
+following list could be increased considerably if all the different
+varieties were included.
+
+  Baggage-car,
+  Boarding-car,
+  Box-car,
+  Buffet-car,
+  Caboose or conductor's car,
+  Cattle- or stock-car,
+  Coal-car,
+  Derrick-car,
+  Drawing-room car,
+  Drop-bottom car,
+  Dump-car,
+  Express-car,
+  Flat or platform car,
+  Gondola-car,
+  Hand-car,
+  Hay-car,
+  Hopper-bottom car,
+  Horse-car,
+  Hotel-car,
+  Inspection-car,
+  Lodging-car,
+  Mail-car,
+  Milk-car,
+  Oil-car,
+  Ore-car,
+  Palace-car,
+  Passenger-car,
+  Post-office car,
+  Push-car,
+  Postal-car,
+  Refrigerator-car,
+  Restaurant-car,
+  Sleeping-car,
+  Sweeping-car,
+  Tank-car,
+  Tip-car,
+  Tool or wrecking car,
+  Three-wheeled hand-car.
+
+The following table gives the size, weight, and price of cars at
+the present time. The length given is the length over the bodies
+not including the platforms.
+
+  ------------------+-----------+------------------+--------------------
+                    |  Length,  |    Weight, lbs.  |      Price.
+                    |   feet.   |                  |
+  ------------------+-----------+------------------+--------------------
+  Flat-car          |    34     | 16,000 to 19,000 | $380
+  ------------------+-----------+------------------+--------------------
+  Box-car           |    34     | 22,000 to 27,000 | $550
+  Refrigerator-car  | 30 to 34  | 28,000 to 34,000 | $800 to $1,100
+  ------------------+-----------+------------------+--------------------
+  Passenger-car     | 50 to 52  | 45,000 to 60,000 | $4,400 to $5,000
+  Drawing-room car  | 50 to 65  | 70,000 to 80,000 | $10,000 to $20,000
+  ------------------+-----------+------------------+--------------------
+  Sleeping-car      | 50 to 70  | 60,000 to 90,000 | $12,000 to $20,000
+  Street-car        |    16     |  5,000 to  6,000 | $800 to $1,200
+  ------------------+-----------+------------------+--------------------
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54.--Modern Passenger-car and Frame.]
+
+Some years ago the master car-builders of the different railroads
+experienced great difficulty in the transaction of their business
+from the fact that there were no common names to designate the
+parts of cars in different places in the country. What was known
+by one name in Chicago had quite a different name in Pittsburg
+or Boston. A committee was therefore appointed by the Master
+Car-Builders' Association to make a dictionary of terms used
+in car-construction and repairs. Such a dictionary has been
+prepared, and is a book of 560 pages, and has over two thousand
+illustrations. It has some peculiar features, one of which is
+described as follows in the preface: "To supply the want which
+demanded such a vocabulary, what might be called a double
+dictionary is needed. Thus, supposing that a car-builder in
+Chicago received an order for a 'journal-box'; by looking in an
+alphabetical list of words he could readily find that term and
+a description and definition of it. But suppose that he wanted
+to order such castings from the shop in Albany, and did not know
+their name; it would be impracticable for him to commence at A and
+look through to Z, or until he found the proper term to designate
+that part." To meet this difficulty the dictionary has very
+copious illustrations in which the different parts of cars are
+represented and numbered, and the names of the parts designated by
+the numbers are then given in a list accompanying the engraving. An
+alphabetical list of names and definitions is also given, as in an
+ordinary dictionary. The definition usually contains a reference to
+a number and a figure in which the object described is illustrated.
+In making the dictionary the compilers selected terms from those
+in use, where appropriate ones could be found. In other cases
+new names were devised. The book is a curious illustration of a
+more rapid growth of an art than of the language by which it is
+described.
+
+The following table, compiled from "Poor's Manual of Railroads,"
+gives the number of locomotives and of different kinds of cars in
+this country, beginning with 1876, and for each year thereafter. If
+the average length of locomotives and tenders is taken at 50 feet,
+those now owned by the railroads would make a continuous train 280
+miles long; and the 1,033,368 cars, if they average 35 feet in
+length, would form a train which would be more than 6,800 miles
+long.
+
+
+_Statement of the Rolling Stock of Railroads in the United States;
+from "Poor's Manual" for 1889._
+
+  -----+---------+------------++----------------------+---------+---------
+       |         |            || Passenger-train cars.|         |
+  Year.|Miles of |Locomotives.|+----------+-----------+ Freight |  Total.
+       |railroad.|            ||Passenger.|  Baggage, | cars.   |
+       |         |            ||          | mail, and |         |
+       |         |            ||          |  Express. |         |
+  -----+---------+------------++----------+-----------+---------+---------
+  1876 |  76,305 |  14,562    ||   --     |    --     |  358,101|  358,101
+  1877 |  79,208 |  15,911    || 12,053   |   3,854   |  392,175|  408,082
+  1878 |  80,832 |  16,445    || 11,683   |   4,413   |  423,013|  439,109
+  1879 |  84,393 |  17,084    || 12,009   |   4,519   |  480,190|  496,718
+  1880 |  92,147 |  17,949    || 12,789   |   4,786   |  539,255|  556,930
+  1881 | 103,530 |  20,116    || 14,548   |   4,976   |  648,295|  667,819
+  1882 | 114,461 |  22,114    || 15,551   |   5,566   |  730,451|  751,568
+  1883 | 120,552 |  23,623    || 16,889   |   5,848   |  778,663|  801,400
+  1884 | 125,152 |  24,587    || 17,303   |   5,911   |  798,399|  821,613
+  1885 | 127,729 |  25,937    || 17,290   |   6,044   |  805,519|  828,853
+  1886 | 133,606 |  26,415    || 19,252   |   6,325   |  845,914|  871,491
+  1887 | 147,999 |  27,643    || 20,457   |   6,554   |  950,887|  977,898
+  1888 | 154,276 |  29,398    || 21,425   |   6,827   |1,005,116|1,033,368
+  -----+---------+------------++----------+-----------+---------+---------
+
+The number of cars, it will be seen, has more than doubled in ten
+years, so that if the same rate of increase continues for the next
+decade there will be over two millions of them on the railroads of
+this country alone. Beyond a certain point, numbers convey little
+idea of magnitude. Our railroad system and its equipment seem to
+be rapidly outgrowing the capacity of the human imagination to
+realize their extent. What it will be with another half-century of
+development it is impossible even to imagine.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[9] An engraving of a team and of a "Conestoga" wagon--which was
+used in this traffic--taken from a photograph of one which has
+survived to the present day, is given opposite (Fig. 1).
+
+[10] It was not really the first train, as the Baltimore & Ohio and
+the South Carolina roads were in operation earlier.
+
+[11] The truck was first applied by Mr. Jervis to an engine built
+by R. Stephenson & Co., of England.
+
+[12] It should be mentioned that this is not one of the most recent
+types of engines. The arrangement of parts in the cab has been
+somewhat simplified in later locomotives.
+
+[13] This engine had two different appliances for oiling the
+cylinders, a pair of oil-cups, 20, 20, and an automatic oiler, 9.
+
+
+
+
+RAILWAY MANAGEMENT.
+
+BY E. P. ALEXANDER.
+
+  Relations of Railway Management to all Other Pursuits--Developed
+  by the Necessities of a Complex Industrial Life--How a Continuous
+  Life is Given to a Corporation--Its Artificial Memory--Main
+  Divisions of Railway Management--The Executive and Legislative
+  Powers--The Purchasing and Supply Departments--Importance of
+  the Legal Department--How the Roadway is Kept in Repair--The
+  Maintenance of Rolling Stock--Schedule-making--The Handling
+  of Extra Trains--Duties of the Train-despatcher--Accidents
+  in Spite of Precautions--Daily Distribution of Cars--How
+  Business is Secured and Rates are Fixed--The Interstate
+  Commerce Law--The Questions of "Long and Short Hauls" and
+  "Differentials"--Classification of Freight--Regulation of
+  Passenger-rates--Work of Soliciting Agents--The Collection of
+  Revenue and Statistics--What is a Way-bill--How Disbursements are
+  Made--The Social and Industrial Problem which Confronts Railway
+  Corporations.
+
+
+The world was born again with the building of the first locomotive
+and the laying of the first level iron roadway. The energies and
+activities, the powers and possibilities then developed have
+acted and reacted in every sphere of life--social, industrial,
+and political--until human progress, after smouldering like a
+spark for a thousand years, has burst into a conflagration which
+will soon leave small trace of the life and customs, or even the
+modes of thought, which our fathers knew. But, in it all, the
+railroad remains the most potent factor in every development. By
+bringing men more and more closely together, and supplying them
+more and more abundantly and cheaply with all the varied treasures
+of the earth, stored up for millions of years for the coming of
+this generation, it adds continually more fuel to the flame it
+originated. And as it is necessarily reacted upon equally by
+every new invention or discovery, and by all progress in other
+departments of human activity, the demands upon it, and its points
+of contact with everyday life, are still increasing in geometrical
+progression.
+
+Hence, in the practical management of railroad affairs, problems
+are of constant occurrence which touch almost every pursuit to
+which men give themselves, whether of finance, agriculture,
+commerce, manufactures, science, or politics; and the methods,
+forms, and principles under which current railroad management is
+being developed (for it is by no means at a stand-still) are the
+result of the necessities imposed by these multiplying problems
+acting within the constraints of corporate existences.
+
+For while the life of a corporation is perpetual, its powers are
+constrained, and the individuals exercising them are constantly
+changing. It is but an artificial individual existing for certain
+purposes only, and, as it lacks some human qualities, all its
+methods of doing business are influenced thereby. The business
+affairs of an individual, for instance, are greatly simplified
+by his memory of his transactions from day to day and from year
+to year. But a corporation having no natural memory, all of its
+transactions and relations must be minutely and systematically
+noted in its archives. Every contract and obligation must be
+of record, all property bought or constructed must go upon the
+books, and, when expended or used up, must go off in due form; and
+especially must an accurate system of checks guard all earnings
+and expenditures, and a comprehensive system of book-keeping
+consolidate innumerable transactions into the great variety of
+boiled-down figures and statistics necessary for officers and
+stockholders to fully understand what the property is doing.
+
+Under such circumstances, then, our railroads and their systems of
+organization and management, like the Darwinian Topsy, have not
+"been made" but have "growed."
+
+Naturally, both the direction and extent of the development have
+varied in different localities and under different conditions.
+Within the limits of this article it would be impossible to
+give anything like an exhaustive or complete account of the
+organization, distribution of duties, systems of working, and of
+checks in the various departments of even a single road. Most roads
+publish more or less elaborate small volumes of regulations on such
+subjects for the use of their various employees. The task would
+also be endless to describe technically the variations of practice
+and of nomenclature in different sections and on different systems.
+The shades of difference, too, between managers, superintendents,
+or masters; comptrollers, auditors, book-keepers, and accountants;
+secretaries, cashiers, treasurers, and paymasters in different
+localities would be tedious to draw. A technical account of them
+would be almost a reproduction of the volumes above-mentioned. I
+can only attempt to outline and illustrate very briefly the general
+principles which underlie the present practice, and are more or
+less elaborated as circumstances may require.
+
+The principal duties connected with the management of a railroad
+may be classified as follows:
+
+1. The physical care of the property.
+
+2. The handling of the trains.
+
+3. The making rates and soliciting business.
+
+4. The collection of revenue and keeping statistics.
+
+5. The custody and disbursement of revenue.
+
+The president is, of course, the executive head of the company, but
+in important matters he acts only with the consent and approval
+of the Board of Directors, or of an executive committee clothed
+with authority of the board, which may be called the legislative
+branch of the management. More or less of the executive power
+and supervision of the president may be delegated to one or more
+vice-presidents. Often all of it but that relating to financial
+matters is so delegated, but, as their functions are subdivisions
+of those of the president, they have no essential part in a general
+scheme of authority.
+
+Of the five subdivisions of duties indicated above, the first
+four are usually confided to a general manager, who may also be
+a vice-president, and the fifth is in charge of a treasurer,
+reporting directly to the president.
+
+The special departments under charge of the general manager are
+each officered by trained experts:
+
+A superintendent of roadway or chief engineer has charge of the
+maintenance of the track, bridges, and buildings.
+
+A superintendent of machinery has charge of the construction and
+maintenance of all rolling stock.
+
+A superintendent of transportation makes all schedules, and has
+charge of all movements of trains.
+
+A car accountant keeps record of the location, whereabout, and
+movements of all cars.
+
+A traffic manager has charge of passenger and freight rates, and
+all advertising and soliciting for business.
+
+A comptroller has charge of all the book-keeping by which the
+revenue of the company is collected and accounted for. All
+statistics are generally prepared in his office.
+
+A paymaster receives money from the treasurer and disburses, under
+the direction of the comptroller, for all expenses of operation.
+
+All dividend and interest payments are made by the treasurer, under
+direction of the president and board.
+
+There are, besides the above, two general departments with which
+all the rest have to do, to a greater or less extent--the legal
+department and the purchasing department. The quantity and variety
+of articles used and consumed in the operation of a railroad are
+so great that it is a measure of much economy to concentrate all
+purchases into the hands of a single purchasing agent, rather
+than to allow each department to purchase for itself. This agent
+has nothing to do but to study prices and markets. His pride is
+enlisted in getting the lowest figures for his road, and the large
+amount of his purchases enables him to secure the best rates. And
+last, but not least, in matters where dishonesty would find so
+great opportunities, it is safer to concentrate responsibility than
+to diffuse it.
+
+As I shall not again refer to this department, what remains of
+interest for me to say about it will be said here. As an adjunct to
+it, storehouses are established at central points in which stocks
+of articles in ordinary use are kept on hand. Whenever supplies are
+wanted in any other department--as, for instance, a bell-cord and
+lantern by a conductor--requisitions are presented, approved by a
+designated superior. These requisitions state whether the articles
+are to be charged to legitimate wear and tear, and if so, whether
+to the passenger or the freight service, and of which subdivision
+of the road; or whether they are to be charged to the conductor
+for other articles not properly accounted for. Without going
+into further detail, it can be readily seen how the comptroller's
+office can, at the end of each month, from these requisitions,
+have a complete check upon all persons responsible for the care
+of property. The purchasing agent, too, from his familiarity with
+prices, is usually charged with the sale of all condemned and
+worn-out material.[14]
+
+Before returning to a more detailed review of the operating
+departments of a railroad, its legal department requires a few
+words. Not only is a railroad corporation, being itself a creation
+of the law, peculiarly bound to conform all its actions to legal
+forms and tenets, but it is also a favorite target for litigation.
+The popular prejudice against corporations, it may be said in
+passing, is utterly illogical. The corporation is the poor man's
+opportunity. Without it he could never share in the gains and
+advantages open to capital in large sums. With it a thousand men,
+contributing a thousand dollars each, compete on equal terms with
+the millionaire. Its doors are always open to any who may wish to
+share its privileges or its prosperity, and no man is denied equal
+participation according to his means and inclinations. It is the
+greatest "anti-poverty" invention which has ever been produced,
+and the most democratic. But, for all that, instead of possessing
+the unbounded power usually ascribed to it, no creature of God or
+man is so helpless as a corporation before the so-called great
+tribunal of justice, the American jury. It may not be literally
+true that a Texas jury gave damages to a tramp against a certain
+railroad because a section-master's wife gave him a meal which
+disagreed with him, but the story can be nearly paralleled from
+the experience of many railroads. Hence settlements outside of the
+law are always preferred where they are at all possible, and an
+essential part of an efficient legal organization is a suitable
+man always ready to repair promptly to the scene of any loss or
+accident, to examine the circumstances with the eye of a legal
+expert on liabilities.
+
+But the management of claims, and of loss and damage suits, though
+a large part, is by no means all of the legal business connected
+with a railroad. Every contract or agreement should pass under
+scrutiny of counsel, and in the preparation of the various forms
+of bonds, mortgages, debentures, preferred stocks, etc., which
+the wants of the day have brought forth, the highest legal talent
+finds employment. For, as development has multiplied the types of
+cars and engines to meet special wants, so have a great variety
+of securities been developed to meet the taste and prejudices of
+investors of all nations. There is, in fact, a certain fashion in
+the forms of bonds, and the conditions incorporated in mortgages,
+which has to be observed to adapt any bond to its proposed market.
+
+[Illustration: (Ploughing snow.)]
+
+We shall now return to the operating departments under their
+respective heads, and glance briefly at the methods and detail
+pursued in each. On roads of large mileage the general manager
+is assisted by general or division superintendents in charge
+of roadway, motive power, and trains of one or more separate
+divisions; but for our purposes we may consider the different
+departments without reference to these superintendents.
+
+[Illustration: (Ploughing snow.)]
+
+The superintendent of roadway or chief engineer comes first,
+having charge of track, bridges, and buildings. In his office are
+collected maps of all important stations and junction points,
+kept up to date with changes and additions; scale drawings of all
+bridges and trestles, of all standard depots, tanks, switches,
+rails, fastenings, signals, and everything necessary to secure
+uniformity of patterns and practice over the entire road. Under
+him are supervisors of bridges and supervisors of road, each
+assigned to a certain territory. The supervisors of bridges make
+frequent and minute examinations of every piece or member of every
+bridge and trestle, report in advance all the repairs that become
+necessary, and make requisition for the material needed.
+
+[Illustration: A Type of Snow-plough.]
+
+Under the bridge supervisor are organized "bridge gangs," each
+consisting of a competent foreman with carpenters and laborers
+skilled in bridge work and living in "house" or "boarding" cars,
+and provided with pile-drivers, derricks, and all appliances for
+handling heavy timbers and erecting, tearing down, and repairing
+bridges. These cars form a movable camp, going from place to place
+as needed, and being side-tracked as near as possible to the work
+of the gang. Long experience begets great skill in their special
+duties, and the feats which these gangs will perform are often more
+wonderful than many of the more showy performances of railroad
+engineering. It is an every-day thing with such gangs to take
+down an old wooden structure, and erect in its place an iron one,
+perhaps with the track raised several feet above the level of the
+original, while fifty trains pass every day, not one of which will
+be delayed for a moment.
+
+[Illustration: A Rotary Steam Snow-shovel in Operation.
+
+(From an instantaneous photograph.)]
+
+Each of the supervisors of road has his assigned territory
+divided into "sections," from five to eight miles in length.
+At a suitable place on each section are erected houses for a
+resident section-master and from six to twelve hands. These are
+provided with hand- and push-cars, and spend their whole time in
+keeping their sections in good condition. Upon many roads annual
+inspections are made and prizes offered for the best sections. At
+least twice a day track-walkers from the section-gangs pass over
+the entire line of road. To simplify reports and instructions,
+frequently every bridge or opening in the track is numbered, and
+the number displayed upon it; and every curve is also posted with
+its degree of curvature and the proper elevation to be given to the
+outer rail.
+
+The work of the section-men is all done under regular system. In
+the spring construction-trains deliver and distribute ties and
+rails on each section, upon requisitions from supervisors. Then the
+section-force goes over its line from end to end, putting in first
+the new ties and then the new rails needed. Next the track is gone
+over with minute care and re-lined, re-surfaced, and re-ballasted,
+to repair the damages of frost and wet, the great enemies of a
+road-bed. Then ditches, grass, and the right-of-way have attention.
+These processes are continually repeated, and especially in the
+fall in preparation for winter. During the winter as little
+disturbance of track is made as possible, but ditches are kept
+clean, and low joints are raised by "shims" on top of joint ties.
+Essential parts of the equipment of any large road are snow-ploughs
+(pp. 154-5-6) and wrecking cars, with powerful derricks and other
+appliances for clearing obstructions. When wrecks or blockades
+occur these cars, with extra engines, section-hands, bridge gangs,
+and construction-trains, are rushed to the spot, and everything
+yields to the work of getting the road clear.
+
+[Illustration: Railway-crossing Gate.]
+
+We come next to the superintendent of machinery, whose duty it is
+to provide and maintain locomotives and cars of all kinds to handle
+the company's traffic. His department is subdivided between a
+master mechanic, in charge of locomotives and machine-shops, and a
+master car-builder, in charge of car-shops.
+
+The master mechanic selects and immediately controls all
+engine-runners and firemen, and keeps performance sheets of all
+locomotives, showing miles run, cars hauled, wages paid, coal and
+oil consumed, and other details giving results accomplished by
+different runners and firemen, and by different types of engine,
+or on different divisions or roads. Premiums are often paid the
+runners and firemen accomplishing the best results.
+
+_Report of Performance of Engines, Repairs, and all other Costs
+Incident thereto, for the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1888._
+
+  [Key for column headings. Column A has been repeated in each Part.]
+
+   A. Number of Engine.
+   B. Passenger
+   C. Freight.
+   D. Gravel or Construction.
+   E. Switching.
+   F. Total.
+   G. Eighth Cords of wood.
+   H. Bushels Coal.
+   I. Cost of Fuel.
+
+                [Table--Part 1 of 4]
+  --+----------------------------------------+-------------------------
+    |            MILES RUN.                  |         FUEL.
+    +-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+----+--------+-----------
+  A.|    B. |   C.  |   D.  |  E.   |   F.   | G. |   H.   |     I.
+  --+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+----+--------+-----------
+   1|     --| 12,084|  4,253|     64|  16,401| 118|  10,699|  $1,090 25
+   2|     --|  2,672| 11,779|    954|  15,405| 193|  10,913|   1,131 77
+   3|  5,402| 14,471|    408|    120|  20,407| 189|  10,590|   1,101 08
+   4| 28,643|  4,168|     --|     --|  32,811| 297|  11,875|   1,212 20
+   5| 28,275|  4,490|     --|     72|  32,837| 301|  12,961|   1,335 31
+   6|     --|     --|     --| 32,370|  32,370|  33|  10,360|   1,042 26
+   8|  3,229| 11,799|  4,779|     --|  19,807| 150|  13,233|   1,356 30
+   9|  1,050| 23,203|     --|     --|  24,253| 155|  16,344|   1,663 41
+  10|    874| 24,729|     --|     96|  25,699| 158|  17,039|   1,741 67
+  11|     --|     --|     --| 23,609|  23,609| 205|   7,661|     811 00
+  12|  1,527|     --|  4,369| 12,060|  17,956| 142|   8,875|     918 75
+  30| 41,345|     --|     --|     --|  41,345| 237|  17,702|   1,821 37
+  31| 37,450|     --|     --|     --|  37,450| 215|  16,695|   1,716 56
+  32|  4,233| 13,516|     --|    120|  17,869| 115|  10,918|   1,117 10
+  34| 13,742|  5,217|     --|  1,224|  20,183| 149|   6,691|     704 07
+  --+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+----+--------+------------
+    |165,770|116,349| 25,588| 70,695| 378,402|2657| 182,556| $18,768 13
+  --+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+----+--------+------------
+
+
+   A. Number of Engine.
+   J. Gallons of Engine Oil.
+   K. Signal Oil.
+   L. Head-Light Oil.
+   M. Lbs. of Cyl. Oil.
+   N. Car Grease.
+   O. Waste.
+   P. Packing.
+   Q. Gallons Kerosene.
+
+                [Table--Part 2 of 4]
+  --+----------------------------------------------------------------
+    |                  OIL, WASTE AND OTHER STORES.
+    +---------+--------+--------+----------+-----+-----+---------+---
+  A.|   J.    |   K.   |    L.  |    M.    |  N. |  O. |    P.   | Q.
+  --+---------+--------+--------+----------+-----+-----+---------+---
+   1|  124    |  10    |  29    |    59½   |   45|  347|   72    | --
+   2|  121½   |  13½   |  35½   |    69½   |   69|  466|  102    |  2
+   3|  132½   |  10½   |  38    |    74½   |   69|  350|   61    | --
+   4|  258    |  14    |  49    |   125    |  106|  659|   76    | --
+   5|  256    |  12    |  39    |    99½   |   75|  622|   82½   | --
+   6|   30½   |  12½   | 188½   |   111¼   |   --|  298|  160½   | --
+   8|  134    |  10½   |  41    |    65¼   |   60|  327|   98    | --
+   9|  135    |  12½   |  45½   |    73    |   70|  374|   87    | --
+  10|  131½   |  13½   |  63    |    69    |   70|  372|   96    | --
+  11|  136    |   1¾   |  96    |    81    |   40|  354|   81    |  2
+  12|  105    |   9¼   |  58    |    95½   |   20|  360|   75    | --
+  30|  223    |  23¾   |  44½   |    69    |  106|  726|   51    | --
+  31|  243    |  15¼   |  46    |    92    |  110|  660|   68    |  1
+  32|  138    |  10½   |  41    |    71½   |  130|  361|   63    |  7
+  34|  186    |  10    |  32    |    71    |   75|  409|   43    |  2
+  --+---------+--------+--------+----------+-----+-----+---------+---
+    |2,554    | 179½   | 846    | 1,226½   | 1045| 6685| 1214    | 14
+  --+---------+--------+--------+----------+-----+-----+---------+---
+
+
+   A. Number of Engine.
+   R. Cost of Stores.
+   S. Wages of Engineer and Fireman.
+   T. Cost of Cleaning.
+   U. Labor.
+   V. Material.
+   W. Total Cost of Repairs.
+   X. Total Expenses and Repairs.
+
+                [Table--Part 3 of 4]
+  --+-------------------+--------+---------+--------+---------+---------
+    |        |          |        |       COST OF REPAIRS.     |
+    |        |          |        |----------------------------+
+  A.|   R.   |    S.    |   T.   |    U.   |   V.   |    W.   |    X.
+  --+--------+----------+--------+---------+--------+---------+---------
+   1|$  87.64|$ 1,293.80|$ 115.00| $ 223.40|$  66.32|$  289.72|$2,876.41
+   2|  106.85|  1,646.90|   82.50|    69.65|   75.14|   144.79| 3,112.81
+   3|   93.85|  1,489.65|  187.50|   178.25|   63.61|   241.86| 3,113.94
+   4|  171.85|  1,719.55|  212.50|   203.95|  100.13|   304.08| 3,620.18
+   5|  144.86|  1,628.80|  202.00|   240.55|  114.98|   355.53| 3,666.50
+   6|  173.92|  1,884.50|   10.00|   172.35|   63.65|   236.00| 3,346.68
+   8|   97.34|  1,593.05|  150.00|   110.75|  106.69|   217.44| 3,414.13
+   9|  108.53|  1,625.80|  200.00|   139.80|  175.48|   315.28| 3,918.02
+  10|  108.38|  1,669.55|  205.00|   207.55|  109.78|   317.33| 4,041.93
+  11|  111.83|  1,126.75|    5.00|   413.95|   89.76|   503.71| 2,558.29
+  12|  106.31|  1,405.10|   25.00|    37.45|   27.17|    64.62| 2,519.78
+  30|  142.71|  1,719.56|  212.50|   144.50|   77.52|   222.02| 4,118.15
+  31|  152.16|  1,554.55|  205.00|   642.50|  432.86| 1,075.36| 4,703.66
+  32|  108.40|  1,186.40   172.00| 1,729.70|  438.40| 2,168.10| 4,752.00
+  34|  108.40|  1,186.40|  137.00| 1,522.10|  781.64| 2,303.74| 4,313.48
+  --+--------+----------+--------+---------+--------+---------+---------
+    |1,823.80| 22,603.45|2,121.00| 6,036.45|2,723.13| 8,759.58|54,075.96
+  --+--------+----------+--------+---------+--------+---------+---------
+
+
+   A. Number of Engine.
+   Y. Bushel Coal.
+   Z. Gal. Engine Oil.
+  AA. Pound of Tallow.
+  BB. Repairs.
+  CC. Fuel.
+  DD. Stores.
+  EE. Wages E. and F.
+  FF. Cleaning.
+  GG. Total.
+  HH. Car Mileage.
+
+                [Table--Part 4 of 4]
+  --+----+------+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+---------+
+    | M'ls run to one.|          COST PER MILE RUN FOR.         |         |
+    +-----------------+-----------------------------------------+---------+
+  A.| Y. |  Z.  | AA. |  BB. |  CC. |  DD. |  EE. |  FF. |  GG. |   HH.   |
+  --+----+------+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+---------+
+   1| 1.5| 122.3| 34.5| 01.76| 06.64| 00.53| 07.89| 00.61| 17.43|  177,659|
+   2| 1.1| 126.8| 27.7| 00.94| 07.34| 00.69| 10.69| 00.53| 20.19|  197,203|
+   3| 0.9|  77.7| 17.4| 02.32| 10.58| 00.90| 14.31| 02.04| 30.15|  182,402|
+   4| 2.7| 127.2| 32.8| 00.92| 03.69| 05.23| 05.24| 00.64| 15.72|  139,422|
+   5| 2.5| 128.2| 41.2| 01.08| 04.06| 00.44| 04.96| 00.61| 11.15|  135,780|
+   6| 3.1| 140.4| 36.3| 00.72| 03.22| 00.53| 05.82| 00.03| 10.32|       --|
+   8| 1.5| 147.8| 37.9| 01.09| 06.84| 00.49| 08.04| 00.76| 17.22|  305,024|
+   9| 1.4| 150.0| 48.5| 01.30| 06.88| 00.40| 06.70| 00.82| 16.10|  383,682|
+  10| 1.5| 195.4| 46.5| 01.23| 06.77| 00.31| 06.49| 00.79| 15.59|  409,035|
+  11| 3.0| 173.6| 36.4| 02.13| 03.43| 00.47| 04.77| 00.02| 10.82|       --|
+  12| 2.0| 171.0| 23.5| 00.36| 05.11| 00.59| 07.82| 00.14| 14.02|   66,834|
+  30| 2.3| 185.4| 74.9| 00.53| 04.40| 00.34| 04.15| 00.51| 09.93|  231,554|
+  31| 2.2| 154.1| 50.8| 02.87| 04.58| 00.40| 04.15| 00.54| 12.54|  202,289|
+  32| 1.6| 129.5| 31.2| 12.11| 06.25| 00.60| 06.64| 00.96| 26.56|  184,083|
+  34| 3.2| 108.5| 35.5| 11.41| 03.48| 00.54| 05.29| 00.67| 21.39|  107,060|
+  --+----+------+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+---------+
+    | 2.5| 148.1| 38.5| 02.31| 04.98| 00.48| 05.97| 00.55| 14.29|2,722,027|
+  --+----+------+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+---------+
+
+The master car-builder has charge of the shops where cars are
+built and repaired, and of the car-inspectors who are stationed at
+central and junction points to prevent defective cars being put
+into the trains.
+
+Formerly each railroad used its own cars exclusively, and through
+freights were transferred at every junction point. This involved
+such delay and expense that railroads now generally permit all
+loaded cars to go through to destination without transfer, and
+allow each other a certain sum for the use of cars. Usually this is
+about three-quarters of a cent for each mile which the car travels
+on a foreign road. This involves a great scattering of cars, and
+an extensive organization to keep record of their whereabouts
+and of the accounts between the companies for mileage.[15] This
+organization will be referred to more fully in connection with the
+department of transportation. But the joint use of each other's
+cars makes it necessary that there should be at least enough
+similarity in their construction and their coupling appliances to
+permit their indiscriminate use upon all roads. And conventions of
+master car-builders have recommended certain forms and dimensions
+as standards, which are now in general use.
+
+There is much convenience in this, but one disadvantage. It
+requires almost unanimous action to introduce any change of form
+or of construction, however advantageous it may be. And to secure
+unanimous action in such matters is almost as hard as it would be
+to secure unanimity in a change in the spelling of English words.
+Still there is progress, though slow, toward several desirable
+reforms, the most important of which is the adoption of a standard
+automatic coupler (see p. 142).
+
+Having shown how the property of all kinds is kept in efficient
+condition, we next come to its operation. This is called
+"conducting transportation," and the officer in charge is usually
+called the superintendent of transportation. All train-despatchers,
+conductors, train-men, and telegraph operators are under his
+immediate control. He makes all schedules and provides all extra
+and irregular service that the traffic department makes requisition
+for, himself calling upon the superintendent of machinery for
+the necessary locomotives, switching engines, and cars. It is his
+especial province to handle all trains as swiftly as possible, and
+to see that there are no collisions. It is impossible to detail
+fully the safeguards and precautions used to this end, but the
+general principles observed are as follows:
+
+First, a general time-table or schedule is carefully made out for
+all regular trains upon each division, showing on one sheet the
+time of each train at each station.
+
+This schedule is all that is needed so long as all trains are
+able to keep on time, and there are no extras. Trouble begins
+when regular trains cannot keep on schedule, or when extra
+trains have to be sent out, not provided for on the schedule. A
+diagram, or graphic representation of this schedule, upon a board
+or large sheet of paper, is an important feature of the office
+regulating train-movements. Twenty-four vertical lines divide the
+board into equal spaces representing the twenty-four hours of
+the day, numbered from midnight to midnight. Horizontal lines at
+proportionate distances from the top represent the stations in
+their order between the termini, represented by the top and bottom
+lines of the diagram. The course of every train can now be plotted
+on this diagram in an oblique line joining the points on each
+station line corresponding to the time the train arrives at and
+leaves that station. The cut on the opposite page will illustrate.
+It represents a road 130 miles long from A to N, with intermediate
+stations B, C, D, etc., at different distances from each other, and
+six trains are shown as follows:
+
+A passenger train, No. 1, leaving A at 12 midnight and arriving
+at N at 4.05 A.M. A fast express, No. 2, leaving N at 12.45 and
+arriving at A at 3.30. A local passenger train, No. 4, which leaves
+N at 1.15, runs to E by 4 A.M., stops there until 4.10, and returns
+to N by 7 A.M.; being called No. 3 on the return, as the direction
+is always indicated by the train-number's being odd or even. No. 5
+is a way freight, leaving A at 12.05 and making long stops at each
+station. No. 6 is an opposing train of the same character.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram Used in Making Railway Time-Tables.]
+
+[Illustration: A lamp swung across the track is the signal to stop.]
+
+The diagram shows at a glance how, when, and where all these
+trains meet and pass each other, and where every train is at any
+moment. Should it be desired to send an extra train at any time, a
+line drawn or a string stretched on the board will indicate what
+opposing trains must be guarded against. For instance, to send
+an extra through in three hours, leaving A between 1 and 2 A.M.,
+a trial line will show that Nos. 5, 2, 4, and 6 must all be met
+or passed, and as (on a single-track road) this can only be done
+at stations, the extra must leave at 1.35 A.M., pass No. 5 at E,
+meet No. 2 at F, No. 4 at I, and No. 6 at J. A dotted line on
+the diagram indicates its run, and that No. 2 is held at F for 5
+minutes to let it pass. If the road is double-tracked, only trains
+going in the same direction need be regarded.[16]
+
+[Illustration: A lamp raised and lowered vertically is the signal
+to move ahead.]
+
+But the more usual way of handling extra trains, when circumstances
+will permit, is to let them precede or follow a regular train upon
+the same schedule. The train is then said to be run in "sections,"
+and a ten minutes' interval is allowed between them. That opposing
+trains may be informed, the leading section (and when there are
+more than two all but the last) wears on its locomotive two green
+flags by day and two green lights by night, indicating that a train
+follows which is to be considered as a part of the train leading,
+and having the same rights.
+
+[Illustration: A lamp swung vertically in a circle across the
+track, when the train is standing, is the signal to move back.]
+
+So far the rules are very simple, and they would be all that is
+necessary if all trains could always be kept exactly on time. But
+as that cannot be, provision must be made for all the complications
+which will result. The first and most important rule is that no
+train must ever, under any circumstances, run _ahead_ of time.
+The next is that any train making a stop not on its schedule must
+immediately send out flagmen with red flags, lights, and torpedoes
+to protect it. This rule is a very difficult one to enforce
+without rigid discipline, and its neglect is the cause of a large
+percentage of the accidents "that will happen." The flagman who
+must go to the rear, often a half-mile, at night, across trestles
+and in storms, must frequently be left behind, to take his chances
+of getting home by being picked up by a following train. There is
+no one to watch him, and he will often take chances, and not go as
+far back or as fast as he should; and if all goes well no one is
+ever the wiser.
+
+[Illustration: A lamp swung vertically in a circle at arm's length
+across the track, when the train is running, is the signal that the
+train has parted.]
+
+Now, when a train is prevented from arriving on time at its
+meeting-point, we must have some rules by which the opposing train
+may proceed, or all business on the road would be suspended by the
+delay of a single train. Only the general principles of these rules
+can be stated within limits. They are as follows:
+
+1. All freight trains must wait indefinitely for all passenger
+trains.
+
+2. When one train only is behind time, the opposing train of the
+same class will wait for it a specified time, usually ten minutes,
+and five minutes more for possible variation of watches, then go
+ahead, keeping fifteen minutes behind its schedule.
+
+3. But should such a train, running on delayed time, lose more
+time, or in any other way should both trains get behind time,
+then the one which is bound in a certain direction--for instance,
+north--has the right to the track, and the other must lie by
+indefinitely.
+
+[Illustration: The General Despatcher.]
+
+These principles, duly observed, will prevent collisions, but
+they will often cause trains to lose a great deal of time. The
+train-despatcher, therefore, has authority to handle extra and
+delayed trains by direct telegraphic order. Every possible
+precaution is taken to insure that such orders are received and
+correctly understood. As there are great advantages following
+uniformity of usages and rules among connecting roads, after
+years of conference, in conventions and by committees, approved
+forms of all running rules and signals have recently been adopted
+and are now in very general use over the United States. Yet,
+in spite of all possible precautions, accidents will sometimes
+happen. Richard Grant White gave a name to a mental habit which,
+in train-despatchers, has caused many fatal accidents. It is
+"heterophemy," or thinking one thing while saying, hearing, or
+reading another. A case within my knowledge, which cost a dozen
+lives, was as follows: Two opposing trains were out of time,
+and the train-despatcher wished to have them meet and pass at a
+certain station we will call "I," as Nos. 1 and 2 are represented
+as doing on the diagram (see diagram of schedule board, p. 161).
+So he telegraphed the following message, to be delivered to No. 1
+at "H" and to No. 2 at "J": "Nos. 1 and 2 will meet at 'I.'"
+This message was correctly received at "J" and delivered to No.
+2. But at "H" the operator had just sold a passenger a ticket to
+"K," and, getting this name in his head, he wrote out the message:
+"Nos. 1 and 2 will meet at 'K.'" But the mistake was not yet
+past correction. The operator had to repeat the message back to
+the despatcher, that the latter might be sure it was correctly
+understood. He repeated it as he had written it--"K." But the
+despatcher was also "heterophemous." He _saw_ "K," but he _thought_
+"I," and replied to the operator that the message was O. K.
+
+[Illustration: Entrance Gates at a Large Station.]
+
+So it was delivered to No. 1, and that train left "H" at full
+speed, expecting to run thirty-five miles to "K" before meeting
+No. 2. There was no telegraph office at "I," and there were no
+passengers to get off or on, and it passed there without stopping,
+and three miles below ran into No. 2 on a curve.
+
+By one of those strange impulses which seem to come from some
+unconscious cerebration, the train-despatcher meanwhile had a
+feeling that something was wrong, and looked again at the message
+received from "H" and discovered his mistake. But the trains were
+then out of reach. He still hoped that No. 2 might arrive at "I"
+first, or that they might meet upon a straight portion of road,
+and as the time passed he waited at the instrument in a state of
+suspense which may be imagined. When the news came he left the
+office, and never returned.
+
+Double tracks make accidents of this character impossible; but
+introduce a new possibility, that a derailment from any cause upon
+one track may obstruct the other track so closely ahead of an
+opposing train that no warning can be given.
+
+[Illustration: Central Switch and Signal Tower.]
+
+Where trains become very numerous additional safeguards are added
+by multiplying telegraph stations at short intervals, and giving
+them conspicuous signals of semaphore arms and lanterns, until
+finally the road is divided into a number of so-called "blocks"
+of a few miles each; and no train is permitted to enter any block
+until the train preceding has passed out. And in the approaches to
+some of our great depots, where trains and tracks are multiplied
+and confused with cross-overs and switching service, all switches
+are set and all movements controlled by signals from a single
+central tower. Sometimes, by very expensive and complicated
+apparatus, it is made mechanically impossible to open a track for
+the movement of a train without previously locking all openings by
+which another train might interfere. The illustrations on pages
+169, 171, and above will serve to give some general idea of these
+appliances.[17]
+
+[Illustration: Mantua Junction, West Philadelphia, showing a
+Complex System of Interlacing Tracks.]
+
+There remains one other branch of the duties of the master of
+transportation--the proper daily distribution of cars to every
+station according to its needs, and the keeping record of their
+whereabouts. And now that the gauges of all roads are similar,
+and competition enforces through shipments, roads are practically
+making common property of each other's cars, and the detail and
+trouble of keeping record of them become enormous.
+
+[Illustration: Interior of a Switch-tower, showing the Operation of
+Interlocking Switches.]
+
+The records are made up from daily reports, by every conductor, of
+every car, home or foreign, handled in his train, and from every
+station-agent of all cars in his yard at certain hours. From these
+returns the car accountant reports to their respective owners all
+movements of foreign cars and gives the transportation department
+information where cars are lying. The honesty of each other's
+reports concerning car movements is generally relied upon by
+railroads, but "lost car agents" are kept travelling to hunt up
+estrays, and to watch how the cars of their roads are being handled.
+
+It has been suggested that a great step in advance would be to
+have all the roads in the United States unite and put all cars
+into a common stock and let them be distributed, record kept of
+movements, and mileage paid through a general clearing house.
+This would practically form a single rolling-stock company owned
+by the roads contributing their cars to it. It could gradually
+introduce uniform patterns of construction, improved couplers, and
+air-brakes, and could concentrate cars in different sections of the
+country in large numbers as different crops required movement, thus
+avoiding the blockades which often occur in one section while cars
+are superabundant in another. Consolidations usually render more
+efficient and cheaper service than separate organizations can do,
+and this may come about in the course of time.[18]
+
+We have now seen how the road is maintained and its trains safely
+handled. The next step in order is to see how business is secured
+and the rates to be charged are fixed. This department may be
+controlled by a traffic manager, with two assistants--the general
+freight agent and the general passenger agent--or the officers may
+report directly to the general manager without the intervention
+of a traffic manager. But it would be a more accurate expression
+to say, not that these officers "fix" the rates, for if they did
+few railroads would ever fail, but that they accept and announce
+the rates that are fixed by conditions of competition between
+different markets and products, and between different railroads
+and water lines. Among these complex forces a railroad freight
+agent is nearly as powerless to regulate rates as a professor of
+grammar is to regulate the irregularities of English verbs. He
+can accept them and use them, or he may let them alone, but the
+irregularities will remain, all the same. There is no eccentricity,
+for example, more idiotic or indefensible to the ordinary citizen
+than a habit railroads have of sometimes charging less money for
+a long haul than they charge for a shorter haul. Yet I believe
+there is not a railroad line in the United States which will not
+be found guilty of this apparent folly of charging "less for
+the long haul" if its rates to distant points are followed far
+enough. For if followed far enough we shall come to the ocean,
+and find the railroad accepting business between two seaports. For
+instance, all railroads running westward from New York through
+some of their connections finally reach San Francisco, and compete
+for freight between these ports. But the rates they are able to
+obtain are limited by steamers using the ocean for a highway,
+and sailing vessels using the wind for motive power, and able to
+carry heavy freights at one-tenth the average cost to railroads
+across mountains and deserts. This average cost must fix the
+average rates charged by the railroads to intermediate points,
+such as to Ogden, in Utah. So the railroad must either charge less
+for the long haul to San Francisco, or leave that business to be
+done solely by water. Yet it may be profitable to the railroad to
+accept the business at such rates as it can obtain; for, as in all
+business ventures, manufacturing or mercantile, _new_ business
+can be profitably added at less than the average cost. And if
+profitable to the railroad its tendency is beneficial, even to the
+intermediate points which pay higher rates, as promoting better
+service, besides being advantageous to the whole Pacific Coast in
+tending to keep down the rates by water.
+
+But it would lead too far from our subject to follow this and
+several other questions which are suggested by it. Only it may
+be said briefly that the original Interstate Commerce Bill,
+introduced by Mr. Reagan, absolutely prohibited "less for the long
+haul." The Senate amended by adding "under similar circumstances
+and conditions," and the Interstate Commerce Commission has held
+that "water competition" makes dissimilar circumstances and thus
+legalizes it.
+
+And in this connection it may be added that the other Senate
+amendment to the Reagan bill, creating an Interstate Commerce
+Commission, was, next to the above amendment, the wisest measure
+of the bill. It forms a body of experts whose opinions and
+decisions must gradually educate the public, on the one hand, to
+a better understanding of transportation problems, and restrain
+the railroads, on the other, from many of the abuses incident
+to unchecked competition among them. For, however theorists may
+differ as to the advantages or disadvantages of competition
+in manufactures and commerce, either absolutely unchecked or
+checked only by high or low tariffs, I think all will agree that
+unchecked _railroad_ competition is a great evil, because it
+results in fluctuating rates and private rebates to large shippers.
+The rebates, to be sure, are forbidden by law, but they can be
+disguised past recognition. I have known a case, for instance,
+where a receipt was given for 75 barrels of whiskey, when only
+73 were shipped. The shipper was to make claim for two barrels
+lost and be paid an agreed value as a rebate on his freight bill.
+In another case, a road agreed with a certain shipper to pay his
+telegraph bills for a certain period in order to control his
+shipments. Understating the weight or class of the shipment is
+another common device for undercharging or rebating.
+
+In nearly every foreign country there is either a railroad pool or
+a division of territory, to prevent this sort of competition, which
+is only pernicious. A merchant needs to feel assured that rates are
+stable and uniform to all, and not that he must go shopping for
+secret rates, in order to be on an equality with his competitor.
+In the United States the railroads had largely resorted to pools
+before the Interstate Commerce Law forbade them. The result of
+this prohibition has generally been very advantageous to the best
+lines, which, under the pool, really paid a sort of blackmail to
+the poorer lines to maintain rates. If the penalties of the law
+can restrain such lines from rebating and under-billing, to be rid
+of the pool will be a great blessing to the well-located roads. If
+not, then the roads will be driven into consolidation, for the end
+of fighting will be bankruptcy and sale. Fortunately consolidation
+has already gone so far in many sections of the country that the
+difficulties of abolishing rebates have been greatly reduced. And
+as far as it has gone it has proved of much advantage both to the
+public and to the stockholders.
+
+Fortunately, too, the other results attendant upon consolidation
+have been sufficiently demonstrated to remove any intelligent
+fear of extortion in rates or deterioration of service. Who would
+to-day desire to undo the consolidations which have built up the
+Pennsylvania Railroad or the New York Central, and call back to
+life the numberless small companies which preceded them? The
+country has outgrown such service as they could render, and the
+local growth and development along the lines of these consolidated
+companies certainly indicates improved conditions. In this
+connection, too, the improvement in cost and character of service
+is instructive. In 1865 the average rate per ton per mile on the
+principal Eastern lines was about 2.900 cents; in 1887 it was 0.718
+for a service twice as speedy and efficient.
+
+There are many other live issues of great interest and importance
+in transportation suggested by this subject, such as "re-billing"
+or "milling in transit," and "differentials," but space forbids
+more than an explanation of the meaning of these two especially
+prominent ones.
+
+  A             B             C
+  -----------------------------
+
+Let A B and B C be two railroads connecting at B. Let the local
+rates A to B be 10 cents per 100 lbs. on grain, and B to C also
+10 cents. Let the through rate A to C be 18, since longest hauls
+are usually cheapest per mile. Let A be a large grain market, such
+as Chicago. Now a merchant at C can save 2 cents per 100 lbs. by
+buying direct from A instead of buying from a merchant at B. For
+the grain will pay less for the single long haul than for the two
+short hauls. But perhaps the town of B has for many years enjoyed
+the trade of C, and there are large mills and warehouses erected
+there. B will then say it is "discriminated against," and will
+demand the privilege of "re-billing" or "milling in transit."
+That is to say, when a merchant or miller at B ships to C grain,
+or flour made of grain, which he received from A, the two roads
+consent to make a new way-bill and treat the shipment as a through
+shipment from A to C. The road B C charges but 8 cents, and the
+road A B gives B C one cent from the 10 it originally collected.
+This involves much trouble and a loss of revenue to the roads,
+and is, apparently, a discrimination against the home products of
+B, but roads frequently do it where there is competition at C by
+rival lines, and also at local points along their lines to build up
+mills, distilleries, and factories of all kinds in competition with
+those located elsewhere. As yet the Interstate Commerce Commission
+has not pronounced upon this practice.
+
+The question of differentials is as follows: Suppose there are
+three lines, B, D, and E, between the cities A and C (Diagram, page
+176). B, being the shortest, will get most of the business when
+rates are the same (10 cents, for instance) by each line. But D
+and E insist upon participating, so they demand that B shall allow
+them to operate lower or "differential" rates--that is, B must
+maintain his rate at 10 while allowing D to charge only 8 and E 6
+cents, on account of their disadvantages. So that a differential is
+practically a premium offered for business by an inferior line.
+
+The foregoing will illustrate how the rivalry of railroads with
+each other complicates the making of rates. But even more difficult
+to manage is the rivalry of markets, and of products, and of new
+methods which threaten property invested in old methods; as, for
+instance, the dressed-beef traffic from the West threatens the
+investments in slaughter-houses and stock-yards in the East.
+
+As the roads have found it necessary to act together in
+establishing running rules and regulations, so, in spite of
+all rivalries, there must also be joint agreements reached in
+some way concerning rates. Usually the roads serving a certain
+territory form an "association," and their freight agents form
+"rate committees," which fix and publish joint rates. A tariff
+published by one of the trunk lines from the Eastern cities forms a
+good example. As the result of many long and bitter wars and many
+compromises, it has been agreed among these roads that the rates
+from New York to Chicago shall form a basis for all other rates,
+and a scale has been fixed showing the percentage of the Chicago
+rate to be used as the rate to each important point in the West.
+Thus Pittsburgh, Pa., is 60 per cent. of Chicago rate; Indianapolis
+is 93; Vandalia, 116. The tariff above referred to gives an
+alphabetical list of some 5,000 towns reached over these roads, and
+opposite each town the figure showing its percentage of the Chicago
+rate. The list begins with Abanaka, O., 90, and ends with Zoar, O.,
+74.
+
+The tariff next gives what is called the "Trunk Line
+Classification," which is a list comprising every article known to
+commerce, in all the different conditions, shapes, and packages in
+which it is offered for transportation, and opposite each article
+is given its assigned "class." This particular classification
+assigns every article to one of six regular, or two special,
+classes, and the present rates to Chicago in cents per 100 lbs.
+are given as 75, 65, 50, 35, 30, 25, 26, 21. The list of articles
+begins with Acetate of Lime, in car-loads, 5th class; in less
+quantities, 4th; and ends with Zinc, in various forms from 1st to
+6th--comprising in all nearly 6,000 articles. From these tables any
+desired rate readily appears. Thus, 500 pounds of acetate of lime
+would cost, from New York to Zoar, O., 74 per cent. of Chicago's
+4th class rate, or 74 per cent. of 35--say, 26 cents per 100 lbs.,
+or $1.30.
+
+There is also given in the tariff pamphlet a list of some 300
+manufacturing towns in New England, from each of which the same
+rates apply as from New York. So, on the whole, the pamphlet gives
+rates on about 6,000 articles from 300 points of origin to 5,000
+destinations.
+
+In different sections of the country different classifications are
+in use, some of them embracing twenty or more classes, and allowing
+finer shades of difference between articles according to their
+value, bulk, or many other varying conditions which determine the
+class into which each article is put.
+
+Great efforts have been made to bring about a uniformity of
+classification over the whole United States, and the number of
+classifications in extensive use has been reduced from a very large
+number to perhaps a dozen.
+
+But absolute uniformity cannot be obtained under the widely
+different conditions which prevail in different sections, without
+great loss and sacrifices somewhere. A road, for instance,
+competing with a river or canal must adjust the classification of
+the particular kinds of freight best adapted to river or canal
+transportation so as to secure the traffic in competition with
+boats. It must almost entirely disregard bulk, value, and all other
+conditions upon which a road not affected by this particular kind
+of competition arranges its classification. Uniformity would either
+force one of them to lose a legitimate business, or the other to
+reduce reasonable rates.
+
+These rates and classifications are the battle-ground for all the
+innumerable rivalries of trade and commerce. Every city is here at
+war with every other city, every railroad with every other road,
+every industry with those which rival it, and every individual
+shipper is a skirmisher for a little special rate, or advantage,
+all to himself. State legislatures and commissions, Congress, and
+the Interstate Commerce Commission are the heavy artillery which
+different combatants manage to bring into the contest. On these
+rates probably a million dollars are collected every day, yet it is
+very rarely that the _positive_ rates are fought over or complained
+of. Their average is considerably below that of the average rates
+of any other country in the world, even though other nations have
+cheaper labor and denser populations. Fifty cents for carrying
+a barrel of flour a thousand miles cannot be called exorbitant,
+and, indeed, the retail prices paid for bread and clothing would
+probably not be reduced in the slightest were the transportation
+of all such articles absolutely free. But the battle is over the
+_comparative_ rates to different points, over different routes, and
+for different commodities.[19]
+
+Passenger rates are established in much the same manner as freight
+rates. There are passenger-agents' associations and conventions,
+and they fight as do the freight men over comparative rates and
+differentials, and commissions to agents. The last within a few
+years has been a fearful abuse, and is not yet entirely abolished.
+This will illustrate:
+
+[Illustration: (Diagram of railways connecting A to E.)]
+
+The road A B has two connections, C and D, to reach E. It sells
+tickets over each at the same rate, and stands neutral between
+them. But C agrees with A's ticket-seller that he will give him a
+dollar for every ticket he can sell over C's line. D finds that
+he is losing travel, and offers, privately, a larger commission.
+Neither knows what the other is doing. The ticket-seller gets his
+regular salary from A, and from C and D often enormous sums as
+commissions, and is interested, not in sending ignorant travellers
+over the line which might suit them best, but over the one paying
+him the largest secret commission. This should be held as against
+public policy, because it tends to prevent reductions in rates
+to the public by robbing the roads of much of their revenue, and
+it also demoralizes the officers who handle a business which is
+practically but the giving away of large sums of money as bribes.
+
+There is another practice in the passenger business which is unfair
+at the best and is the source of many abuses. It is charging the
+same to the man with no baggage as to the man with a Saratoga
+trunk. If the baggage service were specially organized as a trunk
+express, it could be more efficiently handled and without any
+"baggage smashing," while the total cost of travelling to persons
+with baggage would be no more than at present, and to those
+without, much less.
+
+As an illustration of the sort of abuses to which it is now liable,
+I may cite a single case. I have known a merchant buy a lot of
+twenty trunks for his trade, pack them all full of dry-goods,
+check them to a city 1,000 miles away by giving a few dollars to
+baggage-men, and himself buy a single ticket and go by a different
+route. The roads which handled that baggage imagined that it
+belonged to their passengers, and were never the wiser. While
+the baggage service is free, no efficient checks can be provided
+against such frauds.
+
+Essential parts of both freight and passenger departments are the
+soliciting agents. They are like the cavalry pickets and scouts of
+an army, scattered far and wide over the country and looking after
+the interests of their lines, making personal acquaintances of all
+shippers and travellers, advertising in every possible manner,
+and reporting constantly all that the enemy--the rival lines--are
+doing, and often a great deal that they are not. For the great
+railroad wars usually begin in local skirmishes brought on by the
+zeal of these pickets when the officers in command would greatly
+prefer to live in peace.
+
+Besides their receipts from freight and passenger traffic,
+railroads derive revenue also from the transportation of mails
+and express freight on passenger trains, from the sleeping-car
+companies, and from news companies for the privilege of selling
+upon trains. Of the total revenue about 70 per cent. is usually
+derived from freight, 25 per cent. from passengers, and 5 per cent.
+from mail, express, sleeping-cars, and privileges. When it is
+considered that high speed involves great risks and necessitates
+a far more perfect roadway, more costly machinery and appliances,
+and a higher grade and a greater number of employees, the fast
+passenger, mail, and express traffic hardly seems at present to
+yield its due proportion of income.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We have now followed the line of organization and management
+through the physical maintenance of the road and rolling stock,
+the safe handling of the trains, the establishment of rates, and
+solicitation of business. It only remains to show how the revenue
+is collected, how the expenses of operation are paid, and all
+statistics of the business prepared. These duties are usually
+united under charge of an officer called the comptroller, general
+auditor, or some equivalent title. His principal subordinates,
+whose duties are indicated by their titles, are the auditor of
+receipts, auditor of disbursements, local treasurer, paymaster, and
+clerk of statistics.
+
+The record of a single shipment of freight will illustrate methods,
+so far as limits will permit. A shipper sending freight for
+shipment sends with each dray-load a "dray ticket" in duplicate,
+showing the articles, weight, marks, and destination. If he has
+prepaid the freight, or advanced any charges which are to be
+paid at destination, it is also noted on the dray ticket. When
+the drayman reaches the outbound freight depot with his load,
+he is directed to a certain spot where all freight for the same
+destination is being collected for loading. A receiving clerk
+checks off his load against the duplicate dray tickets, keeps one
+and files it, and gives the drayman the other, receipted. In case
+of any loss arising afterward, the original dray ticket, made by
+the shipper himself, with his marks and instructions, becomes a
+valuable record. When the entire shipment has been delivered at
+the loading point, the shipper takes the dray tickets representing
+it to the proper desk, and receives "a bill of lading." This bill
+of lading is made in triplicate. The original and a duplicate
+are given to the shipper. He keeps the last and sends the former
+to the consignee. It represents the obligation of the railroad
+to transport and deliver the articles named on it to the person
+named, or his assignee. It is negotiable, and banks advance money
+upon it. But the shipper may still, by a legal process, have the
+goods stopped _en route_ should occasion arise, as, for instance,
+by the bankruptcy of the consignee. The goods are also liable for
+garnishments in certain cases, and there is much railroad and
+commercial law which it behooves the officials interested to be
+well posted in. When the goods arrive at destination the possession
+of the bill of lading is the evidence of the consignee's right to
+receive them.
+
+Now we will return to the shipment itself and see how it is
+taken care of. The whole structure of the system of collecting
+freight revenue, holding accountable all agents who assess it and
+collect it, dividing it in the agreed proportions between all the
+railroads, boats, bridges, wharves, and transfer companies who
+may handle it in its journeys, even across the continent, and
+the tabulating of the immense mass of statistics which are kept
+to show, separately, the quantities of freight of every possible
+class and variety, by every possible route, and to and from every
+possible point of destination and departure--all this system,
+neither the magnitude nor the minute elaboration of which can be
+adequately described within limits, is founded upon a paper called
+the way-bill.
+
+The theory of the way-bill is that no car must move without one
+accompanying it, describing it by its number and the initials
+of the road owning it, and showing its points of departure and
+destination, its entire contents, with marks and weights of each
+package, consignors and consignees, freight and charges prepaid
+or to be collected at destination, and the proportion of the same
+due to each carrier or transfer in the line. And not only must a
+way-bill accompany the car, but a duplicate of it must be sent
+immediately and directly, by the office making the original, to
+the office of the auditor of freight receipts. If the railroad
+is a member of any association, as the Trunk Line Association in
+New York, another duplicate is sent to its office, that it may
+supervise all rates, and see what each road is doing. The sum of
+all the way-bills is the total of a road's freight business. To
+facilitate taking copies they are printed with an ink which will
+give several impressions on strong, thin tissue-paper, forming
+"soft copies," while the "hard copy," or original, goes with the
+freight to be checked against it when the car is unloaded.
+
+And while the original way-bill fulfils its important function of
+conducting the freight to destination and delivery, the duplicate
+which was forwarded directly to the auditor of freight receipts
+has no less important purposes. It is the initial record that
+freight has been earned, and it shows which agent of the company
+has been charged with its collection. Before making any entries
+from it its absolute correctness must be assured. For this purpose
+all its figures are first checked by a rate-clerk, who is kept
+constantly supplied by the traffic department with all current
+rates, classifications, and percentage tables by which through
+freights are divided. These way-bills, coming in daily by hundreds
+and thousands, are then the grist upon which the office of the
+auditor of receipts grinds, and from which come forth the accounts
+with every agent, showing his debits for freight received, and the
+consolidations showing the freight earnings of the road. Agents
+remit the moneys they collect direct to the treasurer, who makes
+daily reports of the credits due to each one. A travelling auditor
+visits every station at irregular intervals and checks the agent's
+accounts, requiring him to justify any difference between his
+debits and credits by an exhibit of undelivered freight.
+
+The passenger earnings are obtained from daily reports by all
+conductors of their collections, and by all ticket-sellers of
+tickets sold. These reports are also checked by a passenger
+rate-clerk, and the travelling auditor frequently examines and
+verifies the tickets reported by agents as on hand unsold.
+
+After the auditor of receipts has finished with the way-bills and
+ticket reports, they go to the statistical department, where are
+prepared the great mass and variety of statistics required by
+different officers to keep themselves thoroughly posted on the
+growth or decrease of business of every variety, and from and to
+every market reached by the road. Finally, the way-bills are filed
+away for reference in case of claims for overcharges, or lost or
+damaged goods.
+
+The auditor of disbursements has supervision of all expenditures of
+money, which is only paid out by the paymaster or treasurer upon
+vouchers and pay-rolls approved by proper authority. The vouchers
+and pay-rolls then form the grist upon which his office works, and
+from which are produced the credits to be given all officers and
+agents who disburse money, and the classified records of expenses,
+and comparison of the same with previous months and years, and
+between different divisions.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+I have thus outlined the skeleton of a railroad organization, and
+suggested briefly the relations between its most important parts,
+and some of the principles upon which its work is conducted. The
+scheme of authority is outlined in the diagram on page 185. But
+space is utterly lacking to clothe the skeleton with flesh and
+go into the innumerable details and adjustments involved in the
+economical and efficient discharge of all of its functions.
+
+It seems a very simple matter for a railroad to place a barrel of
+flour in a car, to carry it to its destination, and to collect
+fifty cents for the service. It is done apparently so spontaneously
+that even the fifty cents may seem exorbitant, and I have actually
+heard appeals for free transportation on the ground that the cars
+were going anyhow. So it also seems a very simple matter for a
+man to pick up a stone and place it on a wall. But this simple
+act involves in the first place the existence of a bony frame,
+with joints, sinews, and muscles, sustained by a heart, lungs, and
+digestive system, with eyes to see, a brain to direct, nerves to
+give effect to the will-power, and a thousand delicate adjustments
+of organs and functions without which all physical exertion would
+soon cease. Similarly, a railroad organized to respond efficiently
+to all the varied demands upon it as a common carrier, by the
+public, and as an investment by its owners, becomes almost a living
+organism. That the barrel of flour may be safely delivered and
+the fifty cents reach the company's treasury, and a part of it
+the stockholder's pocket, the whole organization outlined in the
+diagram must thrill with life, and every officer and employee, from
+president to car-greaser, must discharge his special functions.
+All must be coordinated, and the organization must have and use
+its eyes and its ears, its muscle, its nerves, and its brain. It
+must immediately feel and respond to every demand of our rapidly
+advancing civilization.
+
+Each road usually has its own individuality and methods, and its
+employees are animated with an _esprit de corps_, as are the
+soldiers in an army. There is much about the service that is
+attractive, and, on the whole, the wages paid railroad employees
+are probably in excess of the rates for similar talent in any other
+industry, although labor in every other industry in the United
+States is protected by high tariffs, while in this it is under the
+incubus of legislation as oppressive as constitutional limits will
+permit.
+
+                                  PRESIDENT
+                                      |
+             +------------------------+--------------------------+
+             |                        |                          |
+  _Secretary and Treasurer_    _General Manager_              _General_
+                                      |                       _Counsel_
+  ------------------------------------+----------------------------------
+                                      |
+   +----------------------------------+
+   |
+   |                    {Auditor of Receipts
+   |                    {Auditor of Disbursements
+   +-Comptroller--------{Travelling Auditor
+   |                    {Local Treasurers
+   |                    {Local Paymasters
+   |                    {Clerk of Statistics
+   |
+   +-Purchasing Agent--+-Local Storekeepers
+   |                   |
+   |                   |                 {Receiving Clerks and Laborers
+   |                   |                 {Loading Clerks and Laborers
+   |                   |                 {Billing Clerks
+   |                ...+-Station Agents--{Discharging Clerks and Laborers
+   |                :  |                 {Delivery Clerks
+   |                :  |                 {Collectors     {Yard Engines
+   |                :  |                 {Yard Master----{Switchmen
+   |                :  |                                 {Brakemen
+   |                :  |
+   |                :  |
+   +-Superintendent of |                 {Train Despatchers
+   |    Transportation-+-Train Master----{Operators
+   |                   |                 {Conductors
+   |                   |                 {Trainmen
+   |                   |
+   +-Division          |                                 {Engine Runners
+   | Superintendents---+                 +-Foreman       {Firemen
+   |                   |                 | Machine Shop--{Hostelers and
+   |                   |                 |               {  Cleaners
+   +-Superintendent of |                 |               {Mechanics
+   |         Machinery-+-Master Mechanic-+               {Laborers
+   |                   |                 |
+   |                   |                 |               {Car Inspectors
+   |                   |                 +-Foreman       {Greasers
+   |                   |                     Car Shop----{Mechanics
+   |                   |                                 {Laborers
+   |                   |
+   |                   |
+   |                   |                                 {Bridge Foremen
+   |                   |                 +-Supervisors   {Watchmen
+   |                   |                 |  of Bridges---{Carpenter Gangs
+   +-Superintendent of |                 |               {Mason Gangs
+   |           Roadway-+-Road Master-----+
+   |                                     |               {Section Foremen
+   |                                     +-Supervisors   {Gangs and Track
+   |                                           of Road---{  Walkers
+   |                                                     {Wood and Water
+   |                                                     {  Tenders
+   |                                                     {Floating Gangs
+   |                                                     {Construction
+   |                                                     {  Trains
+   +Car Accountant-------Lost Car Agents
+   |
+   |                   +-General           {Travelling Agents
+   |                   | Passenger Agent---{Local Agents
+   |                   |                   {Rate and Division Clerks
+   +Traffic Manager----+-Claim Agent
+                       |
+                       +-General           {Travelling Agents
+                         Freight Agent-----{Local Agents
+                                           {Rate and Division Clerks
+
+  Diagram showing the Skeleton of a Railroad Organization, and Lines of
+  Responsibility.
+
+In Europe, where the pooling system practically prevails, the
+service is much more stable than in the United States, and in many
+instances there are pensions and insurances and disability funds,
+and regular rules for promotion and retirement, and provision for
+the children of employees being brought into service in preference
+to outsiders. Such relations between a company and its employees as
+must result from arrangements of this character are surely of great
+benefit to both. They are the natural outgrowth of _stability of
+business_. Their most advanced form is found in France, where each
+road is practically protected from dangerous competition by means
+of a division of territory. In the United States we are still in
+the midst of a fierce competition for territory and business, and,
+as pooling is forbidden, the railroad companies will be in unstable
+equilibrium until consolidation takes place. As that goes on, and
+large and rich corporations are formed, with prospects of stability
+in management and in business, we may hope to see similar relations
+established between our companies and their employees. Already
+there is a beginning upon some of the largest roads, such as the
+Baltimore & Ohio and the Pennsylvania Central. But the ground still
+needs preparation also on the employees' side, for our American
+spirit is aggressive and is sometimes rather disposed to resent,
+as interfering with its independence, any paternal relations with
+a corporation. And as we have before found railroad management
+in intimate contact with every problem of finance and commerce,
+it is here confronted with the social and industrial questions
+involved in labor unions and problems of co-operation. As to the
+results, we can only say that, as war is destructive, no state of
+warfare, even between capital and labor, can be permanent. Peaceful
+solutions must prevail in the end, and progress toward stability,
+peace, and prosperity in railroad operation and ownership will be
+progress toward the happy solution of many vexed social questions.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[14] See "How to Feed a Railway," page 302.
+
+[15] See "The Freight-car Service," page 275.
+
+[16] Of course, this "stringing" of an extra train is not always
+done in actual operation. Practice and experience will give as
+wonderful expertness to a train-despatcher in handling trains "in
+his head" as to a mathematician in solving problems, and often all
+trains on a road will be handled entirely "by order," or as extras.
+But the example given illustrates the principle upon which expert
+practice is based.
+
+[17] See "Safety in Railroad Travel," page 204.
+
+[18] See "The Freight-car Service," page 288.
+
+[19] An idea may be gained of the extent and minuteness of the
+classification, and of the constant changes and adjustments,
+both of rates and classifications, perpetually going on from the
+following partial list of subjects submitted to a recent meeting
+of the Rate Committee of the Southern Railway and Steamship
+Association.
+
+RATES.--Watermelon rates; canned goods, Richmond to Atlanta; rates
+on cement from Eastern cities to Association territory; rates
+on sulphuric acid from Atlanta; rates from Atlanta, etc., to
+California and Transcontinental terminals; special iron rates from
+Cincinnati, etc., to Carolina points; rates on earthenware, East
+Liverpool to S. E. territory; rates on cotton bags to Memphis from
+Atlanta; rates on fertilizers to Mobile, Ala.; beer rates; rates
+on special iron articles from Chattanooga; rates from the West to
+Camden, S. C.; rates from Evansville and Cairo, on business from
+points between Cairo, Evansville, and Chicago.
+
+CLASSIFICATION.--Classification of paper twine; beer packages,
+empty returned; old machinery returned for repairs; steel car
+springs; cotton softener; iron safes or vaults weighing over 12,000
+lbs.; toys, etc.; portable powder magazines; coffee extract; empty
+lard tierces returned; bolts and nuts in barrels; box and barrel
+material; glass oil bottles in tin jackets; cast-iron radiators;
+malleable iron castings; dried beef; sausage; straw paper; burlaps;
+tobacco stems; hinges; straw braids; lawn hose reels; excelsior;
+car-load rates.
+
+SUBJECTS NOT ON THE REGULAR LIST.--Demurrage rules; adjustment of
+rates as per instructions from the Executive Board; rates from
+Cincinnati to Columbus, Eufaula, Opelika, etc.; classification of
+iron tanks; classification of whiting; rates to Eufaula, Ala., from
+East; rates to Milledgeville, Ga.; classification of cast-iron cane
+mills; classification of locomotives and tenders.
+
+
+
+
+SAFETY IN RAILROAD TRAVEL
+
+BY H. G. PROUT.
+
+  The Possibilities of Destruction in the Great Speed of
+  a Locomotive--The Energy of Four Hundred Tons Moving at
+  Seventy-five Miles an Hour--A Look ahead from a Locomotive at
+  Night--Passengers Killed and Injured in One Year--Good Discipline
+  the Great Source of Safety--The Part Played by Mechanical
+  Appliances--Hand-brakes on Old Cars--How the Air brake Works--The
+  Electric Brake--Improvements yet to be Made--Engine Driver
+  Brakes--Two Classes of Signals: those which Protect Points
+  of Danger, and those which Keep an Interval between Trains
+  on the Same Track--The Semaphore--Interlocking Signals and
+  Switches--Electric Annunciators to Indicate the Movements--The
+  Block Signal System--Protection for Crossings--Gates and
+  Gongs--How Derailment is Guarded Against--Safety Bolts--Automatic
+  Couplers--The Vestibule as a Safety Appliance--Car Heating and
+  Lighting.
+
+
+In 1829, when Ericsson's little locomotive "Novelty," weighing two
+and a half tons, ran a short distance at the rate of thirty miles
+an hour, a writer of the time said that "it was the most wonderful
+exhibition of human daring and human skill that the world had
+ever seen." To-day trains weighing four hundred tons thunder by
+at seventy-five miles an hour, and we hardly note their passage.
+We take their safety as a matter of course, and seldom think of
+the tremendous possibilities of destruction stored up in them. But
+seventy-five miles an hour is one hundred and ten feet a second,
+and the energy of four hundred tons moving at that rate is nearly
+twice as great as that of a 2,000-pound shot fired from a 100-ton
+Armstrong gun. This is the extreme of weight and speed now reached
+in passenger service, and, indeed, is very rarely attained, and
+then but for short distances; but sixty miles is a common speed,
+and a rate of forty or fifty miles is attained daily on almost
+every railroad in the country. We cannot tell from the time-tables
+how fast we travel. The schedule times do not indicate the delays
+that must be made up by spurts between stations. The traveller
+who is curious to know just how fast he is going, and likes the
+stimulus of thinking that he is in a little danger, may find
+amusement in taking the time between mile-posts; and when these
+are not to be seen, he can often get the speed very accurately by
+counting the rails passed in a given time. This may be done by
+listening attentively at an open window or door. The regular clicks
+of the wheels over the rail-joints can usually soon be singled out
+from the other noises, and counted. The number of rail-lengths
+passed in twenty seconds is almost exactly the number of miles run
+in an hour.
+
+[Illustration: Danger Ahead!]
+
+But if one wants to get a lively sense of what it means to rush
+through space at fifty or sixty miles an hour, he must get on a
+locomotive. Then only does he begin to realize what trifles stand
+between him and destruction. A few months ago a lady sat an hour
+in the cab of a locomotive hauling a fast express train over a
+mountain road. She saw the narrow bright line of the rails and
+the slender points of the switches. She heard the thunder of the
+bridges, and saw the track shut in by rocky bluffs, and new perils
+suddenly revealed as the engine swept around sharp curves. The
+experience was to her magnificent, but the sense of danger was
+almost appalling. To have made her experience complete, she should
+have taken one engine ride in a dark and rainy night. In a daylight
+ride on a locomotive, we come to realize how slender is the rail
+and how fragile its fastenings, compared with the ponderous machine
+which they carry. We see what a trifling movement of a switch makes
+the difference between life and death. We learn how short the look
+ahead must often be, and how close danger sits on either hand. But
+it is only in a night ride that we learn how dependent the engineer
+must be, after all, upon the faithful vigilance of others. We
+lean out of the cab and strain our eyes in vain to see ahead. The
+head-light reveals a few yards of glistening rail, and the ghostly
+telegraph poles and switch targets. Were a switch open, a rail
+taken up, or a pile of ties on the track, we could not possibly see
+the danger in time to stop. The friendly twinkle of a signal lamp,
+shining faintly, red or white, tells the engineer that the way
+is blocked or is clear, and he can only rush along trusting that no
+one of a dozen men on whom his life depends has made a mistake.
+
+When one reflects upon the destructive energy which is contained
+in a swiftly moving train, and sees its effects in a wreck; when
+he understands how many minute mechanical details, and how many
+minds and hands must work together in harmony to insure its safe
+arrival at its destination, he must marvel at the safety of
+railroad travel. In the year 1887, the passengers killed in train
+accidents in the United States were 207; those injured were 916.
+The employees killed were 406, and injured 890.[20] These were in
+train accidents only, it must be remembered, and do not include
+persons killed at crossings, or while trespassing on the track,
+or employees killed and injured making up trains. As will be seen
+later, the casualties in these two classes are much greater than
+those from train accidents. The total passenger movement in 1887
+was equal to one passenger travelling 10,570,306,710 miles. That is
+to say, a passenger might have travelled 51,000,000 miles before
+being killed, or 12,000,000 miles before being injured. Or he might
+travel day and night steadily at the rate of 30 miles an hour for
+194 years before being killed. Mark Twain would doubtless conclude
+from this that travelling by rail is much the safest profession
+that a man could adopt. It is unquestionably true that it is safer
+than travelling by coach or on horseback, and probably it is safer
+than any other method of getting over the earth's surface that man
+has yet contrived, unless it may be by ocean steamer. If one wants
+anything safer he must walk.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: Stephenson's Steam Driver-brake. Patented 1833.]
+
+In considering the means that have been adopted to make railroad
+travel safe, it must be remembered that there are very few devices
+in use that are purely safety appliances. Nearly everything used on
+a railroad has an economic or mechanical value, and if it promotes
+safety that is but part of its duty. The great source of safety in
+railroad working is good discipline. Of all the train accidents
+which have happened in the United States in the last sixteen
+years, nearly ten per cent. were due to negligence in operation,
+and seventeen per cent. were unexplained. Of these no doubt many
+were due to negligence, and many that were attributed to defects of
+track and equipment would have been prevented, had men done their
+duty. The value of mechanical appliances for safety is perhaps as
+often overrated as underrated. Undoubtedly the best, and in the
+long run the cheapest, practice will be that which combines in
+the highest degree both elements--disciplined intelligence and
+perfection of mechanical details.
+
+[Illustration: Driver-brake on Modern Locomotive.]
+
+First in importance among the mechanisms which demand attention
+here is the brake. From the beginning of railroads the necessity
+for brakes was apparent, and in 1833 Robert Stephenson patented a
+steam driver-brake (the brake on the driving-wheels). This was but
+four years after the Rainhill trials, which settled the question
+of the use of locomotives on the Liverpool & Manchester Railroad.
+This early brake contained the principle of the driver-brake,
+operated by steam or air, which has in late years come into wide
+use. The apparatus is so simple that the cut representing it hardly
+needs explanation. Admission of steam into the cylinder raised
+the piston, which through a lever and rod raised the toggle-joint
+between the brake-blocks and forced them against the treads of
+the wheels. Essentially the same method of applying the retarding
+force can now be seen on most passenger engines, and often, but not
+so commonly, on engines for freight service. For various reasons
+Stephenson's driver-brake did not come into use.
+
+[Illustration: English Screw-brake, on the Birmingham and
+Gloucester Road, about 1840.]
+
+Innumerable devices for car-brakes have been invented, but they
+divide themselves into two groups: those in which the retarding
+force is applied to the circumference of the wheel, and those in
+which it is applied to the rail. The class of brakes in which
+the retarding force is applied to the rail has been little used,
+although various contrivances have been devised to transfer a
+portion of the weight of the car from the wheels to runners sliding
+on the rails. There are many objections to the principle, and it
+will probably never again be seriously considered by railroad men.
+The apparatus is necessarily heavy, the power required to apply it
+is great, and its action is slow. When brought into action it is
+not as efficient as the brake applied to the tread of the wheels,
+and the transfer of the load increases the chance of derailment.
+
+[Illustration: English Foot-brake on the Truck of a Great Western
+Coach, about 1840.]
+
+Many different devices have been used to apply the brake-shoes to
+the wheels, and various sources of power. Hand-power brakes have
+been used, worked by levers, or by screws, or by winding a chain
+on a staff; or, in still other forms, springs wound up by hand are
+released and apply the brakes by their pressure. The momentum of
+the train has been employed to wind up chains by the rotation of
+the axles. This is the principle of the chain-brake, very much used
+in England. This same source of power has been utilized by causing
+the drawheads, when thrust in as the cars run together, to wind up
+the brake-chains. Hydraulic pressure has been used in cylinders
+under the cars; and finally air, either under pressure or acting
+against a vacuum, has been found to be the most useful of all means
+of operating train-brakes. Early forms of hand-brakes are seen in
+the illustrations of some old English cars. The coach shows a
+hand-brake operated by a screw and system of levers. By turning
+a crank the guard puts in operation the system of levers which
+apply the brake with great force; but the operation is slow. The
+common hand-brake of the United States is too well known to need
+illustration. With this brake a chain is wound around the foot of
+a staff, and the pull of this chain is transmitted by a rod to the
+brake-levers. This apparatus is simple, and when a train is manned
+by a sufficient number of smart brakemen it is capable of doing
+good service. This simple form of hand-brake will probably be used
+in freight-car service until it is replaced by air-brakes, and the
+various forms of chain and momentum brakes do not appear likely to
+be much more used in the future than they have been in the past.
+Therefore, no further space will be given to them.
+
+The expression, electric brake, is now often heard, and requires
+a word of explanation. There are various forms of so-called
+electric brakes which are practicable, and even efficient, working
+devices. In none of them, however, does electricity furnish
+the power by which the brakes are applied; it merely puts in
+operation some other power. In one type of electric brake the
+active braking force is taken from an axle of each car. A small
+friction-drum is made fast to the axle. Another friction-drum
+hung from the body of the car swings near the axle. If, when
+the car is in motion, these drums are brought in contact, that
+one which hangs from the car takes motion from the other, and
+may be made to wind a chain on its shaft. Winding in this chain
+pulls on the brake-levers precisely as if it had been wound on
+the shaft of the hand-brake. The sole function of electricity
+in this form of brake is to bring the friction-drums together.
+In a French brake which has been used experimentally for some
+years with much success, an electric current, controlled by the
+engine-driver, energizes an electro-magnet which forms part of
+the swinging-frame in which the loose friction-pulley is carried.
+This electro-magnet being vitalized, is attracted toward the axle,
+thus bringing the friction-drums in contact. In an American brake
+lately exhibited on a long freight train, a smaller electro-magnet
+is used, but the same end is accomplished by multiplying the
+power by the intervention of a lever and wheel. The other type of
+so-called electric brake is that in which the motive power is
+compressed air, and the function of the electric device is simply
+to manipulate the valves under each car, by which the air is let
+into the brake-cylinder or allowed to escape, thus putting on or
+releasing the brakes. All of these devices have this advantage,
+that, whatever the length of the train, the application of the
+brakes is simultaneous on all the wheels, and stops can be made
+from high speed with little shock. Up to two years ago it seemed
+as if this advantage might be a controlling one, and compel the
+introduction of electric brakes for freight service. Since then the
+new "quick-acting" form of the air-brake has been developed, by
+which the brakes are applied on the rear of a fifty-car train in
+two seconds, and there is no longer any necessity to turn to other
+devices. It is doubtful, therefore, if the additional complication
+of electricity is widely introduced into brake mechanism for many
+years, if ever.
+
+It is now universally held that the brake, both for freight and for
+passenger service, must be continuous; that is, it must be applied
+to every wheel of every car of the train from some one point, and
+ordinarily that point must be the engineer's cab. With the valve of
+an efficient continuous brake constantly under his left hand, the
+engine-driver can play with the heaviest and fastest train. Without
+that instrument his work is far more anxious, and much less certain.
+
+The continuous brake which to-day prevails all over the world, is
+the automatic air-brake. In the United States much the largest part
+of the rolling stock used in passenger service is equipped with the
+Westinghouse automatic brake. A few roads peculiarly situated use
+the Eames vacuum-brake. That brake is used on the elevated roads
+of New York, and on the Brooklyn bridge roads. The Westinghouse
+brake is also largely used in England, on the Continent of Europe,
+in India, Australia, and South America. In the United States it is
+being rapidly applied to freight cars also. This brake, therefore,
+being the highest development of the automatic air-brake, and
+the one most widely used, will be briefly described, as best
+representing the most approved type of the most important of all
+safety appliances.
+
+The general diagram which is given on pages 196-97 shows all of
+the principal parts as applied to a locomotive, a tender, and a
+passenger car. The diagram is reduced from one prepared by Mr. M.
+N. Forney for a new edition of his "Catechism of the Locomotive."
+In the plan view are shown very clearly the hand-wheels, the
+chains, the rods, and the levers by which the brake is applied by
+hand. In passenger service the hand-wheels are rarely used, but
+they are retained for convenience in switching cars in the yard,
+and for those rare emergencies in which the air-brakes fail. Under
+the middle of the car the ordinary pull-rod of the old hand-brake
+is cut and two levers are inserted. One lever is connected with
+the brake-cylinder, and the other with the piston which slides in
+that cylinder. When air is admitted to the cylinder the piston is
+driven out, and the brakes are applied exactly as they would be
+were the chains wound up by turning the hand-wheels. Compressed
+air is supplied to the cylinder from the reservoir near it, in
+which pressure is maintained at from 70 to 80 pounds per square
+inch by a pump placed on one side of the locomotive. The pump fills
+the main reservoir on the engine, and also the car-reservoirs, by
+means of the train-pipe which extends under all the cars. When
+the brakes are off there is a full pressure of air in all of the
+car-reservoirs and train-pipes. It is a _reduction_ of the pressure
+in the train-pipes which causes the brakes to be applied.
+
+[Illustration: Plan and Elevation of Air-brake
+Apparatus.--Reservoirs and piping in solid black; brake gear
+shaded.]
+
+This fact must be borne in mind, for it is on this principle that
+the automatic action of the brakes depends. If a train parts, or
+if the air leaks out of the train-pipe, the brakes go on. This
+automatic principle is a vital one in most safety appliances,
+and it is secured in the case of the air-brake by one of the
+most ingenious little devices that man ever contrived, that is,
+the triple valve, which is placed in the piping system between
+the brake-cylinder and the car-reservoir. This triple valve has
+passages to the brake-cylinder, to the car-reservoir, to the
+train-pipe, and to the atmosphere. Which of these passages are
+open and which are closed depends upon the position of a piston
+inside of the triple valve, and the position of that piston is
+determined by the difference in air-pressure on either side of it.
+Thus, when the pressure in the train-pipe is greater than that in
+the car-reservoir, the triple valve piston is forced over, say to
+the left, a communication is opened from the train-pipe to the
+car-reservoir, and the air pressure in the latter is restored from
+the main reservoir on the locomotive. At the same time a passage is
+opened from the brake-cylinder to the atmosphere, the compressed
+air escapes, the brake-piston is driven back by a spring, and
+the brakes are released. If the pressure in the train-pipe is
+reduced, the triple-valve piston is driven to the right (we will
+assume) by the pressure from the car-reservoir, the passage to the
+atmosphere is closed, air flows freely from the car-reservoir to
+the brake-cylinder, and the brakes are applied.
+
+The function of the engineer's valve is to control these
+operations. Naturally the runner's left hand rests on this
+instrument, which is fixed to the back head of the boiler. To apply
+the brakes he turns the handle to such a position as to allow air
+to escape from the train-pipe; to release, he turns it to allow air
+to pass from the main or locomotive reservoir into the train-pipe,
+and thence into the car-reservoir. It is hardly necessary to say
+that the operation of the brake, which has been described for one
+car, is practically simultaneous throughout the train. The brakes
+on the driving-wheels of the engine are also automatically applied
+at the same time as those of the cars and the tender.
+
+In the plan on page 197 the several different positions of the
+handle of the engineer's valve are indicated, and among them the
+service-stop and the emergency-stop positions. The quickness of
+the stop can be to some degree controlled by the rapidity with
+which the air-pressure in the train-pipe is reduced. To make a
+stop in the shortest possible time, the runner moves the throttle
+lever with his right hand and shuts off steam, and with his left
+hand moves the handle of the engineer's valve to the emergency
+position, then pulls the sand-rod handle to let sand down to the
+rails, and finally, if the engine is not fitted with driver-brakes,
+he must reverse the engine and again open the throttle. These
+movements must be made in order and with precision; and to make
+them instantly and without mistake in the face of sudden danger
+requires coolness and presence of mind. It sometimes happens that
+an engine-runner reverses his engine before shutting off steam, in
+which case the cylinder-heads will very likely be blown out and the
+engine be instantly disabled. Then, if there are no driver-brakes,
+the locomotive is worse than useless, for instead of aiding in
+making the stop, its momentum adds to the work to be done by the
+train-brakes. Again, if the air-pressure in the brake-cylinders
+is so high, and the adjustment of the levers such that an instant
+application of the full pressure will stop the rotation of the
+wheels, and cause them to slide on the rails, the stop will take
+longer than if the wheels continued to revolve. The maximum
+braking effect is obtained when the pressure on the wheels is
+as great as it can be without causing them to slide, and it may
+happen that a quicker stop can be made by putting the engineer's
+valve to the service-stop position than by trying to make an
+emergency-stop. The runner must, therefore, be familiar with the
+special conditions of his brakes, and must have that kind of mind
+which can be depended upon to work clearly and quickly in a moment
+of tremendous responsibility. Fortunately, such minds are not very
+rare. The world is full of heroes who want only discipline, habit,
+and opportunity.
+
+The pressure of air in the main reservoir and the train-pipe is
+maintained by the air-pump on the locomotive, the speed of which
+is automatically regulated by an ingenious governor. It is the
+throbbing of this vigilant machine which one hears during short
+stops at stations. The air-pressure has been reduced in applying
+the brakes, and the governor has set the pump at work.
+
+All of those parts of the air-brake apparatus which are shown in
+the diagram (pp. 196-97) can be easily seen on a train standing
+at a station; but the curious traveller must be careful not to
+mistake the gas-tank carried under some cars for the car-reservoir.
+The gas-tank is about eight feet long; the car-reservoir is about
+thirty-three inches.
+
+Although the air-brake can almost talk, it is still not perfect.
+There are several fortunes to be made yet in improving it. For
+instance, it is desirable, in descending long and steep grades,
+that the brake-pressure should be just sufficient to control the
+speed of the train, and should be steadily applied; otherwise
+the descent will be by a succession of jerks which may become
+dangerous. With the automatic the brakes must be occasionally
+released to recharge the reservoirs, or when the speed of the train
+is too much reduced; and it is difficult to keep a uniform speed.
+So far, the means devised to overcome this difficulty and keep a
+constant and light pressure on the wheels have been thought too
+costly or complicated for general use. With hand-brakes long trains
+are controlled by the brakes of but a few of the cars in any one
+train. It follows that in the descent of grades the braked wheels
+must often run for miles with the pressure as great as it can be
+without sliding the wheels. The rim of the wheel is rapidly heated
+by the friction of the brake-shoe, and the unequal expansion of
+the heated and the unheated parts of the wheel causes a fracture.
+This is why so many broken car-wheels are found at the foot of
+grades--of all places the worst for such an accident to happen.
+With "straight air," that is, with the pressure from the main
+reservoir, or the air-pump, going directly to the brake-cylinder,
+the engineer can apply the brakes to all the wheels of his train
+simultaneously, and with great delicacy of graduation; and by
+turning a three-way cock which is placed in the piping of each
+car, the air can be used "straight." This is regularly done on
+some mountain-roads. At summits the trains are stopped and the
+brakes are changed from "automatic" to "straight." This practice is
+dangerous, however, and is not approved by the best brake-experts,
+for if a hose bursts, or through some other accident the air in
+the train-pipe escapes, the brakes are useless. The automatic
+arrangement by which a reduction of air-pressure in the train-pipe
+applies the brakes, as previously explained, is much preferred,
+although no entirely satisfactory means has yet been devised for
+automatically regulating the air-pressure in the brake-cylinder.
+
+There is not space here to enter into the history of the air-brake.
+It was first practically applied to passenger trains in 1868.
+The first great epoch in its subsequent development was the
+invention, by Mr. George Westinghouse, Jr., of the triple valve.
+The introduction of the triple valve at once reduced the time of
+full application of the brake for a ten-car train from twenty-five
+seconds to about eight seconds. This means, at forty miles an hour,
+a reduction by more than one thousand feet in the distance in which
+a train can be stopped. The next great epoch in the history of the
+air-brake was made by the celebrated Burlington brake-trials of
+1886 and 1887. These trials were undertaken by a committee of the
+Master Car-builders' Association, to determine whether or not there
+was any power-brake fit for freight service. For general freight
+service the brake must be capable of arresting a very long train,
+with cars loosely coupled, running at a fair average passenger
+speed, without producing objectionable shocks in the rear of the
+train. The two series of trials were carried out in July, 1886,
+and May, 1887. The competing brake-companies brought to the trials
+trains of fifty cars each, equipped with their devices. Skilled
+mechanical engineers from various railroad and private companies
+assisted both years. These trials were most exhaustive, and have
+contributed more to the art of braking than any that preceded or
+have followed them. The first year's trials developed the fact that
+the air-brakes could not be applied on the rear of a fifty-car
+train in less than eighteen seconds, whereas the head of a train
+moving twenty miles an hour could be completely stopped in fifteen
+seconds. The result was that disastrous collisions between the
+cars of any one train were produced in the act of stopping. Men in
+the rear cars were thrown down and injured, and much damage was
+done to the cars. At the end of nineteen days the brake-companies
+went home to work another year over the new problem. In 1887 they
+reappeared on the same ground, and in eighteen days proved that
+no simple air-brakes, as then operated, could prevent disastrous
+shocks in a long train; but it was shown that by bringing in
+electricity to actuate the air-valves, the application of the
+brakes could be made practically simultaneous throughout the train.
+Mr. Westinghouse, however, during the summer following, made such
+modifications in the triple valve and in the train-pipe that he
+succeeded in applying the brakes throughout a fifty-car train in
+two seconds. That settled the matter. He at once equipped a train
+of fifty cars, and in October and November, 1887, that train made
+a journey of about three thousand miles, making exhibition stops
+at various cities. The journey was a splendid and conclusive
+demonstration that the air-brake is now a thoroughly efficient
+and reliable contrivance for freight as well as for passenger
+service. The result has been a very rapid application of the new
+quick-acting brake to freight cars. The performance of this train
+was to railroad men most impressive. A freight train of fifty cars
+is about one-third of a mile long. To see such a train, running
+forty miles an hour, smoothly stopped in one-third of its own
+length, without shock or fuss, was an object-lesson that no one
+could fail to understand or to remember. Some of the stops made by
+this train will give a fair notion of the relative power of hand-
+and air-brakes for quick stops. The following figures are averages
+of stops made in six different cities. They give the distances run
+in feet from the instant of applying the brakes till the train was
+brought to a stand-still:
+
+                                               Feet.
+  Hand-brakes, 50 cars, 20 miles an hour        794
+  Air-brakes, 50 cars, 20 miles an hour         166
+  Air-brakes, 50 cars, 40 miles an hour         581
+  Air-brakes, 20 cars, 20 miles an hour          99
+
+With twenty cars at twenty miles an hour even shorter stops were
+made than those recorded above. In the Burlington trials the
+hand-brake stops, with fifty-car trains at forty miles an hour,
+were made in from two thousand five hundred to three thousand feet.
+
+[Illustration: Dwarf Semaphores and Split Switch.]
+
+The air-brake is somewhat complicated, but the complicated
+mechanism is strong, has little movement, and is securely protected
+from dirt and the elements. It is therefore little liable to
+derangement. It is, however, becoming better understood that
+brake-gear must be good, and employees carefully instructed in
+the care and use of the air-brake to get its best results; and in
+recent years two or three elaborate instruction-cars have been
+fitted up for the education of the enginemen and trainmen.
+
+Space does not permit more than an allusion to driver-brakes,
+which are operated by steam and by air. The forms in constant use
+are made by the Eames, the American, the Westinghouse, and the
+Beals companies. Nor can much be said here of the water-brake,
+used to some extent on locomotives working heavy grades. It
+consists of a simple arrangement of admitting a little hot water,
+instead of steam, to the cylinders. The engine is reversed and the
+cylinder-cocks are opened to the air. The cylinders then act as
+air-pumps, and the retarding effect is due to the back pressure.
+The use of the water is to prevent overheating of the parts.
+
+[Illustration: Semaphore Signal with Indicators.
+
+(One arm governs several tracks. The number of the track which is
+clear is shown on the indicator disk.)]
+
+If it is important to have efficient means of stopping trains,
+it is scarcely less important to have timely information of the
+need of stopping them. To give such information is the function
+of signals, which, among safety appliances, must stand next after
+brakes. Signals fall naturally into two great classes: Those which
+protect points of danger and govern the movements of engines in
+yards, and those which keep an interval of space between two trains
+running on one track. For the protection of switches, crossings,
+junctions, and the like, signals in immense variety have been used,
+and, unfortunately, are still used; but in the last ten or fifteen
+years the semaphore signal has become the general standard in the
+United States, as it long has been in England. This consists of a
+board, called the blade or arm, pivoted on the post, and back of
+the pivot is a heavy casting which carries a colored glass lens,
+either green or red. On the post is hung a lantern. The danger
+position is with the blade horizontal. In this position the lens is
+in front of the lamp, and the light shows red or green, as the case
+may be. The safety position is with the blade hanging about sixty
+degrees from the horizontal. In this position the light of the
+lantern shows white. Red is the universal danger color, and green
+the color of caution. Therefore, a semaphore signal at a point
+of danger shows by day a blade painted red, with the end of the
+blade cut square. At night it shows a red light. At a position some
+distance from the point of actual danger, but where it is desirable
+to warn an engine-runner that he is likely to find the danger
+signal against him, a caution signal is placed. This is a semaphore
+blade painted green, with the end notched in a V-shape, or, as it
+is called, a fish-tail. At night this signal shows a green light.
+There is nothing very remarkable about a piece of board arranged to
+wag up and down on a pin stuck through a post, but it is wonderful
+how much of good brains and good breath have been expended in
+getting these boards to wag harmoniously, and in getting railroad
+officers to understand that a plain board, having two possible
+positions, is a better signal than any more complicated form.
+
+[Illustration: Section of Saxby & Farmer Interlocking Machine.
+
+(Showing two levers and locking mechanism. _A_ is normal, _B_ is
+reversed.)]
+
+The arrangement of a group of signals and switches in such a way
+that their movements are made mutually dependent one upon the
+other, and so that it is impossible to make these movements in
+any but prearranged sequences, is called, in railroad vernacular,
+"interlocking," and in this sense the word will be used here.
+Interlocking has become a special art. The objects which it is
+sought to accomplish by interlocking, and the admirable way in
+which those objects are attained, may best be understood from an
+actual example. For that purpose we shall take a double-track
+junction completely equipped with signals, facing-point locks, and
+derailing switches (p. 205).
+
+A general view of an interlocking frame was given on page 171 of
+this volume. Two levers from such a frame are here shown. The
+normal position of the levers is forward, as lever _A_. When pulled
+back, as lever _B_, the lever is said to be reversed.
+
+Let it be supposed that a main-line train is to be passed eastward
+in the direction of the arrow _B_. The first movement of the
+signalman in the signal-tower would naturally be to lower signals
+1 and 2. He attempts to pull over lever 1, but cannot move it,
+and, in spite of any effort or ingenuity on his part, that signal
+remains at danger. The reason is that lever 2 when normal locks
+lever 1 normal. The logic of this will be at once apparent.
+Clearing signal 1 is an indication to the engineer that the way
+is clear, and that he may pass the junction at speed. So long as
+this signal (which, it must be remembered, is a _caution_ signal)
+stands at danger he knows that he may pass it, but must be ready to
+stop before he reaches No. 2, the home-signal. Therefore No. 1 must
+never be lowered till all is arranged for passing the junction at
+speed. As the signalman cannot lower signal 1, he attempts to lower
+signal 2. Again he finds that he cannot budge the lever. It is
+locked by lever No. 3. This lever works a facing-point lock, which
+must be described just at this point (p. 206).
+
+[Illustration: Diagram of a Double-track Junction with Interlocked
+Switches and Signals.
+
+_A_ is the west-bound main line track; _B_, the east-bound; _C_ and
+_D_ are the west-bound and east-bound branch-tracks. Nos. 1, 10,
+and 12 are distant signals; Nos. 2, 9, and 11, home signals; Nos.
+3, 6, and 8, facing-point locks; and Nos. 4, 5, and 7 are switches.
+The levers which move all of these parts are placed side by side
+in a frame in the signal-tower. It will be noticed that No. 7 is a
+switch designed merely to derail an engine on track A. A similar
+switch is provided on track _C_, and is worked by the same lever
+which works junction switch No. 5. In the sketch all levers are
+supposed to stand in their "normal" position, all signals are at
+danger, and the switches are set for the main line. The switches
+themselves are not locked in this position of the facing-point lock
+levers.]
+
+The front rod of the switch, that is, the rod which connects the
+points of the two moving rails of the switch, is pierced with
+two holes placed a distance apart just equal to the throw of the
+switch. In front of these holes is a bolt which is worked by a
+lever in the signal-tower. After the switch is set the lock-lever
+is reversed and the bolt enters one of the holes, thus securely
+locking the switch in position. There is one other interesting
+feature of this facing-point lock. It has happened very often
+that a switch has been thrown under a moving train, splitting the
+train and derailing more or less of it. This class of accidents is
+especially likely to happen when train movements are very frequent,
+and may be prevented by the use of the "detector-bar." This is a
+bar about forty feet long, placed alongside the rail, and carried
+on swinging links, like those of a parallel ruler, in such a way
+that any effort to move the bar lengthwise of the rail must raise
+it above the top of the rail. This bar is moved by the same lever
+which moves the locking-bolt. So long as there is a wheel on the
+rail above the detector-bar it cannot be moved, therefore the
+locking-bolt cannot be withdrawn, and the switch cannot be moved
+until the train has passed completely off it.
+
+[Illustration: Split Switches with Facing-point Locks and
+Detector-bars.
+
+(The rod on the right of the track is the mechanical connection to
+the lever in the signal-tower by which the locks and detector-bars
+are moved.)]
+
+[Illustration: Derailing Switch.]
+
+We left the signalman trying to lower signal No. 2; vainly, because
+No. 3 lever was still normal and the switch unlocked (Diagram,
+p. 205). Probably he would not have begun his operations in the
+bungling way that has been supposed, but would have first reversed
+lever 3. That locks the switch by the facing-point lock, and locks
+also switch-lever 4 in the frame in the signal-tower and releases
+lever 2. Then he reverses lever 2. That locks lever 3 and releases
+lever 1. Then he reverses lever 1, which locks lever 2. Now the way
+is made for a train to pass east on the main line, and the signals
+are clear. The last signal could not have been lowered until the
+chain of operations was complete; none of the levers can now be
+moved until lever 1 is again put normal and signal 1 made to show
+danger. There is one point of great danger in this particular
+train-movement which has not been mentioned; that is, the crossing
+of main-line east-bound track _B_ by the branch-line west-bound
+track _C_. It will be noticed that with the levers normal,
+derailing switch 5 is open, and it is impossible for a locomotive
+to pass beyond it. Lever 5 is interlocked in the tower with lever
+4 in such a way that, before 5 can be reversed to let a train pass
+west from _C_, lever 4 must be reversed to trap any train on _B_
+and turn it down the branch _D_. It must not be understood that the
+use of "derailers" is universal. In fact, they are not recommended
+by the best signal engineers, except in special conditions. In the
+absence of derailer No. 5, signals 11 and 12 would be interlocked
+with switch 4, so that, so long as that switch stands open for the
+main line a clear signal cannot be given to a train coming west
+on _C_. It will be noticed that signal 2 carries two semaphores
+on one post. The upper one is for the main line and the lower one
+for the branch. Both are operated by one lever, 2, and whether
+reversing lever 2 lowers the main-line signal or the branch signal
+depends on the position of the switch. The switch is made to pick
+out its signal by an ingenious but very simple little arrangement,
+called a selector, which is placed somewhere in the line of ground
+connections.
+
+It would be an interesting study, were there space, to follow
+the possible and proper combinations of movements to pass trains
+over the various tracks. It will be seen that, by concentrating
+the levers which move switches and signals in one place and
+interlocking them, it is made mechanically impossible for a
+signalman to give a signal which would lead to a collision or a
+derailment within the region under his control. The only danger
+at such points is that an engineer may overrun the signals. This
+description of the objects and the capacity of the system of
+interlocking is no fancy sketch. The system has been in use for
+many years, doing just what has been here described, and more. A
+recent close estimate gave the number of interlocked levers now in
+use in the United States as about eight thousand, and the number
+is rapidly increasing. Recent official reports showed that in
+Great Britain and Ireland there were thirty-eight thousand cases
+in which a passenger line was connected with or crossed by another
+line, siding, or cross-over. In eighty-nine per cent. of these
+cases the levers operating the switches and protecting signals were
+interlocked.
+
+The example of interlocking which has been given is one of the
+simplest; the principle is capable of almost indefinite expansion,
+and any one lever may be made to lock any one or more levers among
+hundreds in the same frame. The greatest number of levers assembled
+in any one signal-tower in this country is one hundred and sixteen,
+at the Grand Central Station in New York. In the London Bridge
+tower there are two hundred and eighty levers. This is probably the
+greatest number in any one tower in the world. All of these levers
+may be more or less interlocked. The same principle is applied to
+the locking of two levers at a single switch, and to the protection
+of drawbridges and highway crossings.
+
+The mechanism by which the interlocking is done is strong and
+comparatively simple, but a detailed description of it seems out
+of place here. Two levers from a Saxby & Farmer machine are shown
+on page 204, with lever _A_ normal and _B_ reversed. The locking
+mechanism is in front of the levers, and is actuated not by the
+levers themselves, but by their catch-rods. It follows that it is
+not the actual movement of a signal which prevents the movement of
+other signals, or of switches, but it is the intention to move that
+signal. This principle of "preliminary locking" is one of great
+importance.
+
+Switches and signals are often worked at such distances from the
+tower that it is impossible for the operator to know whether or
+not the movement contemplated has taken place. The British Board
+of Trade does not permit switches to be worked more than 750 feet
+away. In this country there is no limit, but probably 800 feet is
+very rarely exceeded. Signals are worked in England up to 3,000 or
+3,500 feet very commonly, and they are even worked a mile away,
+but not satisfactorily. This is with direct mechanical connection,
+by rod or wire, from the levers. It is obvious that a break in the
+connections between the lever and the switch or signal might take
+place, and the lever be pulled over, without having produced the
+corresponding movement at the far end. The locking mechanism in the
+tower would not be affected by such an accident, and consequently
+conflicting signals might be given. Even this contingency is
+provided against with almost perfect safety. If a signal connection
+breaks, the signal is counter-weighted to go to danger. The worst
+that can happen is to delay traffic. If a switch connection breaks,
+the locking-bolt, in the latest form of facing-point lock, will not
+enter the hole in the switch-rod, and consequently warning is given
+in the tower that the switch has not moved. Electric annunciators
+are often placed in the signal-tower, to show on a board before the
+operator whether or not the movements of switches and signals have
+taken place.
+
+Considerable work must be done in the movement of each lever.
+The ground connections must be put down with great care, as
+nearly straight and level as may be, well drained, and protected
+from ice and snow. All of these difficulties have been overcome
+in a beautiful pneumatic interlocking apparatus which has been
+introduced within the last two or three years. In this system
+the motive power is compressed air. Near each switch is a small
+cylinder, containing a piston which is attached directly to the
+switch movement. Compressed air admitted to one side or the other
+of this piston moves the switch one way or the other. But, as it
+would take some time for the necessary quantity of air to flow
+from the signal-tower to a distant switch, a small reservoir
+is placed near the switch, and the air from this reservoir is
+admitted to one end or the other of the switch cylinder according
+to the position of a valve. For transmitting the motion from the
+tower to the valve compressed air might be used, but, as air is
+elastic, a quicker movement is got by using in the pipes some
+liquid which does not readily freeze, and which, being practically
+non-compressible, transmits an impulse given at one end almost
+instantly to the other. The signals are worked in essentially the
+same manner as the switches, except that the pneumatic valves are
+moved by electricity. The tower apparatus of a pneumatic system in
+the yard of the Pennsylvania Railroad at Pittsburg is shown in the
+engraving opposite. In the front of the apparatus is seen a rank
+of small handles, which can be turned from side to side with as
+much ease as the keys of a piano can be depressed. Turning one of
+these handles admits compressed air to the end of a pipe containing
+liquid. Instantly the pressure is transmitted 500 or 1,000 feet
+to the valve at the switch to be moved. The small levers are
+interlocked perfectly, and in that particular perform the duties of
+the ordinary machine. A model of the tracks controlled is placed
+before the operator, showing the switches and signals, and when
+a movement is made on the ground it is at once repeated back by
+electricity and duplicated on the model. This beautiful system is
+due to the same genius that gave us the perfected air-brake and the
+triple valve, and is the greatest improvement that has been made in
+interlocking in the last dozen years.
+
+[Illustration: Interlocking Apparatus for Operating Switches and
+Signals by Compressed Air, Pittsburg Yards, Pennsylvania Railroad.
+
+(A model of the track is shown above the levers, on which the
+movements of the switches and signals are electrically indicated
+after they are completed.)]
+
+[Illustration: Torpedo Placer.
+
+(The torpedo is carried forward by the plunger and exploded by the
+depression of the hammer shown near the rail.)]
+
+If the reader has grasped the full significance of interlocking, he
+understands that it makes it impossible to give a signal that would
+lead to a collision or to a derailment at a misplaced switch. The
+worst that a stupid, or drunken, or malicious signalman could do
+would be to delay traffic, if the signals were obeyed. Here comes
+in the failing case. The brake-power may be insufficient to stop a
+train after a danger signal is given. That is a rare occurrence,
+but may happen. The engineer may not see the danger signal because
+of fog, or he may carelessly run past it. Provision against a
+failure to see and to obey a signal may be made by placing on the
+track a torpedo, which will explode with a loud report when struck
+by a wheel. The use of hand-torpedoes in fogs, and for emergencies
+in places unprovided with fixed signals, is very common. These are
+little disks filled with a detonating powder, and provided with
+tin straps that are bent down to clasp over the top of the rail.
+A simple and very efficient torpedo machine, which has been used
+for some years on the Manhattan Elevated and elsewhere, is here
+shown. This machine has a magazine holding five torpedoes. It is
+connected to a signal-lever in such a way that, when the signal is
+put to danger, one torpedo is placed in a position to be exploded
+by the first passing wheel. When the signal returns to the clear
+position the torpedo, if unexploded, is withdrawn to the magazine.
+If the torpedo is exploded another one takes its place at the next
+movement of the signal-lever. One of these machines on the Elevated
+Road moves about five thousand times every day. In such a case a
+torpedo would soon be worn out if it was not exploded or frequently
+changed. When this apparatus is in operation, an unmistakable
+alarm is at once given to the engineer and to others if a danger
+signal is passed. On the Manhattan Elevated lines an engineman who
+overruns a danger signal and can show no good reason for it is
+suspended for the first offence, and discharged for the second. The
+torpedo makes it impossible for him to escape detection.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: Old Signal Tower on the Philadelphia & Reading, at
+Phœnixville.]
+
+The second great class of signals comprises those which are
+intended to keep fixed intervals of space between trains running
+on the same track. These are block signals. The block system is
+used on a few of the railroads of the United States which have
+the heaviest and fastest traffic. Much the most common practice
+in this country, however, is to run trains by time intervals, and
+under the constant control of the train despatcher. In England the
+block system is almost universal. About ninety per cent. of all the
+passenger lines of that country are worked under the absolute block
+system.
+
+When the block system is not used, it is quite common to protect
+particularly dangerous points, such as curves and deep cuts, by
+stationing watchmen there with flags or with some form of fixed
+signal. The watchman can notify an approaching engine-runner that
+a preceding train has or has not passed beyond his own range of
+vision; or can notify him that it has been gone a certain time.
+Travellers by the Philadelphia & Reading must have noticed the
+queer structures, with revolving vanes on top, looking like a
+feeble sort of windmill, which appear in positions to command a
+view of cuts, curves, etc. These are examples of the devices for
+local protection. The non-automatic block signal develops naturally
+from the protection of scattered points. Instead of placing
+watchmen at points of especial danger, they are placed at regular
+intervals of one mile, two miles, or five miles. Instead of the
+watchman looking to see that a train has disappeared from his field
+of vision before he lets another train pass, he uses the eyes of
+the next watchman ahead, who telegraphs back that the train has
+passed his station. Suppose A, B, and C to be three block-signal
+stations placed at intervals of two miles. When a train passes A,
+the operator at that point at once puts a signal to danger behind
+it. This signal stands at danger until the train passes B, and
+the operator puts his signal to danger, and telegraphs back to A
+to announce that train No. 1 has passed out of the block A B, and
+is protected by the signal at B. Then, and not until then, the
+operator clears the signal at A and allows train No. 2 to enter
+the block. Meanwhile train No. 1 is proceeding through the block
+B C, its rear protected at B; and the same sequence of events
+happens when it arrives at C as happened at B. This is the simplest
+form of block signalling. In the more elaborate form there are at
+each block-station three signals--the distant, the home, and the
+starting. The signals are often electrically interlocked, from
+one station to another, in such a way that it is mechanically
+impossible for the operator at A to give a signal for a train to
+pass that station until the signal at B has been put to danger
+behind the preceding train.
+
+  A             B             C
+  -----------------------------
+
+It is seen that no two trains can be in the same block and on the
+same track at the same time. If all run at a uniform speed, they
+will be kept just the length of a block apart. If No. 2 is faster
+than No. 1, it will arrive at B before No. 1 gets to C, but will
+have to wait there. The block system, therefore, while it gives
+security, does not always facilitate traffic. The longer the blocks
+the greater will be the delay to trains; but the shorter the
+blocks, the greater the cost of establishment, maintenance, and
+operation.
+
+Various systems have been contrived to have block signals displayed
+automatically by the passage of trains. This, if it can be done
+reliably, will do away with the wages of part of the operators, and
+will also eliminate the dangers arising from human carelessness.
+But there are very great objections to relying solely upon the
+automatic action of signals, and automatic block signals are little
+used except as auxiliary to a system employing operators also.
+So used, they are of decided advantage, as they make sure that a
+danger signal is set behind every train in spite of the operator,
+and that it cannot be again set to the all-clear position till the
+train has passed out of the block. All this is accomplished by
+electricity.
+
+Brakes, interlocking, and the apparatus of signalling have been
+considered at length because they are very much the most important
+of all the appliances which go to increase the safety of operating
+railroads. They act chiefly to prevent collisions, but often
+prevent or mitigate accidents from derailments and other causes.
+Of all train-accidents happening in the last sixteen years, over
+one-third have been from collisions, and more than one-half from
+derailments.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: Crossing Gates worked by Mechanical Connection from
+the Cabin.]
+
+After brakes and signals, the devices next in importance as means
+of saving life are those for the protection of highway crossings
+at the grade of railroads. In years to come, as wealth increases
+and as traffic becomes more crowded, we may suppose there will
+be few such crossings; but their abolition must be slow, and
+meantime the loss of life at them is great. The most accurate and
+complete statistics bearing on this matter are those collected
+by the Railroad Commissioners of Massachusetts. In 1888, of all
+those killed in the operation of the railroads of the State, seven
+per cent. were passengers, thirty-three per cent. were employees,
+and sixty per cent. were others. The others include trespassers,
+forty-seven per cent.; and killed at grade crossings, eleven per
+cent. More trespassers were killed than any other class; but the
+deaths at highway crossings considerably exceeded those among
+passengers. The difficulty of preventing this class of accidents
+is strikingly shown by the fact that, of all crossing accidents,
+forty-two per cent. were due to the victims' disregard of warnings
+given by closed gates or flags. It is evident that the efforts of
+the railroad companies to save people's lives at crossings are
+largely nullified by the carelessness of the public, and the lack
+of proper laws to punish those who venture upon railroad tracks
+when they should keep off them. Still, it remains the duty and
+the policy of the railroads to protect street crossings by all
+practicable means. The best protection is afforded by gates with
+watchmen, and of all forms of gate the most common, because it
+is the simplest and most convenient to operate, is the familiar
+arm-gate. This is usually worked by a man turning a crank, but it
+is also worked by compressed air. On this page is shown a group of
+gates worked from an elevated cabin by a mechanical connection. A
+bell fixed at a crossing, to be rung by an approaching train, is a
+very useful auxiliary to gates and to watchmen with flags, and is
+considerably used where the traffic does not warrant the expense
+of maintaining a watchman. There are several good devices of this
+sort, either electric or magneto-electric. One of the latter class
+has a lever alongside the rail, which is depressed by each wheel
+that passes over it. This lever is geared to a fly-wheel, which
+is set rapidly revolving and causes an armature to revolve in the
+field of a magnet, and thus generates a current and rings a gong,
+precisely as is done with the familiar magnetic bell used with the
+telephone.
+
+[Illustration: Some Results of a Butting Collision--Baggage and
+Passenger Cars Telescoped.]
+
+[Illustration: Wreck at a Bridge.]
+
+About thirteen per cent. of the train-accidents in the United
+States, in the last sixteen years, were derailments due to defects
+of road. These include not only defective rails, switches, and
+frogs, but bridge wrecks. There are, however, few devices used in
+the track, other than those already mentioned, that can be called
+safety appliances. This class of accidents is to be provided
+against only by good material, good workmanship, and unceasing
+care. Many so-called safety switches and safety frogs are offered
+to railroad officers, but those actually in wide use are confined
+to a very few standard forms. The split-switch, which is shown in
+the engravings on pages 206 and 207, has gradually replaced the old
+stub-switch, as well as most of the "safety" switches that have
+been from time to time introduced; although the stub-switch is
+still in considerable use in yards where movements are slow, and
+in the main tracks of the less progressive roads. It consists of a
+pair of moving rails the ends of which are brought opposite to the
+ends of the main-line rails, or to those of the turnout, as the
+case may be. It follows that but one of these tracks is continuous
+at any one time, and a train reaching the switch by the other
+track must be derailed. The distressing accident which happened at
+Rio, Wis., in 1886, where seventeen people lost their lives, was
+a derailment of this sort. Since that time the railroad on which
+the accident happened has taken out all stub-switches on thousands
+of miles of main-line track. The split-switch provides against
+such derailments, for if the switch is set for the turnout, and a
+train approaches it from the main line in the "trailing" direction,
+the flanges of the wheels move the switch-rails to make the track
+continuous. The terms "facing" and "trailing," as applied to
+switches, are almost self-explanatory. If a train approaches toward
+the points of the moving rails, the switch is said to be facing. If
+it runs through the switch from the rear of the moving rails, the
+switch is said to be trailing. This will be made clear by reference
+to the illustration on page 206. If a train were coming from the
+bridge, the first switch reached by it would be a trailing and
+the second a facing switch. In the newspaper reports an accident
+will very often be assigned to one of two causes, failure of the
+air-brakes or spreading of the rails. The chances are that it will
+be found on investigation to be due to neither of these causes.
+Those interested to maintain the credit of the air-brake or of the
+track department are not often on the ground when the reporter
+gets his information, and the temptation is always great to shift
+the responsibility to the shoulders of the absent. Probably
+the displacement of the rail will have taken place after the
+derailment; but rails do sometimes spread. Loose spikes and rotten
+ties allow the outer edge of the rail-flange to sink into the wood,
+and the rail to roll outward enough to let the wheels drop. Sound
+ties are the first safeguard against such accidents. Metal plates
+under the rails are useful also; but one of the most efficient
+means of preventing displacement of the rails is the interlocking
+bolt shown above. These bolts cross in the timber, and slots cut
+in the two bolts engage with each other in such a way that when
+the nuts are screwed down on the rail-flange it is impossible to
+pull the bolts out. They can only be moved by tearing through the
+wood contained in the angle between them. This bolt is much used
+on bridges and trestles, where it is of vital importance that the
+rails should be held in place and no part of the floor broken.
+
+[Illustration: New South Norwalk Drawbridge. Rails held by safety
+bolts.]
+
+In 1853 an express train went through an open draw at South
+Norwalk, Conn., and forty-six lives were lost. This, one of the
+most serious railroad accidents that ever happened, is still
+remembered as an historical calamity. The bridge which stands on
+the same site is shown opposite. In May, 1888, a west-bound express
+train, consisting of an engine and seven cars, was derailed just as
+it was entering the draw-span. The train ran three hundred feet on
+the sleepers before it was stopped. Then it was found that all of
+the driving-wheels of the engine had regained the rails, but all
+the other wheels were off, except those of two sleeping-cars in the
+rear. This was a remarkable escape from a bad accident, and much
+of the credit of it has been given to the interlocking bolts with
+which the rails were fastened. They are supposed to have prevented
+the rails being crowded aside, and thus to have made possible the
+rerailing of the engine. Besides, they helped the oak guard-timbers
+to hold the ties in place. The destruction of a bridge in an
+accident frequently begins by the ties bunching in front of the
+wheels and allowing the wheels to drop through and strike the
+floor-beams below. For this reason guard-timbers, notched down over
+the ties, should always be used.
+
+[Illustration: Engines Wrecked during the Great Wabash Strike.]
+
+The traveller will have noticed, on all bridges of various roads,
+two rails placed inside the track-rails, and curved to meet in
+a point at either end of the bridge. These are known as inside
+guard-rails, and their function is to keep derailed trucks in line
+till the train can be stopped. Besides the bunching of the ties,
+there is danger in a bridge derailment that a truck may swing
+around and strike one of the trusses. Then the bridge is very
+likely to be wrecked. A further provision for the protection of
+bridges is the rerailing frog invented by the late Charles Latimer,
+whose name is dear to railroad men all over America. This consists
+of a pair of castings combined with inside guard-rails, designed
+to raise the derailed wheels and guide them on to the rails. There
+is no doubt that it has prevented several wrecks, although it has
+never been widely used. The subject of bridges should not be left
+without a word of explanation of the stout timber-posts often seen
+at either end placed in line with the trusses. These are designed
+to stop any derailed vehicle which might otherwise strike against
+and destroy a truss.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+There is one track-fixture that has no duty or value except as
+it promotes safety. It helps only one humble class of railroad
+employees. That device is the foot-guard. At all places where two
+rails cross or approach each other, as at frogs and guard-rails,
+dangerous boot-jacks are formed by the rail-heads. The overhang of
+the heads of the rail makes it easy for one to so fasten his foot
+in one of those boot-jacks that it is hard to get it out. If a man
+finds himself in this position in front of an approaching train, he
+sometimes has the alternative of standing up to be struck by the
+engine or lying down and having his foot cut off. Fortunately this
+class of accidents is comparatively rare; probably not more than
+two or three per cent. of all deaths and injuries to passengers
+and employees is caused in this way. Nevertheless, the means of
+guarding against accidents of this class is so cheap that it should
+be more generally adopted than it is. It consists simply in partly
+filling the space between the rail-heads by putting in wooden
+blocks or strips of metal, or even packing with cinders, gravel, or
+any sort of ballast. Various wooden and metal foot-guards have been
+patented. They are all too simple to require description.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: Link-and-pin Coupler.]
+
+Of all accidents to employees the most numerous are those which
+arise in coupling and uncoupling cars. In Massachusetts, in 1888,
+the employees killed and injured were 391; of these casualties
+154 occurred in coupling accidents. The commissioners of other
+States, especially of Iowa, have for years published statistics
+showing nearly the same ratio. Fortunately accidents of this class,
+although numerous, are not proportionately fatal. Far the greater
+part of them result in the loss of part of a hand; but they are
+so frequent as to have caused much discussion, legislation, and
+invention. Several States have, one time and another, passed laws
+requiring the use of automatic couplers; and two or three years
+ago there were on record in the United States over four thousand
+coupler patents. The laws have been futile because impracticable;
+and most of the patents have been worthless for the same reason.
+It was obvious that the business of supplying couplers for the
+one million freight cars of the country could not be put into
+the hands of some one patentee unless his device was manifestly
+and pre-eminently superior to all others. It became important,
+therefore, to select as a standard some type of coupler general
+enough to include the patents of various men, and at the same time
+so definite that all couplers made to conform to the standard
+could work together interchangeably. Those who read Mr. Voorhees'
+story[21] of the wanderings of a freight car will understand
+that any one freight car in the United States or Canada should
+be prepared to run in the same train with any other car. A few
+years ago a committee of the Master Car-builders' Association was
+appointed to choose and recommend a type of coupler to be adopted
+as the standard of the association. After prolonged and careful
+study of the subject, the committee recommended the type of which
+the Janney is the best known example, and that has now become the
+standard of the association. This action does not give a monopoly
+to the Janney company, as there are already half a dozen couplers
+which conform to the type. This coupler is shown by diagrams in the
+article by M. N. Forney, page 142. A perspective view is herewith
+given. This device couples automatically, and thus does away with
+the necessity for the brakeman going between the cars. It can also
+be unlocked by the rod shown extending to the side of the car,
+and the locking device can be set not to couple, to facilitate
+switching and yard work. The mechanical principles of this coupler
+are a great and important improvement upon any form of link-and-pin
+coupler; and the coupler question has now come to this point: A
+type of coupler has been selected by a technical body representing
+most of the railroads of the United States. It is general enough to
+avoid the evils of a patent monopoly. It promises to be economical
+in operation, and will certainly do away with the terrible loss
+of life and limb which results from the use of the non-automatic
+coupler. The railroads are adopting it with reasonable speed,
+perhaps, but not as rapidly as simple considerations of humanity
+would dictate.
+
+[Illustration: Janney Automatic Coupler applied to a Freight Car.]
+
+Closely related to the coupler is the vestibule, which within
+the last two years has become so fashionable. The vestibule
+is not merely a luxury, but has a certain value as a safety
+device.[22] The full measure of this value has not yet been proved.
+Occasionally lives are lost by passengers falling from or being
+blown from the platforms of moving trains. Such accidents the
+vestibule will prevent, and, further, it decreases the oscillation
+of the cars, and thus to some degree helps to prevent derailment.
+It is also some protection against telescoping. A few months ago a
+coal train on a double-track road was derailed, and four cars were
+thrown across in front of a solid vestibule train of seven Pullman
+cars approaching on the other track. The engine of the vestibuled
+train was completely wrecked. Even the sheet-iron jacket was
+stripped off it. The engineer and fireman were instantly killed,
+but not another person on the train was injured. They escaped
+partly because the cars were strong, and partly, doubtless, because
+the vestibules helped to keep the platforms on the same level and
+in line, and thus to prevent crushing of the ends of the cars.
+
+[Illustration: Signals at Night.]
+
+The number of passengers burned in wrecks is greatly exaggerated
+in the public mind; but that fate is so horrible that it is
+not wonderful that "the deadly car-stove" should be the object
+of persistent and energetic attacks by the press and in State
+legislatures. The result has been the development, in the last
+three years, of the entirely new business of inventing and
+trying to sell systems of heating by steam or hot water from the
+locomotive, and even by electricity. In fact, the manufacture of
+such apparatus has already become an industry of some importance,
+several thousand cars being equipped with it. This whole matter
+of steam-heating is still in a somewhat crude state, and it
+does not seem desirable to force it by legislation. It has been
+demonstrated that it is the cheapest way of heating trains, and the
+most easily regulated; and it has become a good advertisement to
+attract passengers. Consequently the whole subject may be safely
+left in the hands of the railroad companies, and allowed to develop
+itself naturally in a business way. There is not yet any system
+of continuous heating so perfected that a railroad company could
+without hardship be compelled to adopt it for all its passenger
+equipment.
+
+Fires in wrecked trains have originated probably quite as often
+from kerosene lamps as from the stoves. The danger of fire from
+this source, and the desire to give passengers the luxury of
+sufficient light, have led to methods of lighting by gas and,
+more recently by electricity. Lighting by compressed gas ceased
+years ago to be an experiment. In Germany it is almost universal,
+but in this country it has been brought into use very slowly. The
+system is almost absolutely safe, not unreasonably expensive, and
+may be made to give satisfactory and even brilliant illumination;
+but the ideal light for railroad trains will probably be found in
+electricity. It is even safer than gas, and is the most adaptable
+of any known method of lighting. Some sleeping-cars that have
+been recently put in service on the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul
+Railway are provided with small electric lamps in the sides of the
+car, between each two adjoining seats, so that the occupants can
+read comfortably either when sitting in their seats or lying in
+their berths.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It is not to be supposed that so large a subject as that of safety
+appliances can be exhaustively treated within the limits of one
+article. It has been thought best, therefore, to give most of the
+space available to the two or three devices of greatest and most
+useful application. There remain various others that are in daily
+use, and that have important offices, which have not even been
+mentioned. If the reader has gleaned from these very incomplete
+notes some clearer notions than he had before of the means by which
+the power of the locomotive is guided into safe and useful paths,
+the writer's object has been accomplished.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[20] The statistics of train accidents used in this article are
+those collected and published monthly for many years by the
+_Railroad Gazette_. In the nature of things such statistics cannot
+be absolutely accurate, but no others are in existence for the
+whole country. These are sufficiently accurate for all practical
+purposes.
+
+[21] See "The Freight-car Service," page 267.
+
+[22] See "Railway Passenger Travel," page 249.
+
+
+
+
+RAILWAY PASSENGER TRAVEL.
+
+BY HORACE PORTER.
+
+  The Earliest Railway Passenger Advertisement--The First
+  Time-table Published in America--The Mohawk and Hudson
+  Train--Survival of Stage-coach Terms in English Railway
+  Nomenclature--Simon Cameron's Rash Prediction--Discomforts
+  of Early Cars--Introduction of Air-brakes, Patent Buffers
+  and Couplers, the Bell-cord, and Interlocking Switches--The
+  First Sleeping-cars--Mr. Pullman's Experiments--The
+  "Pioneer"--Introduction of Parlor and Drawing-room
+  Cars--The Demand for Dining-cars--Ingenious Devices for
+  Heating Cars--Origin of Vestibule-cars--An Important Safety
+  Appliance--The Luxuries of a Limited Express--Fast Time in
+  America and England--Sleeping-cars for Immigrants--The Village
+  of Pullman--The Largest Car-works in the World--Baggage-checks
+  and Coupon Tickets--Conveniences in a Modern Depot--Statistics
+  in Regard to Accidents--Proportion of Passengers in Various
+  Classes--Comparison of Rates in the Leading Countries of the
+  World.
+
+
+From the time when Puck was supposed to utter his boast to put a
+girdle round about the earth in forty minutes to the time when
+Jules Verne's itinerant hero accomplished the task in twice that
+number of days, the restless ingenuity and energy of man have
+been unceasingly taxed to increase the speed, comfort, and safety
+of passenger travel. The first railway on which passengers were
+carried was the "Stockton & Darlington," of England, the distance
+being 12 miles. It was opened September 27, 1825, with a freight
+train, or, as it is called in England, a "goods" train, but which
+also carried a number of excursionists. An engine which was the
+result of many years of labor and experiment on the part of
+George Stephenson was used on this train. Stephenson mounted it
+and acted as driver; his bump of caution was evidently largely
+developed, for, to guard against accidents from the recklessness of
+the speed, he arranged to have a signalman on horse-back ride in
+advance of the engine to warn the luckless trespasser of the fate
+which awaited him if he should get in the way of a train moving
+with such a startling velocity. The next month, October, it was
+decided that it would be worth while to attempt the carrying of
+passengers, and a daily "coach," modelled after the stage-coach
+and called the "Experiment," was put on, Monday, October 10, 1825,
+which carried six passengers inside and from fifteen to twenty
+outside. The engine with its light load made the trip in about two
+hours. The fare from Stockton to Darlington was one shilling, and
+each passenger was allowed fourteen pounds of baggage. The limited
+amount of baggage will appear to the ladies of the present day as
+niggardly in the extreme, but they must recollect that the bandbox
+was then the popular form of portmanteau for women, the Saratoga
+trunk had not been invented, and the muscular baggage-smasher of
+modern times had not yet set out upon his career of destruction.
+The advertisement which was published in the newspapers of the day
+is here given, and is of peculiar interest as announcing the first
+successful attempt to carry passengers by rail.
+
+[Illustration: Stockton & Darlington Engine and Car.]
+
+[Illustration: (Sign for S. & D. Railway Coach)]
+
+The Liverpool & Manchester road was opened in 1829. The first
+train was hauled by an improved engine called the "Rocket,"
+which attained a speed of 25 miles an hour, and some records put
+it as high as 35 miles. This speed naturally attracted marked
+attention in the mechanical world, and first demonstrated the
+superior advantages of railways for passenger travel. Only four
+years before, so eminent a writer upon railways as Wood had said:
+"Nothing can do more harm to the adoption of railways than the
+promulgation of such nonsense as that we shall see locomotives
+travelling at the rate of 12 miles an hour."
+
+America was quick to adopt the railway system which had had its
+origin in England. In 1827 a crude railway was opened between
+Quincy and Boston, but it was only for the purpose of transporting
+granite for the Bunker Hill Monument. It was not until August,
+1829, that a locomotive engine was used upon an American railroad
+suitable for carrying passengers. This road was constructed by the
+Delaware & Hudson Canal Company, and the experiment was made near
+Honesdale, Pa. The engine was imported from England and was called
+the "Stourbridge Lion."
+
+In May, 1830, the first division of the Baltimore & Ohio road was
+opened. It extended from Baltimore to Ellicott's Mills, a distance
+of 15 miles. There being a scarcity of cars, the regular passenger
+business did not begin till the 5th of July following, and then
+only horse-power was employed, which continued to be used till the
+road was finished to Frederick, in 1832. The term Relay House,
+the name of a well-known station, originated in the fact that the
+horses were changed at that place.
+
+The following notice, which appeared in the Baltimore newspapers,
+was the first time-table for passenger railway trains published in
+this country:
+
+
+RAILROAD NOTICE.
+
+  A sufficient number of cars being now provided for the
+  accommodation of passengers, notice is hereby given that the
+  following arrangements for the arrival and departure of carriages
+  have been adopted, and will take effect on and after Monday
+  morning next the 5th instant, viz.:
+
+  A brigade of cars will leave the depot on Pratt St. at 6 and 10
+  o'clock A. M., and at 3 to 4 o'clock P. M., and will leave the
+  depot at Ellicott's Mills at 6 and 8½ o'clock A. M., and at 12½
+  and 6 P. M.
+
+  Way passengers will provide themselves with tickets at the office
+  of the Company in Baltimore, or at the depots at Pratt St. and
+  Ellicott's Mills, or at the Relay House, near Elk Ridge Landing.
+
+  The evening way car for Ellicott's Mills will continue to leave
+  the depot, Pratt St., at 6 o'clock P. M. as usual.
+
+  N. B. Positive orders have been issued to the drivers to receive
+  no passengers into any of the cars without tickets.
+
+  P. S. Parties desiring to engage a car for the day can be
+  accommodated after July 5th.
+
+It will be seen that the word train was not used, but instead the
+schedule spoke of a "brigade of cars."
+
+The South Carolina Railroad was begun about the same time as the
+Baltimore & Ohio, and ran from Charleston to Hamburg, opposite
+Augusta. When the first division had been constructed, it was
+opened November 2, 1830.
+
+Peter Cooper, of New York, had before this constructed a locomotive
+and made a trial trip with it on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, on
+the 28th of August, 1830, but, not meeting the requirements of the
+company, it was not put into service.
+
+[Illustration: Mohawk & Hudson Train.]
+
+A passenger train of the Mohawk & Hudson Railroad which was put
+on in October, 1831, between Albany and Schenectady, attracted
+much attention. It was hauled by an English engine named the "John
+Bull," and driven by an English engineer named John Hampson. This
+is generally regarded as the first fully equipped passenger train
+hauled by a steam-power engine which ran in regular service in
+America. During 1832 it carried an average of 387 passengers daily.
+The accompanying engraving is from a sketch made at the time.
+
+It was said by an advocate of mechanical evolution that the
+modern steam fire-engine was evolved from the ancient leathern
+fire-bucket; it might be said with greater truth that the modern
+railway car has been evolved from the old-fashioned English
+stage-coach.
+
+England still retains the railway carriage divided into
+compartments, that bear a close resemblance inside and outside
+to stage-coach bodies with the middle seat omitted. In fact,
+the nomenclature of the stage-coach is in large measure still
+preserved in England. The engineer is called the driver, the
+conductor the guard, the ticket-office is the booking-office, the
+cars are the carriages, and a rustic traveller may still be heard
+occasionally to object to sitting with his back to the horses. The
+earlier locomotives, like horses, were given proper names, such
+as Lion, North Star, Fiery, and Rocket; the compartments in the
+round-houses for sheltering locomotives are termed the stalls, and
+the keeper of the round-house is called the hostler. The last two
+are the only items of equine classification which the American
+railway system has permanently adopted.
+
+[Illustration: English Railway Carriage, Midland Road. First and
+Third Class and Luggage Compartments.]
+
+America, at an early day, departed not only from the nomenclature
+of the turnpike, but from the stage-coach architecture, and adopted
+a long car in one compartment and containing a middle aisle which
+admitted of communication throughout the train. The car was carried
+on two trucks, or bogies, and was well adapted to the sharp
+curvature which prevailed upon our railways.
+
+The first five years of experience showed marked progress in the
+practical operation of railway trains, but even after locomotives
+had demonstrated their capabilities and each improved engine had
+shown an encouraging increase in velocity, the wildest flights of
+fancy never pictured the speed attained in later years.
+
+[Illustration: One of the Earliest Passenger Cars Built in this
+Country; used on the Western Railroad of Massachusetts (now the
+Boston & Albany).]
+
+When the roads forming the line between Philadelphia and
+Harrisburg, Pa., were chartered in 1835, and town meetings were
+held to discuss their practicability, the Honorable Simon Cameron,
+while making a speech in advocacy of the measure, was so far
+carried away by his enthusiasm as to make the rash prediction that
+there were persons within the sound of his voice who would live to
+see a passenger take his breakfast in Harrisburg and his supper in
+Philadelphia on the same day. A friend of his on the platform said
+to him after he had finished: "That's all very well, Simon, to tell
+to the boys, but you and I are no such infernal fools as to believe
+it." They both lived to travel the distance in a little over two
+hours.
+
+[Illustration: Bogie Truck.]
+
+The people were far from being unanimous in their advocacy of the
+railway system, and charters were not obtained without severe
+struggles. The topic was the universal subject of discussion in
+all popular assemblages. Colonel Blank, a well-known politician
+in Pennsylvania, had been loud in his opposition to the new means
+of transportation. When one of the first trains was running over
+the Harrisburg & Lancaster road, a famous Durham bull belonging
+to a Mr. Schultz became seized with the enterprising spirit of
+Don Quixote, put his head down and tail up, and made a desperate
+charge at the on-coming locomotive, but his steam-breathing
+opponent proved the better butter of the two and the bull was
+ignominiously defeated. At a public banquet held soon after in that
+part of the State, the toast-master proposed a toast to "Colonel
+Blank and Schultz's bull--both opposed to railroad trains." The
+joke was widely circulated and had much to do with completing the
+discomfiture of the opposition in the following elections.
+
+[Illustration: Rail and Coach Travel in the White Mountains.]
+
+The railroad was a decided step in advance, compared with the
+stage-coach and canal-boat, but, when we picture the surroundings
+of the traveller upon railways during the first ten or fifteen
+years of their existence, we find his journey was not one to
+be envied. He was jammed into a narrow seat with a stiff back,
+the deck of the car was low and flat, and ventilation in winter
+impossible. A stove at each end did little more than generate
+carbonic oxide. The passenger roasted if he sat at the end of the
+car, and froze if he sat in the middle. Tallow candles furnished a
+"dim religious light," but the accompanying odor did not savor of
+cathedral incense. The dust was suffocating in dry weather; there
+were no adequate spark-arresters on the engine, or screens at
+the windows, and the begrimed passenger at the end of his journey
+looked as if he had spent the day in a blacksmith-shop. Recent
+experiments in obtaining a spectrum-analysis of the component parts
+of a quantity of dust collected in a railway car show that minute
+particles of iron form a large proportion, and under the microscope
+present the appearance of a collection of tenpenny nails. As iron
+administered to the human system through the respiratory organs in
+the form of tenpenny nails mixed with other undesirable matter is
+not especially recommended by medical practitioners, the sanitary
+surroundings of the primitive railway car cannot be commended.
+There were no double tracks, and no telegraph to facilitate the
+safe despatching of trains. The springs of the car were hard, the
+jolting intolerable, the windows rattled like those of the modern
+omnibus, and conversation was a luxury that could be indulged in
+only by those of recognized superiority in lung power. The brakes
+were clumsy and of little service.
+
+[Illustration: From an Old Time-table (furnished by the "A B C
+Pathfinder Railway Guide").]
+
+The ends of the flat-bar rails were cut diagonally, so that when
+laid down they would lap and form a smoother joint. Occasionally
+they became sprung; the spikes would not hold, and the end of the
+rail with its sharp point rose high enough for the wheel to run
+under it, rip it loose, and send the pointed end through the floor
+of the car. This was called a "snake's head," and the unlucky being
+sitting over it was likely to be impaled against the roof. So that
+the traveller of that day, in addition to his other miseries, was
+in momentary apprehension of being spitted like a Christmas turkey.
+
+[Illustration: Old Boston & Worcester Railway Ticket (about 1837).]
+
+Baggage-checks and coupon tickets were unknown. Long trips had
+to be made over lines composed of a number of short independent
+railways; and at the terminus of each the bedevilled passenger
+had to transfer, purchase another ticket, personally pick out his
+baggage, perhaps on an uncovered platform in a rain-storm, and take
+his chances of securing a seat in the train in which he was to
+continue his weary journey.
+
+After the principal companies had sent agents to Europe to gather
+all the information possible regarding the progress made there,
+they soon began to aim at perfecting what may justly be called the
+American system of railways. The roadbed, or what in England is
+called the "permanent way," was constructed in such a manner as to
+conform to the requirements of the new country, and the equipment
+was adapted to the wants of the people. In no branch of industry
+has the inventive genius of the race been more skilfully or more
+successfully employed than in the effort to bring railway travel
+to its present state of perfection. Every year has shown progress
+in perfecting the comforts and safety of the railway car. In 1849
+the Hodge hand-brake was introduced, and in 1851 the Stevens brake.
+These enabled the cars to be controlled in a manner which added
+much to the economy and safety of handling the trains. In 1869
+George Westinghouse patented his air-brake, by which power from the
+engine was transmitted by compressed air carried through hose and
+acting upon the brakes of each car in the train.[23] It was under
+the control of the engineer, and its action was so prompt and its
+power so effectual that a train could be stopped in an incredibly
+short time, and the brakes released in an instant. In 1871 the
+vacuum-brake was devised, by means of which the power was applied
+to the brakes by exhausting the air.
+
+[Illustration: Obverse and Reverse of a Ticket Used in 1838, on the
+New York & Harlem Railroad.]
+
+A difficulty under which railways suffered for many years was
+the method of coupling cars. The ordinary means consisted of
+coupling-pins inserted into links attached to the cars. There was
+a great deal of "slack," the jerking of the train in consequence
+was very objectionable, and the distance between the platforms of
+the cars made the crossing of them dangerous. In collisions one
+platform was likely to rise above that of the adjoining car, and
+"telescoping" was not an uncommon occurrence.
+
+The means of warning passengers against standing on the platform
+were characteristic of the dangers which threatened, and were often
+ingenious in the devices for attracting attention. On a New Jersey
+road there was painted on the car-door a picture of a new-made
+grave, with a formidable tombstone, on which was an inscription
+announcing to a terrified public that it was "Sacred to the memory
+of the man who had stood on a platform."
+
+The Miller coupler and buffer was patented in 1863, and obviated
+many of the discomforts and dangers arising from the old methods of
+coupling. This was followed by the Janney coupler[24] and a number
+of other devices, the essential principle of all being an automatic
+arrangement by which the two knuckles of the coupler when thrust
+together become securely locked, and a system of springs which keep
+the buffers in close contact and prevent jerking and jarring when
+the train is in motion.
+
+The introduction of the bell-cord running through the train and
+enabling conductors to communicate promptly by means of it with
+the engineer, and signal him in case of danger, constitutes
+another source of safety, but is still a wonder to Europeans, who
+cannot understand why passengers do not tamper with it, and how
+they can resist the temptation to give false signals by means of
+it. The only answer is that our people are educated up to it,
+and being accustomed to govern themselves, they do not require
+any restraint to make them respect so useful a device. Aside
+from the inconveniences which used to arise occasionally from a
+rustic mistaking the bell-cord for a clothes-rack, and hanging his
+overcoat over it, or from an old gentleman grabbing hold of it to
+help him climb into an upper berth in a sleeping-car, it has been
+singularly exempt from efforts to pervert it to unintended uses.
+
+The application of the magnetic telegraph to railways wrought
+the first great revolution in despatching trains, and introduced
+an element of promptness and safety in their operation of which
+the most sanguine of railroad advocates had never dreamed. The
+application of electricity was gradually availed of in many
+ingenious signal devices for both day and night service, to direct
+the locomotive engineer in running his train, and interpose
+precautions against accidents. Fusees have also been called into
+requisition, which burn with a bright flame a given length of
+time; and when a train is behind time and followed by another, by
+igniting one of these lights, and leaving it on the track, the
+train following can tell by noting the time of burning about how
+near it is the preceding train. Torpedoes left upon the track,
+which explode when passed over by the wheels of a following train
+and warn it of its proximity to a train ahead, are also used.
+
+In the early days more accidents arose from switches than from any
+other cause; but improvement in their construction has progressed
+until it would seem that the dangers have been effectually
+overcome. The split-rail switch prevents a train from being thrown
+off the track in case the switch is left open, and the result is
+that in such an event the train is only turned on another track.
+The Wharton switch, which leaves the main line unbroken, marks
+another step in the march of improvement. Among other devices is
+a complete interlocking-switch system, by means of which one man
+standing in a switch-tower, overlooking a large yard with numerous
+tracks, over which trains arrive and depart every few minutes, can,
+by moving a system of levers, open any required track and by the
+same motion block all the others, and prevent the possibility of
+collisions or other accidents resulting from trains entering upon
+the wrong track.[25]
+
+The steam-boats on our large rivers had been making great progress
+in the comforts afforded to passengers. They were providing berths
+to sleep in, serving meals in spacious cabins, and giving musical
+entertainments and dancing parties on board. The railroads soon
+began to learn a lesson from them in adding to the comforts of the
+travelling public.
+
+The first attempt to furnish the railway passenger a place to sleep
+while on his journey was made upon the Cumberland Valley Railroad
+of Pennsylvania, between Harrisburg and Chambersburg. In the winter
+season the east-bound passengers arrived at Chambersburg late at
+night by stage-coach, and as they were exhausted by a fatiguing
+trip over the mountains and many wished to continue their journey
+to Harrisburg to catch the morning train for Philadelphia, it
+became very desirable to furnish sleeping accommodations aboard
+the cars. The officers of this road fitted up a passenger car with
+a number of berths, and put it into service as a sleeping-car in
+the winter of 1836-37. It was exceedingly crude and primitive in
+construction. It was divided by transverse partitions into four
+sections, and each contained three berths--a lower, middle, and
+upper berth. This car was used until 1848 and then abandoned.
+
+About this time there were also experiments made in fitting up cars
+with berths something like those in a steam-boat cabin, but these
+crude attempts did not prove attractive to travellers. There were
+no bedclothes furnished, and only a coarse mattress and pillow
+were supplied, and with the poor ventilation and the rattling and
+jolting of the car there was not much comfort afforded, except a
+means of resting in a position which was somewhat more endurable
+than a sitting posture.
+
+Previous to the year 1858 a few of the leading railways had put on
+sleeping-cars which made some pretensions to meet a growing want of
+the travelling public, but they were still crude, uncomfortable,
+and unsatisfactory in their arrangements and appointments.
+
+In the year 1858 George M. Pullman entered a train of the Lake
+Shore Railroad at Buffalo, to make a trip to Chicago. It happened
+that a new sleeping-car which had been built for the railroad
+company was attached to this train and was making its first
+trip. Mr. Pullman stepped in to take a look at it, and finally
+decided to test this new form of luxury by passing the night
+in one of its berths. He was tossed about in a manner not very
+conducive to the "folding of the hands to sleep," and he turned
+out before daylight and took refuge upon a seat in the end of
+the car. He now began to ponder upon the subject, and before the
+journey ended he had conceived the notion that, in a country of
+magnificent distances like this, a great boon could be offered to
+travellers by the construction of cars easily convertible into
+comfortable and convenient day or night coaches, and supplied
+with such appointments as would give the occupants practically
+the same comforts as were afforded by the steam-boats. He began
+experiments in this direction soon after his arrival in Chicago,
+and in 1859 altered some day-cars on the Chicago & Alton Railroad,
+and converted them into sleeping-cars which were a marked step
+in advance of similar cars previously constructed. They were
+successful in meeting the wants of passengers at that time, but Mr.
+Pullman did not consider them in any other light than experiments.
+One night, after they had made a few trips on the line between
+Chicago and St. Louis, a tall, angular-looking man entered one of
+the cars while Mr. Pullman was aboard, and after asking a great
+many intelligent questions about the inventions, finally said he
+thought he would try what the thing was like, and stowed himself
+away in an upper berth. This proved to be Abraham Lincoln.
+
+[Illustration: The "Pioneer." First complete Pullman Sleeping-car.]
+
+[Illustration: (Railwayman in uniform.)]
+
+In 1864 Mr. Pullman perfected his plans for a car which was to be
+a marked and radical departure from any one ever before attempted,
+and that year invested his capital in the construction of what may
+be called the father of the Pullman cars. He built it in a shed
+in the yard of the Chicago & Alton Railroad at a cost of $18,000,
+named it the "Pioneer," and designated it by the letter "A." It
+did not then occur to anyone that there would ever be enough
+sleeping-cars introduced to exhaust the whole twenty-six letters of
+the alphabet. The sum expended upon it was naturally looked upon
+as fabulous at a time when such sleeping-cars as were used could
+be built for about $4,500. The constructor of the "Pioneer" aimed
+to produce a car which would prove acceptable in every respect to
+the travelling public. It had improved trucks and a raised deck,
+and was built a foot wider and two and a half feet higher than any
+car then in service. He deemed this necessary for the purpose of
+introducing a hinged upper berth, which, when fastened up, formed a
+recess behind it for stowing the necessary bedding in the daytime.
+Before that the mattresses had been piled in one end of the car,
+and had to be dragged through the aisle when wanted. It was known
+to him that the dimensions of the bridges and station-platforms
+would not admit of its passing over the line, but he was singularly
+confident in the belief that an attractive car, constructed upon
+correct principles, would find its way into service against all
+obstacles. It so happened that soon after the car was finished,
+in the spring of 1865, the body of President Lincoln arrived
+at Chicago, and the "Pioneer" was wanted for the funeral train
+which was to take it to Springfield. To enable the car to pass
+over the road, the station-platforms and other obstructions were
+reduced in size, and thereafter the line was in a condition to put
+the car into service. A few months afterward General Grant was
+making a trip West to visit his home in Galena, Ill., and as the
+railway companies were anxious to take him from Detroit to his
+destination in the car which had now become quite celebrated, the
+station-platforms along the line were widened for the purpose, and
+thus another route was opened to its passage.
+
+The car was now put into regular service on the Alton road. Its
+popularity fully realized the anticipations of its owner, and its
+size became the standard for the future Pullman cars as to height
+and width, though they have since been increased in length.
+
+The railroad company entered into an agreement to have this car,
+and a number of others which were immediately built, operated upon
+its lines. They were marvels of beauty, and their construction
+embraced patents of such ingenuity and originality that they
+attracted marked attention in the railroad world and created a new
+departure in the method of travel.
+
+In 1867 Mr. Pullman formed the Pullman Car Company and devoted
+it to carrying out an idea which he had conceived, of organizing
+a system by which passengers could be carried in luxurious cars
+of uniform pattern, adequate to the wants of both night and day
+travel, which would run through without change between far-distant
+points and over a number of distinct lines of railway, in charge of
+responsible through agents, to whom ladies, children, and invalids
+could be safely intrusted. This system was especially adapted to
+a country of such geographical extent as America. It supplied an
+important want, and the travelling public and the railways were
+prompt to avail themselves of its advantages.
+
+Parlor or drawing-room cars were next introduced for day runs,
+which added greatly to the luxury of travel, enabling passengers
+to secure seats in advance, and enjoy many comforts which were
+not found in ordinary cars. Sleeping and parlor cars were soon
+recognized as an essential part of a railway's equipment and became
+known as "palace cars."
+
+The Wagner Car Company was organized in the State of New York, and
+was early in the field in furnishing this class of vehicles. It has
+supplied all the cars of this kind used upon the Vanderbilt system
+of railways and a number of its connecting roads. Several smaller
+palace-car companies have also engaged in the business at different
+times. A few roads have operated their own cars of this class, but
+the business is generally regarded as a specialty, and the railway
+companies recognize the advantages and conveniences resulting from
+the ability of a large car-company to meet the irregularities
+of travel, which require a large equipment at one season and a
+small one at another, to furnish an additional supply of cars for
+a sudden demand, and to perform satisfactorily the business of
+operating through cars in lines composed of many different railways.
+
+[Illustration: Pullman Parlor Car.]
+
+Next came a demand for cars in which meals could be served. Why,
+it was said, should a train stop at a station for meals any more
+than a steam-boat tie up to a wharf for the same purpose? The
+Pullman Company now introduced the hotel-car, which was practically
+a sleeping-car with a kitchen and pantries in one end and portable
+tables which could be placed between the seats of each section and
+upon which meals could be conveniently served. The first hotel-car
+was named the "President," and was put into service on the Great
+Western Railway of Canada, in 1867, and soon after several popular
+lines were equipped with this new addition to the luxuries of
+travel.
+
+[Illustration: Wagner Parlor Car.]
+
+After this came the dining-car, which was still another step beyond
+the hotel-car. It was a complete restaurant, having a large kitchen
+and pantries in one end, with the main body of the car fitted up as
+a commodious dining-room, in which all the passengers in the train
+could enter and take their meals comfortably. The first dining-car
+was named the "Delmonico," and began running on the Chicago & Alton
+Railroad in the year 1868.
+
+The comforts and conveniences of travel by rail on the main lines
+now seemed to have reached their culmination in America. The heavy
+T-rails had replaced the various forms previously used; the
+improved fastenings, the reductions in curvature, and the greater
+care exercised in construction had made the trip delightfully
+smooth, while the improvements in rolling-stock had obviated the
+jerking, jolting, and oscillation of the cars. The roadbeds had
+been properly ditched, drained, and ballasted with broken stone or
+gravel, the dust overcome, the sparks arrested, and cleanliness,
+that attribute which stands next to godliness, had at last been
+made possible, even on a railway train.
+
+[Illustration: Dining-car (Chicago, Burlington, & Quincy Railroad.)]
+
+The heating of cars was not successfully accomplished till a method
+was devised for circulating hot water through pipes running near
+the floor. The suffering from that bane of the traveller--cold
+feet--was then obviated and many a doctor's bill saved. The loss
+of human life from the destruction of trains by fires originating
+from stoves aroused such a feeling throughout the country that the
+legislatures of many States have passed laws within the last three
+years prohibiting the use of stoves, and the railway managers have
+been devising plans for heating the trains with steam furnished
+from the boiler of the locomotive. The inventive genius of the
+people was at once brought into requisition, and several ingenious
+devices are now in use which successfully accomplish the purpose
+in solid trains with the locomotive attached, but the problem of
+heating a detached car without some form of furnace connected with
+it is still unsolved.
+
+But notwithstanding the high standard of excellence which had been
+reached in the construction and operation of passenger trains,
+there was one want not yet supplied, the importance of which did
+not become fully recognized until dining-cars were introduced,
+and men, women, and children had to pass across the platforms of
+several cars in order to reach the one in which the meals were
+served. An act which passengers had always been cautioned against,
+and forbidden to undertake--the crossing of platforms while the
+train is in motion--now became necessary, and was invited by the
+railway companies.
+
+It was soon seen that a safe covered passageway between the cars
+must be provided, particularly for limited express trains. Crude
+attempts had been made in this direction at different times. As
+early as the years 1852 and 1855 patents were taken out for devices
+which provided for diaphragms of canvas to connect adjoining cars
+and form a passageway between them. These were applied to cars on
+the Naugatuck Railroad, in Connecticut, in 1857, but they were used
+mainly for purposes of ventilation, to provide for taking in air at
+the head of the train, so as to permit the car windows to be kept
+shut, to avoid the dust that entered through them when they were
+open. These appliances were very imperfect, did not seem to be of
+any practical advantage, even for the limited uses for which they
+were intended, and they were abandoned after a trial of about four
+years.
+
+In the year 1886 Mr. Pullman went practically to work to devise
+a perfect system for constructing continuous trains, and at the
+same time to provide for sufficient flexibility in connecting the
+passageways to allow for the motion consequent upon the rounding
+of curves. His efforts resulted in what is now known as the
+"vestibuled" train.
+
+[Illustration: Pullman Vestibuled Cars.]
+
+[Illustration: End View of a Vestibuled Car.]
+
+This invention, which was patented in 1887, succeeded not only in
+supplying the means of constructing a perfectly enclosed vestibule
+of handsome architectural appearance between the cars, but it
+accomplished what is even still more important, the introduction
+of a safety appliance more valuable than any yet devised for the
+protection of human life in case of collisions. The elastic
+diaphragms which are attached to the ends of the cars have steel
+frames, the faces or bearing surfaces of which are pressed firmly
+against each other by powerful spiral springs, which create
+a friction upon the faces of the frames, hold them firmly in
+position, prevent the oscillation of the cars, and furnish a
+buffer extending from the platform to the roof which precludes
+the possibility of one platform "riding" the other and producing
+telescoping in case of collision. The first of the vestibuled
+trains went into service on the Pennsylvania Railroad in June,
+1886, and they are rapidly being adopted by railway companies.
+The vestibuled limited trains contain several sleeping-cars, a
+dining-car, and a car fitted up with a smoking saloon, a library
+with books, desks, and writing materials, a bath-room, and a
+barber-shop. With a free circulation of air throughout the
+train, the cars opening into each other, the electric light, the
+many other increased comforts and conveniences introduced, the
+steam-heating apparatus avoiding the necessity of using fires, the
+great speed, and absence of stops at meal-stations, this train
+is the acme of safe and luxurious travel. An ordinary passenger
+travels in as princely a style in these cars as any crowned head in
+Europe in a royal special train.
+
+The speed of passenger trains has shown steady improvement from
+year to year. In the month of June in our Centennial year, 1876,
+a train ran from New York to San Francisco, a distance of 3,317
+miles, in 83 hours and 27 minutes actual time, thus averaging
+about 40 miles an hour, but during the trip it crossed four
+mountain-summits, one of them over 8,000 feet high. This train ran
+from Jersey City to Pittsburg over the Pennsylvania Railroad, a
+distance of 444 miles, without making a stop. In 1882 locomotives
+were introduced which made a speed of 70 miles per hour.
+
+[Illustration: Pullman Sleeper on a Vestibuled Train.]
+
+In July, 1885, an engine with a train of three cars made a trip
+over the West Shore road which is the most extraordinary one on
+record. It started from East Buffalo, N. Y., at 10.04 A.M., and
+reached Weehawken, N. J., at 7.27 P.M. Deducting the time consumed
+in stops, the actual running time was 7 hours and 23 minutes, or
+an average of 56 miles per hour. Between Churchville and Genesee
+Junction this train attained the unparalleled speed of 87 miles per
+hour, and at several other parts of the line a speed of from 70 to
+80 miles an hour. The superior physical characteristics of this
+road were particularly favorable for the attainment of the speed
+mentioned.
+
+The trains referred to were special or experimental trains, and
+while American railways have shown their ability to record the
+highest speed yet known, they do not run their trains in regular
+service as fast as those on the English railways. The meteor-like
+names given to our fast trains are somewhat misleading. When one
+reads of such trains as the "Lightning," the "Cannonball," the
+"Thunderbolt," and the "G--whiz-z," the suggestiveness of the
+titles is enough to make one's head swim, but, after all, the names
+are not as significant of speed as the British "Flying Scotchman"
+and the "Wild Irishman;" for the former do not attain an average
+rate of 40 miles an hour, while the latter exceed 45 miles. A
+few American trains, however, those between Jersey City and
+Philadelphia, for instance, make an average speed of over 50 miles
+per hour.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: Immigrant Sleeping-car (Canadian Pacific Railway.)]
+
+The transportation of immigrants has recently received increased
+facilities for its accommodation upon the principal through lines.
+Until late years economically constructed day-cars were alone used,
+but in these the immigrants suffered great discomfort in long
+journeys. An immigrant sleeper is now used, which is constructed
+with sections on each side of the aisle, each section containing
+two double berths. The berths are made with slats of hard wood
+running longitudinally; there is no upholstery in the car, and
+no bedding supplied, and after the car is vacated the hose can be
+turned in upon it, and all the wood-work thoroughly cleansed. The
+immigrants usually carry with them enough blankets and wraps to
+make them tolerably comfortable in their berths; a cooking stove
+is provided in one end of the car, on which the occupants can cook
+their food, and even the long transcontinental journeys of the
+immigrants are now made without hardship.
+
+[Illustration: View of Pullman, Ill.]
+
+The manufacture of railway passenger cars is a large item of
+industry in the country. The tendency had been for many years to
+confine the building of ordinary passenger coaches to the shops
+owned by the railway companies, and they made extensive provision
+for such work; but recently they have given large orders for that
+class of equipment to outside manufacturers. This has resulted
+partly from the large demand for cars, and partly on account of
+the excellence of the work supplied by some of the manufacturing
+companies. In 1880 the Pullman Company erected the most extensive
+car-works in the world at Pullman, fourteen miles south of Chicago;
+and, besides its extensive output of Pullman cars and freight
+equipment, it has built for railway companies large numbers of
+passenger coaches. The employees now number about 5,000, and an
+idea of the capacity and resources of the shops may be obtained
+from the fact that one hundred freight cars, of the kind known
+as flat cars, have been built in eight hours. The business
+of car-building has therefore given rise to the first model
+manufacturing town in America, and it is an industry evidently
+destined to increase as rapidly as any in the country.
+
+The transportation of baggage has always been a most important
+item to the traveller, and the amount carried seems to increase in
+proportion to the advance in civilization. The original allowance
+of fourteen pounds is found to be increased to four hundred when
+ladies start for fashionable summer-resorts.
+
+America has been much more liberal than other countries to the
+traveller in this particular, as in all others. Here few of the
+roads charge for excess of baggage unless the amount be so large
+that patience with regard to it ceases to be a virtue.
+
+The earlier method, of allowing each passenger to pick out his own
+baggage at his point of destination and carry it off, resulted in
+a lack of accountability which led to much confusion, frequent
+losses, and heavy claims upon the companies in consequence.
+Necessity, as usual, gave birth to invention, and the difficulty
+was at last solved by the introduction of the system known as
+"checking." A metal disk bearing a number and designating on its
+face the destination of the baggage was attached to each article
+and a duplicate given to the owner, which answered as a receipt,
+and upon the presentation and surrender of which the baggage could
+be claimed. Railways soon united in arranging for through checks
+which, when attached to baggage, would insure its being sent safely
+to distant points over lines composed of many connecting roads. The
+check system led to the introduction of another marked convenience
+in the handling of baggage--the baggage express or transfer
+company. One of its agents will now check trunks at the passenger's
+own house and haul them to the train. Another agent will take up
+the checks aboard the train as it is nearing its destination, and
+see that the baggage is delivered at any given address.
+
+The cases in which pieces go astray are astonishingly rare, and
+some roads found the claims for lost articles reduced by five
+thousand dollars the first year after adopting the check system,
+not to mention the amount saved in the reduced force of employees
+engaged in assorting and handling the baggage. Its workings are
+so perfect and its conveniences so great that an American cannot
+easily understand why it is not adopted in all countries; but he is
+forced to recognize the fact that it seems destined to be confined
+to his own land. The London railway managers, for instance, give
+many reasons for turning their faces against its adoption. They say
+that there are few losses arising from passengers taking baggage
+that does not belong to them; that most of the passengers take a
+cab at the end of their railway journey to reach their homes, and
+it costs but little more to carry their trunk with them; that in
+this way it gets home as soon as they, while the transfer company,
+or baggage express, would not deliver it for an hour or two later;
+that the cab system is a great convenience, and any change which
+would diminish its patronage would gradually reduce the number of
+cabs, and these "gondolas of London" would have to increase their
+charges or go out of business. It is very easy to find a stick when
+one wants to hit a dog, and the European railway officials seem
+never to be at a loss for reasons in rejecting the check system.
+
+Coupon tickets covering trips over several different railways
+have saved the traveller all the annoyance once experienced in
+purchasing separate tickets from the several companies representing
+the roads over which he had to pass. Their introduction
+necessitated an agreement among the principal railways of the
+country and the adoption of an extensive system of accountability
+for the purpose of making settlements of the amounts represented by
+the coupons.
+
+[Illustration: In a Baggage-room.]
+
+Like every other novelty the coupon ticket, when first introduced,
+did not hit the mark when aimed at the understanding of certain
+travellers. A United States Senator-elect had come on by sea from
+the Pacific Coast who had never seen a railroad till he reached the
+Atlantic seaboard. With a curiosity to test the workings of the new
+means of transportation, of which he had heard so much, he bought
+a coupon ticket and set out for a railway journey. He entered a
+car, took a seat next to the door, and was just beginning to get
+the "hang of the school-house" when the conductor, who was then
+not uniformed, came in, cried "Tickets!" and reached out his hand
+toward the Senator. "What do you want of me?" said the latter.
+"I want your ticket," answered the conductor. Now it occurred to
+the Senator that this might be a very neat job on the part of an
+Eastern ticket-sharp, but it was just a little too thin to fool
+a Pacific Coaster, and he said: "Don't you think I've got sense
+enough to know that if I parted with my ticket right at the start I
+wouldn't have anything to show for my money during the rest of the
+way? No, sir, I'm going to hold on to this till I get to the end of
+the trip."
+
+"Oh!" said the conductor, whose impatience was now rising to fever
+heat, "I don't want to take up your ticket, I only want to look at
+it."
+
+[Illustration: Railway Station at York, England, built on a curve.]
+
+The Senator thought, after some reflection, that he would risk
+letting the man have a peep at it, anyhow, and held it up before
+him, keeping it, however, at a safe distance. The conductor, with
+the customary abruptness, jerked it out of his hand, tore off the
+first coupon, and was about to return the ticket, when the Pacific
+Coaster sprang up, threw himself upon his muscle, and delivered
+a well-directed blow of his fist upon the conductor's right eye,
+which landed him sprawling on one of the opposite seats. The other
+passengers were at once on their feet, and rushed up to know the
+cause of the disturbance. The Senator, still standing with his arms
+in a pugnacious attitude, said:
+
+"Maybe I've never ridden on a railroad before, but I'm not going to
+let any sharper get away with me like that."
+
+[Illustration: Outside the Grand Central Station, New York.]
+
+"What's he done?" cried the passengers.
+
+"Why," said the Senator, "I paid seventeen dollars and a half for
+a ticket to take me through to Cincinnati, and before we're five
+miles out that fellow slips up and says he wants to see it, and
+when I get it out, he grabs hold of it and goes to tearing it up
+right before my eyes." Ample explanations were soon made, and the
+new passenger was duly initiated into the mysteries of the coupon
+system.
+
+The uniforming of railway employees was a movement of no little
+importance. It designated the various positions held by them, added
+much to the neatness of their appearance, enabled passengers to
+recognize them at a glance, and made them so conspicuous that it
+impressed them with a greater sense of responsibility and aided
+much in effecting a more courteous demeanor to passengers.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: Boston Passenger Station, Providence Division, Old
+Colony Railroad.]
+
+Many conveniences have been introduced which greatly assist the
+passenger when travelling upon unfamiliar roads. Conspicuous
+clock-faces stand in the stations with their hands set to the hour
+at which the next train is to start, sign-boards are displayed with
+horizontal slats on which the stations are named at which departing
+way-trains stop, and employees are stationed to call out necessary
+information and direct passengers to the proper entrances, exits,
+and trains. A "bureau of information" is now to be seen in large
+passenger-stations, in which an official sits and with a Job-like
+patience repeats to the curiously inclined passengers the whole
+railway catechism, and successfully answers conundrums that would
+stump an Oriental pundit.
+
+The energetic passenger-agent spares no pains to thrust information
+directly under the nose of the public. He uses every means known to
+Yankee ingenuity to advertise his regular trains and his excursion
+business, including large newspaper head-lines, corner-posters,
+curb-stone dodgers, and placards on the breast and back of the
+itinerant human sandwich who perambulates the streets.
+
+Railway accidents have always been a great source of anxiety to the
+managers, and the shocks received by the public when great loss of
+life occurs from such causes deepen the interest which the general
+community feels in the means taken to avoid these distressing
+occurrences.
+
+American railway officials have made encouraging progress in
+reducing the number and the severity of accidents, and while the
+record is not so good on many of our cheaply constructed roads, our
+first-class roads now show by their statistics that they compare
+favorably in this respect with the European companies.
+
+The statistics regarding accidents[26] are necessarily unreliable,
+as railway companies are not eager to publish their calamities
+from the house-tops, and only in those States in which prompt
+reports are required to be made by law are the figures given at
+all accurately. Even in these instances the yearly reports lead to
+wrong conclusions, for the State Railroad Commissioners become more
+exacting each year as to the thoroughness of the reports called
+for, and the results sometimes show an increase compared with
+previous years, whereas there may have been an actual decrease.
+
+In 1880, the last census year, an effort was made to collect
+statistics of this kind covering all the railways in the United
+States, with the following result:
+
+  ------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-------
+              | Through causes |    Through     |                |
+    To whom   |  beyond their  |   their own    |   Aggregate.   | Total
+   happened.  |    control.    | carelessness.  |                | acci-
+              +-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+ dents.
+              |Killed.|Injured.|Killed.|Injured.|Killed.|Injured.|
+  ------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------
+  Passengers  |    61 |    331 |    82 |    213 |   143 |    544 |   687
+  Employees   |   261 |  1,004 |   663 |  2,613 |   924 |  3,617 | 4,541
+  All others  |    43 |    103 | 1,429 |  1,348 | 1,472 |  1,451 | 2,923
+  Unspecified |       |        |       |        |     3 |     62 |    65
+              +-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------
+     Total    |   365 | 1,438  | 2,174 | 4,174  | 2,542 |  5,674 | 8,216
+  ------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------
+
+[Illustration: "Show Your Tickets!"
+
+(Passenger Station, Philadelphia.)]
+
+Mulhall, in his "Dictionary of Statistics," an English work, uses
+substantially these same figures and makes the following comparison
+between European and American railways:
+
+_Accidents to Passengers, Employees, and Others._
+
+  ---------------+---------+----------+--------+-------------
+                 |         |          |        | Per million
+                 | Killed. | Wounded. | Total. | passengers.
+  ---------------+---------+----------+--------+-------------
+  United States  |  2,349  |   5,867  |  8,216 |   41.1
+  United Kingdom |  1,135  |   3,959  |  5,094 |    8.1
+  Europe         |  3,213  |  10,859  | 14,072 |   10.8
+  ---------------+---------+----------+--------+-------------
+
+That the figures given above are much too high as regards the
+United States, there can be no doubt. For the fiscal year 1880-81
+the data compiled by the Railroad Commissioners of Massachusetts
+and published in their reports give as the total number of persons
+killed and injured in the United States 2,126, as against 8,216
+upon which the comparisons in the above table are based. If we
+substitute in this table the former number for the latter, it would
+reduce the number of injured per million passengers in the United
+States to 10.6, about the same as on the European railways.
+
+Edward Bates Dorsey gives the following interesting table of
+comparisons in his valuable work, "English and American Railroads
+Compared:"
+
+_Passengers Killed and Injured from Causes beyond their own Control
+on all the Railroads of the United Kingdom and those of the States
+of New York and Massachusetts in 1884._
+
+  -----------------+---------+---------------------------+-------+------
+                   |  Total  |                           |       |
+                   | length  |       Total mileage.      |       | In-
+                   | of line +-------------+-------------+Killed.|jured.
+                   |operated.|    Train.   | Passengers. |       |
+  -----------------+---------+-------------+-------------+-------+------
+  United Kingdom   |  18,864 | 272,803,220 |6,042,659,990|    31 |  864
+  New York         |   7,298 |  85,918,677 |1,729,653,620|    10 |  124
+  Massachusetts    |   2,852 |  32,304,333 |1,007,136,376|     2 |   42
+  -----------------+---------+-------------+-------------+-------+------
+  In               |         |             |             |       |
+  1,000,000,000    |         |             |             |       |
+  passengers       |         |             |             |       |
+  transported      |         |             |             |       |
+  1 mile.          |         |             |             |       |
+                   |         |             |             |       |
+    United Kingdom |         |             |             |  5.15 |  143
+    New York       |         |             |             |  5.78 |   70
+    Massachusetts  |         |             |             |  2.00 |   42
+  -----------------+---------+-------------+-------------+-------+------
+
+  --------------------------------------------------+------------
+                                                    |  Miles.
+                                                    +------------
+  The average number of miles      { United Kingdom | 194,892,255
+    a passenger can travel without { New York       | 172,965,362
+    being killed.                  { Massachusetts  | 503,568,188
+                                                    |
+  The average number of miles      { United Kingdom |   6,992,662
+    a passenger can travel without { New York       |  13,940,754
+    being injured.                 { Massachusetts  |  23,955,630
+  --------------------------------------------------+------------
+
+From this it will be seen that in the United Kingdom the average
+distance a passenger may travel before being killed is about equal
+to twice the distance of the Earth from the Sun. In New York he may
+travel a distance greater than that of Mars from the Sun; and in
+Massachusetts he can comfort himself with the thought that he may
+travel twenty-seven millions of miles farther than the distance of
+Jupiter to the Sun before suffering death on the rail.
+
+The most encouraging feature of these statistics is the fact that
+the number of railway accidents per mile in the United States has
+shown a marked decrease each year. Taking the figures adopted by
+the Massachusetts commissions, the number of persons injured in
+the year 1880-81 was 2,126, and in 1886-87, 2,483, while in the
+same time the number of miles in operation increased from 93,349 to
+137,986.
+
+The amounts paid annually by railways in satisfaction of claims for
+damages to passengers are serious items of expenditure, and in the
+United States have reached in some years nearly two millions of
+dollars. About half of the States limit the amount of damages in
+case of death to $5,000, the States of Virginia, Ohio, and Kansas
+to $10,000, and the remainder have no statutory limit.
+
+In the year 1840 the number of miles of railway per 100,000
+inhabitants in the different countries named was as follows: United
+States, 20; United Kingdom, 3; Europe, 1; in the year 1882, United
+States, 210; United Kingdom, 52; Europe, 34.
+
+In the year 1886 the total number of miles in the United States was
+137,986; the number of passengers carried, 382,284,972; the number
+carried one mile, 9,659,698,294; the average distance travelled per
+passenger, 25.27 miles.
+
+In Europe the first-class travel is exceedingly small and the
+third class constitutes the largest portion of the passenger
+business, while in America almost the whole of the travel is first
+class, as will be seen from the following table:
+
+  ---------------+--------------------------------------------
+                 |    Percentage of passengers carried.
+                 +--------------+---------------+-------------
+                 | First Class. | Second Class. | Third Class.
+  ---------------+--------------+---------------+-------------
+  United Kingdom |      6       |      10       |     84
+  France         |      8       |      32       |     60
+  Germany        |      1       |      13       |     86
+  United States  |     99       |    ½ of 1     |   ½ of 1
+  ---------------+--------------+---------------+-------------
+
+The third-class travel in this country is better known as immigrant
+travel. The percentages given in the above table for the United
+States are based upon an average of the numbers of passengers of
+each class carried on the principal through lines. If all the roads
+were included, the percentages of the second- and third-class
+travel would be still less.
+
+That which is of more material interest to passengers than anything
+else is the rate of fare charged.
+
+The following table gives an approximate comparison between the
+rates per mile in the leading countries in the world:
+
+  ---------------+--------------+---------------+-------------
+                 | First Class. | Second Class. | Third Class.
+  ---------------+--------------+---------------+-------------
+                 |    Cents.    |    Cents.     |    Cents.
+  United Kingdom |     4.42     |     3.20      |     1.94
+  France         |     3.86     |     2.88      |     2.08
+  Germany        |     3.10     |     2.32      |     1.54
+  United States  |     2.18     |      --       |      --
+  ---------------+--------------+---------------+-------------
+
+The rates above given for the United Kingdom, France, and Germany
+are the regular schedule-rates. An average of all the fares
+received, including the reduced fares at excursion rates, would
+make the figures somewhat less.
+
+The rate named as the first-class fare for the railways in
+the United States is, strictly speaking, the average earnings
+per passenger per mile, and includes all classes; but as the
+first-class passengers constitute about ninety-nine per centum
+of the travel the amount does not differ materially from the
+actual first-class fare. In the State of New York the first-class
+fare does not exceed two cents, which is not much more than the
+third-class fare in some countries of Europe, and heat, good
+ventilation, ice-water, toilet arrangements, and free carriage of
+a liberal amount of baggage are supplied, while in Europe few of
+these comforts are furnished.
+
+On the elevated railroads of New York a passenger can ride in a
+first-class car eleven miles for 5 cents, or about one-half cent a
+mile, and on surface-roads the commutation rates given to suburban
+passengers are in some cases still less.
+
+The berth-fares in sleeping-cars in Europe largely exceed those in
+America, as will be seen from the following comparisons, stated in
+dollars:
+
+  --------------------+-------------------+------------
+        Route.        | Distance in Miles.| Berth fare.
+  --------------------+-------------------+------------
+  Paris to Rome       |        901        |    $12.75
+  New York to Chicago |        912        |      5.00
+  Paris to Marseilles |        536        |     11.00
+  New York to Buffalo |        440        |      2.00
+  Calais to Brindisi  |      1,373        |     22.25
+  Boston to St. Louis |      1,330        |      6.50
+  --------------------+-------------------+------------
+
+While it would seem that the luxuries of railway travel in America
+have reached a maximum, and the charges a minimum, yet in this
+progressive age it is very probable that in the not far distant
+future we shall witness improvements over the present methods which
+will astonish us as much as the present methods surprise us when we
+compare them with those of the past.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[23] See "Safety in Railroad Travel," page 195.
+
+[24] See "Safety in Railroad Travel," page 224; also, "American
+Locomotives and Cars," page 142.
+
+[25] See "Safety in Railroad Travel," page 204.
+
+[26] See "Safety in Railroad Travel," page 191.
+
+
+
+
+THE FREIGHT-CAR SERVICE.
+
+BY THEODORE VOORHEES.
+
+  Sixteen Months' Journey of a Car--Detentions by the
+  Way--Difficulties of the Car Accountant's Office--Necessities
+  of Through Freight--How a Company's Cars are Scattered--The
+  Question of Mileage--Reduction of the Balance in Favor of
+  Other Roads--Relation of the Car Accountant's Work to the
+  Transportation Department--Computation of Mileage--The Record
+  Branch--How Reports are Gathered and Compiled--Exchange of
+  "Junction Cards"--The Use of "Tracers"--Distribution of
+  Empty Cars--Control of the Movement of Freight--How Trains
+  are Made Up--Duties of the Yardmaster--The Handling of
+  Through Trains--Organization of Fast Lines--Transfer Freight
+  Houses--Special Cars for Specific Service--Disasters to Freight
+  Trains--How the Companies Suffer--Inequalities in Payment for Car
+  Service--The Per Diem Plan--A Uniform Charge for Car Rental--What
+  Reforms might be Accomplished.
+
+
+I.
+
+THE WANDERINGS OF A CAR.
+
+
+On the 14th of December, 1886, there was loaded in Indianapolis a
+car belonging to one of the roads passing through that city. It
+was loaded with corn consigned to parties in Boston. The car was
+delivered to the Lake Shore road at Cleveland on the 16th; but,
+owing to bad weather and various other local causes, it did not
+reach East Buffalo until December 28th. It was turned over by the
+New York Central & Hudson River Railroad to the West Shore road
+the next day, and by this company was taken to Rotterdam Junction,
+and there delivered on December 31st to the Western Division of
+the Fitchburg Railroad, or what was then known as the Boston,
+Hoosac Tunnel & Western. They took it promptly through to Boston.
+After a few days the corn was sold by the consignees for delivery
+in Medfield, on the New York & New England Railway. The car was
+delivered to this road on January 24, 1887, and taken down to
+Medfield. There it remained among a large number of other cars,
+until it suited the convenience of the purchaser to put the corn
+into his elevator.
+
+On the 17th of March the car was unloaded, taken back to Boston,
+and delivered to the Fitchburg road to be sent West, homeward. That
+company took it promptly, but instead of delivering it to the West
+Shore road at Rotterdam Junction, as would have been the regular
+course, either through some mistake of a yardmaster at the junction
+station, or in pursuance of general instructions to load all
+Western cars home whenever practicable, the car was not delivered
+to the West Shore, but was turned over to the Delaware & Hudson
+Canal Co's. Railroad, taken down to the coal regions, and on March
+31st delivered to the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad, by
+whom it was loaded with coal for Chicago. That company promptly
+delivered it to the Grand Trunk at Buffalo, and on April 10th the
+car reached Chicago. It was immediately reconsigned by the local
+agents of the coal company to a dealer in the town of Minot, 523
+miles west of St. Paul, on the St. Paul, Minneapolis & Manitoba
+Railroad. To reach that point, it was delivered to the Chicago,
+Rock Island & Pacific on April 10th, then to the Burlington, Cedar
+Rapids & Northern, Minneapolis & St. Louis, St. Paul & Duluth, St.
+Paul, Minneapolis & Manitoba, arriving at its destination on the
+14th of April.
+
+Winter still reigned in that locality, and the car was promptly
+unloaded, and returned to St. Paul, where it was loaded with wheat
+consigned to New York. It left St. Paul on the 26th of April, was
+promptly moved through to Chicago, and delivered to the Grand
+Trunk. Coming east, in Canada, the train of which this car formed
+a part, while passing through a small station, in the night ran
+into an open switch. The engine dashed into a number of loaded
+cars standing on the siding, and the cars behind it were piled
+up in bad confusion, a number of them being destroyed, and the
+freight scattered in all directions. Our car, whose history we are
+tracing, suffered comparatively slight damage. The drawheads were
+broken, and some castings on one truck, not sufficient to affect
+in any way the loading of the car. It was sent to the shops of the
+road; and it became necessary for them, on examination, to send
+to the owners of the car for a casting to replace that broken on
+the truck. This resulted in serious detention. The requisition for
+this casting had to be approved by the Superintendent and by the
+General Manager, and was forwarded, after a considerable delay, to
+the officers of the road owning the car. There it was sent through
+a number of offices before it finally reached the hands of the
+man who was able to supply the required casting. This in turn was
+sent by freight, and passed over the intervening territory at a
+slow rate; the whole involving a detention which held the car from
+April 28th, when it was delivered at Chicago to the Grand Trunk,
+until July 18th, when finally the Grand Trunk delivered it to the
+Delaware, Lackawanna & Western at Buffalo. It came through promptly
+to New York, the grain was put in an elevator, the car was sent
+back once more to the mines at Scranton, and again loaded with coal
+for Chicago. On August 9th the record says the car was delivered by
+the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western to the Grand Trunk, and on the
+12th of August it was in Chicago.
+
+About this time the owners of the car began to make vigorous
+appeals to the various roads, urging them to send the car home. One
+of these tracers reached the Grand Trunk road while they still held
+the car in their possession; so that orders were sent that the coal
+must be unloaded at once, and the car returned. In order to unload
+it, it was necessary to switch it to the Illinois Central for some
+local consignee, and it was unloaded within four days and delivered
+back to the Grand Trunk at Chicago. This was on August 16th.
+During the few days that had elapsed since the order was given to
+send this car home, there had been an active demand for cars, and
+knowing that this one had to be sent to Buffalo in order to be
+delivered to the Lake Shore road, from which it had originally been
+received, the car was loaded for that point. This again resulted
+in detention, for we find that the car was held on the Grand Trunk
+tracks at Black Rock, awaiting the pleasure of the consignee to
+unload the freight, until the 27th of September; and then, instead
+of being unloaded and delivered to the Lake Shore road, as had been
+the intention of the Grand Trunk officials, the consignee sold the
+wheat in the car to a local dealer on the line of the Erie Railway,
+and the car was sent down on that road on October 1st, and not
+returned to the Grand Trunk again until the 10th day of October.
+
+Unfortunately, the Erie was as anxious at that time to load cars
+west with coal as the other roads, and when they brought the car
+back to the Grand Trunk, they brought it once more filled with
+coal, and back the car went to Chicago, reaching there on the 13th
+of October.
+
+It had now been away from home and diverted from its legitimate
+uses for nine months, and apparently was as far from home as ever.
+The delivery of the coal this time at Chicago put the car in the
+hands of the Louisville, New Albany & Chicago Railway, and they
+promptly gave it a lading by the southern route to Newport News;
+for we find the car delivered by the Louisville, New Albany &
+Chicago to the Chesapeake & Ohio route on October 28th, and at
+Newport News on the 10th of November. The owners of the car were
+meanwhile not idle. The occasional stray junction cards which came
+in notified them of the passage of the car by different junction
+points, giving them clews to work by, and they were in vigorous
+correspondence with the various roads over which the car had gone,
+urging, begging, and imploring the railway officers to make all
+efforts in their power to get the car back to its home road.
+
+On its last trip from Chicago to Newport News, the car passed
+through Indianapolis, the very point from which it began its long
+journey and many wanderings. Unfortunately, however, it passed
+there loaded, without detention, and the owners of the car did not
+discover until it had been for some time at Newport News, that the
+car had been anywhere near its home territory. By the time they
+made this discovery the car had been unloaded, and had started west
+once more. The records of the movement of the car here become dim.
+It was apparently diverted from its direct route back, which would
+have taken it once more to Indianapolis, and so home, for we find,
+after waiting at Newport News for some time to be unloaded, it was
+delivered to the Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis, next on the
+Western & Atlantic, and so down into Georgia and South Carolina.
+Again, on January 14, 1888, the car was reported on the Richmond
+& Danville. They sent it once more down into South Carolina and
+Georgia. From there it was loaded down to Selma, Ala., on the
+Atlanta & West Point Railroad. They returned it promptly to
+Atlanta, and so to the Central Railroad of Georgia; and the car,
+after being used backward and forward between Montgomery and
+Atlanta and Macon, finally appeared at Augusta, Ga., where it stood
+on February 11, 1888. Here the car remained for some time, long
+enough for the owners to get advices as to its whereabouts, and
+communicate with the road on whose territory the car was, before
+it was again moved. An urgent representation of the case having
+been laid before the proper authorities, they agreed, if possible,
+to load it in such a way that it should go back to Indianapolis.
+This could not be done at once, however; but about the 12th of
+March the car was sent to a near-by point in South Carolina loaded,
+and worked back over the Georgia road and the Western Atlantic,
+delivered to the Louisville & Nashville on April 3d, and finally,
+after its many and long wanderings, was by that road delivered to
+the home road at Cincinnati on the 17th of April; having been away
+from home sixteen months and one day.
+
+This is a case taken from actual records, and is one that could be
+duplicated probably by any railroad in the country.
+
+
+II.
+
+THE CAR ACCOUNTANT'S OFFICE.
+
+  THE WINNIPEG & ATHABASKA LAKE RAILWAY CO.,
+  _General Superintendent's Office_,
+  WINNIPEG, December 31, 1888.
+
+  TO JOHN SMITH, ESQ.,
+  _Supt. of Trans'n, L. & N. R. R. Co., Louisville, Ky._
+
+  SIR: Our records show forty-five of our box-cars on your line,
+  some of which have been away from home over three weeks. I give
+  below the numbers of those which have been detained over thirty
+  days, viz.:
+
+  Nos.    28542    34210     34762     29421     28437     29842
+          34628    34516     29781     28274     34333     28873
+
+  There is at this time a strong demand for cars for the movement
+  of the wheat crop, and I must beg that you will send home
+  promptly all that you have on your line.
+
+  I remain,
+  Yours very truly,
+  THOMAS BROWN.
+
+
+  LOUISVILLE & NORFOLK R. R. CO.,
+  _Office of Superintendent of Transportation_,
+  LOUISVILLE, KY., Jan'y 3, 1889.
+
+  TO THOMAS BROWN, ESQ.,
+  _Gen'l Supt., W. & A. L. R. W. Co., Winnipeg, Canada_.
+
+  SIR: Your favor of the 31st ulto. was duly received and contents
+  noted.
+
+  I call your attention to the enclosed mem. from our Car
+  Accountant, which shows that we have but seven of your cars now
+  on our road; of these but three are bad cases, Nos. 28437, 34516,
+  and 28873. One of these cars was crippled, and is in the shops;
+  the other two are loaded with wheat consigned "to order."
+
+  The necessary instructions have been given our agents, and we
+  will do all in our power to hurry the return of your cars.
+
+  I am,
+  Very truly yours,
+  JOHN SMITH.
+
+  (Mem. enclosed.)
+
+  MEMORANDUM.
+
+  W. & A. L. Nos.
+
+  28542 to Ohio Northern, Dec. 5th.
+  34210  " Ohio Northern, Dec. 10th.
+  34762  " Kanawha Junc., 12/15 crippled.
+  29421  " Elmwood, 12/15 unloading.
+  28437  " Norfolk Shops, Dec. 6th.
+  34628  " No account.
+  34516  " Blue Ridge, 12/4 ordered out.
+  29781 to Ohio Northern, Nov. 27th.
+  28274  " Niantic, Dec. 12th, loading home.
+  34333  " Louisville Belt, Dec. 8th.
+  29842  " Brockton, Dec. 14th, empty, will load home.
+  28873  " Blue Ridge, Nov. 18th, ordered out.
+
+
+This is but an example of a correspondence that is constantly
+being exchanged between the officials who are in charge of the
+Transportation Department of the various railways of the country.
+
+The demands of trade necessitate continually the transportation of
+all manner of commodities over great distances.
+
+Thus, wheat is brought from the Northwest to the seaboard, corn
+from the Southwest, cotton from the South, fruit comes from
+California, black walnut from Indiana, and pine from Michigan.
+In the opposite direction, merchandise and manufactured articles
+are sent from the East to all points in the West, the North, and
+Southwest. The interchange is constant and steadily increasing in
+all directions.
+
+In the early period of railways in this country, when they were
+built chiefly to promote local interests, and the movement
+of either freight or passengers over long distances was a
+comparatively small portion of the traffic, it was customary for
+all roads to do their business in their own cars, transferring
+any freight destined to a station on a connecting road at the
+junction or point of interchange of the two roads. While this
+system had the advantage of keeping at home the equipment of each
+road, it resulted in a very slow movement of the freight. As the
+volume of traffic grew, and the interchange of commodities between
+distant points increased, this slow movement became more and
+more vexatious. Soon the railway companies found it necessary to
+allow their cars to run through to the destination of the freight
+without transfer, or they would be deprived of the business by more
+enterprising rivals. So that to-day a very large proportion of the
+freight business of the country is done without transfer; the same
+car taking the load from the initial point direct to destination.
+The result of this is, however, that a considerable share of all
+the business of any railway is done in cars belonging to other
+companies, for which mileage has to be paid; while, in turn, the
+cars of any one company may be scattered all over the country from
+Maine to California, Winnipeg to Mexico.
+
+The problem that constantly confronts the general superintendent of
+a railway is, how to improve the time of through freight, thereby
+improving the service and increasing the earnings of the company;
+and, at the same time, how to secure the prompt movement of cars
+belonging to the company, getting them home from other roads, and
+reducing as far as possible upon his own line the use of foreign
+cars, and the consequent payment of mileage therefor.
+
+By common consent the mileage for the use of all eight-wheel
+freight cars has been fixed at three-quarters of a cent per mile
+run; four-wheel cars being rated at one-half this amount, or
+three-eighths of a cent. This amount would at first sight appear
+to be insignificant, yet in the aggregate it comes to a very
+considerable sum. In the case of some of the more important roads
+in the country, even those possessing a large equipment, the
+balance against them for mileage alone often amounts to nearly half
+a million annually.
+
+It becomes therefore of the first importance to reduce to a minimum
+the use of foreign cars, thereby reducing the mileage balance;
+at the same time avoiding any action that will interfere with or
+impede in any way the prompt movement of traffic.
+
+The first step toward accomplishing this result is to organize
+and fully equip the Car Accountant's Department. The importance of
+this office has been recognized only of late years. Formerly, and
+on many lines even now, the Car Accountant was merely a subordinate
+in the Auditing Department of the company. His duties were confined
+strictly to computing the mileage due to other roads. This he
+did from the reports of the freight-train conductors, often in a
+cumbrous and mechanical manner, making no allowance for possible
+errors. At the same time, he received reports of foreign roads
+without question and without check. He was not interested in any
+way in the operations of the Transportation Department; and, as a
+consequence, it never occurred to him to make inquiries as to the
+proper use of the cars belonging to his own company. That he left
+entirely to the Superintendent. The latter, on the other hand, his
+time incessantly filled with many duties, could give but scant
+attention to his cars.
+
+The Superintendent of a railway in this country who has, let us
+say, three hundred miles of road in his charge, has perhaps as
+great a variety of occupation, and as many different questions
+of importance depending upon his decision, as any other business
+or professional man in the community. Fully one-half of his time
+will be spent out-of-doors looking after the physical condition
+of his track, masonry, bridges, stations, buildings of all kinds.
+Concerning the repair or renewal of each he will have to pass
+judgment. He must know intimately every foot of his track and,
+in cases of emergency or accident, know just what resources he
+can depend upon, and how to make them most immediately useful.
+He will visit the shops and round houses frequently, and will
+know the construction and daily condition of every locomotive,
+every passenger and baggage car. He will consult with his Master
+Mechanic, and often will decide which car or engine shall and
+which shall not be taken in for repair, etc. He has to plan and
+organize the work of every yard, every station. He must know the
+duties of each employee on his pay-rolls, and instruct all new men,
+or see that they are properly instructed. He must keep incessant
+and vigilant watch on the movement of all trains, noting the
+slightest variation from the schedules which he has prepared, and
+looking carefully into the causes therefor, so as to avoid its
+recurrence. The first thing in the morning he is greeted with a
+report giving the situation of business on the road, the events of
+the night, movement of trains, and location and volume of freight
+to be handled. The last thing at night he gets a final report of
+the location and movement of important trains; and he never closes
+his eyes without thinking that perhaps the telephone will ring and
+call him before dawn. During the day in his office he has reports
+to make out, requisitions to approve, a varied correspondence, not
+always agreeable, to answer. Added to this, frequent consultations
+with the officers of the Traffic Department, or with those of
+connecting lines, in reference to the movement of through or local
+business, completely fill his time.
+
+It is not to be wondered at that such a man gives but slight
+attention in many cases to the matter of car mileage. He frequently
+satisfies himself by arranging a system of reports from his
+agents to his office that give a summary each twenty-four hours
+of the cars of every kind on hand at each station; and leaves the
+distribution and movement of the cars in the hands of his agents.
+He will give some attention to the matter whenever he goes over his
+road on other and more pressing duties. Occasionally he will even
+take a day or two and visit every station, inquiring carefully as
+to each car he finds; why it is being held, for what purpose, and
+how long it has stood. Then, satisfied with having, as he says,
+"shaken up the boys," he will turn his attention to other matters,
+and let the cars take care of themselves. When the monthly or
+quarterly statements are made up, and he sees the amount of balance
+against his road for car mileage, he gives it but little thought,
+regarding it as one of the items like taxes, important, of course,
+but hardly one for which he is responsible.
+
+His General Manager, however, will note the car-mileage balance
+with more concern; and, looking into the matter carefully, he will
+discover that the remedy is to put the Car Accountant into the
+Transportation Department; thus at once interesting him in the
+economical use of the equipment, and also placing in the hands of
+the Superintendent the machinery he needs to enable him to promptly
+control and direct the use of all cars.
+
+The Car Accountant's Office may properly be divided into two main
+branches--mileage and record. The computation of mileage is made
+in most cases directly from the reports of each train. These
+reports are made by the train conductors, and give the initials and
+number of each car in their train, whether loaded or empty, and the
+station whence taken and where left. To facilitate the computation
+of mileage of each car, the stations on the road are consecutively
+numbered, beginning at nought--each succeeding station being
+represented by a number equivalent to the number of miles it is
+distant from the initial station; excepting divisional and terminal
+stations, where letters are used, to reduce the work in recording.
+The conductors report the stations between which each car moves by
+their numbers or letters. So that all that is necessary for the
+mileage clerk to do is to take the difference between the station
+numbers in each case, and he has the miles travelled by that car.
+The mileage of each car having been so noted on the conductor's
+report, it is then condensed, the mileage of all cars of any given
+road or line being added together, and the results entered into the
+ledgers. At the close of the month these books are footed, and a
+report is rendered to each road in the country of the mileage and
+amount in money due therefor, in each case; and settlements are
+made accordingly, either in full or by balance. This is purely the
+accounting side of the Car Accountant's Office.
+
+There remains the record branch, equally important, and to the
+operating department far more interesting. This consists broadly
+in a complete record being kept of the daily movement and location
+of every car upon the road, local or foreign. At first sight this
+may seem to be a difficult and complicated operation, but, in
+fact, it is simple. The record is first divided between local and
+foreign; local cars being all cars owned by the home road, foreign
+being all those owned by other roads. The local books are of large
+size, ruled in such a way as to allow space for the daily movement
+or location of each car for one month, and admit of twenty-five
+or fifty cars being recorded upon each page. The record books for
+foreign cars are similarly ruled, a slight change being necessary
+to allow for the numbers and initials of the foreign cars, which
+cannot well be arranged for in advance.
+
+The train conductors' reports are placed in the hands of the record
+clerks, each one recording the movements of certain initials, or
+series of numbers, under the date as shown by the report; the
+reports being handed from one to another until every car has been
+entered and the report checked.
+
+[Illustration: A Page from the Car Accountant's Book.[27]]
+
+In addition to the conductors' train reports, the Car Accountant
+receives reports from all junction stations daily, showing all cars
+received from or delivered to connecting roads, whether loaded or
+empty, and the destination of each. He also has reports from all
+stations showing cars received and forwarded, from midnight to
+midnight, cars remaining on hand loaded or empty; and if loaded,
+contents and consignee, and also cars in process of loading or
+unloading, and reports from shops or yards showing cars undergoing
+repairs, or waiting for the same. In fine, he endeavors to get
+complete reports showing every car that either may be in motion or
+standing at any point on his road. All of these are entered on his
+record books. The station reports check those of the conductor, and
+_vice versa_. It will thus be seen that the record gives a complete
+history of the movement and daily use of each car on the road.
+
+In case of stock and perishable freight, or freight concerning
+whose movements quick time is of the utmost importance, this
+record is kept not only by days but by hours; that is, the actual
+time of each movement is entered on the record. This is done by a
+simple system of signs, so that an exact account of the movement,
+giving date and hour of receipt and delivery, can be taken from the
+record. This is frequently of the greatest value.
+
+In addition to this, it is customary now for nearly all roads to
+exchange what are known as "junction cards." They are reports from
+one to another giving the numbers of all cars of each road passing
+junction stations. These junction reports when received are also
+carefully noted in the record, so that an account is kept in a
+measure of the movement of home cars while on foreign roads, and
+their daily location.
+
+It would be difficult, and beyond the scope of this article, to
+tell of the great variety of uses these records are put to. They
+serve as a check upon reports of the mileage clerks, insuring their
+accuracy. The junction reports serve also in a measure to check
+the reports of foreign roads. Then, at frequent intervals, a clerk
+will go over the record and note every car that is not shown to
+have moved within, say, five days, putting down on a "detention
+report" for each station the car number and date of its arrival.
+These reports are sent to the agents for explanation, and then
+submitted to the Superintendent. In a similar manner reports will
+be made showing any use locally of foreign cars. From the record
+can be shown almost at a glance the location of all idle cars,
+information that is often very valuable, and that when wanted is
+wanted promptly. Also, from the record, reports are constantly
+being made out--"tracers," as they are termed--showing the location
+and detention of home cars on foreign roads. In turn, foreign
+tracers are taken to the record, and the questions therein asked
+are readily answered by the Car Accountant.
+
+Whenever possible, the distribution of empty cars upon the line
+should be under the direct supervision of the Car Accountant.
+Where this matter is left to a clerk in the Superintendent's
+office, or, as has often been the case, is left to the discretion
+of yardmasters and agents, the utmost waste in the use of cars
+is inevitable. An agent at a local station will want a car for
+a particular shipment. If he has none at his station suitable
+he will ask some neighboring agent; failing there, he will ask
+the Superintendent's office, and frequently also the nearest
+yardmaster. Some other agent at a distant station may want the
+same kind of car; orders in this way become duplicated, and the
+road will not only have to haul twice the number of cars needed,
+but very often haul the same kind of cars empty in opposite
+directions at the same time. This is no uncommon occurrence even on
+well-managed roads, and, it is needless to say, is most expensive.
+
+Where the cars are distributed under the direct supervision of the
+Car Accountant, he has the record at hand constantly, and knows
+exactly where all cars are, and the sources of supply to meet every
+demand. Not only that, but every improper use of cars is at once
+brought to light and corrected.
+
+The _theory_ of the use of foreign cars is that they are permitted
+to run through to destination with through freight, on condition
+that they shall be promptly unloaded on arrival at destination;
+that they shall be returned at once to the home road, being loaded
+on the return trip if suitable loading is available; but by no
+means allowed to be used in local service, or loaded in any other
+direction than homeward.
+
+The _practice_ of many agents, and many roads, too, unfortunately,
+is hardly in keeping with this theory. Agents, especially if not
+closely watched, are prone to put freight into any car that is at
+hand, regardless of ownership, being urged to such course by the
+importunities of shippers and, at times, by the scarcity of cars.
+Frequently such irregularities are the result of pure carelessness,
+agents using foreign cars for local shipments, simply because they
+are on hand, rather than call for home cars which it may take
+some trouble and delay to procure. In this way at times a large
+amount of local business may be going on on one part of the road in
+foreign cars, while but a few miles distant the company's cars may
+be standing idle. The Car Accountant from his record can at once
+put a stop to this, and prevent its recurrence.
+
+[Illustration: Freight Pier, North River, New York.]
+
+Another valuable use to which the Car Accountant's Office may be
+put is to trace and keep a record of the movement of freight,
+locating delays, and tracing for freight lost or damaged. By a
+moderate use of the telegraph wire the Car Accountant can keep
+track of the movement of special freight-trains concerning which
+time is important, and so insure regularity and promptness in their
+despatch and delivery. From the mileage records may be obtained
+the work of each engine in freight service, the miles run, the
+number of loaded and empty cars hauled; and by considering two,
+or perhaps three, empty cars as equivalent to one loaded car, the
+average number of loaded cars hauled per mile is obtained. The
+information is often valuable, as on many roads the ability of a
+Superintendent is measured to a considerable extent by the amount
+of work performed by the engines at his command.
+
+In many other ways the resources of the Car Accountant's office
+will be found of the greatest value to the Superintendent. When the
+office is once fully organized and systematized, and all in good
+working order, the Superintendent will find that his capacity for
+control of his cars has been more than doubled, while the demands
+on his time for their care has been really lessened. He has all the
+information he needs supplied at his desk, far more accurate than
+any he was ever able to secure before, and in the most condensed
+form; while, at the same time, he will find his freight improving
+in time over his line, his agents will have cars more promptly
+and in greater abundance than ever, and last, and most gratifying
+of all, his monthly balance-sheets will show a steady decrease in
+the amount his road pays for foreign-car mileage, until probably
+the balance will be found in his favor, although his business and
+consequent tonnage may have increased meanwhile.
+
+
+III.
+
+USE AND ABUSE OF CARS.
+
+A package of merchandise can be transported from New York to
+Chicago in two days and three nights. This is repeated day after
+day with all the regularity of passenger service. So uniform is
+this movement, that shippers and consignees depend upon it and
+arrange their sales and stocks of goods in accordance therewith.
+Any deviation or irregularity brings forth instant complaint and
+a threatened withdrawal of patronage. This is true of hundreds
+of other places and lines of freight service. To accomplish it,
+there is necessary, first, a highly complicated and intricate
+organization, and, next, incessant watchfulness.
+
+[Illustration: Hay Storage Warehouses, New York Central & Hudson
+River Railroad, West Thirty-third Street, New York.]
+
+The shipper delivers the goods at the receiving freight-house
+of the railway company. His cartman gets a receipt from the
+tallyman. This receipt may be sent direct to the consignee, or
+more frequently is exchanged for a bill of lading. There the
+responsibility of the shipper ends. His goods are in the hands of
+the railway company, which to all intents and purposes guarantees
+their safe and prompt delivery to the consignee.
+
+The tallyman's receipt is taken in duplicate. The latter is kept
+in the freight-house until the freight is loaded in a car, and is
+then marked with the initials and number of the car into which the
+freight has been loaded. After that it is taken to the bill clerk
+in the office, and from it and others is made the waybill or bills
+for that particular car.
+
+Where the volume of freight received at a given station is large,
+it is customary to put all packages for a common destination, as
+far as possible, in a car by themselves, thus making what are
+termed "straight" cars. This is not always possible, however, or if
+attempted would lead to loading a very large number of cars with
+but light loads. So that it becomes necessary to group freight for
+contiguous stations in one car, and again often to put freight for
+widely distant cities in the same car. These latter are known as
+"mixed" cars.
+
+We will assume the day's receipt of freight finished, and most of
+the cars loaded. About 6 P.M. the house will be "pulled," that
+is, those cars already loaded will be taken away, and an empty
+"string" of cars put in their place. An hour later, this "string"
+will in turn be loaded and taken out, and the operation repeated,
+until all the day's receipt of freight is loaded. Meanwhile other
+freight will have been loaded direct from the shippers' carts on to
+cars on the receiving tracks. For all cars, there is made out in
+the freight-office a running slip or memorandum bill, which gives
+simply the car number, initials, and destination. These are given
+to the yardmaster or despatcher, and from them he "makes up" the
+trains.
+
+To a very great degree, the good movement of freight depends
+upon the vigilance of the yardmasters and the care with which
+they execute their duties. In an important terminal yard, the
+yardmaster may have at all times from one to two thousand cars,
+loaded and empty. He must know what each car contains, what is its
+destination, and on what track it is. To enable him to do this,
+he has one or more assistants, day and night. They, in turn, will
+have foremen in charge of yard crews, each of the latter having
+immediate charge of one engine. The number of engines employed will
+vary constantly with the volume of the freight handled, but it
+is safe to assume that there will be at all times nearly as many
+engines employed in shifting in the various yards and important
+stations on a line as there are road engines used in the movement
+of the freight traffic.
+
+The work of the yard goes on without intermission day and night,
+Sundays as well as week-days. The men there employed know no
+holidays, get no vacations. The loaded cars are coming from the
+freight-houses all day long, in greater numbers perhaps in the
+afternoon and evening, but the work of loading and moving cars
+goes on somewhere or other, at nearly all times. As often as the
+yardmaster gets together a sufficient number of cars for a common
+destination to make up a train, he gathers them together, orders a
+road engine and crew to be ready, and despatches them. In the make
+up of "through" trains, care has to be exercised to put together
+cars going to the same point, and to "group" the trains so that
+as little shifting as possible may be required at any succeeding
+yard or terminal, where the trains may pass. To accomplish this,
+a thorough knowledge of all the various routes is necessary, and
+minute acquaintance with the various intermediate junction yards
+and stations.
+
+The train once "made up" and in charge of the road crew, its
+progress for the next few hours is comparatively simple. It will
+go the length of the "run" at a rate of probably twenty miles per
+hour, subject only to the ordinary vicissitudes of the road. At
+the end of the division, if a through train, it will be promptly
+transferred to another road crew with another engine, and so on.
+Each conductor takes the running slip for each car in his train.
+He also makes a report, giving the cars in his train by numbers
+and initials, whether loaded or empty, how secured; and detailed
+information in regard to any car out of order, or any slight mishap
+or delay to his train. These reports go to the Car Accountant.
+The running slips stay with the cars, being transferred from hand
+to hand until the cars reach their destination. At junction yards
+where one road terminates and connects with one or more foreign
+roads, a complete record is kept, in a book prepared especially
+for the purpose, of every car received from and delivered to each
+connecting road. A copy of this information is sent daily to the
+Car Accountant.
+
+[Illustration: Freight Yards of the New York Central & Hudson River
+Railroad, West Sixty-fifth Street, New York.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration: "Dummy" Train and Boy on Hudson Street, New York.]
+
+A road is expected to receive back from a connecting line any car
+that it has previously delivered loaded. It becomes very necessary
+to know just what cars have been so delivered. Without such a
+record a road is at the mercy of its connections, and may be forced
+to receive and move over its length empty foreign cars that it
+never had in its possession before, thus paying mileage and being
+at the expense of moving cars that brought it no revenue whatever.
+The junction records put a complete check on such errors, and by
+their use thousands of dollars are saved annually.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+To still more expedite the movement of through freight, very
+many so-called fast freight lines exist in this country, as, for
+example, the Traders' Despatch, the Star Union, the Merchants'
+Despatch Transportation Company, the Red, the White, the Blue, the
+National Despatch, etc. Some of these lines are simply co-operative
+lines, owned by the various railway companies whose roads are
+operated in connection with one another. Their organization is
+simple. A number of companies organize a line, which they put in
+charge of a general manager. Each company will assign to the line a
+number of cars, the quota of each being in proportion to its miles
+of road. The general manager has control of the line cars. He has
+agents who solicit business and employees who watch the movement
+of his line cars, and report the same to him. He keeps close
+record of his business, and reports promptly to the transportation
+officer of any road in his line any neglect or delinquency he may
+discover. The earnings of the line and its expenses are all divided
+_pro rata_ among the roads interested. Such a line is simply an
+organization to insure prompt service and secure competitive
+business, and the entire benefit goes to the railway companies.
+
+[Illustration: (Logo on a box-car)]
+
+Other lines are in the nature of corporations, being owned by
+stockholders and operating on a system of roads in accordance with
+some agreement or contract. Others, again, are organized for some
+special freight, and are owned wholly by firms or individuals, such
+as the various dressed-beef lines and some lines of live-stock
+cars. These are put in service simply for the mileage received for
+their use, and in many cases the railway companies have no interest
+in them whatever.
+
+The movement of "straight" cars and "solid" trains is comparatively
+simple. But there is a very large amount of through freight,
+particularly of merchandise, that cannot be put into a "straight"
+car. A shipper in New York can depend on his goods going in a
+straight car to St. Louis, Denver, St. Paul, etc., but he can
+hardly expect a straight car to any one of hundreds of intermediate
+cities and towns. Still less is it possible for a road at a small
+country-town, where there are perhaps but one or two factories, to
+load straight cars to any but a very few places. To overcome this
+difficulty, transfer freight-houses have to be provided. These are
+usually located at important terminal stations.
+
+[Illustration: Coal Car, Central Railroad of New Jersey.]
+
+To them are billed all mixed cars containing through freight. These
+cars are unloaded and reloaded, and out of a hundred "mixed" cars
+will be made probably eighty straight and the balance local. This
+necessarily causes some delay, but it is practically a gain in time
+in the end, as otherwise every car would have to be reloaded, and
+held at every station for which it contained freight.
+
+[Illustration: (Logo on a box-car)]
+
+The variety of articles that is offered to a railway company for
+transportation is endless. Articles of all sizes and weights are
+carried, from shoe-pegs by the carload to a single casting that
+weighs thirty tons. The values also vary as widely. Some cars will
+carry kindling wood or refuse stone that is worth barely the cost
+of loading and carrying a few miles, while others will be loaded
+with teas, silks, or merchandise, where perhaps the value of a
+single carload will exceed twenty-five or thirty thousand dollars.
+The great bulk of all freight is carried in the ordinary box-cars,
+coal in cars especially planned for it, and coarse lumber and stone
+on flat or platform cars. But very many cases arise that require
+especial provision to be made for each. Chicago dressed beef has
+made the use of the refrigerator cars well known. These cars are
+also used for carrying fruit and provisions. They are of many
+kinds, built under various patents, but all with a common purpose;
+that is, to produce a car wherein the temperature can be maintained
+uniformly at about 40 degrees. On the other hand, potatoes in
+bulk are brought in great quantities to the Eastern seaboard in
+box-cars, fitted with an additional or false lining of boards, and
+in the centre an ordinary stove in which fire is kept up during the
+time the potatoes are in transit.
+
+An improvement on this plan is afforded by the use of cars known
+as the Eastman Heater Cars. They are provided with an automatic
+self-feeding oil-stove, so arranged that fire can be kept up under
+the car for about a fortnight without attention. These are largely
+used in the fruit trade.
+
+[Illustration: Unloading a Train of Truck-wagons, Long Island
+Railroad.]
+
+For carrying milk, special cars have to be provided, as particular
+attention has to be given to the matter of ventilation in
+connection with a small amount of cooling for the proper carrying
+of the milk. Not only the cars but the train service has to be
+especially arranged for in particular cases.
+
+[Illustration: Freight from all Quarters--Some Typical Trains.]
+
+As an instance, the Long Island Railroad Company makes a specialty
+of transporting farmers' truck-wagons to market. For this purpose
+they have provided long, low, flat cars, each capable of carrying
+four truck-wagons. The horses are carried in box-cars, and one
+farmer or driver is carried with each team, a coach being provided
+for their use. During the fall of the year, they frequently carry
+from 45 to 50 wagons on one train, charging a small sum for each
+wagon, and nothing for the horses or men. These trains run three
+times weekly, and are arranged so as to arrive in the city about
+midnight, returning the next day at noon. The trains by themselves
+are not very remunerative, but by furnishing this accommodation,
+farmers who are thirty or forty miles out on Long Island can have
+just as good an opportunity for market-gardening as those who live
+within driving distance of the city. This builds up the country
+farther out on the island, which in turn gives the road other
+business.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The movement of freight is not always successfully accomplished. In
+spite of good organization, every facility, incessant watchfulness,
+accidents will occur, freight will be delayed, cars will break
+down, trains will meet with disaster. The consequences sometimes
+fall heavily on the railway companies. The loss is frequently out
+of all proportion to the revenue. The following instance is from
+the writers own experience:
+
+Some carpenters repairing a small low trestle left chips and
+shavings near one of the bents. A passing train dropped some
+ashes. The shavings caught fire and burnt one or two posts in one
+bent. The section-men failed to notice the fire. Toward evening a
+freight train came to the trestle, the burnt bent gave way, and
+the train was derailed. Two men were killed, one severely injured,
+and eighteen freight cars were burned. The resulting loss to the
+railroad company was $56,113. Of this amount, the loss paid on
+freight was $39,613.12. As a matter of interest, and to show the
+disparity between the value of the commodities and the earnings
+from freight charges received by the railway company, the amount of
+each is given here in detail, taken from the actual records of the
+case:
+
+  ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------
+       Property destroyed.      | Amount paid by  |Freight charges on
+                                |railroad company.|    the same.
+  ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------
+  Butter, 200 pounds at 35 cents|      $70.00     |      $0.50
+  Ore, 75.9 tons at $3.50       |      265.80     |      56.91
+  Paper, 4,600 pounds           |      269.10     |       8.74
+  Pulp, 10,400 pounds           |      160.00     |      12.65
+  Shingles, 85 M                |      192.50     |      11.00
+  Horsenails                    |    2,986.06     |      37.44
+  Lumber                        |      252.00     |      18.40
+  Apples, 159 barrels           |      508.80     |      15.26
+  Hops, 209 bales, 37,014 pounds|   34,908.86     |      59.22
+  ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------
+                                |  $39,613.12     |    $220.12
+  ------------------------------+-----------------+------------------
+
+This was during the fall of 1882, when hops sold in New York for
+over $1 per pound.
+
+The plan of payment for car service by the mile run,
+without reference to time, has the merit of simplicity and
+long-established usage. It is, however, in reality, crude and
+unscientific, and has brought with it, in its train, numerous
+disadvantages.
+
+The owner of a car is entitled, first, to the proper interest
+in his investment, that is, on the value of the car; second, to
+a proper amount for wear and tear or for repairs. The life of a
+freight car may be reasonably estimated at ten years, so that ten
+per cent. on its value would be a fair interest-charge. The average
+amount for repairs varies directly as to the distance the car
+moves, and may be put at one-half cent per mile run.
+
+It will be seen that by the ordinary method of payment the
+car-owner is compensated for interest at the rate of ¼ of a cent
+for the time that the car is in motion, but receives nothing for
+all the time the car is at rest. If cars could be kept in motion
+for any considerable portion of each twenty-four hours, this would
+prove ample. But in practice it is found that few roads succeed
+in getting an average movement of all cars for more than one
+hour and a half in each twenty-four. This gives about five per
+cent. interest on the value of the car, only one-half of what is
+generally conceded to be a fair return. Still further, there is no
+inducement to the road on which a foreign car is standing to hasten
+its return home. On the contrary, there is a direct advantage in
+holding the car idle until a proper load can be found for it,
+rather than return it home empty. The most serious abuses of the
+freight business of the country have grown from this state of
+affairs. It costs nothing but the use of the track to hold freight
+in cars; consequently freight is held in cars instead of being put
+in storehouses, frequently for weeks and months at a time.
+
+There is but little earnest attempt made to urge consignees to
+remove freight; on the contrary, the consignees consider that
+they can leave their freight as long as they choose, and that the
+railroad companies are bound to hold it indefinitely.
+
+One special practice has grown up as a result of this condition,
+that of shippers sending freight to distant points to their own
+order. This practice is most prolific of detention to cars, and yet
+is so strongly rooted in the traffic arrangements of the country
+that it is most difficult to put an end to it. Cars "to order" will
+frequently stand for weeks before the contents are sold and the
+consignee is discovered, during which time the cars accumulate,
+stand in the way, occupy valuable space, and have to be handled
+repeatedly by the transportation department of the road, all at the
+direct cost of handling to the road itself, and loss of interest to
+the owner of the car.
+
+[Illustration: Floating Cars, New York Harbor.]
+
+Only two methods have so far been suggested to abate or put an end
+to the evils which have been but slightly indicated above. The
+first is a change in the method of payment for car service to a
+compensation based upon time as well as mileage, which is commonly
+known as the "per diem plan."
+
+This plan consists in paying for the use of all foreign cars a
+fixed sum per mile run, based on the supposed cost of repairs of
+the car, and a price per day based upon what is estimated to be a
+fair return for the interest on its value. This plan was originally
+suggested by a convention of car accountants, and was brought
+up and advocated by Mr. Fink, the Chairman of the Trunk Line
+Commission, in New York, in the fall of 1887. At his suggestion,
+and largely through his influence, it was tried by a few of the
+roads (the Trunk Lines and some of their immediate connections)
+during the early part of the year 1888; the amounts as then fixed
+being one-half cent per mile run, and fifteen cents per day. The
+results of this experiment, while they were quite satisfactory
+to the friends of the proposed change, yet were not sufficiently
+conclusive to demonstrate the value of the plan to those who were
+indifferent or hostile to it.
+
+For various reasons, chiefly local to the roads in question, the
+plan was discontinued after a few months' trial. The experiment
+resulted, however, in the collection of a large mass of statistics
+and other data, the study of which has led many to believe that
+the plan is the proper solution of the difficulties experienced,
+and, if adjusted so as not to add too much to the burden of those
+railway companies who are borrowers of cars, that it would meet
+with the approval of the railway companies throughout the country.
+It certainly provided a strong inducement to all roads to promptly
+handle foreign cars, and in that particular it proved a great
+advance over the existing methods of car service. The charge per
+day of fifteen cents was found too high in practice. Ten cents
+per day and a half-cent per mile would produce a net sum to the
+car-owner very slightly in excess of three-fourths of a cent per
+mile run. While this appears but small, yet it would be quite
+sufficient to amount in the aggregate to a considerable sum, and
+would serve to urge all railway companies to promptly unload and
+send home foreign cars. This plan would result, if generally
+adopted, in largely increasing the daily movement or mileage of all
+cars, or, what would be equivalent, would practically amount to a
+very considerable increase in the equipment of the country.
+
+The plan has recently been approved by the General Time Convention,
+and there is strong probability that it will be very extensively
+adopted and given a trial by all the railways during the year 1890.
+
+The second method of remedying the existing evils of car service
+is in a uniform and regular charge for demurrage, or car rental,
+to be collected by all railroad companies with the same regularity
+and uniformity that they now collect freight charges. This car
+rental, or demurrage charge, would not be in any sense a revenue
+to the car-owner; the idea of it being that it is a rental to the
+delivering company, not only for the use of the car but for the
+track on which it stands, and the inconvenience and actual cost
+that the company is put to in repeated handling a car that is held
+awaiting the pleasure of the consignee to unload. The difficulty
+in the way of making such a charge has been the unwillingness of
+any railroad company to put any obstacle in the way of the free
+movement of freight to its line, and the fear that an equivalent
+charge would not be made by some one of its competitors. Of late,
+however, the serious disadvantages resulting from the privileges
+given to consignees at competing points, by allowing them to hold
+cars indefinitely, have led the different railway companies to come
+together and agree upon a uniform system of demurrage charges at
+certain competing points.
+
+If these two plans could be put into operation simultaneously, a
+fair and uniform method of charging demurrage, coupled with the per
+diem and mileage plan for car service, the results would be most
+satisfactory not only to the railway companies and car-owners, but
+also to the community.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The matter of freight transportation is a vast one, and whole
+chapters might be written on any one of the various topics that
+have been but slightly mentioned in this sketch.
+
+The subject is fraught with difficulties; new complications arise
+daily which, each in its turn, have to be met and mastered. The
+publicity recently given to the various phases of the railway
+problem has done much to enlighten the public mind in regard to
+these difficulties.
+
+The result has already been evident in the growing spirit of mutual
+forbearance and good-will between the railway companies and the
+public. Let us hope that this will continue, and that as time goes
+on their relations will steadily improve, so that the public, while
+yielding nothing of their legitimate demand for safe, prompt, and
+convenient service, will at the same time see that this can only
+be secured by allowing the railways a fair return for the services
+rendered; while the railways will learn that their true interest
+lies in the best service possible at moderate, uniform rates.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[27] EXPLANATION. Each connecting road at each junction station is
+assigned a number, and when a car is received from a connection
+the record is shown by entering the road number in the upper space
+of the block under the proper date, followed by the character ×
+if loaded; or, if empty, together with the time, as for example:
+Car 29421 is shown as received, Dec. 2d, from the Amherst &
+Lincoln Ry. at Port Chester (10), loaded (×), at 21 o'clock, or 9
+P.M. A similar entry in the lower space of the block indicates a
+_delivery_ to connecting line. The middle space of the block is
+used for the car movement, the first number or letter showing the
+station from which the car moved. The character × as a prefix to
+a station number indicates that the car is being loaded at that
+station. The --, when used as a prefix, shows that the car is being
+unloaded; as an _affix_ it indicates a movement empty, or on hand
+empty. When the -- is used _under_ a station number it indicates
+a change date record, that is, leaving a station on one date and
+arriving at another on the following date. Station numbers or
+letters without other characters show that the car is loaded.
+
+The sign (B) is used when a car is left at a station for repairs,
+while in transit. The sign (T) denotes that the lading was
+transferred to another car, a transfer record being kept showing
+to what car transferred; the sign (R), when a car is on hand at a
+station or yard for repairs. Shops are assigned numbers with an O
+prefix; the upper and lower spaces being used to show delivery to,
+or receipt from the shop, similar to the interchange record.
+
+For convenience the twenty-four hour system is used for recording
+time, and is shown in quarter-hours; thus, 10, 12^1, 18^2, 21^3,
+representing 10 A.M., 12.15 P.M., 6.30 P.M., and 9.45 P.M. This,
+used in the movement record, shows the running time on each
+division, or detention at train terminals.
+
+The "transfer" column shows the station at which the car was
+reported on the last day of the previous month, and the _arriving
+date_; also from what road received, with date.
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO FEED A RAILWAY.
+
+BY BENJAMIN NORTON.
+
+  The Many Necessities of a Modern Railway--The Purchasing and
+  Supply Departments--Comparison with the Commissary Department of
+  an Army--Financial Importance--Immense Expenditures--The General
+  Storehouse--Duties of the Purchasing Agent--The Best Material the
+  Cheapest--Profits from the Scrap-heap--Old Rails Worked over into
+  New Implements--Yearly Contracts for Staple Articles--Economy
+  in Fuel--Tests by the Best Engineers and Firemen--The
+  Stationery Supply--Aggregate Annual Cost of Envelopes, Tickets,
+  and Time-tables--The Average Life of Rails--Durability of
+  Cross-ties--What it Costs per Mile to Run an Engine--The
+  Paymaster's Duties--Scenes during the Trip of a Pay-car.
+
+
+The commissary or supply department of a railroad is not unlike
+that of a large army. Like a vast army, its necessities are many,
+and the various departments which make up the whole system must be
+provided with their necessary requirements in order to accomplish
+the end for which it is operated.
+
+If, again, we regard a railroad as a huge animal, the quantity
+of supplies needed to fill its capacious maw is something
+overwhelming. It is always hungry, and the daily bill of fare
+(which includes pretty much everything known to trade) is gone
+through with an appetite as vigorous and healthy at the end as
+it exhibits in the beginning. Yet how few there are who realize
+the important part this one feature plays in the operation of
+the thousands of miles of railroad throughout the world! Upon
+the proper conduct of this department depends very largely the
+success of any road, so far as its relation to the stockholders
+is concerned; for while, as has been the case in the past,
+combinations and pools have aided in maintaining rates, and have
+served to increase the income, and attention has been paid to
+securing additional business in every possible way, the "out-goes"
+have often been overlooked, to the detriment of dividends and the
+general welfare of the property.
+
+The supplies must be furnished in any event, in order that the
+various departments may perform their allotted duties--coal for
+the engines, stationery for the clerks, ties and rails for the
+tracks, oils for the lubrication of the thousands of axles daily
+turning, passage-tickets for the travellers, and a thousand and one
+things which are absolutely necessary for the safe and efficient
+conduct of every railroad in active operation. Each item serves its
+purpose, and, properly assimilated, keeps alive all the functions
+of one vast and complicated system. It is easy to see, then, the
+importance, first, of proper economy in buying, and then a correct
+and systematic distribution of all supplies. On the Philadelphia &
+Reading Railroad, for instance, the annual supply bills aggregate
+more than $3,000,000, covering such supplies as those just
+mentioned, and, in fact, everything which is purchased and used in
+the operation of the road; so that on a large system like that,
+the commissary department requires no end of detail, both in the
+purchase and the distribution of all material.
+
+The expenditure for lubricating oils, waste, and greases alone
+amounts to more than $150,000 per annum, while the outlay for fuel
+represents about $1,200,000, and this is comparatively a small
+sum, since that road is a coal road, so called, and the cost for
+fuel, as a matter of course, is reduced to a minimum. There the
+store-room system, which has now been pretty generally adopted by
+many of the larger roads, is fully exemplified. With a General
+Store-keeper in charge, all supplies purchased are accounted for
+through him, and distributions are made daily among the sub-store
+rooms, which are located at convenient points; and they in turn
+distribute among the various departments, for consumption, all
+accounting daily to the General Store-keeper at Reading.
+
+To give an idea as to the quantity of material required in the
+service on such a road, it may be stated that from twelve to
+fifteen car-loads of supplies per day are shipped to various
+points. When we consider that an ordinary car will carry from
+fifteen to twenty tons of freight, we find that the annual
+requirements will average about four thousand car-loads, or, say,
+about fifty thousand tons, and if all the cars were made up into
+one solid train they would occupy fully twenty-five miles of
+track, and consume an hour and a half passing a given point running
+at the ordinary speed of freight-trains.
+
+To account carefully for all this requires necessarily a large
+army of clerks and other assistants, though, with the fundamental
+principles correct, it is no more difficult to account for large
+quantities than for small. The supplies are purchased in the first
+instance, delivered at the General Storehouse, are there weighed or
+measured and receipted for, are then distributed on requisition,
+and finally delivered to the several departments when needed; are
+charged out to the various accounts, after consumption, and all
+returns and records are finally kept on the books of the General
+Store-keeper.
+
+It would be a large army indeed which would require so much for
+its maintenance; and, remembering the hundreds of roads, small and
+large, throughout the country, the measure of one's comprehension
+is nearly reached in estimating the amount of money and the
+thousands of tons of material represented.
+
+If the buyer of railroad stocks for investment, besides looking
+into the returns of freight and passenger business for his
+decision, would investigate carefully the method adopted for the
+purchase and distribution of supplies on any road in which he may
+be interested, he might get information enough to satisfy himself
+that a large portion of the earnings were dribbling out through
+this department, and that, as a result, his stock might eventually
+cease to be a dividend payer.
+
+In the matter of buying, the result depends entirely upon the
+purchasing agent, and this position must necessarily be occupied
+by a man of honor and integrity, coupled with a reasonable amount
+of shrewdness and aptitude for such business. As this department
+covers to a greater or less degree pretty much all the known
+branches of trade, the buyer cannot, under ordinary circumstances,
+thoroughly master the whole field as an expert; but he can
+nevertheless inform himself in the most important articles of
+manufacture to the extent of preventing deception or fraud. The
+field is extensive, and the sooner railroad companies realize that
+the purchasing agent is not a mere order clerk, the sooner they
+will discover that their disbursements for supplies are very much
+less, and that the chief part of the leakage has found its source
+in this very department.
+
+Exactly the same principles are involved in this matter as in the
+case of a thrifty proprietor of a country-store, whose profits each
+year depend materially upon the closeness and care with which his
+stock in trade is purchased from the wholesale dealers in a large
+city. A purchasing agent's experience is varied in the extreme,
+dealing as he does with all classes of salesmen and business
+houses. There is no end to the operations which skilful salesmen
+go through in offering their stock; but after some experience a
+sharp buyer will be able to fortify himself against the best of
+them--even against the clever vender of varnishes who disposed of
+one hundred barrels of his wares in small lots to different buyers,
+on a sample of maple-sirup. On the other hand, a salesman who,
+when a buyer asked him if his oil gummed, replied that "it gummed
+beautifully," lost the chance of ever selling any goods in that
+quarter.
+
+As has been said, the ordinary or general supplies consumed in the
+operation of the average railroad include almost everything known
+to trade. Tobacco, for the gratification of the taste of a gang
+of men out on the road with the snow-plough, is not outside the
+list; and even pianos, for some trains (since the days of absolute
+comfort and possible extravagance have begun) for the benefit of
+passengers setting out on long journeys; nor do we lose sight of
+books, bath-tubs, and barbers. The practical feature involved,
+however, calls for an endless variety of expensive as well as
+inexpensive materials.
+
+It is a safe rule to follow that anything which goes into the
+construction either of track, equipment, or buildings, should be
+the best. Care should always be exercised against the use of any
+material the failure of which might be the cause of loss of life,
+and consequently result in heavy damages to the company. Iron alone
+enters so extensively into railroad construction and operation
+that it is safe to say three-fourths of all manufactured in this
+country is consumed directly or indirectly in this way; and besides
+its use in rails and fastenings (the latter including spikes,
+fish-plates, and bolts and nuts), and in the many thousand tons of
+car-wheels and axles annually required, there must be reckoned the
+almost unlimited number of castings daily required in the way of
+brake-shoes, pedestals, draw-heads, grate-bars, etc. The lumber and
+timber for buildings, bridges, platforms, and crossings, and the
+large quantity of glass which is necessary, are among other large
+items of expenditure.
+
+Lubricating and illuminating oils, paints and varnishes, soaps,
+chalk, bunting, hardware, lamps, cotton and woollen waste, clocks,
+brooms, and such metals as copper, pig tin, and antimony are only a
+few of the many articles of diet which a railroad requires to keep
+body and soul together, and give it strength to perform the great
+duty it owes to commerce and the public. After they have all served
+their purposes, such as cannot be worked over again in the shops,
+and are not entirely consumed, are consigned to the scrap-heap
+under the head of "old material"--an all-important consideration in
+the economical management of any road. On many roads very little
+attention is paid to the sale of scrap. As a general rule, the
+purchasing agent has charge of it, and if he shows any shrewdness
+in buying, he will exercise more or less ingenuity in selling. Most
+railroad scrap has a fixed value in the market. Quotations for old
+rails, car-wheels, and wrought iron are found in all the trade
+journals; but as in buying one can usually buy of someone at prices
+less than market price, so in selling he can often find a buyer who
+is willing to pay more than the regular quotation. As it is found
+not wise in the long run to purchase ahead on some prospective
+rise, so in selling it is equally true that holding scrap over upon
+the possibility of a rise in prices is not always for the best
+advantage.
+
+There has always been a demand for old iron rails, and recently
+use for old steel rails has been found. They are worked over at
+the rolling mills into crowbars and shovels, spikes, fish-plates,
+bolts, and other necessary things to be employed in construction
+and maintenance. Not long since an experiment with old steel rails
+was successfully performed, whereby they were melted and poured
+into moulds for use as brake-shoes. The result showed a casting
+of unusual hardness which would outwear three ordinary cast-iron
+shoes. This opens up an entirely new field in railroad economy,
+for with ordinary foundry appliances accumulations of old steel
+rails can be worked over and cast into all sorts of shapes and
+patterns to better advantage than selling them at a nominal price
+to outside buyers. While worn-out car-wheels will generally bring
+more money from wheel manufacturers than they command in the open
+market, it has not always been found the best policy to compel the
+mill from which the new wheels are purchased to take too many of
+them. It is apt to encourage the use of too much old material in
+the manufacture of the new; and while the company may consider that
+it is realizing much more money on sales of the old wheels than
+the market price, it does not take into account the inferior stock
+it is getting back, or the fact that possibly when the mileage
+is reckoned the wheels have signally failed to run as long as
+they ought. In the aggregate about ten per cent. of the original
+cost of all supplies purchased is realized out of the sales of
+old material. From cast-iron wheels and old rails, however, the
+percentage is much larger, for while at present new passenger
+car-wheels of this class, weighing about five hundred and fifty
+pounds, are worth about ten dollars each, they will bring in the
+market, when worn out after running say fifty thousand miles, about
+twenty dollars per ton. Four wheels go to the ton, which represents
+five dollars per wheel, or fifty per cent. of the original cost.
+With old rails the percentage is even higher, in the present
+condition of the rail market. Old iron rails are worth within four
+or five dollars of the price of new steel, and the old steel about
+seventy per cent. of the price of the new. These high percentages
+assist in making up for the materials which are entirely consumed
+in the service, and which never form a part of the ordinary
+scrap-heap, such as oils, waste, and paints.
+
+While the majority of general supplies just mentioned briefly may
+be arranged for as required and purchased from month to month upon
+regular requisitions, there are certain staple articles which are
+provided for in advance by contract. Among them principally are
+the engine-coal, rails and ties, stationery, passage-tickets, and
+time-tables. More money is expended for such supplies than for any
+others, and contracts with responsible business houses, for their
+delivery at fixed prices for the limit of at least a year, are
+generally made to insure, in the first place, the lowest market
+rates and, again, to make the delivery certain.
+
+Locomotive fuel is the largest single item of expense in the
+operation of any road, the consumption of it running up as high as
+a million tons per annum on some large roads; and while there are
+a few exceptional cases where wood is used as fuel, coal is the
+necessary element in nearly every case in America to-day.
+
+Of the two general varieties--bituminous or soft, and anthracite
+or hard--it is safe to say that bituminous coal is the more
+economical, assuming that the grade employed is the best, this
+economy lying both in the original cost and the fact that the bulk
+of it goes to serve its purpose, there being comparatively little
+waste in the way of ashes; while the anthracite produces many ashes
+and clinkers, requires much more care and attention on the part of
+the stoker or fireman, and costs, as a general rule, about thirty
+per cent. more. Economy, however, should not be carried too far in
+any branch of the service, and if the passenger traffic be heavy
+the use of soft coal may be a great detriment. To a traveller
+there can be nothing more disagreeable than the smoke and cinders
+emanating from it; and if, besides this, the road be an especially
+dusty one, the combination of dust, smoke, and cinders will be
+quite sufficient to turn the tide of travel in some other direction
+and over another route.
+
+For freight service bituminous coal is decidedly the best, and
+perhaps might not be out of place on short local passenger trains;
+but the company that provides hard-coal-burning engines for
+passenger trains, and soft-coal burners for freight, does about
+the right thing, and economizes as far as practicable in this
+particular. In making contracts for this important commodity the
+necessity of careful tests in advance is very apparent, and such
+trials are generally left with the best engineers and firemen;
+otherwise it might be difficult to get at all the qualifications.
+On some roads inducements offered to firemen have brought the
+consumption of fuel down to the most economical point, and it is
+surprising how much depends upon their good judgment in this matter.
+
+Now that heating cars direct from the engines is coming into
+general use, and State legislatures have given the subject their
+consideration, the consumption of the domestic sizes of coal as
+fuel in cars is growing less; but this, too, is still a very
+important matter.
+
+Stationery is not only a very significant item, but also an
+expensive one. This includes all the forms and blanks used in
+the conduct of the freight and passenger business, and there is
+an endless variety of them--the inks, pens, pencils, mucilage,
+sealing-wax, and envelopes, besides many other odds and ends.
+Perhaps the envelopes represent one of the largest single items of
+expense in this line. The hundreds of thousands of them used in
+the course of a year, even at low prices, mean an outlay of many
+thousands of dollars. Agents must send in daily reports, there
+must be covers for all the correspondence passing between the
+different departments, while the daily average amount of outside
+correspondence is very considerable. It is surprising how many
+dollars might be saved in this direction, not only by a judicious
+contract, but by a careful use of the supply.
+
+When a railroad company takes up the question of time-tables, it
+has a matter of importance to handle which on many roads receives
+very little consideration. When the passenger traffic is heavy, the
+number of travellers during the year running into the millions,
+the demand for time-tables is very large. This refers directly to
+the time-table sheets or folders, which every company must keep
+on hand at its stations, and in other public places and hotels,
+for the convenience of the traveller, in addition to the printed
+schedules which are framed and hung up conspicuously on the walls
+of its waiting-rooms. A neat and attractive folder for general
+circulation is very desirable, particularly if competition is very
+strong. There is more virtue in a neatly made up schedule of trains
+than one would suppose. One in doubt is apt to reason that the road
+is kept up in a corresponding condition, and that the trains are
+made up on the same plan, and consequently would prefer to go by
+that route rather than by one whose trains were advertised on cheap
+leaflets.
+
+Fifteen thousand to twenty thousand dollars per annum for envelopes
+alone is spent on some roads, and twice as much more perhaps for
+time-tables.
+
+Passage-tickets, including all varieties of regular and special
+tickets, such as mileage books or coupons, family trip-books,
+and school-tickets are also an item of large expense, the annual
+consumption covering many tons, which once used are of no value
+save as waste paper; yet they are absolutely indispensable in
+the operation of the road. Yearly contracts for these are made,
+and while the actual cost of a single ticket may not exceed _one
+mill_, the aggregate on a road carrying fifteen millions to twenty
+millions or more passengers per annum is considerable.
+
+To induce the public to travel, and encourage shippers to send
+their freight to market over any road, attention must first be paid
+to the condition of the track and rolling stock.
+
+It is not economy to allow anything to be out of repair, on
+the supposition that it is less expensive than it would be to
+spend comparatively little from day to day to keep it up. The
+day of reckoning will come in the end, and the sacrifice will
+be considerable. As the track is the fundamental feature, the
+cross-ties or sleepers and rails should be the best. Iron rails are
+practically out of date, and it is fair to assume that the time
+is approaching when wooden ties will be things of the past. Where
+the traffic is light, heavy steel rails may not be necessary; but
+it has been generally found economical to put in use rails which
+do not weigh less than sixty-seven or seventy pounds to the yard;
+an even greater weight than this is not ill-advised--they require
+fewer cross-ties to the mile, and in consequence the force of men
+required to keep the track in condition is less. Light rails are
+soon worn and battered out on a road over which heavy engines are
+run and large trains are hauled. The powerful locomotives now built
+require a well-kept track and a solid and substantial road-bed.
+Heavier and faster trains have tended to reduce the average life of
+rails, even though the weight of the rails has also been steadily
+increasing. Circumstances vary on the different roads, but it is
+safe to say that eight to ten per cent. of all rails in the track
+must be renewed every year. This brings the average life of the
+steel rails down to about twelve years, under ordinary conditions.
+On some divisions, however, where the traffic is frequent, and in
+yards where a good deal of switching is done, and the rails are
+under pressure constantly, the average is, of course, very much
+less--even as low as two or three years.
+
+Aside from the durability of the timber employed, plenty of face
+for the rail bearings, and uniform thickness and length, are
+very important requirements in contracts for ties. While white
+oak is generally considered the most durable for this purpose,
+the growth of this timber is limited except in certain sections
+of the country, so that cedar, cypress, chestnut, and yellow
+pine are more commonly used than any other class. The millions
+of them used for renewals and new roads each year are gradually
+reducing our forests; and, like some of the European roads, we
+shall some day fall back upon metal, which (while its life may not
+be measured) will make so rigid a track that the traveller over
+long distances will be worn out with his journey, and the rolling
+stock will require frequent repairs and overhauling. The practice
+of creosoting cross-ties is growing rapidly, and this tends to
+increase their durability three or four times. While the first
+cost of such ties may be double that for the unprepared timbers,
+the result in the end is economical, for the labor alone required
+to take out an old tie and put in a new one costs at least twelve
+cents.
+
+The general store-room is properly the intermediate stage, so far
+as supplies are concerned, between the different departments of
+the road and the Auditor, who charges up all material used to the
+different accounts into which his system is divided. Properly,
+everything in the nature of material, however small, directly or
+indirectly passes through the Store-keeper's books. An account is
+kept with each locomotive, station agent, switchman, and flagman,
+so that to a penny everything consumed in the operation of a road
+is accurately known. To accomplish this the Store-keeper, of
+course, must be a good accountant, and at the same time be more
+or less of an expert in railroad material. Under an economical
+administration of his affairs he is able to save a great deal of
+money for his company. By his system, with the aid of data from
+the mechanical department, he can tell the average number of miles
+run during the year to a pint of oil or a ton of coal; the number
+of pounds of coal consumed per mile run, as well as the number of
+pints of oil for the same distance. He can give in detail the cost
+in cents per mile run for all the oil, tallow, and waste, fuel,
+and other supplies consumed, and can account to a nicety for all
+the lanterns, brooms, hardware, and other material which he has
+received and distributed.
+
+The following statement of averages represents fairly what it costs
+to run a locomotive under ordinary conditions:
+
+
+_Averages._
+
+  Number of miles run to pint of oil         15.32
+  Number of miles run to ton of coal         46.17
+  Number of pounds of coal per mile run      48.62
+  Number of pints of oil per mile run         0.06
+
+
+_Cost in Cents per Mile Run._
+
+                                             Cents.
+  For oil, tallow, and waste                  0.32
+  For fuel                                    7.42
+  For engineers                               3.60
+  For firemen                                 1.79
+  For wipers and watchmen                     1.25
+  For water supply                            0.49
+  For supplies (miscellaneous)                0.10
+  For repairs                                 2.40
+                                             -----
+        Total                                17.37
+
+He will find that some engineers and firemen are more extravagant
+than others, and that some station agents and flagmen do not
+perform their respective duties with near so much regard for
+economy as others do under exactly similar circumstances. In such
+cases a report is made and a reminder from the Superintendent
+follows, calling attention to such carelessness. The result is
+apparent at the next monthly comparison.
+
+Prompt payment of all supply bills helps to insure economy, and any
+company unable to make its payments promptly and regularly, suffers
+to a greater or less extent always; for a firm not able to know
+whether its accounts are to be settled in thirty or ninety days
+cannot afford to allow all the discounts which it otherwise might,
+and this may mean an extra expense every year of many thousands of
+dollars.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+So far as the employees are concerned, it is for the best interests
+of the company to have a fixed time for the pay-day. They need
+their money and should get it regularly. Any road on which the men
+are paid at uncertain times may be subject to incalculable losses.
+It is apt to provoke dishonesty and carelessness. The road which
+is bankrupt and forced to pass its pay-day to some indefinite time
+is always hampered by some of the most inferior class of servants
+in the market. Except in some instances where special laws have
+been passed requiring railroad companies to meet their pay-rolls
+oftener, once each month is generally recognized as pay-time, and
+on large roads it would be simply out of the question for the
+pay-rolls to be made up correctly and the men paid off sooner.
+The paymaster is the wage-distributing medium, and by virtue of
+his generosity will command as much respect as the President of
+the road. No officer's face is more familiar than his, and surely
+no one connected with the institution is looked for with more
+eagerness by the hard-working employees. It is no easy task he has
+to perform, and the responsibility for the millions of dollars
+paid out in this way annually is very great. This responsibility,
+however, has been very much reduced on some roads, where wages
+are paid by checks entirely. Under some circumstances this system
+will not work satisfactorily, especially on a road running through
+a sparsely settled country. The employees may have to stand a
+good round discount to some store-keeper or tradesman in order
+to secure their money. The best and most satisfactory return for
+services can be nothing less than solid cash; it encourages better
+attention to business and relieves the men from possible annoyance
+and inconvenience. The Paymaster's car, which is virtually a
+moving bank or cashier's office, and arranged conveniently for the
+payment of money to the men as they pass through, is generally
+run "special," upon notice in advance to all foremen or heads of
+departments, either by telegraph or, as on some roads, by the
+display of special signal flags, which are carried on the front
+end of the locomotive of some regular train the day before the car
+is run over any division. In this way all men employed along the
+line of the road, whether at or between stations, are notified of
+the Paymaster's coming, and it does not usually require any other
+inducement than this to bring them all out. There is nothing that
+will prompt them to jump higher and run faster than the whistle of
+the pay-train as it comes around the curve to the station. Men have
+been known to forget their names, and do other foolish things under
+the excitement of drawing their month's pay. The fellow who said
+he could not write all his name when requested by the Paymaster to
+sign the pay-roll, but offered to write as much of it as he could,
+after some deliberation made a cross on the sheet with all the care
+and nicety he could muster. Others who could not write have been
+very slow to admit it, and have pleaded haste as an excuse for
+not doing so. So far as Italians are concerned (and what railroad
+service is now complete without its gang of Italian laborers?),
+they are usually designated by numbers, and in some cases their
+foremen have thought it well to name them after prominent statesmen
+or other public men, or possibly some of the head officials of the
+company. To run across twenty-five or thirty Daniel Websters on
+the same road is not surprising, and the President of the company
+himself is liable to have a half-dozen namesakes throughout the
+different divisions of his road. A cage of jabbering monkeys is
+not a more amusing spectacle than some gangs of Italian laborers
+receiving their month's pay.
+
+The pay-department can be made very systematic, and to promote
+economy and accuracy it is absolutely necessary that it should
+be. The Paymaster is not simply a medium through whom wages are
+distributed. He may be one of the most important officers of his
+company, and ferret out frauds and dishonesty which otherwise might
+never be discovered. He knows all the men, and they, of course,
+know him. In fact, he is the only one connected with the road whose
+recognition among all the employees is absolutely certain.
+
+Some idea of the enormous amount of money earned annually by the
+railroad men in this country may be formed from the statement that
+it requires about $1,000,000 per month to pay twenty thousand
+men, and there are a good many roads on which the average monthly
+pay-roll embraces from fifteen thousand to twenty thousand names;
+in some cases even more.
+
+When the pay-rolls are all turned over to the Paymaster,
+properly approved by each head of department, he notifies the
+Superintendent or Trainmaster of his proposed trip, mapping out
+in detail the route, which is usually the same each month. The
+signals or telegrams are sent ahead to the various foremen, and
+the car is ordered ready for the journey. The funds are arranged
+in denominations to suit the circumstances, with plenty of small
+change, and enough money for a day or two only at a time is
+provided. The pay for the flagmen at crossings, and switchmen on
+the road, as well as for the agents at small stations, is generally
+done up in envelopes, and, as the train speeds by, the packages
+are handed or thrown out at the proper places; and sometimes, to
+warrant a safe delivery, a forked stick is used, into which the
+envelope is put, thus giving it plenty of weight and saving it from
+being tumbled about promiscuously on the ground. Much time is saved
+in this way, and the pay-train is able to keep well out of the way
+of any regular train which may be following. So the pay-car flies
+along, only stopping at some large station where the number of
+employees engaged is sufficient to warrant it. These are quickly
+paid off, however, and the journey is continued. Perhaps at some
+junction a freight crew is met; and as these fellows have to get
+their money when they can, a stop is made on the road to give them
+a chance to do it. At some stations are found two or three gangs
+of section or track men, a watchman, an agent and his assistant, a
+pumper, and possibly a mail-carrier. Perhaps a discharged trainman
+will turn up also, who may have part of a month's pay coming to him.
+
+Later in the day it may be a shop gang of five hundred or one
+thousand men, consisting of carpenters, painters, machinists,
+and boiler-makers, and these are paid in order, each set of men
+by itself. There is no noise or disturbance, everything goes
+like clock-work, as all pass through in regular order, each gang
+or class preceded by its foreman, and the men arranged in line
+in the order in which their names appear on the pay-rolls. When
+night comes, and two or three hundred miles of road have been
+covered, the balance of the funds is carefully locked up in the
+safe on board, the car run in upon some convenient siding, and
+the engine housed for a wiping and a thorough preparation for the
+next day's run. The car is generally provided with comfortable
+beds for the Paymaster and his clerks, and during the paying-off
+time they practically live in the car. This insures early starts
+in the morning, and on large roads the necessity for haste is very
+apparent, where possibly two or three weeks are consumed each month
+in paying off the rolls.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The average traveller, spinning across the country at forty miles
+an hour, is not apt to think of the countless details involved in
+the make-up of the train in which he rides or the track over which
+he is wheeled; but when he considers how safely the millions of
+passengers are annually carried over the one hundred and fifty
+thousand miles or more of railroad in this country alone, he may
+be brought to realize that quite as much depends upon the quality
+of the material entering into the construction of the train and
+tracks as upon the efficiency of the engineer in the cab, or the
+conductor, brakeman, switchmen, and train-despatcher who perform
+their respective responsible duties in connection therewith.
+Feeding a railroad, then, means a great deal more than the majority
+of mankind supposes.
+
+
+
+
+THE RAILWAY MAIL SERVICE.
+
+BY THOMAS L. JAMES.
+
+  An Object Lesson in Postal Progress--Nearness of the Department
+  to the People--The First Travelling Post-Office in the United
+  States--Organization of the Department in 1789--Early Mail
+  Contracts--All Railroads made Post-routes--Compartments for
+  Mail Clerks in Baggage-cars--Origin of the Present System in
+  1862--Important Work of Colonel George S. Bangs--The "Fast Mail"
+  between New York and Chicago--Why it was Suspended--Resumption
+  in 1877--Present Condition of the Service--Statistics--A
+  Ride on the "Fast Mail"--Busy Scenes at the Grand Central
+  Depot--Special Uses of the Five Cars--Duties of the Clerks--How
+  the Work is Performed--Annual Appropriation for Special Mail
+  Facilities--Dangers Threatening the Railway Mail Clerk's Life--An
+  Insurance Fund Proposed--Needs of the Service--A Plea for Radical
+  Civil Service Reform.
+
+
+At the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia, in the Post-Office
+exhibit, was a double picture showing the postal service at the
+beginning of the century and as it is to-day. On one side was a
+postman--perhaps Franklin--on horseback, jogging over a corduroy
+road, "through the forest primeval," making a mile or two an hour;
+and on the other a representation of the fast mail train, the
+"catcher" taking a pouch from the "crane" as it passes at the rate
+of fifty miles an hour! Standing in the foreground is the pretty
+daughter of the village postmaster with the mail pouch just thrown
+from the car in her hand, a group of rustics, with ill-concealed
+admiration in their eyes, watching her as the swiftly passing train
+goes on its journey. This picture is not, perhaps, a work of art,
+but it is an "object lesson," giving at a glance the progress that
+our country has made in a hundred years.
+
+[Illustration: Postal Progress, 1776-1876.
+
+(Facsimile of a print in the Post-Office Department.)]
+
+Of all the executive departments of the Government, the Post-Office
+is the one nearest the people, and the one with which they
+are the most familiar. In addition to its work of collecting,
+transporting, and delivering legitimate mail matter, viz.,
+letters, newspapers, and magazines, it is the greatest express
+company of the continent, since it has an office at almost every
+cross-roads, even carrying merchandise cheaper (considering the
+distance) than its rivals. Its registration system affords a means
+of forwarding valuable packages, at a slight additional cost, with
+almost absolute security. It is the greatest banking institution
+on this side of the Atlantic. The transactions of its money-order
+system, not only in our own country, but with almost every nation
+in the civilized world (Russia and Spain excepted), run up to
+wellnigh fabulous sums. Its drafts are easily obtained and cheap.
+Its notes are "gilt edged," and have never been repudiated. With
+the creation of the Postal Savings Bank system, the working
+people's department in its organization will approach perfection.
+
+The first mention of a travelling post-office occurs in a memorial
+addressed to Congress in November, 1776, by Ebenezer Hazard,
+Postmaster-General under the Continental Congress, in which he
+states that, owing to the frequent removals of the Continental
+Army, he was subjected to extraordinary expense, difficulties, and
+fatigues, "having paid an exorbitant price for every necessary of
+life, and having been obliged, for want of a horse--which could not
+be procured--to follow the army on foot."
+
+Directly after the inauguration of General Washington, in April,
+1789, the organization of the Post-Office Department followed, and
+Samuel Osgood, of Massachusetts, was appointed Postmaster-General.
+That the people might derive the greatest possible advantage from
+an institution peculiarly their own, this gigantic monopoly--for it
+is nothing else--was created, and all competition forbidden. The
+Postmaster-General had then but one clerk, and there were but 75
+post-offices and 1,875 miles of post-roads in the United States;
+the cost of mail transportation being $22,081, the total revenue,
+$37,935, the total expenditures, $32,140; leaving a surplus of
+$5,795. From this time until 1836 the contracts made for the
+transportation of the mails do not mention any kind of service
+on post-roads except stages, sulkies, four-horse post-coaches,
+horseback, packets, and steam-boats.
+
+[Illustration: The Pony Express--The Relay.]
+
+The growth of the Railway Mail Service has been coincident with
+that of the railway itself, and the importance of both cannot
+be underestimated in considering the future development of the
+country. Almost as soon as a railroad is fully organized it becomes
+a mail contractor with the Department.
+
+The Act of Congress constituting every railroad in the United
+States a post-route was approved July 7, 1838. Postmaster-General
+Barry, in his annual report for 1836, speaks of the multiplication
+of railroads in many parts of the country, and suggests it as a
+subject worthy of inquiry, whether measures may not be taken to
+secure the transportation of the mail on them, and adds: "Already
+have the railroads between Frenchtown, in Maryland, and Newcastle,
+in Delaware, and between Camden and South Amboy, in New Jersey,
+afforded great and important facilities to the transmission of the
+great eastern mail." At this time a railroad between Washington and
+New York was in process of construction, and Postmaster-General
+Barry dwelt in his report on the importance of the facilities
+that would be afforded for speedy service between the two cities,
+predicting that the run between them would probably be made in
+sixteen hours. The service is now performed in about five hours.
+
+[Illustration: The Overland Mail Coach--A Star Route.]
+
+At first the facilities for mail services were very limited.
+Postmaster-General Kendall, in 1835, suggested that the Baltimore
+& Ohio Railroad Company might be asked to close in some portion of
+their baggage-cars, a strong lock being placed on the apartment, to
+which only the postmasters at Washington and Baltimore should have
+keys. In the same report he adds: "If wheels can be constructed
+which can be used alike upon the railroads and the streets of the
+cities respectively, the Department will furnish an entire car
+containing the mail to be delivered at one depot, and received at
+the other, asking nothing of the company but to haul it." It was
+even proposed at this time that the Government should have its own
+locomotives, everything else on the road giving the right of way
+to the mail train. This proposition was not adopted. The fear was
+expressed, however, that if the Department did not have absolute
+control over the road, the people would have to depend on stage
+or other horse transportation for mail service. All these early
+troubles in time passed away, and, through concessions on both
+sides, the railways soon became the most important agent of the
+Post-Office Department.
+
+[Illustration: Mail Carrying in the Country.]
+
+This, of course, was not accomplished without many trials and
+tribulations. It seems strange, in the light of the present, to
+read in an official report a remonstrance from route agents that
+nearly every night dead bodies were placed in the mail crates
+between Philadelphia and New York, and the mails packed around the
+coffins. This breach of good order disappeared after that time, and
+with it came to an end the freight methods and the old stage-coach
+ideas of dealing with the mails.
+
+A separate compartment in a baggage-car, fitted up with few
+conveniences necessary for the distribution of local way-mail, was
+the beginning of the system which has developed into the luxurious
+postal cars of the present time. As a matter of history, however,
+it is only fair to say that the system which we then adopted had
+been in use for some time by our northern neighbors of Canada, who
+had taken it from the mother country.
+
+The credit of suggesting the first step toward the present system
+has generally been given to Colonel G. B. Armstrong, who in 1864
+was Assistant Postmaster at Chicago. This is incorrect; Mr. W.
+A. Davis, a clerk of the St. Joseph, Mo., Post-Office, where the
+overland mail was made up, conceived the idea, in 1862, that if the
+letters and papers could be assorted on the cars between Quincy and
+St. Joseph, the overland mail could start promptly on time. He was
+given permission to carry out this idea, and there are vouchers on
+file in the Department at Washington showing that he was paid for
+that specific work. In 1864 Colonel Armstrong was authorized and
+encouraged by the Hon. Montgomery Blair, then Postmaster-General,
+to undertake the difficult task of arranging and introducing the
+service. On August 31, 1864, he wrote: "To-day I commenced the new
+distribution." Subsequently, Colonel Armstrong became the first
+General Railway Mail Superintendent, and held this office until
+ill-health compelled him to resign, in 1871. To Colonel George S.
+Bangs, of Illinois, and his successors, Theodore N. Vail, William
+B. Thompson, and John Jameson, is due the excellence of the present
+system. Colonel Bangs was a thoroughly equipped post-office man,
+energetic, courageous, and progressive. Brimful of ideas, he
+was ever on the lookout for improvement. Never satisfied with
+old ways, he was constantly striving to simplify and better the
+service. He forgot himself in his work, and died a martyr to his
+duty, leaving the Travelling Post-Office of to-day a monument to
+his memory. While to Colonel Armstrong is due the credit for the
+skeleton of the system, it was the genius of Colonel Bangs that
+clothed the bones with flesh, developed the sinew, put the blood
+in circulation, and breathed into its body the breath of life.
+Colonel Bangs found, in 1871, that everything was disjointed,
+disconnected, and sluggish. There was no attempt at "certainty,
+security, or celerity." It was a "go-as-you-please" condition of
+affairs. He grappled at once with it and brought order out of
+chaos. He introduced a system of emulation among the employees,
+rewarding those who displayed proficiency by promotion over the
+sluggish, and thus, in fact, was probably the father of what
+is now known as Civil Service Reform. In 1874 he discussed the
+propriety of establishing a fast and exclusive mail train between
+New York and Chicago, "this train" (quoting his report to the
+Postmaster-General) "to be under the control of the Department,
+so far as it is necessary for the purposes designed, and to run
+the distance in about twenty-four hours. It is conceded by railway
+officials that this can be done. The importance of a line like
+this cannot be overestimated. It would reduce the actual time of
+mail between the east and west from twelve to twenty-four hours.
+As it would necessarily be established upon one or more of the
+trunk lines, having an extended system of connections, its benefit
+would be in no case confined, but extended through all parts of the
+country alike."
+
+This report met with the approval of Postmaster-General Jewell,
+who ordered Bangs to negotiate with the New York Central & Hudson
+River Railroad and the Lake Shore Railroad for a fast mail train,
+leaving New York at four o'clock in the morning, and arriving
+at Chicago in about twenty-four hours. It was the old story of
+making bricks without straw. The Post-Office Department had no
+appropriation to pay for such facilities, hence it had to depend at
+first on the public spirit of the railroad authorities. Commodore
+Vanderbilt, the president of the companies whose lines were to be
+used, had had dealings with the Department, and was perhaps not
+altogether sanguine as to the practical issue of the experiment,
+or in respect to the countenance it would receive from Congress;
+but Mr. William H. Vanderbilt, the vice-president, lent a willing
+ear to Mr. Bangs's proposition, and did his utmost to aid him
+in putting it into effect. There being no special appropriation
+available for the purpose in hand, "the devil was whipped around
+the stump" by Colonel Bangs stipulating that if Mr. Vanderbilt
+would have twenty cars built and the service performed, all matter
+originating at or coming into the New York Post-Office, which
+could reach its destination at the same time by this line, should
+be sent by this train, and that the railway companies could have
+the right to demand a weighing of the mail matter at will, all
+railroads being paid according to weight. When the details of the
+plan were communicated to Commodore Vanderbilt, he is reported to
+have said to his son: "If you want to do this, go ahead, but I know
+the Post-Office Department, and you will, too, within a year." Mr.
+Vanderbilt did "go ahead." He constructed and equipped the finest
+mail train ever seen on the planet, ran it for ten months, never
+missed a connection at Chicago, and was always on time at New
+York. He did not have to wait a year, however, for a realization of
+the sagacious old commodore's prophecy. Within three weeks, despite
+the indignant protest of Colonel Bangs, the mails of three States
+were ordered to be taken from this and given to another route. A
+grosser and more wanton breach of plighted faith it would be hard
+to find, and its results were far-reaching and disastrous.
+
+This train was a marvel of completeness and efficiency. It was
+manned by picked men, and the only complaint ever made against it
+was that it ran so fast that the clerks had not time to sort the
+mails for the post-offices between New York and Poughkeepsie. To
+obviate this, Colonel Bangs requested the postmaster at New York
+to have two hundred mail-bags dyed red, which should contain the
+mail for those offices nearest together, so that the crew in the
+train could distribute them first. There was no complaint after
+that. But when the dyer's bill was sent by the postmaster to the
+Department, it was disallowed by a clerk of the Second Assistant
+Postmaster-General, who, in a letter announcing the fact, said that
+there was no necessity for the outlay if the postal clerks did
+their duty. Bangs, who had just arrived at the post-office from a
+day and night's ride on his favorite train, was lying on a sofa
+half asleep in the postmaster's private office, as that official
+was opening his mail. When he came to that letter he handed it to
+Bangs. He was wide-awake in an instant. "Mr. Postmaster," said he,
+"do you know the man who signed this letter? He is a wheezy priest,
+a fool, and a Baptist, at that. Give me the letter." The bill was
+allowed as soon as Bangs reached the Department. He was wrong,
+however, in crediting the subordinate to the Baptist faith. He was
+an ornament of another persuasion.
+
+So carefully had the project been considered and adapted that the
+service on the Central, from the start, moved with the precision
+of clock-work, and was an immediate success. It is proper to say
+that word of what was going on between the Department and the
+Vanderbilt system reached the Hon. Thomas A. Scott, President of
+the Pennsylvania Railroad, and he at once made up his mind that the
+corporation under his management could not afford to be behind its
+great rival. One Saturday morning he telegraphed to J. D. Layng
+(now General Manager of the West Shore and President of the C. C.
+C. & I.), then General Manager of the Pennsylvania lines west of
+Pittsburg, to know if by the following Monday week, the date on
+which the train was to start, four postal cars could be built and
+the first one be in Chicago ready to start on its eastern trip.
+The answer came back, "Yes." The order was given to the Allegheny
+shops on Saturday afternoon, and on the following Saturday the
+first of the cars, complete and equipped for mail service, started
+for Chicago, and began its east-bound trip on Monday morning.
+The second and third cars were finished on Monday night, and the
+fourth--thus fully equipping the line--on Tuesday.
+
+Thus had been established two splendid fast trains, and the outlook
+was bright for the future, when Congress, in spite of the efforts
+of the Post-Office Department, passed an Act reducing the already
+inadequate compensation to the trunk lines, for the carrying of the
+mails. This action brought official notice from Messrs. Vanderbilt
+and Scott of the discontinuance of the fast mail trains between New
+York City and Chicago, and that service ended.
+
+[Illustration: At a Way-station--The Postmaster's Assistant.]
+
+Colonel Bangs was greatly mortified at this result, but he stood
+his ground and remained at his post until the close of the year.
+Then, worn out with never-ending toil, and disheartened by the
+action of Congress, he tendered his resignation and insisted on
+its acceptance. Parted from the Post-Office, President Grant,
+knowing his worth and wishing to recognize his services, appointed
+him Assistant Treasurer of the United States at Chicago. He
+lived to perform the duties of this office only a few months, as
+death overtook him suddenly, while on a visit to Washington on
+official business, December, 1876. His work, however, was not
+permitted to drop. He had left in the service three assistants,
+Theodore N. Vail, William B. Thompson--afterward Second Assistant
+Postmaster-General--and John Jameson, who were fully imbued with
+the ideas of their late chief and were fully loyal to them. They,
+in the order named, became his successors, and never permitted
+opportunities to escape wherein there was a possible benefit
+to the service to be secured. Although the fast mail service
+was suspended for lack of support from Congress, its usefulness
+and practicability had been so thoroughly demonstrated that an
+appropriation of $150,000 was made in March, 1877, for its
+resumption on the trunk lines. This victory was not reached
+without untiring efforts on the part of Mr. Vail, and by generous
+support in both houses of Congress; in the Senate by the Hon.
+Hannibal Hamlin and James G. Blaine, of Maine, and in the House of
+Representatives by such broad and liberal statesmen as Mr. Waddell,
+of North Carolina, Mr. Randall, of Pennsylvania, and Mr. Cox, of
+New York.
+
+Since then, Messrs. Thompson and Jameson have watched the progress
+of the work with jealous eyes, and have succeeded in extending it
+practically to the whole country. The present service is due not
+alone to the liberality of Congress, because the appropriations
+have been parsimonious, but to the generosity of the railways,
+which have performed a valuable work for a price which in many
+cases does not pay the expense of the necessary additional labor
+involved.
+
+The Railway Mail Service at the close of the fiscal year ending
+June 30, 1888, gave employment to 5,094 clerks. Matter was
+distributed on 126,310 miles of railway, and on 17,402 miles
+additional closed pouches were carried. There were also operated 41
+inland steam-boat lines on which postal clerks were employed. The
+postal clerks travelled (in crews) 122,031,104 miles by railway,
+and 1,767,649 miles by steam-boats. They distributed 6,528,772,060
+pieces of ordinary mail matter, and handled 16,001,059 registered
+packages and cases, and 1,103,083 through registered pouches and
+inner registered sacks. The service is in charge of one General
+Superintendent, who has his headquarters at Washington, and it is
+divided into eleven divisions with a superintendent in charge of
+each.
+
+The majority of people who travel on railways (and how many
+Americans are there who do not?) have paid passing attention to the
+railway mail cars as they have stood at the station preparatory
+to the starting of the train, and have glanced through the open
+doors with more or less curiosity at the scene of energy and
+bustle witnessed within. At such a moment, no matter how great
+the curiosity, it is not feasible to investigate closely, for
+the workers must not be hampered by the prying public, however
+praiseworthy the motive. To supply this pardonable desire to know
+how it is done, I invite my readers to accompany me in spirit on a
+visit to the Grand Central Station, to witness the preparations
+for the departure of train No. 11, known in railway parlance as
+"the New York and Chicago Fast Mail," which leaves New York every
+night at nine o'clock.
+
+[Illustration: Loading for the Fast Mail, at the General
+Post-Office, New York.]
+
+It must not be supposed that everything has been left until the
+last moment, and that the mail matter has been tumbled into the
+cars on the eve of departure, to be handled as best it may in the
+short run to Albany; for under such conditions the task would
+be an impossibility even to an army of trained hands. Work has
+been in progress since four o'clock in the afternoon, and it has
+been steady, hard labor every minute of the time. The five cars
+have been backed down to the tracks opposite Forty-fifth Street,
+and have been so placed that they are convenient of access to
+the big lumbering mail wagons which are familiar sights in the
+streets of the metropolis. The crew of nineteen men, skilled in
+the handling of mail matter, and thorough experts in the geography
+of the country, reported to the chief clerk and took up their
+stations in the various cars at the hour named. At the same time
+the wagons began arriving from the General Post-Office with their
+tons of matter which had "originated" in New York, and were soon
+transferring their loads to the cars, where agile hands were in
+waiting to receive them. Since the removal of the deadly stoves
+from the railway trains the occupants of the postal cars have
+suffered to no small extent owing to the lack of heat. These cars
+are provided with steam-heating apparatus which is worked from the
+engine, but they are occupied for five hours before the engine
+comes near them, and in cold weather the hands of the men employed
+in distributing letters become numb with cold. This is a matter
+which should receive prompt attention.
+
+[Illustration: At the Last Moment.]
+
+Before we deal with the mail matter, let us look at the cars and
+the men who occupy them. The train, as it leaves New York, is made
+up of five cars which are placed immediately behind the engine, and
+are followed by express and baggage cars and one passenger coach.
+The car next to the engine is devoted entirely to letter mail, and
+the four following it to papers and packages. The letter car is
+fifty feet in length, while those for the newspaper mail are ten
+feet longer. All are uniform in width, nine feet eight inches,
+and are six feet nine inches high in the clear. When newly built,
+before long and hard service had told on their appearance, their
+outsides were white in color, with cream-tinted borderings and gilt
+ornamentations, and were highly varnished. Midway on the outside,
+and below; the windows of each car, is a large oval gilt-finished
+frame within which is painted the name of the car, with the words,
+"United States Post Office" above and below. The cars used by
+the New York Central are named for the Governors of the State
+and the members of President Garfield's cabinet. Along the upper
+edge and centre are painted in large gilt letters the words, "The
+Fast Mail Train," while on a line with these letters at the
+other end, in a square, are the words, in like lettering, "New
+York Central" and "Lake Shore." The frieze and minute trimmings
+around the windows are of gilt finish. The body of the car also
+contains other ornamentation, including the coat-of-arms of the
+United States. The running gear is of the most approved pattern.
+The platforms are enclosed by swinging doors which, when opened,
+afford a protected passage between the cars. This arrangement no
+doubt suggested the modern improvement now known as the vestibuled
+train. The letter car is provided with a "mail catcher," which is
+placed at a small door through which mail pouches are snatched from
+conveniently placed posts at wayside stations where stops are not
+made. Each car is divided into three sections, all fitted up alike
+with conveniences for the service to be performed. The letter car,
+however, is somewhat differently arranged from the others, to
+meet the requirements of that particular branch of the work.
+
+[Illustration: Transfer of Mail at the Grand Central Station, New
+York.]
+
+[Illustration: Pouching the Mail in the Postal Car.]
+
+In the first section of the letter car are received the pouches
+from the General Post-Office, which when opened are found to
+contain letters done up in packages of about a hundred, marked
+for Michigan, Indiana, New York, Ohio, Western Pennsylvania,
+Montana, Dakota, and California. When this mass of matter has
+been emptied out of the pouches and, in the vernacular of the
+service, "dumped up" preparatory to distribution, the section is
+clear for the registered mail which is worked in it. Before this
+is accomplished, however, much work is done; in fact, a sort of
+rough distribution is made. All packages which are directed to one
+office are distributed into pouches, which are afterward stored
+away until the towns are reached. The other packages are carried
+into the letter department for distribution, where a rack, similar
+to those seen in almost every post-office, although space is
+thoroughly economized, is used for the purpose. To give a slight
+idea of the work done in this section, it may be mentioned that
+the distribution for New York State alone requires 325 boxes.
+Still there is plenty of space, otherwise the third section of the
+car would not be used, as it is, for the distribution of Montana
+and Dakota newspapers. How closely everything is packed, and
+all available space utilized, may be imagined when it is stated
+that for this newspaper mail ninety-five pouches are hung in the
+section, and that there is still sufficient room for the storage of
+pouches locked up and ready for delivery, and also for the sealed
+registered mail. A separation of the California mail is also made
+in this car, so that when it reaches Chicago the pouches into which
+the matter is placed are transferred without delay, thus saving
+twenty-four hours on the time to the Pacific Coast, not by any
+means an unimportant accomplishment.
+
+There have been received in this car before it moves out of the
+Grand Central Station between 1,000 and 1,500 packages of letters
+and, in addition, forty or fifty sacks of Dakota and Montana
+papers. To handle this mass of correspondence there are six men in
+addition to the chief clerk, or superintendent. This official is
+not assigned to any particular duty, but he supervises the general
+work and lends aid where it is most required. The second clerk
+handles letters for Ohio, Dakota, and Montana; the third clerk
+takes charge of those for New York State; the fourth, Illinois; the
+fifth opens all pouches labelled, "New York and Chicago Railway
+Post-Office," distributes their contents, and afterward works on
+Dakota and Montana papers; the sixth, Michigan State letters,
+and the seventh, California letter mail. The salaries of these
+men, intrusted with so much responsibility and of whom so much is
+expected, range from $900 per annum for the lowest grade to $1,300
+per annum for the superintendent.
+
+The second, or "Illinois Car," is devoted, as are the others which
+follow it, to the newspaper and periodical mail. In it are handled
+papers for Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, New York, Oregon, and Wyoming.
+Two clerks and two assistants man this car. The first assistant,
+who "faces up" papers ready to be distributed, draws mails from
+stalls to case, and removes boxes as fast as they are filled, has
+gained the sobriquet of the "Illinois derrick," owing to the heavy
+nature of his duties. The second, who lends what aid he can in the
+heavy work on the run between New York and Albany, has become known
+on the train as "the short stop." The third section of the car is
+used for storing the bags of assorted matter.
+
+[Illustration: A Very Difficult Address--known as a "sticker."]
+
+The third car is used for storing through mail for San Francisco,
+Omaha, and points west of Chicago. In it are also carried stamped
+envelopes from the manufacturer at Hartford, Conn., to postmasters
+in the West. This car is frequently fully loaded with matter from
+the New York office when the journey is begun, and it is then
+found necessary to add a similar car to the train on its arrival
+at Albany for the accommodation of matter taken on by the way and
+bound for the same destination.
+
+[Illustration: Distributing the Mail by States and Routes.]
+
+[Illustration: Sorting Letters in Car No. 1--The Fast Mail.]
+
+The Michigan paper car is the fourth. In it are handled papers for
+Michigan, Iowa, and the mixed Western States. In the first section
+are piled the Iowa pouches and those for points out of Utica, which
+have been distributed in the centre section, and in the third
+section the distribution for Michigan, Nebraska, and Minnesota,
+as well as for points reached from Buffalo, is made. Two men
+perform the work of the car, one of whom has already handled the
+registered mail and Indiana letters in the first car.
+
+[Illustration: Pouching Newspapers for California--in Car No. 5.]
+
+The fifth, or California paper car, is the last mail coach on the
+train, as it is made up when leaving the Grand Central Station.
+Besides the papers for the Golden State the car carries through
+registered pouches to Chicago and the West, which have been made
+up in the New York office, and, as a usual thing, a large lot of
+stamped envelopes for postmasters in the West. The California
+letter man from the first car looks after the papers for the same
+State, and has an eye to the safety of the car. On reaching Albany
+another car is added to the train, making six in all from that
+point. This last addition comes from Boston, brings the morning
+mail from Bangor, Me., and is manned by four men.
+
+The run to Chicago for post-office purposes is divided into three
+divisions: from New York to Syracuse, from Syracuse to Cleveland,
+and from Cleveland to Chicago. Each division has its own crew, so
+that the men leaving New York are relieved at Syracuse by others,
+and these in turn at Cleveland. The New York crew go to work, as
+has been said, at 4 P.M., and if the train is on time at Syracuse,
+as it usually is, they arrive there at 5.35 A.M., after thirteen
+and a half hours of as hard work as men are called upon to do. The
+same evening at 8.40 they relieve the east-bound crew, and are in
+New York again at six o'clock on the following morning. Half an
+hour later they are to be found on the top floor of the General
+Post-Office building, comfortably ensconced in bunks and in a
+large and airy room, provided as a dormitory for their use by the
+postmaster of New York at the time of the inauguration of the fast
+mail service. Each crew makes three round trips and is then laid
+off for six days, but its members are all this time subject to
+extra duty, which they are called upon to perform with unpleasant
+frequency, particularly in holiday times.
+
+After leaving New York, the first stop the train makes is at
+Poughkeepsie, but no mail is taken on there. At Albany the second
+halt is made, and there twenty minutes are spent in taking on
+the mail from New England and northeastern New York. At Palatine
+Bridge there is a brief stop, and after that comes Utica, where
+the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western, the Ontario & Western, and
+the Rome, Watertown & Ogdensburg roads exchange mail matter. At
+Syracuse more mails come, this time from the Oswego, Binghamton
+& Syracuse, and the Auburn & Rochester branch of the New York
+Central. Here also comes welcome relief for the crew which left
+New York. Those who follow have much to keep them busy, but the
+heaviest part of the work has been already performed.
+
+From Syracuse to Cleveland there are several distributing points
+where mail matter is also received on the train, and the routine is
+continued much as already described until the crew is relieved at
+Cleveland. There the men of the Western Division take charge and
+continue the work until Elkhart, Ind., is reached. There a special
+force from Chicago meets the train, takes possession of a portion
+of the letter car, and makes the distribution for the main office
+and stations of the city of Chicago, thus saving much time. When
+the train arrives in Chicago, it makes connection with a fast mail
+train on the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, as also on a like train
+on the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul. The former train arrives at
+Council Bluffs about 7 P.M., and there overtakes the train which
+left Chicago on the previous evening. The Pacific Coast mail is
+thus expedited just twenty-four hours. A similar train on the St.
+Paul road also saves twenty-four hours' time on the trip to the
+northwestern portion of the Pacific Coast.
+
+The appropriation for special facilities for the year ending June
+30, 1889, was $295,987.53. The uses to which the appropriation
+referred to is put are explained in the following table.
+
+  -----------------------+--------------------------+------+-----------
+         Termini.        |    Railroad Company.     |Miles.|    Pay.
+  -----------------------+--------------------------+------+-----------
+  New York to            |New York, New Haven       |      |
+    Springfield          |  & Hartford              |136   | $17,647.06
+  4.35 A.M. train        |New York Central &        |      |
+                         |  Hudson River            |144   |  25,000.00
+  Philadelphia to        |Philadelphia, Wilmington  |      |
+    Bay View             |  & Baltimore             | 91.80|  20,000.00
+  Bay View to Quantico   |Baltimore & Potomac       | 79.80|  21,900.00
+  Quantico to Richmond   |Richmond, Fredericksburg  |      |
+                         |  & Potomac               | 81.50|  17,419.26
+  Richmond to Petersburg |Richmond & Petersburg     | 23.39|   4,268.67
+  Petersburg to Weldon   |Petersburg                | 64   |  11,680.00
+  Weldon to Wilmington   |Wilmington & Weldon       |162.07|  29,541.27
+  Wilmington to Florence |Wilmington, Columbia      |      |
+                         |  & Augusta               |110   |  20,075.00
+  Florence to Charleston |                          |      |
+    Junction             |Northeastern              | 95   |  17,337.50
+  Charleston Junction    |                          |      |
+    to Savannah          |Charleston & Savannah     |108   |  19,710.00
+  Savannah to            |Savannah, Florida         |      |
+    Jacksonville         |  & Western               |171.50|  31,309.70
+  Baltimore to           |                          |      |
+    Hagerstown           |Western Maryland          | 86.60|  15,804.50
+  Jacksonville to Tampa  |Jacksonville, Tampa & Key |      |
+                         |  West & South Florida    |242.57|  43,962.42
+  -----------------------+--------------------------+------+-----------
+  Total                                                    |$295,655.38
+  ---------------------------------------------------------+-----------
+
+A careful perusal of this table develops the fact that the greater
+portion of this money is expended south of Philadelphia, the
+railroad companies in that section not having sufficient weight of
+mails to warrant fast trains without some additional compensation.
+It will also be noted that with the exception of the sum of $25,000
+for a special train to Poughkeepsie, which leaves New York City at
+4.35 in the morning, the New York Central receives no compensation
+except that earned by them as common carriers of so many pounds of
+freight-mail matter carried, being paid for in accordance with its
+weight. It will also be observed that the Pennsylvania Railroad, on
+its trunk line, is not even so fortunate as its great rival.
+
+There may be more dangerous pursuits in life than that of the
+railway post-office clerk, but there are not many so, and there are
+few in which the risk to life and limb is so constant. The everyday
+citizen who is called upon occasionally to make a railroad journey
+of a few hundred miles feels it to be incumbent upon himself on
+such occasions to make special provision for those dependent on him
+in case injury or death should come while riding in the thoroughly
+appointed and luxurious coach placed in a portion of the train
+least likely to suffer from accident. But too little thought is
+devoted to the safety of those poorly paid but efficient servants
+of the State, in the forward cars, without whose services the
+business of the country, as conducted to-day, would come to a
+stand-still. To show that the importance of this service is not
+here exaggerated, it is only necessary to recall the condition
+of affairs in New York City, and other cities as well, in March,
+1888, when the great blizzard fell upon the land. There were then
+no mails for several days, and the prostration which came upon
+the community is too well remembered to need comment. The danger
+to those within the postal cars, however, is recognized by the
+railway people, and efforts have been made in the way of providing
+safety appliances, but it is, of course, impossible to lessen the
+danger to any great extent. All that American ingenuity suggests
+in the way of construction, both inside and outside of the cars,
+is provided. The body of the car is most substantially built, the
+platforms and couplings are of the most approved patterns, the
+trucks are similar to those used under the best passenger coaches,
+and the air-brakes and other safety apparatus are all brought into
+requisition. Within the cars are saws, axes, hammers, and crowbars
+conveniently placed in case of wreck, and safety-bars extend the
+length of the cars overhead to which the clerks may cling when
+the cars leave the track and roll down embankments, as they often
+do. In the year ending June, 1888, there were 248 accidents to
+trains upon which postal clerks were employed. In these wrecks four
+clerks were killed; sixty-three were seriously, several of the
+number permanently, and forty-five slightly injured. The official
+report of the accidents shows that the majority of them resulted
+from collisions, while others were due to the spreading of the
+rails, the failure of air-brakes to work at critical moments, and
+obstructions on the track.
+
+In every case where cars were wrecked the postal car was among the
+number.
+
+In many instances the cars were telescoped, and on such occasions
+the clerks were found buried in the wreckage or pinned under the
+engine or its tender. And many times true heroism was shown by the
+injured men. Over and over again the General Superintendent reports
+that, notwithstanding severe injuries received by the clerks, the
+scattered mail matter was collected by them and transferred either
+to another train or to the nearest post-office. Several times
+trains in the West were held up by robbers, who, after sacking the
+express car, visited the postal car, introducing themselves with
+pistol-shots. One clerk was seriously wounded in the shoulder.
+An instance of self-possession is reported in Arkansas, where
+the robbers, before visiting the postal car, had secured $10,000
+from the express safe. When they came to clerk R. P. Johnson he
+suggested that they had secured booty enough, and that under the
+circumstances they might let the mail matter alone. The masked men
+agreed with him, and did not molest the mails.
+
+[Illustration: Catching the Pouch from the Crane.]
+
+In view of the dangers to which employees of the Railway Mail
+Service are exposed, it may be permitted to quote from the last
+annual report of General Superintendent Bancroft on the subject
+of insurance. No action, he points out, has ever been taken by
+Congress toward providing for the care of clerks permanently
+injured in the service, or those dependent upon them in case of
+death, notwithstanding frequent recommendations by the Department.
+He attributes this to insurmountable objections on the part of the
+people's representatives to the creation of anything of the nature
+of a civil pension-roll. He therefore suggests that there shall
+be deducted from the pay of each and every railway postal clerk
+ten cents per month, to be paid into "The Railway Postal Clerks'
+Insurance Fund," the custodian of which is to be the United States
+Treasury. In case of death from injuries while on duty, $1,000 is
+to be paid to the clerk's heirs. While this proposition is in the
+right direction, it hardly goes far enough. Provision should be
+made for the disabled, and to do so, the clerks doubtless would not
+object to an assessment of double the amount suggested. That they
+should be compelled to resort to such a mode of relief, however, is
+a reflection upon the Government of the United States.
+
+The first great need of the Railway Mail Service is an adequate
+appropriation by Congress to extend its usefulness, and to keep
+it up to the demands and the needs of the public. Where speed
+is required to make connections, the Department should have the
+cash on hand to buy what is necessary. The railways are business
+institutions, managed as such, and when the Department desires
+extra facilities it should be prepared to pay in coin and not in
+talk. In this connection it is a pleasant duty for the writer of
+this very imperfect sketch to say that during his term of service
+in the post-office at New York, and at the Department, he always
+found Mr. William H. Vanderbilt, Mr. Cornelius Vanderbilt, Mr.
+J. H. Rutter, of the New York Central; Mr. John Newell, of the
+Lake Shore; Mr. George B. Roberts, Mr. A. J. Cassatt, and Mr.
+Frank Thomson, of the Pennsylvania system; Mr. R. R. Bridgers
+and Mr. H. B. Plant, of the Atlantic Coast Line, ready to grant
+any reasonable request for the improvement and extension of the
+service. Time after time Mr. Roberts has run a special train with
+the Australian transcontinental mail from Pittsburg to New York,
+that it might catch an outgoing steamer; and he and Mr. Vanderbilt
+practically re-established the fast mail, by taking letters on
+their limited trains. Mr. Roberts gave, in addition, an extra mail
+train from Philadelphia west at four o'clock in the morning, and
+Mr. Vanderbilt placed a postal car on the 4 P.M. train from New
+York, receiving in return--what they had a right to demand--an
+extra weighing of the mails, and, what was not a matter of surprise
+to them, unmeasured abuse on the floor of Congress for giving these
+additional facilities to the people of the country.
+
+The last and greatest need of the postal service is the total
+and complete elimination of partisan considerations as affecting
+appointments and removals in the working force. The spoils method
+invariably brings into the service a lot of do-nothings or a race
+of experimenters, whose performances never fail to breed disaster
+and to crush out substantial progress.
+
+There is no position in the Government more exacting than that
+of a postal clerk, and none that has so many requirements. He
+must not only be sound "in wind and limb," but possessed of more
+than ordinary intelligence, and a retentive memory. His work is
+constant, and his only recreation, study. He must not only be
+proficient in his own immediate work, but he must have a general
+knowledge of the entire country, so that the correspondence he
+handles shall reach its destination at the earliest possible
+moment. He must know no night and no day. He must be impervious
+to heat or cold. Rushing along at a rate of forty or fifty miles
+an hour, in charge of that which is sacred--the correspondence
+of the people--catching his meals as he may; at home only
+semi-occasionally, the wonder is that men competent to discharge
+the duties of so high a calling can be found for so small a
+compensation, and for so uncertain a tenure of official life. They
+have not only to take the extra-hazardous risks of their toilsome
+duties, but they are at the mercy of the practical politicians
+who believe that "to the victor belong the spoils." There are no
+public offices which are so emphatically "public trusts" as those
+whose duties comprise that of handling the correspondence of the
+people, because upon the proper and skilful performance of that
+duty depend--to a far greater degree than in the care of any other
+function accomplished through government agency--the business and
+social welfare of the entire community. The effects of ignorance,
+carelessness, and dishonesty in any other branch of the public
+service, although to be deplored, are not to be compared to those
+which follow the existence of such evils in the Post-Office.
+Can there be a more flagrant abuse of a "public trust" than the
+perversion of a branch of the public service into an agency for
+furthering the ambitious ends of local politicians and their
+partisans by allowing them to distribute its "patronage" as rewards
+for party services among those who, by reason of inexperience--if
+for no graver cause--are incompetent to replace the skilled
+workman who must be routed out in order to give them room? This
+evil should be corrected at once. The Railway Mail Service must no
+longer be left at the mercy of the local partisans. The reform is
+not only a present necessity, but it was one in the past and will
+be in the future, until the force of public sentiment shall compel
+acquiescence in the reasonable demand that what was so eminently
+meant for mankind shall not be given up to party; that the
+non-political business of letter-carrying, which the Government has
+monopolized, shall be conducted by it solely with a view to prompt
+and expeditious carrying of mail matter, and not with the object of
+bolstering up local "statesmen" or carrying elections.
+
+At the coming in of Mr. Cleveland's administration, William B.
+Thompson was Second Assistant Postmaster-General--in charge of
+the contract office--and John Jameson was General Railway Mail
+Superintendent. Both of these gentlemen had worked their way from
+the ranks by sheer merit. In private business the value of their
+services would have been so highly appreciated that, no matter
+who became senior partner of the firm, under no circumstances
+would they have been permitted to retire. The case of these
+gentlemen is mentioned now simply to illustrate an idea and not
+to found a complaint. On the incoming of the new administration,
+General Thompson, in accordance with precedent, promptly tendered
+his resignation, and it was as promptly accepted; while General
+Superintendent Jameson struggled along doing his work until,
+to relieve his chief from embarrassment, he, too, tendered his
+resignation. The country was thus deprived of the services of two
+men who were experts in their profession, simply to give place
+to others, of high character, no doubt, but with no knowledge
+and special aptitude for the great trust that was committed to
+them. And now, in the first year of another administration, the
+experience that many valuable officials have gained has counted
+for nothing, and they have been rotated out. In no other civilized
+country would such an atrocity be possible. An attempt to remove,
+for similar reasons, such postal authorities as Messrs. Rich, of
+Liverpool, Johnston, of Manchester, or Hubson, of Glasgow, all of
+whom, under a sound, logical, just, and economical business system,
+have reached their present positions by merit and efficiency from
+more or less inferior places, would hurl an administration in
+Great Britain from power, and justly too. The possession of the
+immense patronage of the Government did not save the Republican
+party from defeat in 1884, or keep the Democratic party in power in
+1888. Ideas are stronger than "soap," and principles more potent
+than spoils. It is due to President Cleveland to state that toward
+the close of his administration he recognized the importance of
+permanency in the Railway Mail Service, and that he made a long
+step in advance by approving a series of rules submitted by the
+Civil Service Commission having for its object the removal of the
+service from the influences of politicians. It needs more than
+this, however; it needs the sanctity of the statute law, declaring
+that the clerks should not only keep their offices during good
+behavior, but that after twenty years of faithful and efficient
+service, or before that time, if injured in the discharge of
+their duty, they should retire on half-pay. In case of death from
+accident while on duty, proper provision should be made for the
+family of the official. Whenever justice is done by Congress in
+these particulars, the United States will have the best and most
+efficient Railway Mail Service in the world.
+
+
+
+
+THE RAILWAY IN ITS BUSINESS RELATIONS.
+
+BY ARTHUR T. HADLEY.
+
+  Amount of Capital Invested in Railways--Important Place in
+  the Modern Industrial System--The Duke of Bridgewater's
+  Foresight--The Growth of Half a Century--Early Methods of
+  Business Management--The Tendency toward Consolidation--How
+  the War Developed a National Idea--Its Effect on Railroad
+  Building--Thomson and Scott as Organizers--Vanderbilt's Capacity
+  for Financial Management--Garrett's Development of the Baltimore
+  & Ohio--The Concentration of Immense Power in a Few Men--Making
+  Money out of the Investors--Difficult Positions of Stockholders
+  and Bondholders--How the Finances are Manipulated by the Board
+  of Directors--Temptations to the Misuse of Power--Relations of
+  Railroads to the Public who Use Them--Inequalities in Freight
+  Rates--Undue Advantages for Large Trade Centres--Proposed
+  Remedies--Objections to Government Control--Failure of
+  Grangerism--The Origin of Pools--Their Advantages--Albert
+  Fink's Great Work--Charles Francis Adams and the Massachusetts
+  Commission--Adoption of the Interstate Commerce Law--Important
+  Influence of the Commission--Its Future Functions--Ill-judged
+  State Legislation.
+
+
+The railroads of the world are to-day worth from twenty-five to
+thirty thousand million dollars. This probably represents one-tenth
+of the total wealth of civilized nations, and one-quarter, if not
+one-third, of their invested capital. It is doubtful whether the
+aggregate plant used in all manufacturing industries can equal it
+in value. The capital engaged in banking is but a trifle beside it.
+The world's whole stock of money of every kind--gold, silver, and
+paper--would purchase only a third of its railroads.
+
+Yet these facts by no means measure the whole importance of the
+railroad in the modern industrial system. The business methods
+of to-day are in one sense the direct result of improved means
+of transportation. The railroad enables the large establishment
+to reach the markets of the world with its products; it enables
+the large city to receive its food-supplies, if necessary, from
+a distance of hundreds or thousands of miles. And while it thus
+favors the concentration of capital, it is in itself an extreme
+type of this concentration. Almost every distinctive feature of
+modern business, whether good or bad, finds in railroad history at
+once its chief cause and its fullest development.
+
+[Illustration: George Stephenson.]
+
+As befits a nineteenth century institution, the railroad dates
+from 1801. In that year Benjamin Outram built in the suburbs of
+London a short line of horse railroad--or tramroad, as it was
+named in honor of the inventor. Other works of the same kind
+followed in almost every succeeding year. They were recognized as
+a decided convenience, but nothing more. It was hard to imagine
+that a revolution in the world's transportation methods could
+grow out of this beginning. Least of all could such a result be
+foreseen in England, whose admirable canal system seemed likely
+to defy competition for centuries to come. And yet, curiously
+enough, it was a man wholly identified with canal business who
+first foresaw the future importance of the railroad. The Duke of
+Bridgewater had built canals when they were regarded as a hazardous
+speculation; but they proved a success, and in the early years
+of the century he was reaping a rich reward for his foresight.
+One of his fellow-shareholders took occasion to congratulate the
+Duke on the fact that their property was now the surest monopoly
+in the land, and was startled by the reply, "I see mischief in
+these--tramroads." The prophecy is all the more striking as coming
+from an enemy. Like Balaam, the Duke of Bridgewater had a pecuniary
+interest in cursing, but was so good a prophet that he had to tell
+the truth in spite of himself, even though his curse was thereby
+turned into a blessing.
+
+It is hardly necessary to tell in detail how this prediction
+was realized. Thanks to the skill and perseverance of George
+Stephenson, the difficulties in the use of steam as a mode of
+propulsion were rapidly overcome. What was a doubtful experiment
+as late as 1815 had become an accomplished fact in 1830. The
+successful working of the Liverpool & Manchester Railway gave an
+impulse to similar enterprises all over the world. In 1835 there
+were 1,600 miles of railroad in operation--more than half of it in
+the United States. In 1845 the length of the world's railroads had
+increased to more than 10,000 miles; in 1855 it was 41,000 miles;
+in 1865, 90,000; in 1875, 185,000; in 1885, over 300,000.
+
+There were perhaps a few men who foresaw this growth; there were
+almost none who foresaw the changes in organization and business
+methods with which it was attended. People at first thought of the
+railroad as merely an improved highway, which should charge tolls
+like a turnpike or canal, and on which the public should run cars
+of its own, independent of the railroad company itself. In many
+cases, especially in England, long sheets of tolls were published,
+based on the model of canal charters, and naming rates under which
+the use of the road-bed should be free to all. This plan soon
+proved impracticable. If independent owners tried to run trains
+over the same line, it involved a danger of collision and a loss
+of economy. The former evil could perhaps be avoided; the latter
+could not. The advantages of unity of management were so great that
+a road running its own trains could do a much larger business at
+lower rates than if ownership and carriage were kept separate. The
+old plan was as impracticable as it would be for a manufacturing
+company to own the buildings and engines, while each workman owned
+the particular piece of machinery which he handled. Almost all the
+technical advantages of the new methods would be lost for lack of
+system. The railroad company, to serve the public well, could not
+remain in the position of a turnpike or canal company, but must
+itself do the work of carriage.
+
+This was not all. The same economy which resulted from the union
+of road and rolling-stock under one management was still further
+subserved by the consolidation of connecting lines. This change
+did not come about so suddenly as the other. Half a century had
+elapsed before it was fully carried out. At first there was no need
+of it. The early railroads were chiefly built for local traffic,
+and especially for the carriage of local passengers. They were
+like the horse railroads of the present day in the simplicity
+of their organization and the shortness of their lines. England
+in 1847 had chartered 700 companies, with an average authorized
+length of hardly fifteen miles each. The line from Albany to
+Buffalo and Niagara Falls was in the hands of a dozen independent
+concerns. These were but types of what existed all over the world.
+As through traffic, and especially through freight traffic, grew
+in importance, this state of things became intolerable. Frequent
+transshipment was at once an expense to the railroad and a burden
+to the public. Even when this could be avoided, there was a
+multiplication of offices and a loss of responsibility. The system
+of ownership and management had to adapt itself to the technical
+necessities of the business. The change was not the result of
+legislation; nor was it, except in a limited sense, the work of men
+like Vanderbilt or Scott. It occurred in all parts of the world
+at about the same time. It was the result of business necessity,
+strong enough to shape legislation, and to find administrative
+leaders who could meet its demands.
+
+From the very first there were some men who felt the importance
+of the railroads as national lines of communication. The idea was
+present in the minds of the projectors of the Baltimore & Ohio, of
+the Erie, and of the Boston & Albany. But it was not until 1850
+that it became a controlling one; nor was it universally accepted
+even then. As late as 1858 we find that there was a violent popular
+agitation in the State of New York to prohibit the New York Central
+from carrying freight in competition with the Erie Canal. It was
+gravely urged that the railroad had no business to compete with the
+canal; that the latter had a natural right to the through traffic
+from the West, with which the railroads must not interfere. It is
+less than thirty years since a convention at Syracuse, representing
+no small part of the public sentiment of New York, formally
+recommended "the passage of a law by the next Legislature which
+shall confine the railroads of this State to the business for which
+they were originally created."
+
+But matters had gone too far for effective action of this kind.
+Besides the New York Central, the Erie and the Pennsylvania were in
+condition to handle the through traffic which Western connections
+were furnishing. These connections themselves were rapidly growing
+in importance. Prior to 1850 there were very few railroads west of
+the Alleghanies. In 1857 there were thousands of miles. The policy
+of land-grants acted as an artificial stimulus to the building of
+such roads; and a land-grant road, when once built, was almost
+necessarily dependent on through traffic for its support. It
+could not be operated locally; it was forced into close traffic
+arrangements which paved the way for actual consolidation.
+
+The war brought this development to a stand-still for the time
+being; but it was afterward resumed with renewed vigor. It is
+probable that the final effect of the war was to hasten rather
+than to retard the growth of large systems. In the first place,
+it familiarized men's minds with national ideas instead of those
+limited to their own State. It is hard for us to realize that our
+business ideas were ever thus confined by artificial boundaries;
+but if we wish proof, we have only to look at the original location
+of the Erie Railway from Piermont to Dunkirk. Both were unnatural
+and undesirable terminal points; but people were willing to submit
+to inconvenience and to actual loss in order that the railroad
+might run as far as the New York State limits would allow, and not
+one whit farther. Similar instances can be found in other States.
+Hard as it is to understand, there seems to have been a positive
+jealousy of interstate traffic. The war did much to remove this
+by making the different sections of the country feel their common
+interest and their mutual dependence. It also had more direct
+effects. It produced special legislation for the Pacific railroads
+as a measure of military necessity; and this was but the beginning
+of a renewal of the land-grant policy, no longer through the medium
+of the States, but in the Territories and by the direct action of
+Congress. All the results in the way of extension or consolidation
+which had been noted in the first land-grant period were more
+intensely felt in the second. Never was there a time when business
+foresight and administrative power were more needed or more richly
+rewarded than in railroad management during the third quarter of
+the century.
+
+[Illustration: J. Edgar Thomson.]
+
+In 1847 J. Edgar Thomson, an engineer of experience, entered the
+service of the Pennsylvania Railroad, of which he afterward became
+president. Three years later, a young man without experience in
+railroad business applied to him for a position as clerk in the
+station at Duncansville, and was, with some hesitation, accepted.
+Not long after--so runs the story--an influential shipper entered
+the station, and demanded that some transfers should be made in
+a manner contrary to the rules of the company. This the clerk
+refused to do; and when the influential shipper tried to attend
+to the matter himself, he was forcibly ejected from the premises.
+Indignant at this, he complained to the authorities, demanding that
+the obnoxious employee be removed from his position. He was--and
+was promoted to a much higher one. This is said to have been the
+beginning of the railroad career of Thomas Alexander Scott. Edgar
+Thomson was a sufficiently able man to appreciate Scott's talent at
+its full worth, and took every opportunity to make it useful in the
+service of the company. Both before and after the war the system
+was extended in every direction; and the man who in 1850 had need
+of all his nerve to defy a single influential shipper was a quarter
+of a century later at the head of 7,000 miles of the most valuable
+railroad in the country.
+
+[Illustration: Thomas A. Scott.]
+
+As an enterprising and active railroad organizer, Scott was
+probably unrivalled--especially when aided by the soberer judgment
+of Thomson; nor has the operating department of any other railroad
+in the country reached the standard established on the Pennsylvania
+by Scott and Thomson and the men trained up under their eyes.
+But in business sagacity and those qualities which pertain to
+the financial management of property, Scott was surpassed by
+Vanderbilt. The work of the two men was so totally different in
+character that it is hard to compare them. Vanderbilt was not so
+distinctively a railroad man as Scott. He had already made his mark
+as a ship-owner before he went into railroads. But he was a man
+who was bound to take the lead in the business world; and he saw
+that the day for doing it with steamships was passing away, and
+that the day of railroads was come. He therefore presented his best
+steamship to the United States Government in a time when it was
+sorely needed, disposed of the others in whatever way he could, and
+turned his undivided attention to railroads.
+
+In 1863 Vanderbilt began purchasing Harlem stock on a large scale.
+The road was unprofitable, but he at once improved its management
+and made it pay. Speculators on the other side of the market had
+not foreseen the possibility of this course of action, and were
+badly deceived in their calculations. Vanderbilt had begun buying
+at as low a figure as 3; within little more than a year he had
+forced some of its opponents to buy it of him at 285. He soon
+extended his operations to Hudson River, and somewhat later to
+New York Central. Defeated in an attempt to gain control of Erie,
+he turned his attention farther west; and was soon in virtual
+possession of a system which, in his hands at any rate, was fully a
+match for all competitors.
+
+These systems did not long remain without rivals. The Baltimore
+& Ohio, whose development had been interrupted by the war,
+soon resumed, under the leadership of John W. Garrett, its old
+commanding position in the railroad world. Farther west, in the
+years succeeding, systems were developed and consolidated which
+surpassed their eastern connections in aggregate mileage. The
+combined Wabash and Missouri Pacific system in its best days
+included about 10,000 miles of line under what was virtually
+a single management. The Southern Pacific, the Atchison, the
+Northwestern, and the St. Paul systems control each of them in
+one way or another decidedly over 5,000 miles; and a half-dozen
+others might be named, scarcely inferior either in magnitude or in
+commercial power.
+
+The result of all this was to place an enormous and almost
+irresponsible power in the hands of a few men. The directors of
+such a system stand for thousands of investors, tens of thousands
+of employees, and hundreds of thousands of shippers. They have
+the interests of all these parties in their hands for good or
+ill. If they are fit men for their places, they will work for the
+advantage of all. A man like Vanderbilt gave higher profits, larger
+employment, and lower rate as the result of his railroad work. But
+if the head of such a system is unfit for his trust intellectually
+or morally, the harm which he can do is almost boundless.
+
+[Illustration: Cornelius Vanderbilt.]
+
+Of intellectual unfitness the chance is perhaps not great. The
+intense competition of the modern business world makes sure that
+any man, to maintain his position, must have at least some of the
+qualities of mind which it exacts. But of moral unfitness the
+danger is all the greater, because some of the present conditions
+of business competition directly tend to foster it. A German
+economist has said that the so-called survival of the fittest in
+modern industry is really a double survival, side by side, of the
+most talented on the one hand and the most unscrupulous on the
+other. The truth of this is already apparent in railroad business.
+A Vanderbilt on the Central meets a Fisk on the Erie. In spite of
+his superior power and resources he is virtually beaten in the
+contest--beaten, as was said at the time, because he could not
+afford to go so close to the door of State's prison as his rival.
+
+The manager of a large railroad system has under his control a
+great deal of property besides his own--the property of railroad
+investors which has been placed in his charge. Two lines of action
+are open to him. He may make money _for_ the investors, and thereby
+secure the respect of the community; or he may make money _out_ of
+the investors, and thereby get rich enough to defy public opinion.
+The former course has the advantage of honesty, the latter of
+rapidity. It is a disgrace to the community that the latter way is
+made so easy, and so readily condoned. A man has only to give to
+charitable objects a little of the money obtained by violations of
+trust, and a large part of the world will extol him as a public
+benefactor. Nay, more; it seems as if some of our financial
+operators really mistook the _vox populi_ for the _vox Dei_, and
+believed that a hundred thousand dollars given to a theological
+seminary meant absolution for the past and plenary indulgence for
+the future. It is charged that one financier, when he undertook any
+large transaction which was more than usually questionable, made a
+covenant that if the Lord prospered him in his undertaking he would
+divide the proceeds on favorable terms. But--as Wamba said of the
+outlaws and "the fashion of their trade with Heaven"--"when they
+have struck an even balance, Heaven help them with whom they next
+open the account!"
+
+A word or two as to the methods by which such operations are
+carried on, and the system which makes them possible. From the very
+first, railroads have been built and operated by corporations.
+A number of investors, too large to attend personally to the
+management of the enterprise, took shares of stock and elected
+officers to represent them. These officers had almost absolute
+power; but while matters were in this simple stage, there was no
+great opportunity for its abuse. The losses of investors were
+due to _bona fide_ errors of judgment rather than to misuse of
+power. But soon the corporations found it convenient to borrow
+money by mortgaging their property. We then had two classes of
+investors--stockholders and bondholders, the former taking the
+risks and having the full control of the property, the latter
+receiving a relatively sure though perhaps smaller return, but
+having no control over the management as long as their interest was
+regularly paid.
+
+Of course there is always some danger when the men who furnish
+the money do not have much control of the enterprise; but as long
+as the relations of stock and bonds were in practice what they
+pretended to be in theory, the resulting evils were not very
+great. Matters soon reached another stage. The amount of money
+furnished by the bondholders increased out of all proportion to
+that furnished by the stockholders. Sometimes the nominal amount of
+stock was unduly small; more commonly only a very small part of the
+nominal value was ever paid in.[28] The stock was nearly all water,
+simply issued by the directors as a means of keeping control of the
+property. After the crisis of 1857, people had become shy of buying
+railroad stock; but they bought railroad bonds because they thought
+they were safe. This was the case only when there was an actual
+investment of stockholders behind them; without this assurance,
+bonds were more unsafe than stock had been, because the bondholders
+had still less immediate control over the directors and officials.
+If there was money to be made at the time, the directors made it;
+if there was loss in the end, it fell upon the bondholders.
+
+Let us take a specific case. An inside ring issues stock
+certificates to the value of a million dollars, on which perhaps
+a hundred thousand is paid in. They then publish their prospectus
+and place on the market two million of bonds with which the road is
+to be built. They sell the bonds at 80, reimburse themselves for
+the $100,000 advanced by charging the moderate commission of 5 per
+cent. for services in placing the loan, and have at their disposal
+$1,500,000 cash. These same directors now appear as a construction
+company, and award themselves a contract to pay $1,500,000 for work
+which is worth $1,200,000 only. The road is finished, and probably
+does not pay interest on its bonds. It passes into the hands of a
+receiver. Possibly the old management may have an influence in his
+appointment. At the worst, they have got back all the money they
+put in, _plus_ the profits of the construction company; in the case
+supposed, 300 per cent. The bondholders, on the other hand, have
+paid $1,600,000 for a $1,200,000 road.
+
+[Illustration: John W. Garrett.]
+
+But the troubles of the bondholders and the advantages of the old
+directors by no means end here. When the receiver takes possession
+he discovers that valuable terminals, necessary for the successful
+working of the road, are not the property of the company, but of
+the old directors. He finds that the road owns a very inadequate
+supply of rolling-stock, and that the deficiency has been made up
+by a car-trust--also under the control of the old directors. Each
+of these things, and perhaps others, must be made the subject of a
+fight or of a compromise. The latter is often the only practicable
+alternative, and almost always the cheaper one; by its terms the
+ring perhaps secures hundreds of thousands more, at the expense of
+the actual investors.
+
+These are but a few of the many ways in which a few years' control
+of property may be made profitable to the officials at the expense
+of legitimate interests. In a case like this, all depends upon the
+possibility of selling bonds. It is usually impossible to place the
+whole loan before construction; and if the market-price falls below
+the cost of the work undertaken, as was the case with the West
+Shore, the loss falls upon the construction company. Such accidents
+were for a long time rare. It took the public nearly twenty years
+to learn the true character of imperfectly secured railroad bonds.
+Within the past five years it seems to have become a trifle wiser.
+The crisis of 1873 was insufficient to teach the lesson; but that
+of 1885 has been at least partially successful in this respect.
+
+In cases like the one just described the bondholders are largely to
+blame for their own folly. But sometimes the loss falls on those
+who are in no way responsible for it. A railroad may be built as a
+blackmailing job. If a company is sound and prosperous, speculators
+may be tempted to build a parallel road, not with the idea of
+making it pay, but because they can so damage the business of the
+old road as to force it to buy them out. They build the road to
+sell.
+
+It is but fair to say that operations as bad as those just
+described are the exception rather than the rule. But the fact that
+they can exist at all is by no means creditable to our financial
+methods. The whole system by which directors can use their
+positions of trust to make contracts in which they are personally
+interested puts a premium on dishonesty. Such contracts are
+forbidden in England. It may be true, as is urged by many railroad
+officials of undoubted honesty, that it would be inconvenient to
+apply the same law here; but on the whole, the gain would far
+outweigh the loss.
+
+At the very best, a railroad president is subject to temptations
+to misuse his financial powers, all the more dangerous because it
+is impossible to draw the line between right and wrong. He knows
+the probable value of his railroad and of the property affected
+by its action a great deal better than any outsider possibly can.
+The published figures of earnings of the road are the result of
+estimates by himself and his subordinates. Out of the current
+earnings he pays current expenses, and probably charges permanent
+expenditures to capital account. But what expenditures are current
+and what are permanent? This division is itself the result of
+an estimate, and a very doubtful one at that. There are some
+well-established general principles, but none which will apply
+themselves automatically. With the best will in the world he cannot
+make his annual reports give a thoroughly clear idea of what has
+been done. Is he to be forbidden to buy stock when it seems too
+low, or sell it when it is high? Shall we refuse him the right
+to invest in other property which he sees will advance in value?
+Apparently not; and yet, if we allow this, we open the door for
+some of the worst abuses of power which have occurred in railroad
+history. The line between good faith and bad faith in these matters
+is a narrow one, and the average conscience cannot be trusted to
+locate it with accuracy.
+
+But the relations to the investors cover but a small part either
+of the work or of the responsibility of the railroad authorities.
+They are managing not merely a piece of property, but a vast and
+complicated organization of men, and an instrument of public
+service. In all these capacities their cares are equally great.
+The operating and the traffic departments are not less important
+than the financial department. The relations of the railroad to its
+employees, and to the business community at large, are even more
+perplexing than its relations to the investors.
+
+Of the questions arising between the railroad and its employees we
+are just beginning to realize the full importance. They are not
+matters to be settled by private agreement or private war. If they
+involve a serious interruption of the business of the community
+they concern public interests most vitally. The community cannot
+afford to have its business interrupted by railroad strikes. On
+the other hand, it cannot allow the men to make this public duty
+of the railroads a means of enforcing their own will on every
+occasion, to the detriment of all discipline and responsibility, or
+in disregard of investors' rights. How to compromise between these
+two conflicting requirements is one of the most serious problems of
+the immediate future.[29] Little progress in this direction has as
+yet been made, or even systematically attempted.
+
+The questions arising from the relations of the railroads to those
+who use them are wider and older. From the very outset attempts
+were made to regulate railroad charges by law in various ways.
+The fear at that time was that they might be made unreasonably
+high. This fear proved groundless. From the outset the rates were
+rather lower than had been expected, and much lower than by many
+of the means of transportation which railroads superseded. These
+low rates caused a great development in business; and this, in
+turn, gave a chance for such economy in handling it that rates
+went still lower. Each new invention rendered it easier to do a
+large business at cheap rates. The substitution of steel rails
+for iron, which began shortly after the close of the war, had an
+enormous influence in this respect. This was not merely due to the
+direct saving in repairs, which, though appreciable, was moderate
+in amount. It was due still more to improvements in transportation
+which followed. It was found that steel rails would bear heavier
+rolling-stock. Instead of building ten-ton cars to carry ten tons
+of cargo, companies built twelve-ton cars to carry twenty tons of
+cargo, or fourteen-ton cars to carry thirty tons; and they made the
+locomotives heavy enough to handle correspondingly larger trains.
+A given amount of fuel was made to haul more weight; and of the
+weight thus hauled, the freight formed a constantly increasing
+proportion as compared with the rolling-stock itself. The system
+of rates was adopted to meet the new requirements. Charges were
+made incredibly low in order to fill cars that would otherwise
+go empty, or to use the road as nearly as possible to its full
+capacity. In the twenty years following the introduction of steel
+rails the traffic of the New York Central increased from less than
+400,000,000 ton-miles to decidedly over 2,000,000,000; while the
+average rates fell from 3.09 cents per ton per mile in 1866 to 0.76
+cent in 1886. This is but a single instance of a process which has
+gone on all over the country. The average freight charge on all
+railroads of the country to-day is a little over one cent per ton
+a mile: less than half what would have been deemed possible on any
+railroad a few years ago.
+
+The progress of railroad consolidation contributed greatly to
+this economy. It saved multiplication of offices; it saved
+re-handling of freight; it enabled long-distance business to
+be done systematically. So great were its advantages that
+co-operation between connecting lines was carried far beyond
+the limits of actual consolidation. Through traffic was handled
+without transshipment, sometimes by regularly incorporated express
+companies or freight companies on the same plan, but more commonly
+by what are known as fast-freight lines.[30] These are little more
+than combinations for keeping account of through business; they are
+by no means ideal in their working, but they have the advantage of
+few expenses and no income, so that the temptation to steal, which
+is the bane of such organizations, is here reduced to a minimum.
+
+But all these things, while they increased the efficiency of the
+service, also increased the power of the railroad authorities
+and rendered the shipper more helpless. The very cheapness of
+rates only made a recourse to other means of transportation more
+difficult. If _A_ was charged 30 cents while his competitor _B_ was
+paying only 20 cents for the same service, he was worse off than
+when they were both paying a dollar; and the fact that no other
+means of conveyance could be found to do the work for less than a
+dollar simply put _A_ all the more completely at the mercy of the
+railroad freight-agent. In other words, the fact that rates were so
+low made any inequality in rates all the more dangerous. The lower
+the rate and the wider the monopoly, the less was the chance of
+relief.
+
+Such inequalities existed on a large scale: and they were all the
+more difficult to deal with because there was a certain reason
+for some of them arising from the nature of railroad business.
+The expenses of a railroad are of two kinds. Some, like train and
+station service, locomotive fuel, or repairs of rolling-stock, are
+pretty directly chargeable to the different parts of the traffic.
+It costs a certain amount in wages and in materials to run a
+particular train; if that train is taken off, that part of the
+expense is saved. But there is another class of items, known as
+fixed charges, that do not vary with the amount of business done.
+Interest on bonds must be paid, whether the volume of traffic
+be large or small. The services of track-watchmen must be paid
+for, whether there be a hundred trains daily or only a dozen. In
+short, most of the expenses for interest and maintenance of way
+are chargeable to the business as a whole, but not to particular
+pieces of work done. The practical inference from this is obvious.
+In order that the railroad as a whole may be profitable, the fixed
+charges must be paid somehow. The railroad manager will try to get
+them as he can from different parts of his traffic. But if, for any
+reason, a particular piece of business cannot or will not pay its
+share of the fixed charges, it is better to secure it at any price
+above the bare expense of loading and hauling, without regard to
+the fixed charges. For if the business is lost, these charges will
+run on just the same, without any added means of meeting them.
+
+The consequence is that there is no natural standard of rates;
+or, rather, that there are two standards, so far apart that the
+difference between the two is quite sufficient to build up one
+establishment or one locality and ruin another, in case of an
+arbitrary exercise of power on the part of the freight-agent.
+In the use of such a power it was inevitable that there should
+be a great many mistakes, and some things which were worse than
+mistakes. Colbert once cynically defined taxation as "the art of
+so plucking the goose as to secure the largest amount of feathers
+with the least amount of squealing." Some of our freight-agents
+have taken Colbert's tax theories as a standard, and have applied
+them only too literally. It is this short-sighted policy which
+has made the system of charging "what the traffic will bear" a
+synonyme for extortion. Interpreted rightly, this phrase represents
+a sound principle of railroad policy--putting the burden of the
+fixed charges on the shipments that can afford to pay them. But
+practically--in the popular mind at least--it has come to mean
+almost exactly the opposite.
+
+The points which got the benefit of the lowest rates were the
+large trade centres, which had the benefit of competing lines of
+railroad, and often of water competition also. The threat to ship
+goods by a rival route was the surest way of making a freight-agent
+give low rates. The result was that the growth of such places was
+specially stimulated. In addition to their natural advantages they
+had an artificial one due to the policy of competing lines of
+railroad. It may well be the case, as is argued by railroad men,
+that sound railroad economy demands that goods in large masses
+should be carried much more cheaply than those which are furnished
+in smaller quantities. But it is certain the practice went far
+beyond the limits of any such justification. There was a time
+when cattle were carried from Chicago to New York at a dollar a
+car-load; and many other instances, scarcely less marked, could be
+cited from the history of trunk-line competition. The fact was,
+that in an active railroad war freight-agents would generally
+accede to a demand for reduced rates at a competing point, whether
+well founded or not, and would almost always turn a deaf ear to
+similar demands from local shippers, however strongly supported by
+considerations of far-sighted business policy.
+
+But this was not the worst. Inequalities between different places
+might after some hardship correct themselves; differences of
+treatment between individuals could not be thus adjusted. And the
+system of making rates by special bargain almost always led to
+differences between individuals, where favors were too often given
+to those who needed or deserved them least. The fluctuation of
+rates was first taken advantage of by the unscrupulous speculator.
+Often, if he controlled large sources of shipment, he might receive
+the benefit of a secret agreement by which he could obtain lower
+rates than his rivals under all circumstances. A more effective
+means for destroying straightforwardness in business dealings than
+the old system of special rates was never devised. Sometimes, where
+one competitor was overwhelmingly strong, the pretence of secrecy
+was thrown aside, and the railroad companies so far forgot their
+public duties as almost openly to assist one concern in crushing
+its rivals. The state of things in this respect twelve or fifteen
+years ago was so bad that it is painful to dwell upon; but the
+reformation to-day is not so complete that we can wash our hands of
+past sins.
+
+Less was said or felt of similar evils in passenger traffic,
+because the passenger business of the country generally is of much
+less importance than its freight business, either to the railroad
+investors or to the producers themselves. But there was the same
+fluctuation in passenger rates; and there was an outrageous form
+of discrimination in the development of the free-pass system; a
+practice which would have fully deserved the name of systematic
+bribery, had it not become so universal that most men hardly
+recognized any personal obligation connected with the acceptance
+of a pass. Officials and other citizens of influence had come to
+regard it as a right; it was not so much bribery on the part of the
+companies as blackmail levied against them.
+
+The remedies proposed for all these evils have been various. From
+the very beginning until now there have been some who held that
+such abuses could be avoided only by State railroad ownership.
+Such experiments in the United States have not gone far enough
+to furnish conclusive evidence either way; but the experience of
+other countries indicates that State railroads, as such, do not
+avoid these evils. Where they have been worked in competition with
+other lines, they have been as deeply involved in these abuses as
+their private competitors--perhaps more so. Where the government
+has obtained control of all the railroads of the country, and made
+such arrangements with the water-routes as to render competition
+impossible, the abuses have vanished, because there was no longer
+any conceivable motive to continue them. But this was the result
+of the monopoly, not of the State ownership; and the advantage was
+purchased by a sacrifice of all the stimulus of competition toward
+the development of new facilities.
+
+Many people assume that, because the government represents the
+nation as a whole, therefore government officials will not be
+under the same temptations to act unjustly which are felt by the
+representatives of a private corporation. This is a mistake. It
+is not as representatives of the investor that railroad agents do
+much injustice; this motive has practically nothing to do with
+it. Most of the abuses complained of are positively injurious to
+the investor in the long run. When officials really represent
+the interests of the property with wise foresight, they, as a
+rule, give the public no ground to complain. The question reduces
+itself to this: Will the State choose better representatives and
+agents than a private corporation? Will it secure a higher grade
+of officials, more competent, more honest, and more enterprising?
+The difference between state and private railroads is not so much
+on matters of policy as on methods of administration. The success
+of government administration varies with different countries. In
+Prussia, where it is seen at its best, the results are in some
+respects remarkably good; yet even here the roads are not managed
+on anything like the American standard of efficiency, either in
+amount of train service, in speed, or in rapidity of development.
+And what is barely successful in Prussia, with its trained civil
+service on the one hand and its less intense industrial demands
+on the other, can hardly be considered possible or desirable in
+America. No one who has watched the workings of a government
+contract can desire to have the whole trade of the country put
+to the expense of supporting such methods in its transportation
+business.
+
+A more easy method of trying to regulate railroad charges has been
+by forced reductions in rates. This was tried on the largest scale
+in the Granger movement fifteen years ago. A fall in the price of
+wheat had rendered it difficult for the farmers to make money. The
+Patrons of Husbandry, in investigating the causes, saw that the
+larger trade centres, where there was competition, were getting
+lower rates than the local producer. They reasoned that if all the
+farmers could get such low rates, they could make money; and that,
+if the roads could afford to make these low rates for any points,
+they could afford to do it for all. The railroad agents, instead of
+foreseeing the storm and trying to prevent it, assumed a defiant
+attitude. The result was that legislatures of the States in the
+upper Mississippi Valley passed laws of more or less rigidity,
+scaling down all rates to the general level of competitive ones.
+After a period of some doubt, the right of the States to do this
+was admitted by the courts. But before the legal possibility had
+been decided, the practical impossibility of such a course had
+been shown. If all rates were reduced to the level of competitive
+ones, it left nothing to pay fixed charges. On such terms, foreign
+capital would not come into the State; nor could it be enticed by
+such a clumsy effort as that of one of the States, which provided
+"that no road _hereafter constructed_ shall be subject to the
+provisions of this act." The goose which laid the golden eggs was
+not such a goose as to be deceived by this. The untimely death of
+several of her species meant more than any promises of immunity to
+those who should follow in her footsteps. In those States which had
+passed the most severe laws capital would not invest; railroads
+could not pay interest, their development stopped, and the growth
+of the community was seriously checked thereby. The most obnoxious
+laws were either repealed or allowed to remain in abeyance. Where
+the movement was strongest in 1873 it had practically spent its
+force in 1876. There have been many similar attempts in all parts
+of the country since that time; just now they are peculiarly
+active; but nothing which approaches in recklessness some of the
+legislation of 1873 and 1874. The lesson was at least partly
+learned.
+
+We had hardly passed the crisis of the effort to level down, when
+some of the more intelligent railroad men made an effort to level
+up. Recognizing that discriminations and fluctuating rates were
+an evil, they sought to avoid it by common action with regard to
+the business at competing points. A mere agreement as to rates to
+be charged was not enough to secure this end. Such an agreement
+was sure to be violated. Even if the leading authorities meant
+to observe it, their agents could always evade its requirements
+to some extent. Such evasion was favored by loose arrangements
+between connecting roads, and by the somewhat irresponsible system
+of fast freight lines. Wherever it existed, it gave rise to mutual
+suspicion. _A_ believed that his road did it because he could not
+help it, but that _B_ and _C_ were allowing their roads to do
+it maliciously; while _B_ and _C_ had the same consciousness of
+individual rectitude and the same unkind suspicions with regard to
+_A_. It was at best a rather hollow truce, which did not really
+accomplish its purpose, and which might change to open war on very
+slight provocation.
+
+To avoid this difficulty a pool, or division of traffic, was
+arranged. It is a fact that, whatever wars of rates there may be,
+the percentage of traffic carried by the different lines varies
+but little. If an arbitrator can examine the books and decide what
+these percentages have been in the past, he can make an award for
+the future, under which the competitive traffic of the different
+roads may be fairly divided. The arrangements for doing this are
+various. Sometimes the roads carry such traffic as may happen to
+be offered, and settle the differences with one another by money
+balances; sometimes they actually divert traffic from one line to
+another. But the advantage of either of these arrangements over a
+mere agreement to maintain rates is that they cannot be violated
+without direct action on the part of the leading authorities of
+the roads concerned--either in open withdrawal, or in actual
+bad faith. The ordinary irregularities of agents do not, under
+a pooling system, give rise to much suspicion, because they do
+not benefit the road in whose behalf they are undertaken. Its
+percentage being fixed there is no motive for rate-cutting. So
+great is this advantage that pooling is accepted in almost all
+other countries as a natural means of maintaining equality of
+rates; the state railroads of Central Europe entering into such
+contracts with competing private lines and even with water-routes.
+In America itself, pools have had a longer and wider history than
+is generally supposed. In New England they arose and continued to
+exist on a moderate scale without attracting much attention. In the
+Mississippi Valley, the Chicago-Omaha pool was arranged as early as
+1870, and formed the model for a whole system of such arrangements
+extending as far as the Pacific Coast. But, as involving wider
+questions of public policy, the activity of the Southern and the
+Trunk Line Associations has attracted chief attention.
+
+The man whose name is most prominently identified with both these
+systems is Albert Fink. A German by birth and education, his long
+experience as a practical railroad engineer did not deprive him of
+a taste for studying traffic problems on their theoretical side. As
+Vice-President of the Louisville & Nashville, he had given special
+attention to the economic conditions affecting the Southern roads;
+and when, in the years 1873-75, a traffic association was formed by
+a number of these roads to secure harmony of action on matters of
+common interest, he became the recognized leader. His success in
+arrangements for through traffic was so conspicuous that when, in
+1877, the trunk lines were exhausted with an unusually destructive
+war of rates, they looked to him as the only man who could deliver
+them from their trouble. In some lines, division of traffic had
+already been resorted to; but it was in the hands of outside
+parties, like the Standard Oil Company or the cattle eveners,
+and was made a means of oppression against shippers not in the
+combination itself.
+
+[Illustration: Albert Fink.]
+
+The conditions were not favorable; the result of Fink's efforts to
+bring order out of chaos was slow and by no means uninterrupted.
+Yet on the whole, as was admitted even by opponents of the pooling
+system, it contributed to steadiness and equality of rates. The
+arrangement of these agreements was hampered by their want of
+legal status. While the law did not at that time actually prohibit
+them, it refused to enforce them. Existing thus on sufferance,
+they depended on the good will of the contracting parties. None
+but a man of Fink's unimpeached integrity and high intellectual
+power could have kept matters running at all; and even he could
+not prevent the adoption of a policy of making hay while the sun
+shines, more or less regardless of the future. The results of the
+trunk-line pool were unsatisfactory--most of all to those who
+believed in pools as a system; but it is fair to attribute a large
+part of this failure to the absence of legal recognition, which
+in a manner compelled the agreements to be arranged to meet the
+demands of the day rather than of the future.
+
+Meantime an equally important contribution to the solution of the
+railroad question was being worked out in another quarter. In the
+year 1869 the Massachusetts Railroad Commission was established.
+Its powers were so slight that it was not regarded as likely to
+be an influential public agency. Fortunately it numbered among
+its members Charles Francis Adams, Jr.; a man whose efficiency
+more than made up for any want of nominal powers. In his hands the
+mere power to report became the most effective of all weapons.
+Representing at once enlightened public judgment and far-sighted
+railroad policy, he did much to bring the two into harmony and
+protect the legitimate interests on both sides from short-sighted
+misuse for the benefit of either party. The detail of his work is
+matter of past history; perhaps its most prominent result was to
+introduce to State legislation the idea of a railroad commission
+as an administrative body. Those States which had no stringent
+laws appointed commissions to take their place; those which had
+overstringent ones appointed commissions to use discretion in
+applying them. In either case, the existence of a body of men
+representing the State, but possessing the technical knowledge
+to see what the exigencies of railroad business demanded, was a
+protection to all parties concerned.
+
+[Illustration: Charles Francis Adams.]
+
+But matters were rapidly passing beyond the sphere of State
+legislation. Each new consolidation of systems, each additional
+development of through traffic, made it more impossible to control
+railroad policy by the action of individual States. It could only
+be done by a development of the law in the United States courts or
+by Congressional legislation. The former result was necessarily
+slow; each year showed an increased demand for special action on
+the part of Congress. But such action was hindered by divergence of
+opinion in that body itself. One set of men wished a moderate law,
+prohibiting the most serious abuses of railroad power, and enforced
+under the discretionary care of a commission. These men were for
+the most part not unwilling to see pools legalized if their members
+could thereby be held to a fuller measure of responsibility. On the
+other hand, the extremists wished to prescribe a system of equal
+mileage rates; they would hear of no such thing as a commission,
+and hated pools as an invention of the adversary. Between the two
+lay a large body of members who had no convictions on the matter,
+but were desirous to please everybody and offend nobody--a hard
+task in this particular case. It was nearly nine years from the
+time Mr. Reagan introduced his first bill when a compromise was
+finally effected--largely by the influence of Senator Cullom.
+As compromises go, it was a tolerably fair one. The extremists
+sacrificed their opposition to a commission, but secured the
+prohibition of pools; the disputed points with regard to rates were
+left in such a shape that no man knew what the law meant, and each
+was, for the time being, able to interpret it to suit the wishes of
+his Congressional district.
+
+The immediate effects of the law were extremely good. There
+were certain sections of it, like those which secured publicity
+of rates and equal treatment for different persons in the same
+circumstances, whose wisdom was universally admitted. Indeed it was
+rather a disgrace, both to the railroad agents and to the courts,
+that we had to wait for an act of Congress to secure these ends;
+and most of the railroads made up for past remissness in this
+respect by quite a spasm of virtue. In some instances it was even
+thought that they "stood up so straight as to lean over backward."
+But this was not the only part of the law which proved efficient.
+The very vagueness of the clause concerning the relative rates for
+through and local traffic, which under other circumstances might
+have proved fatal, put a most salutary power into the hands of the
+Interstate Commerce Commission, and one which they were not slow to
+use.
+
+[Illustration: Thomas M. Cooley.]
+
+The President was fortunate in his selection of commissioners;
+above all in the chairman, Judge T. M. Cooley, of Michigan, a
+man whose character, knowledge of public law, and technical
+familiarity with railroad business made him singularly well fitted
+for the place. The work of the Interstate Commission, like that
+of its Massachusetts prototype, shows how much more important is
+personal power than mere technical authority. It was supposed at
+first that the commission would be a purely administrative body,
+with discretion to suspend the law. Instead of this, they have
+enforced and interpreted it; and in the process of interpretation
+have virtually created a body of additional law, which is read and
+quoted as authority. With but little ground for expecting it from
+the letter of the act, they have become a judicial body of the
+highest importance. Their existence seems to furnish a possibility
+for an elastic development of transportation law, neither so weak
+as to be ineffective nor so strong as to break by its own rigidity.
+
+But the final test of their success is yet to come. They have laid
+down a few principles as to the cases when competition justifies
+through rates lower than those at intermediate points. But the
+application of these principles is as yet far from settled; and
+it is rendered doubly hard by the clause against pools, which
+does much to hamper the roads in any attempt to secure common
+action on the matter of through rates. Each ill-judged piece of
+State legislation, and each reckless attempt to attack railroad
+profits, increases the difficulty. There was a time when the
+powers of railroad managers were developed without corresponding
+responsibility. In many parts of the country we are now going
+to the other extreme--increasing the responsibility of railroad
+authorities toward shipper and employees, State law and national
+commission, and at the same time striving to restrict their powers
+to the utmost. Such a policy cannot be continued indefinitely
+without a disastrous effect upon railroad service, and, indirectly,
+upon the business of the country as a whole.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[28] In 1886 the capital stock and the indebtedness of the
+railroads of the United States amounted to about four thousand
+million dollars each. Most of the debt represents money actually
+paid in; but a very large fraction of the stock is a merely
+nominal liability on which no payments have been made. Some was
+issued as here described merely as a means of keeping control of
+the property; some, as the easiest method of balancing unequal
+values in reorganization; some, to represent increased value of
+the property, so as to be able to divide all the current earnings
+without calling public attention too prominently to the very
+profitable character of the business. On the other hand, some stock
+on which money was actually paid has been wiped out of existence;
+and something has been paid out of earnings for capital account
+without corresponding issue of securities. The net amount of
+"water," or excess of nominal liabilities over actual investments,
+in the capital account of the railroads of the country can only be
+made the subject of guesswork. Estimates of responsible authorities
+vary all the way from nothing to $4,000,000,000.
+
+[29] See following article on "The Prevention of Railway Strikes."
+
+[30] See "The Freight-car Service," page 287.
+
+
+
+
+THE PREVENTION OF RAILWAY STRIKES.[31]
+
+BY CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS.
+
+  Railways the Largest Single Interest in the United
+  States--Some Impressive Statistics--Growth of a Complex
+  Organization--Five Divisions of Necessary Work--Other Special
+  Departments--Importance of the Operating Department--The Evil
+  of Strikes--To be Remedied by Thorough Organization--Not the
+  Ordinary Relation between Employer and Employee--Of what the
+  Model Railway Service Should Consist--Temporary and Permanent
+  Employees--Promotion from One Grade to the Other--Rights
+  and Privileges of the Permanent Service--Employment during
+  Good Behavior--Proposed Tribunal for Adjusting Differences
+  and Enforcing Discipline--A Regular Advance in Pay for
+  Faithful Service--A Fund for Hospital Service, Pensions, and
+  Insurance--Railroad Educational Institutions--The Employer
+  to Have a Voice in Management through a Council--A System of
+  Representation.
+
+
+In 1836--fifty years ago--there were but a little more than 1,000
+miles of railroad on the American continents, representing an
+outlay of some $35,000,000, and controlled by a score or so of
+corporations. There are now (1886) about 135,000 miles in the
+United States alone, capitalized at over eight thousand millions of
+dollars.
+
+The railroad interest is thus the largest single interest in the
+country. Probably 600,000 men are in its employ as wage-earners. It
+is safe to say that over two millions of human beings are directly
+dependent upon it for their daily support. The Union Pacific,
+as a single and by no means the largest member of this system,
+controls 5,150 miles of road, represented by stock and bonds to
+the amount of $275,000,000. More than 15,000 names are borne upon
+its pay-rolls. Its yearly income has exceeded $29,000,000, and
+in 1885 was $26,000,000. Large as these aggregates sound, there
+are other corporations which far exceed the Union Pacific both in
+income and in capitalization, and not a few exceed it in mileage.
+The Pennsylvania, for instance, either owns or directly controls
+7,300 miles of road. It is represented by a capitalization of
+$670,000,000; its annual income is $93,000,000; it carries 75,000
+names on its pay-rolls.
+
+This has been the outgrowth of a single half-century. The vast
+and intricate organization implied in the management of such an
+interest had, as it were, to be improvised. The original companies
+were small and simple affairs. Some retired man of business
+held, as a rule, the position of president; while another man,
+generally a civil engineer, and as such supposed to be more or
+less acquainted with the practical working of railroads, acted as
+superintendent. The superintendent, in point of fact, attended
+to everything. He was the head of the commercial department; the
+head of the operating department; the head of the construction
+department; and the head of the mechanical department. But
+there is a limit to what any single man can do; and so, as the
+organization developed, it became necessary to relieve the railroad
+superintendent of many of his duties. Accordingly, the working
+management naturally subdivided itself into separate departments,
+at the head of which men were placed who had been trained all their
+lives to do the particular work required in each department. In
+the same way, the employees of the company--the wage-earners, as
+they are called--originally few in number, held toward the company
+relations similar to those which the employees in factories, shops,
+or on farms, held to those who employed them. In other words, there
+was in the railroad system no organized service. As the employees
+increased until they were numbered by hundreds, better organization
+became a necessity. The community was absolutely dependent upon its
+railroad service for continued existence, for the running of trains
+is to the modern body politic very much what the circulation of
+blood is to the human being. An organized system, therefore, had
+to grow up. This fact was not recognized at first; and, indeed,
+is only imperfectly recognized yet. Still the fact was there; and
+inasmuch as it was there and was not recognized, trouble ensued.
+No rationally organized railroad service--that is, no service in
+which the employer and employed occupy definite relations toward
+each other, recognized by each, and by the body politic--no such
+service exists. Approaches to it only have been made. A discussion,
+therefore, of the form that such a service would naturally take if
+it were organized, cannot be otherwise than timely.
+
+It has already been noticed that in the process of organization the
+railroad, following the invariable law, naturally subdivides itself
+into different departments.[32] In the case of every corporation of
+magnitude there are of these departments, whether one man is at the
+head of one or several of them, at least five. These are:
+
+1st. The financial department, which provides the ways and means.
+
+2d. The construction department, which builds the railroad after
+the means to build it are provided.
+
+3d. The operating department, which operates the road after it is
+built.
+
+4th. The commercial department, which finds business for the
+operated road to do, and regulates the rates which are to be
+charged for doing it.
+
+5th. The legal department, which attends to all the numerous
+questions which arise in the practical working of everyone of the
+other departments.
+
+These five divisions of necessary work exist in the organization of
+every company, no matter how small it may be, or how few officers
+it may employ. In the larger companies the need is found for yet
+other special departments. In the case of the Union Pacific, for
+instance, there are two such: First, the comptroller's department,
+which establishes and is responsible for the whole method of
+accounting; second, a department which is responsible for all
+the numerous interests which a large railroad company almost of
+necessity develops outside of its strict, legitimate work as a
+common carrier.
+
+When it comes to dealing with the employees of the company, it
+will be found that the vast majority of those whose names are on
+the pay-rolls belong to the operating department. This department
+is responsible not only for the running of trains and, usually,
+for the maintenance of the permanent way, but also for the repairs
+of rolling stock. All the train-hands, all the section-men and
+bridge-gangs, and all the mechanics in the repair shops thus belong
+to the operating department. The accounting department employs
+only clerks. The same is true of the commercial department, though
+the commercial department has also agents at different business
+centres who look after the company's interests and secure traffic
+for it. The construction department is in the hands of civil
+engineers, and the force employed by it depends entirely upon the
+amount of building which may at any time be going on. As a rule,
+the bulk of the employees in the construction department are paid
+by contractors, and not directly by the railroad company. The legal
+department consists only of lawyers and the few clerks necessary to
+aid them in transacting their business.
+
+In the operating department of the Union Pacific at the present
+time (1886) about 14,000 names are carried upon the pay-roll. The
+number varies according to the season of the year and the pressure
+of traffic. In January, and during the winter months, the average
+will fall to 12,000, while in June and during the summer it rises
+to 14,000.
+
+Of these, 2,800, or 20 per cent., are engaged in train movement;
+4,200, or 30 per cent, are in the machine-shops and in charge
+of motive power and rolling-stock; 7,000, or 50 per cent., are
+employed in various miscellaneous ways, as flag-men, section-hands,
+station agents, switch-men, etc., etc.
+
+So far as the wage-earner is concerned, it is, therefore, this
+portion of the force of a railroad company which may be called
+distinctively "the service." If good relations exist between the
+men employed in its operating department and the company no
+serious trouble can ever arise in the operation of the road.
+The clerks in the financial department, or the engineers in the
+construction department, might leave the company's employ in a
+body, and their places could soon be filled. In point of fact,
+they never do leave it; but should they do so, the public would
+experience no inconvenience. The inconvenience--and it would
+be very considerable--would be confined to the office of the
+company, and their work would fall into arrears. It is not so with
+the operating department. So far as the community at large is
+concerned, whatever difficulties arise in the working of railroads
+develop themselves here. All serious railroad strikes take place
+among those engaged in the shops, on the track, or in handling
+trains. That these difficulties should be reduced to a minimum is
+therefore a necessity. They can be reduced to a minimum only when
+the railroad service is thoroughly organized.
+
+How then can this service be better organized than it is? It is
+usually maintained that only the ordinary relation of employer
+and employed should exist between the railroad company and the
+men engaged in operating its road. If the farmer is dissatisfied
+with his hands, he can dismiss them. In like manner, if the
+laborer is dissatisfied with the farmer, he can leave his employ.
+It is argued that exactly the same relation should exist between
+the great railroad corporation and the tens of thousands of men
+in its operating department. The proposition is not tenable.
+The circumstances are different. In the first place, it is of
+no practical consequence to the community whether difficulties
+which prevent the work of the farm from going on arise or do not
+arise between an individual farmer and his laborers. The work of
+innumerable other farms goes on all the same, and it is a matter
+of indifference what occurs in the management of the particular
+farm. So it is even with large factories, machine-shops--in fact,
+with all industrial concerns which do not perform immediate
+public functions. A railroad company does perform immediate
+public functions. The community depends upon it for the daily
+and necessary movements of civilized existence. This fact has to
+be recognized. For a railroad to pause in its operation implies
+paralysis to the community which it serves.
+
+Such being the fact, it is futile to argue that the ordinary
+relations of employer and employed should obtain in the railroad
+service. Something else is required; and because something
+else is required but has not yet been devised we have had the
+numerous difficulties which have taken place during the present
+year--difficulties which have occasioned the community much
+inconvenience and loss.
+
+The model railroad service, therefore, is now to be considered.
+Of what would it consist? At present, there is practically no
+difference between individuals in the employ of a great railroad
+corporation. All the wage-earners in its pay stand in like position
+toward it. There should be a difference among them; and a marked
+difference, due to circumstances which should receive recognition.
+Take again the case of the Union Pacific. The Union Pacific, it has
+already been mentioned, numbers 14,000 employees in its operating
+department as a maximum, and 12,000 as a minimum. They vary with
+the season of the year, increasing in summer and diminishing
+in winter. Consequently there is a large body of men who are
+permanently in its employ; and there is a smaller body, although
+a very considerable portion of the whole, who are in its employ
+only temporarily. Here is a fact, and facts should be recognized.
+If this particular fact is recognized, the service of the company
+should be organized accordingly, and each of the several divisions
+of the operating department would have on its rolls two classes of
+men: First, those who have been admitted into the permanent service
+of the company; and, second, those who for any cause are only
+temporarily in that service. And no man should be admitted into
+the permanent service until after he has served an apprenticeship
+in the temporary service. In other words, admission into the
+permanent service would be in the nature of a promotion from an
+apprenticeship in the temporary service.
+
+Those in the temporary service need not, therefore, be at present
+considered. They hold to the companies only the ordinary relation
+of employee to employer. They may be looked upon as candidates for
+admission into the permanent service--they are on probation. So
+long as they are on probation they may be engaged and discharged at
+pleasure. The permanent service alone is now referred to.
+
+The permanent service of a great railroad company should in many
+essential respects be very much like a national service, that of
+the army or navy, for instance, except in one particular, and a
+very important particular: to wit, those in it must of necessity
+always be at liberty to resign from it--in other words, to leave
+it. The railroad company can hold no one in its employ one moment
+against his will. Meanwhile, to belong to the permanent service
+of a railroad company of the first class, so far as the employee
+is concerned, should mean a great deal. It should carry with it
+certain rights and privileges which would cause that service to be
+eagerly sought. In the first place, he who had passed through his
+period of probation and whose name was enrolled in the permanent
+service would naturally feel that his interests were to a large
+extent identified with those of the company; and that he on the
+other hand had rights and privileges which the company was bound
+to respect. It has been a matter of boast in France that every
+private soldier in the French army carried the possibility of
+the field-marshal's baton in his knapsack. It should be the same
+with every employee in the permanent service of a great American
+railroad company. The possibility of his rising to any position in
+that service for which he showed himself qualified should be open
+before him and constantly present in his mind. Many of the most
+remarkable and successful men who have handled railroads in the
+United States began their active lives as brakemen, as telegraph
+operators, even as laborers on the track. Such examples are of
+inestimable value. They reveal possibilities open to all.
+
+Beyond this, the man who is permanently enrolled should feel that,
+though he may not rise to a high position, yet, as a matter of
+right, he is entitled to hold the position to which he has risen
+just so long as he demeans himself properly and does his duty well.
+He should be free from fear of arbitrary dismissal. In order that
+he may have this security, a tribunal should be devised before
+which he would have the right to be heard in case charges of
+misdemeanor are advanced against him.
+
+No such tribunal has yet been provided in the organization of any
+railroad company; neither, as a rule, has the suggestion of such a
+tribunal been looked upon with favor either by the official or the
+employee. The latter is apt to argue that he already has such a
+tribunal in the executive committee of his own labor organization;
+and a tribunal, too, upon which he can depend to decide always in
+his favor. The official, on the other hand, contends that if he is
+to be responsible for results he must have the power of arbitrarily
+dismissing the employee. Without it he will not be able to maintain
+discipline. The two arguments, besides answering each other, divide
+the railroad service into hostile camps. The executive committees
+of the labor organizations practically cannot save the members of
+those organizations from being got rid of, though they do in many
+cases protect them against summary discharge; and, on the other
+hand, the official, in the face of the executive committee, enjoys
+only in theory the power of summary discharge. The situation is
+accordingly false and bad. It provokes hostility. The one party
+boasts of a protection which he does not enjoy; the other insists
+upon a power which he dares not exercise. The remedy is manifest. A
+system should be devised based on recognized facts; a system which
+would secure reasonable protection to the employee, and at the
+same time enable the official to enforce all necessary discipline.
+This a permanent service, with a properly organized tribunal to
+appeal to, would bring about. Meanwhile the winnowing process would
+be provided for in the temporary service. Over that the official
+would have complete control, and the idle, the worthless, and the
+insubordinate would be kept off. The wheat would there be separated
+from the chaff. Until such a system is devised the existing chaos,
+made up of powerless protection and impotent power, must apparently
+continue. None the less it is a delusion on the one side and a
+mockery on the other.
+
+How the members of such a court as has been suggested would be
+appointed and by whom is matter for consideration. It would,
+of course, be essential that the appointees should command the
+confidence of all in the company's service, whether officials
+or employees. The possible means of reaching this result will
+presently be discussed.
+
+Not only should permanent employees be entitled to retain their
+position during good behavior, but they should also look forward
+to the continual bettering of their condition. That is, apart
+from promotion, seniority in the service should carry with it
+certain rights and privileges. Take the case of conductors,
+brakemen, engineers, machinists, and the like; there seems to be
+no reason why length of faithful service should not carry with it
+a stipulated increase of pay. If conductors, for example, have
+a regular pay of $100 a month, there seems no good reason why
+the pay should not increase by steps of $5 with each five years'
+service, so that when the conductor has been twenty-five years in
+the service his pay should be increased by one-quarter, or $25 a
+month. The increase might be more or less. The figures suggested
+merely illustrate. So also with the engineer, the brakeman, the
+section-man, the machinist. A certain prospect of increased pay, if
+a man demeans himself faithfully, is a great incentive to faithful
+demeanor. This is another fact which it would be well not to lose
+sight of.
+
+There ought likewise to be connected with every large railroad
+organization certain funds, contributed partly by the company and
+partly by the voluntary action of employees, which would provide
+for hospital service, retiring pensions, sick pensions, and
+insurance against accident and death. Every man whose name has once
+been enrolled in the permanent employ of the company should be
+entitled to the benefit of these funds; and he should be deprived
+of it only by his own voluntary act, or as the consequence of some
+misdemeanor proved before a tribunal. At present the railroad
+companies of this country are under no inducement to establish
+these mutual insurance societies, or to contribute to them. Their
+service, in principle at least, is a shifting service; and so long
+as it is shifting the elaborate organizations which are essential
+to the safe management of the funds referred to cannot be called
+into existence. A tie-up, as it might be called, between the
+companies and their employees is a condition precedent. Were this
+once effected the rest would follow by steps both natural and easy.
+For a company like the Union Pacific to contribute $100,000 a year
+to a hospital fund and retiring pension and insurance associations
+would be a small matter, if the thing could be so arranged that
+the permanent employees themselves would contribute a like sum;
+and permanent employees only would contribute at all. Once let
+the growth of associations like these begin, and it proceeds with
+almost startling rapidity. At the end of ten years the accumulated
+capital on the basis of contribution suggested would probably
+amount to millions. Every man who was so fortunate as to become
+a permanent employee of the company would then be assured of
+provision in case of sickness or disability, and his family would
+be assured of it in case of his death.
+
+The moment a permanent service was thus established it would also
+involve further provision of an educational nature. That is, the
+companies must continually provide a stock of men for the future.
+Where a boy--the son of an employee--grows up always looking
+forward to entering the company's service, he becomes to that
+company very much what a cadet at West Point or Annapolis is to
+the army or the navy of the United States; the idea of loyalty
+to the company and of pride in its service grows up with him.
+Railroad educational institutions of this sort have already been
+created by at least one corporation in the country, and they should
+be created by all railroad corporations of the first class. The
+children of employees would naturally go into these schools, and
+the best of them would at the proper age be sent out upon the
+road to take their places in the shops, on the track, or at the
+brake. From those thus educated the higher positions in the company
+would thereafter be filled. The cost of maintaining these schools,
+at least in part, would become a regular item in the operating
+expenses of the road. Properly handled, a vast economy would be
+effected through them. The morale of the service would gradually
+be raised, and the morale of a railroad is, if properly viewed, no
+less important than the morale of an army or navy. It is invaluable.
+
+But it is futile to suppose that such a service as that outlined
+could be organized, in America at least, unless those concerned in
+it were allowed a voice in its management. Practically the most
+important feature of the whole is therefore yet to be considered.
+How is the employee to be assured a voice in the management of
+these joint interests, without bringing about demoralization?
+No one has yet had the courage to face this question; and yet
+it is a question which must be faced if a solution of existing
+difficulties is to be found. If the employees contribute to the
+insurance and other funds, it is right that they should have a
+voice in the management of those funds. If an employee holds his
+situation during good behavior, he has a right to be heard in the
+organization of the board which, in case of his suspension for
+alleged cause, is to pass upon his behavior. No system will succeed
+which does not recognize these rights. In other words, it will be
+impossible to establish perfectly good faith and the highest morale
+in the service of the companies until the problem of giving this
+voice to employees, and giving it effectively, is solved. It can be
+solved in but one way: that is, by representation. To solve it may
+mean industrial peace.
+
+It is, of course, impossible to dispose of these difficult matters
+in town-meeting. Nevertheless, the town-meeting must be at the base
+of any successful plan for disposing of them. The end in view is to
+bring the employer--who in this case is the company, represented by
+its president and board of directors--and the employees into direct
+and immediate contact through a representative system. When thus
+brought into direct and immediate contact, the parties must arrive
+at results through the usual method: that is, by discussion and
+rational agreement. It has already been noticed that the operating
+department of a great railroad company naturally subdivides itself
+into those concerned in the train movement, those concerned in
+the care of the permanent way, and those concerned in the work
+of the mechanical department. It would seem proper, therefore,
+that a council of employees should be formed, of such a number
+as might be agreed on, containing representatives from each of
+these departments. In order to make an effective representation,
+the council would have to be a large body. For present purposes,
+and for the sake of illustration merely, it might be supposed
+that, in the case of the Union Pacific, each department in a
+division of the road would elect its own members of the employees'
+council. There are five of these divisions and three departments
+in every division. The operating-men, the yard and section-men,
+and the machinists of the division would, therefore, under this
+arrangement choose a given number of representatives. If one
+such representative was chosen to each hundred employees in the
+permanent service those thus selected would constitute a division
+council. To perfect the organization, without disturbing the
+necessary work of the company, each of these division councils
+would then select certain (say, for example, three) of their
+number, representing the mechanical, the operating, and the
+permanent way departments, and these delegates from each of the
+departments would, at certain periods of the year, to be provided
+for by the articles of organization, all meet together at the
+head-quarters of the company in Omaha. The central council, under
+the system here suggested, would consist of fifteen men; that
+is, one representing each of the three departments of the five
+several divisions. These fifteen men would represent the employees.
+It would be for them to select a board of delegates, or small
+executive committee, to confer directly with the president and
+board of directors. Here would be found the organization through
+which the voice of the employees would make itself heard and felt
+in matters which directly affect the rights of employees, including
+the appointment of a tribunal to pass upon cases of misdemeanor,
+and the management of all institutions, whether financial or
+educational, to which the employees had contributed and in which
+they had a consequent interest.
+
+There is no reason whatever for supposing that, within the
+limits which have been indicated, such an organization would
+lead to difficulty. On the contrary, where it did not remove a
+difficulty it might readily be made to open a way out of it. The
+employees, feeling that they too had rights which the company
+frankly recognized and was bound to respect, would in all cases
+of agitation proceed through the regular machinery, which brought
+them into easy and direct contact with the highest authority in
+the company's service. They would not, therefore, be driven into
+outside organizations. Meanwhile, on the other hand, the highest
+officers of the company, including the president and the board
+of directors, would be brought into immediate relations with the
+representatives of the employees on terms of equality. Each would
+have an equal voice in the management of common interests; and it
+would only remain to make provision for arriving at a solution of
+questions in case of deadlock. This would naturally be done by the
+appointment of a permanent arbitrator, who would be selected in
+advance.
+
+The organization suggested includes, it will be remembered, only
+those employees whose names are on the permanent rolls of the
+operating department. For reasons which have been sufficiently
+referred to, those whose names are on the rolls of the other
+four departments have not been considered. But there would be
+no difficulty in making provision for them also, should it be
+found expedient or desirable so to do. Through the system of
+representation the organization could in fact be made to include
+every employee in the permanent service of the company, not
+excepting the president, the general manager, or the general
+counsel. Each employee included would have one vote, and each
+division and department its representatives. The organization in
+other words is elastic. No matter how large it might be it would
+never become unwieldy so long as it resulted in the small committee
+which met in direct conference face to face with the board of
+directors.
+
+Could such a system as that which has been suggested be devised
+and put in practical operation there is reason to hope that the
+difficulties which have hitherto occurred between the great
+railroad companies and those in their pay would not occur in
+future. The movement is the natural and necessary outcome of the
+vast development referred to in the opening paragraphs of this
+paper. It is based on a simple recognition of acknowledged facts,
+and follows the lines of action with which the people of this
+country are most familiar. The path indicated is that in which for
+centuries they have been accustomed to tread. It has led them out
+of many difficulties. Why not out of this difficulty?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[31] NOTE.--The following paper was prepared for a special purpose
+in June, 1886, and then submitted to several of the leading
+officials directly engaged in the local management of the lines
+operated by the Union Pacific Railway Company, of which the writer
+had been president for two years. It drew forth from them various
+criticisms, which led to the belief that the publication of the
+paper at that time might easily result in more harm than good. It
+was accordingly laid aside, and no use made of it.
+
+Nearly three years have since elapsed, and the events of the year
+1888--with its strike of engineers on the Chicago, Burlington &
+Quincy--seem to indicate that the relations of railroad employees
+to the railroad companies have undergone no material change since
+the year 1886, when the strike on the Missouri Pacific took place.
+The same unsatisfactory condition of affairs apparently continues.
+There is a deep-seated trouble somewhere.
+
+No sufficient reason, therefore, exists for longer suppressing this
+paper. Provided the suggestions contained in it have any value at
+all, they may at least be accepted as contributions to a discussion
+which of itself has an importance that cannot be either denied or
+ignored.
+
+The paper is printed as it was prepared. The figures and statistics
+contained in it have no application, therefore, to the present
+time; nor has it been thought worth while to change them, inasmuch
+as they have little or no bearing upon the argument. That is just
+as applicable to the state of affairs now as it was to that which
+existed then. The only difference is that the course of events
+during the three intervening years has demonstrated that the paper,
+if it does no good, will certainly do no harm.
+
+  BOSTON, February 4, 1889.
+  C. F. A.
+
+
+[32] See "Railway Management," page 151.
+
+
+
+
+THE EVERY-DAY LIFE OF RAILROAD MEN.
+
+BY B. B. ADAMS, JR.
+
+  The Typical Railroad Man--On the Road and at Home--Raising the
+  Moral Standard--Characteristics of the Freight Brakeman--His Wit
+  the Result of Meditation--How Slang is Originated--Agreeable
+  Features of his Life in Fine Weather--Hardships in
+  Winter--The Perils of Hand-brakes--Broken Trains--Going back
+  to Flag--Coupling Accidents--At the Spring--Advantages of
+  a Passenger Brakeman--Trials of the Freight Conductor--The
+  Investigation of Accidents--Irregular Hours of Work--The
+  Locomotive Engineer the Hero of the Rail--His Rare Qualities--The
+  Value of Quick Judgment--Calm Fidelity a Necessary Trait--Saving
+  Fuel on a Freight Engine--Making Time on a Passenger
+  Engine--Remarkable Runs--The Spirit of Fraternity among
+  Engineers--Difficult Duties of a Passenger-train Conductor--Tact
+  in Dealing with Many People--Questions to be Answered--How
+  Rough Characters are Dealt with--Heavy Responsibilities--The
+  Work of a Station Agent--Flirtation by Telegraph--The
+  Baggage-master's Hard Task--Eternal Vigilance Necessary in a
+  Switch-tender--Section-men, Train Despatchers, Firemen, and
+  Clerks--Efforts to Make the Railroad Man's Life Easier.
+
+
+The typical railroad man "runs on the road;" he is not the one
+whose urbane presence adorns the much-heralded offices of the
+railroad companies on Broadway, where the gold letters on the front
+window are each considerably larger than the elbow-room allowed
+the clerks inside; nor, indeed, is he, generally speaking, the one
+with whom the public or the public's drayman comes in contact when
+visiting a large city station to ship or receive freight. These and
+others, whose part in the complex machinery of transportation is
+in a degree auxiliary, are indeed largely imbued with the _esprit
+de corps_ which originates in the main body of workers; but their
+duties are such that their interest is not especially lively. Even
+the men employed at stations in villages and large towns acquire
+a share of their railroad spirit at second hand, as life on a
+train is necessary to get the experience which embodies the true
+fascination which so charms Young America.
+
+The railroad man's home-life is not specially different from other
+people's. There have been Chesterfields among conductors, and
+mechanical geniuses have grown up among the locomotive engineers,
+but these were products of an era now past. Station-men are a part
+of the communities where their duties place them. Trainmen and
+their families occupy a modest though highly respectable place in
+the society they live in. Trainmen who live in a city generally
+receive the same pay that is given to their brothers, doing the
+same work, whose homes are in the country. The families of the
+latter therefore enjoy purer air, lessened expenses, and other
+advantages which are denied the former.
+
+On most railroads the freight trainmen--engineers, conductors,
+brakemen, and firemen--are the most numerous and prominent class,
+as the number of freight trains is generally larger than that of
+passenger trains; and among these men there are more brakemen than
+anything else, because there are two or more on every train, while
+there is but one of each of the other classes. And as the ranks
+of the passenger-train service are generally recruited from the
+freight trainmen, it follows that the _freight brakeman_ impresses
+his individuality quite strongly upon not only the circles in which
+he moves but the whole train-service as well. Freight conductors
+are promoted brakemen, and most (though not by any means all)
+passenger conductors are promoted freight conductors; so that
+the brakeman's prominent traits of character continue to appear
+throughout the several grades of the service. As he is promoted he
+of course improves. The general character of the _personnel_ of
+the freight-train service has undergone a considerable change in
+the last twenty years. Whiskey drinkers have been weeded out, and
+pilferers with them. Improved discipline has effected a general
+toning up, raising the moral standard perceptibly. One reforming
+superintendent, a few years ago, on undertaking an aggressive
+campaign found himself compelled to discharge three-fifths of all
+his brakemen before he could regard the force as reasonably cleared
+of the rowdy element.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The brakeman, like the "drummer," is a characteristic American
+product. Each has his wits sharpened by peculiar experiences,
+and, while important lines of intellectual training are almost
+wholly neglected, there is contact with the world in various
+directions, which develops qualities that tend to elevate the
+individual in many ways. Although freight brakemen do not have
+any intercourse with the public, they somehow learn the ways of
+the world very quickly, and the brightest ones among them need
+very little training to fit them for a place on a passenger train
+where they are expected to deal with gentle ladies and fastidious
+millionaires, and bear themselves with the grace of a hotel clerk.
+Perhaps one reason why brakemen impress their characteristics on
+the whole _personnel_ of the service is because they have abundance
+of opportunity for meditation. Many of them have a superfluity
+of hours and half-hours when they have nothing to do but ride on
+the top of a car and keep a general watch of the train, and they
+have ample time to think twice before speaking once. Even a circus
+clown or the vender of shoestrings or ten-cent watches has to study
+the arts of expression; why should not the intelligent trainman,
+who wishes to let people know that he is of some account in the
+world? If he wants a favor from a superior he knows just the best
+way of approach to secure success. If he deems it worth while to
+complain of anything, he formulates his appeal in a way that is
+sure to be telling. Everyone knows the old story of the brakeman
+who was refused a free pass home on Saturday night with the
+argument that his employer, if a farmer, could not be reasonably
+expected to hitch up a horse and buggy for such a purpose. The
+reply that, admitting this, the farmer who had his team already
+harnessed up and was going that way with an empty seat would be
+outrageously mean to refuse his hired man a ride, is none too 'cute
+to be characteristic. The brakeman who is not able to puncture
+the sophistries of narrow-souled or disingenuous superiors is the
+exception and not the rule.
+
+The brakeman gives the prevailing tone to the "society" of
+despatchers' lobbies and other lounging places which he frequents.
+If he be profane or fault-finding or sour, he can easily spread the
+influence of these unpleasant traits. A lazy brakeman becomes more
+lazy, because his work is in many respects easy. Having little to
+do he demands still less. A foul-mouthed one gives himself free
+rein because many usual restraints are absent. The prevalence of
+profanity, which, aside from the question of sinfulness, hampers a
+man in any aspirations he may have toward more elevating society,
+is perhaps the worst blot on the reputation of brakemen as a
+class. Many worthy men among them, and especially among conductors
+and engineers, have, however, done much to improve the tone of
+conversation in trainmen's haunts, and on the better disciplined
+roads decorum is the rule, and rowdyism the exception. There is
+abundance of humor and spirit, however. The brakeman originates
+whatever slang may be deemed necessary to give spice to the talk
+of the caboose and round-house. He calls a gravel train a "dust
+express," and refers to the pump for compressing air for the
+power-brakes as a "wind-jammer." The fireman's prosaic labors
+are lightened by being poetically mentioned as the "handling of
+black diamonds," and the mortification of being called into the
+superintendent's office to explain some dereliction of duty is
+disguised by referring to the episode as "dancing on the carpet."
+
+[Illustration: "Dancing on the Carpet."]
+
+The disagreeable features of a freight brakeman's life are chiefly
+those dependent upon the weather. If he could perform his duties
+in Southern California or Florida in winter, and in the Northern
+States in summer, his lot would ordinarily be a happy one, though
+the annoyance of tramps is almost universal in mild climates, and
+in many cases takes the shape of positive danger. These vagabonds
+persist in riding on or in the cars, while the faithful trainman
+must, according to his instructions, keep them off. In some
+sections of the country they will board a train in gangs of a
+dozen, armed with pistols, and dictate where a train shall carry
+them. Not long ago in Chicago a conductor, while ejecting a tramp
+from the caboose, was shot and killed by the ruffian.
+
+[Illustration: Trainman and Tramps.]
+
+The hardships of cold and stormy weather are serious, both because
+of the test of endurance involved and the added difficulties in
+handling a train. The Westinghouse automatic air-brake, which
+has served so admirably on passenger trains for the past fifteen
+years, has only recently been adapted and cheapened so as to make
+it available for long freight trains, but it is now so perfected
+that in a few years the brakeman who now has to ride on the outside
+of cars in a freezing condition for an hour at a time will be
+privileged to sit comfortably in his caboose while the speed of the
+train is governed by the engineer through the instantaneous action
+of the air-brake. On the steep roads of the Rocky Mountains, and a
+few other lines, this brake is already in use.
+
+[Illustration: Braking in Hard Weather.]
+
+But "braking by hand" is still the rule. In running on ascending
+grades or at slow speeds, the brakemen can ride under cover, but in
+descending grades, or on levels when the speed is high, they must
+be on the tops of the cars ready to instantly apply the brakes,
+for the reason that there are generally only three or four men
+to a long train weighing from 500 to 1,000 tons, whose momentum
+cannot be arrested very quickly. In descending steep grades, only
+the most constant and skilful care prevents the train from rushing
+at breakneck speed to the foot of the incline, or to a curve,
+where it would be precipitated over an embankment and crushed into
+splinters. One of the mountain roads in Colorado which now uses
+air-brakes is said to be lined its whole length with the ruins of
+cars lying in the gorges, where they were wrecked in the former
+days of hand-brakes. Even on grades much less steep than those in
+Colorado the danger of this sort of disaster is one that has to
+be constantly guarded against. Take the case of a 40-car train
+descending a 1½ per cent. grade (79-2/10 feet per mile). Before all
+of the cars have passed over the summit and commenced to descend,
+the forward part of the train will have increased its velocity
+very perceptibly and will thus by its weight exert a strong pull
+on the rear portion, "yanking" it very roughly sometimes, and
+if one of the couplings between the cars chances to be weak it
+breaks, separating the train into two parts. Mishaps of this kind
+are frequent, and two or more breakages often occur at the same
+time, dividing the train so that one of the parts--between the
+two end portions--is perhaps left with no brakeman upon it. The
+engineman then has the choice of slackening his speed and allowing
+the unmanageable cars to violently collide with his portion, or
+of increasing his own speed to such a rate that he is soon in
+danger of suddenly overtaking a train ahead of him. To avoid this
+breaking-in-two the brakemen must be wide awake on the instant
+and see that their brakes are tightened before the speed even
+begins to elude control. As soon as the whole train has got beyond
+the summit, and the speed is reduced to a proper rate by the
+application of the brakes on, say, one-third or one-half the cars,
+it will perhaps be found that one or two brakes too many have been
+put on and that the train is running too slowly. Some of them
+must then be loosened. Or perhaps some are set so tightly that the
+friction heats the wheels unduly or causes them to slide along
+the track instead of rolling; then those brakes must be released
+and some on other cars applied instead; and all this must be done
+(sometimes for an hour) when the temperature is 20 degrees below
+zero, or the wind is blowing a gale, just as under more favorable
+circumstances. A train moving at 20 miles an hour against a wind
+with a velocity of 30 miles increases the latter to 50, so far as
+the brakeman is concerned; and if rain or sleet is falling, the
+force of it on his hands and face is very severe. If we add to
+this the danger attendant upon stepping from one car to another
+over a gap of 27 to 30 inches, in a dark night, when the cars are
+constantly moving up and down on their springs and are swaying
+to one side or the other every few seconds, we get some idea of,
+though we cannot realize, the sensations that must at such times
+fill the minds of the men whose pleasant berth seems so enjoyable
+on a mild summer's day. And this is not an overdrawn picture or
+the worst that might be given; for rain and snow combined often
+coat the roofs of cars so completely and solidly that they are
+worse than the smoothest skating-pond, and moving upon them is
+attended with danger at every step. Jumping--it cannot be called
+walking--from one car to another is in such cases positively
+reckless. The brake-apparatus will in a snow-storm be coated with
+ice so rapidly that vigorous action is required to keep it in
+working condition. Even a wind alone, in dry weather, sometimes
+compels the men to _crawl_ from one car to another, grasping such
+projections as they may. The brakeman who forgets to take his
+rubber coat and overalls sometimes suffers severely from sudden
+changes of temperature. In spring or fall a lively shower will be
+encountered in a sheltered valley, and the clothing be completely
+drenched, and then within perhaps half an hour the ascent of a few
+hundred feet brings the train into an atmosphere a few degrees
+below the freezing point, so that with the aid of the wind, fanned
+by the speed of the train, the clothes are very soon frozen stiff.
+
+[Illustration: Flagging in Winter.]
+
+Another feature which often involves discomfort, and occasionally
+positive suffering and danger, is "going back to flag." When a
+train is unexpectedly stopped upon the road, the brakeman at the
+rear end must immediately take his red flag or lantern and go back
+a half-mile or more to give the "stop" signal to the engine-men of
+any train that may be following. This rule is sometimes disregarded
+in clear weather on straight lines, and is even evaded by lazy or
+unfaithful brakemen where the neglect is positively dangerous,
+but still many a faithful man has to go out and stand for a long
+time in a severe snow-storm or risk his life in walking several
+miles to a station. The record of individual perils and heroisms
+in the New York blizzard of March, 1888, are paralleled, or at
+least repeated, on a slightly milder scale, by brakemen every
+winter. Even in the blizzard country of the Northwest, where a half
+hour's exposure is often fatal, the system of train-running is
+such that the stopping of a train at an unexpected place involves
+danger of collision if the brakeman does not at once go back and
+_stay back_. A "tail-end" brakeman has various anxieties, which
+cannot be detailed here. Often there is a possibility that the
+advancing engineer will not see his red lantern. One brakeman in
+New Brunswick several years ago ignominiously deserted his post,
+leaving his train to look out for itself, because of a visit from
+a huge bear whose residence was in the woods near the point on the
+railroad where the brakeman was keeping his lonely night-vigil.
+
+[Illustration: Coupling.]
+
+The danger of sudden accidental death or maiming is constant
+and great, and the bare record of the numerous cases is acutely
+suggestive of inexpressible suffering; but, strange to say, it does
+not worry the average brakeman much. Though probably a thousand
+trainmen are killed in this country every year, and four or five
+thousand injured, by collisions and derailments, in coupling cars,
+falling off trains, striking low overhead bridges, and from other
+causes, not one brakeman, from what he sees in his own experience,
+realizes the danger very vividly. As in other dangers which are
+constant but inevitable, familiarity breeds carelessness which is
+closely akin to contempt. Falling from trains is really a serious
+danger, because the most ceaseless caution--next to impossible for
+the average man to maintain--is necessary to avoid missteps. This
+will be practically abolished when the long-wished-for air-brake
+comes into use, as that will obviate the necessity of riding on the
+tops of the cars.
+
+Coupling accidents are practically unavoidable because, although
+the necessary manipulations _can_ be made without going between
+the cars or placing the hands in dangerous situations, the men
+as a general thing prefer to take the risk of the more dangerous
+method. With the ordinary freight-car apparatus (which, however,
+is destined to be superseded by an automatic coupler) the link by
+which the cars are connected is retained by a pin in the drawbar of
+either car; as one car approaches another at considerable speed,
+this link, which hangs loosely down at an angle of thirty degrees,
+must be lifted and guided into the opening in the opposite
+drawbar. This operation must, according to the regulations of most
+roads, be performed by the aid of a short stick; but, disregarding
+the regulation, partly to save time and partly because of fear of
+the ridicule that would be called out by the exhibition of a lack
+of dexterity, the average brakeman uses his fingers. He must lift
+the link and hold it horizontally until the end enters the opening,
+and then withdraw his hand before the heavy drawbars come together.
+A delay of a fraction of a second would crush the hand or finger
+as under a trip-hammer. And, in point of fact, this delay does,
+for various reasons, frequently happen, and the number of trainmen
+with wounded hands to be found in every large freight-yard is sad
+evidence of the fact. But again, assuming that this part of the
+operation is accomplished in safety, there is another and worse
+danger in the possibility of being crushed bodily. Cars are built
+with projecting timbers on their ends at or near the centre, for
+the purpose of keeping the main body of each car twelve or fifteen
+inches from its neighbor; but cars of dissimilar pattern sometimes
+meet in such a way that the projections on one lap past those on
+the other, and the space which should afford room for the man to
+stand in safety is not maintained. If the brakeman, in the darkness
+of night or the hurry of his work, fails to note the peculiarities
+of the cars, he is mercilessly crushed, the ponderous vehicles
+often banging together with a force of many tons. A constant danger
+in coupling and uncoupling is the liability to catch the feet in
+angles in the track.[33] Freight conductors are peculiarly liable
+to this, as the duty of uncoupling (pulling out the coupling-pin)
+generally devolves upon them, and must be done while the train is
+in motion. Walking rapidly along, in the dark, with the right hand
+holding a lantern and grasping the car, while the left is tugging
+at a pin which sticks, involves perplexities wherein a moment's
+hesitation may prove fatal.
+
+The dangers here recounted are those which only brakemen (or those
+acting as brakemen) have to meet. The liability of all trainmen to
+be killed by the cars tumbling down a bank, colliding with another
+train, and a hundred other conditions, is also considerable. The
+horror which the public feels on the occurrence of such a disaster
+as that at Chatsworth, Ill., in the summer of 1887, or the
+half-dozen other terrible ones within the past few years, could
+reasonably be repeated every month if railroad employees instead
+of passengers were considered. There are no accurate official
+statistics kept of the train accidents in the country, but the
+accounts compiled monthly by the _Railroad Gazette_ always show
+a large number of casualties to railroad men from causes _beyond
+their own control_ (collisions, running off the track, etc.), no
+mention being made of the larger number resulting from the victims'
+own want of caution. In the month of March, 1887, in which occurred
+the terrible Bussey Bridge disaster, near Boston, 25 passengers
+were killed in the United States; but the same month recorded 34
+employees killed. At Chatsworth 80 passengers were killed; but in
+that and the following month the number of employees killed in the
+country reached 97. In both of these comparisons the number of
+passengers is exceptional, while that of employees is ordinary.
+But, as already intimated, these dangers and discouragements are
+distributed over such a large territory and among such a large
+number of individuals that the general serenity of the brakeman's
+life is not much disturbed by them. In spite of them all, he enjoys
+his work and, if he is adapted to the calling, he sticks to it.
+
+[Illustration: The Pleasant Part of a Brakeman's Life.]
+
+The brakeman must be on hand promptly at the hour of his train's
+preparation for departure, and generally he must do his part in 15,
+30, or 60 minutes' lively work in assembling cars from different
+tracks, changing them from the front to the rear or middle of
+the train, and setting aside those that are broken or disabled;
+but, once on the road, by far the greater portion of his time is
+his own, for his own enjoyment, almost as fully as that of the
+passenger who travels for the express purpose of entertaining
+himself. In mild weather and in daylight, life on the top of a
+freight train is almost wholly devoid of unpleasant features, and
+it takes on the nature of work only for the same reason that any
+routine becomes more or less irksome after a time. Much of the time
+there are a few bushels of cinders from the engine flying in the
+air, which a novice can get into his eyes with great facility, but
+the brakeman gets used to them. He sees every day (on many roads)
+the beauties of nature in great variety. Much of the scenery of
+the adjoining country is 500 per cent. more enjoyable from the
+brakeman's perch on the roof than from the car windows, for the
+reason that the increased height gives such an enlarged horizon.
+This education from nature is an element in railroad men's lives
+not to be despised. The trainman whose daily trips take him past
+the panoramic charms of the Connecticut Valley in summer, through
+the gorgeous-hued mountain-foliage along the Erie in autumn, or the
+perennial grandeur of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado, certainly
+enjoys a privilege for which many a city worker would gladly make
+large sacrifices. But to trainmen the refining influence of these
+surroundings is often an unconscious influence, and with the
+majority of them is perhaps generally so, because of the prosaic
+round of every-day thoughts filling their minds. There are also
+some other advantages, not wholly unæsthetic, which a millionaire
+might almost envy the freight trainman. Every twenty miles or so
+the engine must stop for water, and it often happens that this
+is in a cool place where the men can at the same time refresh
+themselves with spring water whose sparkling purity is unknown in
+New York or Chicago. Though brakemen who love beer are not by any
+means scarce, an accessible spring or well of pure water along the
+line always finds appreciative users during warm weather; and the
+Kentuckian who sojourned six months in Illinois without thinking to
+try the water there is not represented in the ranks of level-headed
+brakemen. A certain railroad president regales himself in summer on
+spring water brought in jugs from 100 miles up the road by trainmen
+who find in this service an opportunity to "make themselves solid"
+at headquarters. Freight trainmen get all the delicious products
+of the soil at first hands. In their stops at way-stations they
+get acquainted with the farmers, and can make their selection of
+the best things at low prices, thus (if they keep house) living on
+fruits, vegetables, etc., of a quality fit for a king.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: At the Spring.]
+
+The passenger-train brakeman differs from the freight trainman
+chiefly in the fact that he must deal with the public, and so
+must have a care for his personal appearance and behavior, and
+in the fact that he is _not a brakeman_, the universal air-brake
+relieving him of all work in this line. His chief duties are those
+of a porter, though the wide-awake American brakeman, with an eye
+to future promotion to a conductorship, maintains his dignity and
+is not by any means the servile call-boy that the English railway
+porter is. The wearing of uniforms has been introduced here from
+England and is, in the main, a good feature, though some roads,
+whose discipline is otherwise quite good, allow their men to
+appear in slovenly and even ragged clothes. Superintendents should
+give more care to this matter, as it is not an unimportant one.
+It affects the men's self-respect and influences their usefulness
+in other ways. The frugal brakeman cannot wear his blue suit on
+Sunday or a-visiting, and his Sunday suit when old cannot be used
+up by week-day wear, so he naturally concludes that his employer
+is guilty of a little undue severity toward him. Brakemen on
+the modern "limited" trains (a three hours' run without a stop
+constituting a day's work) have in some respects too easy a task,
+and their minds are more likely to rust out than to wear out.
+They have a constant care, to be sure, and sometimes must "go
+back to flag," the same as a freight trainman, but, in the main,
+their berth would about fill the ideal of the Irish shoveller who
+confided to his fellow-workman that "for a nice, clane, aisy job"
+he would like to be a bishop.
+
+Brakemen have had the reputation of doing a good deal of flirting,
+and many a country-girl has found a worthy husband among them;
+but there is not so much of this method of diversion as formerly;
+both passenger and freight men now have to attend more strictly to
+business, and they cannot conveniently indulge in side play. There
+are still, however, enough short branch-lines and slow-going roads
+in backwoods districts to insure that flirting shall not become a
+lost art in this part of the world.
+
+The freight conductor is simply a high grade of brakeman. His work
+is almost wholly supervisory and clerical, and so, after several
+years' service, he becomes more sober and business-like in his
+bearing, the responsibilities of his position being sufficient
+to effect this change; but he generally retains his sympathies
+with his old associates who have become subordinates. His duties
+are to keep the record of the train, the time, numbers of cars,
+etc.; to see that the brakemen regulate the speed when necessary,
+and to keep a general watch. The calculations necessary to make
+a 75-mile trip and get over the line without wasting time are
+often considerable, and an inexperienced conductor can easily
+keep himself in a worry for the whole trip. Often he cannot go
+more than ten miles after making way for a passenger train before
+another overtakes him; so that he must spend a good share of his
+time sitting in his caboose with the time-table in one hand and
+his watch in the other, calculating where and when to side-track
+the train. On single-track roads perplexities of this kind are
+generally more numerous than on double lines, because trains both
+in front and behind must be guarded against, and because the
+regulations are frequently modified by telegraphic instructions
+from headquarters. A mistake in reading these instructions,
+which are written in pencil, often by a slovenly penman, and on
+tissue-paper, may, and occasionally does, cause a disastrous
+collision. These duties of conductors are especially characteristic
+of trains that must keep out of the way of passenger trains, so
+that in this particular line it will be seen that the passenger
+conductor has much the easier berth. The freight and "work-train"
+conductor must really be a better calculator, in many ways, than
+the wearer of gilt badges and buttons, though the latter receives
+the higher pay.
+
+The _bête noire_ of the freight conductor is an investigation
+at headquarters concerning delinquencies in which the blame is
+divided. A typical case of this kind is that of a freight train
+which has stopped at some unusual place and been run into by a
+following train, doing some hundreds of dollars damage, if not
+killing or injuring persons. "Strict adherence to rules will avert
+all such accidents," the code says; but they do happen, and the
+inquiry as to whether the conductor used due diligence in sending a
+man with a red flag to warn the oncoming train, or the engineer of
+the latter was heedless, or what was the trouble, is the occasion
+of much anxiety.
+
+Conductors, concerning whose life I have only noted a few of
+the duties and perplexities, are not so much subject to the
+vicissitudes of cold and wet weather, and therefore have in many
+respects better opportunities than the brakemen to avail themselves
+of the enjoyments of a trainman's life. The risk to life and limb
+from coupling cars, etc., is also somewhat less, though many a
+faithful conductor has lost his life in the performance of a
+dangerous duty which he had assumed out of generous consideration
+for an inexperienced or overworked subordinate. The beneficial
+influences on health, mind, and morals coming from contact with
+nature are, as before remarked, largely unconscious influences,
+because of the counteracting effect of the immediate surroundings.
+The irregular hours are unfavorable to health. The crews run in
+turn; if there are forty crews and forty trains daily, each crew
+will start out at about the same hour each day. But if on Monday
+there are forty trains, on Tuesday thirty, and on Wednesday fifty,
+it will be seen that the starting time must be very irregular.
+Ten of the crews which worked on Monday will have nothing to do
+on Tuesday, but on Wednesday or Thursday will have to do double
+service. The first trip will be all in the daytime, and the next
+all in the night, perhaps. This irregularity is constant, and
+it is impossible to tell on Monday morning where one will be on
+Wednesday. All the week's sleep may have to be taken in the daytime
+or all at night. There may be five days' work to do between Monday
+morning and the following Monday morning, or there may be nine.
+The trainman has to literally board in his "mammoth" dinner-pail,
+and his wife or boarding mistress knows less about his whereabouts
+than if he were on an Arctic whaling vessel.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The locomotive engineer is the popular "hero of the rail," and the
+popular estimate in this respect is substantially just. Others have
+to brave dangers and perform duties under trying circumstances; but
+the engine-runner has to ride in the most dangerous part of the
+train, take charge of a steam-boiler that may explode and blow him
+to atoms, and of machinery that may break and kill him, and try
+to keep up a vigilance which only a being more than human could
+successfully maintain. He must be a tolerably skilful machinist--he
+cannot be too good--and have nerves that will remain steady under
+the most trying circumstances. If running a fast express through
+midnight darkness over a line where a similar train has been tipped
+off a precipice (and a brother runner killed) by train-wreckers
+the night before, he must dash forward with the same confidence
+that he would feel in broad daylight on an open prairie. But he
+does not "heroically grasp the throttle" in the face of danger,
+when the throttle has been already shut, nor does he "whistle down
+brakes," in order to add a stirring element to the reporter's tale,
+when by the magic of the air-brake he can, with a turn of his hand,
+apply every brake in the train with the grip of a vise in less time
+than it would take him to reach the whistle-pull. When there is
+danger ahead there is generally just one thing to do, and that is
+to stop as soon as possible. An instant suffices for shutting off
+the steam and applying the brake. With modern trains this is all
+that is necessary or can be done. Reversing the engine is necessary
+on many engines, and formerly was on all; this would, in fact, be
+done instinctively by old runners, in any case, but this also is
+done in a second. After taking these measures there is nothing
+for the engineman to do but look out for his own safety. In some
+circumstances, as in the case of a partially burned bridge which
+may possibly support the train even in a weakened condition, it may
+be best to put on all steam. The runner is then in a dilemma, and
+a right decision is a matter of momentary inspiration. Many lives
+have been saved by quick-witted runners in such cases, but there
+is no ground for censure of the engineer who, in the excitement
+of the moment, decides to slacken instead of quicken his speed.
+The rare cases of this kind are what show the value of experience,
+and of men of the right temperament and degree of intelligence to
+acquire experience-lessons readily. The writer recalls an instance
+several years ago where an alert, steady, and experienced runner
+found himself on the crossing of another railroad with a heavy
+train rushing toward him on the transverse track at uncontrollable
+speed. It was too late to retreat, and in less than ten seconds the
+oncoming train would crash broadside into his cars, filled with
+passengers. A frantic effort to increase the speed and clear the
+crossing would have either broken the weak couplings then in use or
+would have simply whirled the driving-wheels with such excessive
+force as to slacken the speed of the train rather than accelerate
+it. In point of fact, the rear car just escaped being struck by
+the ponderous engine bearing down upon it at the rate of twenty
+or thirty feet a second; and the preservation of the lives of the
+passengers was due to the fact that the engineer was well-balanced,
+quick to act, and not excitable. What did he do? He instantly put
+on more steam, but with unerring judgment opened the valve just far
+enough and no more.
+
+But the terrible cloud constantly hanging over the engineer
+and fireman of a fast train is the chance of encountering an
+obstacle which cannot possibly be avoided, and which leaves them
+no alternative but to jump for their lives, if, indeed, it does
+not take away even that. To the fact that this cloud is no larger
+than it is, and that these men have sturdy and courageous natures,
+must be attributed the lightness with which it rests upon them. On
+one road or another, from a washout, or inefficient management,
+or a collision caused by an operator's forgetfulness, or some one
+of a score of other causes, there are constantly occurring cases
+of men heroically meeting death under the most heart-rending
+circumstances. Every month records a number of such, though happily
+they are not frequent on any one road. The case of Engineer Kennar,
+a year or more ago, is a typical one. Precipitated with his engine
+into a river by a washout which the roadmaster's vigilance had
+failed to discover, his first thought, as zealous hands tried
+to rescue him, was for the safety of his train; and, forgetting
+his own anguish, he warned those about him to attend first to
+the sending of a red lantern to warn a following train against a
+collision. The significance of facts like this is not so much in
+the service to humanity done at the time, or even in the example
+set for those who shall meet such crises in the future, but rather
+in the evidence they give of the firm and lofty conscientiousness
+that inspires the every-day conduct of thousands of engineers all
+over the land. As has already been said, the critical occasions
+on which engineers are supposed to be heroic often allow them no
+chance at all to be either heroic or cowardly, and their heroism
+must be, and is, manifested in the calm fidelity with which they,
+day after day and year after year, perform their exacting and
+often monotonous round of duties while all the time knowing of the
+possibilities before them.
+
+On the best of roads a freight train wrecked by a broken wheel
+under a borrowed car may be thrown in the path of a passenger train
+on another track, just as the latter approaches. This has happened
+more than once lately. No amount of fidelity or forethought
+(except in the maker of the wheels) can prevent this kind of
+disaster. There is constant danger, on most roads, of running off
+the track at misplaced switches, many switches being located at
+points where the runner can see them only a few seconds before he
+is upon them; but the chance is so small--perhaps one in ten or
+a hundred thousand--that the average runner forgets it, and it
+is only by severe self-discipline that he can hold himself up to
+compliance with the rule which requires him to be on the watch for
+every switch-target as long before reaching it as he possibly can.
+He finds the switches all right and the road perfectly clear so
+regularly, day after day and month after month, that he may easily
+fall into the snare of thinking that they will always be so. But,
+like other trainmen, the engineman finds enough more agreeable
+thoughts to fill his mind, and reflects upon the hazards of his
+vocation perhaps too little.
+
+[Illustration: Just Time to Jump.]
+
+The freight engineman's every-day thoughts are largely about the
+care of his engine and the perplexities incident to getting out
+of it the maximum amount of work with the minimum amount of fuel.
+The constant aim of his superiors is to have the engine draw every
+pound it possibly can. To haul a train up a long and steep grade
+when the cars are so heavily loaded that a single additional one
+would bring the whole to a dead stand-still requires a knack that
+can be appreciated only by viewing the performance on the spot.
+Failure not only wastes time and fuel (it may necessitate a return
+to the foot of the hill or going to the top with only half the
+load), but it raises a suspicion that some other runner might have
+succeeded better. The runner whose engine "lays down on the road"
+(fails to draw its load because of insufficient fire and consequent
+low steam-pressure) is liable to the jeers of his comrades on his
+return home, if not to some sharp inquiries from his superior.
+
+The passenger runner's greatest concern is to "make time." Some
+trains are scheduled so that the engineman must keep his locomotive
+up to its very highest efficiency over every furlong of its
+journey in order to arrive at his destination on time. A little
+carelessness in firing, in letting cold water into the boiler
+irregularly, or in slackening more than is necessary where the
+right to the track is in doubt for a few rods; these and a score of
+similar circumstances may make five minutes' delay in the arrival
+at the terminus and necessitate an embarrassing interview with the
+trainmaster. A trip on a crowded line may involve watching for
+danger-signals every quarter of a mile and the maintenance of such
+high speed that they must be obeyed the instant they are espied in
+order to avoid the possibility of collision.[34]
+
+The passenger runner finds himself now and then with a disabled
+engine on his hands, and two or three hundred passengers standing
+around apparently ready to eat him up if he does not remedy the
+difficulty in short order. Often in such cases he is in doubt
+himself whether the repairs necessary to enable his engine to
+proceed will occupy fifteen minutes or an hour. This, with the
+knotty question of where the nearest relief engine is, causes the
+brow to knit and the sweat to start, and to the young runner proves
+an experience which he long remembers.
+
+[Illustration: A Breakdown on the Road.]
+
+Stories of fast running are common but unreliable; and when
+truthful, important considerations are often omitted. There are
+so many elements to be considered, that usually the verdict can
+be justly rendered only after a careful comparison with previous
+records. Most regular runs include a number of stops, and are
+subject to numerous slackenings of the speed, thus dimming the
+lustre of the record of the trip as a whole. Frequently, quick
+runs which have been reported as noteworthy have had favoring
+circumstances not told of. The most remarkable single run on
+record was that of Jarrett & Palmer's special train chartered to
+carry their theatrical company from New York to San Francisco
+(Jersey City to Oakland), June 1-4, 1876, which is well known to
+all Americans. Perhaps the fastest long run ever made in this
+country was that of a special train over the West Shore Railroad
+from East Buffalo to Frankfort, N. Y., two hundred and one miles,
+on July 9, 1885, which ran this distance in four hours, including
+several stops. This train ran thirty-six miles in thirty minutes,
+and ran many single miles in forty-three seconds each. An engine
+with two cars ran over the Canada Southern Division of the Michigan
+Central from St. Clair Junction to Windsor, Ont., on November 16,
+1886, a distance of one hundred and seven miles, in ninety-seven
+minutes; and this included two or three stops. The average rate
+of speed was about sixty-nine miles an hour, and in places it
+rose to seventy-five and over. The engineers and their firemen,
+and all connected with the handling of the trains, certainly
+deserve credit for performances like these, and they receive it;
+but the supplying of the perfect machine, the smooth and safe
+roadway comparatively clear of other trains, and other conditions,
+is so manifestly beyond their control, while at the same time
+constituting such an important factor in the result, that
+praise should be given discriminatingly. An engineer who makes a
+specially quick trip feels proud of his engine, and of the honor
+of having been chosen for an important run, and he shares with the
+passengers the exhilaration produced by such a triumph of science
+and skill in annihilating space; but in the matter of credit to
+himself for experience and judgment, patience and forethought, he
+feels and knows that many a trip in his every-day service is worthy
+of greater recognition. Many a runner has to urge his engine, day
+after day, with a load twenty-five per cent. heavier than it was
+designed for, over track that is fit only for low speeds, at a
+rate which demands the most constant care. He must run fast enough
+over the better portions of the track to allow of slackening where
+prudence demands slackening. The tracks of many roads are rendered
+so uneven by the action of frost in winter that with an unskilful
+runner the passengers would be half-frightened by the unsteady
+motion of the cars. This condition is not common on the important
+trunk-lines, of course; but it does prevail on roads that carry a
+great many passengers, nevertheless; and engineers who guide trains
+over such difficult journeys, gently luring the passengers, with
+the aid of the excellent springs under the cars, into the belief
+that they are riding over a track of uniform smoothness, should not
+be forgotten in any estimate of the fraternity as a whole.
+
+[Illustration: Timely Warning.]
+
+The engineer whose humanity is not hardened has his feelings
+harrowed occasionally by pedestrians who risk their lives on the
+track. Tramps and other careless persons are so numerous that the
+casual passenger in a locomotive cab generally cannot ride fifty
+miles without seeing what seems to him a hair-breadth escape, but
+which is nevertheless treated by the engineer as a commonplace
+occurrence. These heedless wayfarers do, however, occasionally
+carry their indifference to danger too far, and they are tossed in
+the air like feathers.[35] Doubtless there are those who, like the
+fireman who talked with the tender-hearted young lady, regret the
+killing of a man chiefly "because it musses up the engine so;" but,
+taking the fraternity as a whole, warmth of heart and tenderness
+of feeling may be called not only well-developed but prominent
+traits of character. The great strike on the Chicago, Burlington &
+Quincy road in 1888, which proved to have been ill-advised, would
+have been possible only in a body of men actuated by the most
+loyal friendship. Undoubtedly a large conservative element in the
+Brotherhood of Engineers believed the move injudicious, but they
+joined in it out of an intense spirit of fidelity to their brethren
+and leaders.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: The Passenger Conductor.]
+
+The passenger-train conductor has in many respects the most
+difficult position in the railroad ranks. He should be a
+first-class freight conductor and a polished gentleman to boot. But
+in his long apprenticeship on a freight train he has very likely
+been learning how _not_ to fulfil the additional requirements of
+a passenger conductorship. In that service he could be uncouth
+and even boorish, and still fill his position tolerably well; now
+he feels the need of a life-time of tuition in dealing with the
+diverse phases of human nature met with on a passenger train. He
+must now manage his train in a sort of automatic way, for he has
+his mind filled with the care of his passengers and the collection
+of tickets. He must be good at figures, keeping accounts, and
+handling money, though the freight-train service has given him no
+experience in this line. Year by year the clerical work connected
+with the taking up of tickets and collecting of cash fares has been
+increased until now, on many roads, an expert bank clerk would
+be none too proficient for the duties imposed. The conductor who
+grumblingly averred that "it would take a Philadelphia lawyer with
+three heads" to fill his shoes was not far out of the way. Every
+day, and perhaps a number of times a day, he must collect fares of
+fifty or a hundred persons in less time than he ought to have for
+ten. Of that large number a few will generally have a complaint
+to make, or an objection to offer, or an impudent assertion
+concerning a fault of the railroad company which the conductor
+cannot remedy and is not responsible for. A woman will object to
+paying half-fare for a ten-year-old girl or to paying full rates
+for one of fifteen. A person whose income is ten times larger
+than he deserves will argue twenty minutes to avoid paying ten
+cents more (in cash) than he would have been charged for a ticket.
+Passengers with legitimate questions to ask will couch them in
+vague and backhanded terms, and those with useless ones will take
+inopportune times to propound them. These are not occasional but
+every-day experiences. The very best and most intelligent people in
+the community (excepting those who travel much) are among those who
+oftenest leave their wits at home when they take a railroad trip.
+All these people must be met in a conciliatory manner, but without
+varying the strict regulations in the least degree. The officers
+of the revenue department are inexorable masters, and passengers
+offended by alleged uncivil treatment are likely to make absurd
+complaints at the superintendent's office. A conductor dreads an
+investigation of this sort, however unreasonable the passengers'
+complaints may be, because it may tend to show that he lacked tact
+in handling the case. But after becoming habituated to this sort of
+dealings, there are still left the occasional disturbances which no
+amount of philosophy can make pleasant. These are the encounters
+with drunken and disorderly passengers. The conductor, starting
+at the forward end of his train, finds, perhaps, in the first car
+one or two "toughs" who refuse payment of fare and are spoiling
+for a fight. Care must be taken with this sort of character not to
+punish him or use the least bit of unnecessary severity, for he
+will, when sobered off, quite likely be induced by a sharp lawyer
+to sue the railroad company for damages by assault. The conductor,
+however, if he be one who has (in his freight-train experience)
+dealt with tramps, is able to cope with his customer and confine
+him to the baggage-car or put him off the train. But a tussle of
+this kind is at best far from soothing to the temper, and the very
+next car may contain the wife of a nabob, who will expect the most
+genteel treatment and critically object to any behavior on the part
+of the conductor which is not fully up to the highest drawing-room
+standard. Experiences of this kind, it can be readily imagined, are
+exceedingly trying. The conductor cannot give himself up completely
+to learning gentility, for he still has need for his old severity.
+
+The difficulty of always finding the ideal person when wanted has
+led to the employment of men of good address who have had little or
+no training on freight trains; so that we find some conductors who
+are able to deal with all sorts of passengers with a good degree
+of success, but who are far from brilliant as managers of trains,
+technically speaking; while others, who from their early experience
+have first-class executive ability, are slow in discarding the
+somewhat rough habits of the freight train. While there are not
+wanting those who strive faithfully to reach the ideal, and succeed
+admirably, it may be said that the average conductor retains
+more of the severe than of the gentle side of his character, at
+least so far as outward behavior goes. The rigid requirements of
+his financial superiors, which compel him to actually fight for
+his rights with dishonest and stingy passengers, make it almost
+impossible that he should be otherwise. Ignorant foreigners, poor
+women and girls who have lost their way, and other unfortunates
+are, however, encountered often enough to preclude the conductor's
+forgetting how to be compassionate.
+
+The heroic element is not wholly lacking in the conductor's
+life. The temporary guardianship of several hundred people is
+an important trust even in smooth sailing, but the conductor's
+possibilities are entirely different from the engineer's. He has so
+much to do to attend to the petty wants of passengers that their
+remoter but more important interests are not given much thought.
+The anxieties of a hundred nervous passengers who terribly dread
+the loss of an hour by a missed connection are much more likely to
+weigh down a conductor's mind than any thoughts of his duty to them
+in a possible emergency that will happen only once in five years.
+And yet the last-mentioned contingency is a real one. Only last
+year, in the great Eastern blizzard, conductors risked their lives
+in protecting their passengers. One spent three or four hours in
+travelling a mile and a half to a telegraph-office; in consequence
+of the six feet of snow, the blinding storm, and the darkness, he
+had to constantly hug a barbed-wire fence to avoid losing his way,
+and was on the point of exhaustion when he reached the station.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The term "station-agent" means, practically, the person in charge
+of a small or medium-sized station. When one of these men is
+promoted to the charge of a large city station, either freight or
+passenger, he becomes really a local superintendent, his duties
+then consisting very largely in the supervision of an army of
+clerks and laborers who must, each in his place, be as capable
+as the agent himself. The agent at a small station has a great
+multiplicity of duties to perform. He must sell tickets, be a good
+book-keeper, and a faithful switch-tender. He generally must be
+a telegraph-operator and must be vigorous physically. He must be
+ready, like the conductor, to submit to some abuse from ill-bred
+customers, and should be the peer of the business men of his town.
+He often encounters almost as great a variety of knotty problems
+as the superintendent himself, though he has the advantage that
+he can generally turn them over to a superior if he feels unequal
+to them. The practical difficulties that most beset him are those
+incident to doing everything in a hurry. People who buy tickets
+wait until the train is about to start before presenting themselves
+at the office. Then the agent has a dozen other things to attend
+to, and must therefore detect counterfeit ten-dollar bills with
+the expertness of a Washington treasury-clerk. Just as a train
+reaches his station the train despatcher's click is heard on the
+wires, and he must drop everything and receive (for the conductor)
+a telegram in which an error of a single word would very likely
+involve the lives of passengers. At a very small station the
+checking of baggage devolves on the agent, his overburdened back
+being thus loaded with one more straw. He is in many cases agent
+for the express company, and so must count, seal, superscribe, and
+way-bill money packages and handle oyster-kegs and barrels of beer
+at a moment's notice. Women with wagon-loads of loose household
+effects to go by freight, and shippers of car-loads of cattle, for
+which a car must be specially fitted up, will appear just as the
+distracted station-man is receiving a telegram with one side of
+his brain and selling a ticket with the other. The household goods
+must be weighed and tagged, the sewing-machine tied up, and tables
+repaired; the cattle-shipper must be given a short lecture on the
+legal bearings of the bargain for transportation which he is about
+to make, and his demand that his live-stock shall be carried 500
+miles more quickly than human animals are taken over the same road
+is to be gently repressed. It is not every day that a small station
+is enlivened by this sort of excitement, yet it is common, and is
+familiar to every station agent. The variety in the duties of this
+position is, however, a great advantage to the ambitious young
+man, because it serves to give him a good lift toward a valuable
+business education. He can learn about the methods and knacks and
+tricks of many different kinds of business, and can profit by
+the knowledge thus gained. Thomas J. Potter, the lately deceased
+vice-president of the Union Pacific Railway, whose memory it is
+proposed to perpetuate by a bronze statue, began his railroad
+career as agent at a small station in Iowa. Others of equal ability
+and perfection of character have risen from similar places and by
+the same means.
+
+[Illustration: In the Waiting Room of a Country Station.]
+
+The agent at a small station catches his breath between trains.
+There is then generally ample time for calming the nerves and
+preparing for the next onslaught. If he is a telegraph-operator he
+can chat with the operators at other stations--a common resource
+if the wires are not occupied with more important affairs. In the
+class periodicals of operators and railroad men, reference to
+this phase of their life may be constantly seen, and incidents
+of even romantic interest are not infrequent. Many of the men at
+small stations are young and unmarried, while at places where the
+business has increased enough to warrant the employment of an
+assistant, a young woman to do the telegraphing is frequently the
+first helper engaged. With this combination it is unnecessary to
+tell what follows. If iron bars and stone walls are things which
+Cupid holds in contempt, an electric telegraph wire is the thing
+which makes him "snicker right out," if we may use the language
+of the circus ring. A distance of 100 miles, instead of being a
+barrier, is, under these circumstances, an advantage. There is,
+to be sure, a slight disadvantage in the fact that any tender
+communication confided to the wires will be liable to fall on
+the ears of unfeeling persons at intermediate offices, but the
+overcoming of this obstacle provides the agreeable incidental
+excitement which is always necessary in genuine love-making. Young
+persons (or old, either) can study each other's characters, in
+important phases at least, at a distance better than at short
+range. The telegraphic mode of sending communications discloses
+one's disposition far better than does handwriting. Working on
+the same wire with another for a few months enables one to form
+judgments of that other's generosity or narrowness, serenity or
+excitability, industry or laziness, refinement or boorishness,
+kindliness of heart or otherwise, which are quite sure to be
+correct judgments. Judgments ripen into attachments, and romances
+of the wire are common.
+
+At the railroad station next larger in size, the work is more
+divided. One man sells tickets, another attends to the freight
+office, another to the baggage, and so on. The ticket-seller must
+make five-cent bargains with the same urbanity that is given to a
+$100 trade, and must be able to toss off the latter in two minutes
+if occasion requires, or to spend an hour in helping the passenger
+choose the best route among a score of possible ones. The fusillade
+of questions that must be met by the ticket-seller every time he
+opens his window is familiar to everyone who has ever watched a
+place of the kind for ten minutes. The inexperienced traveller
+wants to be fully posted as to the exact hour of departure of a
+tri-weekly stage with which he is to connect at a railroad station
+a thousand miles away, and the more intelligent ones demand an
+oral time-table covering the trains for the ensuing week on all
+railroads within a radius of 50 miles. Those who cannot read or
+understand the time-tables are too modest to ask aid, and their
+misfortune is disclosed only after their train has gone and they
+are found in tears; while those who can read the table ignore it
+and ask questions simply to be sociable.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: The Trials of a Baggage-master.]
+
+[Illustration: Station Gardening.]
+
+The station baggage-master has an important but rather thankless
+place. He must handle 200-pound trunks with as much ease as though
+they contained feathers, and, if he break a moulding off one,
+must meet the reproaches of the owner, who imagines that the time
+available for handling the trunk was five minutes instead of two
+seconds. He must handle much dirty and otherwise unpleasant stuff,
+and on the whole pursue a very unpoetic life. He has little to
+do with train-handling, but he "keeps in with" the trainmen and
+furnishes them with a share of their entertainment. They lounge
+in his room sometimes and he keeps on tap a supply of jokes such
+as that about the new brakeman who sent to headquarters for a
+supply of red oil for his red lantern, and the engineer who lost
+time with an excursion train on the Fourth of July because the
+extremely hot weather had elongated the rails and thus materially
+increased the distance to be travelled over. When "hot boxes"
+(friction-heated axles) are given as the cause of a delay the
+real cause of which is concealed (by the conductor who is ashamed
+of it), the baggage-master gently punctures the deception by
+suggesting that perhaps a hot _fire_-box (in the engine) is what
+is meant. Whether the roguish clerk of an inexperienced general
+manager, who slyly induced his chief to issue an order to station
+agents directing that "all freight cars standing for any length of
+time on side tracks must be occasionally moved a short distance in
+order to prevent flattening of the wheels," had formerly been a
+baggage-master, history does not state.
+
+[Illustration: In the Yard at Night.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The switch-tender, whose momentary carelessness has many a
+time caused terrible disaster, but whose constant faithfulness
+outweighs a million-fold even that painful record, is one of the
+essential figures around a station. Nothing but eternal vigilance
+will suffice to keep switches always in safe position, and the
+conscientious custodian of these always possible death-traps
+often takes his burden of care to his pillow. The mishaps which
+do occur strikingly illustrate the practical impossibility of
+holding the human brain always to the highest pitch. A conductor
+in New Jersey (trainmen have to set switches at many places where
+no switchmen are employed) recently caused a slight collision by
+misplacing a switch, and on seeing the consequences exclaimed, "I
+deserve to be discharged; my mistake was inexcusable." And yet an
+honest man of that type is the kind demanded for such a place. The
+interlocking of switches and signals (the arrangement in a frame
+of the levers moving the switches and those moving signals in such
+a way that the signal which tells the engineer to come on _cannot
+be given_ until the switch is actually in proper position) is one
+of the notable improvements of the last twenty years, and is a
+great boon to switchmen, as well as to passengers and the owners
+of railroads.[36] By the aid of this apparatus and its distant
+signals, connected by wire ropes, the switchman's anxieties are
+reduced immeasurably. By concentrating the levers of a number of
+switches in a single room one man can do the work of several, and
+to the looker-on the perplexities of the position seem to have been
+increased instead of diminished. But the switchman's task now is
+of a different sort. Under the old plan he was constantly on guard
+lest he make a mistake and throw an engine or car off the track.
+Under the new, his calculations are chiefly about saving time and
+facilitating the work of the trainmen. Questions of danger rarely
+come up, being provided against by the perfection of the machinery.
+By long familiarity with the ground and the ways of handling the
+trains, the switch-tender in an "interlocking tower" is enabled to
+safely conduct a score of trains through a labyrinth of switches
+in the time that the novice would take to make the first move for
+a single train. Without this admirable apparatus, and skilful and
+experienced attendants, the business of great stations like the
+Grand Central at New York would be impossible in the space allowed.
+
+[Illustration: A Track-walker on a Stormy Night.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+One of the habitués of every station is the section-master, who
+looks after three, five, or ten miles of track and a gang of from
+five to twenty-five men who keep it in repair. He is not much
+seen, because he is out on the road most of the time; and his
+duties are not of a kind that the reader could study, on paper,
+to much advantage; but he deserves mention because his place is
+a really important one. Railroad tracks cannot be made, like a
+bridge, five times as strong as is necessary, and thus a large
+margin be allowed for deterioration; they must be constantly
+watched to see that they do not fall even a little below their
+highest standard. This care-taking can be intrusted only to one who
+has had long experience at the work. In violent rain-storms the
+trackman must be on duty night and day and patrol the whole length
+of his division to see that gravel is not washed over the track or
+out from under it. Though roughly dressed and sunburnt, he is an
+important personage in the eye of the engineer of a fast express
+train, and if he be the least bit negligent, even to the extent of
+letting a few rails get a quarter of an inch lower than they ought
+to, he hears a prompt appeal from the engine-runner. The latter
+could not feel the confidence necessary to guide his 50-ton giant
+over the road at lightning speed with its precious human freight if
+he had not a trusty trackman every few miles; and passengers who
+feel like expressing gratitude for a safe railroad journey should
+never forget this unseen guardian.
+
+A number of classes of men in the railroad service must be turned
+off with a word for lack of space. The train despatcher, with
+his constant burden of care, deserves a chapter. The locomotive
+fireman, who has not been directly alluded to, is practically an
+apprentice to the engineer, and, like apprentices in some other
+callings, has a good deal of hard work to do. He generally has
+longer hours than the engineer, as he has to clean a portion of
+the polished brass- and iron-work of the engine. He has to throw
+into the fire-box several tons of coal a day, and gets so black
+that his best friends would not know him when washed up. Those who
+begin young and are intelligent, and conserve their strength, are
+at length promoted to be engineers. The fireman's twin brother is
+the "hostler," who is employed at the larger termini to get the
+iron horse out of its stable, lead it to the watering place and
+feed-trough (coal-bin), and harness it to the train.
+
+The clerk in the freight office has almost as much variety of work
+as the ticket-seller, and is by no means a mere book-keeper. The
+workmen at the freight station are not common laborers. Their work
+requires peculiar skill and experience, and they have diversions
+worth telling of, if there were space. The men in the shops, and
+those who go out with derricks and chains to pick up wrecks, are an
+important class by themselves, and bridge-builders, gate-tenders,
+and various others bring up the rear.
+
+[Illustration: A Crossing Flagman.]
+
+In conclusion, railroad men as a body are industrious, sober when
+at work, and lively when at play, using well-trained minds, in
+their sphere, and possessing capacity for a high degree of further
+training. The public is not without its duty toward the million
+or so of men in the railroad service. The liability to death or
+maiming from accident is such a real factor in railroad men's
+lives that the public, and especially shareholders in railroads,
+are bound to not only uphold officers in providing every possible
+appliance and regulation for safety, but to demand the introduction
+of such devices. Some of the State railroad commissioners have
+done and are doing noble service in this direction, and should be
+vigorously supported by their constituencies. The demands of the
+public, re-enforced by the exigencies of competition, have made
+Sunday trains in many localities almost as common as on week-days,
+so that many train and station men work seven days in the week.
+In addition to this, holidays oftener increase their work than
+diminish it, so that there is room for a considerable reform in
+this regard.
+
+[Illustration: A Little Relaxation.]
+
+The general moral welfare of railroad men has received much
+attention in late years, and affords a wide field for work by all
+who will. Many railroads have co-operated with the Young Men's
+Christian Association branches, started by a few of the employees,
+in building and equipping reading-rooms, libraries, etc., and the
+companies give many hundred dollars annually toward the support of
+these resorts, which serve to keep many a young trainman away from
+loafing places of a questionable character or worse. Mr. Cornelius
+Vanderbilt, whose millions came largely out of the profits of the
+New York Central & Hudson River Railroad, has set a good example
+to other railroad millionaires in the erection of a building for
+the employees of that road in New York City, whose luxuriousness
+is an evidence that he loves his neighbor as himself, even if
+that neighbor be a plain brakeman earning but low wages. That the
+resorts provided for railroad men are appreciated is evidenced by
+their records. Of the trainmen who regularly come into the Grand
+Central Station in New York, 46 per cent. are members of the
+Association occupying the building given by Mr. Vanderbilt, and 65
+per cent. make use of the rooms more or less regularly. Rooms in
+numerous other cities also make encouraging showings.
+
+Railroad officers, with their great advantages for enlightenment,
+owe it to themselves and their men to see that the thousands under
+them have fair opportunities for rising in the world, and that the
+owners of the immense corporations which stand as masters of such
+vast armies fully understand their measure of responsibility in the
+premises. Science and invention, machinery and improved methods,
+have effected great changes in the railroad art, but the American
+nation, which travels more than any other, still recognizes the
+fact that faithful and efficient _men_ are an essential factor
+in the prosecution of that art. People desire to deal with a
+personality, and therefore wish to see the _personnel_ of the
+railroad service fostered and perfected.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[33] See "Safety in Railroad Travel," page 222.
+
+[34] The New York elevated roads run 3,500 trains a day, each
+one passing signals (likely to indicate danger) every hundred
+rods, almost. Who can expect engineers never to blunder in such
+innumerable operations?
+
+[35] Mr. Porter King, of Springfield, Mass., who has run an engine
+on the Boston & Albany road for forty-five years, and who served on
+the Mohawk & Hudson, the Long Island, and the New Jersey Railroads
+in 1833-44, when horses were the motive power and the reverse lever
+consisted of a pair of reins, ran until December, 1887, before his
+engine ever killed a person.
+
+[36] See "Safety in Railroad Travel," page 204.
+
+
+
+
+STATISTICAL RAILWAY STUDIES.[37]
+
+BY FLETCHER W. HEWES.
+
+  Railway Mileage of the World--Railway Mileage of the United
+  States--Annual Mileage and Increase--Mileage Compared with
+  Area--Geographical Location of Railways--Centres of Mileage
+  and of Population--Railway Systems--Trunk Lines Compared:
+  By Mileage; Largest Receipts; Largest Net Results--Freight
+  Traffic--Reduction of Freight Rates--Wheat Rates--The Freight
+  Haul--Empty Freight Trains--Freight Profits--Passenger
+  Traffic--Passenger Rates--Passenger Travel--Passenger
+  Profits--General Considerations--Dividends--Net Earnings per
+  Mile and Railway Building--Ratios of Increase--Construction and
+  Maintenance--Employees and their Wages--Rolling Stock--Capital
+  Invested.
+
+
+Although the United States was the second nation to open a line of
+railway, it operates to-day nearly half the mileage of the world,
+and it has so many miles of double, triple, and quadruple track
+that, were the data of trackage available, such a comparison would
+undoubtedly show it to more than equal all the rest of the world
+combined.
+
+Below is given a chart comparing the mileage of the principal
+railway countries. The list contains all countries having a mileage
+of over ten thousand kilometers.
+
+  Principal Railway Countries, 1887.
+  +-------------+-------+
+  | Countries.  |Kilo-  |
+  |             |meters.|
+  +-------------+-------+   25,000 Kilometers
+  |Italy        | 11,759|»»  |  50,000
+  |Australia    | 15,297|»»» |    |  75,000
+  |Canada       | 19,883|»»»»|    |    | 100,000
+  |British India| 22,665|»»»»|    |    |    | 125,000
+  |Austria-     |       |    |    |    |    |    | 150,000
+  |  Hungary    | 24,432|»»»»|    |    |    |    |    | 175,000
+  |Russia       | 28,517|»»»»|»   |    |    |    |    |    | 200,000
+  |France       | 31,208|»»»»|»»  |    |    |    |    |    |    | 225,000
+  |Great Britain| 31,521|»»»»|»»  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |250,000
+  |Germany      | 39,785|»»»»|»»» |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  |United States|241,210|»»»»|»»»»|»»»»|»»»»|»»»»|»»»»|»»»»|»»»»|»»»»|»»» |
+  +-------------+-------+
+
+The most prominent fact is impressed by the very long line
+representing the mileage of the United States. A second impressive
+fact is that the United States has more than six times the mileage
+of any other country. A third, that there are but five other
+countries that have even a tenth as much railway.
+
+
+RAILWAY MILEAGE OF THE UNITED STATES.
+
+_Total Annual Mileage and Increase._--On page 429 is given a
+chart which, beginning with the 23 miles of 1830 and ending with
+the 156,082 miles of 1888, delineates our ever-increasing total
+mileage. It also portrays the fluctuations in the number of
+miles built annually. This latter study is the more interesting,
+especially during the last twenty-five years, which cover the
+periods of extreme activity.
+
+_Mileage Compared with Area._--The shaded map on the same page
+pictures the railway mileage of each State as compared with its
+total area. The eleven States bearing the deepest shade (5) are
+those having the larger proportions of mileage to area. Of these,
+New Jersey stands first, having almost exactly one-fourth of a
+mile of railroad for each square mile of land. The proportion of
+total area occupied by this mileage is measured to the eye by the
+accompanying diagram.
+
+[Illustration: Mileage to Area in New Jersey.]
+
+The entire square stands for one square mile of land, and the space
+at the upper left-hand corner stands for that part of the square
+mile which the railroad occupies, counting from fence to fence
+on each side of the road. This comparison is made on the basis
+of one hundred feet for the "right of way" (the width allowed in
+government grants), and is useful in connection with the study of
+the historical maps, especially those of 1880 and 1889, on which
+the area of some of the States seems to be nearly all taken up with
+roads, owing to the small scale of the maps. Iowa has the smallest
+proportion of any in Group 5. The figures show her proportion to
+be a little over one-seventh of a mile of road to one square mile
+of area. (Nevada has the smallest proportion of all the States and
+Territories, viz., a trifle over 1/117 of a mile of line to one
+square mile.)
+
+That part of the map bearing the deepest shade shows at a glance
+that an unbroken belt, averaging some two hundred miles wide,
+stretching from Cape Cod to beyond the Mississippi River, is that
+part of the country best supplied with railways.
+
+The lighter shades grouped on either side of this belt show how the
+mileage grades away north and south.
+
+
+GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF RAILWAYS.
+
+On pages 430 to 433 is a series of historical maps showing the
+location of railway lines at each census-year from 1830 to 1880,
+and in 1889. Charts comparing and ranking the mileage by States
+accompany the maps of 1870, 1880, and 1889. These maps and charts
+give a better idea of the location and extent of progress than
+could be given by a dozen pages of description and a hundred
+columns of figures.
+
+_Centre of Mileage and of Population._--The space for notes on the
+maps permits the bare mention of the meaning of the series of stars
+in the 1889 map (page 433), which mark the centres of mileage and
+of population. It is well to state the manner of determining the
+centres of mileage, that it may have its proper bearing in any
+study of the subject into which the showing may enter.
+
+The locations are necessarily approximate. Each centre was
+determined by selecting, on the proper map, a line running east and
+west which seemed, to the eye, to nearly divide the mileage into
+equal parts. The sum of the mileage of the States north, was then
+compared with that of the States south of the line. By this means
+the position of the line chosen by the eye was corrected and the
+right parallel determined. The meridian dividing the total mileage
+into equal parts was ascertained in like manner. The point of
+intersection of the parallel and meridian is marked in the map by a
+star, having the proper date printed to the right of it.
+
+The upper series of stars locates the centres of railway mileage,
+and the lower series the centres of population, as given by the
+returns of the census of 1880.
+
+The following table describes the several locations thus
+ascertained:
+
+_Centres of Railway Mileage._
+
+  -----+----------+----------+--------------------------------------------
+  Date.| Latitude.|Longitude.|    Approximate location by towns.
+  -----+----------+----------+--------------------------------------------
+  1840 |40° 50′ N.|76° 10′ W.|Twenty miles west of Mauch Chunk, Pa.
+  1850 |41° 30′ N.|77° 27′ W.|Twenty-five miles northwest of Williamsport,
+       |          |          |   Lycoming County, Pa.
+  1860 |40° 40′ N.|82° 30′ W.|Ten miles south of Mansfield, O.
+  1870 |41° 10′ N.|84° 35′ W.|Paulding, Paulding County, O.
+  1880 |41° 05′ N.|86° 50′ W.|Thirty miles northwest of Logansport, Ind.
+  1888 |39° 50′ N.|88° 40′ W.|Pontiac, Ill., about ninety miles S. S. W.
+       |          |          |   of Chicago.
+  -----+----------+----------+--------------------------------------------
+
+The remarkable movement of the centre of mileage from 1850 to
+1860 is easily understood when one turns to the maps of those
+dates (page 430) and locates the fields of activity. The wonderful
+increase in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa gave the
+Western impulse, while the growth in Tennessee and the States south
+of it furnishes the principal explanation of the southerly motion.
+
+Although the study of this period is the most interesting of the
+series, in the space passed over, yet each period has its points of
+special interest, which the reader will easily solve by referring
+to the proper maps on pages 430 to 433.
+
+_Railway Systems._--The consolidation of separate lines under
+central controlling interests has resulted in several "systems" of
+great extent. Five such are mapped on pages 434 and 435. The roads
+controlled by them are printed in broad lines, while all others
+are printed in narrow lines. It needs but a glance to see whether
+any of them has so far absorbed the roads of a given region as to
+be able to control rates. The systems selected are believed to be
+representative ones, and the mapping of a dozen others would not
+tell the story any more plainly.
+
+
+TRUNK LINES COMPARED.
+
+_Compared by Mileage._--At present there are twenty-four
+corporations reporting over one thousand miles of line each. A
+comparison of these roads by mileage is profitless, as it furnishes
+no just clew to their importance in point of business transacted.
+Several of the shorter of these twenty-four lines largely exceed
+some of the longer ones in the volume of business transacted. As
+an example of the little value of comparison by mileage, the New
+York Central & Hudson River Road, with but 1,421 miles of line,
+reports $63,132,920 receipts, while the Union Pacific, with 6,288
+miles, reports but $19,898,817. Two of the twenty-four roads, viz.,
+the Southern Pacific Railroad (5,931 miles) and the Richmond, West
+Point & Terminal Railroad (6,869 miles) report neither gross or net
+earnings. The remaining twenty-two report both, and these reports
+furnish a satisfactory basis for study.
+
+
+[Illustration: Railway Mileage of the United States.
+
+  Compared with Area, 1888.
+
+  =Explanatory.=--The horizontal black lines below interpret the
+  right-hand column of figures, and therefore picture the annual
+  total mileage of railways operated.--The color below interprets
+  the left-hand column, and therefore pictures the fluctuations in
+  the number of miles built annually.
+
+  The =Key= explains the shades on the map. The lightest shade
+  indicates an average of less than one-fiftieth of a mile of
+  railway for each square mile of land. The second shade, from
+  one-fiftieth to one-twentieth of a mile of railway, for each
+  square mile of land, etc.
+
+  KEY TO SHADES
+  ON THE MAP.
+
+  Less than 1/50 m. to 1 sq. m.   =1=
+  1/50 m. - 1/20 m.  " "  "  "    =2=
+  1/20 m. - 1/15 m.  " "  "  "    =3=
+  1/15 m. - 1/8  m.  " "  "  "    =4=
+  1/8  m.  and over, per  "  "    =5= ]
+
+  Total and Increase.
+
+  +------+------------------+
+  |      |      Miles.      |
+  | Years+--------+---------+
+  |      | Built  | Operated|
+  +------+--------+---------+
+  | 1830 |     -- |      23 |
+  | 1831 |     72 |      95 |
+  | 1832 |    134 |     229 |
+  | 1833 |    151 |     380 |
+  | 1834 |    253 |     633 |
+  | 1835 |    465 |   1,098 |
+  | 1836 |    175 |   1,273 |
+  | 1837 |    224 |   1,497 |
+  | 1838 |    416 |   1,913 |
+  | 1839 |    389 |   2,302 |
+  | 1840 |    516 |   2,818 |
+  | 1841 |    717 |   3,535 |
+  | 1842 |    491 |   4,026 |
+  | 1843 |    159 |   4,185 |
+  | 1844 |    192 |   4,377 |
+  | 1845 |    256 |   4,633 |
+  | 1846 |    297 |   4,930 |
+  | 1847 |    668 |   5,598 |
+  | 1848 |    398 |   5,996 |
+  | 1849 |  1,369 |   7,365 |
+  | 1850 |  1,656 |   9,021 |
+  | 1851 |  1,961 |  10,982 |
+  | 1852 |  1,926 |  12,908 |
+  | 1853 |  2,452 |  15,360 |
+  | 1854 |  1,360 |  16,720 |
+  | 1855 |  1,654 |  18,374 |
+  | 1856 |  3,642 |  22,016 |
+  | 1857 |  2,487 |  24,503 |
+  | 1858 |  2,465 |  26,963 |
+  | 1859 |  1,821 |  28,789 |
+  | 1860 |  1,846 |  30,635 |
+  | 1861 |    651 |  31,286 |
+  | 1862 |    834 |  32,120 |
+  | 1863 |  1,050 |  33,170 |
+  | 1864 |    738 |  33,908 |
+  | 1865 |  1,177 |  35,085 |
+  | 1866 |  1,716 |  36,801 |
+  | 1867 |  2,249 |  39,250 |
+  | 1868 |  2,979 |  42,229 |
+  | 1869 |  4,615 |  46,844 |
+  | 1870 |  6,070 |  52,914 |
+  | 1871 |  7,379 |  60,293 |
+  | 1872 |  5,878 |  66,171 |
+  | 1873 |  4,097 |  70,268 |
+  | 1874 |  2,117 |  72,385 |
+  | 1875 |  1,711 |  74,096 |
+  | 1876 |  2,712 |  76,808 |
+  | 1877 |  2,280 |  79,088 |
+  | 1878 |  2,679 |  81,767 |
+  | 1879 |  4,817 |  86,584 |
+  | 1880 |  6,712 |  93,296 |
+  | 1881 |  9,847 | 103,143 |
+  | 1882 | 11,569 | 114,712 |
+  | 1883 |  6,743 | 121,455 |
+  | 1884 |  3,924 | 125,379 |
+  | 1885 |  2,930 | 128,309 |
+  | 1886 |  8,100 | 136,409 |
+  | 1887 | 12,872 | 149,281 |
+  | 1888 |  6,801 | 156,082 |
+  +------+--------+---------+
+
+
+[Illustration: Railways in the United States, 1830-1860.
+
+(From Scribner's Statistical Atlas.)
+
+  =Note.=--These maps are reductions of larger maps referred to
+  in the titles. This makes it possible to bring them within
+  very convenient space for comparison, and compensates for any
+  indistinctness of lettering in the maps.
+
+  The railways of 1830 are pointed out by red arrows. Those of the
+  other maps are easily seen. The growth by decades is thus quickly
+  located. In 1840, one continuous line stretched from New York
+  to Washington, D. C. Another considerable line was that from
+  Fredericksburg, Va., to Wilmington, N. C. In 1850, one could not
+  go by direct railway from New York to either Albany or Boston. In
+  1860, several direct routes stretched from New York to far west
+  of the Mississippi.
+
+  _=Note.=_--In 1860 there was also in California, a railway from
+  Sacramento to Folsom City (22 miles).]
+
+
+[Illustration: Railways in the United States. 1870
+
+(From Scribner's Statistical Atlas.)
+
+  Railway Mileage by States, 1870.
+
+  +----+--------+-------+
+  |Rank| State  | Miles |
+  +----+--------+-------+
+  | 41 | Dak.   |    65 |»
+  | 40 | R.I.   |   136 |»
+  | 39 | Colo.  |   157 |»»
+  | 38 | Oreg.  |   159 |»»
+  | 37 | Del.   |   197 |»»
+  | 36 | Ark.   |   256 |»»»
+  | 35 | Utah   |   257 |»»»
+  | 34 | W. Va. |   387 |»»»»   1,000 Miles
+  | 33 | Fla.   |   446 |»»»»    |
+  | 32 | La.    |   450 |»»»»    |
+  | 31 | Wyo.   |   459 |»»»»    |
+  | 30 | Nev.   |   593 |»»»»»   |
+  | 29 | Vt.    |   614 |»»»»»   |
+  | 28 | *Md.   |   671 |»»»»»»  |
+  | 27 | Nebr.  |   705 |»»»»»»» |
+  | 26 | Tex.   |   711 |»»»»»»» |       2,000
+  | 25 | N.H.   |   736 |»»»»»»» |        |
+  | 24 | Conn.  |   742 |»»»»»»» |        |
+  | 23 | Me.    |   786 |»»»»»»» |        |       3,000
+  | 22 | Cal.   |   925 |»»»»»»»»|        |        |
+  | 21 | Miss.  |   990 |»»»»»»»»|        |        |
+  | 20 | Ky.    | 1,017 |»»»»»»»»|        |        |
+  | 19 | Minn.  | 1,092 |»»»»»»»»|»       |        |
+  | 18 | N.J.   | 1,125 |»»»»»»»»|»       |        |       4,000
+  | 17 | S.C.   | 1,139 |»»»»»»»»|»       |        |        |
+  | 16 | Ala.   | 1,157 |»»»»»»»»|»»      |        |        |
+  | 15 | N.C.   | 1,178 |»»»»»»»»|»»      |        |        |
+  | 14 | Mass.  | 1,480 |»»»»»»»»|»»»     |        |        |      5,000
+  | 13 | Va.    | 1,488 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»    |        |        |        |
+  | 12 | Tenn.  | 1,492 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»    |        |        |        |
+  | 11 | Kans.  | 1,501 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»    |        |        |        |
+  | 10 | Wis.   | 1,525 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»   |        |        |        |
+  |  9 | Mich.  | 1,638 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»  |        |        |        |
+  |  8 | Ga.    | 1,845 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»» |        |        |        |
+  |  7 | Mo.    | 2,000 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»» |        |        |        |
+  |  6 | Iowa   | 2,683 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»  |        |        |
+  |  5 | Ind.   | 3,177 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»      |        |
+  |  4 | Ohio   | 3,538 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»   |        |
+  |  3 | N.Y.   | 3,924 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»» |        |
+  |  2 | Pa.    | 4,658 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»  |
+  |  1 | Ill.   | 4,823 |»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»» |
+  +----+--------+-------+        |        |        |        |        |
+
+  * Includes District of Columbia.
+
+  In 1850 Chicago had one short road. In 1860 she had several main
+  lines, reaching hundreds of miles.--east, west, north, and south.
+  In 1850, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois were open fields. In 1860
+  they were crossed and recrossed many times A similar change had
+  taken place in the south east. The 1860 map marks the condition
+  at the breaking out of the Civil War.--In 1870 there does not
+  appear to have been much change except in the north-west, and the
+  completion of the first Pacific line, and yet there were 22,296
+  more miles than in 1860, nearly 700 miles more than the 1850-1860
+  growth, but being spread over a wider area it does not appear
+  as clearly. A little careful study shows that many States had
+  added considerably to their mileage.--The names in the maps are
+  given mainly to mark terminal points.--While the map locates the
+  mileage, the chart at the left accurately measures and compares
+  it State by State.
+
+  Before turning to the 1880 map, let the eye go carefully over the
+  1870 lines, that the comparison may be the more properly made.]
+
+
+[Illustration: Railways in the United States. 1880
+
+(From Scribner's Statistical Atlas.)
+
+  Railway Mileage by States, 1880.
+
+  +----+-------+-------+
+  |Rank| State | Miles |
+  +----+-------+-------+
+  | 47 | Mont. |   106 |»
+  | 46 | Ida.  |   206 |»
+  | 45 | R.I.  |   210 |»
+  | 44 | Del.  |   275 |»»
+  | 43 | Wash. |   289 |»»
+  | 42 | I. T. |   289 |»»
+  | 41 | Ariz. |   349 |»»
+  | 40 | Oreg. |   508 |»»»
+  | 39 | Wyo.  |   512 |»»»
+  | 38 | Fla.  |   518 |»»»
+  | 37 | La.   |   652 |»»»»
+  | 36 | W. Va.|   691 |»»»»
+  | 35 | Nev.  |   739 |»»»»
+  | 34 | N.Mex.|   758 |»»»»
+  | 33 | Utah  |   842 |»»»»»
+  | 32 | Ark.  |   859 |»»»»»
+  | 31 | Vt.   |   914 |»»»»»
+  | 30 | Conn. |   923 |»»»»»
+  | 29 | Me.   | 1,005 |»»»»»»
+  | 28 | N.H.  | 1,015 |»»»»»»  2,000 Miles
+  | 27 |*Md.   | 1,040 |»»»»»»   |
+  | 26 | Miss. | 1,127 |»»»»»»   |
+  | 25 | Dak.  | 1,225 |»»»»»»   |
+  | 24 | S.C.  | 1,427 |»»»»»»»  |
+  | 23 | N.C.  | 1,486 |»»»»»»»  |
+  | 22 | Ky.   | 1,530 |»»»»»»»  |
+  | 21 | Colo. | 1,570 |»»»»»»»  |
+  | 20 | N.J.  | 1,684 |»»»»»»»» |
+  | 19 | Tenn. | 1,843 |»»»»»»»» |
+  | 18 | Ala.  | 1,843 |»»»»»»»» |
+  | 17 | Va.   | 1,893 |»»»»»»»»»|
+  | 16 | Mass. | 1,915 |»»»»»»»»»|       4,000
+  | 15 | Nebr. | 1,953 |»»»»»»»»»|         |
+  | 14 | Cal.  | 2,195 |»»»»»»»»»|»        |
+  | 13 | Ga.   | 2,459 |»»»»»»»»»|»»       |
+  | 12 | Minn. | 3,151 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»     |
+  | 11 | Wis.  | 3,155 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»     |
+  | 10 | Tex.  | 3,244 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»    |
+  |  9 | Kans. | 3,400 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»   |
+  |  8 | Mich. | 3,938 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|       6,000
+  |  7 | Mo.   | 3,965 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|         |
+  |  6 | Ind.  | 4,373 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»       |       8,000
+  |  5 | Iowa  | 5,400 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»     |         |
+  |  4 | Ohio  | 5,792 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»   |         |    10,000
+  |  3 | N.Y.  | 5,991 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»» |         |         |
+  |  2 | Pa.   | 6,191 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»        |         |
+  |  1 | Ill.  | 7,851 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»» |         |
+  +----+-------+-------+         |         |         |         |         |
+
+  * Includes District of Columbia.
+
+  It is difficult to believe that so many roads could have been
+  added in ten years. All the 1870 area north of the Ohio River
+  seems crowded at nearly every point, and the network of advance
+  westward, in the States of Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas,
+  Nebraska, and Dakota, is equally surprising. The growth in Texas
+  was also very large, and many new lines appear in other Southern
+  States. The total increase of the ten years was over forty
+  thousand miles (40,374).
+
+  It would not seem possible that this rate of building could be
+  longer maintained, and yet the 1889 map shows a still greater
+  growth. At the close of 1888 (only eight years), the increase was
+  62,785 miles.]
+
+
+[Illustration: Railways in the United States, 1889
+
+(From the "Scribner-Black Atlas of the World.")
+
+  Railway Mileage by States,
+  Dec. 31, 1888.
+
+  +----+-------+-------+
+  |R'k |States | Miles |
+  +----+-------+-------+
+  | 48 | D.C.  |    21 |»
+  | 47 | R.I.  |   214 |»»
+  | 46 | Del.  |   315 |»»»
+  | 45 | Ida.  |   868 |»»»»
+  | 44 | Wyo.  |   902 |»»»»
+  | 43 | Nev.  |   948 |»»»»»
+  | 42 | Vt.   |   959 |»»»»»
+  | 41 | I. T. |   973 |»»»»»
+  | 40 | Conn. | 1,006 |»»»»»
+  | 39 | N.H.  | l,079 |»»»»»
+  | 38 | Ariz. | 1,095 |»»»»»
+  | 37 | Utah  | 1,133 |»»»»»»
+  | 38 | Md.   | 1,162 |»»»»»»
+  | 35 | W. Va.| 1,281 |»»»»»»»  2,000 Miles
+  | 34 | Wash. | 1,319 |»»»»»»»  |
+  | 33 | Me.   | 1,321 |»»»»»»»  |
+  | 32 | N.Mex.| 1,321 |»»»»»»»  |
+  | 31 | Oreg. | 1,412 |»»»»»»»  |
+  | 30 | La.   | 1,505 |»»»»»»»  |
+  | 29 | Mont. | 1,804 |»»»»»»»» |
+  | 28 | N.J.  | 1,981 |»»»»»»»»»|
+  | 27 | Ark.  | 2,046 |»»»»»»»»»|»
+  | 26 | Mass. | 2,074 |»»»»»»»»»|»
+  | 25 | N.C.  | 2,084 |»»»»»»»»»|»
+  | 24 | Miss. | 2,218 |»»»»»»»»»|»»
+  | 23 | Fla.  | 2,250 |»»»»»»»»»|»»
+  | 22 | Tenn. | 2,488 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»      4,000
+  | 21 | N.C.  | 2,529 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»      |
+  | 20 | Ky.   | 2,585 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»     |
+  | 19 | Va.   | 2,931 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»    |
+  | 18 | Ala.  | 2,986 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»   |
+  | 17 | Ga.   | 3,928 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|
+  | 16 | Colo. | 4,038 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|
+  | 15 | Cal.  | 4,128 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»
+  | 14 | Dak.  | 4,465 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»       6,000
+  | 13 | Nebr. | 4,980 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»     |
+  | 12 | Wis.  | 5,330 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»   |
+  | 11 | Minn. | 5,375 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»   |
+  | 10 | Ind.  | 5,890 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»» |
+  |  9 | Mo.   | 5,901 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|
+  |  8 | Mich. | 6,490 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»       8,000
+  |  7 | N.Y.  | 7,598 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»   |
+  |  6 | Ohio  | 7,636 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»  |
+  |  5 | Tex.  | 8,211 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»   10,000
+  |  4 | Pa.   | 8,225 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»        |
+  |  3 | Iowa  | 8,365 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»       |
+  |  2 | Kans. | 8,755 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»     |
+  |  1 | Ill.  | 9,901 |»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|
+  +----+-------+-------+         |         |         |         |         |
+
+  The figures in the two charts show that four States alone claim
+  more than one-fourth of the growth (Kansas, 5,354; Texas,
+  4,967; Dakota, 8,240 and Nebraska, 3,207 miles; total, 16,768
+  miles.) Six other States (Iowa, Mich., Col., Minn., Wis., and
+  Penn.) had each an increase of over 2,000 miles.--The charts
+  give Illinois the longest line from 1870, but the position of
+  Texas in the three charts seems to prophesy that Illinois must
+  soon yield. In 1860, Ohio led; in 1850, New York, and in 1840,
+  Pennsylvania.--The upper series of stars in the 1880 map locate
+  the center of railway mileage. See page 427, preceding.]
+
+
+[Illustration: Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul System, 1889.]
+
+[Illustration: Chicago, Burlington and Quincy System, 1889.]
+
+[Illustration: Chicago and Northwestern System, 1889.]
+
+[Illustration: Pennsylvania System, 1889.]
+
+[Illustration: Vanderbilt System, 1889.]
+
+
+[Illustration: Largest Receipts, 1888.
+
+(See page 437, following)
+
+  +--+----------------+-----------+
+  |R.|  Corporation   | Receipts  |     $10M
+  +--+----------------+-----------+      |
+  |15|Ill. Cent.      |$13,660,245|»»»»»»|»»
+  |14|Mich. Cent.     | 13,770,593|»»»»»»|»»   $20M
+  |13|A. T. & St. F.  | 15,612.913|»»»»»»|»»»   |
+  |12|N. Pacific      | 15,846,328|»»»»»»|»»»   |
+  |11|L. & N.         | 17,122,026|»»»»»»|»»»»  |     $30M
+  |10|L. S. & M. S.   | 18,029,627|»»»»»»|»»»»» |      |
+  | 9|U. Pacif.       | 19,898,817|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|      |
+  | 8|B. & O.         | 20,353,492|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»     |     $40M
+  | 7|C. B. & Q.      | 23,789,168|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»    |      |
+  | 6|C. M. & St. P.  | 24,867,730|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»   |      |
+  | 5|C. & N. W.      | 26,697,559|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»  |      |    $50M
+  | 4|N. Y. L. E. & W.| 27,217,990|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»» |      |      |
+  | 3|N. Y. C. & H. R.| 36,139,920|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»  |      |
+  | 2|Penn. W. of P.  | 37,894,370|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»» |      |
+  | 1|Penn. E. of P.  | 58,172,078|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»»»|»»»»»
+  +--+----------------+-----------+
+
+
+Largest Net Results, 1888.
+
+(See page 437, following)
+
+  +--+----------------+-----+
+  |R.|  Corporation   |Net %|         10%       20%       30%
+  +--+----------------+-----+         |         |         |
+  |15|N. Y. C. & H. R.|31.85|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»
+  |14|Penn. E. of P.  |33.39|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»
+  |13|D. & R. G.      |33.43|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»
+  |12|A. T. & St. F.  |33.47|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»
+  |11|N. Y. L. E. & W.|33.85|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»
+  |10|Ill. Cent.      |34.41|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»
+  | 9|C. R. I. & P.   |35.29|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»
+  | 8|E. T. V. & G.   |36.06|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»
+  | 7|L. & N.         |36.11|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»   40%
+  | 6|L. S. & M. S.   |37.27|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»  |
+  | 5|C. & N. W.      |37.56|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»» |
+  | 4|U. Pacif.       |40.80|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»
+  | 3|N. Pacif.       |41.52|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»
+  | 2|St. L. & San F. |41.88|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»
+  | 1|St. P. M. & M.  |46.08|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»»»»|»»»»»»
+  +--+----------------+-----+
+]
+
+
+[Illustration: AVERAGE CHARGE PER MILE FOR EACH TON OF FREIGHT
+HAULED.
+
+  TRUNK LINES. 1870--1889
+  Chicago and Northwestern
+  Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul
+  Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific
+  =Av. of 6 Lines West of Chicago=
+  Chicago, Burlington and Quincy
+  Illinois Central
+  Chicago and Alton
+  Boston and Albany
+  Michigan Central
+  New York Central
+  =Av. of 7 Lines East of Chicago=
+  Pennsylvania
+  Lake Shore and Michigan Southern
+  New York, Lake Erie and Western
+  Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago
+
+  =Explanatory.=--The upper edge of the deep shade marks the
+  fluctuations of the average rate charged by the seven lines
+  east of Chicago.--The upper edge of the light shade marks the
+  fluctuations of the average rate charged by the six lines west
+  of Chicago.--Each particular road has a distinctive line, which
+  makes it easy to trace it among other lines.--All Western lines
+  are accompanied by lines of color, to distinguish them plainly
+  from the Eastern lines, and to make their relation to their own
+  average more easily discovered. The Boston and Albany is the only
+  Eastern line whose rate places it near the Western lines, but the
+  absence of color prevents it from being taken for a Western line,
+  which it might otherwise be, especially during the last three
+  years, in its journey through and above them all.--The C. B. &
+  Q. Road makes no report later than 1879.--The Chicago and Alton
+  report begins at 1874.
+
+  =Explanatory.=--The diagram upon which the rates are charted
+  (like all such diagrams) is constructed of perpendicular and
+  horizontal lines. Each line, and each space between lines, has
+  a particular meaning. The perpendicular spaces represent years,
+  indicated by the figures at the top of each space. The horizontal
+  spaces represent money values, each space representing .2c (two
+  mills). Each horizontal line represents a particular money value,
+  marked by the figures at the end of the line. Each black dot
+  represents the average annual rate of some particular road. For
+  example, take the Boston and Albany Road. Starting with the name
+  and following the tracing line, the 1870 dot is found just below
+  the 2.2c (2 cents and 2 mills) line. This indicates that the
+  average rate charged by that road in 1870 was a trifle less than
+  2.2c. Following the line leading from the 1870 dot into the 1871
+  space, the 1871 dot is found a little below the center of the
+  space between the 2c line and the 2.2c line, indicating a rate of
+  a little less than 2 cents and 1 mill for 1871. The next year it
+  is lower still. In this way the history of any road is quickly
+  traced.]
+
+_Largest Receipts._--A comparison on the basis of gross receipts
+gives the best means of judging of the financial importance of the
+several roads, for it measures the volume of business done. On
+page 435 is given such a comparison of the fifteen roads (of the
+twenty-two referred to above) reporting the largest gross receipts.
+
+_Largest Net Results._--While the gross receipts measure the volume
+of business they may not give any indication of net results. A
+chart, immediately under that comparing gross receipts, compares
+the net receipts of the fifteen roads (of the same twenty-two)
+which report the highest per centages.
+
+Of the ten reporting largest net results, seven are west of
+Chicago. This fact, coupled with the desire of the great western
+systems to possess new territory in advance of others, suggests a
+reason for the large railway growth in that part of the country.
+
+
+FREIGHT TRAFFIC.
+
+The gross traffic receipts of the railways of the United States are
+divided between freight and passenger business in very nearly the
+proportion of three to one in favor of the freight traffic. For
+this reason, and because the data are still more largely available
+on the same side, the freight service receives herein the fuller
+treatment.
+
+_Reduction of Freight Rates._--On the opposite page is a chart
+delineating the fluctuations in freight rates since 1870. To one
+not familiar with the subject the picture presented is a most
+remarkable one. It looks as though the roads are all in a mad
+scramble to see which can reach the bottom of the hill first. To
+railway managers the picture is a painful reminder of a serious
+struggle, the end of which no one can yet predict.
+
+The lines selected are representative lines of the east and west
+divisions of the country, north of the Ohio River, where the great
+number of competing roads has induced sharp competition.
+
+The history of the _averages_ is very clear, and it is easy to see
+that they are steadily approaching common ground, for while in 1870
+the eastern average marked almost exactly one cent six mills, the
+western marked two cents four mills, a separation of eight mills;
+in 1888 they recorded seven mills and a trifle over nine mills, a
+separation of about one-quarter of the 1870 record.
+
+_Wheat Rates._--The chart below repeats the lesson of the larger
+chart as to reduction of rates. The persistency with which water
+rates have kept below rail rates, emphasizes the fact that wherever
+water-ways exist, they are stubborn competitors for such freight
+traffic as will not suffer by the longer time required for the
+journey.
+
+[Illustration: Average Freight Rates per Bushel of Wheat from
+Chicago to New York.]
+
+_The Freight Haul._--It costs as much to load and unload a train
+that hauls its freight ten miles as it does one that carries it a
+thousand miles. In other words, the longer the haul the less the
+proportional cost to the carriers. The great extension of long
+lines westward in the last few years naturally raises the question
+whether the average freight haul has increased. The largely
+diminished rates suggest that probably producers have been led
+thereby to ship both agricultural and manufactured products greater
+distances to market. One or both of these conditions may have
+operated favorably for some roads, but, plausible as the theories
+seem, the facts prove that neither of them is supported in a study
+of the average haul of the country. The available figures permit us
+to go back only to 1882. Within that period the little chart given
+herewith delineates the fluctuations, but indicates no permanency
+in either direction. It is a matter of regret that in this, as in
+many other studies, the history is not available for earlier years,
+as the more extended the view the better the judgment of such
+questions becomes.
+
+[Illustration: Average Number of Miles each Ton of Freight was
+Hauled.]
+
+_Empty Freight Trains._--One of the considerable items of expense
+in the freight traffic is that of returning empty cars to their
+point of starting. Just how large an item this is depends chiefly
+upon the demands of the population at either end of the operating
+line for the product of the population at the opposite end. Thus
+the carriage of the great agricultural product of the West to
+feed the denser population of the East, and for export to foreign
+countries, may or may not be met by the demand of the western
+people for the manufactures of the East and the imports from
+foreign countries arriving at the eastern seaboard. It is scarcely
+probable that any line, short or long, running east and west or
+north and south, finds its traffic in opposite directions balanced.
+
+[Illustration: Percentage of East-Bound and West-Bound Freight
+carried by the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway Co.]
+
+An interesting study of this problem is presented in the
+accompanying chart, the road selected for the illustration being
+one of the large carriers between Chicago and Buffalo. The upper
+chart-line marks the proportion of freight carried from west to
+east, while the lower line (at the top of the shaded part of the
+diagram) marks the portion carried from east to west. It is readily
+seen that in 1877 the west-bound freight was less than half as
+much as the east-bound, for they stand 30.8 per cent, and 69.2 per
+cent., respectively; and in 1878 the difference is still greater.
+From that year, however, there has been great improvement, so that
+now it would appear that there is on that road a much diminished
+need for hauling empty cars. The history of the Pennsylvania Road
+is similar to that shown in the chart, but the ratios have not come
+so nearly together. That of the New York Central & Hudson River
+Road shows very little change in the ratios since 1870, and all
+the time both these roads report a very large excess of east-bound
+freight.
+
+[Illustration: Profit per Ton per Mile.]
+
+_Freight Profits._--The change in rates are of great moment to the
+producer; that of profits is the important one to the carrier.
+No matter how great the reduction of rates, if the reduction of
+expense is as great, the profits are not disturbed. This question
+can be studied best by examining the figures which measure the
+actual profits. But few corporations furnish such figures, and the
+two whose history is delineated on the accompanying chart are among
+those giving the most readily available data. It will be seen that
+the reduction of profits is no less remarkable than the reduction
+of rates, which shows that the reduction of rates has far exceeded
+that of expense of carriage; for, had the reduction of expenses
+kept pace with that of rates, the profits would have remained
+level. As it is, the reduction of profits in the history of these
+roads, as shown, is from about six mills per ton per mile in 1870,
+to about two mills in 1888. These two roads are probably good
+representatives of the experience of the general freight service
+of all railways north of the Ohio River. If so, the prospect of the
+future of freight traffic is not cheerful.
+
+
+PASSENGER TRAFFIC.
+
+The study of passenger traffic is less satisfactory than that of
+freight traffic. Fewer lines furnish a history of their passenger
+rates, and ordinarily those histories cover shorter periods. The
+study is therefore confined to narrower limits and its lessons are
+necessarily less conclusive.
+
+[Illustration: Passenger Rates per Mile.]
+
+_Passenger Rates._--Below is given a chart interpreting the
+available data of six representative lines. The first lesson
+impressed is that no such reduction marks the history of passenger
+rates as is shown in freight rates, although the general trend
+of the chart-lines is plainly downward. The line indicating the
+average rate for all the roads in the country (marked U. S. in the
+chart) shows a reduction of over one-fourth of a cent per passenger
+per mile since 1882.
+
+Certain features of this chart attract special attention. The
+reduction of rates by the Pennsylvania, and the New York Central &
+Hudson River roads in 1876, and that by the same roads in 1885, are
+suggestive. Equally noticeable are the reductions of the Illinois
+Central in 1871, 1872, 1880, and 1888.
+
+This chart would seem to indicate that competition has not operated
+as sharply on passenger as on freight traffic.
+
+_Passenger Travel._--The average distance that passengers ride is
+not as important an element of railway business as is the average
+freight haul, for the passengers load and unload themselves; so
+that, whether they ride few or many miles, the cost of loading and
+unloading is neither increased nor diminished. On the contrary,
+if a thousand tons of freight, once loaded, is to be hauled one
+hundred miles instead of fifty, the proportional cost of loading
+and unloading is reduced one-half.
+
+[Illustration: Average Number of Miles each Passenger was Carried.]
+
+Still, the average distance passengers ride is important; for,
+if the number of passengers remains the same and their ride is
+shorter, the receipts are diminished. The returns show that while
+the number of passengers has increased since 1882 about fifty-six
+per cent., the total miles travelled have not increased quite fifty
+per cent., marking a falling off in the average number of miles
+each passenger rode. The reduction is graphically shown in the
+little chart given herewith. This result is no doubt largely due to
+the great increase of suburban travel which has developed about our
+large cities within the past few years.
+
+It is necessary to state, however, that the figures embraced in
+this study do not include the traffic of the elevated roads of New
+York and Brooklyn.
+
+_Passenger Profits._--Again a marked difference between freight and
+passenger traffic appears in comparing the chart given below with
+the corresponding chart on page 440.
+
+[Illustration: Profit per Passenger per Mile.]
+
+The study covers the history of the same roads in each case. The
+history of freight profits shows a persistent falling off, which
+in the nineteen years amounts to four mills per ton per mile, a
+loss of two-thirds of the six mills of 1870. The history delineated
+on this chart shows the average profit of the two roads to be
+almost exactly at the same point that it was in 1870, while the
+profits for most of the intervening years have been much greater.
+
+Were this the record of the freight traffic, it would be much more
+gratifying to the managers of the roads, for the New York Central
+& Hudson River Railway receives about twice as much, and the
+Pennsylvania Railway receives four times as much, from freights as
+from passengers. Attention is invited to the opposite results of
+the same policy on these two roads in 1876. The chart of passenger
+rates on page 441 marks a decided reduction of rates by the
+Pennsylvania Road, and a slight reduction by the New York Central &
+Hudson River Road. The chart of profits records an increase for the
+former and a decrease for the latter. This year (1876) is the date
+of the Centennial World's Fair at Philadelphia. The Pennsylvania
+Road had an enormous increase of passenger traffic (double that
+of the following year), a record which it did not equal until
+1887. The New York Central & Hudson River Road had but a slightly
+increased traffic, the record of which it passed in 1881.
+
+
+GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.
+
+_Dividends._--While many readers are probably not holders of
+railway stocks, yet a look at the dividends received by those who
+are will not be without interest. The little chart given below
+tells an interesting, although a not over-attractive story.
+
+[Illustration: Average Dividend Paid on Total Capital Stock.]
+
+It shows that, comparing the aggregate of all the railroad stocks
+of the country with the aggregate of all dividends paid, the
+holders of stock realized an average of 3.03% on their investment
+in 1876. In 1878 it had fallen to less than 2½%. From that date to
+1885 the record makes a curve ending just above 2%. A slight rally
+is indicated for 1886 and 1887, but 1888 carries it down to 1.81%.
+The stock of many roads has paid no dividend whatever these later
+years, and the lines whose stock proves a good investment at par
+are very few.
+
+[Illustration: Net Earnings and Mileage Built.]
+
+_Net Earnings per Mile._--Although the studies of the financial
+question already made undoubtedly point out the true drift of
+railway business, yet one more comparison is worth making, both
+for its bearing on the question of profits and the study of the
+influence of profits on railway building. The upper one of the
+two charts given herewith is the record of net earnings per mile
+of road in operation, and is based on the reported net earnings
+less the interest-charge. It therefore shows the average number of
+dollars each mile had earned, after paying all expenses and the
+interest on its debt. This money, then, is the clear amount each
+mile could apply each year to pay the principal of its debt and the
+dividends on its capital stock, or to use for improvements, such as
+rolling stock, stations, better road-bed, new rails, or any other
+betterments which might seem advisable.
+
+In 1876 this sum was $1,264; in 1880 it was $1,798, since which
+time it has suffered a serious decline, until in 1888 it was only
+$650. It is the story of the previous studies repeated, and needs
+no further reiteration.
+
+_Railway Building._--The larger chart given on page 429, gives the
+history of railway building from 1831 to 1888. The lower chart of
+the two given together on page 444, repeats the annual record from
+1876, for the purpose of studying the influence of profits on the
+progress of building. The net earnings per mile show a reduction
+in 1877. The following year shows an increase of earnings, and the
+building responded somewhat feebly the same year. The next two
+years (1879 and 1880) show great gains in net earnings, and the
+impetus given thereby to building, carries its increase steadily
+forward even two years beyond the turning-point of the earnings.
+The decline is then mutual to 1885. In 1886 the advance in earnings
+was responded to by such a remarkable increase in building that
+the stimulus is to be sought for partly outside of the increase
+of earnings, and is undoubtedly found in the desire to occupy the
+newly opening fields of western settlement; for the records mark
+unparalleled activity among the great trunk lines of the West in
+pushing their advances in Dakota, Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado,
+in 1886 and 1887. This is graphically shown in the map of 1889,
+when compared with that of 1880 (pages 432 and 433).
+
+_Ratios of Increase._--It is difficult to obtain a just impression
+of values when expressed by figures alone. It is easy when these
+values are expressed in lines or colors. The greater difficulties
+come in the effort to compare values expressed in differing terms.
+To read that the increase of population was 23,400,000 from 1870
+to 1888; and that of railway mileage was 62,785 miles; and that of
+freight traffic was nearly 30,000,000,000 tons, in the same period,
+and then to attempt the comparison of increase without further aid,
+is a hopeless task.
+
+As a study of financial economy the comparison is worth making,
+for evidence of the over-development of an industry or a financial
+interest, rightly considered, may prevent suicidal development.
+The chart given on the next page makes the comparison easy. The
+actual increase in each instance is reduced to percentages, and
+the several chart-lines measure the progress. The increase of
+population is estimated on the basis of 62,000,000 persons in 1888.
+(So far as the lesson conveyed by the chart is concerned, the
+estimate might as well have been 60,000,000, the variation in the
+location of the line would be trifling.)
+
+It appears, then, that railway mileage has increased nearly
+two hundred per cent. and that the rate of increase of freight
+traffic (as measured by ton-miles[38]) has been enormously larger,
+considering the history of the thirteen trunk lines as indicative
+of the whole. It further appears that the freight traffic of the
+West has developed much more rapidly than that of the East, during
+the last eight years.
+
+[Illustration: Ratios of Increase.]
+
+_Construction and Maintenance._--The tabulated statistics of these
+subjects are not of special interest, as the annual variation of
+cost is slight. In both these elements the wage-question is so
+large a factor that a comparative level is maintained from year
+to year. The available figures touching these subjects are few.
+The first table on the opposite page gives the average cost of
+construction per mile of the _total mileage of the country_; and
+the cost of maintenance per mile as reported by the New York,
+Lake Erie & Western Road. The second table furnishes interesting
+_details_ of the cost of maintenance.
+
+
+_Construction and Maintenance for Ten Years._
+
+  ------+----------------------+--------------------
+  Years.| Cost of construction | Cost of maintenance
+        |      per mile.       |      per mile.
+  ------+----------------------+--------------------
+   1879 |      $57,730         |       $1,671
+   1880 |       58,624         |        1,371
+   1881 |       60,645         |        1,448
+   1882 |       61,303         |        1,335
+   1883 |       61,800         |        1,533
+   1884 |       61,400         |        1,281
+   1885 |       61,400         |        1,082
+   1886 |       61,098         |        1,496
+   1887 |       58,603         |        1,533
+   1888 |       60,732         |        1,226
+  ------+----------------------+--------------------
+
+_Comparative Statement of Maintenance of Way of the Illinois
+Central Road for Ten Years._
+
+                    [Table--Part 1 of 2]
+  -----+--------+----------------------------------------------------+
+       | Miles  |                     MAINTENANCE OF WAY.            |
+  Year.|of road +----------+---------------------+-------------------+
+       | at end | Labor on |     New rails.      |    Cross-ties.    |
+       |of year.|  track.  |                     |                   |
+  -----+--------+----------+---------------------+-------------------+
+       |        |    $     |   Tons.       $     |Number.      $     |
+  1879 |1,286.72|297,363.40| 9,276.00  125,062.70|264,520   93,107.51|
+  1880 |1,320.35|343,982.23| 9,767.49  215,365.32|260,116   93,330.32|
+  1881 |1,320.35|411,018.91|10,098.47  169,718.80|345,260  127,279.76|
+  1882 |1,908.65|690,112.59| 8,438.00  128,521.48|604,096  201,648.26|
+  1883 |1,927.99|742,476.20| 8,191.79  183,239.65|425,627  153,739.00|
+  1884 |2,066.35|706,751.86| 6,342.73   93,446.25|462,665  154,083.19|
+  1885 |2,066.35|749,254.19| 8,747.31   87,331.95|508,756  176,835.69|
+  1886 |2,149.07|705.553.82| 6,376.40   63,238.84|492,524  174,515.72|
+  1887 |2,355.12|760,093.33| 6,092.66   79,917.84|573,898  197.989.47|
+  1888 |2,552.55|847,806.67| 8,172.36  106,372.94|654,141  214,130.73|
+  -----+--------+----------+---------------------+-------------------+
+
+                    [Table--Part 2 of 2]
+  -----+----------------------------------+--------+----------+------------
+       |   MAINTENANCE OF WAY.            |Expense |          |Repairs of
+  Year.+----------+-----------------------+per mile|Repair of |station
+       | Repair of|  Other   |   Total.   |run by  | fences.  |building and
+       | bridges. |  items.  |            |engines.|          |water-works.
+  -----+----------+----------+------------+--------+----------+------------
+       |    $     |    $     |      $     | Cents. |    $     |     $
+  1879 | 73,119.56|125,041.92|  640,575.53|  11.73 |$33,416.86|  45,755.09
+  1880 |105,551.62| 49,399.09|  807,628.58|  12.39 | 36,981.94|  80,887.34
+  1881 |114,193.18| 30,399.46|  852,610.11|  12.16 | 36,690.33|  70,699.58
+  1882 |174,826.24| 17,277.34|1,212,385.91|  11.87 | 31,032.57|  87,588.26
+  1883 |121,101.03| 72,294.71|1,272,850.59|  11.89 | 30,084.49|  87,291.93
+  1884 |173,831.23|107,236.13|1,235,348.66|  12.20 | 21,394.71|  94,122.03
+  1885 |164,586.39| 88,126.28|1,266,134.50|  11.27 | 21,932.48|  94,518.19
+  1886 |172,144.65| 63,976.69|1,179,429.72|  10.15 | 26,668.91| 123,519.83
+  1887 |250,337.47| 61,441.88|1,349.779.99|   9.95 | 31,905.46| 129,526.76
+  1888 |310,908.42|115,898.04|1,595,116.80|  10.74 | 40,423.39| 170,023.85
+  -----+----------+----------+------------+--------+----------+------------
+
+_Employees._--This item is also one touching which railways make
+few reports. The New York Central & Hudson River Road reports as
+follows: "Average number of employees, 20,659, being at the rate of
+14.54 per mile of road worked; aggregate wages, $12,460,708.89,
+or $603.16 each. Payments in wages equalled 50.60 per cent. of
+the total working expenses, against 51.90 per cent. in 1886-87."
+Reckoning that each employee's wages supports an average of three
+persons, we have a total of 61,977 persons clothed, housed, and fed
+by this one corporation.
+
+"Poor's Manual" discusses this subject at some length, but mainly
+on theoretical ground.
+
+_Rolling Stock._--A table showing the history of the growth of the
+rolling stock of the country is given on page 148; it is therefore
+unnecessary to repeat it here.
+
+_Capital Invested._--It is folly for the human mind to attempt to
+grasp the immensity of the financial interest expressed in the
+statement, that the combined capital invested in the railways of
+the United States is $9,369,398,954. No more can it comprehend that
+this vast aggregate has been the growth of about fifty years in a
+single interest, in a single country.
+
+_Capital Invested._
+
+  ------+----------------
+  Year. |    Capital.
+  ------+----------------
+   1876 | $4,468,592,000
+   1877 |  5,106,202,000
+   1878 |  4,772,297,000
+   1879 |  4,872,017,000
+   1880 |  5,402,038,000
+   1881 |  6,278,565,000
+   1882 |  7,016,750,000
+   1883 |  7,477,866,000
+   1884 |  7,676,399,000
+   1885 |  7,842,533,000
+   1886 |  8,163,149,000
+   1887 |  8,673,187,000
+   1888 |  9,369,399,000
+  ------+----------------
+
+The first date in the table marks the close of the first century
+of our national life. Since that time the investment has more than
+doubled; an increase of nearly five billion dollars in twelve
+years--an average of over four hundred million dollars per year.
+More exactly expressed, this means $1,118,906 per day, or $46,621
+for every hour, day and night, during the first twelve years of our
+second century.
+
+It is safe to say that no other financial interest shows a total of
+such wonderful magnitude. And with greater emphasis may it be said,
+that the finances of the world, record, in all the ages, to the
+present day, no such astounding increase of investment.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[37] Data drawn from "Poor's Manual of Railroads," 1889, and the
+"Statistical Abstract of the United States," 1888, and carefully
+revised, form, in large part, the basis of the several studies; and
+the writer hereby expresses obligation to Mr. John P. Meany, editor
+of the "Manual," for kindly aid in his work.
+
+[38] A ton-mile means a ton of freight hauled one mile; ten
+ton-miles, a ton of freight hauled ten miles, or two tons hauled
+five miles.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  Accidents, chances of, 191
+    at crossings, 408
+    from coupling cars, 223, 392
+    investigation of, 399
+    to railway bridges, 26
+    South Norwalk, 221
+    statistics of, 260
+    to trainmen, 393
+    to trains, origin of, 167
+
+  Adams, Charles Francis, 104, 367
+
+  Air-brake, 193, 195
+
+  Allen, Horatio, 2, 4, 102
+
+  Arbitration between railways and their employees, 376, 381
+
+  Armstrong, Colonel G. G., 316
+
+  Atkinson, Edward, 43
+
+  Auditor's duties, 180, 183
+
+
+  Baggage-check system, 253
+
+  Baggage-master, work of, 416
+
+  Baggage service, abuses in, 179
+
+  Baggage transportation, 253
+
+  Baldwin Locomotive Works, 132
+
+  Ballast of a railway, 37
+
+  Baltimore & Ohio, the, 103
+    cars, 139
+    early passenger-trains, 230
+    in 1830, 101
+
+  Bangs, George S., 317
+
+  Bell-cord train-signal, 237
+
+  Bessemer, Sir Henry, 37
+
+  Bessemer steel, invention of, 37
+
+  Blaine, James G., 323
+
+  Blair, Montgomery, 317
+
+  Block-signal, automatic, 215
+    system, 168, 213
+
+  Boilers, construction of, 114
+
+  Bonds and stock, relative position of, 354
+
+  Brake, air-, 193, 195
+    advantages of air-, 387
+    improvements suggested to air-, 199
+    American, 202
+    and coupler, 237
+    Beals, 202
+    chain, 193
+    continuous, 195
+    early forms of, 192
+    electric, 194
+    hand, 193;
+      perils of, 387;
+      how to manage, 388
+    hydraulic, 193
+    steam driver-, 192
+    trials at Burlington, 200
+    vacuum, 193, 195
+    water, 202
+    Westinghouse air-, 193, 195
+
+  Brakemen, characteristics of, 384
+    duties of, 394
+    life, agreeable and disagreeable features of, 386, 389
+    passenger-train, advantages of, 396
+    pleasures of, 394
+    wit of, the result of meditation, 385
+
+  Bridges, railway, accidents to, 26
+    American iron, 28
+    American, development of, 27;
+      length of, 24, 26
+    American wooden, 27
+    and culverts, how built, 22
+    Bismarck, 86
+    Britannia, 79
+    builders, 423
+    cantilever, 33, 88
+    connecting two tunnels, 55
+    connections, types of, 85
+    foundations by crib or open caisson, 75
+
+  Bridges, foundations by pneumatic caisson, 69
+    foundations, how made, 32, 67
+    foundations under water, 67
+    gangs, work of, 155
+    great, over cañons and valleys, 55
+    guard-rails and frogs for, 221
+    Hawkesbury River, 32
+    Howe truss, 27
+    how to build safe, 31
+    Kentucky River, 34, 55, 88
+    Kinzua, 30
+    Lachine, 92
+    masonry arch, 76
+    Niagara cantilever, 34, 90
+    Portage, 78
+    Poughkeepsie, 32, 34
+    steel truss, development of, 85
+    strength of, 29
+    St. Louis, 93
+    trusses, types of, 86
+    tubular, 80
+    typical American truss, 86
+    Verrugas, 55
+    Victoria, 80
+    Washington, over Harlem River, 77, 94
+    wooden, 78
+    wood, stone, and iron, 25, 26
+
+  Bridgers, R. R., 340
+
+  Bridgewater, Duke of, 345
+
+  Broken trains, dangers of, 388
+
+  Burr & Wernwag, 27
+
+
+  Caissons for bridge foundations, how made, 32, 69
+    open, 75
+    pneumatic, 69
+
+  Camden & Amboy locomotives, 106
+
+  Cameron, Simon, prediction of, 232
+
+  Campbell, Henry R., 109
+
+  Cantilever bridges, 33, 88
+
+  Capital invested in railways, 344, 448
+
+  Car-accountant, and the transportation department, 275
+    office of, 271
+
+  Car-accounting, benefits of a good system, 280
+
+  Car-builders' dictionary, 147
+
+  Car-couplers, imperfections of, 140
+    need of uniformity in, 141
+
+  Car-coupling, accidents from, 223, 392
+
+  Cars, American and English, 7
+    American, evolution of, 139
+    Baltimore & Ohio freight-, 139
+    different kinds of, 146
+    old, discomforts of, 234
+    distribution of, 171, 279
+    empty, distribution of, 279
+    first American passenger-, 139
+    first sleeping-, 140
+    for special uses, 289
+    freight-, wanderings of a, 267
+    heating by gas, 226
+    heating by steam, 226
+    heating, methods of, 245
+    lighting safely, 226
+    mileage and records, 158
+    mileage charges, 273
+    Mohawk & Hudson passenger-, 139
+    number of, in the United States, 148
+    records of movement, 171
+    service charges, per diem plan, 29
+    service of, payment for, 293
+    service records and reports, 276
+    tracers for, 279
+    trucks, 7;
+      invention of, 108
+    use and abuse of, 281
+
+  Car-wheels, European, 144
+    how made, 142
+    paper, 145
+
+  Cassatt, A. J., 340
+
+  Check system for baggage, 253
+
+  Chief engineer, duties of, 154
+
+  Chimbote Railway in the Andes, 50, 53
+
+  Civil service reform in the mail service, 340
+
+  Classifications of freight, 176
+
+  Clerks, railway, 422
+
+  Coffer-dam foundations for bridges, 67
+
+  Commissions to passenger agents, 179
+
+  Competing points and pools, 364
+
+  Concentration of power, 351
+
+  Conducting transportation, 159
+
+  Conductors, freight, trials of, 398
+    heroism of, 411
+    passenger, 408
+
+  Consolidation, effects of, 351
+    tendency to, 346
+
+  Construction companies, 355
+
+  Contractors, railway, work of, 21
+
+  Conveniences at stations, 259
+
+  Cooley, Judge Thomas M., 368
+
+  Cooper, Peter, 104, 231
+
+  Council, proposed railway, 380
+
+  Couplers and brakes, 237
+    imperfections of, 140
+    uniform automatic, 223
+
+  Coupling cars, accidents from, 223, 392
+
+  Coupon tickets, 254
+    misunderstood, 254
+
+  Cox, S. S., 323
+
+  Cranes, large travelling, in locomotive shops, 132
+
+  Crib foundations for bridge piers, 75
+
+  Crises of 1873 and 1885, effects of, 356
+
+  Crossings, accidents at, 408
+    protection for, 216
+
+  Cullom, Senator S. M., 368
+
+  Culverts, building of, 22
+    log, 25
+    masonry, 76
+    on American railways, 24, 26
+
+  Curves, American and European railway, 8
+    least, 8
+
+  Cutting, largest ever made, 56
+
+  Cylinders, locomotive, construction of, 117
+
+
+  Darwin, Erasmus, 2
+
+  Davis & Gartner, 106
+
+  Davis, Phineas, 106
+
+  Davis, W. A., 317
+
+  Death and accident provisions for postal clerks, 343
+
+  Delays in a long journey, 267
+
+  Delaware & Hudson Canal Company, 101
+
+  Demurrage charges, 296
+
+  Derailing switches, use of, 207
+
+  Derailments of trains, causes of, 218
+
+  Destructive force of a locomotive at high speed, 187
+
+  Detector-bar for switches, 205
+
+  Differentials, 175
+
+  Dining-cars, introduction of, 243
+
+  Discipline necessary on a railway, 377
+
+  Distribution of cars, 171, 279
+
+  Dividends, average, on railway stock, 443
+
+  Drawbridge accidents, 221
+
+  Driving-wheels, large and small, 128
+
+
+  Eads, Captain James B., 64, 93
+
+  Eames vacuum brake, 195
+
+  Eccentric, operation of, 118
+
+  Educational institutions for railway employees, 379
+
+  Electric annunciator for signals, 209
+
+  Electric lights for cars, 226
+
+  Electricity applied to brakes, 194
+
+  Elevated Railroad, New York, 97
+
+  Employees, railway, benefit funds, 378
+    permanent and temporary, 375
+    promotion of, 376
+    number of, in the United States, 43, 370
+    permanency of service during good behavior, 376
+    relations of, to the railway, 357
+    representative system for, 380
+    rights and privileges of permanent, 376
+    to have a voice in management, 379
+    wages of, 448
+
+  Engineer, the, as a public benefactor, 46
+    civil, qualifications of, 15
+    responsibilities and duties of, 98
+
+  Engineering, good, true test of, 60
+
+  Ericsson, John, 2
+
+
+  Facing and trailing point switches, 219
+
+  Facing-point locks, 205
+
+  Fast freight lines, 287
+
+  Fast mail service, appropriations for, 337
+
+  Fast mail train, trip with, 323
+
+  Fast runs, remarkable instances, 404
+
+  Fast time on railways, conditions of, 128
+
+  Field & Hayes, 34
+
+  Fink, Albert, 365
+
+  Fisk, James, Jr., 353
+
+  Flagging trains, 390
+
+  Foot-guard for frogs, 222
+
+  Foreign cars, theory and practice in their use, 279
+
+  Foster, Rastrick & Company, 102
+
+  Free-pass system, 362
+
+  Freight-car wanderings, 267
+    classifications and rates, 176
+    conductor and his trials, 398
+    department, organization of, 282
+    engines, saving fuel on, 402
+    empty trains of, 439
+    handlers at stations, 423
+    movement, accidents in, 293;
+      cost of delays in, 293
+
+  Freight profits, 440
+    rates, reduction of, 358, 438
+    traffic, 437;
+      how handled, 180
+
+  Freight trains, air-brakes for, 200
+    transportation, needs of the service, 297
+
+  Fuel, saving, on freight-engines, 402
+
+
+  Garrett, John W., 351
+
+  Gate-tenders on the railway, 423
+
+  General Freight Agent, 172
+
+  General Manager, duties of, 154
+
+  General Passenger Agent, 172
+
+  Geographical location of railways in the United States, 427
+
+  Goold, James, 139
+
+  Grades, limit of, 8
+
+  Grand Central Station interlocking signals, 208
+
+  Grand River cañon, 54
+
+  Granger movement, 363
+
+  Guard-rails and frogs for bridges, 221
+
+
+  Hamlin, Hannibal, 323
+
+  Hampson, John, 231
+
+  Harrison, Joseph, Jr., 4
+
+  Hawkesbury River bridge, 32
+
+  Heater-cars, Eastman, 289
+
+  Heating cars, 245
+
+  Highway crossing accidents, 216
+    crossing gates, 217
+
+  Holley, Alexander L., 37
+
+  Hoosac Tunnel, 63
+
+  Hospital funds for railway employees, 378
+
+  Hotel-cars, 244
+
+  Howe truss bridges, 27
+
+
+  Immigrant sleeping-cars, 251
+
+  Inclined planes for overcoming elevations, 58
+
+  Injectors, principle of, 116
+
+  Insurance funds for railway employees, 378
+
+  Interchange of cars, methods of, 272
+
+  Interlocking bolts, uses of, 221
+    signals and switches, 204
+
+  Interstate commerce law, 173, 368
+    Commerce Commission and its work, 368
+
+  Investigation of accidents, 399
+
+  Investors and managers, relations of, 357
+    difficult position of, 354
+
+  Irregular hours of work, 399
+
+
+  Jameson, John, 317, 323, 342
+
+  Janney car-coupler, 237
+
+  Jervis, John B., 4, 107
+
+  Johnson, R. P., 339
+
+  Judgment, value of, in a locomotive-runner, 407
+
+  Junction-cards and car-reports, 278
+
+
+  Kentucky River cantilever bridge, 34, 55, 88
+
+  King, Porter, 408
+
+  Kinzua Bridge, 30
+
+
+  Lachine Bridge, 92
+
+  Latimer, Charles, 221
+
+  Latrobe, Benjamin H., 8
+
+  Layng, J. D., 319
+
+  Legal department of a railway, duties of, 152
+
+  Lighting cars, safe methods, 226
+
+  Lincoln, Abraham, in the first sleeping-car, 240
+
+  Link motion for locomotive valves, 119
+
+  Location, approximate, 15
+    final, 18
+    how governed, 16
+    in old and new countries, 17
+    importance of, 15
+
+  Locomotives, ability to climb grades, 8
+    American type, origin of, 109
+    Baltimore & Ohio "grasshopper," 106
+    boiler construction, 115
+    cab, what is in it, 131
+    capacity to draw loads, 120
+    consolidation, 122
+    cost of running, 307
+    cylinders, how supplied with steam, 117
+    decapod, 122
+    destructive force of, at high speed, 187
+    "DeWitt Clinton," 105
+    driving-wheels, how made, 142
+    earliest American, 2
+    early eight-wheeled, 105
+    engineer, the duties and qualifications of, 137;
+      peculiarities of, 134;
+      duties and dangers of, 400;
+      spirit of fraternity of, 408
+    English type of, 3
+    equalizing levers, 4
+    fireman, 422
+    first trial of, in America, 103
+    fuel, 303;
+      consumption, 135
+    hostler, 422
+    how to start and stop, 120
+    "John Bull," 106
+    Mogul, 122
+    number of, in the United States, 148
+    Peter Cooper's, 104
+    prize offered for, by the Baltimore & Ohio, 105
+    pumps and injectors, 116
+    "Rocket," 1
+    running, systems of, 134;
+      cost of, 158, 159
+    running gear, adjustment of, 114;
+      flexible, 113
+    shops, 132
+    size, weight, and price, 126
+    speed, law of, 127
+    suburban traffic, 124
+    ten-wheeled, 122
+    trials, Liverpool & Manchester Railway, 2, 3
+    truck, invention of, 4, 107
+    types of, 109
+    valve motion, 118
+
+  London Underground Railway, 97
+
+  "Long and short haul," 173
+
+
+  Mail service, railway, civil service reform in, 340
+
+  Mail train, fast, 317
+
+  Managers and investors, relations of, 357
+
+  Masonry arch bridges, 76
+
+  Massachusetts Railroad Commission and traffic questions, 367
+
+  Master Car Builders' Association brake-trials, 200
+    type of car-coupler, 223
+
+  Master car-builder's duties, 158
+
+  Master mechanic's work, 157
+
+  Master of transportation, duties of, 159, 171
+
+  Mexican Central Railway, 56
+
+  Mileage balances, reduction of, 273
+
+  Miller coupler and buffer, 237
+
+  Miller, Ezra, 237
+
+  Milling in transit, 175
+
+  Model railway service, 375
+
+  Mohawk & Hudson passenger-cars, 139
+
+  Mont Cenis Tunnel, 63
+
+  Moral standard on the railway, improvement in, 384
+
+  Mount Washington Railway, 58
+
+  Mountain climbing by rack railways, 58
+    railways, 49
+
+
+  National regulation of railways, 367
+
+  Newell, John, 340
+
+  New York Elevated Railways, 97
+
+  Niagara cantilever bridge, 34, 90
+    suspension bridge, 81
+
+  Nochistongo cut, 56
+
+
+  Operating department of a railway, importance of, 373
+
+  Oroya Railway in the Andes, 50, 53
+
+  Outram, Benjamin, 345
+
+
+  Paper car-wheels, 145
+
+  Passenger advertisement, first, 229
+    brakeman, 396
+    burned in wrecks, 225
+    cars, early, 231;
+      English and American, 232;
+      first American, 139;
+      manufacture of, 252;
+      Mohawk & Hudson, 139
+    conductor, 408
+    fares, comparative rates, 265
+    profits, 442
+    rates and commissions, 17
+    tickets, old, 236
+    traffic, 442
+    trains, first, 228;
+      early American, 230;
+      making time on, 403
+    travel, 362;
+      amount of, 264;
+      safety of, in England and America, 260;
+      speed of, 249
+
+  Pay-car, trip of the, 309
+
+  Pay, increase of, for faithful service, 378
+
+  Paymaster's work, 308
+
+  Parallel roads, 356
+
+  Pensions for railway employees, 378
+
+  Pennsylvania Railroad shops at Altoona, 132
+    maintenance of track, 41
+    system, 371
+
+  Permanent service of a railway, 375
+
+  Pile-driver, work of a, 22
+
+  Pile foundations for bridges, 68
+
+  Plant, H. B., 340
+
+  Pneumatic caissons for bridge foundations, 69
+    interlocking apparatus, 210
+
+  Pœtsch method of building foundations for bridge piers, 32
+
+  Pooling rates, 184
+
+  Pools and competing points, 364
+    railway, origin and nature of, 364
+
+  Pope, Thomas, 33
+
+  Portage Bridge, 78
+
+  Postal cars, 325
+    first used, 316
+    provision against accident in, 338
+
+  Postal clerks, accidents to, 338
+
+  Postal progress, object lesson in, 312
+
+  Postal service, early history, 313
+
+  Potter, Thomas J., 412
+
+  Poughkeepsie cantilever bridge, 32, 34
+
+  Predecessors of the railway, 101
+
+  Premiums to section-men, 41
+
+  Promotion of employees, 376
+
+  Pullman, George M., 239
+    Palace Car Company, 242
+    sleeper, first, 241
+
+  Purchasing agent's varied duties and experience, 300
+
+
+  Rails, development of, 47
+    increased weight of, 122
+    iron, first used, 1, 37
+    joints for, 37
+    steel, first introduction, 37
+    supply and renewal of, 306
+    weight which they will carry, 121
+
+  Railroading fifty years ago, 100
+
+  Railways, American, key to the development of, 3;
+      rolling stock of, 148;
+      and English, essential differences, 10
+    amount of capital invested in, 344
+    and their employees, nature of relations, 374
+    and democracy, 45
+    and their customers, 358
+    beginning of, 345
+    building, cost of, 43;
+      example of rapid, 44;
+      history of, 445
+    competition of, 174;
+      with canals, 347
+    consolidation, 174, 346
+    council, proposed, 380
+    division of expenses on, 359
+    earnings, average net, per mile, 444
+    earliest, 1;
+      in America, 103
+    early systems of management, 346
+    economic view of, 45
+    educational institutions, 379
+    employees, permanent and temporary, 375;
+      general characteristics of, 423;
+      moral welfare of, 423;
+      a typical, 383;
+      wages of, 448
+    growth of, 346
+    income, sources of, 180
+    influence on the world, 149
+    mail first carried on, 314
+    mail service, growth of, 314;
+      importance of, 323;
+      needs of, 341;
+      organization of, 323;
+      party injury to, 341
+    management, development of, 150;
+      in Europe, 184;
+      organization and division of authority, 151;
+      results expected from, 184;
+      special departments of, 372;
+      stability of, 184;
+      subdivisions of, 372
+    men's building in New York, 424
+    mileage, comparative, of the principal countries, 425;
+      of the United States, 426
+    national idea developed by, 348
+    national regulation, 367
+    officers' duties and responsibilities, 151
+    organization analyzed, 185;
+      complex, 183;
+      growth of, 371
+    personnel, importance of, 424
+    place in the modern industrial system, 344
+    postal clerks' dangers, 337;
+      just claims, 343;
+      need of provision against disability, 339;
+      work, 334
+    relations of, to their employees, 357
+    shop-men, 423
+    State ownership of, 362
+    statistics of, 425
+    systems, 428
+    the largest single industrial interest, 370
+    United States, extent of, 43
+    "wars" between, 361
+
+  Randall, Samuel J., 323
+
+  Rates and rebates, 173
+    causes of reduction, 358
+    combinations and adjustments, 176
+    forced reductions, 363
+    how made and regulated, 176
+    inequalities of, 359
+    passenger, and commissions, 178
+    plans for regulating, 362
+    special, wars over, 177
+    without a natural standard, 360
+
+  Reagan, John H., 368
+
+  Reconnoissance, 13
+
+  Refrigerator cars, 289
+
+  Representation for railway employees, 380
+
+  Restriction of railways, tendency to, 369
+
+  Ride on a locomotive at night, 188
+
+  Righi Railway, 59
+
+  Road-bed of a railway, how made, 21
+
+  Roadway department of a railway, 154
+
+  Roberts, George B., 340
+
+  Roebling, John A., 82
+
+  Rolling stock, growth of, 448
+
+  Routine of the railway mail service, 325
+
+  Rutter, J. H., 340
+
+
+  Safety appliances, railway, 191
+    devices needed, 423
+
+  St. Gothard Tunnel and spirals, 63
+
+  St. Louis Bridge, 64, 93
+
+  Schneider, C. C., 34
+
+  Scott, Thomas Alexander, 319, 349
+
+  Scrap-heap, value of, 302
+
+  Section-master's duties, 421
+
+  Section-men's work, 156
+
+  Semaphore signals, 203
+
+  Shepard, General D. C., 44
+
+  Signals and switches, interlocking, 168, 204
+    automatic block, 215
+    block system, 168, 213
+    semaphore, 203
+    torpedo, 213
+
+  Sleeping-car rates, comparative, 266
+
+  Sleeping-cars, first experiments, 239
+    immigrant, 251
+    Pullman, 239, 242
+
+  Smith, Colonel C. Shaler, 34, 88
+
+  Snow-sheds and fences, 18
+
+  South American mountain-railways, 50
+
+  South Carolina Railway, 104
+    early passenger trains, 231
+
+  Special rates, 177, 361
+
+  Spoils system, how it works in the railway mail service, 342
+
+  Spreading of rails, 220
+
+  State ownership of railways, 362
+
+  State regulation of railways, 362, 363
+
+  Station agent's duties, 411
+
+  Station indicators, 259
+
+  Station, large, work at, 415
+    small, work at, 411
+
+  Stationery and blanks, quantity used on a railway, 304
+
+  Statistics, railway, 425
+
+  Steam driver-brake, 192
+    how distributed to the cylinders, 117
+    shovel, work of, 21
+    supply and speed, relations of, 129
+
+  Steel bridges, 29
+
+  Steel rails, first introduction, 37
+
+  Steel truss-bridges, development of, 85
+
+  Stephenson, George, 1, 2, 3, 228, 346
+    Robert, 1, 2, 3, 79, 192
+
+  Stock and bonds, relative position, 354
+
+  Storekeeper's duties on a railway, 307
+
+  Stockton & Darlington passenger train, 228
+
+  "Stourbridge Lion," 102
+
+  Strikes, evils of, 374
+
+  Superintendent, duties of, 274
+    of machinery, powers and duties, 157
+
+  Supply department, 298
+    importance of, 311
+
+  Supplies, aggregate of, on a railway, 299
+    variety required for a railway, 301
+
+  Surveying party, life of, 13
+    from a rope ladder, 50
+
+  Surveys, preliminary, 13
+
+  Suspension bridges, 81
+
+  Switchbacks and loops, 8;
+    types of, 9, 10
+
+  Switches, interlocking, 420
+    stub, accidents caused by, 218
+
+  Switch-tender's work, 420
+
+
+  Telegraph in railroading, 238
+
+  Thompson, William B., 317, 322, 342
+
+  Thomson, Frank, 43, 340
+
+  Thomson, J. Edgar, 349
+
+  Through and local freight, 288
+
+  Through lines, growth of, 348
+
+  Tickets, cost of, on a railway, 305
+    coupon, 254
+    old, 236
+    sales and reports, 182
+
+  Ties and timber supplies, 306
+
+  Time, fast, instances of, 404
+    making, on passenger trains, 403
+
+  Time-tables, cost of, 305
+    earliest American, 235
+    how made, 160
+
+  Torpedo signals, 213
+
+  Track, early experiments with, 36, 37
+    how laid, 36
+    how maintained and kept in order, 38
+    inspection on the Pennsylvania Railroad, 41
+    laid on stone, 36
+    standards of excellence, 41
+
+  Trackmen's duties, 38
+    organization and officers, 41
+
+  Track-walker's duties and trials, 422
+
+  Trade centres, advantages of, 360
+
+  Traffic, how influenced and secured, 172
+    manager, duties of, 172
+    questions and the Massachusetts Railroad Commission, 367
+    receipts, how returned and accounted for, 182
+
+  Train despatcher and his work, 163, 422
+
+  Train despatching, 162
+    old and new, 187
+
+  Train orders and rules, 164
+
+  Train signals, bell-cord and other, 237
+
+  Train work, irregularity of, 399
+
+  Trainmen, accidents to, 393
+    and tramps, 386
+
+  Trains, rules for running, 162
+
+  Tramways, Roman, of stone, 1
+
+  Transfer freight stations, 288
+
+  Transportation, cost of, 43
+    conducting, 159
+    department and the car-accountant, 275
+
+  Trestles, wooden, 78
+
+  Trevithick, Richard, 2
+
+  Tribunal, proposed, for adjusting differences between railways and
+        their employees, 376
+
+  Trucks for cars, 7, 108
+    for locomotives, 4, 107, 109
+
+  Trunk lines compared, 428
+
+  Trunk-line pool, origin and history, 365
+
+  Truss-bridge, typical American, 86
+
+  Tubular bridges, 80
+
+  Tunnels, 59
+    American, 23
+    connected by a bridge, 55
+    difficulties of construction, 62
+    great, 62
+    how avoided, 23
+    located by triangulation, 53
+    Mont Cenis, 63
+    St. Gothard, 63
+
+
+  Underground Railway, London, 97
+
+  Union Pacific Railway system, extent of, 370
+
+
+  Vacuum-brake, 193, 195
+
+  Vail, Theodore N., 317, 322
+
+  Valleys, how crossed by a railway, 49
+
+  Valve-motion arrangements, 118
+
+  Vanderbilt business methods, 351
+
+  Vanderbilt, Commodore, 318, 340
+
+  Vanderbilt, Cornelius, 350, 424
+
+  Vanderbilt, William H., 318, 340
+
+  Verrugas Viaduct, 55
+
+  Vestibule train, luxury of, 248
+    as a safety device, 224
+
+  Viaducts, American metal, 79
+
+  Victoria Bridge, 80
+
+
+  Waddell, A., 323
+
+  Wagner Palace Car Company, 242
+
+  Wagon cars, 290
+
+  War, the late, effect of, on railway growth, 348
+
+  Washington Bridge over the Harlem River, 77, 94
+
+  Waste and saving in supplies, 302
+
+  Water-jet method of sinking piles, 68
+
+  Watt, James, 1
+
+  Way-bill and its theory, 181
+
+  Westinghouse air-brake, 195, 196
+
+  Westinghouse, George, Jr., 200, 237
+
+  West Point Foundry as a locomotive shop, 104
+
+  Whipple, Squire, 28
+
+  Winans, Ross, 7, 108
+
+
+  Yardmaster's duties, 283
+
+  Young Men's Christian Association, Railway Department, 424
+
+
+
+
+  TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE
+
+  Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.
+
+  Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=.
+
+  A superscript is denoted by ^x for example 12^1.
+
+  Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been
+  corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within
+  the text and consultation of external sources.
+
+  Basic fractions are displayed as ½ ¼ ¾; other fraction are shown in
+  the form a/b as 1/117 or 39-2/10 for example.
+
+  A large dense table spanning two pages in the original book (page 158
+  and 159) has been split into 4 parts, with column #1 (engine number)
+  being repeated in each part. The vertical column headings have been
+  replaced by a key, A B etc, with an explanation of the keys at the
+  beginning of each part. Some cell values were unclear in the scanned
+  image and a best guess of the digit has been made.
+
+  Another large table at page 447 has been split into 2 parts.
+
+  In several tables with dollar.cent values the decimal point is faint
+  or missing. For consistency the decimal point has been inserted in
+  all cases.
+
+  Footnote #31 had no anchor; this has been added in the chapter title.
+
+  Nine consecutive full-page illustrations placed after page 428
+  have detailed maps and Gantt charts and many have large amounts of
+  text on them. Most of this text, and the Gantt chart information,
+  have been copied and placed under the illustration as part of the
+  caption.
+
+  In the organization chart on page 185, it is very likely that the
+  Train Master and the Station Agents were all intended to report
+  to the Superintendant of Transportation. The missing connecting
+  line has been inserted using a dotted line to indicate this
+  insertion.
+
+  Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text,
+  and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. For example,
+  untravelled; sirup; smouldering; box car, box-car; cast iron,
+  cast-iron.
+
+  Pg 42, 'from 1 to 10' replaced by 'from 0 to 10'.
+  Pg 114, 'have ournal-boxes' replaced by 'have journal-boxes'.
+  Pg 392, 'no one brakeman' replaced by 'not one brakeman'.
+  Pg 416, 'fusilade' replaced by 'fusillade'.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The American Railway, by 
+Thomas Curtis Clarke and Theodore Voorhees and John Bogart and and others
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AMERICAN RAILWAY ***
+
+***** This file should be named 54383-0.txt or 54383-0.zip *****
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+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The American Railway, by 
+Thomas Curtis Clarke and Theodore Voorhees and John Bogart and and others
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+
+
+Title: The American Railway
+       Its Construction, Development, Management, and Appliances
+
+Author: Thomas Curtis Clarke
+        Theodore Voorhees
+        John Bogart
+        and others
+
+Release Date: March 18, 2017 [EBook #54383]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AMERICAN RAILWAY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, John Campbell and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<div class="transnote">
+<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE</strong></p>
+
+<p>Details on minor changes can be found at <a href="#TN">the end of the book.</a></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="600" alt="" /></div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap pg-brk" />
+<p class="p10" />
+
+<h1>THE AMERICAN RAILWAY</h1>
+
+<p class="p10" />
+
+
+<hr class="chap pg-brk" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/frontis.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">THE LAST SPAN&mdash;READY TO JOIN.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap pg-brk" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="pfs240"><span class="smcap">The American Railway</span></p>
+
+<p class="p2 pfs135"><em>ITS CONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT,</em></p>
+<p class="pfs135"><em>MANAGEMENT, AND APPLIANCES</em></p>
+
+
+<p class="p6 pfs70">BY</p>
+
+<div class="blockquotx fs70">
+<p>THOMAS CURTIS CLARKE<span class="pad4">THEODORE VOORHEES</span></p>
+<p class="pad2">JOHN BOGART<span class="pad10">BENJAMIN NORTON</span></p>
+<p class="pad4">M. N. FORNEY<span class="pad10">ARTHUR T. HADLEY</span></p>
+<p class="pad6">E. P. ALEXANDER<span class="pad8">THOMAS L. JAMES</span></p>
+<p class="pad8">H. G. PROUT<span class="pad10">CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS</span></p>
+<p class="pad10">HORACE PORTER<span class="pad8">B. B. ADAMS, JR.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="p4 pfs70">WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY</p>
+
+<p class="pfs100">THOMAS M. COOLEY</p>
+
+<p class="pfs60">CHAIRMAN OF INTERSTATE COMMERCE COMMISSION</p>
+
+<p class="p4 pfs90"><em>WITH MORE THAN 200 ILLUSTRATIONS</em></p>
+
+<p class="p4 pfs100">NEW YORK</p>
+
+<p class="pfs120">CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS</p>
+
+<p class="pfs120">1889</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap pg-brk" />
+<p class="p10" />
+<p class="pfs70"><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1888, 1889, by</span></p>
+
+<p class="pfs70">CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS</p>
+
+<p class="p10 pfs60">TROW'S<br />
+PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING COMPANY,<br />
+NEW YORK.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</a></h2>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr xs">PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><em>INTRODUCTION</em></td><td class="tdl"><a href="#Page_xxi">xxi</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By THOMAS M. COOLEY</span>,<br /><em>Chairman Interstate Commerce Commission</em>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl tdpp fs120">THE BUILDING OF A RAILWAY</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2">By THOMAS CURTIS CLARKE,<br /><em>Civil Engineer</em>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlj">Roman Tramways of Stone&mdash;First Use of Iron Rails&mdash;The Modern Railway created by
+                     Stephenson's "Rocket" in 1830&mdash;Early American Locomotives&mdash;Key to the Evolution of
+                     the American Railway&mdash;Invention of the Swivelling Truck, Equalizing Beams, and the
+                     Switchback&mdash;Locating a Road&mdash;Work of the Surveying Party&mdash;Making the Road-bed&mdash;How
+                     Tunnels are Avoided&mdash;More than Three Thousand Bridges in the United States&mdash;Old Wooden
+                     Structures&mdash;The Howe Truss&mdash;The Use of Iron&mdash;Viaducts of Steel&mdash;The American
+                     System of Laying Bridge Foundations under Water&mdash;Origin of the Cantilever&mdash;Laying the
+                     Track&mdash;How it is Kept in Repair&mdash;Premiums for Section Bosses&mdash;Number of Railway
+                     Employees in the United States&mdash;Rapid Railway Construction&mdash;Radical Changes which the
+                     Railway will Effect.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl tdpp fs120">FEATS OF RAILWAY ENGINEERING</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By JOHN BOGART</span>,<br /><em>State Engineer of New York</em>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlj">Development of the Rail&mdash;Problems for the Engineer&mdash;How Heights are Climbed&mdash;The Use
+                     of Trestles&mdash;Construction on a Mountain Side&mdash;Engineering on Rope Ladders&mdash;Through
+                     the Portals of a Cañon&mdash;Feats on the Oroya Railroad, Peru&mdash;Nochistongo Cut&mdash;Rack Rails
+                     for Heavy Grades&mdash;Difficulties in Tunnel Construction&mdash;Bridge Foundations&mdash;Cribs and
+                     Pneumatic Caissons&mdash;How Men work under Water&mdash;The Construction of Stone Arches&mdash;Wood
+                     <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span>
+                     and Iron in Bridge-building&mdash;Great Suspension Bridges&mdash;The Niagara Cantilever and the
+                     enormous Forth Bridge&mdash;Elevated and Underground Roads&mdash;Responsibilities of the Civil Engineer.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl tdpp fs120">AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By M. N. FORNEY</span>,<br /><em>Author of "The Catechism of the Locomotive," Editor "Railroad and Engineering Journal," New York</em>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlj">The Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad in 1830&mdash;Evolution of the Car from the Conestoga Wagon&mdash;Horatio
+                     Allen's Trial Trip&mdash;The First Locomotive used in the United States&mdash;Peter Cooper's Race
+                     with a Gray Horse&mdash;The "De Witt Clinton," "Planet," and other Early Types of Locomotives&mdash;Equalizing
+                     Levers&mdash;How Steam is Made and Controlled&mdash;The Boiler, Cylinder, Injector, and Valve Gear&mdash;Regulation
+                     of the Capacity of a Locomotive to Draw&mdash;Increase in the Number of Driving Wheels&mdash;Modern
+                     Types of Locomotives&mdash;Variation in the Rate of Speed&mdash;The Appliances by which an Engine is
+                     Governed&mdash;Round-houses and Shops&mdash;Development of American Cars&mdash;An Illustration from
+                     Peter Parley&mdash;The Survival of Stage Coach Bodies&mdash;Adoption of the Rectangular Shape&mdash;The
+                     Origin of Eight-wheeled Cars&mdash;Improvement in Car Coupling&mdash;A Uniform Type Recommended&mdash;The
+                     Making of Wheels&mdash;Relative Merits of Cast and Wrought Iron, and Steel&mdash;The Allen Paper
+                     Wheel&mdash;Types of Cars, with Size, Weight, and Price&mdash;The Car-Builder's Dictionary&mdash;Statistical.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl tdpp fs120">RAILWAY MANAGEMENT</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By Gen. E. P. ALEXANDER</span>,<br /><em>President of the Central Railroad and Banking Company of Georgia</em>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlj">Relations of Railway Management to all Other Pursuits&mdash;Developed by the Necessities of a Complex
+                     Industrial Life&mdash;How a Continuous Life is Given to a Corporation&mdash;Its Artificial Memory&mdash;Main
+                     Divisions of Railway Management&mdash;The Executive and Legislative Powers&mdash;The Purchasing and
+                     Supply Departments&mdash;Importance of the Legal Department&mdash;How the Roadway is Kept in Repair&mdash;The
+                     Maintenance of Rolling Stock&mdash;Schedule-making&mdash;The Handling of Extra Trains&mdash;Duties of
+                     the Train-despatcher&mdash;Accidents in Spite of Precautions&mdash;Daily Distribution of Cars&mdash;How
+                     Business is Secured and Rates are Fixed&mdash;The Interstate Commerce Law&mdash;The Questions of
+                     "Long and Short Hauls" and "Differentials"&mdash;Classification of Freight&mdash;Regulation of
+                     Passenger-rates&mdash;Work of Soliciting Agents&mdash;The Collection of Revenue and Statistics&mdash;What
+                     is a Way-bill&mdash;How Disbursements are Made&mdash;The Social and Industrial Problem which Confronts
+                     Railway Corporations.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl tdpp fs120">SAFETY IN RAILROAD TRAVEL</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By H. G. PROUT</span>,<br /><em>Editor "Railroad Gazette," New York</em>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlj">The Possibilities of Destruction in the Great Speed of a Locomotive&mdash;The Energy of Four Hundred
+                     Tons Moving at Seventy-five Miles an Hour&mdash;A Look ahead from a Locomotive at Night&mdash;Passengers
+                     Killed and Injured in One Year&mdash;Good Discipline the Great Source of Safety&mdash;The Part Played
+                     by Mechanical Appliances&mdash;Hand-brakes on Old Cars&mdash;How the Air-brake Works&mdash;The
+                     Electric Brake&mdash;Improvements yet to be Made&mdash;Engine Driver Brakes&mdash;Two Classes of
+                     Signals: those which Protect Points of Danger, and those which Keep an Interval between Trains on
+                     the Same Track&mdash;The Semaphore&mdash;Interlocking Signals and Switches&mdash;Electric Annunciators
+                     to Indicate the Movements&mdash;The Block Signal System&mdash;Protection for Crossings&mdash;Gates
+                     and Gongs&mdash;How Derailment is Guarded Against&mdash;Safety Bolts&mdash;Automatic Couplers&mdash;The
+                     Vestibule as a Safety Appliance&mdash;Car Heating and Lighting.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl tdpp fs120">RAILWAY PASSENGER TRAVEL</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By Gen. HORACE PORTER</span>,<br /><em>Vice-President Pullman Palace-Car Company</em>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlj">The Earliest Railway Passenger Advertisement&mdash;The First Time-table Published in America&mdash;The
+                     Mohawk &amp; Hudson Train&mdash;Survival of Stage-coach Terms in English Railway Nomenclature&mdash;Simon
+                     Cameron's Rash Prediction&mdash;Discomforts of Early Cars&mdash;Introduction of Air-brakes, Patent
+                     Buffers and Couplers, the Bell-cord, and Interlocking Switches&mdash;The First Sleeping-cars&mdash;Mr.
+                     Pullman's Experiments&mdash;The "Pioneer"&mdash;Introduction of Parlor and Drawing-room Cars&mdash;The
+                     Demand for Dining-cars&mdash;Ingenious Devices for Heating Cars&mdash;Origin of Vestibule-cars&mdash;An
+                     Important Safety Appliance&mdash;The Luxuries of a Limited Express&mdash;Fast Time in America and
+                     England&mdash;Sleeping-cars for Immigrants&mdash;The Village of Pullman&mdash;The Largest Car-works
+                     in the World&mdash;Baggage-checks and Coupon Tickets&mdash;Conveniences in a Modern Depot&mdash;Statistics
+                     in Regard to Accidents&mdash;Proportion of Passengers in Various Classes&mdash;Comparison of Rates in
+                     the Leading Countries of the World.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl tdpp fs120">THE FREIGHT-CAR SERVICE</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By THEODORE VOORHEES</span>,<br /><em>Assistant-General Superintendent, New York Central Railroad</em>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlj">Sixteen Months' Journey of a Car&mdash;Detentions by the Way&mdash;Difficulties of the Car Accountant's
+                     Office&mdash;Necessities of Through Freight&mdash;How a Company's Cars are Scattered&mdash;The Question
+                     <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span>
+                     of Mileage&mdash;Reduction of the Balance in Favor of Other Roads&mdash;Relation of the Car Accountant's
+                     Work to the Transportation Department&mdash;Computation of Mileage&mdash;The Record Branch&mdash;How
+                     Reports are Gathered and Compiled&mdash;Exchange of "Junction Cards"&mdash;The Use of
+                     "Tracers"&mdash;Distribution of Empty Cars&mdash;Control of the Movement of Freight&mdash;How Trains
+                     are Made Up&mdash;Duties of the Yardmaster&mdash;The Handling of Through Trains&mdash;Organization of
+                     Fast Lines&mdash;Transfer Freight Houses&mdash;Special Cars for Specific Service&mdash;Disasters to
+                     Freight Trains&mdash;How the Companies Suffer&mdash;Inequalities in Payment for Car Service&mdash;The
+                     Per Diem Plan&mdash;A Uniform Charge for Car Rental&mdash;What Reforms might be Accomplished.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl tdpp fs120">HOW TO FEED A RAILWAY</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By BENJAMIN NORTON</span>,<br /><em>Second Vice-President, Long Island Railroad Company</em>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlj">The Many Necessities of a Modern Railway&mdash;The Purchasing and Supply Departments&mdash;Comparison
+                     with the Commissary Department of an Army&mdash;Financial Importance&mdash;Immense Expenditures&mdash;The
+                     General Storehouse&mdash;Duties of the Purchasing Agent&mdash;The Best Material the Cheapest&mdash;Profits
+                     from the Scrap-heap&mdash;Old Rails Worked over into New Implements&mdash;Yearly Contracts for Staple
+                     Articles&mdash;Economy in Fuel&mdash;Tests by the Best Engineers and Firemen&mdash;The Stationery
+                     Supply&mdash;Aggregate Annual Cost of Envelopes, Tickets, and Time-tables&mdash;The Average Life of
+                     Rails&mdash;Durability of Cross-ties&mdash;What it Costs per Mile to Run an Engine&mdash;The Paymaster's
+                     Duties&mdash;Scenes during the Trip of a Pay-car.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl tdpp fs120">THE RAILWAY MAIL SERVICE</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_312">312</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By THOMAS L. JAMES</span>,<br /><em>Ex-Postmaster General</em>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlj">An Object Lesson in Postal Progress&mdash;Nearness of the Department to the People&mdash;The First
+                     Travelling Post-Office in the United States&mdash;Organization of the Department in 1789&mdash;Early
+                     Mail Contracts&mdash;All Railroads made Post-routes&mdash;Compartments for Mail Clerks in
+                     Baggage-cars&mdash;Origin of the Present System in 1862&mdash;Important Work of Colonel George S.
+                     Bangs&mdash;The "Fast Mail" between New York and Chicago&mdash;Why it was Suspended&mdash;Resumption
+                     in 1877&mdash;Present Condition of the Service&mdash;Statistics&mdash;A Ride on the "Fast Mail"&mdash;Busy
+                     Scenes at the Grand Central Depot&mdash;Special Uses of the Five Cars&mdash;Duties of the Clerks&mdash;How
+                     the Work is Performed&mdash;Annual Appropriation for Special Mail Facilities&mdash;Dangers Threatening
+                     the Railway Mail Clerk's Life&mdash;An Insurance Fund Proposed&mdash;Needs of the Service&mdash;A
+                     Plea for Radical Civil Service Reform.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl tdpp fs120">THE RAILWAY IN ITS BUSINESS RELATIONS</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_344">344</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By ARTHUR T. HADLEY</span>,<br /><em>Professor of Political Science in Yale College, Author of "Railroad Transportation</em>."</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlj">Amount of Capital Invested in Railways&mdash;Important Place in the Modern Industrial System&mdash;The
+                     Duke of Bridgewater's Foresight&mdash;The Growth of Half a Century&mdash;Early Methods of Business
+                     Management&mdash;The Tendency toward Consolidation&mdash;How the War Developed a National Idea&mdash;Its
+                     Effect on Railroad Building&mdash;Thomson and Scott as Organizers&mdash;Vanderbilt's Capacity for
+                     Financial Management&mdash;Garrett's Development of the Baltimore &amp; Ohio&mdash;The Concentration
+                     of Immense Power in a Few Men&mdash;Making Money out of the Investors&mdash;Difficult Positions of
+                     Stockholders and Bondholders&mdash;How the Finances are Manipulated by the Board of Directors&mdash;Temptations
+                     to the Misuse of Power&mdash;Relations of Railroads to the Public who Use Them&mdash;Inequalities in
+                     Freight Rates&mdash;Undue Advantages for Large Trade Centres&mdash;Proposed Remedies&mdash;Objections
+                     to Government Control&mdash;Failure of Grangerism&mdash;The Origin of Pools&mdash;Their Advantages&mdash;Albert
+                     Fink's Great Work&mdash;Charles Francis Adams and the Massachusetts Commission&mdash;Adoption of the
+                     Interstate Commerce Law&mdash;Important Influence of the Commission&mdash;Its Future Functions&mdash;Ill-judged
+                     State Legislation.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl tdpp fs120">THE PREVENTION OF RAILWAY STRIKES</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_370">370</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS</span>,<br /><em>President of the Union Pacific Railroad</em>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlj">Railways the Largest Single Interest in the United States&mdash;Some Impressive Statistics&mdash;Growth
+                     of a Complex Organization&mdash;Five Divisions of Necessary Work&mdash;Other Special Departments&mdash;Importance
+                     of the Operating Department&mdash;The Evil of Strikes&mdash;To be Remedied by Thorough Organization&mdash;Not
+                     the Ordinary Relation between Employer and Employee&mdash;Of what the Model Railway Service Should
+                     Consist&mdash;Temporary and Permanent Employees&mdash;Promotion from one Grade to the Other&mdash;Rights
+                     and Privileges of the Permanent Service&mdash;Employment during Good Behavior&mdash;Proposed Tribunal
+                     for Adjusting Differences and Enforcing Discipline&mdash;A Regular Advance in Pay for Faithful
+                     Service&mdash;A Fund for Hospital Service, Pensions, and Insurance&mdash;Railroad Educational
+                     Institutions&mdash;The Employer to Have a Voice in Management through a Council&mdash;A System of
+                     Representation.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">THE EVERY-DAY LIFE OF RAILROAD MEN</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_383">383</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By B. B. ADAMS, Jr.</span>,<br /><em>Associate Editor, "Railroad Gazette," New York</em>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlj">The Typical Railroad Man&mdash;On the Road and at Home&mdash;Raising the Moral Standard&mdash;Characteristics
+                     <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span>
+                     of the Freight Brakeman&mdash;His Wit the Result of Meditation&mdash;How Slang is Originated&mdash;Agreeable
+                     Features of his Life in Fine Weather&mdash;Hardships in Winter&mdash;The Perils of Hand-brakes&mdash;Broken
+                     Trains&mdash;Going back to Flag&mdash;Coupling Accidents&mdash;At the Spring&mdash;Advantages of a
+                     Passenger Brakeman&mdash;Trials of the Freight Conductor&mdash;The Investigation of Accidents&mdash;Irregular
+                     Hours of Work&mdash;The Locomotive Engineer the Hero of the Rail&mdash;His Rare Qualities&mdash;The
+                     Value of Quick Judgment&mdash;Calm Fidelity a Necessary Trait&mdash;Saving Fuel on a Freight
+                     Engine&mdash;Making Time on a Passenger Engine&mdash;Remarkable Runs&mdash;The Spirit of Fraternity
+                     among Engineers&mdash;Difficult Duties of a Passenger-train Conductor&mdash;Tact in Dealing with Many
+                     People&mdash;Questions to be Answered&mdash;How Rough Characters are Dealt with&mdash;Heavy
+                     Responsibilities&mdash;The Work of a Station Agent&mdash;Flirtation by Telegraph&mdash;The Baggage-master's
+                     Hard Task&mdash;Eternal Vigilance Necessary in a Switch-tender&mdash;Section-men, Train Despatchers,
+                     Firemen, and Clerks&mdash;Efforts to Make the Railroad Man's Life Easier.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl tdpp fs120">STATISTICAL RAILWAY STUDIES</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_425">425</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs60" colspan="2">ILLUSTRATED WITH THIRTEEN MAPS AND NINETEEN CHARTS.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc tdpp fs90" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By FLETCHER W. HEWES</span>,<br /><em>Author of "Scribner's Statistical Atlas</em>."</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlj">Railway Mileage of the World&mdash;Railway Mileage of the United States&mdash;Annual Mileage and
+                     Increase&mdash;Mileage Compared with Area&mdash;Geographical Location of Railways&mdash;Centres of
+                     Mileage and of Population&mdash;Railway Systems&mdash;Trunk Lines Compared: By Mileage; Largest
+                     Receipts; Largest Net Results&mdash;Freight Traffic&mdash;Reduction of Freight Rates&mdash;Wheat
+                     Rates&mdash;The Freight Haul&mdash;Empty Freight Trains&mdash;Freight Profits&mdash;Passenger
+                     Traffic&mdash;Passenger Rates&mdash;Passenger Travel&mdash;Passenger Profits&mdash;General
+                     Considerations&mdash;Dividends&mdash;Net Earnings per Mile and Railway Building&mdash;Ratios of
+                     Increase&mdash;Construction and Maintenance&mdash;Employees and their Wages&mdash;Rolling
+                     Stock&mdash;Capital Invested.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><em>INDEX</em></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_449">449</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="p4" />
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+<p class="p2" />
+<h3>FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS.</h3>
+
+<div class="center fs90">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="4" width="95%" summary="">
+<tr class="fs60"><td class="tdc"><em>Title.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Designer.</em></td><td class="tdr xs"><em>Page</em></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">The Last Span (Frontispiece)</td><td class="tdl">A. B. Frost</td><td class="tdr wd10"><a href="#Page_v">v</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">Alpine Pass. Avoidance of a Tunnel</td><td class="tdl"><em>From&nbsp;a&nbsp;photograph</em></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">Big Loop, Georgetown Branch of the Union Pacific, Colorado</td><td class="tdl"><em>From a photograph</em></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">Snow-sheds, Selkirk Mountains, Canadian Pacific</td><td class="tdl">J. D. Woodward</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">Rail Making</td><td class="tdl">Walter Shirlaw</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">Loop and Great Trestle near Hagerman's, on the Colorado Midland Railway</td><td class="tdl">J. D. Woodward</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">Portal of a Tunnel in Process of Construction</td><td class="tdl">Otto Stark</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">At Work in a Pneumatic Caisson&mdash;Fifty Feet below the Surface of the Water</td><td class="tdl">Walter Shirlaw</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">Below the Brooklyn Bridge</td><td class="tdl">J. H. Twachtman</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">The St. Louis Bridge during Construction</td><td class="tdl">M. E. Sands &amp; R. Blum</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">A Typical American Passenger Locomotive</td><td class="tdl"><em>From a photograph</em></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">Interior of a Round-house</td><td class="tdl">M. J. Burns</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">View in Locomotive Erecting Shop</td><td class="tdl">J. D. Woodward &amp; R. Blum</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</a></span>
+                     Diagram Used in Making Railway Time-Tables</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">The General Despatcher</td><td class="tdl">M. J. Burns</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">Mantua Junction, West Philadelphia, showing a Complex System of Interlacing Tracks</td><td class="tdl">W. C. Fitler</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">Danger Ahead!</td><td class="tdl">A. B. Frost</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">Interlocking Apparatus for Operating Switches and Signals by Compressed Air, Pittsburg Yards, Pennsylvania Railroad</td><td class="tdl"><em>From a photograph</em></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">Pullman Vestibuled Cars</td><td class="tdl"><em>From a photograph</em></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">In a Baggage-room</td><td class="tdl">W. C. Broughton</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_255">255</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">"Show Your Tickets!"</td><td class="tdl">Walter Shirlaw</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">Freight Yards of the New York Central &amp; Hudson River Railroad, West Sixty-fifth Street, New York</td><td class="tdl">W. C. Fitler</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_285">285</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">Freight from all Quarters&mdash;Some Typical Trains</td><td class="tdl">W. C. Fitler</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">At a Way-station&mdash;The Postmaster's Assistant</td><td class="tdl">Herbert Denman</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_321">321</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">Transfer of Mail at the Grand Central Station, New York</td><td class="tdl">Herbert Denman</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_327">327</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">Sorting Letters in Car No. 1&mdash;The Fast Mail</td><td class="tdl">Herbert Denman</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_333">333</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">A Breakdown on the Road</td><td class="tdl">A. B. Frost</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_405">405</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">In the Waiting Room of a Country Station</td><td class="tdl">A. B. Frost</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_413">413</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlx">The Trials of a Baggage-master</td><td class="tdl">A. B. Frost</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_417">417</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap pg-brk" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[xv]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT.</h3>
+
+<div class="center fs90">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="tdly"></td><td class="tdr xs">PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">First Locomotive</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_2">2</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Locomotive of To-day</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">A Sharp Curve&mdash;Manhattan Elevated Railway, 110th Street, New York</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">A Steep Grade on a Mountain Railroad</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">A Switchback</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Plan of Big Loop</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Profile of the Same</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Engineers in Camp</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Royal Gorge Hanging Bridge, Denver and Rio Grande, Colorado</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Veta Pass, Colorado</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Sections of Snow-sheds (3 cuts)</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Making an Embankment</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Steam Excavator</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Building a Culvert</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Building a Bridge Abutment</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Rock Drill</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">A Construction and Boarding Train</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Bergen Tunnels, Hoboken, N. J.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Beginning a Tunnel</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Old Burr Wooden Bridge</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Kinzua Viaduct; Erie Railway</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Kinzua Viaduct</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">View of Thomas Pope's Proposed Cantilever (1810)</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Pope's Cantilever in Process of Erection</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">General View of the Poughkeepsie Bridge</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Erection of a Cantilever</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Spiking the Track</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Track Laying</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Temporary Railway Crossing the St. Lawrence on the Ice</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">View Down the Blue from Rocky Point, Denver, South Park and Pacific Railroad; showing successive tiers of railway</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Denver and Rio Grande Railway Entering the Portals of the Grand River Cañon, Colorado</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">The Kentucky River Cantilever, on the Cincinnati Southern Railway</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Truss over Ravine, and Tunnel, Oroya Railroad, Peru</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">The Nochistongo Cut, Mexican Central Railway</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">The Mount Washington Rack Railroad</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Trestle on Portland and Ogdensburg Railway, Crawford Notch, White Mountains</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">A Series of Tunnels</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[xvi]</a></span>
+                     Tunnel at the Foot of Mount St. Stephen, on the Canadian Pacific</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Peña de Mora on the La Guayra and Carácas Railway, Venezuela</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Perspective View of St. Gothard Spiral Tunnels, in the Alps</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Plan of St. Gothard Spiral Tunnels</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Profile of the Same</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Portal of a Finished Tunnel; showing Cameron's Cone, Colorado</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Railway Pass at Rocky Point in the Rocky Mountains</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Bridge Pier Founded on Piles</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Pneumatic Caisson</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Transverse Section of Pneumatic Caisson</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Pier of Hawkesbury Bridge, Australia</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Foundation Crib of the Poughkeepsie Bridge</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Transverse Section of the Same</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Granite Arched Approach to Harlem River Bridge in Process of Construction</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">The Old Portage Viaduct, Erie Railway, N. Y.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">The New Portage Viaduct</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">The Britannia Tubular Bridge over the Menai Straits, North Wales</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Old Stone Towers of the Niagara Suspension Bridge</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">The New Iron Towers of the Same</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Truss Bridge of the Northern Pacific Railway over the Missouri River at Bismarck, Dak.&mdash;Testing the Central Span</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Curved Viaduct, Georgetown, Col.; the Union Pacific Crossing its own Line</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_88">88</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">The Niagara Cantilever Bridge in Progress</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">The Niagara Cantilever Bridge Completed</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">The Lachine Bridge, on the Canadian Pacific Railway, near Montreal, Canada</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">The 510-feet Span Steel Arches of the New Harlem River Bridge, New York, during Construction</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">London Underground Railway Station</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Conestoga Wagon and Team</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad, 1830&ndash;35</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Boston &amp; Worcester Railroad, 1835</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Horatio Allen</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Peter Cooper's Locomotive, 1830</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">"South Carolina," 1831, and Plan of its Running Gear</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">The "De Witt Clinton," 1831</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">"Grasshopper" Locomotive</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">The "Planet"</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">John B. Jervis's Locomotive, 1831, and Plan of its Running Gear</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Campbell's Locomotive</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Locomotive for Suburban Traffic</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Locomotive for Street Railway</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Four-wheeled Switching Locomotive</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[xvii]</a></span>
+                     Driving Wheels, Frames, Spurs, etc., of American Locomotive</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Longitudinal Section of a Locomotive Boiler</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Transverse Section</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Rudimentary Injector</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Injector Used on Locomotives</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Sections of a Locomotive Cylinder</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Eccentric</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Eccentric and Strap</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Valve Gear</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Turning Locomotive Tires</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Six-wheeled Switching Locomotive</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Mogul Locomotive</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Ten-wheeled Passenger Locomotive</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Consolidation Locomotive (unfinished)</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Consolidation Locomotive</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Decapod Locomotive</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">"Forney" Tank Locomotive</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">"Hudson" Tank Locomotive</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Camden &amp; Amboy Locomotive, 1848</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Cab End of a Locomotive and its Attachments</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Interior of Erecting Shop, showing Locomotive Lifted by Travelling Crane</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Forging a Locomotive Frame</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Mohawk &amp; Hudson Car, 1831</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Early Car</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Early Car on the Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Early American Car, 1834</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Old Car for Carrying Flour on the Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Old Car for Carrying Firewood on the Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Old Car on the Quincy Granite Railroad</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Janney Car Coupler, showing the Process of Coupling</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Mould and Flask in which Wheels are Cast</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Cast-iron Car Wheels</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Section of the Tread and Flange of a Car Wheel</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Allen Paper Car Wheel</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Modern Passenger-car and Frame</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Snow-plough at Work</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">A Type of Snow-plough</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">A Rotary Steam Snow-shovel in Operation</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Railway-crossing Gate</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Signal to Stop</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Signal to Move Ahead</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Signal to Move Back</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[xviii]</a></span>
+                     Signal that the Train has Parted</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Entrance Gates at a Large Station</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Central Switch and Signal Tower</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Interior of a Switch-tower, showing the Operation of Interlocking Switches</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Stephenson's Steam Driver-brake, patented 1833</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Driver-brake on Modern Locomotive</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">English Screw-brake, on the Birmingham and Gloucester Road, about 1840</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">English Foot-brake on the Truck of a Great Western Coach, about 1840</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Plan and Elevation of Air-brake Apparatus</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Dwarf Semaphores and Split Switch</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Semaphore Signal with Indicators</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Section of Saxby &amp; Farmer Interlocking Machine</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Diagram of a Double-track Junction with Interlocked Switches and Signals</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Split Switches with Facing-point Locks and Detector-bars</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Derailing Switch</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_207">207</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Torpedo Placer</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_213">213</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Old Signal Tower on the Philadelphia &amp; Reading, at Phœnixville</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Crossing Gates worked by Mechanical Connection from the Cabin</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Some Results of a Butting Collision&mdash;Baggage and Passenger Cars Telescoped</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_218">218</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Wreck at a Bridge</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">New South Norwalk Drawbridge. Rails held by Safety Bolts</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Engines Wrecked during the Great Wabash Strike</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Link-and-pin Coupler</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Janney Automatic Coupler applied to a Freight Car</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Signals at Night</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_225">225</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Stockton &amp; Darlington Engine and Car</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Mohawk &amp; Hudson Train</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">English Railway Carriage, Midland Road. First and Third Class and Luggage Compartments</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">One of the Earliest Passenger Cars Built in this Country; used on the Western Railroad of Massachusetts (now the Boston &amp; Albany)</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Bogie Truck</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Rail and Coach Travel in the White Mountains</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Old Time Table, 1843</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Old Boston &amp; Worcester Railway Ticket (about 1837)</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Obverse and Reverse of a Ticket used in 1838, on the New York &amp; Harlem Railroad</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">The "Pioneer." First Complete Pullman Sleeping-car</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_240">240</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">A Pullman Porter</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Pullman Parlor Car</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Wagner Parlor Car</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Dining-car (Chicago, Burlington &amp; Quincy Railroad)</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_245">245</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">End View of a Vestibuled Car</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_249">249</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">[xix]</a></span>
+                     Pullman Sleeper on a Vestibuled Train</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Immigrant Sleeping-car (Canadian Pacific Railway)</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_251">251</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">View of Pullman, Ill.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Railway Station at York, England, built on a Curve</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_257">257</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Outside the Grand Central Station, New York</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Boston Passenger Station, Providence Division, Old Colony Railroad</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_259">259</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">A Page from the Car Accountant's Book</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_277">277</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Freight Pier, North River, New York</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Hay Storage Warehouses, New York Central &amp; Hudson River Railroad, West Thirty-third Street, New York</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">"Dummy" Train and Boy on Hudson Street, New York</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_287">287</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Red Line Freight-car Mark</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Star Union Freight-car Mark</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Coal Car, Central Railroad of New Jersey</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_289">289</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Refrigerator-car Mark</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_289">289</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Unloading a Train of Truck-wagons, Long Island Railroad</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_290">290</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Floating Cars, New York Harbor</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Postal Progress, 1776&ndash;1876</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_313">313</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">The Pony Express&mdash;The Relay</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_314">314</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">The Overland Mail Coach&mdash;A Star Route</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_315">315</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Mail Carrying in the Country</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_316">316</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Loading for the Fast Mail, at the General Post-Office, New York</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_324">324</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">At the Last Moment</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_326">326</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Pouching the Mail in the Postal Car</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_329">329</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">A Very Difficult Address&mdash;known as a "Sticker."</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_331">331</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Distributing the Mail by States and Routes</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_332">332</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Pouching Newspapers for California&mdash;in Car No. 5</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_335">335</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Catching the Pouch from the Crane</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_339">339</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">George Stephenson</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_345">345</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">J. Edgar Thomson</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_349">349</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Thomas A. Scott</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_350">350</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Cornelius Vanderbilt</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_352">352</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">John W. Garrett</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_355">355</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Albert Fink</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_366">366</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Charles Francis Adams</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_367">367</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Thomas M. Cooley</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_369">369</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">"Dancing on the Carpet"</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_386">386</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Trainman and Tramps</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_387">387</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Braking in Hard Weather</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_389">389</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Flagging in Winter</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_391">391</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Coupling</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_392">392</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">The Pleasant Part of a Brakeman's Life</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_395">395</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">[xx]</a></span>
+                     At the Spring</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_397">397</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Just Time to Jump</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_403">403</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Timely Warning</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_407">407</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">The Passenger Conductor</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_409">409</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Station Gardening</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_416">416</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">In the Yard at Night</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_419">419</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">A Track-walker on a Stormy Night</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_421">421</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">A Crossing Flagman</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_423">423</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">A Little Relaxation</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_424">424</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><h3>MAPS.</h3></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Mileage compared with Area</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_429">429</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Railways, 1830, 1840, 1850, and 1860</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_430">430</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Railways, 1870</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_431">431</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Railways, 1880</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_432">432</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Railways, 1889</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_433">433</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Five Railway Systems</td><td class="tdly"><a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><h3>CHARTS.</h3></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Principal Railway Countries</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_425">425</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Mileage to Area in New Jersey</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_426">426</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Total Mileage and Increase, 1830&ndash;1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_429">429</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Mileage by States, 1870</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_431">431</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Mileage by States, 1880</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_432">432</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Mileage by States, 1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_433">433</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Largest Receipts, 1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_435">435</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Largest Net Results, 1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_435">435</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Freight Rates of Thirteen Trunk Lines, 1870&ndash;1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_436">436</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Wheat Rates, by Water and by Rail, 1870&ndash;1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_438">438</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">The Freight Haul, 1882&ndash;1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_439">439</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">East-bound and West-bound Freight, 1877&ndash;1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_439">439</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Freight Profits, 1870&ndash;1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_440">440</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Passenger Rates, 1870&ndash;1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_441">441</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Passenger Travel, 1882&ndash;1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_442">442</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Passenger Profits, 1870&ndash;1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_442">442</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Average Dividends, 1876&ndash;1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_443">443</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Net Earnings and Mileage Built, 1876&ndash;1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_444">444</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Increase of Population, Mileage, and Freight Traffic, 1870&ndash;1888</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_446">446</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi">[xxi]</a></span></p>
+<p class="p4" />
+
+<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">INTRODUCTION.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="pfs90 smcap">By THOMAS M. COOLEY.</p>
+
+<div class="large">
+<p>The railroads of the United States, now aggregating a
+hundred and fifty thousand miles and having several hundred
+different managements, are frequently spoken of comprehensively
+as the railroad system of the country, as
+though they constituted a unity in fact, and might be regarded
+and dealt with as an entirety, by their patrons and
+by the public authorities, whenever the conveniences they
+are expected to supply, or the conduct of managers and
+agents, come in question. So far, however, is this from being
+the case, that it would be impossible to name any other industrial
+interest where the diversities are so obvious and
+the want of unity so conspicuous and so important. The diversities
+date from the very origin of the roads; they have
+not come into existence under the same laws nor subject to
+the same control. It was accepted as an undoubted truth in
+constitutional law from the first that the authority for the
+construction of railroads within a State must come from the
+State itself, which alone could empower the promoters to
+appropriate lands by adversary proceedings for the purpose.
+The grant of corporate power must also come from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii">[xxii]</a></span>
+the State, or, at least, have State recognition and sanction;
+and where the proposed road was to cross a State boundary,
+the necessary corporate authority must be given by every
+State through or into which the road was to run. It was
+conceded that the delegated powers of the General Government
+did not comprehend the granting of charters for the
+construction of these roads within the States, and even in
+the Territories charters were granted by the local legislatures.
+The case of the transcontinental roads was clearly
+exceptional; they were to be constructed in large part over
+the public domain, and subsidies were to be granted by
+Congress for the purpose. They were also, in part at least,
+to be constructed for governmental reasons as national
+agencies; and invoking State authority for the purpose
+seemed to be as inconsistent as it would be inadequate.
+But, though these were exceptional cases, the magnitude
+and importance of the Pacific roads are so immense that
+the agency of the General Government in making provision
+for this method of transportation must always have prominence
+in railroad history and railroad statistics.</p>
+
+<p>Not only have the roads been diverse in origin, but the
+corporations which have constructed them have differed
+very greatly in respect to their powers and rights, and also
+to the obligations imposed by law upon them. The early
+grants of power were charter-contracts, freely given, with
+very liberal provisions; the public being more anxious that
+they be accepted and acted upon than distrustful of their
+abuse afterward. Many of them were not subject to alteration
+or repeal, except with the consent of the corporators;
+and some of them contained provisions intended to exclude<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiii" id="Page_xxiii">[xxiii]</a></span>
+or limit competition, so that, within a limited territory, something
+in the nature of a monopoly in transportation would
+be created. The later grants give evidence of popular apprehension
+of corporate abuses; the legislature reserves a
+control over them, and the right to multiply railroads indefinitely
+is made as free as possible, under the supposition
+that in this multiplication is to be found the best protection
+against any one of them abusing its powers. In very many
+cases the motive to the building of a new road has been
+antagonism to one already in existence, and municipalities
+have voted subsidies to the one in the hope that, when constructed,
+it would draw business away from the other. The
+anomaly has thus been witnessed of distrust of corporate
+power being the motive for increasing it; and the multiplication
+of roads has gone on, without any general supervision
+or any previous determination by competent public authority
+that they were needed, until the increase has quite outrun
+in some sections any proper demand for their facilities.</p>
+
+<p>Roads thus brought into existence, without system and
+under diverse managements, it was soon seen were capable
+of being so operated that the antagonism of managers,
+instead of finding expression in legitimate competition,
+would be given to the sort of strife that can only be properly
+characterized by calling it, as it commonly is called, a
+war. From such a war the public inevitably suffers. The
+best service upon the roads is only performed when they
+are operated as if they constituted in fact parts of one harmonious
+system; the rates being made by agreement, and
+traffic exchanged with as little disturbance as possible, and
+without abrupt break at the terminals. But when every<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiv" id="Page_xxiv">[xxiv]</a></span>
+management might act independently, it sometimes happened
+that a company made its method of doing business
+an impediment instead of a help to the business done over
+other roads, recognizing no public duty which should preclude
+its doing so, provided a gain to itself, however indirect
+or illegitimate, was probable. Many consolidations
+of roads have had for their motive the getting rid of this
+power to do mischief on the part of roads absorbed.</p>
+
+<p>In nothing is the want of unity so distinctly and mischievously
+obvious as in the power of each corporation to
+make rates independently. It may not only make its own
+local rates at discretion, but it may join or refuse to join
+with others in making through rates; so that an inconsiderable
+and otherwise insignificant road may be capable of
+being so used as to throw rates for a large section of the
+country into confusion, and to render the making of profit
+by other roads impossible. It is frequently said in railroad
+circles that roads are sometimes constructed for no other
+reason than because, through this power of mischief, it will
+be possible to levy contributions upon others, or to compel
+others, in self-protection, to buy them up at extravagant
+prices. Cases are named in which this sort of scheming is
+supposed to have succeeded, and others in which it is now
+being tried.</p>
+
+<p>Evils springing from the diversities mentioned have
+been cured, or greatly mitigated, by such devices as the
+formation of fast-freight lines to operate over many roads;
+by allowing express companies to come upon the roads
+with semi-independence in the transportation of articles,
+where, for special reasons, the public is content to pay an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxv" id="Page_xxv">[xxv]</a></span>
+extra price for extra care or speed; and by arrangements
+with sleeping-car companies for special accommodations in
+luxurious cars to those desiring them. These collateral
+arrangements, however, have not been wholly beneficial;
+and had all the roads been constructed as parts of one system
+and under one management, some of them would
+neither have been necessary nor defensible. They exist
+now, however, with more or less reason for their existence;
+and they tend to increase the diversities in railroad
+work.</p>
+
+<p>The want of unity which has been pointed out tended
+to breed abuses specially injurious to the public, and governmental
+regulation was entered upon for their correction.
+Naturally the first attempts in this direction were made
+by separate States, each undertaking to regulate for itself
+the transportation within its own limits. Such regulation
+would have been perfectly logical, and perhaps effectual,
+had the roads within each State formed a system by themselves;
+but when State boundaries had very little importance,
+either to the roads themselves or to the traffic done
+over them, unless made important by restrictive and obstructive
+legislation, the regulation by any State must necessarily
+be fragmentary and imperfect, and diverse regulation
+in different States might be harmful rather than
+beneficial. It must be said for State regulation that it has
+in general been exercised in a prudent and conservative
+way, but it is liable to be influenced by a sensitive and excitable
+public opinion; and as nothing is more common
+than to find gross abuses in the matter of railroad transportation
+selfishly defended in localities, and even in consid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxvi" id="Page_xxvi">[xxvi]</a></span>erable
+sections, which are supposed to receive benefits from
+them, it would not be strange if the like selfishness should
+sometimes succeed in influencing the exercise of power
+by one State in a manner that a neighboring State would
+regard as unfriendly and injurious.</p>
+
+<p>The Federal Government recently undertook the work of
+regulation, and in doing so accepted the view upon which
+the States had acted, and so worded its statute that the
+transportation which does not cross State lines is supposed
+to be excluded. The United States thus undertakes to
+regulate interstate commerce by rail, and the States regulate,
+or may regulate, that which is not interstate. It was
+perhaps overlooked at first that, inasmuch as Government
+control may embrace the making of classifications, prescribing
+safety and other appliances, and naming rates, any considerable
+regulation of State traffic and interstate traffic separately
+must necessarily to some extent cause interference.
+The two classes of traffic flow on together over the same
+lines in the same vehicles under the management of the
+same agencies, with little or no distinction based on State
+lines; the rates and the management influenced by considerations
+which necessarily are of general force, so that separate
+regulation may without much extravagance be compared
+to an attempt in the case of one of our great rivers to
+regulate the flow of the waters in general, but without, in
+doing so, interfering with an independent regulation of
+such portion thereof as may have come from the springs
+and streams of some particular section. This is one of
+many reasons for looking upon all existing legislation as
+merely tentative.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxvii" id="Page_xxvii">[xxvii]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>No doubt the time will come when the railroads of the
+country will constitute, as they do not now, a system.
+There are those who think this may, sufficiently for practical
+purposes, be accomplished by the legalization of some
+scheme of pooling; but this is a crude device, against which
+there is an existing prejudice not easily to be removed.
+Others look for unity through gradual consolidations, the
+tendency to which is manifest, or through something in the
+nature of a trust, or by means of more comprehensive and
+stringent national control. Beyond all these is not infrequently
+suggested a Government ownership.</p>
+
+<p>Of the theories that might be advanced in this direction,
+or the arguments in their support, nothing further will be
+said here; the immediate purpose being accomplished
+when it is shown how misleading may be the term <em>system</em>,
+when applied to the railroads of the country as an aggregate,
+as now owned, managed, and controlled.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Every man in the land is interested daily and constantly
+in railroads and the transportation of persons and
+property over them. The price of whatever he eats, or
+wears, or uses, the cost and comfort of travel, the speed
+and convenience with which he shall receive his mail and
+the current intelligence of the day, and even the intimacy
+and extent of his social relations, are all largely affected
+thereby. The business employs great numbers of persons,
+and the wages paid them affect largely the wages paid in
+other lines of occupation. The management of the business
+in some of its departments is attended by serious dangers,
+and thousands annually lose their lives in the service.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxviii" id="Page_xxviii">[xxviii]</a></span>
+Other thousands annually are either killed or injured in
+being transported; the aggregate being somewhat startling,
+though unquestionably this method of travel is safer
+than any other. The ingenuity which has been expended
+in devices to make the transportation rapid, cheap, and
+safe may well be characterized as marvellous, and some
+feats in railroad engineering are the wonder of the world.
+With all these facts and many others to create a public interest
+in the general subject, the editor of <cite>Scribner's Magazine</cite>,
+some little time ago, applied to writers of well-known
+ability and competency to prepare papers for publication
+therein upon the various topics of principal interest in the
+life and use of railroads, beginning with the construction,
+and embracing the salient facts of management and
+service. He was successful in securing a series of papers
+of high value, the appearance of which has been welcomed
+from month to month, beginning with June, 1888, with constant
+and increasing interest. These papers have a permanent
+value; and, in obedience to a demand for their separate
+publication in convenient form for frequent reference,
+the publishers now reproduce them with expansions and
+additions. A reference to the several titles will convince
+anyone at all familiar with the general subject that the
+particular topic is treated in every instance by an expert,
+entitled as such to speak with authority.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+    <div class="chapter"></div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">THE BUILDING OF A RAILWAY.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="pfs90 smcap">By THOMAS CURTIS CLARKE.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>Roman Tramways of Stone&mdash;First Use of Iron Rails&mdash;The Modern Railway created by
+Stephenson's "Rocket" in 1830&mdash;Early American Locomotives&mdash;Key to the Evolution
+of the American Railway&mdash;Invention of the Swivelling Truck, Equalizing
+Beams, and the Switchback&mdash;Locating a Road&mdash;Work of the Surveying Party&mdash;Making
+the Road-bed&mdash;How Tunnels are Avoided&mdash;More than Three Thousand
+Bridges in the United States&mdash;Old Wooden Structures&mdash;The Howe Truss&mdash;The
+Use of Iron&mdash;Viaducts of Steel&mdash;The American System of Laying Bridge Foundations
+under Water&mdash;Origin of the Cantilever&mdash;Laying the Track&mdash;How it is Kept
+in Repair&mdash;Premiums for Section Bosses&mdash;Number of Railway Employees
+in the United States&mdash;Rapid Railway Construction&mdash;Radical
+Changes which the Railway will Effect.</p></div>
+
+<div><img class="drop-cap" src="images/i_001dc.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="p4 drop-cap">The world of to-day differs from that of Napoleon
+Bonaparte more than his world differed
+from that of Julius Cæsar; and this change has
+chiefly been made by railways.</p>
+
+<p>Railways have been known since the days
+of the Romans. Their tracks were made of two
+lines of cut stones. Iron rails took their place about one hundred
+and fifty years ago, when the use of that metal became extended.
+These roads were called tram-roads, and were used to carry coal
+from the mines to the places of shipment. They were few in number
+and attracted little attention.</p>
+
+<p>The modern railway was created by the Stephensons in 1830,
+when they built the locomotive "Rocket." The development of
+the railway since is due to the development of the locomotive.
+Civil engineering has done much, but mechanical engineering has
+done more.</p>
+
+<p>The invention of the steam-engine by James Watt, in 1773,
+attracted the attention of advanced thinkers to a possible steam<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+locomotive. Erasmus Darwin, in a poem published in 1781, made
+this remarkable prediction:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry">
+<p class="verseq">"Soon shall thy arm, unconquered steam! afar</p>
+<p class="verse">Drag the slow barge, or drive the rapid car."</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_002.jpg" width="275" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">First Locomotive.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first locomotive of which we have any certain record was
+invented, and put in operation on a model circular railway in
+London, in 1804, by Richard Trevithick,
+an erratic genius, who invented
+many things but perfected
+few. His locomotive could not
+make steam, and therefore could
+neither go fast nor draw a heavy
+load. This was the fault of all its
+successors, until the competitive
+trial of locomotives on the Liverpool
+and Manchester Railway, in
+1829. The Stephensons, father and son, had invented the steam
+blast, which, by constantly blowing the fire, enabled the "Rocket,"
+with its tubular boiler, to make steam enough to draw ten passenger
+cars, at the rate of thirty-five miles an hour.</p>
+
+<p>Then was born the modern giant, and so recent is the date of
+his birth that one of the unsuccessful competitors at that memorable
+trial, Captain John Ericsson, was until the present year
+(1889) living and actively working in New York. Another engineer,
+Horatio Allen, who drove the first locomotive on the first
+trip ever made in the United States, in 1831, still lives, a hale
+and hearty old man, near New York.</p>
+
+<p>The earlier locomotives of this country, modelled after the
+"Rocket," weighed five or six tons, and could draw, on a level,
+about 40 tons. After the American improvements, which we
+shall describe, were made, our engines weighed 25 tons, and
+could draw, on a level, some sixty loaded freight cars, weighing
+1,200 tons. This was a wonderful advance, but now we have the
+"Consolidation" locomotive, weighing 50 tons, and able to draw,
+on a level, a little over 2,400 tons.</p>
+
+<p>And this is not the end. Still heavier and more powerful
+engines are being designed and built, but the limit of the strength<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
+of the track, according to its present forms, has nearly been
+reached. It is very certain we have not reached the limit of the
+size and power of engines, or the strength of the track that can
+be devised.</p>
+
+<p>After the success of the "Rocket," and of the Liverpool and
+Manchester Railway, the authority of George Stephenson and his
+son Robert became absolute and unquestioned upon all subjects
+of railway engineering. Their locomotives had very little side
+play to their wheels, and could not go around sharp curves.
+They accordingly preferred to make their lines as straight as possible,
+and were willing to spend vast sums to get easy grades.
+Their lines were taken as models and imitated by other engineers.
+All lines in England were made with easy grades and gentle
+curves. Monumental bridges, lofty stone viaducts, and deep cuts
+or tunnels at every hill marked this stage of railway construction
+in England, which was imitated on the European lines.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_003.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Locomotive of To-day.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As it was with the railway, so it was with the locomotive.
+The Stephenson type, once fixed, has remained unchanged (in
+Europe), except in detail, to the present day. European locomotives
+have increased in weight and power, and in perfection of
+material and workmanship, but the general features are those
+of the locomotives built by the great firm of George Stephenson
+&amp; Son, before 1840.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>When we come to the United States we find an entirely different
+state of things. The key to the evolution of the American
+railway is the contempt for authority displayed by our engineers,
+and the untrammelled way in which they invented and applied<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+whatever they thought would answer the best purpose, regardless
+of precedent. When we began to build our railways, in 1831,
+we followed English patterns for a short time. Our engineers
+soon saw that unless vital changes were made our money would
+not hold out, and our railway system would be very short. Necessity
+truly became the mother of invention.</p>
+
+<p>The first, and most far-reaching, invention was that of the
+swivelling truck, which, placed under the front end of an engine,
+enables it to run around curves of almost any radius. This
+enabled us to build much less expensive lines than those of England,
+for we could now curve around and avoid hills and other
+obstacles at will. The illustration opposite shows a railroad curving
+around a mountain and supported by a retaining wall, instead
+of piercing through the mountain with a tunnel, as would
+have been necessary but for the swivelling truck. The swivelling
+truck was first suggested by Horatio Allen, for the South Carolina
+Railway, in 1831; but the first practical use of it was made on the
+Mohawk and Hudson Railroad, in the same year. It is said to
+have been invented by John B. Jervis, Chief Engineer of that
+road.</p>
+
+<p>The next improvement was the invention of the equalizing
+beams or levers, by which the weight of the engine is always
+borne by three out of four or more driving-wheels. They act like
+a three-legged stool, which can always be set level on any irregular
+spot. The original imported English locomotives could not
+be kept on the rails of rough tracks. The same experience obtained
+in Canada when the Grand Trunk Railway was opened, in
+1854&ndash;55. The locomotives of English pattern constantly ran off
+the track; those of American pattern hardly ever did so. Finally,
+all their locomotives were changed by having swivelling trucks
+put under their forward ends, and no more trouble occurred. The
+equalizing levers were patented in 1838, by Joseph Harrison, Jr.,
+of Philadelphia.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span><br />
+   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_005.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Alpine Pass. Avoidance of a Tunnel.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>These two improvements, which are absolutely essential to the
+success of railways in new countries, and have been adopted in
+Canada, Australia, Mexico, and South America,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> to the exclusion
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+of English patterns, are also of great value on the smoothest and
+best possible tracks. The flexibility of the American machine increases
+its adhesion and enables it to draw greater loads than its
+English rival. The same flexibility equalizes its pressure on the
+track, prevents shocks and blows, and enables it to keep out of
+the hospital and run more miles in a year than an English locomotive.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_007.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A Sharp Curve&mdash;Manhattan Elevated Railway, 110th Street, New York.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Equally valuable improvements were made in cars, both for
+passengers and freight. Instead of the four-wheeled English car,
+which on a rough track dances along on three wheels, we owe
+to Ross Winans, of Baltimore, the application of a pair of four-wheeled
+swivelling trucks, one under each end of the car, thus enabling
+it to accommodate itself to the inequalities of a rough track
+and to follow its locomotive around the sharpest curves. There<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+are, on our main lines, curves
+of less than 300 feet radius,
+while, on the Manhattan Elevated,
+the largest passenger
+traffic in the world is conducted
+around curves of less than
+100 feet radius. There are
+few curves of less than 1,000
+feet radius on European railways.</p>
+
+<div class="sandbagbox" id="img008">
+ <div id="i008b1">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i008b2">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<div class="center caption">A steep grade on a<br />Mountain Railroad.</div>
+
+<p>The climbing capabilities of
+a locomotive upon smooth rails
+were not known until, in 1852, Mr. B. H. Latrobe, Chief Engineer
+of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, tried a temporary zigzag gradient
+of 10 per cent.&mdash;that is 10 feet rise in 100 feet length, or 528
+feet per mile&mdash;over a hill about two miles long, through which the
+Kingwood Tunnel was being excavated. A locomotive weighing
+28 tons on its drivers took one car weighing 15 tons over this line
+in safety. It was worked for passenger traffic for six months.
+This daring feat has never been equalled. Trains go over 4 per
+cent. gradients on the Colorado system, and there is one short
+line, used to bring ore to the Pueblo furnaces, which is worked by
+locomotives over a 7 per cent. grade. These are believed to be
+the steepest grades worked by ordinary locomotives on smooth
+rails.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="HandHeld">
+    <div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_008.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+    <div class="caption">A Steep Grade on a Mountain Railroad.</div>
+    </div>
+
+    <p>The climbing capabilities of
+    a locomotive upon smooth rails
+    were not known until, in 1852, Mr. B. H. Latrobe, Chief Engineer
+    of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, tried a temporary zigzag gradient
+    of 10 per cent.&mdash;that is 10 feet rise in 100 feet length, or 528
+    feet per mile&mdash;over a hill about two miles long, through which the
+    Kingwood Tunnel was being excavated. A locomotive weighing
+    28 tons on its drivers took one car weighing 15 tons over this line
+    in safety. It was worked for passenger traffic for six months.
+    This daring feat has never been equalled. Trains go over 4 per
+    cent. gradients on the Colorado system, and there is one short
+    line, used to bring ore to the Pueblo furnaces, which is worked by
+    locomotives over a 7 per cent. grade. These are believed to be
+    the steepest grades worked by ordinary locomotives on smooth
+    rails.</p>
+    </div>
+
+<p>Another American invention is the switchback. By this plan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+the length of line required to ease the gradient is obtained by running
+backward and forward in a zigzag course, instead of going
+straight up the mountain. As a full stop has to be made at the
+end of every piece of line, there is no danger of the train running
+away from its brakes. This device was first used among the hills
+of Pennsylvania over forty years ago, to lower coal cars down into
+the Nesquehoning Valley. It was afterwards used on the Callao,
+Lima, and Oroya Railroad in Peru, by American engineers, with
+extraordinary daring and skill. It was employed to carry the
+temporary tracks of the Cascade Division of the Northern Pacific
+Railroad over the "Stampede" Pass, with grades of 297 feet per
+mile, while a tunnel 9,850 feet long was being driven through the
+mountains.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_009.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A Switchback.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>With the improvement of brakes and more reliable means of
+stopping trains upon steep grades, came a farther development of
+the above device, which was first applied on the Denver and Rio
+Grande Railroad in Colorado, and has since been applied on a
+grand scale on the Saint Gothard road, the Black Forest railways
+of Germany, and the Semmering line in the Tyrol. This device is
+to connect the two lines of the zigzag by a curve at the point<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+where they come together, so that the train, instead of going alternately
+backward and forward, now runs continuously on. It
+becomes possible for the line to return above itself in spiral form,
+sometimes crossing over the lower level by a tunnel, and sometimes
+by a bridge. A notable instance of this kind of location is
+seen on the Tehachapi Pass of the Southern Pacific, where the line
+ascends 2,674
+feet in 25 miles,
+with eleven tunnels,
+and a spiral
+3,800 feet
+long.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_010a.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Plan of Big Loop.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The "Big Loop," as it is called, on the Georgetown branch of
+the Union Pacific, in Colorado, between Georgetown and a mining
+camp called Silver Plume, has been chosen to illustrate this point.
+The direct distance up the valley is 1¼ miles and the elevation 600
+feet, requiring a gradient of 480 feet per mile. But by curving the
+line around in a spiral, the length of the line is increased to 4 miles
+and the gradient reduced to 150 feet per mile. Zigzags were used
+first for foot-paths, then for common roads, lastly for railways.
+Their natural sequence, spirals, was a railway device entirely, and
+confirms the saying of one of our engineers: "Where a mule can
+go, I can make a locomotive go." This may be called the poetry
+of engineering,
+as it requires
+both imagination
+to conceive
+and skill to execute.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_010b.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Profile of the Same.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is one
+thing more
+which distinguishes
+the American railway from its English parent, and that is
+the almost uniform practice of getting the road open for traffic in
+the cheapest manner and in the least possible time, and then completing
+it and enlarging its capacity out of its surplus earnings, and
+from the credit which these earnings give it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span><br />
+   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_011.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Big Loop, Georgetown Branch of the Union Pacific, Colorado.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Pennsylvania Railroad between Philadelphia and Harrisburg
+is a notable example of this. Within the past few years it has
+been rebuilt on a grand scale, and in many places relocated, and
+miles of sharp curves and heavy gradients, originally put in to save
+expense, have been taken out. This system has been followed
+everywhere, except on a few branch lines, and upon one monumental
+example of failure&mdash;the West Shore Railroad, of New York.
+The projectors of that line attempted in three years to build a
+double-track railroad up to the standard of the Pennsylvania road,
+which had been forty years in reaching its present excellence.
+Their money gave out, and they came to grief.</p>
+
+
+<h3>II.</h3>
+
+<p>We have thus briefly reviewed the development of our railways
+to show what they are, and how they came to be what they are,
+before describing the processes of building, in order that the
+reasons may be clearly understood why we do certain things, and
+why we fail to do other things which we ought to do.</p>
+
+<p>In the building of a railway the first thing is to make the surveys
+and locate the position of the intended road upon the ground,
+and to make maps and sections of it, so that the land may be
+bought and the estimates of cost be ascertained. The engineer's
+first duty is to make a survey by eye without the aid of instruments.
+This is called the "reconnoissance." By this he lays down the
+general position of the line, and where he wants it to go if possible.
+Great skill, the result of long experience, or equally great
+ignorance may be shown here. After the general position of the
+line, or some part of it, has been laid down upon the pocket map,
+the engineer sends his party into the field to make the preliminary
+survey with instruments.</p>
+
+<p>In an old-settled country the party may live in farm-houses and
+taverns, and be carried to their daily work by teams. But a surveying
+party will make better progress, be healthier and happier, if
+they live in their own home, even if that home be a travelling camp
+of a few tents. With a competent commissary the camp can be
+well supplied with provisions, and be pitched near enough to the
+probable end of the day's work to save the tired men a long walk.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+When they get to camp and, after a wash in the nearest creek,
+find a smoking-hot supper ready&mdash;even though it consist of fried
+pork and potatoes, corn-bread and black coffee&mdash;their troubles are
+all forgotten, and they feel a true satisfaction which the flesh-pots
+of Delmonico's cannot give. One greater pleasure remains&mdash;to
+fill the old pipe, and recline by the camp-fire for a jolly smoke.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_014.jpg" width="625" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Engineers in Camp.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A full surveying party consists of the front flag-man, with his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+corps of axe-men to cut away trees and bushes; the transit-man,
+who records the distances and angles of the line, assisted by his
+chain-men and flag-men; and lastly the leveller, who takes and
+records the levels, with his rod-men and axe-men. The chief of
+the party exercises a general supervision over all, and is sometimes
+assisted by a topographer, who sketches in his book the
+contours of the hills and direction and size of the watercourses.</p>
+
+<p>One tent contains the cook, the commissary, and the provisions;
+another tent or two the working party, and another the superior
+engineers, with their drawing instruments and boards. In a
+properly regulated party the map and profile of the day's work
+should be plotted before going to bed, so as to see if all is right.
+If it turns out that the line can be improved and easier grades got,
+or other changes made, now is the time to do it.</p>
+
+<p>After the preliminary lines have been run, the engineer-in-chief
+takes up the different maps and lays down a new line, sometimes
+coinciding with that surveyed, and sometimes quite different. The
+parties then go back into the field and stake out this new line,
+called the "approximate location," upon which the curves are all
+run in. In difficult country the line may be run over even a third
+or fourth time; or in an easy country, the "preliminary" surveys
+may be all that is wanted.</p>
+
+<p>The life of an engineer, while making surveys, is not an easy
+one. His duties require the physical strength of a drayman and
+the mental accuracy of a professor, both exerted at the same time,
+and during heat and cold, rain and shine.</p>
+
+<p>An engineer, once on a time, standing behind his instrument,
+was surrounded by a crowd of natives, anxious to know all about
+it. He explained his processes, using many learned words, and
+flattered himself that he had made a deep impression upon his
+hearers. At last, one old woman spoke up, with an expression of
+great contempt on her face, "Wall! If I knowed as much as you
+do, I'd quit ingineerin' and keep a grocery!"</p>
+
+<p>A large part of the financial difficulties of our railways results
+from not taking time enough to properly locate the line. It must
+be remembered that a cheaply constructed line can be rebuilt, but
+with a badly located line nothing can be done except to abandon
+it entirely.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_016.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Royal Gorge Hanging Bridge, Denver and Rio Grande, Colorado.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is well therefore to consider carefully what is the true problem
+of location. It is so to place and build a line of railway that it
+shall get the greatest amount of business out of the country through
+which it passes, and at the same time be able to do that business
+at the least cost, including both expenses of operating and the
+fixed charges on the capital invested. The mere statement of this
+problem shows that it is not an easy one. Its solution is different<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+in a new and unsettled country from that in an old-settled region.
+In the new country, the shortest, cheapest, and straightest
+line possible, consistent with the easiest gradients that the topography
+of the land will allow, is the
+best. The towns will spring up after
+the road is built, and will be built on
+its line, and generally at the places where stations have been fixed.</p>
+
+<div class="sandbagbox" id="img017">
+ <div id="i017b1">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i017b2">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<div class="center caption">Veta Pass, Colorado.</div>
+
+<p>In a mountainous country, like Colorado, the problem is how
+to reach the important mining camps, regardless of the crookedness
+and increased length given to the line. The Denver and
+Rio Grande has been compared to an octopus. This is really a
+compliment to its engineers. It sucks nutriment from every place
+where nutriment is to be found. To do this it has been forced to
+climb mountains, where it was thought locomotives could never
+climb. In one place, called the Royal Gorge, the difficulties of
+blasting a road-bed into the side of the mountain were so great that
+it was thought expedient to carry the track upon a bridge, and
+this bridge was hung from two rafters, braced against the sides of
+the gorge. In surveying some parts of the lines the engineers
+were suspended by ropes from the top of the mountains and made
+their measurements swinging in mid-air.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="HandHeld">
+    <div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_017.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+    <div class="caption">Veta Pass, Colorado.</div>
+    </div>
+
+    <p>In a mountainous country, like Colorado, the problem is how
+    to reach the important mining camps, regardless of the crookedness
+    and increased length given to the line. The Denver and
+    Rio Grande has been compared to an octopus. This is really a
+    compliment to its engineers. It sucks nutriment from every place
+    where nutriment is to be found. To do this it has been forced to
+    climb mountains, where it was thought locomotives could never
+    climb. In one place, called the Royal Gorge, the difficulties of
+    blasting a road-bed into the side of the mountain were so great that
+    it was thought expedient to carry the track upon a bridge, and
+    this bridge was hung from two rafters, braced against the sides of
+    the gorge. In surveying some parts of the lines the engineers
+    were suspended by ropes from the top of the mountains and made
+    their measurements swinging in mid-air.</p>
+    </div>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_018a.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Sections of Snow-sheds.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The problem of location is different in an old-settled country,
+where the position of the towns as trade-centres has been fixed by
+natural laws that cannot be overruled. In this case the best thing
+the engineer can do is to get the easiest gradient possible consist<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>ent
+with the topography of the country, and let the curves take
+care of themselves; always to strike the important towns, even if
+the line is made more crooked and longer thereby; to so place
+the line in these towns as to accommodate the public, and
+still be able to buy plenty of land; also to locate
+for under or over, rather than grade crossings.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_018b.jpg" width="350" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>In all countries, old and new, mountainous
+and level, the rule should be to
+keep the level of track well
+above the surface of the
+ground, in order to insure
+good drainage and freedom
+from snow-drifts.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_018c.jpg" width="350" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The question of avoidance of obstruction by snow is a very serious
+one upon the Rocky Mountain lines, and they could not be
+worked without the device of snow-sheds&mdash;another purely American
+invention. There
+are said to be six miles
+of stanchly built snow-sheds
+on the Canadian
+Pacific and sixty
+miles on the Central
+Pacific Railway. The
+quantity of snow falling
+is enormous, sometimes amounting to 250,000 cubic yards,
+weighing over 100,000 tons, in one slide. It is stated by the engineers
+of the Canadian Pacific, that the force of the air set in
+motion by these avalanches
+has mown
+down large trees, not
+struck by the snow
+itself. Their trunks, from one to two feet in diameter, remain,
+split as if struck by lightning.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span><br />
+   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_019.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Snow-sheds, Selkirk Mountains, Canadian Pacific. The winter track under cover; the outer track for summer use.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>After the railway line has been finally located, the next duty of
+the engineers is to prepare the work for letting. Land-plans are
+made, from which the right of way is secured. From the sections,
+the quantities are taken out. Plans of bridges and culverts are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+made; and a careful specification of all the works on the line is
+drawn up.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_021a.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Making an Embankment.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The works are then let, either to one large contractor or to
+several smaller ones, and the labor of construction begins. The
+duties of the engineers are to stake out the work for the contractors,
+make monthly returns of its progress, and see that it is well
+done and according
+to the specifications
+and contract. The
+line is divided into
+sections, and an engineer,
+with his assistants,
+is placed
+in charge of each.
+Where the works
+are heavy, the contractors
+build shanties
+for their men
+and teams near the heavy cuttings or embankments. It is the custom
+to take out heavy cuttings by means of the machine called a
+steam shovel, which will dig as many yards in a day as 500 men.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_021b.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Steam Excavator.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>On the prairies of the West the road-bed is thrown up from
+ditches on each side, either by men with wheelbarrows and carts,
+or by means of a ditching-machine, which can move 3,000 yards of
+earth daily. In this case
+the track follows immediately
+after the embankment,
+and the men live
+in cars fitted up as boarding-shanties,
+and moved
+forward as fast as required.
+If the country contains
+suitable stone, the
+culverts and bridge abutments
+are built by gangs
+of masons and stone-cutters,
+who move from point
+to point. But the general
+practice is to put in temporary
+trestle-work of
+timber resting upon piles,
+which trestle-work is renewed
+in the shape of
+stone culverts covered
+by embankments, or iron
+bridges resting on stone abutments and built after the road is running.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_022a.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Building a Culvert.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_022b.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The pile-driver plays a very important part therefore in the
+construction of our railroads, and has been brought to great perfection.
+It is worked by a small boiler and engine, and gives its
+blows with great rapidity. It drags the piles up to leaders and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+lifts them into place by steam-power, so that it is worked by a
+small gang of men. Finally, it is as portable as a pedler's cart,
+and as soon as it has finished one job it is taken to pieces, packed
+upon wagons, and
+moved on to the next
+job.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_023a.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Tunnels are neither
+so long nor so frequent
+upon American railways
+as upon those of
+Europe. The longest
+are from two to two
+and a half miles long,
+except one, the Hoosac, about
+four miles. Sometimes they
+are unavoidable.
+The ridge called Bergen
+Hill, west of Hoboken,
+N. J., is a case
+in point. This is
+pierced by the tunnels
+of the West Shore, of
+the Delaware, Lackawanna,
+and Western,
+and of the Erie, the
+last two of which, as
+shown on <a href="#Page_25">page 25</a>, are
+placed at different levels
+to enable one road
+to pass over the other.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_023b.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Rock Drill.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is by our system of using sharp curves that we avoid tunnels.
+It may be said, in general terms, that American engineers
+have shown more skill in avoiding the necessity of tunnels than
+could possibly be shown in constructing them. When we are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+obliged to use tunnels, or to make deep cuttings in rocks, our
+labors are greatly assisted by the use of power-drills worked by
+compressed air and by the use of high explosives, such as dynamite,
+giant powder, rend-rock,
+etc. Rocks can now be removed in less than half the time formerly
+required, when ordinary blasting-powder was used in hand-drilled
+holes.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_024.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A Construction and Boarding Train.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>III.</h3>
+
+<p>From data furnished by Mr. D. J. Whittemore, chief engineer
+of the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul system (which had a total
+length of 5,688 miles on January 1, 1888), the length of open
+bridges on these lines was 115<sup>91</sup>/<sub>100</sub> miles, and of culverts covered
+over with embankment, 39<sup>2</sup>/<sub>10</sub> miles. "Everything," says Mr.
+Whittemore, "not covered with earth, except cattle guards, be the
+span 10 or 400 feet, is called a bridge. Everything covered with
+earth is called a culvert. Wherever we are far removed from
+suitable quarries, we build a wooden culvert in preference to a
+pile bridge, if we can get six inches of filling over it. These culverts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+are built of roughly
+squared logs, and are large
+enough to draw an iron
+pipe through them of sufficient
+diameter to take care
+of the water. We do this
+because we believe that we
+lessen the liability to accident,
+and that the culvert
+can be maintained after decay has begun, much longer than a piled
+bridge with stringers to carry the track. Had we good quarries
+along our line, stone would be cheaper. Many thousands of dollars
+have been spent by this company in building masonry that after
+twenty to twenty-five years shows such signs of disintegration that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+we confine masonry work now only to stone that we can procure
+from certain quarries known to be good."</p>
+
+<div class="sandbagbox" id="img025">
+ <div id="i025b1">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i025b2">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<div class="center caption">Bergen Tunnels, Hoboken, N. J.</div>
+
+<p>Mr. Whittemore is an engineer of great experience, skill, and
+judgment, and there is food for much reflection in these words of
+his: First&mdash;that it is better to use temporary wooden structures,
+to be afterward renewed in good stone, rather than to build of the
+stone of the locality, unless first-class. Second&mdash;that a structure
+covered with earth is much safer than an open bridge; which, if
+short and apparently insignificant, may be, through neglect, a most
+serious point of danger, as was shown in the dreadful accident of
+1887 on the Toledo, Peoria, and Western road in Illinois, where
+one hundred and fifty persons were killed and wounded, and by
+the equally avoidable accident on the Florida and Savannah line,
+in March, 1888. Had these little trestles been changed to culverts
+covered with earth, many valuable lives would not have been lost.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="HandHeld">
+    <div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_025.jpg" width="550" alt="" />
+    <div class="caption">Bergen Tunnels, Hoboken, N. J.</div>
+    </div>
+
+    <p>Mr. Whittemore is an engineer of great experience, skill, and
+    judgment, and there is food for much reflection in these words of
+    his: First&mdash;that it is better to use temporary wooden structures,
+    to be afterward renewed in good stone, rather than to build of the
+    stone of the locality, unless first-class. Second&mdash;that a structure
+    covered with earth is much safer than an open bridge; which, if
+    short and apparently insignificant, may be, through neglect, a most
+    serious point of danger, as was shown in the dreadful accident of
+    1887 on the Toledo, Peoria, and Western road in Illinois, where
+    one hundred and fifty persons were killed and wounded, and by
+    the equally avoidable accident on the Florida and Savannah line,
+    in March, 1888. Had these little trestles been changed to culverts
+    covered with earth, many valuable lives would not have been lost.</p>
+    </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_026.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Beginning a Tunnel.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It was safely estimated that there were, in 1888, 208,749
+bridges of all kinds, amounting in length to 3,213 miles, in the
+United States.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The wooden bridge and the wooden trestle are purely American
+products, although they were invented by Leonardo da Vinci
+in the sixteenth century. From the above statistics it will be seen
+how much our American railways owe to them, for without them
+over 150,000 miles could never have been built.</p>
+
+<p>The art of building wooden truss-bridges was developed by
+Burr &amp; Wernwag, two Pennsylvania carpenters, some of whose
+works are still in use after eighty years of faithful duty (<a href="#Page_28">p. 28</a>).
+A bridge built by Wernwag across the Delaware in 1803 was
+used as a highway bridge for forty-five years, was then strengthened
+and used as a railway bridge for twenty-seven years more,
+and was finally superseded by the present iron bridge in 1875.</p>
+
+<p>These old bridge-builders were very particular about the quality
+of their timber, and never put any into a bridge less than two
+years old. But when we began to build railways, everything was
+done in a hurry, and nobody could wait for seasoned timber. This
+led to the invention of the Howe truss, by the engineer of that
+name, which had the advantage of being adjustable with screws
+and nuts, so that the shrinkage could be taken up, and which
+had its parts connected in such a way that they were able to bear
+the heavy concentrated weight of locomotives without crushing.
+This bridge was used on all railways, new and old, from 1840 to
+about 1870. Had it been free from liability to decay and burn up,
+we should probably not be building iron and steel bridges now,
+except for long spans of over 200 feet; and as the table opposite
+shows, the largest number of our spans are less than 100 feet
+long.</p>
+
+<p>The Howe truss forms an excellent bridge, and is still used in
+the West on new roads, with the intention of substituting iron
+trusses after the roads are opened.</p>
+
+<p>After 1870, the weights both of locomotives and other rolling
+stock began to be increased very rapidly. This, together with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+the development of the manufacture of iron, and especially the invention
+of rolled beams and of eye-bars, gave a great impetus to
+the construction of iron bridges. At first cast-iron was used for
+the compression members, but the development of the rolling-mill
+soon enabled us
+to make all parts of
+rolled iron sections at
+no greater cost, and
+rolled iron, being a
+less uncertain material,
+has replaced cast-iron
+entirely. Iron
+bridges came in direct
+competition with the
+less costly Howe truss,
+and during the first
+decade of their construction
+every attempt
+was made to build them with as few pounds of iron as
+would meet the strains.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_028.jpg" width="350" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Old Burr Wooden Bridge.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>S. Whipple, C.E., published a book in 1847 which was the
+first attempt ever made to solve the mathematical questions upon
+which the due proportioning of iron truss-bridges depends. This
+work bore fruit, and a race of bridge designers sprang up. The
+first iron bridges were modelled after their wooden predecessors,
+with high trusses and short panels. Riveted connections were
+avoided, and every part was so designed that it might be quickly
+and easily erected upon staging or false works, placed in the river.
+This was very necessary, for our rivers are subject to sudden
+freshets, and if we had adopted the English system of riveting together
+all the connections, the long time required before the bridge
+became self-sustaining would have been a serious element of
+danger.</p>
+
+<p>Following the practice of wooden bridge building, iron bridges
+were contracted for by the foot, and not by the pound as is now
+the custom. To this accidental circumstance is greatly due the
+development of the American iron bridge. The engineer representing
+the railway company fixed the lengths of spans, and other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+general dimensions, and also the loads to be carried and the maximum
+strains to be allowed. The contracting engineer was left
+perfectly free to design his bridge, and he strained every nerve
+to find the form of truss and the arrangement of its parts that
+should give the required strength with the least number of pounds
+weight per foot, so that he could beat his competitors. When the
+different plans were handed in, an expert examined them and rejected
+those whose parts were too small to meet the strains. Of
+those found to be correctly proportioned, the lowest bid took the
+work.</p>
+
+<p>By the rule of the survival of the fittest all badly designed
+forms of trusses disappeared and only two remained: one the
+original truss designed by Mr. Whipple, and the other, the well-known
+triangular, or "Warren" girder, so called after its English
+inventor.</p>
+
+<p>It speaks well for the skill and honesty of American bridge engineers
+that many of their old bridges are still in use, designed for
+loads of 2,500 pounds per lineal foot, and now daily carrying loads
+of 4,000 pounds and over per foot. Sometimes the floor has been
+replaced by a stronger one, but the trusses still remain and do good
+service. The writer may be permitted to point to the bridge over
+the Mississippi River at Quincy, Ill., built in 1869, as an example.
+Most bridge-accidents can be traced to derailed trains striking the
+trusses and knocking them down. Engineers (both those specially
+connected with bridge works, and those in charge of railways)
+know much better now what is wanted, and the managers of railways
+are willing to pay for the best article. The introduction of
+mild steel is a great step in advance. This material has an ultimate
+strength, in the finished piece, of 63,000 to 65,000 pounds per
+square inch, or forty per cent. more than iron, and it is tough
+enough to be tied in a knot, or punched into the shape of a bowl,
+while cold. With this material it is as easy to construct spans of
+500 feet as it was spans of 250 feet in iron.</p>
+
+<p>Bridges are now designed to carry much heavier loads than
+formerly. The best practice adopts riveted connections except at
+the junction of the chord-bars and the main diagonals, where pins
+and eyes are still very properly used. Plate girders below the
+track are preferred up to 60 or 70 feet long, then riveted lattice up<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+to 125 feet. The wind
+strains also are now
+provided for with a
+considerable excess of
+material, amounting in
+very long spans to
+nearly as much as the
+strains due to gravity.
+Observing the rule
+that no bridge can be
+stronger than its weakest
+part, a vast deal of
+care and skill has been applied
+in perfecting the connections
+of the parts of a
+truss, and many valuable experiments
+have been made
+which have greatly enlarged
+our knowledge of this difficult
+subject. The introduction
+of riveting by the power
+of steam or compressed air
+is another very great improvement.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sandbagbox" id="img030">
+ <div id="i030b1">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i030b2">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<div class="center caption">Kinzua Viaduct;<br />Erie Railway.</div>
+
+<p>Valleys and ravines are
+now crossed by viaducts of
+iron and steel, of which the
+Kinzua viaduct, illustrated
+here, is an example. A
+branch line from the Erie, connecting that system with valuable
+coal-fields, strikes the valley of the Kinzua, a small creek, about
+15 miles southwest of Bradford, Pa. At the point suitable for
+crossing, this ravine is about half a mile wide and over 300 feet
+deep. At first it was proposed to run down and cross the creek
+at a low level by some of the devices heretofore illustrated in this
+article. But finally the engineering firm of Clarke, Reeves &amp; Co.
+agreed to build the viaduct, shown above, for a much less sum than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+any other method of crossing would have cost. This viaduct was
+built in four months. It is 305 feet high and about 2,400 feet long.
+The skeleton piers were first erected by means of their own posts,
+and afterward the girders were placed by means of a travelling
+scaffold on the top, projecting over about 80 feet. No staging of
+any kind was used, nor even ladders, as the men climbed up the
+diagonal rods of the piers, as a cat will run up a tree.</p>
+
+<p>The Manhattan Elevated Railway, about 34 miles long, is nothing
+but a long viaduct, and is as strong and durable as iron viaducts
+on railways usually are, while from the slower speed of its
+trains it is much safer.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="HandHeld">
+    <div class="figleft">
+    <img src="images/i_030.jpg" width="350" alt="" />
+    <div class="caption">Kinzua Viaduct; Erie Railway.</div>
+    </div>
+
+    <p>Valleys and ravines are
+    now crossed by viaducts of
+    iron and steel, of which the
+    Kinzua viaduct, illustrated
+    here, is an example. A
+    branch line from the Erie, connecting that system with valuable
+    coal-fields, strikes the valley of the Kinzua, a small creek, about
+    15 miles southwest of Bradford, Pa. At the point suitable for
+    crossing, this ravine is about half a mile wide and over 300 feet
+    deep. At first it was proposed to run down and cross the creek
+    at a low level by some of the devices heretofore illustrated in this
+    article. But finally the engineering firm of Clarke, Reeves &amp; Co.
+    agreed to build the viaduct, shown above, for a much less sum than
+    any other method of crossing would have cost. This viaduct was
+    built in four months. It is 305 feet high and about 2,400 feet long.
+    The skeleton piers were first erected by means of their own posts,
+    and afterward the girders were placed by means of a travelling
+    scaffold on the top, projecting over about 80 feet. No staging of
+    any kind was used, nor even ladders, as the men climbed up the
+    diagonal rods of the piers, as a cat will run up a tree.</p>
+
+    <p>The Manhattan Elevated Railway, about 34 miles long, is nothing
+    but a long viaduct, and is as strong and durable as iron viaducts
+    on railways usually are, while from the slower speed of its
+    trains it is much safer.</p>
+    </div>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_031.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Kinzua Viaduct.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It may not be out of place for the writer to state here what, in
+his belief, is the next series of steps to be taken to insure safety in
+travelling over our bridges: Replace, wherever possible, all temporary
+trestles by wood or stone culverts covered with earth.
+Where this cannot be done, build strong iron or steel bridges and
+viaducts with as short spans as possible and having no trusses
+above the
+track where
+it can possibly
+be helped.
+Cover
+these and all
+new bridges
+with a solid
+deck of rolled-steel
+corrugated
+plates, coated
+with asphalt
+to prevent
+rusting.
+Place on
+this broken
+stone ballast, and bed the ties in it as in the ordinary form of
+road-bed.</p>
+
+<p>By this means the usual shock felt in passing from the elastic
+embankment to the comparatively solid bridge will be done away.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+Has a crack formed in a wheel or axle, this shock generally develops
+it into a break, the car or engine is derailed, and if it strikes
+the truss the bridge is wrecked. The cost of this proposed safety
+floor is insignificant, compared with the security resulting from it.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>The improvements in the processes of putting in the foundations
+of bridges have been as great as those above water. All have
+shortened greatly the time necessary, and have made the results
+more certain. The American system may briefly be described as
+an abandonment of the old engineering device of coffer-dams, by
+which the bed of the river is enclosed by a water-tight fence and
+the water pumped out. For this we substitute driving piles and
+sawing them off under water; or sinking cribs down to a hard
+bottom through the water. In both cases we sink the masonry,
+built in a great water-tight box (called a caisson) with a thick
+bottom of solid timber, until it finally rests on the heads of the piles
+sawn to a level, or on the top of a crib which is filled with stone,
+dumped out of a barge. Sometimes it is filled with concrete
+lowered through the water by special apparatus.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another process, developed within the last twenty years, is to
+sink cribs through soft or unreliable material to a harder stratum
+by compressed air. This is an improvement on the old diving-bell.
+The air, forced into the bell-shaped cavity, expels the water and
+allows the men to work and remove the material, which is taken
+up by a device called an air-lock. The crib slowly sinks, carrying
+the masonry on its top.</p>
+
+<p>By this means the foundations of the Brooklyn bridge and of
+the St. Louis bridge were sunk a little over 100 feet below water.
+A recent invention is that of a German engineer, Herr Poetsch,
+who freezes the sand by inserting tubes filled with a freezing mixture,
+and then excavates it as if it were solid rock.</p>
+
+<p>The process of sinking open cribs through the water by weighting
+them and dredging out the material was followed at the new
+bridge recently built over the Hudson at Poughkeepsie, where
+the cribs were sunk 130 feet below water, and at the bridge building
+over the Hawkesbury River, in Australia. The Hawkesbury piers
+are sunk to a depth of 175 feet below water, and are the deepest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+foundations yet put in. The writer (who derives his knowledge
+from being one of the designing and executive engineers of both
+these bridges) sees no difficulty in putting down foundations by
+this process of open dredging to even much greater depths. The
+compressed-air process is limited to about 110 feet in depth.</p>
+
+
+<h3>IV.</h3>
+
+<p>The most notable invention of latter days in bridge construction
+is that of the cantilever bridge, which is a system devised to
+dispense with staging, or false works, where from the great depth,
+or the swift current, of the river, this would be difficult, or, as in the
+case of the Niagara River, impossible to make. The word cantilever
+is used in architecture to signify the lower end of a rafter,
+which projects beyond the wall of a building, and supports the roof
+above. It is from an Italian word, taken from the Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cantilabrum</i>
+(used by Vitruvius), meaning the <em>lip of the rafter</em>. If two
+beams were pushed out from the shores of a stream until they met
+in the centre, and these two beams were long enough to run back
+from the shores until their weight, aided by a few stones, held them
+down, we should have a primitive form of the cantilever, but one
+which in principle would not differ from the actual cantilever
+bridges. This is another American invention, although it has been
+developed by British engineers&mdash;Messrs. Fowler &amp; Baker&mdash;in their
+huge bridge now building across the Forth, in Scotland, of a size
+which dwarfs everything hitherto done in this country, the Brooklyn
+bridge not excepted.</p>
+
+<p>The first design of which we have any record was that of a
+bridge planned by Thomas Pope, a ship carpenter of New York,
+who, in 1810, published a book giving his designs for an arched
+bridge of timber across the North River at Castle Point, of 2,400
+feet span. Mr. Pope called this an arch, but his description clearly
+shows it to have been what we now call a cantilever. As was the
+fashion of the day, he indulged in a poetical description:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry">
+<p class="verseq">"Like half a Rainbow rising on yon shore,</p>
+<p class="verse">While its twin partner spans the semi o'er,</p>
+<p class="verse">And makes a perfect whole that need not part</p>
+<p class="verse">Till time has furnish'd us a nobler art."</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_034.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">View of Thomas Pope's Proposed Cantilever (1810).</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first railway cantilever bridge in the world was built by
+the late C. Shaler Smith, C.E., one of our most accomplished
+bridge engineers. This was a bridge over the deep gorge of the
+Kentucky River.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> The next was a bridge on the Canadian
+Pacific, in British Columbia, designed by C. C. Schneider, C.E.
+A very similar bridge is that over the Niagara River, designed
+by the same engineer in conjunction with Messrs. Field &amp; Hayes,
+Civil Engineers. This bridge was the first to receive the distinctive
+name of cantilever.</p>
+
+<p>The new bridge at Poughkeepsie has three of these cantilevers,
+connected by two fixed spans, as shown in the illustration (pg. 36).
+The fixed spans have horizontal lower chords, and really extend
+beyond each pier and up the inclined portions, to where the bottom
+chord of the cantilever is horizontal. At these points the
+junctions between the spans are made, and arranged in such a way,
+by means of movable links, that expansion and contraction due to
+changes of temperature can take place. The fixed spans are 525
+feet long. Their upper chord, where the tracks are placed, is 212
+feet above water. These spans required stagings to build them
+upon. These stagings were 220 feet above water, and rested on
+piles, driven through 60 feet of water and 60 feet of mud, making
+the whole height of the temporary staging 332 feet, or within 30
+feet of the height of Trinity Church steeple, in New York. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+time occupied in building one of these stagings and then erecting
+the steel-work upon it was about four months.</p>
+
+<p>The cantilever spans were erected, as shown in the illustration
+on <a href="#Page_37">page 37</a>, without any stagings at all below, and entirely from
+the two overhead travelling scaffolds, shown in the engraving.
+These scaffolds were moved out daily from the place of beginning
+over the piers, until they met in the centre. The workmen
+hoisted up the different pieces of steel from a barge in the river
+below and put them into place, using suspended planks to walk
+upon. The time saved by this method was so great that one of
+these spans of 548 feet long was erected in less than four weeks,
+or one-seventh of the time which would have been required if
+stagings had been used.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_035.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Pope's Cantilever in Process of Erection. (From his "Treatise on Bridge Architecture.")</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>At the Forth Bridge, all the projecting cantilevers will be built
+from overhead scaffolds, 360 feet above the water. It contains
+two spans of 1,710 feet each. When spans of this length are used,
+the rivets become very long&mdash;seven inches&mdash;and it would be impossible
+to make a good job by hand riveting. Hence a power-riveter
+is used in riveting the work upon the staging. A steam-engine
+raises up a heavy mass of cast-iron, called "the accumulator;"
+the
+weight of
+this in descending
+is
+transmitted
+through
+tubes of water,
+and its
+power increased
+by
+contracting the area of pressure, until some twenty tons can be
+applied to the head of each rivet. One rivet per minute can be
+put in with this tool.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>It will be seen that most of the great saving of time in modern
+construction of bridges and other parts of railways is due to improved
+machinery. The engineer of to-day is probably not more
+skilful than his ancestor, who, in periwig and cue, breeches and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+silk stockings, is represented in old prints supervising a gang of
+laborers, who slowly lift the ram of a pile-driver by hauling on one
+end of a rope passed over a pulley-wheel. The modern engineer
+has that useful servant, steam, and the history of modern engineering
+is chiefly the history of those inventions by which steam has
+been able to supersede manual labor&mdash;such as pile-drivers, steam-shovels,
+steam-dredges, and other similar tools.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_036.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">General View of the Poughkeepsie Bridge.</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>After the road-bed of a railway is completed and covered with
+a good coat of gravel or stone-ballast, and after all the temporary
+structures have been replaced by permanent ones, that part of the
+work may be said to be done, requiring only that the damages of
+storms should be repaired. But the track of a railway is never
+done. It is always wearing out and always being replaced.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_037.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Erection of a Cantilever.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Some of the early English engineers, not appreciating this, endeavored
+to lay down solid stone walls coped with stone cut to a
+smooth surface, on which they laid their rails. They called this
+"permanent way," as distinguished from the temporary track of
+rails and cross-ties used by contractors in building the lines. But
+experience soon showed that the temporary track, if supported by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+a bed of broken stone, always kept itself drained and was always
+elastic, and remained in much better order than the more expensive
+so-called "permanent way." When the increase in the weight of
+our rolling stock began to take place, dating from about 1870, iron
+rails were found to be wearing out very fast. Some railway men
+declared that the railway system had reached its full development.
+But in this world the supply generally equals the demand. When
+a thing is very much wanted, it is sure to come, sooner or later.
+The process of making steel invented by, and named after, Henry
+Bessemer, of England, and perfected by A. L. Holley, of this
+country, gave us a steel rail which at the present time costs less
+than one of iron, and has a life five or six times as long, even
+under the heavy loads of to-day. We are now approaching very
+near the limit of what the rail will carry, while the joints are becoming
+less able to do their duty. Bad joints mean rough track.
+Rough track means considerably greater expenditure both for its
+maintenance and that of all the rolling stock, as the blows and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+shocks do reciprocal damage, both to the rails and to that which
+runs on them. Hence all railway managers are now devoting
+more care and attention to their tracks.</p>
+
+<p>In laying track on a new railway, if it be in an old-settled country
+where other railroads are near and the highways good, the ties
+are delivered in piles along the line where wanted, and the haul of
+the rails is comparatively short.
+The ties are laid down, spaced
+and bedded, adzed off to a true
+bearing, and the rails laid
+upon them; the workmen being
+divided into gangs, each
+doing a different part of the
+work. After the track is laid, the ballast-trains come along and
+cover the roadbed with gravel. The track is raised, the gravel
+tamped well under the ties, and the track is ready for use.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_038.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Spiking the Track.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span><br />
+   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_039.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Rail Making.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The road is then divided into sections about five miles long.
+On each section there is a section-boss, with four to six laborers.
+Their duty is to pass over the track at least twice a day in their
+hand-car, to examine every joint, and where one is found low or
+out of line, to bring it back to its true position by tamping gravel
+under it and moving the track. They have also to see that all
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+ditches are kept clear of water, a most essential point, as without
+good drainage the ground under gravel ballast becomes soft, and
+the mud is churned up into the gravel, and the whole soon gets
+into bad order.</p>
+
+<p>They have to see that the fences are all right, that trees and
+telegraph poles do not fall across the track, that wooden bridges
+do not burn down, that iron and stone bridges are not undermined
+by freshets, and always to set up danger signals to warn the trains.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_041.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Track Laying.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is admitted by competent judges, that the track of the Pennsylvania
+Railroad is the best in this country, and one of the best
+in the world. It is kept up to its high standard of excellence by a
+system of competitive examinations.</p>
+
+<p>About the first of November, in each year, after the season's
+work has been done, a tour of inspection is made over all the lines,
+on a train of cars expressly prepared, consisting of two or more
+cars not unlike ordinary box cars with the front end taken out.
+Each car is pushed in front of an engine, and goes slowly over the
+line, by daylight only, so that the inspecting party may have a full
+view of the road.</p>
+
+<p>The Pennsylvania road is divided into Grand Divisions, Superintendents'
+Divisions, of about 100 miles long, Supervisors' Divisions,
+of about 30 miles, and Subdivisions, of 2½ miles.</p>
+
+<p>The examining committee for each Supervisor's Division consists
+of the supervisors of other divisions. As they pass along,
+they mark on a card. One sub-committee marks the condition of
+the alignment and surfacing of the rails; another the condition of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+the joints and the spacing of the ties; another the ballast, switches,
+and sidings; another the ditches, road-crossings, station grounds.
+The marks range <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;Original text: 'from 1 to 10'">from 0 to 10</ins>, 0 being very bad, 5 medium, and
+10 perfection. When the trip is done these reports are all collected
+and the average is taken for each division.</p>
+
+<p>As an inducement to the supervisors and the foremen of the
+Subdivisions to excel on their division, premiums are given as
+follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquoty">
+
+<p>$100 to the supervisor having the best yard on his Grand Division.</p>
+
+<p>$100 each to the supervisors having the best Supervisor's Division on each Superintendent's
+Division of 100 miles.</p>
+
+<p>$75 to the foreman having the best subdivision of 2½ miles on each Grand Division.</p>
+
+<p>$60 to each foreman having the best subdivision on his Superintendent's Division,
+including yards.</p>
+
+<p>$50 to the foreman having the best subdivision on each Supervisor's Division.</p></div>
+
+<p>In addition to the above there are two premiums of honor given
+by the general manager, which bring into competition with each
+other those parts of the main line lying on either side of Philadelphia,
+viz.:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquoty">
+
+<p>$100 to the supervisor having the best line and surface between Pittsburg and Jersey
+City.</p>
+
+<p>$50 to the second best ditto.</p></div>
+
+<p>If a supervisor or foreman of subdivision receives one of the
+higher premiums, he is not allowed to be a competitor for any
+others premiums, except the premiums of honor.</p>
+
+<p>The advantages of these inspections and premiums are these:
+Every man knows exactly what the standard of excellence is, and
+strives to have his section reach it. Under the old system, a man
+never got off of his own section, and had no means of comparison,
+and like all untravelled persons, became conceited.</p>
+
+<p>The standard of excellence becomes higher and higher every
+year. Perfect fairness prevails, as the men themselves are the
+judges. The officers of the road make no marks, but usually
+look on and see that there is fair play.</p>
+
+<p>This brings the officers and men nearer together, and shows
+the men how all are working for the common good. An agreeable
+break is made in the monotony of the men's lives. They have
+something to look forward to better than a spree.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is by the adoption of such methods as these that strikes will
+be prevented in the future. It encourages an <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">esprit de corps</i>
+among the men, and educates them in every way.</p>
+
+<p>This system was first devised and put in operation on the
+Pennsylvania Railroad in 1879, by Mr. Frank Thomson, General
+Manager, to whom the credit of it is justly due.</p>
+
+
+<h3>V.</h3>
+
+<p>I have thus endeavored to trace the history of the building of
+a railway; and it must have been seen, from what has been said,
+that the evolution of the railway and of its rolling stock follows the
+same laws which govern the rest of the world: adaptation to circumstances
+decides what is fittest, and that alone survives. The
+scrap-heap of a great railway tells its own story.</p>
+
+<p>Our railways have now reached a development which is wonderful.
+The railways of the United States, if placed continuously,
+would reach more than half-way to the moon. Their bridges
+alone would reach from New York to Liverpool. Notwithstanding
+the number of accidents that we read of in the daily papers,
+statistics show that less persons are killed annually on railways
+than are killed annually by falling out of windows.</p>
+
+<p>Railways have so cheapened the cost of transportation that,
+while a load of wheat loses all of its value by being hauled one
+hundred miles on a common road, meat and flour enough to supply
+one man a year can, according to Mr. Edward Atkinson, be
+hauled 1,500 miles from the West to the East for one day's wages
+of that man, if he be a skilled mechanic. If freight charges are
+diminished in the future as in the past, this can soon be done for
+one day's wages of a common laborer.</p>
+
+<p>The number of persons employed in constructing, equipping,
+and operating our railways is about two millions.</p>
+
+<p>The combined armies and navies of the world, while on peace
+footing, will draw from gainful occupations 3,455,000 men.</p>
+
+<p>Those create wealth&mdash;these destroy it. Is it any wonder that
+America is the richest country in the world?</p>
+
+<p>The rapidity with which it is possible to build railways over
+the prairies of the West is extraordinary. It is true that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+amount of earth necessary to
+be moved is much less than
+on the railways of the East.
+In Iowa and Wisconsin, the
+amount runs from 20,000 to
+25,000 yards per mile, while
+in Dakota it is only 12,000 to
+15,000 yards per mile. After making all due allowance for this,
+the result is still remarkable.</p>
+
+<div class="sandbagbox" id="img044">
+ <div id="i044b1">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i044b2">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<div class="center caption">Temporary Railway Crossing<br />the St. Lawrence on the Ice.</div>
+
+<p>The Manitoba system was extended in 1887 through Dakota
+and Montana, a distance of 545 miles. A small army of 10,000
+men, with about 3,500 teams, commanded by General D. C. Shepard,
+of St. Paul, a veteran engineer and contractor, did it all between
+April 2 and October 19. All materials and subsistence
+had to be hauled to the front, from the base of supplies. The
+army slept in its own tents, shanties, and cars. The grading was
+cast up from the side ditches, sometimes by carts, and sometimes
+by the digging machine.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="HandHeld">
+    <div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_044.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
+    <div class="caption">Temporary Railway Crossing the St. Lawrence on the Ice.</div>
+    </div>
+
+    <p>The Manitoba system was extended in 1887 through Dakota
+    and Montana, a distance of 545 miles. A small army of 10,000
+    men, with about 3,500 teams, commanded by General D. C. Shepard,
+    of St. Paul, a veteran engineer and contractor, did it all between
+    April 2 and October 19. All materials and subsistence
+    had to be hauled to the front, from the base of supplies. The
+    army slept in its own tents, shanties, and cars. The grading was
+    cast up from the side ditches, sometimes by carts, and sometimes
+    by the digging machine.</p>
+    </div>
+
+<p>Everything was done with military organization, except that
+what was left behind was a railway and not earth-work lines of defence.
+Assuming that this railway, ready for its equipment, cost
+$15,100 per mile, or $8,175,000, and if it be true, as statisticians
+tell us, that every dollar expended in building railways in a new
+country adds ten to the value of land and other property, then this
+six months' campaign shows a solid increase of the wealth of our<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+country of over eighty millions of dollars. Had it been necessary
+for our Government to keep an army of observation of the same
+size on the Canadian frontier, there would have been a dead loss
+of over eight millions of dollars, and the only result would have
+been a slight reduction of the Treasury surplus.</p>
+
+<p>It must be remembered that this railway was built after the
+American system: when the rails were laid, so as to carry trains,
+it was not much more than half finished; the track had to be ballasted,
+the temporary wooden structures replaced by stone and
+iron, and many buildings and miles of sidings were yet to be constructed.
+But it began to earn money from the very day the last
+rail was laid, and out of its earnings, and the credit thereby acquired,
+it will complete itself.</p>
+
+<p>And this is only one instance out of many. The armies of
+peace are working all over our country, increasing our wealth, and
+binding all parts into a common whole. We have here the true
+answer to the Carlyles and the Ruskins who ask: "What is the
+use of all this? Is a man any better who goes sixty miles an hour
+than one who went five miles an hour?" "Were we not happier
+when our fields were covered with their golden harvests, than
+now, when our wheat is brought to us from Dakota?"</p>
+
+<p>The grand function of the railway is to change the whole basis
+of civilization from military to industrial. The talent, the energy,
+the money, which is expended in maintaining the whole of Europe
+as an armed camp is here expended in building and maintaining
+railways, with their army of two millions of men. Without the
+help of railways the rebellion of the Southern States could never
+have been put down, and two great standing armies would have
+been necessary. By the railways, aided by telegraphs, it is easy
+to extend our Federal system over an entire continent, and thus
+dispense forever with standing armies.</p>
+
+<p>The moral effect of this upon Europe is great, but its physical
+effect is still greater. American railways have nearly abolished
+landlordism in Ireland, and they will one day abolish it in England,
+and over the continent of Europe. So long as Europe was
+dependent for food upon its own fields, the owner of those fields
+could fix his own rental. This he can no longer do, owing to the
+cheapness of transportation from Australia and from the prairies of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+America, due to the inventions of Watt, the Stephensons, Bessemer,
+and Holley.</p>
+
+<p>With the wealth of the landlord his political power will pass
+away. The government of European countries will pass out of
+the hands of the great landowners, but not into those of the
+rabble, as is feared. It will pass into the same hands that govern
+America to-day&mdash;the territorial democracy, the owners of small
+farms, and the manufacturers and merchants. When this comes to
+pass, attempts will be made to settle international disputes by arbitration
+instead of war, following the example of the Geneva arbitration
+between the two greatest industrial nations of the world.
+Whether our Federal system will ever extend to the rest of the
+world, no one knows, but we do know that without railways it
+would be impossible.</p>
+
+<p>When we consider the effects of all these wonderful changes
+upon the sum of human happiness, we must admit that the engineer
+should justly take rank with statesmen and soldiers, and that no
+greater benefactors to the human race can be named than the
+Stephensons and their American disciples&mdash;Allen, Rogers, Jervis,
+Winans, Latrobe, and Holley.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> It is proper here to say that English engineers now appreciate the merits of the American swivelling
+truck or bogie. In the article on Railways in the last edition of the "Encyclopædia Britannica,"
+speaking of locomotives, the author of the article, who is an English engineer of high authority, says:
+"American practice, many years since, arrived at two leading types of locomotive for passenger, and
+for goods traffic. The passenger locomotive has eight wheels, of which four in front are framed in a
+bogie, and the four wheels behind are coupled drivers. <em>This is the type to which English practice has
+been approximating.</em>" The italics are ours.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The statistics of ten leading English and ten leading American lines, given by Dorsey, show the following
+results: 1. The cost per year of the rations, wages, fuel of an American locomotive is $5,590; of
+an English locomotive, $3,080. 2. Average yearly number of train-miles run by American locomotive,
+23,928; English locomotive, 17,539. 3. Yearly earnings: American locomotive, $14,860; English locomotive,
+$10,940, although the English freight charges are much greater than those of the United States.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The writer has obtained many of the statistics used in this article from A. M. Wellington's
+"Economic Theory of Railway Location," a perfect mine of valuable information upon all such matters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> The amount of permanent wood and iron truss bridges, and of temporary wooden trestles on the
+Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul is as follows:
+</p>
+
+<div class="center fs90">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="60%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="tdl">Truss&nbsp;bridges,</td><td class="tdr">700</td><td class="tdl">spans,&nbsp;average</td><td class="tdr">93</td><td class="tdl">feet,</td><td class="tdr">12<sup>4</sup>/<sub>5</sub>&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">miles.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Trestle &nbsp; &nbsp; "</td><td class="tdr">7,196</td><td class="tdc">" &nbsp; &nbsp; "</td><td class="tdr">77</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdr">103<sup>1</sup>/<sub>10</sub></td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrh">&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrh">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc">Total,</td><td class="tdr">7,896</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">115<sup>9</sup>/<sub>10</sub></td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+The approximate total number of bridges in the United States was in 1888:
+</p>
+
+<div class="center fs90">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="tdl">Iron and wood truss bridges,</td><td class="tdr">61,562</td><td class="tdl">spans,</td><td class="tdr">1,086</td><td class="tdl">miles.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Wooden trestles,</td><td class="tdr">147,187</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">2,127</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrh">&ndash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrh">&ndash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc">Total,</td><td class="tdr">208,749</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">3,213</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+Probably three-fourths of the truss bridges are now of iron or steel, and may be considered perfectly
+safe so long as the trains remain upon the rails and do not strike the side trusses. The wooden trestles
+are a constant source of danger from decay or burning or from derailed trains, and should be replaced
+by permanent structures as fast as time and money will allow.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> See following article on "Feats of Railroad Engineering," <a href="#Page_86">page 86.</a></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> For fuller description of work in a caisson see "Feats of Railway Engineering," <a href="#Page_69">page 69.</a></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> See "Feats of Railway Engineering," <a href="#Page_55">page 55.</a></p></div></div>
+
+
+    <div class="chapter"></div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">FEATS OF RAILWAY ENGINEERING.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="pfs90 smcap">By JOHN BOGART.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>Development of the Rail&mdash;Problems for the Engineer&mdash;How Heights are Climbed&mdash;The
+Use of Trestles&mdash;Construction on a Mountain Side&mdash;Engineering on Rope Ladders&mdash;Through
+the Portals of a Cañon&mdash;Feats on the Oroya Railroad, Peru&mdash;Nochistongo
+Cut&mdash;Rack Rails for Heavy Grades&mdash;Difficulties in Tunnel Construction&mdash;Bridge
+Foundations&mdash;Cribs and Pneumatic Caissons&mdash;How Men work under Water&mdash;The
+Construction of Stone Arches&mdash;Wood and Iron in Bridge-building&mdash;Great Suspension
+Bridges&mdash;The Niagara Cantilever and the enormous Forth Bridge&mdash;Elevated
+and Underground Roads&mdash;Responsibilities of the Civil Engineer.</p></div>
+
+<div><img class="drop-cap" src="images/i_047dc.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="p1x drop-cap">There are one hundred and fifty
+thousand miles of railway in the
+United States: three hundred thousand
+miles of rails&mdash;in length enough
+to make twelve steel girdles for the
+earth's circumference. This enormous
+length of rail is wonderful&mdash;we do not
+really grasp its significance. But the
+rail itself, the little section of steel, is
+an engineering feat. The change of its form
+from the curious and clumsy iron pear-head of thirty years ago to
+the present refined section of steel is a scientific development. It
+is now a beam whose every dimension and curve and angle are
+exactly suited to the tremendous work it has to do. The loads it
+carries are enormous, the blows it receives are heavy and constant,
+but it carries the loads and bears the blows and does its duty.
+The locomotive and the modern passenger and freight cars are
+great achievements; and so is the little rail which carries them all.</p>
+
+<p>The railway to-day is one of the matter-of-fact associations of
+our active life. We use it so constantly that it requires some little
+effort to think of it as a wonderful thing; a creation of man's inge<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>nuity,
+which did not exist when our grandfathers were young. Its
+long bridges, high viaducts, and dark tunnels may be remarked and
+remembered by the traveller, but the narrow way of steel, the road
+itself, seems but a simple work. And yet the problem of location,
+the determination, foot by foot and mile by mile, of where the line
+must go, calls in its successful solution for the highest skill of the
+engineer, whose profession before the railway was created hardly
+existed at all. Locomotives now climb heights which a few years
+ago no vehicle on wheels could ascend. The writer, with some
+engineer friends, was in the mountains of Colorado during the
+summer of 1887, and saw a train of very intelligent donkeys loaded
+with ore from the mines, to which no access could be had but by
+those sure-footed beasts. Within a year one of that party of engineers
+had located and was building a railway to those very
+mines. No heights seem too great to-day, no valleys too deep, no
+cañons too forbidding, no streams too wide; if commerce demands,
+the engineer will respond and the railways will be built.</p>
+
+<p>The location of the line of a railway through difficult country
+requires the trained judgment of an engineer of special experience,
+and the most difficult country is not by any means that which might
+at first be supposed. A line through a narrow pass almost locates
+itself. But the approach to a summit through rolling country is
+often a serious problem. The rate of grade must be kept as light
+as possible, and must never exceed the prescribed maximum. The
+cuttings and the embankments must be as shallow as they can be
+made&mdash;the quantities of material taken from the excavations should
+be just about enough to make adjacent embankments. The curves
+must be few and of light radius&mdash;never exceeding an arranged
+limit. The line must always be kept as direct as these considerations
+will allow&mdash;so that the final location will give the shortest
+practicable economical distance from point to point. Many a mile
+of railway over which we travel now at the highest speed has been
+a weary problem to the engineer of location, and he has often accomplished
+a really greater success by securing a line which seems
+to closely fit the country over which it runs without marking itself
+sharply upon nature's moulding, than if he had with apparent boldness
+cut deep into the hills and raised embankments and viaducts
+high over lowlands and valleys.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sandbagbox" id="img049">
+ <div id="i049b1">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i049b2">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<div class="center caption">View Down the Blue from Rocky Point, Denver,<br />
+South Park and Pacific Railroad;<br />showing successive tiers of railway.</div>
+
+<p>But roads must run through
+many regions where very different
+measures must be taken to
+secure a location practicable for
+traffic. For instance, a line at
+a high elevation approaches a
+wide valley which it must cross.
+The rate of descent is fixed by
+the established maximum grade,
+and the sides of the valley are
+much steeper than that rate.
+Then the engineer must gain
+distance&mdash;that is to say, he
+must make the line long enough
+to overcome the vertical height. This can often be accomplished
+by carrying it up the valley on one side and down on the other.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+Tributary valleys can be made use of if necessary, and the desired
+crossing thus accomplished. But at times even these expedients
+will not suffice. Then the line is made to bend upon itself and
+wind down the hillside upon benches cut into the earth, or rock,
+curving at points where nature affords any sort of opportunity, and
+reaching the valley at last in long convolutions like the path of a
+great serpent on the mountain side. These lines often show several
+tiers of railway, one directly above the other, as may be seen
+in the illustrations on pages 49 and 51.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="HandHeld">
+    <div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_049.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
+    <div class="caption">View Down the Blue from Rocky Point, Denver, South Park
+    and Pacific Railroad; showing successive tiers of railway.</div>
+    </div>
+
+    <p>But roads must run through
+    many regions where very different
+    measures must be taken to
+    secure a location practicable for
+    traffic. For instance, a line at
+    a high elevation approaches a
+    wide valley which it must cross.
+    The rate of descent is fixed by
+    the established maximum grade,
+    and the sides of the valley are
+    much steeper than that rate.
+    Then the engineer must gain
+    distance&mdash;that is to say, he
+    must make the line long enough
+    to overcome the vertical height. This can often be accomplished
+    by carrying it up the valley on one side and down on the other.
+    Tributary valleys can be made use of if necessary, and the desired
+    crossing thus accomplished. But at times even these expedients
+    will not suffice. Then the line is made to bend upon itself and
+    wind down the hillside upon benches cut into the earth, or rock,
+    curving at points where nature affords any sort of opportunity, and
+    reaching the valley at last in long convolutions like the path of a
+    great serpent on the mountain side. These lines often show several
+    tiers of railway, one directly above the other, as may be seen
+    in the illustrations on pages 49 and 51.</p>
+    </div>
+
+<p>The long trestle shown in the illustration opposite is an example
+of an expedient often of the greatest service in railway construction.
+These trestles are built of wood, simply but strongly framed together,
+and are entirely effective for the transport of traffic for a
+number of years. Then they must be renewed, or, what is better,
+be replaced by embankment, which can be gradually made by
+depositing the material from cars on the trestle itself. The trestle
+illustrated is interesting as conforming to the curve of the line,
+which in that country, the mountains of Colorado, was probably a
+necessity of location.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Where the direct turning of a line upon itself may not be necessary,
+there may and often must be bold work done in the construction
+of the road upon a mountain side. It must be supported
+where necessary by walls built up from suitable foundations, often
+only secured at a great depth below the grade of the road. Projecting
+points of rock must be cut through, and any practicable
+natural shelf or favorable formation must be made use of, as in the
+picture on <a href="#Page_61">page 61</a>. In some of the mountain locations, galleries
+have been cut directly into the rock, the cliff overhanging the roadway,
+and the line being carried in a horizontal cut or niche in the
+solid wall.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span><br />
+   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_051.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Loop and Great Trestle near Hagerman's, on the Colorado Midland Railway.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Oroya and the Chimbote railways in South America
+demanded constant locations of this character. At many points
+it was necessary to suspend the persons making the preliminary
+measurements from the cliff above. The engineer who made these
+locations told the writer that on the Oroya line the galleries were
+often from 100 to 400 feet above the base of the cliff, and were generally
+reached from above. Rope ladders were used to great advantage.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+One 64 feet long and one 106 feet long covered the usual
+practice, and were sometimes spliced together. The side ropes
+were ¾ and 1¼ inches in diameter, and the rounds of wood 1¼ inches
+in diameter, and 16 inches and 24 inches long. These were notched
+at the ends and passed through the ropes, to which they were afterward
+lashed. These ladders could be rolled up and carried about
+on donkeys or mules. When swung over the side of a cliff and
+secured at the top, and when practicable at the bottom, they formed
+a very useful instrument in location and construction. For simple
+examination of the cliff, and for rough or broken slopes not exceeding
+70 to 80 degrees, an active fellow would, after some experience,
+walk up and down such a slope simply grasping the rope in his
+hands. If required to do any work he would secure the rope
+about his body, or wind it around his arm, leaving his hands comparatively
+free for light work.</p>
+
+<p>The boatswain's chair&mdash;consisting of a wooden seat 6 inches
+wide and two feet long, through the ends of which pass the side
+ropes, looped at the top, and having their ends knotted&mdash;is a particularly
+convenient seat to use where cliffs overhang to a slight
+degree. The riggers were generally Portuguese sailors, who
+seemed to have more agility and less fear than any other men to
+be found. At Cuesta Blanca, on the Oroya, a prominent discoloration
+on the cliff served as a triangulation point for locating the chief
+gallery. Men were swung over the side of the cliff in a cage about
+2½ feet by 6 feet, open at the top and on the side next the rock.
+This was a peculiar cliff about 1,000 feet high, rising from the river
+at a general slope of about 70 degrees. The grade line of the road
+was 420 feet above the river. The Chileno miners climbed up a
+rope ladder to a large seam near the grade, where they lived; provisions,
+water, etc., being hoisted up to them. The first men sent
+over the cliff to begin the preliminary work were lowered in a cage
+and took their dinners with them, for fear they would not return to
+the work, and that unless a genuine start was made others could
+not be induced to take their places. It is safe to say that 80 per
+cent. of the sixty odd tunnels on the Oroya and the seven tunnels
+on the Chimbote lines were located and constructed on lines
+determined by triangulation, and the results were so satisfactory
+that the method may be depended upon as the best system for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+determining topographical
+data or
+for locating and
+constructing the
+lines in any similar
+locality.</p>
+
+<div class="sandbagbox" id="img054">
+ <div id="i054b1">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i054b2">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<div class="center caption">Denver and Rio Grande Railway Entering the Portals of the Grand River Cañon, Col.</div>
+
+<p>Where the
+rocks close in together,
+as in some
+of the cañons of
+our Southwest,
+the railway curves
+about them and
+finds its way often
+where one would
+hardly suppose a
+decent wagon
+road could be
+built. The portals
+of the Grand
+River Cañon, as
+here shown, present
+such a line,
+passing through
+narrow gateways of rock rising precipitously on either side to
+enormous heights.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="HandHeld">
+    <div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_054.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
+    <div class="caption">Denver and Rio Grande Railway Entering the Portals of the Grand River Cañon, Col.</div>
+    </div>
+
+    <p>Where the
+    rocks close in together,
+    as in some
+    of the cañons of
+    our Southwest,
+    the railway curves
+    about them and
+    finds its way often
+    where one would
+    hardly suppose a
+    decent wagon
+    road could be
+    built. The portals
+    of the Grand
+    River Cañon, as
+    here shown, present
+    such a line,
+    passing through
+    narrow gateways of rock rising precipitously on either side to
+    enormous heights.</p>
+    </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When such a cañon or a narrow valley directly crosses the line
+of the road, it must be spanned by a bridge or viaduct. The Kentucky
+River Bridge, shown below, is an instance. The Verrugas
+Bridge, on the Lima and Oroya Railroad in Peru, is another. This
+bridge is at an elevation of 5,836 feet above sea-level. It crosses a
+ravine at the bottom of which is a small stream. The bridge is
+575 feet long, in four spans, and is supported by iron towers, the
+central one of which is 252 feet in height. The construction was
+accomplished entirely from above, the material all having been
+delivered at the top of the ravine, and the erection was made by
+lowering each piece to its position. This was done by the use of
+two wire-rope cables, suspended across the ravine from temporary
+towers at each end of the bridge.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_055.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The Kentucky River Cantilever, on the Cincinnati Southern Railway.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the line of the same Oroya Railroad is a striking example
+of the difficulties encountered in such mountain country and of the
+method by which they have been overcome. A tunnel reaches a
+narrow gorge, a truss is thrown across, and the tunnel continued.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+Nature's wildest scenery, the deep ravine, the mountain cliffs,
+and the graceful truss carrying the locomotive and train safely over
+what would seem an impossible pass, here combine to give a vivid
+illustration of an engineering feat.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_056.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Truss over Ravine, and Tunnel, Oroya Railroad, Peru.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The location of a part of the Mexican Central Railway through
+the cut of Nochistongo is peculiarly interesting. Far underneath
+the level of this line of railway there was skilfully constructed, in
+1608, a tunnel which at that period was a very bold piece of engin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>eering.
+It was designed to drain the Valley of Mexico, which has
+no natural outlet. This tunnel was more than six miles long and
+ten feet wide. It was driven through the formation called <em>tepetate</em>,
+a peculiar earth with strata of sand and marl. It was finished in
+eleven months. At first excavated without a lining, it was afterward
+faced with masonry. It was not entirely protected when a
+great flood came, the dikes above gave way, and the tunnel became
+obstructed. The City of Mexico was flooded, and it was decided
+that, instead of repairing the tunnel an open cut should be made.
+The engineer who had constructed the tunnel, Enrico Martinez,
+was put in charge of this enormous undertaking, and others took
+his place after his death. The cut is believed to be the largest ever
+made in the world. For more than a century the work was continued.
+Its greatest depth is now 200 feet. It was cut deeper, but
+has partially filled with the washings from the slopes. The cost
+was enormous, more than 6,000,000 dollars in silver having been
+actually disbursed! Wages for workmen were then from 9 to 12
+cents a day. All convicts sentenced to hard labor were put at work
+in the great cut. The loss of life was very great. Writers of the
+time state that more than 100,000 Indians perished while engaged
+in the work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_057.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The Nochistongo Cut, Mexican Central Railway.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_058a.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The Mount Washington Rack Railroad.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When a line of railway
+encountered a
+grade too steep for ascent
+by the traction
+of the locomotive, the
+earlier engineers adopted the
+inclined plane. Such planes were
+in use at important points during
+many years. Notable instances
+were those by which traffic was
+carried across the Alleghany
+Mountains, connecting on
+each side with the Pennsylvania
+railway lines. These
+old planes are still visible
+from the present Pennsylvania
+Railroad where it
+crosses the summit west of Altoona. The planes were operated
+by stationary engines acting upon cables attached to the cars.
+These cables passed around drums at the head of the planes, the
+weight of the cars on one track partially
+balancing those on the other. Similar
+planes were in use also at Albany,
+Schenectady, and
+other places.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_058b.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Trestle on Portland and Ogdensburg Railway,<br />Crawford Notch, White Mountains.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another effective
+expedient is the central
+rack rail. No
+better or more successful
+example of
+this method of construction
+can be given
+than the Mount
+Washington Railway,
+illustrated above.
+The road was completed
+in 1869. Its
+length is 3<sup>1</sup>/<sub>3</sub> miles and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+its total rise 3,625 feet. Its steepest grade is about 1 foot rise in
+every 3 feet in length; the average grade is 1 in 4. It is built of
+heavy timber, well bolted to the rock. Low places are spanned by
+substantial trestle work. The gauge of the road is 4 feet 7½ inches,
+and it is provided with the two ordinary rails and also the central
+rack rail, which is really like an iron ladder, the sides being of
+angle iron and the cross-pieces of round iron 1½ inches in diameter
+and 4 inches apart. Into these plays the central cog-wheel on the
+locomotive, which thus climbs this iron ladder with entire safety.
+Very complete arrangements are made to control the descent of the
+train in case of accident to the machinery. The locomotive is always
+below the train, and pushes it up the mountain. Many thousands
+of passengers have been transported every year without accident.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_059.jpg" width="250" height="313" alt="" />
+<div class="caption"><p>A Series of Tunnels.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The rack railroad ascending the Righi, in Switzerland, was
+copied after the Mount Washington
+line. Some improvements in
+the construction of the rack rail
+and attachments have been introduced
+upon mountain roads in
+Germany, and this system seems
+very advantageous for use in exceptionally
+steep locations.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>When a line of railway meets
+in its course a barrier of rock, it is
+often best to cut directly through.
+If the grade is not too far below
+the surface of the rock, the cut is
+made like a great trench with the
+sides as steep as the nature of
+the material will allow. Very deep
+cuts are, however, not desirable. The rains bring down upon
+their slopes the softer material from above, and the frost detaches
+pieces of rock which, falling, may result in serious accidents to
+trains. Snow lodges in these deep cuts, at times entirely stopping
+traffic, as in the blizzard near New York, in March, 1888.
+A tunnel, therefore, while perhaps greater in first cost than a moderately
+deep cut, is really often the more economical expedient.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_060.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Tunnel at the Foot of Mount St. Stephen, on the Canadian Pacific.<br />
+(The glacier 8,200 feet above the Railway.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sandbagbox" id="img061">
+ <div id="i061b1">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i061b2">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i061b3">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<div class="p2 center caption">Peña de Mora<br />
+on the La Guayra and Carácas Railway, Venezuela.</div>
+
+<p>And here is as good a place, perhaps, as any other in this
+chapter, to say that true engineering is the economical adaptation
+of the means and opportunities existing, to the end desired. Civil
+engineering was defined, by one of the greatest of England's engineers,
+as "the art of directing the great sources of power in nature
+for the use and convenience of man," and that definition was
+adopted as a fundamental idea in the charter of the English Institution
+of Civil Engineers. But the development of engineering works
+in America has been effected successfully by American engineers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+only because they have appreciated another side of the
+problem presented to them. A past president of the American
+Society of Civil Engineers, a man of rare judgment and remarkable
+executive ability, the late Ashbel Welch, said, in discussing a
+great undertaking proposed by an eminent Frenchman: "That is
+the best engineering, not which makes the most splendid, or even
+the most perfect, work, but that which makes a work that answers
+the purpose well, at the least cost." And it may be remarked, as
+to the project which he was then
+discussing, that after a very large
+expenditure and an experience of
+eight years since that discussion,
+the plans of the work were modified
+and the identical suggestions
+made by Mr. Welch of a radical
+economical change were adopted
+in 1888.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> Another eminent
+American
+engineer,
+whose practical
+experience
+has
+been gained
+in the construction
+and
+engineering
+supervision
+of more than
+five thousand
+miles of railway,
+said, in
+his address
+as President
+of the American
+Society
+of Civil Engineers: "The high object of our profession is to consider
+and determine the most economic use of time, power, and matter."</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="HandHeld">
+    <div class="figright">
+    <img src="images/i_061.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
+    <div class="caption">Peña de Mora<br />
+    on the La Guayra and Carácas Railway, Venezuela.</div>
+    </div>
+
+    <p>And here is as good a place, perhaps, as any other in this
+    chapter, to say that true engineering is the economical adaptation
+    of the means and opportunities existing, to the end desired. Civil
+    engineering was defined, by one of the greatest of England's engineers,
+    as "the art of directing the great sources of power in nature
+    for the use and convenience of man," and that definition was
+    adopted as a fundamental idea in the charter of the English Institution
+    of Civil Engineers. But the development of engineering-works
+    in America has been effected successfully by American engineers
+    only because they have appreciated another side of the
+    problem presented to them. A past president of the American
+    Society of Civil Engineers, a man of rare judgment and remarkable
+    executive ability, the late Ashbel Welch, said, in discussing a
+    great undertaking proposed by an eminent Frenchman: "That is
+    the best engineering, not which makes the most splendid, or even
+    the most perfect, work, but that which makes a work that answers
+    the purpose well, at the least cost." And it may be remarked, as
+    to the project which he was then
+    discussing, that after a very large
+    expenditure and an experience of
+    eight years since that discussion,
+    the plans of the work were modified
+    and the identical suggestions
+    made by Mr. Welch of a radical
+    economical change were adopted
+    in 1888.<a name="FNanchor_8_8h" id="FNanchor_8_8h"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> Another eminent
+    American
+    engineer,
+    whose practical
+    experience
+    has
+    been gained
+    in the construction
+    and
+    engineering
+    supervision
+    of more than
+    five thousand
+    miles of railway,
+    said, in
+    his address
+    as President
+    of the American
+    Society
+    of Civil Engineers: "The high object of our profession is to consider
+    and determine the most economic use of time, power, and matter."</p>
+    </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sandbagbox" id="img062">
+ <div id="i062b1">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i062b2">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<div class="center caption">Perspective View of St. Gothard Spiral Tunnels, in the Alps.</div>
+
+<p>That true economy, which
+finally secures in a completed
+work the best results from the
+investment of capital, in first
+cost and continued maintenance, is an essential element in the consideration
+of any really great engineering feat.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>The difficulties involved in the construction of a tunnel, after
+the line and dimensions have been determined, depend generally
+upon the nature of the material found as the work advances. Solid
+rock presents really the fewest difficulties, but it is seldom that
+tunnels of considerable length occur without meeting material
+which requires special provision for successful treatment. In some
+cases great portions of the rock, where the roof of the tunnel is to
+be, press downward with enormous weight, being detached from
+the adjacent mass by the occurrence of natural seams.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="HandHeld">
+    <div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_062.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+    <div class="caption">Perspective View of St. Gothard Spiral Tunnels, in the
+    Alps.</div>
+    </div>
+
+    <p>That true economy, which
+    finally secures in a completed
+    work the best results from the
+    investment of capital, in first
+    cost and continued maintenance, is an essential element in the consideration
+    of any really great engineering feat.</p>
+
+    <hr class="tb" />
+
+    <p>The difficulties involved in the construction of a tunnel, after
+    the line and dimensions have been determined, depend generally
+    upon the nature of the material found as the work advances. Solid
+    rock presents really the fewest difficulties, but it is seldom that
+    tunnels of considerable length occur without meeting material
+    which requires special provision for successful treatment. In some
+    cases great portions of the rock, where the roof of the tunnel is to
+    be, press downward with enormous weight, being detached from
+    the adjacent mass by the occurrence of natural seams.</p>
+    </div>
+
+<p>At other places soft material may be encountered, and the passage
+then is attended with great difficulty. Temporary supports,
+generally of timber, and of great strength, have often to be used
+at every foot of progress to prevent the material from forcing its
+way into the excavation already made.</p>
+
+<p>In long tunnels the ventilation is a difficult problem, although
+the use of compressed air drills has aided greatly in its solution.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_063a.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="right fs70">Plan of St. Gothard Spiral Tunnels.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among the great tunnels which have been excavated, the St.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+Gothard is the most remarkable. It is 9¼ miles long, with a section
+26¼ feet wide by 19<sup>2</sup>/<sub>3</sub> feet high. The work on this tunnel was
+continuous, and it required 9¼
+years for its completion.</p>
+
+<p>The Mont Cenis tunnel, 8<sup>1</sup>/<sub>3</sub>
+miles in length, was completed
+in 12 years.</p>
+
+<div class="sandbagbox" id="img063">
+ <div id="i063b1">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i063b2">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<div class="left caption">Profile of the Same.</div>
+
+<p>The Hoosac Tunnel, 4¾
+miles in length, 26 feet wide
+and 21½ feet high, was not prosecuted
+continuously; it was
+completed in 1876. These tunnels are notable chiefly on account
+of their great length; there are others of more moderate extent
+which have peculiar features; one, illustrated on the preceding
+page, is unique. This tunnel is a portion of the St. Gothard Railway,
+and not very far distant from the great tunnel referred to
+above. In the descent of the mountain it was absolutely necessary
+to secure a longer distance than a straight
+line or an ordinary curve would give; the
+line was therefore doubly curved upon itself.
+It enters the mountain at a high elevation,
+describes a circle through the rock and,
+constantly descending, reappears under itself
+at the side; still descending, it enters
+the mountain at another point and continues
+in another circular tunnel
+until it finally emerges again,
+under itself, but at a comparatively
+short horizontal distance
+from its first entry, having gained
+the required descent by a continued
+grade through the tunnels.
+The profile above shows the descent,
+upon a greatly reduced
+scale, the heavy lines marking
+where the line is in the tunnel.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="HandHeld">
+    <div class="figleft">
+    <img src="images/i_063b.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+    <div class="caption">Profile of the Same.</div>
+    </div>
+
+    <p>The Hoosac Tunnel, 4¾
+    miles in length, 26 feet wide
+    and 21½ feet high, was not prosecuted
+    continuously; it was
+    completed in 1876. These tunnels are notable chiefly on account
+    of their great length; there are others of more moderate extent
+    which have peculiar features; one, illustrated on the preceding
+    page, is unique. This tunnel is a portion of the St. Gothard Railway,
+    and not very far distant from the great tunnel referred to
+    above. In the descent of the mountain it was absolutely necessary
+    to secure a longer distance than a straight
+    line or an ordinary curve would give; the
+    line was therefore doubly curved upon itself.
+    It enters the mountain at a high elevation,
+    describes a circle through the rock and,
+    constantly descending, reappears under itself
+    at the side; still descending, it enters
+    the mountain at another point and continues
+    in another circular tunnel
+    until it finally emerges again,
+    under itself, but at a comparatively
+    short horizontal distance
+    from its first entry, having gained
+    the required descent by a continued
+    grade through the tunnels.
+    The profile above shows the descent,
+    upon a greatly reduced
+    scale, the heavy lines marking
+    where the line is in the tunnel.</p>
+    </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_064.jpg" width="550" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Portal of a Finished Tunnel; showing Cameron's Cone, Colorado.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span><br />
+   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_065.jpg" width="550" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Portal of a Tunnel in Process of Construction.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The remarkable success achieved by engineers in securing
+suitable foundations at great depths is, of course, hardly known to
+the thousands who constantly see the structures supported on
+those foundations, but in any fair consideration of such engineering
+achievements this must not be omitted. The beautiful bridge
+built by Captain Eads over the Mississippi River at St. Louis,
+bold in its design and excellent in its execution, is an object of admiration
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+to all who visit it, but the impression of its importance
+would be greatly magnified if the part below the surface of the
+water, which bears the massive towers, and which extends to a
+depth twice as great as the height of the pier above the water,
+could be visible.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_067.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Railway Pass at Rocky Point in the Rocky Mountains.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The simplest and most effective foundation is, of course, on
+solid rock. In many localities reliable foundations are built upon
+earth, when it exists at a suitable depth and of such a character as
+properly to sustain the weight. Foundations under water, when
+rock or good material occurs at moderate depth, are constructed
+frequently by means of the coffer-dam, which is simply an enclosure
+made water-tight and properly connected with the bottom of
+the stream. The water is then pumped out and the foundation
+and masonry built within this temporary dam. When the material
+is not of a character to sustain the weight, the next expedient
+is the use of piles, which are driven into the ground, often to a
+very considerable depth, and sustain the load placed upon them by
+the friction upon the sides of the piles of the material in which they
+are driven. It is seldom that dependence is placed upon the load
+being transferred from the top to the point of the pile, even though
+the point may have penetrated to a comparatively solid material.
+Wood is generally used for piles, and where the ground is permanently
+saturated there seems to be hardly any known limit to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+its durability. The substructure of foundations, where it is certain
+that they will always be in contact with water, can be, and
+generally is, of wood, and the permanency of such foundations
+is well established. An exception to this, however, occurs in
+salt-water, particularly in warmer countries, where the ravages of
+the minute <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Teredo Navalis</i>, and of the still more minute <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Limnoria
+Terebrans</i>, destroy the wood in a very short period of time.
+These insects, however, do not work below the ground-line or bed
+of the water. In many special cases hollow
+iron piles are used successfully.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_068.jpg" width="175" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Bridge Pier Founded on Piles.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ordinary method of forcing a pile into
+the ground is by repeated blows of a hammer
+of moderate weight; better success being obtained
+by frequent blows of the hammer, lifted
+to a slight elevation, than results from a greater
+fall, there being danger also in the latter case
+of injuring the material of the pile. The use
+of the water-jet for sinking piles, particularly in
+sand, is interesting. A tube, generally
+of ordinary gas-pipe, open at the lower
+end, is fastened to the pile; the upper
+end is connected by a hose to a powerful
+pump and, the pile being placed in
+position on the surface of the sand,
+water is forced through the tube and
+excavates a passage for the pile, which,
+by the application of very light pressure,
+descends rapidly to the desired depth.
+The stream of water must be continuous,
+as it rises along the side of the pile
+and keeps the sand in a mobile state.
+Immediately upon the cessation of pumping,
+the sand settles about the pile, and
+it is sometimes quite impossible to afterward
+move it. The water-jet is used in
+sinking iron piles by conducting the
+water through the interior of the hollow pile and out of a hole at
+its point. The piles of the great iron pier at Coney Island were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+sunk with great celerity in this way. The illustration opposite
+shows one of the piers of a bridge founded upon wooden piling.</p>
+
+<p>In many cases it would be impossible to drive piling in such a
+way as to insure the durability of the structure above it. This is
+particularly true of the foundations of structures crossing many of
+our rivers, where the bottom is of material which, in time of flood,
+sometimes scours to very remarkable depths; the material often
+being replaced when the flood has subsided. The expedient
+adopted is the pneumatic tube, or the caisson. Both are merely
+applications of the well-known principle of the diving-bell. In the
+former case hollow iron tubes, open at the bottom, are sunk to
+considerable depths, the water being expelled by air pumped into
+the tubes at a pressure sufficient to resist the weight of the water.
+Entrance to the tubes is obtained by an air-lock at the top, the
+material is excavated from the inside, and sufficient weight placed
+upon the tube to force it gradually to the desired depth. When
+that depth is attained, the tubes are filled with concrete, and thus
+solid pillars of hydraulic concrete, surrounded by cast-iron tubing,
+are obtained.</p>
+
+<p>The pneumatic caisson is an enlargement of this idea of the diving-bell.
+The caisson is simply a great chamber or box, open at
+the bottom; the outside bottom edges are shod and cased with
+iron so as to give a cutting surface; the roof and sides are made
+of timber, thoroughly bolted together, and of such strength as to
+resist the pressure of the structure to be finally founded upon it.
+The chamber in the open bottom is of sufficient height to enable
+the laborers to work comfortably in it. This caisson is generally
+constructed upon the shore in the vicinity of the structure and
+towed to the point where the foundation is to be sunk. Air is supplied
+by powerful pumps and is forced into the working chamber.
+The pressure of the air of course increases constantly as
+the caisson descends; it must always be sufficient to overbalance
+the weight of the water and thus prevent the water from entering
+the chamber.</p>
+
+<p>Descent to the caisson is made through a tube, generally of
+wrought iron, and having, at a suitable point, an air-lock, which is
+substantially an enlargement of the tube, forming a chamber, and
+of sufficient size to accommodate a number of men. This air-lock<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+is provided with doors or valves at the top and at the bottom, both
+opening downward, and also with small tubes connecting the air-lock
+with the chamber below and with the external air above.
+Entrance to the caisson is effected through this air-lock. The
+lower door, or valve, being at the bottom, closes and is kept closed
+by the pressure of the air in the caisson below. After the air-lock
+is entered the upper door or valve is shut, and held shut a few
+moments, and the tube connecting with the outer air is closed; a
+small valve in the tube connecting with the caisson is then opened
+gradually and the pressure in the air-lock becomes the same as
+that in the chamber below; as soon as this is effected the valve,
+or door, at the bottom of the air-lock falls open and the air-lock
+becomes really a part of the caisson.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_070.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Pneumatic Caisson.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A sufficient force of men is employed in the chamber to gradually
+excavate the material from its whole surface and from under
+the cutting edge, and the masonry structure is founded upon the
+top of the caisson and built gradually, so as to give constantly a
+sufficient weight to carry the whole construction down to its final
+location upon the stable foundation, which may be the bed-rock or
+may be some strata of permanent character.</p>
+
+<p>The problem of lighting the chamber was until recently of considerable
+difficulty. The rapid combustion under great pressure
+made the use of lamps and candles very troublesome, particularly
+on account of the dense smoke and large production of lampblack.</p>
+
+<p>The introduction of the electric light has greatly aided in the
+more comfortable prosecution of pneumatic foundation work.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_071.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Transverse Section of Pneumatic Caisson.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The removal of rock, or any large mass, from the caisson is effected
+through the air-chamber; but the removal of finer material,
+as sand or earth, is accomplished by the sand pump or by the
+pressure of the air. A tube, extending from the top of the masonry
+and kept above the surface by additions, as may be required,
+enters the working chamber and is controlled by proper valves.
+Lines of tubing and hose extend to all portions of the chamber.
+A slight excavation is made and kept filled with water. The bottom
+of the tube, or the hose connected with it, is placed in this
+excavation, and, the material being agitated so as to be in suspension
+in the water, the valve is opened, and the pressure of the air
+throws the water and the material held in suspension to the surface,
+through the tube, from the end of which it is projected with
+great velocity and may be deposited at any desired adjacent point.
+This method, however, exhausts the air from the caisson too rapidly
+for continuous service. The Eads sand-pump is therefore
+generally used. This is an ingenious apparatus, somewhat the
+same in principle as the injector which forces water into steam-boilers.
+A stream of water is thrown by a powerful pump through
+a tube which, at a point near the inlet for the excavated material,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+is enlarged so as to surround another tube. The water is forced
+upward with great velocity into the second tube, through a conical
+annular opening, and, expelling the atmosphere, carries with it to
+the surface a continuous stream of sand and water from the bottom
+of the excavation.</p>
+
+<p>This system has been used successfully in the foundations of
+piers and abutments of bridges in all parts of the world. The
+rapidity of the descent of the caisson varies with the material
+through which it has to pass. The speed with which such foundations
+are executed is remarkable, when one remembers with what
+delicacy and intelligent supervision they have to be balanced and
+controlled. In some instances it has been necessary to carry them
+to great depths, one at St. Louis being 107 feet below ordinary
+water level in the river.</p>
+
+<p>The pressure of air in caissons at these depths is very great;
+at 110 feet below the surface of the water it would be 50 pounds
+to the square inch. Its effect upon the men entering and working
+in the caisson has been carefully noted in various works, and these
+effects are sometimes very serious; the frequency of respiration is
+increased, the action of the heart becomes excited, and many persons
+become affected by what is known as the "caisson disease,"
+which is accompanied by extreme pain and in some cases results
+in more or less complete paralysis. The careful observations of
+eminent physicians who have given this disease special attention
+have resulted in the formulation of rules which have reduced the
+danger to a minimum.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span><br />
+   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_073.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">At Work in a Pneumatic Caisson&mdash;fifty feet below the surface of the water.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The execution of work within a deep pneumatic caisson is worth
+a moment's consideration. Just above the surface of the water
+is a busy force engaged in laying the solid blocks of masonry
+which are to support the structure. Great derricks lift the stones
+and lay them in their proper position. Powerful pumps are forcing
+air, regularly and at uniform pressure, through tubes to the chamber
+below. Occasionally a stream of sand and water issues with
+such velocity from the discharge pipe that, in the night, the friction
+of the particles causes it to look like a stream of living fire. Far
+below is another busy force. Under the great pressure and abnormal
+supply of oxygen they work with an energy which makes
+it impossible to remain there more than a few hours. The water
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+from without is only kept from entering by the steady action of the
+pumps far above and beyond their control. An irregular settlement
+might overturn the structure. Should the descent of the
+caisson be arrested by any solid under
+its edge, immediate and judicious action
+must be taken. If the obstruction be a
+log, it must be cut off outside the edge
+and pulled into the chamber. Boulders
+must be undermined and often must be
+broken up by blasting. The excavation
+must be systematic and regular. A constant
+danger menaces the lives of these
+workers, and the wonderful success with
+which they have accomplished what they
+have undertaken is entitled to notice and
+admiration.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_075.jpg" width="200" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Pier of Hawkesbury Bridge, Australia.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another process, which has succeeded
+in carrying a foundation to greater depths
+than is possible with compressed air, is
+by building a crib or caisson, with chambers
+entirely open at the top, but having
+the alternate ones closed at the bottom
+and furnished with cutting edges. These
+closed chambers are weighted with stone
+or gravel until the structure rests upon
+the bottom of the river; the material is
+then excavated from the bottom through
+the open chambers, by means of dredges,
+thus permitting the structure to sink by
+its weight to the desired depth. When that depth is reached, the
+chambers which have been used for dredging are filled with concrete,
+and the masonry is constructed upon the top of this structure.
+The use of this system has enabled the engineer to place
+foundations deeper than has been accomplished by any other device,
+one recently built in Australia being 175 feet below the surface
+of the water. The illustrations above and on <a href="#Page_76">page 76</a> show
+this method of construction.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_076a.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Foundation Crib of the Poughkeepsie Bridge.
+<br /><br /></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Even more remarkable than the pneumatic caisson is this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+method of sinking these great foundations. The removal of material
+must be made with such systematic regularity that the structure
+shall descend evenly
+and always maintain
+its upright position.
+The dredge is handled
+and operated entirely
+from the surface. The
+very idea is startling,
+of managing an excavation
+more than a
+hundred feet below the
+operator, entirely by
+means of the ropes
+which connect with the dredge, and doing it with such delicacy
+that the movement of an enormous structure, weighing many tons,
+is absolutely controlled. This is one of the latest and most interesting
+advances of engineering skill.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_076b.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Transverse Section of the same.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>While it is true that the avoidance of large expenditure, when
+possible, is a mark of the best engineering, yet great structures
+often become absolutely necessary in the development of railway
+communication. Wide rivers must be crossed, deep valleys must
+be spanned, and much study has been given to the best methods
+of accomplishing these
+results. In the early
+history of railways in
+Europe substantial
+viaducts of brick and
+stone masonry were
+generally built; and in
+this country there are
+notable instances of
+such constructions.
+The approach to the
+depot of the Pennsylvania
+Railroad, in the city of Philadelphia, is an excellent example.
+Each street crossed by the viaduct is spanned by a bold arch of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+brick. Upon a
+number of our railways there
+are heavy masonry arches and culverts,
+and at some places these are of a very
+interesting character. The arches in
+the approach to the bridge over the
+Harlem Valley (recently completed) are shown above. They
+are of granite, having a span of 60 feet. The illustration shows
+also the method of supporting the stone work of such arches during
+construction. Braced timbers form what is called the centre,
+and support the curved frame of plank upon which the masonry
+is built, which, of course, cannot be self-supporting until the keystone
+is in place; then the centre is lowered by a loosening of the
+wedges which support it, and the stone work of the arch is permitted
+to assume its final bearing. It is generally considered that
+where it is practicable to construct masonry arches under railways
+there is a fair assurance of their permanency, but some engineers
+of great experience in railway construction advance the theory that
+the constant jar and tremor produced by passing railway trains is
+really more destructive to masonry work than has been supposed,
+and that it may be true that the elements of the best economy will
+be found in metal structures rather than in masonry. It is a fact
+that repairs and renewals of metal bridges are much more easily
+accomplished than of masonry constructions.</p>
+
+<div class="sandbagbox" id="img077">
+ <div id="i077b1">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i077b2">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i077b3">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<div class="center caption">Granite Arched Approach to<br />Harlem River
+Bridge in<br />Process of Construction.</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In this country
+the wooden bridge
+has been an important,
+in fact an essential element
+in the successful building
+of our railways.</p>
+
+<p>Timber is also used extensively
+in railroad construction
+in the form of trestles; one
+example of which has been
+alluded to on <a href="#Page_50">page 50</a>. There were also constructed, years ago,
+some very bold viaducts in wood. One of the most interesting is
+shown above, being the viaduct at Portage, N. Y. This construction
+was over 800 feet long, and 234 feet high from the bed of
+the river to the rail. The masonry foundations were 30 feet high,
+the trestles 190 feet, and the truss 14 feet; it contained more than a
+million and a half feet, board measure, of timber. The timber piers,
+which were 50 feet apart, are formed by three trestles, grouped together.
+It was framed so that defective pieces could be taken out
+and replaced at any time. This bridge was finished in 1852 and
+was completely destroyed by fire in 1875. The new metal structure
+which took its place is shown on the opposite page, and is an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+interesting example of the American method of metal viaduct construction,
+an essential feature of that construction being the concentration
+of the material into the least possible number of parts. This
+bridge has ten spans of 50 feet, two of 100 feet, and one of 118 feet.
+The trusses are of what is called the Pratt pattern, and are supported
+by wrought-iron columns, two pairs of columns forming a skeleton
+tower 20 feet wide and 50 feet long on the top. There are six of
+these towers, one of which has a total height from the masonry to
+the rail of 203 feet 8 inches. There are over 1,300,000 pounds of
+iron in this structure.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="HandHeld">
+    <div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_077.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+    <div class="caption">Granite Arched Approach to Harlem River
+    Bridge in Process of Construction.</div>
+    </div>
+
+    <p>In this country
+    the wooden bridge
+    has been an important,
+    in fact an essential element
+    in the successful building
+    of our railways.</p>
+
+    <p>Timber is also used extensively
+    in railroad construction
+    in the form of trestles; one
+    example of which has been
+    alluded to on <a href="#Page_50">page 50</a>. There were also constructed, years ago,
+    some very bold viaducts in wood. One of the most interesting is
+    shown above, being the viaduct at Portage, N. Y. This construction
+    was over 800 feet long, and 234 feet high from the bed of
+    the river to the rail. The masonry foundations were 30 feet high,
+    the trestles 190 feet, and the truss 14 feet; it contained more than a
+    million and a half feet, board measure, of timber. The timber piers,
+    which were 50 feet apart, are formed by three trestles, grouped together.
+    It was framed so that defective pieces could be taken out
+    and replaced at any time. This bridge was finished in 1852 and
+    was completely destroyed by fire in 1875. The new metal structure
+    which took its place is shown on the opposite page, and is an
+    interesting example of the American method of metal viaduct construction,
+    an essential feature of that construction being the concentration
+    of the material into the least possible number of parts. This
+    bridge has ten spans of 50 feet, two of 100 feet, and one of 118 feet.
+    The trusses are of what is called the Pratt pattern, and are supported
+    by wrought-iron columns, two pairs of columns forming a skeleton
+    tower 20 feet wide and 50 feet long on the top. There are six of
+    these towers, one of which has a total height from the masonry to
+    the rail of 203 feet 8 inches. There are over 1,300,000 pounds of
+    iron in this structure.</p>
+    </div>
+
+<div class="sandbagbox" id="img078">
+ <div id="i078b1">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i078b2">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i078b3">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<div class="center caption">The Old Portage Viaduct,<br />Erie Railway, N. Y.</div>
+
+<p>The fundamental idea of a bridge is a simple beam of wood.
+If metal is substituted it is still a beam with all superfluous parts
+cut away. This results in what is called an <span class="bold fs120">I</span> beam. When
+greater loads have to be carried, the <span class="bold fs120">I</span> beam is enlarged and
+built up of metal plates riveted together and thus becomes a plate
+girder. These are used for all short railway spans. For greater
+spans the truss must be employed.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="HandHeld">
+    <div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_078.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
+    <div class="caption">The Old Portage Viaduct, Erie Railway, N. Y.</div>
+    </div>
+
+    <p>The fundamental idea of a bridge is a simple beam of wood.
+    If metal is substituted it is still a beam with all superfluous parts
+    cut away. This results in what is called an <span class="bold fs120">I</span> beam. When
+    greater loads have to be carried, the <span class="bold fs120">I</span> beam is enlarged and
+    built up of metal plates riveted together and thus becomes a plate
+    girder. These are used for all short railway spans. For greater
+    spans the truss must be employed.</p>
+    </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_079.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The New Portage Viaduct.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Before referring, however, to examples of truss bridges, a description
+should be given of the Britannia Bridge, built by Robert<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+Stephenson in 1850, over the Menai Straits. This great construction
+carries two lines of rails and is built of two square tubes,
+side by side, each being continuous, 1,511 feet long, supported at
+each extremity and at three intermediate points, and having two
+spans of 460 feet each and two spans of 230 feet each. The towers
+which support this structure are of very massive masonry, and
+rise considerably above the top of the tubes. These tubes are
+each 27 feet high and 14 feet 8 inches wide; they are built up of
+plate iron, the top and bottom being cellular in construction, and
+the sides of a single thickness of iron. The tubes for the long
+spans were built on shore and floated to the side of the bridge and
+then lifted by hydraulic presses to their final position. The rapid
+current, and other considerations, made the erection of false works
+for these spans impracticable. The beautiful suspension bridge,
+built by Telford in 1820, over the Menai Straits, is only a mile
+away from this Britannia Bridge, but, at the time of the construction
+of the latter, it was not deemed possible by English engineers
+to erect a suspension bridge of sufficient strength and stability to
+accommodate railway traffic.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_080.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The Britannia Tubular Bridge over the Menai Straits, North Wales.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Victoria Bridge at Montreal is of the same general character<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
+of construction as the Britannia Bridge, but is built only for
+a single line of rails; this bridge also was built by Mr. Stephenson,
+in 1859. These two structures were enormous works; their
+strength is undoubted, but they lack that element of permanent
+economy which has been spoken of in this article; their cost was
+very great, and the expense of maintenance is also very great. A
+very large amount of rust is taken from these tubes every year;
+they require very frequent painting, and there are on the Victoria
+Bridge 30 acres of iron surface to be thus painted.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_082a.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Old Stone Towers of the Niagara Suspension Bridge.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A remarkable and interesting contrast to these heavy tubes of
+iron is the Niagara Falls railway suspension bridge, completed in
+March, 1855. The span of this bridge is 821 feet, and the track
+is 245 feet above the water surface. It is supported by 4 cables
+which rested on the tops of two masonry towers at each end of the
+central span, the ends of the cables being carried to and anchored
+in the solid rock. The suspended superstructure has two floors,
+one above the other, connected together at each side by posts and
+truss rods, inclined in such a manner as to form an open trussed
+tube, not intended to support the load, but to prevent excessive
+undulations. The floors are suspended from the cables by wire
+ropes, the upper floor carrying the railroad track, and the lower
+forming a foot and carriage way. Each cable has 3,640 iron wires.
+This bridge carried successfully a heavy traffic for 26 years; it was
+then found that some repairs to the cable were required at the anchorage,
+the portions of the cables exposed to the air being in excellent
+condition. These repairs were made, and the anchorage
+was substantially reinforced. At the same time it was found that
+the wooden suspended superstructure was in bad condition, and
+this was entirely removed and replaced by a structure of iron, built
+and adjusted in such a manner as to secure the best possible results.
+For some time it had been noticed that the stone towers
+which supported the great cables of the bridge showed evidences
+of disintegration at the surface, and a careful engineering examination
+in 1885 showed that these towers were in a really dangerous
+condition. The reason for this was that the saddles over which
+the cables pass on the top of the towers had not the freedom of
+motion which was required for the action of the cables, caused by
+differences of temperature and by passing loads. These saddles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+had been placed upon rollers but, at some period, cement had been
+allowed to be put between these rollers, thus preventing their free
+motion. The result was a bending
+strain upon the towers which
+was too great for the strength
+and cohesion of the stone.
+A most interesting and successful
+feat was accomplished
+in the substitution of iron
+towers for these stone towers,
+without interrupting
+the traffic across the bridge.
+This was accomplished within
+a year or two by building
+a skeleton iron tower outside
+of the stone tower, and
+transferring the cables from the stone to the iron tower by a most
+ingenious arrangement of hydraulic jacks. The stone towers were
+then removed. Thus, by the renewal of its suspended structure
+and the replacing of its towers, the bridge has been given a new
+lease of life and is in excellent condition to-day.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_082b.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The New Iron Towers of the Same.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This Niagara railway
+suspension bridge has
+been so long in successful
+operation that it is difficult
+now to appreciate the general
+disbelief in the possibility
+of its success as a
+railway bridge, when it
+was undertaken. It was
+projected and executed by
+the late John A. Roebling.
+Before it was finished, Robert
+Stephenson said to him,
+"If your bridge succeeds,
+mine is a magnificent blunder." The Niagara bridge did succeed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span><br />
+   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_083.jpg" width="475" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Below the Brooklyn Bridge.<br />
+From a painting by J. H. Twachtman.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>We are so familiar with the great suspension bridge between
+New York and Brooklyn, that only a simple statement of some of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+its characteristic features will be given. Its clear span is 1,595½
+feet. With its approaches its length is 3,455 feet. The clear
+waterway is 135 feet high. The towers rise 272 feet above high
+water and extend on the New York side down to rock 78 feet below.
+The four suspension cables are of steel wire and support six
+parallel steel trusses, thus providing two carriage ways, two lines
+of railway, and one elevated footway. The cables are carried to
+bearing anchorages in New York and in Brooklyn. The cars on
+the bridge are propelled by cables, and the amount of travel is
+now so great as to demand some radical changes in the methods
+for its accommodation, which a few years ago were supposed to
+be ample.</p>
+
+<p>Except under special circumstances of location or length of
+span, the truss bridge is a more economical and suitable structure
+for railway traffic than a suspension bridge.</p>
+
+<p>The advance from the wood truss to the modern steel structure
+has been through a number of stages. Excellent bridges were
+built in combinations of wood and iron, and are still advocated
+where wood is inexpensive. Then came the use of cast iron for
+those portions of the truss subject only to compressive strains,
+wrought iron being used for all members liable to tension. Many
+bridges of notable spans were built in this way and are still in use.
+The form of this combination truss varied with the designs of different
+engineers, and the spans extended to over three hundred
+feet. The forms bore the names of the designers, and the Fink,
+the Bollman, the Pratt, the Whipple, the Post, the Warren, and
+others had each their advocates. The substitution of wrought for
+cast iron followed, and until quite recently trusses built entirely of
+wrought iron have been used for all structures of great span. The
+latest step has been made in the use of steel, at first for special
+members of a truss and latterly for the whole structure. The art
+of railway bridge building has thus, in a comparatively few years,
+passed through its age of wood, and then of iron, and now rests in
+the application of steel in all its parts.</p>
+
+<p>Two distinct ways of connecting the different parts of a structure
+are in common use, riveting and pin connections.</p>
+
+<p>In riveted connections the various parts of the bridge are fastened
+at all junctions by overlapping the plates of iron or steel and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+inserting rivets into holes punched through all the plates to be
+connected. The rivets are so spaced as to insure the best result
+as to strength. The pieces of metal are brought together, either
+in the shop or at the structure during erection, and the rivets,
+which are round pieces of metal with a head formed on one end,
+are heated and inserted from one side, being made long enough to
+project sufficiently to give the proper amount of metal for forming
+the other head. This is done while the rivet is still hot, either by
+hammering or by the application of a riveting machine, operated
+by steam or hydraulic pressure. Ingenious portable machines are
+now manufactured which are hung from the structure during erection
+and connected by flexible hose with the steam power, by the
+use of which the rivet heads can be formed in place with great
+celerity. The connections of plates by rivets of proper dimensions
+and properly spaced give great strength and stiffness to such
+joints.</p>
+
+<p>In pin connections the members of a structure are assembled
+at points of junction and a large iron or steel pin inserted in a pin-hole
+running through all the members. This pin is made of such
+diameter as to withstand and properly transmit all the strains
+brought upon it. Joints made with such pin connections have flexibility,
+and the strains and stresses can be calculated with great
+precision. Eye-bars are forged pieces of iron or steel, generally
+flat, and enlarged at the ends so as to give a proper amount of
+metal around the pin-hole or eye, formed in those ends.</p>
+
+<p>Structures connected by pins at their principal junctions have,
+of course, many parts in which riveting must be used.</p>
+
+<p>The elements which are distinctively American in our railway
+bridges are the concentration of material in few members and the
+use of eye-bars and pin connections in place of riveted connections.
+The riveted methods are, however, largely used in connection
+with the American forms of truss construction.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_087.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Truss Bridge of the Northern Pacific Railway over the Missouri River at Bismarck, Dak.&mdash;Testing the central span.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>An excellent example of an American railway truss bridge is
+shown on the opposite page. This structure spans the Missouri
+River at its crossing by the Northern Pacific Railroad. It has three
+through spans of 400 feet each and two deck spans of 113 feet each.
+The bottom chords of the long spans are 50 feet above high water,
+which at this place is 1,636 feet above the level of the sea. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+foundations of the masonry
+piers were pneumatic
+caissons. The trusses of
+the through spans, 400
+feet long, are 50 feet deep
+and 22 feet between centres.
+They are divided
+into 16 panels of 25 feet
+each. The truss is of the
+double system Whipple
+type, with inclined end
+posts. The bridge is proportioned
+to carry a train
+weighing 2,000 pounds
+per lineal foot, preceded
+by two locomotives weighing
+150,000 pounds in a
+length of 50 feet. The
+pins connecting the members
+of the main truss are
+5 inches in diameter.</p>
+
+<p>This bridge is a characteristic
+illustration of the
+latest type of American
+methods. The extreme
+simplicity of its lines of
+construction, the direct
+transfer of the strains arising
+from loads, through
+the members, to and from
+the points where those
+strains are concentrated in
+the pin connections at the
+ends of each member, are
+apparent even to the untechnical
+eye. The apparent
+lightness of construction
+arising from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+concentration of the material in so small a number of members,
+and the necessarily great height of the truss, give a grace and
+elegance to the structure, and suggest bold and fine development
+of the theories of mechanics.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_088.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Curved Viaduct, Georgetown, Col.; the Union Pacific crossing its own Line.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>An interesting viaduct is shown in the above illustration, where
+the railway crosses its own line on a curved truss.</p>
+
+<p>The truss bridges which have been mentioned as types of the
+modern railway bridge are erected by the use of false works of
+timber, placed generally upon piling or other suitable foundation,
+between the piers or abutments, and made of sufficient strength to
+carry each span of the permanent structure until it is completed
+and all its parts connected, or, as is technically said, until the span
+is swung. Then the false works are removed and the span is left
+without intermediate support. But there are places where it
+would be impossible or exceedingly expensive to erect any false
+works. A structure over a valley of great depth, or over a river
+with very rapid current, are instances of such a situation.</p>
+
+<p>A suspension bridge would solve the problem, but in many
+cases not satisfactorily. The method adopted by Colonel C. Sha<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>ler
+Smith at the Kentucky River Bridge [p. 55] shows ingenuity
+and boldness worthy of special remark. The Cincinnati Southern
+Railroad had here to cross a cañon 1,200 feet wide and 275 feet
+deep. The river is subject to freshets every two months, with a
+range of 55 feet and a known rise of 40 feet in a single night.
+Twenty years before, the towers for a suspension bridge had been
+erected at this point. The design adopted for the railroad bridge
+was based upon the cantilever principle. The structure has three
+spans of 375 feet each, carrying a railway track at a height of 276
+feet above the bed of the river. At the time of its construction
+this was the highest railway bridge in the world, and it is still the
+highest structure of the kind with spans of over 60 feet in length.
+The bridge is supported by the bluffs at its ends and by two intermediate
+iron piers resting upon bases of stone masonry. Each
+iron pier is 177 feet high, and consists of four legs, having a base
+of 71½ × 28 feet, and terminating at its top in a turned pin 12
+inches in diameter under each of the two trusses. Each iron pier
+is a structure complete in itself, with provision for expansion and
+contraction in each direction through double roller beds interposed
+between it and the masonry, and is braced to withstand a gale of
+wind that would blow a loaded freight-train bodily from the bridge.</p>
+
+<p>The trusses were commenced by anchoring them back to the
+old towers, and were then built out as cantilevers from each bluff
+to a distance of one-half the length of the side spans, and at this
+point rested upon temporary wooden supports. Thence they were
+again extended as cantilevers until the side spans were completed
+and rested upon the iron piers. This cantilever principle is
+simply the balancing of a portion of the structure on one side of a
+support by the portion on the opposite side of the same support.
+Similarly the halves of the middle span were built out from the
+piers, meeting with exactness in mid-air. The temporary support
+used first at the centre of one side span and then at the other, was
+the only scaffolding used in erecting the structure, none whatever
+being used for the middle span.</p>
+
+<p>When the junction was made at the centre of the middle span,
+the trusses were continuous from bluff to bluff, and, had they been
+left in this condition, would have been subjected to constantly
+varying strains resulting from the rise and fall of the iron piers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+due to thermal
+changes. This
+liability was obviated
+by cutting
+the bottom chords
+of the side spans and
+converting them into sliding joints
+at points 75 feet distant from the
+iron piers. This done, the bridge
+consists of a continuous girder 525 feet long, covering the middle
+span of 375 feet, and projecting as cantilevers for 75 feet beyond
+each pier, each cantilever supporting one end of a 300-foot span,
+which completes the distance to the bluff on each side.</p>
+
+<div class="sandbagbox" id="img090">
+ <div id="i090b1">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i090b2">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i090b3">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i090b4">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<div class="center caption">The Niagara Cantilever<br />Bridge in Progress.</div>
+
+<p>A most interesting example of cantilever construction is the railway
+bridge built several years ago at Niagara, only a few rods from
+the suspension bridge and a short distance below the great falls. It
+is shown in the illustrations above and on <a href="#Page_91">page 91</a>. The floor of
+the bridge is 239 feet above the surface of the water, which at that
+point has a velocity in the centre of 16½ miles per hour and forms
+constant whirlpools and eddies near the shores. The total length
+of the structure is 910 feet, and the clear span over the river between
+the towers is 470 feet. The shore arms of the cantilever,
+that is to say, those portions of the structure which extend from
+the top of the bank to the top of the tower built from the foot of
+the bank, are firmly anchored at their shore ends to a pier built<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+upon the solid rock. These shore-arms were constructed on
+wooden false works, and serve as balancing weights to the other
+or river arms of the lever, which project out over the stream.
+These river-arms were built by the addition of metal, piece by
+piece, the weight being always more than balanced by the shore-arms.
+The separate members of the river-arms were run out on
+the top of the completed part and then lowered from the end by
+an overhanging travelling derrick, and fastened in place by men
+working upon a platform suspended below. This work was continued,
+piece by piece, until the river-arm of each cantilever was
+complete, and the structure was then finished by connecting these
+river-arms by a short truss suspended from them directly over the
+centre of the stream. This whole structure was built in eight
+months, and is an example both of a bold engineering work and of
+the facility with which a pin-connected structure can be erected.
+The materials are steel and iron. The prosecution of this work
+by men suspended on a platform, hung by ropes from a skeleton
+structure projecting, without apparent support, over the rushing
+Niagara torrent, was always an interesting and really thrilling
+spectacle.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="HandHeld">
+    <div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_090.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
+    <div class="caption">The Niagara Cantilever Bridge in Progress.</div>
+    </div>
+
+    <p>A most interesting example of cantilever construction is the railway
+    bridge built several years ago at Niagara, only a few rods from
+    the suspension bridge and a short distance below the great falls. It
+    is shown in the illustrations above and on <a href="#Page_91">page 91</a>. The floor of
+    the bridge is 239 feet above the surface of the water, which at that
+    point has a velocity in the centre of 16½ miles per hour and forms
+    constant whirlpools and eddies near the shores. The total length
+    of the structure is 910 feet, and the clear span over the river between
+    the towers is 470 feet. The shore arms of the cantilever,
+    that is to say, those portions of the structure which extend from
+    the top of the bank to the top of the tower built from the foot of
+    the bank, are firmly anchored at their shore ends to a pier built
+    upon the solid rock. These shore-arms were constructed on
+    wooden false works, and serve as balancing weights to the other
+    or river arms of the lever, which project out over the stream.
+    These river-arms were built by the addition of metal, piece by
+    piece, the weight being always more than balanced by the shore-arms.
+    The separate members of the river-arms were run out on
+    the top of the completed part and then lowered from the end by
+    an overhanging travelling derrick, and fastened in place by men
+    working upon a platform suspended below. This work was continued,
+    piece by piece, until the river-arm of each cantilever was
+    complete, and the structure was then finished by connecting these
+    river-arms by a short truss suspended from them directly over the
+    centre of the stream. This whole structure was built in eight
+    months, and is an example both of a bold engineering work and of
+    the facility with which a pin-connected structure can be erected.
+    The materials are steel and iron. The prosecution of this work
+    by men suspended on a platform, hung by ropes from a skeleton
+    structure projecting, without apparent support, over the rushing
+    Niagara torrent, was always an interesting and really thrilling
+    spectacle.</p>
+    </div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_091.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The Niagara Cantilever Bridge Completed.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Lachine Bridge recently built over the St. Lawrence near
+Montreal, illustrated below, has certain peculiar features. It has a
+total length of 3,514 feet. The two channel spans are each 408 feet
+in length and are through spans. The others are deck spans.
+Through spans are
+those where the train
+passes between the
+side trusses. Deck
+spans are those
+where the train
+passes over the top
+of the structure.
+These two channel
+spans and the two spans next them form cantilevers, and the channel
+spans were built out from the central pier and from the adjacent
+flanking spans without the use of false works in either channel.
+A novel method of passing from the deck to the through spans has
+been used, by curving the top and bottom chords of the channel
+spans to connect with the chords of the flanking spans. The material
+is steel.</p>
+
+<div class="sandbagbox" id="img092">
+ <div id="i092b1">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i092b2">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<div class="center caption">The Lachine Bridge, on the<br />Canadian Pacific Railway,<br />near Montreal, Canada.</div>
+
+<p>This structure, light, airy, and graceful, forms a strong contrast
+to the dark, heavy tube of the Victoria Bridge just below.</p>
+
+<p>The enormous cantilever Forth Bridge, with its two spans of
+1,710 feet each, is in steady progress of construction and will when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+completed mark a long step in advance in the science of bridge
+construction.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="HandHeld">
+    <div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_092.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+    <div class="caption">The Lachine Bridge, on the Canadian Pacific Railway, near Montreal, Canada.</div>
+    </div>
+
+    <p>This structure, light, airy, and graceful, forms a strong contrast
+    to the dark, heavy tube of the Victoria Bridge just below.</p>
+
+    <p>The enormous cantilever Forth Bridge, with its two spans of
+    1,710 feet each, is in steady progress of construction and will when
+    completed mark a long step in advance in the science of bridge
+    construction.</p>
+    </div>
+
+<p>Of entirely different design and principle from all these trusses
+are the beautiful steel arches of the St. Louis Bridge [p. 95], the
+great work of that remarkable genius, James B. Eads. This
+structure spans the Mississippi at St. Louis. Difficult problems
+were presented in the study of the design for a permanent bridge
+at that point. The river is subject to great changes. The variation
+between extreme low and high water has been over 41 feet.
+The current runs from 2¾ to 8½ miles per hour. It holds always
+much matter in suspension, but the amount so held varies greatly
+with the velocity. The very bed of the river is really in constant
+motion. Examination by Captain Eads in a diving-bell showed
+that there was a moving current of sand at the bottom, of at least
+three feet in depth. At low water, the velocity of the stream is
+small and the bottom rises. When the velocity increases, a
+"scour" results and the river-bed is deepened, sometimes with
+amazing rapidity. In winter the river is closed by huge cakes of
+ice from the north, which freeze together and form great fields of
+ice.</p>
+
+<p>It was decided to be necessary that the foundations should go
+to rock, and they were so built. The general plan of the superstructure,
+with all its details, was elaborated gradually and carefully,
+and the result is a real feat of engineering. There are three
+steel arches, the centre one having a span of 520 feet and each
+side arch a span of 502 feet. Each span has four parallel arches
+or ribs, and each arch is composed of two cylindrical steel tubes,
+18 inches in exterior diameter, one acting as the upper and the
+other as the lower chord of the arch. The tubes are in sections,
+each about twelve feet long, and connected by screw joints. The
+thickness of the steel forming the tubes runs from 1<sup>3</sup>/<sub>16</sub> to 2<sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub> inches.
+These upper and lower tubes are parallel and are 12 feet apart,
+connected by a single system of diagonal bracing. The double
+tracks of the railroad run through the bridge adjacent to the side
+arches at the elevation of the highest point of the lower tube. The
+carriage road and footpaths extend the full width of the bridge and
+are carried, by braced vertical posts, at an elevation of twenty-three
+feet above the railroad. The clear headway is 55 feet above<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+ordinary high water. The approaches on each side are masonry
+viaducts, and the railway connects with the City Station by a tunnel
+nearly a mile in length. The illustration shows vividly the
+method of erection of these great tubular ribs. They were built
+out from each side of a pier, the weight on one side acting as a
+counterpoise for the construction on the other side of the pier.
+They were thus gradually and systematically projected over the
+river, without support from below, till they met at the middle of
+the span, when the last central connecting tube was put in place
+by an ingenious mechanical arrangement, and the arch became
+self-supporting.</p>
+
+<p>The double arch steel viaduct recently built over the Harlem
+Valley in the city of New York [<a href="#Page_96">p. 97</a>] has a marked difference
+from the St. Louis arches in the method of construction of the
+ribs. These are made up of immense voussoirs of plate steel,
+forming sections somewhat analogous to the ring stones of a masonry
+arch. These sections are built up in the form of great <span class="large bold">I</span>
+beams, the top and bottom of the <span class="large bold">I</span> being made by a number of
+parallel steel plates connected by angle pieces with the upright
+web, which is a single piece of steel. The vertical height of the
+<span class="large bold">I</span> is 13 feet. The span of each of these arches is 510 feet.
+There are six such parallel ribs in each span, connected with each
+other by bracing. These great ribs rest upon steel pins of 18
+inches diameter, placed at the springing of the arch. The arches
+rise from massive masonry piers, which extend up to the level of
+the floor of the bridge. This floor is supported by vertical posts
+from the arches and is a little above the highest point of the rib.
+It is 152 feet above the surface of the river&mdash;having an elevation
+fifty feet greater than the well-known High Bridge, which spans
+the same valley within a quarter of a mile. The approaches to
+these steel arches on each side are granite viaducts carried over
+a series of stone arches. The whole structure forms a notable
+example of engineering construction. It was finished within two
+years from the beginning of work upon its foundations, the energy
+of its builders being worthy of special commendation.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_095.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The St. Louis Bridge during Construction.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_097.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The 510-feet Span Steel Arches of the New Harlem River Bridge, New York, during construction.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In providing for the rapid transit of passengers in great cities
+the two types of construction successfully adopted are represented
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+by the New York Elevated
+and the London
+Underground railways.
+The New York Elevated
+is a continuous metal viaduct,
+supported on columns
+varying in height so
+as to secure easy grades.
+The details of construction
+differ greatly at various
+parts of the elevated lines,
+those more recently built
+being able to carry much
+heavier trains than the
+earlier portions. The
+roads have been very successful
+in providing the
+facilities for transit so absolutely
+necessary in New
+York. The citizens of
+that city are alive to the
+present necessity of adding
+very soon to those
+facilities, and it is now
+only a question of the
+best method to be adopted
+to secure the largest
+results in a permanent
+manner.</p>
+
+<p>The London Underground
+road has also been
+very successful. Its construction
+was a formidable
+undertaking. Its tunnels
+are not only under streets
+but under heavy buildings.
+Its daily traffic is enormous.
+The difficult ques<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>tion
+in its management is, as in all long tunnels, that of ventilation,
+but modern science will surely solve that, as it does so many
+other problems connected with the active life of man.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_098.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">London Underground Railway Station.</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Many broad questions of general policy, and innumerable matters
+of detail are involved in the development of railway engineering.
+In the determination, for instance, of the location, the relations
+of cost and construction to future business, the possibilities
+of extensions and connections, the best points for settlements and
+industrial enterprises, the merits and defects of alternative routes
+must be weighed and decided.</p>
+
+<p>Where structures are to be built, the amount and delicacy of
+detail requisite in their design and execution can hardly be described.
+Final pressures upon foundations must be ascertained
+and provided for. Accurate calculations of strains and stresses,
+involving the application of difficult processes and mechanical theo<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>ries,
+must be made. The adjustment of every part must be secured
+with reference to its future duty. Strength and safety must
+be assured and economy not forgotten. Every contingency must,
+if possible, be anticipated, while the emergencies which arise during
+every great construction demand constant watchfulness and
+prompt and accurate decision.</p>
+
+<p>The financial success of the largest enterprises rests upon such
+practical application of theory and experience. Even more weighty
+still is the fact that the safety of thousands of human lives depends
+daily upon the permanency and stability of railway structures.
+Such are some of the deep responsibilities which are involved in
+the active work of the Civil Engineer.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a>
+   <span class="screenonly"><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a></span>
+   <span class="handonly"><a href="#FNanchor_8_8h"><span class="label">[8]</span></a></span>
+Reference is made to the substitution of locks in the Panama Canal for the original project of a
+canal at the sea-level.</p></div></div>
+
+
+    <div class="chapter"></div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="pfs90 smcap">By M. N. FORNEY.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in 1830&mdash;Evolution of the Car from the Conestoga
+Wagon&mdash;Horatio Allen's Trial Trip&mdash;The First Locomotive used in the United
+States&mdash;Peter Cooper's Race with a Gray Horse&mdash;The "De Witt Clinton,"
+"Planet," and other Early Types of Locomotives&mdash;Equalizing Levers&mdash;How Steam
+is Made and Controlled&mdash;The Boiler, Cylinder, Injector, and Valve Gear&mdash;Regulation
+of the Capacity of a Locomotive to Draw&mdash;Increase in the Number of Driving
+Wheels&mdash;Modern Types of Locomotives&mdash;Variation in the Rate of Speed&mdash;The
+Appliances by which an Engine is Governed&mdash;Round-houses and Shops&mdash;Development
+of American Cars&mdash;An Illustration from Peter Parley&mdash;The Survival of Stage
+Coach Bodies&mdash;Adoption of the Rectangular Shape&mdash;The Origin of Eight-wheeled
+Cars&mdash;Improvement in Car Coupling&mdash;A Uniform Type Recommended&mdash;The
+Making of Wheels&mdash;Relative Merits of Cast and Wrought Iron, and Steel&mdash;The
+Allen Paper Wheel&mdash;Types of Cars, with Size, Weight, and Price&mdash;The Car-Builder's
+Dictionary&mdash;Statistical.</p></div>
+
+<div><img class="drop-cap" src="images/i_100dc.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="p1x drop-cap">Among the readers of this volume there
+will be some who have reached the summit
+of the "divide" which separates the
+spring and summer of life from its autumn
+and winter, and whose first information about
+railroads was received from Peter Parley's "First
+Book of History," which was used as a schoolbook
+forty or fifty years ago. In his chapter on Maryland,
+he says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquoty">
+
+<p>But the most curious thing at Baltimore is the railroad. I must tell you that there is
+a great trade between Baltimore and the States west of the Alleghany Mountains. The
+western people buy a great many goods at Baltimore, and send in return a great deal of
+western produce. There is, therefore, a vast deal of travelling back and forth, and hundreds
+of teams are constantly occupied in transporting goods and produce to and from
+market.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+<p>Now, in order to carry on all this business more easily, the people are building what<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+is called a railroad. This consists of iron bars laid along the ground, and made fast, so
+that carriages with small wheels may run along upon them with facility. In this way,
+one horse will be able to draw as much as ten horses on a common road. A part of this
+railroad is already done, and if you choose to take a ride upon it, you can do so. You
+will mount a car something like a stage, and then you will be drawn along by two horses,
+at the rate of twelve miles an hour.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_101a.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 1.&mdash;Conestoga Wagon and Team. (From a recent photograph.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The picture reproduced below (Fig. 2) of a car drawn by
+horses was given with the above description of the Baltimore &amp;
+Ohio Railroad. The mutilated copy of the book from which the
+engraving and extract were copied does not give the date when it
+was written or published. It was probably some time between the
+years 1830 and 1835. That the car shown in the engraving was
+evolved from the Conestoga wagon is obvious from the illustrations.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_101b.jpg" width="275" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 2.&mdash;Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad, 1830&ndash;35.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This engraving and description, made for children, more than
+fifty years ago, will give some idea of the state of the art of railroading
+at that time; and it is
+a remarkable fact that the present
+wonderful development and
+the improvements in railroads
+and their equipments in this
+country have been made during
+the lives of persons still living.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_102.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 3.&mdash;Boston &amp; Worcester Railroad, 1835.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the latter part of 1827,
+the Delaware &amp; Hudson Canal
+Company put the Carbondale
+Railroad under construction.
+The road extends from the head of the Delaware &amp; Hudson Canal
+at Honesdale, Pa., to the coal mines belonging to the Delaware &amp;
+Hudson Canal Company at Carbondale, a distance of about sixteen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+miles. This line was opened, probably in 1829, and was operated
+partly by stationary engines, and partly by horses. The road is
+noted chiefly for being the one on which a locomotive was first
+used in this country.
+This was the "Stourbridge
+Lion," which
+was built in England
+under the direction of
+Mr. Horatio Allen,
+who afterward was
+president of the Novelty
+Works in New York, and who is still (1889) living near
+New York at the ripe age of eighty-seven. Before the road
+was opened, he had been a civil engineer on the Carbondale
+line. In 1828 Mr. Allen went to England, the only place where
+a locomotive was then in daily operation, to study the subject
+in all its practical details. Before leaving this country he was
+intrusted by the Delaware &amp; Hudson Canal Company with the
+commission to have rails made for that line, and to have three
+locomotives built on plans to be decided by him when in England.
+This, it must be remembered, was before the celebrated
+trial of the "Rocket" on the Liverpool &amp; Manchester Railway,
+which was not made until 1829. Previous to that trial, it
+had not been decided what type of boiler was the best for
+locomotives. The result of Mr. Allen's investigations was to
+produce in his mind a decided confidence in the multitubular
+boiler which is now universally used for locomotives. Other
+persons of experience recommended a boiler with small riveted
+flues of as small diameter as could be riveted. An order was
+therefore given to Messrs. Foster, Rastrick &amp; Co., at Stourbridge,
+for one engine whose boiler was to have riveted flues of
+comparatively large size, and another order was given to Messrs.
+Stephenson &amp; Co., of Newcastle-on-Tyne, for two locomotives
+with boilers having small tubes. The engine built by Foster,
+Rastrick &amp; Co. was named the "Stourbridge Lion." It was sent
+to this country and was tried at Honesdale, Pa., on August 9,
+1829. On its trial trip it was managed by Mr. Allen, to whom
+belongs the distinction of having run the first locomotive that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+was ever used in this country. In 1884 he wrote the following
+account of this trip:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquoty">
+
+<p>When the time came, and the steam was of the right pressure, and all was ready,
+I took my position on the platform of the locomotive alone, and with my hand on the
+throttle-valve handle said: "If there is any danger in this ride it is not necessary that
+the life and limbs of more than one should be subjected to that danger."</p>
+
+<p>The locomotive, having no train behind it, answered at once to the movement of the
+hand; ... soon the straight line was run over, the curve was reached and passed
+before there was time to think as to its not being passed safely, and soon I was out of
+sight in the three miles' ride alone in the woods of Pennsylvania. I had never run a
+locomotive nor any other engine before; I have never run one since.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_103.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Horatio Allen.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The two engines contracted for with Messrs. Stephenson &amp;
+Co. were made by them, and Mr. Allen has informed the writer
+that they were built on substantially
+the same plans that were
+afterward embodied in the famous
+"Rocket." They were shipped
+to New York and for a time were
+stored in an iron warehouse on
+the east side of the city, where
+they were exhibited to the public.
+They were never sent to the Delaware
+&amp; Hudson Canal Company's
+road, and it is not now
+known whatever became of them.
+If they had been put to work on
+their arrival here the use of engines
+of the "Rocket" type would have been anticipated on this
+side the Atlantic.</p>
+
+<p>The first railroad which was undertaken for the transportation
+of freight and passengers in this country, on a comprehensive
+scale, was the Baltimore &amp; Ohio. Its construction was begun in
+1828. The laying of rails was commenced in 1829, and in May,
+1830, the first section of fifteen miles from Baltimore to Ellicott's
+Mills was opened. It was probably about this time that the animated
+sketch of the car given by Peter Parley was made. From
+1830 to 1835 many lines were projected, and at the end of that
+year there were over a thousand miles of road in use.</p>
+
+<p>Whether the motive power on these roads should be horses or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
+steam was for a long time an open question. The celebrated trial
+of locomotives on the Liverpool &amp; Manchester Railway, in England,
+was made in 1829. Reports of these trials, and of the use of locomotive
+engines on the Stockton &amp; Darlington line, were published
+in this country, and, as Mr. Charles Francis Adams says, "The
+country, therefore, was not only ripe to accept the results of the
+Rainhill contest, but it was anticipating them with eager hope."
+In 1829 Mr. Horatio Allen, who had been
+in England the year before to learn all that
+could then be learned about steam locomotion,
+reported to the South Carolina Railway
+Company in favor of steam instead of horse
+power for that line. The basis of that report,
+he says, "Was on the broad ground
+that in the future there was no reason to
+expect any material improvement in the
+breed of horses, while, in my judgment, the
+man was not living who knew what the breed of locomotives was
+to place at command."</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_104.jpg" width="225" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 4.&mdash;Peter Cooper's Locomotive,
+1830.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As early as 1829 and 1830, Peter Cooper experimented with a
+little locomotive on the Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad (Fig. 4). At
+a meeting of the Master Mechanics' Association in New York, in
+1875&mdash;at the Institute which bears his name&mdash;he related with great
+glee how on the trial trip he had beaten a gray horse, attached to
+another car. The coincidence that one of Peter Parley's horses is
+a gray one might lead to the inference that it was the same horse
+that Peter Cooper beat, a deduction which perhaps has as sound a
+basis to rest on as many historical conclusions of more importance.</p>
+
+<p>The undeveloped condition of the art of machine construction
+at that time is indicated by the fact that the flues of the boiler of
+this engine were made of gun-barrels, which were the only tubes
+that could then be obtained for the purpose. The boiler itself is
+described as about the size of a flour-barrel. The whole machine
+was no larger than a hand-car of the present day.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_105a.jpg" width="350" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 5.&mdash;"South Carolina," 1831,<br />and Plan of its Running Gear.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the same year that Peter Cooper built his engine, the South
+Carolina Railway Company had a locomotive, called the "Best
+Friend," built at the West Point Foundry for its line. In 1831 this
+company had another engine, the "South Carolina" (Fig. 5),<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+which was designed by Mr. Horatio Allen, built at the same shop.
+It was remarkable in having eight wheels, which were arranged in
+two trucks. One pair of driving-wheels, <em>D D</em> and <em>D′ D′</em>, and a
+pair of leading-wheels, <em>L L</em>
+and <em>L′ L′</em>, were attached to
+frames, <em>c d e f</em> and <em>g h i j</em>,
+which were connected to the
+boiler by kingbolts, <em>K K′</em>,
+about which the trucks could
+turn. Each pair of driving-wheels
+had one cylinder, <em>C
+C′</em>. These were in the middle
+of the engine and were
+connected to cranks on the
+axles <em>A</em> and <em>B</em>.</p>
+
+<p>The "De Witt Clinton"
+(Fig. 6) was built for the Mohawk &amp; Hudson Railroad, and was
+the third locomotive made by the West Point Foundry Association.
+The first excursion trip was made with passengers from Albany to
+Schenectady, August 9, 1831. This is the engine shown in the
+silhouette engraving of the "first<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> railroad train in America"
+which in recent years has been so widely distributed as an advertisement.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_105b.jpg" width="200" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 6.&mdash;The "De Witt Clinton," 1831.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1831 the Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad Company offered a
+premium of $4,000 "for the most approved engine which shall be
+delivered for trial upon the road on or
+before the 1st of June, 1831; and $3,500
+for the engine which shall be adjudged
+the next best." The requirements were
+as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquoty">
+
+<p>The engine, when in operation, must not exceed three
+and one-half tons weight, and must, on a level road, be
+capable of drawing day by day fifteen tons, inclusive
+of the weight of wagons, fifteen miles per hour.</p></div>
+
+<p>In pursuance of this call upon American genius, three locomotives
+were produced, but only one of these was made to answer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+any useful purpose. This engine, the "York," was built at York,
+Pa., and was brought to Baltimore over the turnpike on wagons.
+It was built by Davis &amp; Gartner, and was designed by Phineas
+Davis, of that firm, whose trade and business was that of a watch
+and clock maker. After undergoing certain modifications, it was
+found capable of performing what was required by the company.
+After thoroughly testing this engine, Mr. Davis built others, which
+were the progenitors of the "grasshopper" engines (Fig. 7) which
+were used for so many years on the Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad.
+It is a remarkable fact that three of these are still in use on that
+road, and have been in continuous service for over fifty years.
+Probably there is no locomotive in existence which has had so
+long an <em>active</em> life.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_106.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 7.&mdash;"Grasshopper" Locomotive. (From an old photograph.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In August, 1831, the locomotive "John Bull," which was built
+by George &amp; Robert Stephenson &amp; Company, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
+was received in Philadelphia, for the Camden &amp; Amboy
+Railroad &amp; Transportation Company. This is the old engine
+which was exhibited by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company at
+the Centennial Exhibition in 1876. After the arrival of the "John
+Bull" a very considerable number of locomotives which were built<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
+by the Stephensons were imported from England. Most of them
+were probably of what was known as the "Planet" class (Fig. 8),
+which was a form of engine that succeeded the famous "Rocket."</p>
+
+<p>The following quotation is from "The Early History of Locomotives
+in this Country," issued by the Rogers Locomotive &amp;
+Machine Works:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquoty">
+
+<p>These locomotives, which were imported from England, doubtless to a very considerable
+extent, furnished the types and patterns from which those which were afterward built
+here were fashioned. But American designs very soon began to depart from their British
+prototypes, and a process of adaptation to the existing conditions of the railroads in this
+country followed, which afterward "differentiated" the American locomotives more and
+more from those built in Great Britain. A marked feature of difference between American
+and English locomotives has been the use of a "truck" under the former.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_107.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 8.&mdash;The "Planet."</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In all of the locomotives which have been illustrated, excepting
+the "South Carolina," the axles were held by the frames so that
+the former were always parallel to each other. In going around
+curves, therefore, there was somewhat the same difficulty that there
+would be in turning a corner with an ordinary wagon if both its
+axles were held parallel, and the
+front one could not turn on the
+kingbolt. The plan of the wheels
+and running gear of the "South
+Carolina" shows the position that
+they assumed on a curved track
+(Fig. 5). It will be seen that, by
+reason of their connection to the
+boiler by kingbolts, <em>K K′</em>, the
+two pairs of wheels could adjust
+themselves to the curvature of
+the rails. This principle was afterward applied to cars, and nearly
+all the rolling-stock in this country is now constructed on this plan,
+which was proposed by Mr. Allen in a report dated May 16, 1831,
+made to the South Carolina Canal &amp; Railroad Company; and an
+engine constructed on this principle was completed the same year.</p>
+
+<p>In the latter part of the year 1831 the late John B. Jervis invented
+what he called "a new plan of frame, with a bearing-carriage
+for a locomotive engine," for the use of the Mohawk &amp; Hudson
+Railroad. Jervis's engine is shown by Figure 9. In a letter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+published in the <cite>American Railroad Journal</cite> of July 27, 1833, he
+described the objects aimed at in the use of the truck as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquoty">
+
+<p>The leading objects I had in view, in the general arrangement of the plan of the engine,
+did not contemplate any improvement in the power over those heretofore constructed
+by Stephenson &amp; Company,<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> but to make an engine that would be better
+adapted to railroads of less strength than
+are common in England; that would travel
+with more ease to itself and to the rail on
+curved roads; that would be less affected
+by inequalities of the rail, than is attained
+by the arrangement in the most approved
+engines.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_108.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 9.&mdash;John B. Jervis's Locomotive, 1831,<br /> and Plan of its
+Running Gear.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In Jervis's locomotive the
+main driving-axle, <em>A</em>, shown in
+the plan of the wheels and running
+gear, was rigidly attached
+to the engine-frame, <em>a b c d</em>, and
+only one truck, or "bearing-carriage,"
+<em>e f g h</em>, consisting of the
+two pairs of small wheels attached
+to a frame, was used. This was connected to the main
+engine-frame by a kingbolt, <em>K</em>, as in Allen's engine.</p>
+
+<p>The position of its wheels on a curve, and the capacity of the
+truck, or "bearing-carriage," to adapt itself to the sinuosities of
+the track are shown in the plan. The effectiveness of the single
+truck for locomotives, in accomplishing what Mr. Jervis intended it
+for, was at once recognized, and its almost general adoption on
+American locomotives followed.</p>
+
+<p>In 1834, Ross Winans, of Baltimore, patented the application
+of the principle which Mr. Allen had proposed and adopted for
+locomotives "to passenger and other cars." He afterward brought
+a number of actions at law against railroads for infringement of his
+patent, which was a subject of legal controversy for twenty years.
+Winans claimed that his invention originated as far back as 1831,
+and was completed and reduced to practice in 1834. The dispute
+was finally carried to the Supreme Court of the United States, and
+was decided against the plaintiff, after an expenditure of as much
+as $200,000 by both sides. It involved the principle on which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+nearly all cars in this country are now and were then built; and,
+as one of the counsel for the defendants has said, "It was at one
+time a question of millions, to be assured by a verdict of a jury."</p>
+
+<p>In 1836, Henry R. Campbell, of Philadelphia, patented the use
+of two pairs of driving-wheels and a truck, as shown in Figure 10.
+The driving-wheels were coupled by rods, as may be seen below.
+This plan has since been so generally adopted in this country that
+it is now known as the "American type" of locomotive, and is the
+one almost universally used here for passenger, and to a considerable
+extent for freight, service. An example of a modern locomotive
+of this type is represented by Figure 11.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_109.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 10.&mdash;Campbell's Locomotive.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>From these comparatively small beginnings, the magnificent
+equipment of our railroads has grown. From Peter Cooper's locomotive,
+which weighed less than a ton, with a boiler the size of a
+flour-barrel, and which had difficulty in beating a gray horse, we now
+have locomotives which will easily run sixty and can exceed seventy
+miles an hour, and others which weigh seventy-five tons and over.
+A comparison of the engraving of Peter Cooper's engine with that
+of the modern standard express passenger locomotive (Fig. 11)
+shows vividly the progress which has been made since that first
+experiment was tried&mdash;little more than half a century ago. In that
+period there have been many modifications in the design of locomotives
+to adapt them to the changed conditions of the various
+kinds of traffic of to-day. An
+express train travelling at a high
+rate of speed requires a locomotive
+very different from one which
+is designed for handling heavy
+freight trains up steep mountain grades.
+A special class of engines
+is built for light trains
+making frequent stops, as on the
+elevated railroads in New York,
+and those provided for suburban
+traffic (Fig. 12)&mdash;and still others for street railroads (Fig. 13), for
+switching cars at stations (Fig. 14), etc. [<a href="#Page_110">Pp. 110</a> and <a href="#Page_113">113</a>]. The process
+of differentiation has gone on until there are now as many different
+kinds of these machines as there are breeds of dogs or horses.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_110a.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 11.&mdash;A Typical American Passenger Locomotive.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_110b.jpg" width="550" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 12.&mdash;Locomotive for Suburban Traffic. By the Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span><br />
+   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_111.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 13.&mdash;Locomotive for Street Railway. By the Baldwin Locomotive Works.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Nearly all the early locomotives had only four wheels. In some
+cases one pair alone was used to drive the engine, and in others
+the two pairs were coupled together, so that the adhesion of all
+four could be utilized to draw loads. The four-wheeled type is
+still used a great deal for moving cars at stations, and other purposes
+where the speed is comparatively slow. But to run around
+sharp curves the wheels of such engines must be placed near together,
+just as they are under an ordinary street-car. This makes
+the wheel-base very short, and such engines are therefore very
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+unsteady at high speeds, so that they are unsuited for any excepting
+slow service. They have the advantage, though, that the whole
+weight of the machine may be carried on the driving-wheels, and
+can thus be useful for increasing their friction, or adhesion to the
+rails. This gives such engines an advantage for starting and moving
+heavy trains, at stations or elsewhere, which is the kind of service
+in which they are usually employed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_113.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 14.&mdash;Four-wheeled Switching Locomotive. By the Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>If the front end of the engine is carried on a truck, as in Campbell's
+plan (Fig. 10)&mdash;which is the one that has been very generally
+adopted in this country&mdash;the wheel-base can be extended and at the
+same time the front wheels can adjust themselves to the curvature
+of the track. This gives the running-gear lateral flexibility. But
+as the tractive power of a locomotive is dependent upon the friction,
+or adhesion of the wheels to the rails, it is of the utmost importance
+that the pressure of the wheels on the rails should be uniform.
+For this reason the wheels must be able to adjust themselves
+to the vertical as well as the horizontal inequalities of the
+track.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_114.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 15.&mdash;Driving Wheels, Frames, Spurs, etc., of American Locomotive.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Figure 15 shows the driving-wheels, axles, journal-boxes, and
+part of the frame and springs of an American type of engine&mdash;the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+circumference of the wheels only being shown. The axles <em>A A</em>
+each <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;Original text: 'have  ournal-boxes'">have journal-boxes</ins> or bearings, <em>B B</em>, in which they turn.
+These boxes
+are held between
+the jaws
+<em>J J J J</em> of the
+frames, and can
+slide vertically
+in the spaces <em>c
+c c c</em> between
+the jaws. The
+frames are suspended on springs, <em>S S</em>, which bear on the boxes <em>B B</em>.
+The vertical motion of the boxes and the flexibility of the springs
+allow the wheels to adjust themselves to some extent to the unevenness
+of the track. But, in order to distribute the weight equally
+on the two wheels, the springs <em>S S</em> on each side of the engine
+are connected together by an equalizing lever, <em>E E</em>. These levers
+each have a fulcrum, <em>F</em>, in the middle, and are connected by iron
+straps or hangers, <em>h h</em>, to the springs. It is evident that any strain
+or tension on one spring is transferred by the equalizing lever to
+the other spring, and thus the weight is equalized on both wheels.</p>
+
+<p>But to give perfect vertical adjustment of such an engine to the
+track, still another provision must be made. Everyone has observed
+that a three-legged stool will always stand firm on any surface,
+no matter how irregular, but one with four legs will not.
+Now if the back end of a locomotive should rest on the fulcrums
+of the equalizing levers, as shown in Figure 15, and the front end
+should rest on the two sides of the truck, it would be in the condition
+of the four legged stool. Therefore, instead of resting on
+the two sides of the truck, locomotives are made to bear on the
+centre of it, so that they are carried on it and on the two fulcrums
+of the equalizing levers, which gives the machine the adjustability
+due to the three-legged principle. When more than four driving-wheels
+are used the springs are connected together by equalizing
+levers, as shown in Figure 29 (<a href="#Page_124">p. 124</a>), which represents a consolidation
+engine as it appears before the wheels are put under it.</p>
+
+<p>Having a vehicle which is adapted to running on a railroad track,
+it remains to supply the motive power. This, in all but some very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+few exceptional cases, is the expansive power of steam. What the
+infant electricity has in store for us it would be rash to predict, but
+for locomotives its steps have been thus far weak and uncertain,
+and when we want a giant of steel or a race-horse of iron our only
+sure reliance is steam. This is the breath of life to the locomotive,
+which is inhaled and exhaled to and from the cylinders, which act
+as lungs, while the boiler fulfils functions analogous to the digestive
+organs of an animal. A locomotive is as dependent on the action
+of its boiler for its capacity for doing work as a human being on that
+of his stomach. The mechanical appliances of the one and the
+mental and physical equipment of the other are nugatory without a
+good digestive apparatus.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_115.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 16.&mdash;Longitudinal Section of a Locomotive Boiler.<br />
+Fig. 17.&mdash;Transverse Section.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A locomotive boiler consists of a rectangular fireplace or fire-box,
+as shown at <em>A</em>, in Figure 16, which is a longitudinal section, and
+Figure 17 a transverse section through the fire-box. The fire-box is
+connected with the smoke-box <em>B</em> by a large number of small tubes,
+<em>a a</em>, through which the smoke and products of combustion pass from
+the fire-box to the smoke-box, and from the latter they escape up
+the chimney <em>D</em>. The fire-box and tubes are all surrounded with
+water, so that as much surface as possible is exposed to the action
+of the fire. This is essential on account of the large amount of
+water which must be evaporated in such boilers. To create a
+strong draught, the steam which is exhausted from the cylinders
+is discharged up the chimney through pipes, and escapes at <em>e</em>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+This produces a partial vacuum in the smoke-box, which causes a
+current of air to flow through the fire on the grate, into the fire-box,
+through the tubes, and thence to the smoke-box and up the chimney.
+Probably many readers have noticed, that of late years the
+smoke-boxes of locomotives have been extended forward in front
+of the chimneys. This has been done to give room for deflectors
+and wire netting inside to arrest sparks and cinders, which are collected
+in the extended front and are removed by a door or spout,
+<em>L</em>, below.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_116.jpg" width="250" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 18.&mdash;Rudimentary Injector.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>To get the water into the boiler against the pressure of steam
+a very curious instrument, called an injector, has been devised.
+Formerly force-pumps were used, but these are now being abandoned.
+The illustration (Fig. 18) shows what may be called a rudimentary
+injector. <em>B</em> is a boiler and <em>E</em> a conical tube open at its
+lower end&mdash;and connected to a water-supply tank by a pipe, <em>C</em>. A
+pipe, <em>A</em>, is connected with the steam-space of the boiler and terminates
+in a contracted mouth, <em>F</em>, inside of the cone <em>E</em>. If steam is
+admitted to <em>A</em>, it flows through the pipe and escapes at <em>F</em>. In doing
+so it produces a partial vacuum in <em>E</em>, and water is consequently
+drawn up the pipe <em>C</em> from the tank. The current of steam now
+carries with it the water, and they
+escape at <em>G</em>. After flowing for a
+few seconds the water has a high
+velocity and the steam, mingling
+with the water, is condensed.
+The momentum of the water soon
+becomes sufficient to force the
+valve <em>H</em> down against the pressure
+below it, and the jet of water
+then flows continuously into the
+boiler. A very curious phenomenon
+of this somewhat mysterious
+instrument is that if steam of a low pressure is taken from one boiler
+it will force water into another against a higher pressure. Figure
+19 is a section of an actual injector used on locomotives.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_117.jpg" width="175" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 19.&mdash;Injector used on<br />Locomotives.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Having explained how the steam is generated, it remains to
+show how it propels a locomotive. It does this very much as a
+person on a bicycle propels it&mdash;that is, by means of two cranks<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+the wheels are made to revolve, and the latter must then either slip
+or the vehicle will move. In a locomotive the driving-wheels are
+turned by means of two cylinders and pistons, which are connected
+by rods to the cranks attached to the driving-wheels
+or axles. These cranks are placed at
+right angles to each other, so that when one
+of them is at the "dead-point" the piston
+connected with the other can exert its maximum
+power to rotate the wheels. This enables
+the locomotive to start with the pistons
+in any position; whereas, if one cylinder only
+was used it would be impossible to turn the
+wheels if the crank should stop at one of its
+dead-points.</p>
+
+<p>It will probably interest a good many
+readers to know how the steam gets into the
+cylinders and moves the pistons and then
+gets out again, and how a locomotive is made
+to run either backward or forward at pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>Figure 20 (<a href="#Page_118">p. 118</a>) shows a section of a
+cylinder, <em>A A′</em>, with the piston <em>B</em> and piston
+rod <em>R</em>. The cylinder has two passages, <em>c c</em> and
+<em>d d</em>, which connect its ends with a box, <em>U</em>, called
+a steam-chest, to which steam is admitted
+from the boiler by a pipe, <em>J</em>. The two passages <em>c</em> and <em>d</em> have
+another one, <em>g</em>, between them, which is connected with the chimney.
+These passages are covered by a slide-valve, <em>V</em>, which
+moves back and forth in the steam-chest, alternately uncovering the
+openings <em>c</em> and <em>d</em>. When the valve is in the position shown in Figure
+20, obviously steam can flow into the front end <em>A</em> of the cylinder
+through the passage <em>c</em>, as indicated by the darts. The valve has a
+cavity, <em>H</em>, underneath it. When this cavity is over the passage <em>d</em>
+and <em>g</em>, it is plain that the steam in the back end <em>A′</em> of the cylinder
+can flow through <em>d</em> and <em>g</em> and then escape up the chimney. Under
+these circumstances the steam in the front end <em>A</em> of the cylinder
+will force the piston <em>B</em> to the back end. When it reaches the back
+end of the cylinder the valve is moved into the position shown in
+Figure 21, and steam can then enter <em>d</em> and will fill the back end <em>A′</em><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+while that in the front end escapes through <em>c</em> and <em>g</em>. The piston
+is then forced to the front end by the pressure of the steam behind
+it. It will thus be seen that the steam enters and escapes to and
+from the cylinder through the
+same openings.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_118a.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Figs. 20 (above) and 21.&mdash;Sections of a<br />Locomotive Cylinder.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>From what has been said it
+is obvious, too, that every time
+the piston moves from one end
+of the cylinder to the other the
+valve must also be moved back
+and forth in the steam-chest.
+This is done by what is called
+an eccentric.</p>
+
+<p>An "eccentric" is a disk or
+wheel (Fig. 22) with a hole, <em>S</em>,
+the size of the axle of the locomotive
+to which it is attached.
+The centre <em>n</em> of the outside periphery
+of the eccentric is some
+distance from <em>S</em>, the centre of the shaft. A metal ring, <em>K K</em> (Fig. 23),
+made in two halves, embraces the eccentric, and the latter revolves inside
+of this ring. A rod, <em>L</em>, is attached to the strap, and is connected
+with the valve so that the motion of the eccentric is communicated
+to it. It is obvious that if the eccentric
+revolves it will impart a
+reciprocating motion to the rod
+<em>L</em>, which is communicated to the
+valve.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_118b.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 22.&mdash;Eccentric.<br />
+Fig. 23.&mdash;Eccentric and Strap.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>If properly adjusted on the
+axle the eccentric will run the
+engine in one direction. To run
+the opposite way another eccentric
+must be provided. Therefore
+locomotives always have two eccentrics
+for each cylinder. These, <em>J</em> and <em>K</em>, are shown in Figure 24,
+which represents the "valve-gear" of a locomotive. <em>S</em> is a section
+of the main driving-axle, to which the eccentrics are attached by
+keys or screws. <em>C</em> is the eccentric rod of the forward-motion ec<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>centric
+and <em>D</em> that of the one for running backward. As a locomotive
+must be run either backward or forward, and, as the one eccentric
+moves the valve to run forward and the other to run
+backward, we must be able to connect or disconnect the rods to
+and from the valve at will. The eccentric
+rods of the early locomotives had hooks on
+the ends by which they were attached to or
+detached from suitable pins connected with
+the valves. But these hooks were very uncertain
+in their action and therefore were
+abandoned, and now what is known as the
+"link-motion" is almost universally used for the valve-gear of locomotives.
+It consists of a "link" (<em>a b</em>, Fig. 24) which has a curved
+opening or slot, <em>k</em>, in it in which a block, <em>B</em>, fits accurately, so that
+it can slide from end to end of the link. This block has a hole
+bored in the middle which receives a pin, <em>c</em>, which is attached to
+the end of the arm <em>N</em> of the "rocker" <em>M O N</em>. The rocker has a
+shaft, <em>O</em>, which can turn in a suitable bearing, and two arms, <em>M</em> and
+<em>N</em>; the latter, as explained, is connected to the link by the pin <em>c</em>
+and block <em>B</em>. The upper arm <em>M</em> has another pin, <em>V</em>, on its end,
+which is connected by a rod, <em>v V</em>, to the main slide-valve <em>V</em>. The
+rocker-arms, as will be seen, can vibrate about the shaft <em>O</em>.</p>
+
+<div class="sandbagbox" id="img119">
+ <div id="i119b1">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i119b2">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<div class="p2 right caption">Fig. 24.&mdash;Valve Gear.</div>
+
+<p>The link is hung by a pendulous bar, <em>g h</em>, to the end <em>g</em> of the arm
+<em>E</em>, attached to the shaft <em>A</em>. This shaft has another upright arm, <em>F</em>,
+which is connected by a rod or bar, <em>G G′</em>, to a lever, <em>H I</em>, called a
+reverse lever, whose fulcrum is at <em>I</em>. To save room, in the engraving
+this lever and the cylinder <em>G</em> are drawn nearer to the main axle
+<em>S</em> than they would be on an engine. The lever is located inside<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
+the cab of the locomotive, and is indicated by the numbers 17 17′ in
+Figure 36 on <a href="#Page_133">p. 133</a>, which is a view looking from the tender at the
+back end of a locomotive. The lever has a trigger (<em>t</em>, Fig. 24)
+which is connected by a rod, <em>r</em>, to a latch, <em>l</em>, which engages in the
+notches of the sector <em>S S′</em>. This latch holds the lever in any desired
+position and can be disengaged from the notches by grasping
+the upper end of the lever and the trigger.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="HandHeld">
+    <div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_119.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+    <div class="caption">Fig. 24.&mdash;Valve Gear.</div>
+    </div>
+
+    <p>The link is hung by a pendulous bar, <em>g h</em>, to the end <em>g</em> of the arm
+    <em>E</em>, attached to the shaft <em>A</em>. This shaft has another upright arm, <em>F</em>,
+    which is connected by a rod or bar, <em>G G′</em>, to a lever, <em>H I</em>, called a
+    reverse lever, whose fulcrum is at <em>I</em>. To save room, in the engraving
+    this lever and the cylinder <em>G</em> are drawn nearer to the main axle
+    <em>S</em> than they would be on an engine. The lever is located inside
+    the cab of the locomotive, and is indicated by the numbers 17 17′ in
+    Figure 36 on <a href="#Page_133">p. 133</a>, which is a view looking from the tender at the
+    back end of a locomotive. The lever has a trigger (<em>t</em>, Fig. 24)
+    which is connected by a rod, <em>r</em>, to a latch, <em>l</em>, which engages in the
+    notches of the sector <em>S S′</em>. This latch holds the lever in any desired
+    position and can be disengaged from the notches by grasping
+    the upper end of the lever and the trigger.</p>
+    </div>
+
+<p>It is plain that, by moving the upper end of the reverse lever,
+the link <em>a b</em> can be raised up or lowered at will. When the link is
+down, or in the position represented in the engraving, the forward
+eccentric rod imparts its motion to the block <em>B</em>, pin <em>c</em>, and thence to
+the rocker and valve, and the engine will run forward. If, however,
+the reverse lever is thrown back into the position indicated by the
+dotted line <em>J I</em>, the link would then be raised up so that the end <em>e</em>
+of the backward-motion rod would be opposite to the block <em>B</em> and
+pin <em>c</em> and would communicate its motion to the rocker and valve,
+and the wheels would then be turned backward instead of forward.
+It will thus be seen how the movement of the reverse lever effects
+the reversal of the engine.</p>
+
+<p>A locomotive is started by admitting steam to the cylinders
+by means of what is called the "throttle-valve." This is usually
+placed in the upper part of the boiler at <em>T</em> (Fig. 16). The valve
+is worked by a lever at <em>l</em>, which is also shown at 14, 14′ (Fig. 36).
+The steam is conveyed to the cylinders by a pipe (<em>s</em>, Fig. 16,
+p. 115).</p>
+
+<p>If steam is admitted to the cylinders and the wheels are turned,
+one of two results must follow: either the locomotive will move
+backward or forward according to the direction of revolution, or
+the wheels will slip, as they often do, on the rails. That is, if the
+resistance of the cars or train is less than the friction or "adhesion"
+of the wheels on the rails, the engine and train will be moved; if
+the adhesion is less than the resistance the wheels will turn without
+moving the train.</p>
+
+<p>The capacity of a locomotive to draw loads is therefore dependent
+on the adhesion, and this is in proportion to the weight or
+pressure of the driving-wheels on the rails. The adhesion also
+varies somewhat with the weather and the condition of the wheels
+and rails. In ordinary weather it is equal to about one-fifth of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>
+weight which bears on the track; when perfectly dry, if the rails
+are clean, it is about one-fourth, and with the rails sanded about
+one-third. In damp or frosty weather the adhesion is often considerably
+less than a fifth.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_121.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 25.&mdash;Turning Locomotive Tires.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It would, then, seem as though all that is needed to increase
+the capacity of a locomotive to draw loads would be to add to the
+weight on its driving-wheels, and provide engine-power sufficient
+to turn them&mdash;which is true. But it has been found that if the
+weight on the wheels is excessive both the wheels and rails will be
+injured. Even when they are all made of steel, they are crushed
+out of shape or are rapidly worn if the loads are too great. The
+weight which rails will carry without being injured depends somewhat
+on their size or weight, but ordinarily from 12,000 to 16,000
+pounds per wheel is about the greatest load which they should
+carry.</p>
+
+<p>For these reasons, when the capacity of a locomotive must be
+increased beyond a limit indicated by these data, one or more ad<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>ditional
+pairs of driving-wheels must be used. Thus, if a more
+powerful engine was required than that shown in Figure 14 (<a href="#Page_113">p. 113</a>),
+another pair of wheels would be added, as shown in Figures 26,
+27, and 28. Or, if you wanted a more powerful engine than these,
+still another pair of driving-wheels would be provided, as shown in
+Figure 30. In this way the Mogul, ten-wheeled and consolidation
+engines have been developed from that shown in Figure 14. The
+Mogul locomotive (Fig. 27) has three pairs of driving-wheels, but
+only one pair of truck-wheels. The engravings shown in Figures
+30 and 31 represent consolidation and decapod types of engines
+which have four and five pairs of driving-wheels.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_122.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 26.&mdash;Six-wheeled Switching Locomotive. By the Schenectady Locomotive Works.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>From the illustrations, Figures 28, 30, and 31, it will be seen
+that when so many wheels are used, even if they are of small diameter,
+the wheel-base must necessarily be long, so that a limit is very
+soon reached beyond which the number of driving-wheels cannot
+be increased.</p>
+
+<p>Improvements in the processes of manufacturing steel, which
+resulted in the general use of that material for rails and tires, have
+made it possible to nearly double the weight which was carried on
+each wheel when they were made of iron. The weight of rails
+has also been very much increased since they were first made of
+steel. Twenty or twenty-five years ago iron rails weighing 56
+pounds per yard were about the heaviest that were laid in this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+country. Now steel rails weighing 72 pounds are commonly used,
+and some weighing 85 pounds have been laid on American roads,
+and others weighing 100 pounds have been laid on the Continent
+of Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_123a.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 27.&mdash;Mogul Locomotive. By the Schenectady Locomotive Works.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_123b.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 28.&mdash;Ten-wheeled Passenger Locomotive. By the Schenectady Locomotive Works.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_124a.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 29.&mdash;Consolidation Locomotive (unfinished).</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_124b.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 30.&mdash;Consolidation Locomotive. By the Pennsylvania Railroad Company.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of late years urban and suburban traffic has created a demand
+for a class of locomotives especially adapted to that kind of service.
+One of the conditions of that traffic is that trains must stop and
+start often, and therefore, to "make fast time," it is essential to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+start quickly. Few persons realize the great amount of force which
+must be exerted to start any object suddenly. A cannon-ball, for
+example, will fall through 16 feet in a second with no other resistance
+than the atmosphere. The impelling force in that case is the
+weight of the ball. If we want it to fall 32 feet during the first
+second, the force exerted on it must be equal to double its weight,
+and for higher speeds the increase of force must be in the same
+proportion. This law applies to the movement of trains. To start
+in half the time, double the force must be exerted. For this reason,
+trains which start and stop often require engines with a great deal
+of weight on the driving-wheels. In accordance with these conditions
+a class of engines has been designed which carry all, or nearly
+all, the weight of the boiler and machinery, and sometimes the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+water and fuel, on the driving-wheels. For suburban traffic, the
+speed between stops must often be quite rapid, and consequently
+the engine must have a long wheel-base for steadiness, as well as
+considerable weight on the wheels for adhesion. Four-wheeled
+engines (Fig. 14) have all their weight on the driving-wheels, but
+the wheel-base is short.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_125.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 31.&mdash;Decapod Locomotive. By the Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_126.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 32.&mdash;"Forney" Tank Locomotive. By the Rogers Locomotive<br />and Machine
+Works, Paterson, N. J.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>To combine the two features, engines have been built with the
+driving-wheels and axles arranged as in Figure 32. The frames are
+then extended backward, and the water-tank and fuel are placed on
+top of the frames, and their weight is carried by a truck underneath.
+This arrangement leaves the whole weight of the boiler and machinery
+on the driving-wheels, and at the same time gives a long
+wheel-base for steadiness. This plan of engine was patented by
+the author of this article in 1866, and has come into very general
+use&mdash;since the expiration of the patent. In some cases a two-wheeled
+truck is added at the opposite end, as shown in Figure 33.
+For street railroads, in which the speed is necessarily slow, engines
+such as Figure 13 (<a href="#Page_110">p. 110</a>) are used. To hide the machine from
+view, and also to give sufficient room inside, they are enclosed in
+a cab large enough to cover the whole machine.</p>
+
+<p>The size and weight of locomotives have steadily been increased
+ever since they were first used, and there is little reason for thinking
+that they have yet reached a limit, although it seems probable
+that some material change of design is impending which will permit
+of better proportions of the parts or organs of the larger sizes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+The decapod engines built at the Baldwin Locomotive Works, in
+Philadelphia, for the Northern Pacific Railroad, weigh in working
+order 148,000 pounds. This gives a weight of 13,300 pounds on
+each driving-wheel. Some ten-wheeled passenger engines, built at
+the Schenectady Locomotive Works for the Michigan Central Railroad,
+weigh 118,000 pounds, and have 15,666 pounds on each driving-wheel.
+Some recent eight-wheeled passenger locomotives for
+the New York, Lake Erie &amp; Western Railroad weigh 115,000
+pounds, and have 19,500 pounds on each driving-wheel. At the
+Baldwin Works, some "consolidation" engines have recently
+been built which
+are still heavier
+than the decapod
+engines.</p>
+
+<p>The following
+table gives dimensions,
+weight,
+price, and price
+per pound of locomotives
+at the
+present time. If
+we were to quote
+them at 8 to 8¼ cents per pound for heavy engines and 9 to 22¼ for
+smaller sizes, it would not be much out of the way.</p>
+
+<p class="p2 center"><em>Dimensions, Weights, and Approximate Prices of Locomotives.</em></p>
+
+<div class="center fs70">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+
+<tr><td class="bb" colspan="8">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc">Type.</td><td class="tdc bl" colspan="2">Cylinders.</td><td class="tdc bl">Diameter of driving- wheel.</td>
+    <td class="tdc bl">Weight&nbsp;of engine in working order, exclusive of tender</td><td class="tdc bl">Weight&nbsp;of engine&nbsp;and tender without water or fuel.</td>
+    <td class="tdc bl">Approximate price.</td><td class="tdc bl">Price per pound.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bt" colspan="8"></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdly"></td><td class="tdc bl">Diam.</td><td class="tdc">Stroke.</td><td class="tdc bl">Inches.</td><td class="tdc bl">Pounds.</td><td class="tdc bl">Pounds.</td><td class="tdc bl"></td><td class="tdc bl">Cents.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">"American" Passenger</td><td class="tdc bl">8</td><td class="tdc">24</td><td class="tdc bl">62 to 68</td><td class="tdc bl">92,000</td><td class="tdc bl">110,000</td><td class="tdc bl">$8,750</td><td class="tdc bl">7.95</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">"Mogul" Freight</td><td class="tdc bl">19</td><td class="tdc">24</td><td class="tdc bl">50 to 56</td><td class="tdc bl">96,000</td><td class="tdc bl">116,000</td><td class="tdc bl">9,500</td><td class="tdc bl">8.19</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">"Ten-wheel" Freight</td><td class="tdc bl">19</td><td class="tdc">24</td><td class="tdc bl">0 to 58</td><td class="tdc bl">100,000</td><td class="tdc bl">118,000</td><td class="tdc bl">9,750</td><td class="tdc bl">8.26</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">"Consolidation" Freight</td><td class="tdc bl">20</td><td class="tdc">24</td><td class="tdc bl">50</td><td class="tdc bl">120,000</td><td class="tdc bl">132,000</td><td class="tdc bl">10,500</td><td class="tdc bl">7.95</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">"Decapod" Freight</td><td class="tdc bl">22</td><td class="tdc">26</td><td class="tdc bl">46</td><td class="tdc bl">150,000</td><td class="tdc bl">165,000</td><td class="tdc bl">13,250</td><td class="tdc bl">8.03</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Four-wheel Tank Switching</td><td class="tdc bl">15</td><td class="tdc">24</td><td class="tdc bl">50</td><td class="tdc bl">58,000</td><td class="tdc bl">47,000</td><td class="tdc bl">5,500</td><td class="tdc bl">11.70</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">Six-wheel Switching, with tender</td><td class="tdc bl">18</td><td class="tdc">24</td><td class="tdc bl">50</td><td class="tdc bl">84,000</td><td class="tdc bl">98,000</td><td class="tdc bl">8,500</td><td class="tdc bl">8.89</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdly">"Forney" N.Y. Elevated</td><td class="tdc bl">11</td><td class="tdc">16</td><td class="tdc bl">42</td><td class="tdc bl">42,000</td><td class="tdc bl">34,000</td><td class="tdc bl">4,500</td><td class="tdc bl">13.23</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlz">Street-car Motor Locomotive</td><td class="tdc bl">10</td><td class="tdc">14</td><td class="tdc bl">35</td><td class="tdc bl">22,000</td><td class="tdc bl">18,000</td>
+    <td class="tdc bl">$3,500&nbsp;to&nbsp;$4,000<br />according to<br />design</td><td class="tdc bl">19.44<br />to<br />22.22</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb" colspan="8"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="p2" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_127.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 33.&mdash;"Hudson" Tank Locomotive. By the Baldwin Locomotive Works.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The speed of locomotives, however, has not increased with their
+weight and size. There is a natural law which stands in the way
+of this. If we double the weight on the driving-wheels, the adhesion,
+and consequent capacity for drawing loads, is also doubled.
+Reasoning in an analogous way, it might be said that if we double
+the circumference of the wheels the distance that they will travel in
+one revolution, and consequently the speed of the engine, will be in
+like proportion. But, if this be done, it will require twice as much
+power to turn the large wheels as was needed for the small ones;
+and we then encounter the natural law that the resistance increases
+as the square of the speed, and probably at even a greater ratio at
+very high velocities. At 60 miles an hour the resistance of a train
+is four times as great as it is at 30 miles. That is, the pull on the
+draw-bar of the engine must be four times as great in the one case
+as it is in the other. But at 60 miles an hour this pull must be exerted
+for a given distance in half the time that it is at 30 miles, so
+that the amount of power exerted and steam generated in a given
+period of time must be eight times as great in the one case as in the
+other. This means that the capacity of the boiler, cylinders, and
+the other parts must be greater, with a corresponding addition to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+the weight of the machine. Obviously, if the weight per wheel is
+limited, we soon reach a point at which the size of the driving-wheels
+and other parts cannot be enlarged; which means that there
+is a certain proportion of wheels, cylinders, and boiler which will
+give a maximum speed.</p>
+
+<p>The relative speed of trains here and in Europe has been the
+subject of a good deal of discussion and controversy. There appears
+to be very little difference in the speed of the fastest trains
+here and there; but there are more of them there than we have.
+From 48 to 53 miles an hour, including stops, is about the fastest
+time made by our regular trains on the summer time-tables.</p>
+
+<p>When this rate of speed is compared with that of sixty or seventy
+miles an hour, which is not infrequent for short distances, there
+seems to be a great discrepancy. It must be kept in mind, though,
+that these high rates of speed are attained under very favorable
+conditions. That is, the track is straight and level, or perhaps descending,
+and unobstructed. In ordinary traffic it is never certain
+that the line is clear. A locomotive-runner must always be on the
+look-out for obstructions. Trains, ordinary vehicles, a fallen tree
+or rock, cows, and people may be in the way at any moment. Let
+anyone imagine himself in responsible charge of a locomotive and
+he will readily understand that, with the slightest suspicion that the
+line is not clear, he would slacken the speed as a precautionary
+measure. For this reason fast time on a railroad depends as much
+on having a good signal system to assure the locomotive-runners
+that the line is clear, as it does on the locomotives. If he is always
+liable to encounter, and must be on the look-out for, obstructions at
+frequent grade-crossings of common roads, or if he is not certain
+whether the train in front of him is out of his way or not, the locomotive-runner
+will be nervous and be almost sure to lose time. If
+the speed is to be increased on American railroads, the first steps
+should be to carry all streets and common roads either over or under
+the lines, have the lines well fenced, provide abundant side-tracks
+for trains, and adopt efficient systems of signals so that locomotive-runners
+can know whether the line is clear or not.</p>
+
+<p>In what may be called the period of adolescence of railroads
+there was a very decided predilection on the part of locomotive engineers
+for large driving-wheels. Figure 34 represents one of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
+engines built as early as 1848 for the Camden &amp; Amboy Railroad,
+with driving wheels 8 feet in diameter. Other engines with 6 and
+7 feet wheels were not uncommon. In Europe many engines with
+very large wheels were made and are still in use. Here, as well
+as there, excessively large wheels have, however, been abandoned,
+and six feet in diameter is now about the limit of their size in this
+country.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_129.jpg" width="375" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 34.&mdash;Camden &amp; Amboy Locomotive, 1848.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>So far as locomotives are concerned, fast time, especially with
+heavy trains, is generally dependent more upon the supply of steam
+than it is on the size of the wheels. Without steam to turn them,
+big wheels are useless; but with an abundant supply there is no
+difficulty in turning small wheels at a lively rate. Speed, therefore,
+is to a great extent a question of boiler capacity, and the general
+maxim has been formulated that "within the limits of weight and
+space to which a locomotive boiler must be confined, it cannot be
+made too big." But the maximum speed at which a locomotive
+can run when an adequate supply of steam is provided also depends
+on the perfection of the machinery. At 60 miles an hour a
+driving-wheel 5½ feet in diameter revolves five times every second.
+The reciprocating parts of each cylinder of a Pennsylvania Railroad
+passenger engine, including one piston, piston-rod, cross-head, and
+connecting rod,
+weigh about 650
+pounds. These
+parts must move
+back and forth a
+distance equal to
+the stroke, usually
+two feet, every
+time the wheel
+revolves, or in a
+fifth of a second.
+It starts from a
+state of rest at each end of the stroke of the piston and must acquire
+a velocity of 32 feet per second, in one-twentieth of a second,
+and must be brought to a state of rest in the same period of time.
+A piston 18 inches in diameter has an area of 254½ square inches.
+Steam of 150 pounds pressure per square inch would therefore
+exert a force on the piston equal to 38,175 pounds. This force is
+applied alternately on each side of the piston, ten times in a second.
+The control of such forces requires mechanism which works with
+the utmost precision and with absolute certainty, and it is for this
+reason that the speed and the economical working of a locomotive
+depend so much on the proportions of the valves and the "valve-gear"
+by which the "distribution" of steam in the cylinders is
+controlled.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_130.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 35.&mdash;Interior of a Round-house.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The engraving (Fig. 36) on <a href="#Page_133">p. 133</a> represents the cab end of a
+locomotive of the New York Central &amp; Hudson River Railroad,
+looking forward from the tender, and shows the attachments by
+which the engineer works the engine.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> This gives an idea of
+the number of keys on which he has to play in running such a
+machine. There is room here for little more than an enumeration
+of the parts which are numbered:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquoty">
+
+<p>1. Engine-bell rope.</p>
+
+<p>2. Train-bell rope.</p>
+
+<p>3. Train-bell or gong.</p>
+
+<p>4. Lever for blowing whistle.</p>
+
+<p>5. Steam-gauge to indicate pressure in boiler.</p>
+
+<p>6. Steam-gauge lamp to illuminate face of gauge.</p>
+
+<p>7. Pressure-gauge for air-brake; to show pressure in air-reservoirs.</p>
+
+<p>8. Valve to admit steam to air-brake pump.</p>
+
+<p>9. Automatic lubricator for oiling main valves.</p>
+
+<p>10. Cock for admitting steam to lubricator.</p>
+
+<p>11. Handle for opening valves in sand-box to sand the rails.</p>
+
+<p>12. Handle for opening the cocks which drain the water from the cylinders.</p>
+
+<p>13. Valve for admitting steam to the jets which force air into the fire-box.</p>
+
+<p>14, 14′. Throttle-valve lever. This is for opening the valve which admits steam to the
+cylinders.</p>
+
+<p>15. Sector by which the throttle-lever is held in any desired position.</p>
+
+<p>16. "Lazy-cock" handle. A "lazy-cock" is a valve which regulates the water-supply
+to the pumps and is worked by this handle.</p>
+
+<p>17, 17′. Reverse lever.</p>
+
+<p>18. Reverse-lever sector.</p>
+
+<p>19, 19′, 19″. Gauge-cocks for showing the height of the water in the boiler; 19′ is a pipe
+for carrying away the water which escapes when the gauge-cocks are opened.</p>
+
+<p>20, 20. Oil-cups for oiling the cylinders.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+
+<p>21. Handle for working steam-valve of injector.</p>
+
+<p>22. Handle for controlling water-jet of the injector.</p>
+
+<p>23. Handle for working water-valve of injector.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+
+<p>24. Oil-can shelf.</p>
+
+<p>25. Handle for air-brake valve.</p>
+
+<p>26. Valve for controlling air-brake.</p>
+
+<p>27. Pipe for conducting air to brakes under the cars.</p>
+
+<p>28. Pipe connected with air-reservoir.</p>
+
+<p>29. Pipe-connection to air-pump.</p>
+
+<p>30. Handle for working a valve which admits or shuts off the air for driving-wheel
+brakes.</p>
+
+<p>31. Valve for driving-wheel brakes.</p>
+
+<p>32, 32′. Lever for moving a diaphragm in smoke-box, by which the draught is regulated.</p>
+
+<p>33. Handle for raising or lowering snow-scrapers in front of truck-wheels.</p>
+
+<p>34. Handle for opening cock on pump to show whether it is forcing water into the
+boiler.</p>
+
+<p>35. Lamp to light the water-gauge, 51, 51.</p>
+
+<p>36. Air-hole for admitting air to fire-box.</p>
+
+<p>37. Tallow-can for oiling cylinders.</p>
+
+<p>38. Oil-can.</p>
+
+<p>39. Shelf for warming oil-cans.</p>
+
+<p>40. Furnace door.</p>
+
+<p>41. Chain for opening and closing the furnace door.</p>
+
+<p>42. Handles for opening dampers on the ash-pan.</p>
+
+<p>43. Lubricator for air-pump.</p>
+
+<p>44. Valve for admitting steam to the chimney to blow the fire when the engine is
+standing still.</p>
+
+<p>45. Valve for admitting steam to the train-pipes for warming the cars.</p>
+
+<p>46. Valve for reducing the pressure of the steam used for heating cars.</p>
+
+<p>47. Cock which admits steam to the pressure-gauge, 48.</p>
+
+<p>48. Pressure-gauge which indicates the steam-pressure in heater pipes.</p>
+
+<p>49. Pipe for conducting steam to the train to heat the cars.</p>
+
+<p>50. Cock for water-gauge, 51.</p>
+
+<p>51, 51. Glass water-gauge to indicate the height of water in the boiler.</p>
+
+<p>52. Cock for blowing off impurities from the surface of the water in the boiler.</p></div>
+
+<p>Besides being impressive as a triumph of human ingenuity,
+there is much about the construction and working of locomotives
+which is picturesque. A shop where they are constructed or repaired
+is always of interest. An engine-house (Fig. 35) especially
+at night, is full of weird suggestions and food for the imagination.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_133.jpg" width="550" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 36.&mdash;Cab End of a Locomotive and its Attachments.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Figure 37 (<a href="#Page_135">p. 135</a>) is an illustration from a photograph taken
+in the erecting shops of the Baldwin Locomotive Works in Philadelphia;
+and Figure 38 (<a href="#Page_137">p. 137</a>) is a view of a similar shop of the
+Pennsylvania Railroad at Altoona, which suggests at a glance
+many of the processes of construction which go on in these great
+works. At Altoona are immense travelling cranes resting on brick
+arches and spanning the shop from side to side. These are power<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>ful
+enough to take hold of the largest locomotive and lift it bodily
+from the rails and transfer it laterally or longitudinally at will. A
+large consolidation engine is shown in Figure 38, swung clear of
+the rails, and in the act of being moved laterally. The hooks of
+the crane are attached to heavy iron beams, from which the loco<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>motive
+is suspended by strong bars. Figure 39 (<a href="#Page_138">p. 138</a>) is a view
+in the blacksmiths' shop of the Baldwin Works, showing a steam
+hammer and the operation of forging a locomotive frame.</p>
+
+<p>It is quite natural that the engineers, or "runners," as they
+generally call themselves, who have the care of locomotives should
+take a deep interest in and acquire a sort of attachment for them.
+In the earlier days of railroading this was much more the case than
+it is now. Then each locomotive had an individuality of its own.
+It was rare that two engines were exactly alike. Nearly always
+there was some difference in their proportions, or one engine had
+some device in it which the other had not. Now, many locomotives
+are made exactly alike, or as nearly so as the most improved
+machinery will permit. There is nothing to distinguish the one
+from the other. Therefore Bony Smith can claim no superiority
+for his machine which Windy Brown has not the advantage of. In
+the old days, too, each engine had its own runner and fireman, and
+it seldom fell into the hands of anyone else, and those in charge
+of it took as much pride in keeping it bright as the character in
+"Pinafore" did "in polishing up the handle of the big front door."
+On many roads&mdash;particularly the larger ones&mdash;engines are not assigned
+to special men. The system of "first in first out" has been
+adopted; that is, the engines are sent out in the order in which they
+come in, and the men take whichever machine happens to fall to
+their lot. This naturally results in a loss of personal attachment
+to special engines.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span><br />
+   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_135.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 37.&mdash;View In Locomotive Erecting Shop.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Every change in the construction, alteration in the proportions,
+or addition to the attachments of locomotives is a subject of intense
+interest to the men and a topic of endless discussion at all times
+and places. The theories which are propounded, and the yarns
+which are spun while sitting around hot stoves in round-houses, or
+waiting for passing trains on side-tracks, would fill many books.
+Jack never tires of telling what his engine did when "she was going
+up Rattlesnake Grade," and Smoky Bill grows excited when
+he describes how Ninety-six turned her wheels in making up
+forty-nine minutes time in the down run with the "electric express."</p>
+
+<p>Locomotive engineers and firemen read with avidity everything
+which is explanatory of the construction or working of locomotives,
+but generally have a contempt for things which have no practical
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+bearing. They demand "lucidity" in what they read with as much
+vehemence as Matthew Arnold did, and some editors and college
+professors, whose writing and thinking are foggy, would be greatly
+benefited by the criticisms of the Locomotive Brotherhood.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_137.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 38.&mdash;Interior of Erecting Shop, Showing Locomotive Lifted by Travelling Crane.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Much might be written about the duties of locomotive-runners
+and firemen, and the qualifications required. It is the general
+opinion of locomotive superintendents that it is not essential that
+the men who run locomotives should be good mechanics. The
+best runners or engineers are those who have been trained while
+young as firemen on locomotives. Brunel, the distinguished civil
+engineer, said that he never would trust himself to run a locomotive
+because he was sure to think of some problem relating to his profession
+which would distract his attention from the engine. It is
+probably a similar reason which sometimes unfits good mechanics
+for being good locomotive-runners.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_138.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 39.&mdash;Forging a Locomotive Frame.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It will perhaps interest some readers to know how much fuel
+a locomotive burns. This, of course, depends upon the quality of
+fuel, work done, speed, and character of the road. With freight
+trains consisting of as many cars as a heavy locomotive can draw
+without difficulty, the consumption of coal will not exceed from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+1 to 1½ pounds of coal per car per mile if the engine is carefully
+managed. It takes from 15 to 20 pounds of coal per mile to move
+an engine and tender alone, the consumption being dependent upon
+the size of the engine, speed, grades, and number of stops. If this
+amount of coal is allowed for the engine and tender, and the balance
+that is consumed is divided among the cars, it will reduce the quantity
+for hauling the cars alone to even less amounts than those given
+above. In ordinary average practice the consumption is from 3 to
+5 pounds per freight-car per mile, without making any allowance for
+the engine and tender. With passenger trains, the cars of which
+are heavier and the speed higher, the coal consumption is from 10
+to 15 pounds per car per mile. A freight locomotive with a train
+of 40 cars will burn 40 to 200 pounds of coal per mile, the amount
+depending on the care with which it is managed, quality of the
+coal, grades, speed, weather, and other circumstances.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>AMERICAN CARS.</h3>
+
+<p>Peter Parley's illustration (<a href="#Page_101">p. 101</a>) of the Baltimore &amp; Ohio
+Railroad represents one of the earliest passenger-cars used in this
+country. The accuracy of the illustration may, however, be questioned.
+Probably the artist depended upon his imagination and
+memory somewhat when he drew it. The engraving below (Fig.
+40) is from a drawing made by the resident engineer of the
+Mohawk &amp; Hudson Railroad, and from which six coaches were
+made by James Goold for the Mohawk &amp; Hudson Railroad in 1831.
+It is an authentic representation of the cars as made at that time.
+Other old prints of railroad cars represent them as substantially
+stage-coach bodies mounted on four car-wheels, as shown by Figure
+41. The next step in the development of cars was that of joining
+together several coach-bodies. This form was continued after
+the double-truck system was adopted, as shown by Figure 42, which
+represents an early Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad car, having three
+sections, united. It was soon displaced by the rectangular body,
+as shown in Figure 43, which is a reproduction from an old print.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_139.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 40.&mdash;Mohawk &amp; Hudson Car, 1831.
+<span class="pad10">Fig. 41.&mdash;Early Car.</span><br />
+(From the original drawing by the resident engineer.)
+<span class="pad6">(From an old print.)</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_140a.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 42.&mdash;Early Car on the Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Figure 44 is an illustration of a car used for the transportation
+of flour on the Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad, while horses were still
+used as the motive power. To show how nearly all progress is a
+process of evolution, it was asserted, in one of the trials of the validity
+of Winans' patent on eight-wheeled cars with two trucks, that
+before the date of his patent it was a practice to load firewood by
+connecting two such cars with long timbers, which rested on bolsters<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+attached by kingbolts to the cars. The wood was loaded on
+top of these timbers, as shown in Figure 45. An old car (Fig. 46),
+which antedated Winans' patent and was used at the Quincy
+granite quarries for carrying
+large blocks of stone, was also
+introduced as evidence for the
+defendants in that suit. Although
+Winans was not able to
+establish the validity of his patent
+on eight-wheeled cars with
+two trucks, he was undoubtedly one of the first to put it into practical
+form, and did a great deal to introduce the system.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_140b.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 43.&mdash;Early American Car, 1834.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The progress in the construction of cars has been fully as great
+as in that of locomotives. If the old stage-coach bodies on wheels
+are compared with a vestibule train of to-day the difference will be
+very striking. Most of us who are no longer young can recall the
+days when sleeping-cars were unknown, when a journey from an
+Eastern city to Chicago meant forty-eight hours or more of sitting
+erect in a car with thirty or more passengers, and an atmosphere
+which was fetid. Happily those days are past, although the improvement
+in the ventilation of cars has been very slow, and is
+still very imperfect.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_141a.jpg" width="200" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 44.&mdash;Old Car for Carrying Flour<br />
+on the Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Improvement has also lagged in the matter of coupling cars.
+It has been shown by statistics and calculations that some hundreds
+of persons are killed and some thousands injured in this country
+annually in coupling cars. The use of automatic coupling, by which
+cars could be connected together without going between them, it has
+been supposed, would greatly lessen, if it would not entirely prevent,
+this fearful sacrifice of life and limb. To accomplish this end,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+though, it is essential that some one form of coupler shall be generally
+adopted by all railroads. One of the obstacles in the way of
+this has been the mechanical difficulty of finding a mechanism which
+will satisfactorily accomplish the purpose for
+which it was intended. After thirty or forty
+years of invention and experiment, no automatic
+coupler has been produced, which has
+been approved by competent judges with a
+sufficient degree of unanimity to justify its
+general adoption. The patents on that class of inventions are
+numbered by thousands, so that it is no light task to select the
+best one or even the best kind. Besides this difficulty, there is
+the other equally formidable one of inducing railroad men, of various
+degrees of knowledge, ignorance, and prejudice regarding this
+subject, and who are scattered all over the continent, to agree in
+adopting some one form or kind of automatic coupler. Various
+cliques had also been organized on different roads in the interest of
+some patents, and in such cases argument and reason addressed to
+them were generally wasted. Public indignation was, however,
+aroused; and the stimulus of legislation in different States compelled
+railroad officers to give serious attention to the subject.
+After devoting some years to the investigation, the Master Car-Builders'
+Association&mdash;which is composed of officers of railroad
+companies, who are in charge of
+the construction and repair of cars
+on the different lines&mdash;has recommended
+the adoption of a coupler
+of the type represented by Figures
+47 to 49, which has been
+already applied to many cars and the indications are that it will be
+very generally adopted for freight and probably for passenger cars.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+If it should be, it will relieve railroad employees of the dangerous
+duty of going between cars to couple them. Figure 47 shows a
+plan looking down on the couplers with one of the latches, <em>A</em>,
+open; Figure 48 shows it with the two couplers partly engaged;
+and Figure 49 shows them when the coupling is completed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_141b.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 45.&mdash;Old Car for Carrying Firewood on the Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_141c.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 46.&mdash;Old Car on the Quincy Granite Railroad.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>One of the first problems which presented itself in the infancy
+of railroads was how to keep the cars on the rails.</p>
+
+<p>Anyone who will stand close to a line of railroad when a train
+is rushing by at a speed of forty, fifty, or sixty miles an hour must
+wonder how the engine and cars are kept on the track; and even
+those familiar with the construction of railroad machinery often express
+astonishment that the flanges of the wheels, which are merely
+projecting ribs about 1<sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub> inches deep and 1¼ inches thick, are sufficient
+to resist the impetus and swaying of a locomotive or car at
+full speed. The problem of the manufacture of wheels which will
+resist this wear, and will not break, has occupied a great deal of
+the attention of railroad managers and manufacturers.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_142.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
+<div class="center caption">
+Fig. 47.<span class="pad4">Fig. 48.</span><span class="pad4">Fig. 49.</span><br />
+Janney Car Coupler, showing the Process of Coupling.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Locomotive driving-wheels in this country are always made of
+cast-iron, with steel tires which are heated and put on the wheels
+and then cooled. They
+are thus contracted
+and "shrunk" on the
+wheel. The tread, that
+is, the surface which
+bears on the rail, and the
+flange of the tire are then
+turned off in a lathe,
+shown in Figure 25, on <a href="#Page_121">p.
+121</a>, made especially for the
+purpose. For engine-truck,
+tender, and car-wheels, until
+within a few years, "chilled"
+cast-iron wheels have
+been used almost exclusively
+on American railroads. If the tread and flange of a wheel were
+made of ordinary cast-iron they would soon be worn out in service,
+as such iron has ordinarily little capacity for resisting the wear to
+which wheels are subjected. Some cast-iron, however, has the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+singular property which causes it to assume a peculiar, hard crystalline
+form if, when it is melted, it is allowed to cool and solidify
+in contact with a cold iron mould. The iron which is thus cooled
+quickly, or "chilled," becomes very hard, and resists wear very
+much better than iron which is not chilled. Car-wheels which are
+made of this material are therefore cast in what is called a chill-mould.
+Figure 50 represents a section of such a mould and flask in
+which wheels are cast.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_143.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 50.&mdash;Mould and Flask in which Wheels are Cast.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><em>A A</em> is the wheel, which is moulded in sand in the usual way.
+The part <em>B B</em> of the mould, which forms the rim or tread of the
+wheel, consists of a heavy cast-iron ring. The melted iron is poured
+into this mould and
+comes in contact
+with <em>B B</em>. This
+has the effect of
+chilling the hot
+iron, as has been
+explained. In
+cooling, the wheel
+contracts; and for
+that reason the part
+between the rim <em>C</em> and the hub <em>D</em> is made of a curved form, as
+shown in the section, so that if one part should cool more rapidly
+than another these parts can yield sufficiently to permit contraction
+without straining any portion of the wheels injuriously. For the
+same reason the ribs on the back of the wheels, as shown in Figure
+51, are also curved. As an additional safeguard to the unequal
+contraction in cooling, the wheels are taken out of the mould while
+they are red-hot, and placed in ovens where they are allowed to
+remain several days so as to cool very slowly.</p>
+
+<p>Figure 52, on <a href="#Page_145">p. 145</a>, represents a section of the tread and
+flange of a chilled wheel, showing the peculiar crystalline appearance
+of the chilled iron.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_144.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 51.&mdash;Cast-iron Car Wheels.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In making cast-iron wheels the quality of the iron used is of the
+utmost importance. The difficulty in making good wheels lies in
+the fact that most iron which is ductile and tough will not chill,
+whereas hard white iron, which has the chilling property in a very
+high degree, is brittle, and wheels which are made of it are liable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
+to break. There are some kinds of cast-iron produced in this
+country which have the two qualities combined, in a very remarkable
+degree; that is, they are ductile and tough, and will also chill.
+Wheel-founders also mix different qualities of irons to produce
+wheels with the required strength, and which will resist wear;
+that is, they use a certain amount of hard white iron which will
+chill, with that which is ductile and soft. By changing the proportions,
+any required amount of chill can be produced. The danger
+is that iron which has little strength or ductility will be fortified
+with hard chilling iron, and a very weak wheel will thus be the result.
+Thousands of such wheels have been bought and used because
+they are cheap, and many lamentable accidents are undoubtedly
+due to this cause. To guard against this, car-wheels should
+always be subjected to rigid tests and inspection.</p>
+
+<p>In Europe wheels are made of wrought-iron, with tires which
+were also made of the same material before the discovery of the
+improved processes of manufacturing steel, but since then they
+have been made of the latter material. Owing to the breakage
+of a great many cast-iron wheels of poor quality, steel-tired wheels
+are now coming into very general use on American roads under
+passenger-cars and engines. A great variety of such wheels is
+now made. The "centres" or parts inside the tires of some of
+them are cast-iron, and others are wrought-iron constructed in
+various ways.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_145a.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 52.&mdash;Section of the Tread and Flange of a Car Wheel.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>What is known as the Allen paper wheel is used a great deal in
+this country, especially under sleeping-cars. A section and front
+view of one of these wheels is shown by Figure 53. It consists of a
+cast-iron hub, <em>A</em>,
+which is bored out
+to fit the axle. An
+annular disk, <em>B B</em>,
+is made of layers
+of paper-board
+glued together
+and then subjected
+to an enormous
+pressure.
+The disk is then
+bored out to fit
+the hub, and its
+circumference is
+turned off, and the tire <em>C C</em> is fitted to it. Two wrought-iron
+plates, <em>P P</em>, are then placed on either side of it, and the disk,
+plates, tire, and hub are all bolted together. The paper, it will
+be seen, bears the weight which rests on the hub of the axle and
+the hub of the wheel.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_145b.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 53.&mdash;Allen Paper Car Wheel.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Steel tires have the advantage that when they become worn
+their treads and flanges may be turned off anew, whereas chilled
+cast-iron wheels are so hard
+that it is almost impossible
+to cut them with any turning
+tool. For this reason machines
+have been constructed
+for grinding the tread with a
+rapidly revolving emery-wheel.
+In these the cast-iron
+wheel is made to turn slowly,
+whereas the emery-wheel revolves
+very rapidly. The
+emery-wheel is then brought
+close to the cast-iron wheel, so that as they revolve the projections
+on the latter are cut away, and the tread is thus reduced to a true<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+circular form. These machines are much used for "truing-up"
+wheels which have been made flat by sliding, owing to the brakes
+being set too hard.</p>
+
+<p>It would require a separate article to give even a brief description
+of the different kinds of cars which are now used. The following
+list could be increased considerably if all the different varieties
+were included.</p>
+
+<div class="textcol4">
+<p>Baggage-car,<br />
+Boarding-car,<br />
+Box-car,<br />
+Buffet-car,<br />
+Caboose or<br />
+&nbsp; &nbsp; conductor's car,<br />
+Cattle- or stock-car,<br />
+Coal-car,<br />
+Derrick-car,<br />
+Drawing-room car,</p>
+</div>
+<div class="textcol4">
+<p>Drop-bottom car,<br />
+Dump-car,<br />
+Express-car,<br />
+Flat or platform car,<br />
+Gondola-car,<br />
+Hand-car,<br />
+Hay-car,<br />
+Hopper-bottom car,<br />
+Horse-car,<br />
+Hotel-car,</p>
+</div>
+<div class="textcol4">
+<p>Inspection-car,<br />
+Lodging-car,<br />
+Mail-car,<br />
+Milk-car,<br />
+Oil-car,<br />
+Ore-car,<br />
+Palace-car,<br />
+Passenger-car,<br />
+Post-office car,<br />
+Push-car,</p>
+</div>
+<div class="textcol4">
+<p>Postal-car,<br />
+Refrigerator-car,<br />
+Restaurant-car,<br />
+Sleeping-car,<br />
+Sweeping-car,<br />
+Tank-car,<br />
+Tip-car,<br />
+Tool or wrecking car,<br />
+Three-wheeled<br />
+&nbsp; &nbsp; hand-car.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The following table gives the size, weight, and price of cars at
+the present time. The length given is the length over the bodies
+not including the platforms.</p>
+
+<div class="center fs80">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="bt">&nbsp;</td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc"></td><td class="tdc bl">Length, feet.</td><td class="tdc bl">Weight, lbs.</td><td class="tdc bl">Price.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb">&nbsp;</td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl tdpp">Flat-car</td><td class="tdc bl">34</td><td class="tdc bl">16,000 to 19,000</td><td class="tdl bl pad2">$380</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl tdpp">Box-car</td><td class="tdc bl">34</td><td class="tdc bl">22,000 to 27,000</td><td class="tdl bl pad2">$550</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Refrigerator-car</td><td class="tdc bl">30 to 34</td><td class="tdc bl">28,000 to 34,000</td><td class="tdl bl pad2">$800 to $1,100</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl tdpp">Passenger-car</td><td class="tdc bl">50 to 52</td><td class="tdc bl">45,000 to 60,000</td><td class="tdl bl pad2">$4,400 to $5,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Drawing-room car</td><td class="tdc bl">50 to 65</td><td class="tdc bl">70,000 to 80,000</td><td class="tdl bl pad2">$10,000 to $20,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl tdpp">Sleeping-car</td><td class="tdc bl">50 to 70</td><td class="tdc bl">60,000 to 90,000</td><td class="tdl bl pad2">$12,000 to $20,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Street-car</td><td class="tdc bl">16</td><td class="tdc bl">&nbsp; 5,000 to 6,000</td><td class="tdl bl pad2">$800 to $1,200</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="p2" />
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_147.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 54.&mdash;Modern Passenger-car and Frame.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Some years ago the master car-builders of the different railroads
+experienced great difficulty in the transaction of their business
+from the fact that there were no common names to designate
+the parts of cars in different places in the country. What was
+known by one name in Chicago had quite a different name in
+Pittsburg or Boston. A committee was therefore appointed by
+the Master Car-Builders' Association to make a dictionary of terms<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+used in car-construction and repairs. Such a dictionary has been
+prepared, and is a book of 560 pages, and has over two thousand
+illustrations. It has some peculiar features, one of which is described
+as follows in the preface: "To supply the want which
+demanded such a vocabulary, what might be called a double dictionary
+is needed. Thus, supposing that a car-builder in Chicago
+received an order for a 'journal-box'; by looking in an alphabetical
+list of words he could readily find that term and a description and
+definition of it. But suppose that he wanted to order such castings
+from the shop in Albany, and did not know their name; it would
+be impracticable for him to commence at A and look through to Z,
+or until he found the proper term to designate that part." To
+meet this difficulty the dictionary has very copious illustrations in
+which the different parts of cars are represented and numbered, and
+the names of the parts designated by the numbers are then given
+in a list accompanying the engraving. An alphabetical list of
+names and definitions is also given, as in an ordinary dictionary.
+The definition usually contains a reference to a number and a figure
+in which the object described is illustrated. In making the dictionary
+the compilers selected terms from those in use, where appro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>priate
+ones could be found. In other cases new names were devised.
+The book is a curious illustration of a more rapid growth
+of an art than of the language by which it is described.</p>
+
+<p>The following table, compiled from "Poor's Manual of Railroads,"
+gives the number of locomotives and of different kinds of
+cars in this country, beginning with 1876, and for each year thereafter.
+If the average length of locomotives and tenders is taken at
+50 feet, those now owned by the railroads would make a continuous
+train 280 miles long; and the 1,033,368 cars, if they average
+35 feet in length, would form a train which would be more than
+6,800 miles long.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><em>Statement of the Rolling Stock of Railroads in the United States; from
+"Poor's Manual" for 1889.</em></p>
+
+<div class="center fs80">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="bt tdpp"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bll" colspan="2"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc wd10" rowspan="3">Year.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="3">Miles of railroad.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="3">Locomotives.</td><td class="tdc bll" colspan="2">Passenger-train cars.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="3">Freight cars.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="3">Total.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb bll tdpp" colspan="2"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc bll">Passenger.</td><td class="tdc bl">Baggage, mail,<br />and Express.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bll"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc">1876</td><td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;76,305</td><td class="tdc bl">14,562</td><td class="tdc bll">&mdash;</td><td class="tdc bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdc bl">358,101</td><td class="tdc bl wd15">358,101</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc">1877</td><td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;79,208</td><td class="tdc bl">15,911</td><td class="tdc bll">12,053</td><td class="tdc bl">3,854</td><td class="tdc bl">392,175</td><td class="tdc bl">408,082</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc">1878</td><td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;80,832</td><td class="tdc bl">16,445</td><td class="tdc bll">11,683</td><td class="tdc bl">4,413</td><td class="tdc bl">423,013</td><td class="tdc bl">439,109</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc">1879</td><td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;84,393</td><td class="tdc bl">17,084</td><td class="tdc bll">12,009</td><td class="tdc bl">4,519</td><td class="tdc bl">480,190</td><td class="tdc bl">496,718</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc">1880</td><td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;92,147</td><td class="tdc bl">17,949</td><td class="tdc bll">12,789</td><td class="tdc bl">4,786</td><td class="tdc bl">539,255</td><td class="tdc bl">556,930</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc">1881</td><td class="tdc bl">103,530</td><td class="tdc bl">20,116</td><td class="tdc bll">14,548</td><td class="tdc bl">4,976</td><td class="tdc bl">648,295</td><td class="tdc bl">667,819</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc">1882</td><td class="tdc bl">114,461</td><td class="tdc bl">22,114</td><td class="tdc bll">15,551</td><td class="tdc bl">5,566</td><td class="tdc bl">730,451</td><td class="tdc bl">751,568</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc">1883</td><td class="tdc bl">120,552</td><td class="tdc bl">23,623</td><td class="tdc bll">16,889</td><td class="tdc bl">5,848</td><td class="tdc bl">778,663</td><td class="tdc bl">801,400</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc">1884</td><td class="tdc bl">125,152</td><td class="tdc bl">24,587</td><td class="tdc bll">17,303</td><td class="tdc bl">5,911</td><td class="tdc bl">798,399</td><td class="tdc bl">821,613</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc">1885</td><td class="tdc bl">127,729</td><td class="tdc bl">25,937</td><td class="tdc bll">17,290</td><td class="tdc bl">6,044</td><td class="tdc bl">805,519</td><td class="tdc bl">828,853</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc">1886</td><td class="tdc bl">133,606</td><td class="tdc bl">26,415</td><td class="tdc bll">19,252</td><td class="tdc bl">6,325</td><td class="tdc bl">845,914</td><td class="tdc bl">871,491</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc">1887</td><td class="tdc bl">147,999</td><td class="tdc bl">27,643</td><td class="tdc bll">20,457</td><td class="tdc bl">6,554</td><td class="tdc bl">950,887</td><td class="tdc bl">977,898</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc">1888</td><td class="tdc bl">154,276</td><td class="tdc bl">29,398</td><td class="tdc bll">21,425</td><td class="tdc bl">6,827</td><td class="tdc bl">1,005,116</td><td class="tdc bl">1,033,368</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bll"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="p2" />
+<p>The number of cars, it will be seen, has more than doubled in
+ten years, so that if the same rate of increase continues for the
+next decade there will be over two millions of them on the railroads
+of this country alone. Beyond a certain point, numbers convey
+little idea of magnitude. Our railroad system and its equipment
+seem to be rapidly outgrowing the capacity of the human imagination
+to realize their extent. What it will be with another half-century
+of development it is impossible even to imagine.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> An engraving of a team and of a "Conestoga" wagon&mdash;which was used in this traffic&mdash;taken from
+a photograph of one which has survived to the present day, is given opposite (Fig. 1).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> It was not really the first train, as the Baltimore &amp; Ohio and the South Carolina roads were in
+operation earlier.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> The truck was first applied by Mr. Jervis to an engine built by R. Stephenson &amp; Co., of England.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> It should be mentioned that this is not one of the most recent types of engines. The arrangement
+of parts in the cab has been somewhat simplified in later locomotives.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> This engine had two different appliances for oiling the cylinders, a pair of oil-cups, 20, 20, and
+an automatic oiler, 9.</p></div></div>
+
+
+    <div class="chapter"></div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">RAILWAY MANAGEMENT.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="pfs90 smcap">By E. P. ALEXANDER.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>Relations of Railway Management to all Other Pursuits&mdash;Developed by the Necessities of
+a Complex Industrial Life&mdash;How a Continuous Life is Given to a Corporation&mdash;Its Artificial
+Memory&mdash;Main Divisions of Railway Management&mdash;The Executive and Legislative
+Powers&mdash;The Purchasing and Supply Departments&mdash;Importance of the Legal
+Department&mdash;How the Roadway is Kept in Repair&mdash;The Maintenance of Rolling
+Stock&mdash;Schedule-making&mdash;The Handling of Extra Trains&mdash;Duties of the Train-despatcher&mdash;Accidents
+in Spite of Precautions&mdash;Daily Distribution of Cars&mdash;How Business
+is Secured and Rates are Fixed&mdash;The Interstate Commerce Law&mdash;The Questions
+of "Long and Short Hauls" and "Differentials"&mdash;Classification of Freight&mdash;Regulation
+of Passenger-rates&mdash;Work of Soliciting Agents&mdash;The Collection of Revenue
+and Statistics&mdash;What is a Way-bill&mdash;How Disbursements are Made&mdash;The Social
+and Industrial Problem which Confronts Railway Corporations.</p></div>
+
+<div><img class="drop-cap" src="images/i_149dc.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="drop-cap">The world was born again with the building of
+the first locomotive and the laying of the first
+level iron roadway. The energies and activities,
+the powers and possibilities then developed have
+acted and reacted in every sphere of life&mdash;social,
+industrial, and political&mdash;until human progress,
+after smouldering like a spark for a thousand
+years, has burst into a conflagration which will
+soon leave small trace of the life and customs, or even the modes of
+thought, which our fathers knew. But, in it all, the railroad remains
+the most potent factor in every development. By bringing men
+more and more closely together, and supplying them more and
+more abundantly and cheaply with all the varied treasures of the
+earth, stored up for millions of years for the coming of this generation,
+it adds continually more fuel to the flame it originated. And
+as it is necessarily reacted upon equally by every new invention or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+discovery, and by all progress in other departments of human activity,
+the demands upon it, and its points of contact with everyday
+life, are still increasing in geometrical progression.</p>
+
+<p>Hence, in the practical management of railroad affairs, problems
+are of constant occurrence which touch almost every pursuit
+to which men give themselves, whether of finance, agriculture,
+commerce, manufactures, science, or politics; and the methods,
+forms, and principles under which current railroad management
+is being developed (for it is by no means at a stand-still) are
+the result of the necessities imposed by these multiplying problems
+acting within the constraints of corporate existences.</p>
+
+<p>For while the life of a corporation is perpetual, its powers are
+constrained, and the individuals exercising them are constantly
+changing. It is but an artificial individual existing for certain purposes
+only, and, as it lacks some human qualities, all its methods
+of doing business are influenced thereby. The business affairs
+of an individual, for instance, are greatly simplified by his memory
+of his transactions from day to day and from year to year.
+But a corporation having no natural memory, all of its transactions
+and relations must be minutely and systematically noted in its
+archives. Every contract and obligation must be of record, all
+property bought or constructed must go upon the books, and,
+when expended or used up, must go off in due form; and especially
+must an accurate system of checks guard all earnings and
+expenditures, and a comprehensive system of book-keeping consolidate
+innumerable transactions into the great variety of boiled-down
+figures and statistics necessary for officers and stockholders
+to fully understand what the property is doing.</p>
+
+<p>Under such circumstances, then, our railroads and their systems
+of organization and management, like the Darwinian Topsy, have
+not "been made" but have "growed."</p>
+
+<p>Naturally, both the direction and extent of the development have
+varied in different localities and under different conditions. Within
+the limits of this article it would be impossible to give anything
+like an exhaustive or complete account of the organization, distribution
+of duties, systems of working, and of checks in the various
+departments of even a single road. Most roads publish more or
+less elaborate small volumes of regulations on such subjects for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
+use of their various employees. The task would also be endless
+to describe technically the variations of practice and of nomenclature
+in different sections and on different systems. The shades of
+difference, too, between managers, superintendents, or masters;
+comptrollers, auditors, book-keepers, and accountants; secretaries,
+cashiers, treasurers, and paymasters in different localities would
+be tedious to draw. A technical account of them would be almost
+a reproduction of the volumes above-mentioned. I can only
+attempt to outline and illustrate very briefly the general principles
+which underlie the present practice, and are more or less elaborated
+as circumstances may require.</p>
+
+<p>The principal duties connected with the management of a railroad
+may be classified as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. The physical care of the property.</p>
+
+<p>2. The handling of the trains.</p>
+
+<p>3. The making rates and soliciting business.</p>
+
+<p>4. The collection of revenue and keeping statistics.</p>
+
+<p>5. The custody and disbursement of revenue.</p>
+
+<p>The president is, of course, the executive head of the company,
+but in important matters he acts only with the consent and approval
+of the Board of Directors, or of an executive committee
+clothed with authority of the board, which may be called the legislative
+branch of the management. More or less of the executive
+power and supervision of the president may be delegated to one or
+more vice-presidents. Often all of it but that relating to financial
+matters is so delegated, but, as their functions are subdivisions of
+those of the president, they have no essential part in a general
+scheme of authority.</p>
+
+<p>Of the five subdivisions of duties indicated above, the first four
+are usually confided to a general manager, who may also be a vice-president,
+and the fifth is in charge of a treasurer, reporting directly
+to the president.</p>
+
+<p>The special departments under charge of the general manager
+are each officered by trained experts:</p>
+
+<p>A superintendent of roadway or chief engineer has charge of
+the maintenance of the track, bridges, and buildings.</p>
+
+<p>A superintendent of machinery has charge of the construction
+and maintenance of all rolling stock.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A superintendent of transportation makes all schedules, and has
+charge of all movements of trains.</p>
+
+<p>A car accountant keeps record of the location, whereabout, and
+movements of all cars.</p>
+
+<p>A traffic manager has charge of passenger and freight rates, and
+all advertising and soliciting for business.</p>
+
+<p>A comptroller has charge of all the book-keeping by which the
+revenue of the company is collected and accounted for. All statistics
+are generally prepared in his office.</p>
+
+<p>A paymaster receives money from the treasurer and disburses,
+under the direction of the comptroller, for all expenses of operation.</p>
+
+<p>All dividend and interest payments are made by the treasurer,
+under direction of the president and board.</p>
+
+<p>There are, besides the above, two general departments with
+which all the rest have to do, to a greater or less extent&mdash;the legal
+department and the purchasing department. The quantity and
+variety of articles used and consumed in the operation of a railroad
+are so great that it is a measure of much economy to concentrate
+all purchases into the hands of a single purchasing agent, rather
+than to allow each department to purchase for itself. This agent
+has nothing to do but to study prices and markets. His pride is
+enlisted in getting the lowest figures for his road, and the large
+amount of his purchases enables him to secure the best rates. And
+last, but not least, in matters where dishonesty would find so great
+opportunities, it is safer to concentrate responsibility than to diffuse
+it.</p>
+
+<p>As I shall not again refer to this department, what remains of
+interest for me to say about it will be said here. As an adjunct to
+it, storehouses are established at central points in which stocks of
+articles in ordinary use are kept on hand. Whenever supplies are
+wanted in any other department&mdash;as, for instance, a bell-cord and
+lantern by a conductor&mdash;requisitions are presented, approved by a
+designated superior. These requisitions state whether the articles
+are to be charged to legitimate wear and tear, and if so,
+whether to the passenger or the freight service, and of which subdivision
+of the road; or whether they are to be charged to the
+conductor for other articles not properly accounted for. Without<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
+going into further detail, it can be readily seen how the comptroller's
+office can, at the end of each month, from these requisitions,
+have a complete check upon all persons responsible for the care of
+property. The purchasing agent, too, from his familiarity with
+prices, is usually charged with the sale of all condemned and worn-out
+material.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p>
+
+<p>Before returning to a more detailed review of the operating departments
+of a railroad, its legal department requires a few words.
+Not only is a railroad corporation, being itself a creation of the law,
+peculiarly bound to conform all its actions to legal forms and tenets,
+but it is also a favorite target for litigation. The popular prejudice
+against corporations, it may be said in passing, is utterly illogical.
+The corporation is the poor man's opportunity. Without it he
+could never share in the gains and advantages open to capital in
+large sums. With it a thousand men, contributing a thousand dollars
+each, compete on equal terms with the millionaire. Its doors
+are always open to any who may wish to share its privileges or its
+prosperity, and no man is denied equal participation according to
+his means and inclinations. It is the greatest "anti-poverty" invention
+which has ever been produced, and the most democratic.
+But, for all that, instead of possessing the unbounded power usually
+ascribed to it, no creature of God or man is so helpless as a corporation
+before the so-called great tribunal of justice, the American
+jury. It may not be literally true that a Texas jury gave damages to
+a tramp against a certain railroad because a section-master's wife
+gave him a meal which disagreed with him, but the story can be
+nearly paralleled from the experience of many railroads. Hence
+settlements outside of the law are always preferred where they are
+at all possible, and an essential part of an efficient legal organization
+is a suitable man always ready to repair promptly to the scene of
+any loss or accident, to examine the circumstances with the eye of
+a legal expert on liabilities.</p>
+
+<p>But the management of claims, and of loss and damage suits,
+though a large part, is by no means all of the legal business connected
+with a railroad. Every contract or agreement should pass
+under scrutiny of counsel, and in the preparation of the various
+forms of bonds, mortgages, debentures, preferred stocks, etc.,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
+which the wants of the day have brought forth, the highest legal
+talent finds employment. For, as development has multiplied the
+types of cars
+and engines to
+meet special
+wants, so have
+a great variety
+of securities
+been developed
+to meet the
+taste and prejudices
+of investors of all nations.
+There is, in fact, a certain
+fashion in the forms of
+bonds, and the conditions incorporated
+in mortgages,
+which has to be observed to
+adapt any bond to its proposed
+market.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_154a.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>We shall now return to the
+operating departments under
+their respective heads, and
+glance briefly at the methods
+and detail pursued in each.
+On roads of large mileage the general manager is assisted by general
+or division superintendents in charge of roadway, motive
+power, and trains of one or more separate divisions; but for our
+purposes we may consider the different departments without reference
+to these superintendents.</p>
+
+<div class="sandbagbox" id="img154">
+ <div id="i154b1">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i154b2">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p>The superintendent of roadway or chief engineer comes first,
+having charge of track, bridges, and buildings. In his office are
+collected maps of all important stations and junction points, kept
+up to date with changes and additions; scale drawings of all
+bridges and trestles, of all standard depots, tanks, switches, rails,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
+fastenings, signals, and everything necessary to secure uniformity
+of patterns and practice over the entire road. Under him are
+supervisors of bridges and supervisors of road, each assigned to a
+certain territory. The supervisors of bridges make frequent and
+minute examinations of every piece or member of every bridge and
+trestle, report in advance all the repairs that become necessary,
+and make requisition for the material needed.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="HandHeld">
+    <div class="figleft">
+    <img src="images/i_154b.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+    </div>
+
+    <p>The superintendent of roadway or chief engineer comes first,
+    having charge of track, bridges, and buildings. In his office are
+    collected maps of all important stations and junction points, kept
+    up to date with changes and additions; scale drawings of all
+    bridges and trestles, of all standard depots, tanks, switches, rails,
+    fastenings, signals, and everything necessary to secure uniformity
+    of patterns and practice over the entire road. Under him are
+    supervisors of bridges and supervisors of road, each assigned to a
+    certain territory. The supervisors of bridges make frequent and
+    minute examinations of every piece or member of every bridge and
+    trestle, report in advance all the repairs that become necessary,
+    and make requisition for the material needed.</p>
+    </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_155.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A Type of Snow-plough.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Under the bridge supervisor are organized "bridge gangs,"
+each consisting of a competent foreman with carpenters and laborers
+skilled in bridge work and living in "house" or "boarding"
+cars, and provided with pile-drivers, derricks, and all appliances
+for handling heavy timbers and erecting, tearing down, and repairing
+bridges. These cars form a movable camp, going from place
+to place as needed, and being side-tracked as near as possible to
+the work of the gang. Long experience begets great skill in their
+special duties, and the feats which these gangs will perform are
+often more wonderful than many of the more showy performances
+of railroad engineering. It is an every-day thing with such gangs
+to take down an old wooden structure, and erect in its place an
+iron one, perhaps with the track raised several feet above the level<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+of the original, while fifty trains pass every day, not one of which
+will be delayed for a moment.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_156.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A Rotary Steam Snow-shovel in Operation.<br />
+(From an instantaneous photograph.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Each of the supervisors of road has his assigned territory divided
+into "sections," from five to eight miles in
+length. At a suitable place on each section are erected houses
+for a resident section-master and from six to twelve hands. These
+are provided with hand- and push-cars, and spend their whole
+time in keeping their sections in good condition. Upon many
+roads annual inspections are made and prizes offered for the best
+sections. At least twice a day track-walkers from the section-gangs
+pass over the entire line of road. To simplify reports and
+instructions, frequently every bridge or opening in the track is
+numbered, and the number displayed upon it; and every curve is
+also posted with its degree of curvature and the proper elevation
+to be given to the outer rail.</p>
+
+<p>The work of the section-men is all done under regular system.
+In the spring construction-trains deliver and distribute ties and
+rails on each section, upon requisitions from supervisors. Then
+the section-force goes over its line from end to end, putting in first<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+the new ties and then the new rails needed. Next the track is
+gone over with minute care and re-lined, re-surfaced, and re-ballasted,
+to repair the damages of frost and wet, the great enemies
+of a road-bed. Then ditches, grass, and the right-of-way have attention.
+These processes are continually repeated, and especially
+in the fall in preparation for winter. During the winter as little
+disturbance of track is made as possible, but ditches are kept
+clean, and low joints are raised by "shims" on top of joint ties. Essential
+parts of the equipment of any large road are snow-ploughs
+(<a href="#Page_154">pp. 154&ndash;5&ndash;6</a>) and wrecking cars, with powerful derricks and
+other appliances for clearing obstructions. When wrecks or blockades
+occur these cars, with extra engines, section-hands, bridge
+gangs, and construction-trains, are rushed to the spot, and everything
+yields to the
+work of getting the
+road clear.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_157.jpg" width="350" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Railway-crossing Gate.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>We come next
+to the superintendent
+of machinery,
+whose duty it is to
+provide and maintain
+locomotives
+and cars of all
+kinds to handle the
+company's traffic.
+His department is
+subdivided between
+a master mechanic,
+in charge of
+locomotives and
+machine-shops,
+and a master car-builder,
+in charge
+of car-shops.</p>
+
+<p>The master
+mechanic selects and immediately controls all engine-runners and
+firemen, and keeps performance sheets of all locomotives, showing
+miles run, cars hauled, wages paid, coal and oil consumed, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+other details giving results accomplished by different runners and
+firemen, and by different types of engine, or on different divisions
+or roads. Premiums are often paid the runners and firemen accomplishing
+the best results.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><em>Report of Performance of Engines, Repairs, and all other Costs
+Incident thereto, for the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1888.</em></p>
+
+<div class="p2 pad6 fs80">
+[Key for column headings. Column A has been repeated in each Part.]<br />
+<br />
+ A. Number of Engine.<br />
+ B. Passenger<br />
+ C. Freight.<br />
+ D. Gravel or Construction.<br />
+ E. Switching.<br />
+ F. Total.<br />
+ G. Eighth Cords of wood.<br />
+ H. Bushels Coal.<br />
+ I. Cost of Fuel.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p class="pfs90">[Table&mdash;Part 1 of 4]</p>
+
+
+<div class="p1 center fs80">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="bt bl tdpp"></td><td class="bt bl" colspan="5"></td><td class="bt bl" colspan="3"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl tdpp"></td><td class="tdc bl smcap" colspan="5">Miles Run.</td><td class="tdc bl smcap" colspan="3">Fuel.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl" colspan="5"></td><td class="bb bl" colspan="3"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc bl tdpp">A.</td><td class="tdc bl">B.</td><td class="tdc bl">C.</td><td class="tdc bl">D.</td><td class="tdc bl">E.</td><td class="tdc bl">F.</td><td class="tdc bl">G.</td><td class="tdc bl">H.</td><td class="tdc bl">I.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb bl tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl tdpp"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">12,084</td><td class="tdr bl">4,253</td><td class="tdr bl">64</td><td class="tdr bl">16,401</td><td class="tdr bl">118</td><td class="tdr bl">10,699</td><td class="tdr bl">$1,090.25</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 2</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">2,672</td><td class="tdr bl">11,779</td><td class="tdr bl">954</td><td class="tdr bl">15,405</td><td class="tdr bl">193</td><td class="tdr bl">10,913</td><td class="tdr bl">1,131.77</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 3</td><td class="tdr bl">5,402</td><td class="tdr bl">14,471</td><td class="tdr bl">408</td><td class="tdr bl">120</td><td class="tdr bl">20,407</td><td class="tdr bl">189</td><td class="tdr bl">10,590</td><td class="tdr bl">1,101.08</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 4</td><td class="tdr bl">28,643</td><td class="tdr bl">4,168</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">32,811</td><td class="tdr bl">297</td><td class="tdr bl">11,875</td><td class="tdr bl">1,212.20</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 5</td><td class="tdr bl">28,275</td><td class="tdr bl">4,490</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">72</td><td class="tdr bl">32,837</td><td class="tdr bl">301</td><td class="tdr bl">12,961</td><td class="tdr bl">1,335.31</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 6</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">32,370</td><td class="tdr bl">32,370</td><td class="tdr bl">33</td><td class="tdr bl">10,360</td><td class="tdr bl">1,042.26</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 8</td><td class="tdr bl">3,229</td><td class="tdr bl">11,799</td><td class="tdr bl">4,779</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">19,807</td><td class="tdr bl">150</td><td class="tdr bl">13,233</td><td class="tdr bl">1,356.30</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 9</td><td class="tdr bl">1,050</td><td class="tdr bl">23,203</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">24,253</td><td class="tdr bl">155</td><td class="tdr bl">16,344</td><td class="tdr bl">1,663.41</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">10</td><td class="tdr bl">874</td><td class="tdr bl">24,729</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">96</td><td class="tdr bl">25,699</td><td class="tdr bl">158</td><td class="tdr bl">17,039</td><td class="tdr bl">1,741.67</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">11</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">23,609</td><td class="tdr bl">23,609</td><td class="tdr bl">205</td><td class="tdr bl">7,661</td><td class="tdr bl">811.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">12</td><td class="tdr bl">1,527</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">4,369</td><td class="tdr bl">12,060</td><td class="tdr bl">17,956</td><td class="tdr bl">142</td><td class="tdr bl">8,875</td><td class="tdr bl">918.75</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">30</td><td class="tdr bl">41,345</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">41,345</td><td class="tdr bl">237</td><td class="tdr bl">17,702</td><td class="tdr bl">1,821.37</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">31</td><td class="tdr bl">37,450</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">37,450</td><td class="tdr bl">215</td><td class="tdr bl">16,695</td><td class="tdr bl">1,716.56</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">32</td><td class="tdr bl">4,233</td><td class="tdr bl">13,516</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">120</td><td class="tdr bl">17,869</td><td class="tdr bl">115</td><td class="tdr bl">10,918</td><td class="tdr bl">1,117.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">34</td><td class="tdr bl">13,742</td><td class="tdr bl">5,217</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">1,224</td><td class="tdr bl">20,183</td><td class="tdr bl">149</td><td class="tdr bl">6,691</td><td class="tdr bl">704.07</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"></td><td class="tdr bl">165,770</td><td class="tdr bl">116,349</td><td class="tdr bl">25,588</td><td class="tdr bl">70,695</td><td class="tdr bl">378,402</td><td class="tdr bl">2657</td><td class="tdr bl">182,556</td><td class="tdr bl">$18,768.13</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class="p2 pad6 fs80 pg-brk">
+ A. Number of Engine.<br />
+ J. Gallons of Engine Oil.<br />
+ K. Signal Oil.<br />
+ L. Head-Light Oil.<br />
+ M. Lbs. of Cyl. Oil.<br />
+ N. Car Grease.<br />
+ O. Waste.<br />
+ P. Packing.<br />
+ Q. Gallons Kerosene.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p class="pfs90">[Table&mdash;Part 2 of 4]</p>
+
+<div class="p1 center fs80">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="bt bl tdpp"></td><td class="bt bl" colspan="8"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl tdpp"></td><td class="tdc bl smcap" colspan="8">Oil, Waste and Other Stores.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl" colspan="8"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc bl tdpp">A.</td><td class="tdc bl">J.</td><td class="tdc bl">K.</td><td class="tdc bl">L.</td><td class="tdc bl">M.</td><td class="tdc bl">N.</td><td class="tdc bl">O.</td><td class="tdc bl">P.</td><td class="tdc bl">Q.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb bl tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl tdpp"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl">124</td><td class="tdr bl">10</td><td class="tdr bl">29</td><td class="tdr bl">59½</td><td class="tdr bl">45</td><td class="tdr bl">347</td><td class="tdr bl">72</td><td class="tdr bl">&ndash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 2</td><td class="tdr bl">121½</td><td class="tdr bl">13½</td><td class="tdr bl">35½</td><td class="tdr bl">69½</td><td class="tdr bl">69</td><td class="tdr bl">466</td><td class="tdr bl">102</td><td class="tdr bl">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 3</td><td class="tdr bl">132½</td><td class="tdr bl">10½</td><td class="tdr bl">38</td><td class="tdr bl">74½</td><td class="tdr bl">69</td><td class="tdr bl">350</td><td class="tdr bl">61</td><td class="tdr bl">&ndash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 4</td><td class="tdr bl">258</td><td class="tdr bl">14</td><td class="tdr bl">49</td><td class="tdr bl">125</td><td class="tdr bl">106</td><td class="tdr bl">659</td><td class="tdr bl">76</td><td class="tdr bl">&ndash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 5</td><td class="tdr bl">256</td><td class="tdr bl">12</td><td class="tdr bl">39</td><td class="tdr bl">99½</td><td class="tdr bl">75</td><td class="tdr bl">622</td><td class="tdr bl">82½</td><td class="tdr bl">&ndash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 6</td><td class="tdr bl">30½</td><td class="tdr bl">12½</td><td class="tdr bl">188½</td><td class="tdr bl">111¼</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">298</td><td class="tdr bl">160½</td><td class="tdr bl">&ndash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 8</td><td class="tdr bl">134</td><td class="tdr bl">10½</td><td class="tdr bl">41</td><td class="tdr bl">65¼</td><td class="tdr bl">60</td><td class="tdr bl">327</td><td class="tdr bl">98</td><td class="tdr bl">&ndash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 9</td><td class="tdr bl">135</td><td class="tdr bl">12½</td><td class="tdr bl">45½</td><td class="tdr bl">73</td><td class="tdr bl">70</td><td class="tdr bl">374</td><td class="tdr bl">87</td><td class="tdr bl">&ndash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">10</td><td class="tdr bl">131½</td><td class="tdr bl">13½</td><td class="tdr bl">63</td><td class="tdr bl">69</td><td class="tdr bl">70</td><td class="tdr bl">372</td><td class="tdr bl">96</td><td class="tdr bl">&ndash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">11</td><td class="tdr bl">136</td><td class="tdr bl">1¾</td><td class="tdr bl">96</td><td class="tdr bl">81</td><td class="tdr bl">40</td><td class="tdr bl">354</td><td class="tdr bl">81</td><td class="tdr bl">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">12</td><td class="tdr bl">105</td><td class="tdr bl">9¼</td><td class="tdr bl">58</td><td class="tdr bl">95½</td><td class="tdr bl">20</td><td class="tdr bl">360</td><td class="tdr bl">75</td><td class="tdr bl">&ndash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">30</td><td class="tdr bl">223</td><td class="tdr bl">23¾</td><td class="tdr bl">44½</td><td class="tdr bl">69</td><td class="tdr bl">106</td><td class="tdr bl">726</td><td class="tdr bl">51</td><td class="tdr bl">&ndash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">31</td><td class="tdr bl">243</td><td class="tdr bl">15¼</td><td class="tdr bl">46</td><td class="tdr bl">92</td><td class="tdr bl">110</td><td class="tdr bl">660</td><td class="tdr bl">68</td><td class="tdr bl">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">32</td><td class="tdr bl">138</td><td class="tdr bl">10½</td><td class="tdr bl">41</td><td class="tdr bl">71½</td><td class="tdr bl">130</td><td class="tdr bl">361</td><td class="tdr bl">63</td><td class="tdr bl">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">34</td><td class="tdr bl">186</td><td class="tdr bl">10</td><td class="tdr bl">32</td><td class="tdr bl">71</td><td class="tdr bl">75</td><td class="tdr bl">409</td><td class="tdr bl">43</td><td class="tdr bl">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"></td><td class="tdr bl">2,554</td><td class="tdr bl">179½</td><td class="tdr bl">846</td><td class="tdr bl">1,226½</td><td class="tdr bl">1045</td><td class="tdr bl">6685</td><td class="tdr bl">1214</td><td class="tdr bl">14</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="p2 pad6 fs80 pg-brk">
+ A. Number of Engine.<br />
+ R. Cost of Stores.<br />
+ S. Wages of Engineer and Fireman.<br />
+ T. Cost of Cleaning.<br />
+ U. Labor.<br />
+ V. Material.<br />
+ W. Total Cost of Repairs.<br />
+ X. Total Expenses and Repairs.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p class="pfs90">[Table&mdash;Part 3 of 4]</p>
+
+<div class="p1 center fs80">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="bt bl tdpp"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl" colspan="3"></td><td class="bt bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl tdpp"></td><td class="tdr bl"></td><td class="tdr bl"></td><td class="tdr bl"></td><td class="tdc bl smcap" colspan="3">Cost of Repairs.</td><td class="tdr bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl tdpp"></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc bl tdpp">A.</td><td class="tdc bl">R.</td><td class="tdc bl">S.</td><td class="tdc bl">T.</td><td class="tdc bl">U.</td><td class="tdc bl">V.</td><td class="tdc bl">W.</td><td class="tdc bl">X.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb bl tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl tdpp"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl">$ 87.64</td><td class="tdr bl">$ 1,293.80</td><td class="tdr bl">$ 115.00</td><td class="tdr bl">$ 223.40</td><td class="tdr bl">$ 66.32</td><td class="tdr bl">$ 289.72</td><td class="tdr bl">$ 2,876.41</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 2</td><td class="tdr bl">106.85</td><td class="tdr bl">1,646.90</td><td class="tdr bl">82.50</td><td class="tdr bl">69.65</td><td class="tdr bl">75.14</td><td class="tdr bl">144.79</td><td class="tdr bl">3,112.81</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 3</td><td class="tdr bl">93.85</td><td class="tdr bl">1,489.65</td><td class="tdr bl">187.50</td><td class="tdr bl">178.25</td><td class="tdr bl">63.61</td><td class="tdr bl">241.86</td><td class="tdr bl">3,113.94</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 4</td><td class="tdr bl">171.85</td><td class="tdr bl">1,719.55</td><td class="tdr bl">212.50</td><td class="tdr bl">203.95</td><td class="tdr bl">100.13</td><td class="tdr bl">304.08</td><td class="tdr bl">3,620.18</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 5</td><td class="tdr bl">144.86</td><td class="tdr bl">1,628.80</td><td class="tdr bl">202.00</td><td class="tdr bl">240.55</td><td class="tdr bl">114.98</td><td class="tdr bl">355.53</td><td class="tdr bl">3,666.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 6</td><td class="tdr bl">173.92</td><td class="tdr bl">1,884.50</td><td class="tdr bl">10.00</td><td class="tdr bl">172.35</td><td class="tdr bl">63.65</td><td class="tdr bl">236.00</td><td class="tdr bl">3,346.68</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 8</td><td class="tdr bl">97.34</td><td class="tdr bl">1,593.05</td><td class="tdr bl">150.00</td><td class="tdr bl">110.75</td><td class="tdr bl">106.69</td><td class="tdr bl">217.44</td><td class="tdr bl">3,414.13</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 9</td><td class="tdr bl">108.53</td><td class="tdr bl">1,625.80</td><td class="tdr bl">200.00</td><td class="tdr bl">139.80</td><td class="tdr bl">175.48</td><td class="tdr bl">315.28</td><td class="tdr bl">3,918.02</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">10</td><td class="tdr bl">108.38</td><td class="tdr bl">1,669.55</td><td class="tdr bl">205.00</td><td class="tdr bl">207.55</td><td class="tdr bl">109.78</td><td class="tdr bl">317.33</td><td class="tdr bl">4,041.93</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">11</td><td class="tdr bl">111.83</td><td class="tdr bl">1,126.75</td><td class="tdr bl">5.00</td><td class="tdr bl">413.95</td><td class="tdr bl">89.76</td><td class="tdr bl">503.71</td><td class="tdr bl">2,558.29</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">12</td><td class="tdr bl">106.31</td><td class="tdr bl">1,405.10</td><td class="tdr bl">25.00</td><td class="tdr bl">37.45</td><td class="tdr bl">27.17</td><td class="tdr bl">64.62</td><td class="tdr bl">2,519.78</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">30</td><td class="tdr bl">142.71</td><td class="tdr bl">1,719.56</td><td class="tdr bl">212.50</td><td class="tdr bl">144.50</td><td class="tdr bl">77.52</td><td class="tdr bl">222.02</td><td class="tdr bl">4,118.15</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">31</td><td class="tdr bl">152.16</td><td class="tdr bl">1,554.55</td><td class="tdr bl">205.00</td><td class="tdr bl">642.50</td><td class="tdr bl">432.86</td><td class="tdr bl">1,075.36</td><td class="tdr bl">4,703.66</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">32</td><td class="tdr bl">108.40</td><td class="tdr bl">1,186.40</td><td class="tdr bl">172.00</td><td class="tdr bl">1,729.70</td><td class="tdr bl">438.40</td><td class="tdr bl">2,168.10</td><td class="tdr bl">4,752.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">34</td><td class="tdr bl">108.40</td><td class="tdr bl">1,186.40</td><td class="tdr bl">137.00</td><td class="tdr bl">1,522.10</td><td class="tdr bl">781.64</td><td class="tdr bl">2,303.74</td><td class="tdr bl">4,313.48</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"></td><td class="tdr bl">1,823.80</td><td class="tdr bl">22,603.45</td><td class="tdr bl">2,121.00</td><td class="tdr bl">6,036.45</td><td class="tdr bl">2,723.13</td><td class="tdr bl">8,759.58</td><td class="tdr bl">54,075.96</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="p2 pad6 fs80 pg-brk">
+ A. Number of Engine.<br />
+ Y. Bushel Coal.<br />
+ Z. Gal. Engine Oil.<br />
+AA. Pound of Tallow.<br />
+BB. Repairs.<br />
+CC. Fuel.<br />
+DD. Stores.<br />
+EE. Wages E. and F.<br />
+FF. Cleaning.<br />
+GG. Total.<br />
+HH. Car Mileage.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p class="pfs90">[Table&mdash;Part 4 of 4]</p>
+
+<div class="center fs80">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="bt bl tdpp"></td><td class="bt bl" colspan="3"></td><td class="bt bl" colspan="6"></td><td class="bt bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl tdpp"></td><td class="tdc bl smcap" colspan="3">M'ls run to one.</td><td class="tdc bl smcap" colspan="6">Cost per Mile Run For.</td><td class="tdr bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc bl tdpp">A.</td><td class="tdc bl">Y.</td><td class="tdc bl">Z.</td><td class="tdc bl">AA.</td><td class="tdc bl">BB.</td><td class="tdc bl">CC.</td><td class="tdc bl">DD.</td><td class="tdc bl">EE.</td><td class="tdc bl">FF.</td><td class="tdc bl">GG.</td><td class="tdc bl br">HH.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb bl tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl tdpp"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl">1.5</td><td class="tdr bl">122.3</td><td class="tdr bl">34.5</td><td class="tdr bl">01.76</td><td class="tdr bl">06.64</td><td class="tdr bl">00.53</td><td class="tdr bl">07.89</td><td class="tdr bl">00.61</td><td class="tdr bl">17.43</td><td class="tdr bl br">177,659</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 2</td><td class="tdr bl">1.1</td><td class="tdr bl">126.8</td><td class="tdr bl">27.7</td><td class="tdr bl">00.94</td><td class="tdr bl">07.34</td><td class="tdr bl">00.69</td><td class="tdr bl">10.69</td><td class="tdr bl">00.53</td><td class="tdr bl">20.19</td><td class="tdr bl br">197,203</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 3</td><td class="tdr bl">0.9</td><td class="tdr bl">77.7</td><td class="tdr bl">17.4</td><td class="tdr bl">02.32</td><td class="tdr bl">10.58</td><td class="tdr bl">00.90</td><td class="tdr bl">14.31</td><td class="tdr bl">02.04</td><td class="tdr bl">30.15</td><td class="tdr bl br">182,402</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 4</td><td class="tdr bl">2.7</td><td class="tdr bl">127.2</td><td class="tdr bl">32.8</td><td class="tdr bl">00.92</td><td class="tdr bl">03.69</td><td class="tdr bl">05.23</td><td class="tdr bl">05.24</td><td class="tdr bl">00.64</td><td class="tdr bl">15.72</td><td class="tdr bl br">139,422</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 5</td><td class="tdr bl">2.5</td><td class="tdr bl">128.2</td><td class="tdr bl">41.2</td><td class="tdr bl">01.08</td><td class="tdr bl">04.06</td><td class="tdr bl">00.44</td><td class="tdr bl">04.96</td><td class="tdr bl">00.61</td><td class="tdr bl">11.15</td><td class="tdr bl br">135,780</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 6</td><td class="tdr bl">3.1</td><td class="tdr bl">140.4</td><td class="tdr bl">36.3</td><td class="tdr bl">00.72</td><td class="tdr bl">03.22</td><td class="tdr bl">00.53</td><td class="tdr bl">05.82</td><td class="tdr bl">00.03</td><td class="tdr bl">10.32</td><td class="tdr bl br">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 8</td><td class="tdr bl">1.5</td><td class="tdr bl">147.8</td><td class="tdr bl">37.9</td><td class="tdr bl">01.09</td><td class="tdr bl">06.84</td><td class="tdr bl">00.49</td><td class="tdr bl">08.04</td><td class="tdr bl">00.76</td><td class="tdr bl">17.22</td><td class="tdr bl br">305,024</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"> 9</td><td class="tdr bl">1.4</td><td class="tdr bl">150.0</td><td class="tdr bl">48.5</td><td class="tdr bl">01.30</td><td class="tdr bl">06.88</td><td class="tdr bl">00.40</td><td class="tdr bl">06.70</td><td class="tdr bl">00.82</td><td class="tdr bl">16.10</td><td class="tdr bl br">383,682</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">10</td><td class="tdr bl">1.5</td><td class="tdr bl">195.4</td><td class="tdr bl">46.5</td><td class="tdr bl">01.23</td><td class="tdr bl">06.77</td><td class="tdr bl">00.31</td><td class="tdr bl">06.49</td><td class="tdr bl">00.79</td><td class="tdr bl">15.59</td><td class="tdr bl br">409,035</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">11</td><td class="tdr bl">3.0</td><td class="tdr bl">173.6</td><td class="tdr bl">36.4</td><td class="tdr bl">02.13</td><td class="tdr bl">03.43</td><td class="tdr bl">00.47</td><td class="tdr bl">04.77</td><td class="tdr bl">00.02</td><td class="tdr bl">10.82</td><td class="tdr bl br">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">12</td><td class="tdr bl">2.0</td><td class="tdr bl">171.0</td><td class="tdr bl">23.5</td><td class="tdr bl">00.36</td><td class="tdr bl">05.11</td><td class="tdr bl">00.59</td><td class="tdr bl">07.82</td><td class="tdr bl">00.14</td><td class="tdr bl">14.02</td><td class="tdr bl br">66,834</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">30</td><td class="tdr bl">2.3</td><td class="tdr bl">185.4</td><td class="tdr bl">74.9</td><td class="tdr bl">00.53</td><td class="tdr bl">04.40</td><td class="tdr bl">00.34</td><td class="tdr bl">04.15</td><td class="tdr bl">00.51</td><td class="tdr bl">09.93</td><td class="tdr bl br">231,554</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">31</td><td class="tdr bl">2.2</td><td class="tdr bl">154.1</td><td class="tdr bl">50.8</td><td class="tdr bl">02.87</td><td class="tdr bl">04.58</td><td class="tdr bl">00.40</td><td class="tdr bl">04.15</td><td class="tdr bl">00.54</td><td class="tdr bl">12.54</td><td class="tdr bl br">202,289</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">32</td><td class="tdr bl">1.6</td><td class="tdr bl">129.5</td><td class="tdr bl">31.2</td><td class="tdr bl">12.11</td><td class="tdr bl">06.25</td><td class="tdr bl">00.60</td><td class="tdr bl">06.64</td><td class="tdr bl">00.96</td><td class="tdr bl">26.56</td><td class="tdr bl br">184,083</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">34</td><td class="tdr bl">3.2</td><td class="tdr bl">108.5</td><td class="tdr bl">35.5</td><td class="tdr bl">11.41</td><td class="tdr bl">03.48</td><td class="tdr bl">00.54</td><td class="tdr bl">05.29</td><td class="tdr bl">00.67</td><td class="tdr bl">21.39</td><td class="tdr bl br">107,060</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl"></td><td class="tdr bl">2.5</td><td class="tdr bl">148.1</td><td class="tdr bl">38.5</td><td class="tdr bl">02.31</td><td class="tdr bl">04.98</td><td class="tdr bl">00.48</td><td class="tdr bl">05.97</td><td class="tdr bl">00.55</td><td class="tdr bl">14.29</td><td class="tdr bl br">2,722,027</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl br"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="p2" />
+<p>The master car-builder has charge of the shops where cars are
+built and repaired, and of the car-inspectors who are stationed at
+central and junction points to prevent defective cars being put into
+the trains.</p>
+
+<p>Formerly each railroad used its own cars exclusively, and
+through freights were transferred at every junction point. This involved
+such delay and expense that railroads now generally permit
+all loaded cars to go through to destination without transfer,
+and allow each other a certain sum for the use of cars. Usually
+this is about three-quarters of a cent for each mile which the car
+travels on a foreign road. This involves a great scattering of cars,
+and an extensive organization to keep record of their whereabouts
+and of the accounts between the companies for mileage.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> This organization
+will be referred to more fully in connection with the department
+of transportation. But the joint use of each other's cars<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+makes it necessary that there should be at least enough similarity
+in their construction and their coupling appliances to permit their
+indiscriminate use upon all roads. And conventions of master car-builders
+have recommended certain forms and dimensions as standards,
+which are now in general use.</p>
+
+<p>There is much convenience in this, but one disadvantage. It
+requires almost unanimous action to introduce any change of form
+or of construction, however advantageous it may be. And to secure
+unanimous action in such matters is almost as hard as it would
+be to secure unanimity in a change in the spelling of English words.
+Still there is progress, though slow, toward several desirable reforms,
+the most important of which is the adoption of a standard
+automatic coupler (see <a href="#Page_142">p. 142</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Having shown how the property of all kinds is kept in efficient
+condition, we next come to its operation. This is called "conducting
+transportation," and the officer in charge is usually called
+the superintendent of transportation. All train-despatchers, conductors,
+train-men, and telegraph operators are under his immediate
+control. He makes all schedules and provides all extra and
+irregular service that the traffic department makes requisition for,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
+himself calling upon the superintendent of machinery for the necessary
+locomotives, switching engines, and cars. It is his especial
+province to handle all trains as swiftly as possible, and to see that
+there are no collisions. It is impossible to detail fully the safeguards
+and precautions used to this end, but the general principles
+observed are as follows:</p>
+
+<p>First, a general time-table or schedule is carefully made out for
+all regular trains upon each division, showing on one sheet the
+time of each train at each station.</p>
+
+<p>This schedule is all that is needed so long as all trains are able
+to keep on time, and there are no extras. Trouble begins when
+regular trains cannot keep on schedule, or when extra trains have
+to be sent out, not provided for on the schedule. A diagram,
+or graphic representation of this schedule, upon a board or large
+sheet of paper, is an important feature of the office regulating
+train-movements. Twenty-four vertical lines divide the board into
+equal spaces representing the twenty-four hours of the day, numbered
+from midnight to midnight. Horizontal lines at proportionate
+distances from the top represent the stations in their order between
+the termini, represented by the top and bottom lines of the
+diagram. The course of every train can now be plotted on this
+diagram in an oblique line joining the points on each station line
+corresponding to the time the train arrives at and leaves that station.
+The cut on the opposite page will illustrate. It represents a
+road 130 miles long from A to N, with intermediate stations B, C,
+D, etc., at different distances from each other, and six trains are
+shown as follows:</p>
+
+<p>A passenger train, No. 1, leaving A at 12 midnight and arriving
+at N at 4.05 <span class="fs70">A.M.</span> A fast express, No. 2, leaving N at 12.45
+and arriving at A at 3.30. A local passenger train, No. 4, which
+leaves N at 1.15, runs to E by 4 <span class="fs70">A.M.</span>, stops there until 4.10, and
+returns to N by 7 <span class="fs70">A.M.</span>; being called No. 3 on the return, as the
+direction is always indicated by the train-number's being odd or
+even. No. 5 is a way freight, leaving A at 12.05 and making long
+stops at each station. No. 6 is an opposing train of the same
+character.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_161.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Diagram Used in Making Railway Time-Tables.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_162a.jpg" width="250" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A lamp swung across the track is the signal to stop.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The diagram shows at a glance how, when, and where all these
+trains meet and pass each other, and where every train is at any
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
+moment. Should it be desired to
+send an extra train at any time,
+a line drawn or a string stretched
+on the board will indicate what
+opposing trains must be guarded
+against. For instance, to send
+an extra through in three hours,
+leaving A between 1 and 2 <span class="fs70">A.M.</span>,
+a trial line will show that Nos. 5,
+2, 4, and 6 must all be met or
+passed, and as (on a single-track
+road) this can only be done at
+stations, the extra must leave at
+1.35 <span class="fs70">A.M.</span>, pass No. 5 at E, meet
+No. 2 at F, No. 4 at I, and No.
+6 at J. A dotted line on the diagram
+indicates its run, and that
+No. 2 is held at F for 5 minutes
+to let it pass. If the road is
+double-tracked, only trains going
+in the same direction need be
+regarded.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_162b.jpg" width="250" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A lamp raised and lowered vertically is<br />the signal to
+move ahead.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>But the more usual way of
+handling extra trains, when circumstances
+will permit, is to let
+them precede or follow a regular
+train upon the same schedule.
+The train is then said to be run
+in "sections," and a ten minutes'
+interval is allowed between them.
+That opposing trains may be informed,
+the leading section (and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
+when there are more than two
+all but the last) wears on its locomotive
+two green flags by day
+and two green lights by night,
+indicating that a train follows
+which is to be considered as a
+part of the train leading, and
+having the same rights.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_163a.jpg" width="250" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A lamp swung vertically in a circle across the track,<br />when
+the train is standing, is the signal to move back.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>So far the rules are very simple,
+and they would be all that is
+necessary if all trains could always
+be kept exactly on time.
+But as that cannot be, provision
+must be made for all the complications
+which will result. The
+first and most important rule is
+that no train must ever, under
+any circumstances, run <em>ahead</em> of
+time. The next is that any train
+making a stop not on its schedule
+must immediately send out flagmen
+with red flags, lights, and
+torpedoes to protect it. This
+rule is a very difficult one to enforce
+without rigid discipline, and
+its neglect is the cause of a large
+percentage of the accidents "that
+will happen." The flagman who
+must go to the rear, often a half-mile,
+at night, across trestles and
+in storms, must frequently be left
+behind, to take his chances of
+getting home by being picked
+up by a following train. There
+is no one to watch him, and he
+will often take chances, and not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
+go as far back or as fast as he should; and if all goes well no one
+is ever the wiser.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_163b.jpg" width="250" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A lamp swung vertically in a circle at arm's length<br /> across
+the track, when the train is running,<br />is the signal that
+the train has parted.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now, when a train is prevented from arriving on time at its
+meeting-point, we must have some rules by which the opposing
+train may proceed, or all business on the road would be suspended
+by the delay of a single train. Only the general principles of these
+rules can be stated within limits. They are as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. All freight trains must wait indefinitely for all passenger
+trains.</p>
+
+<p>2. When one train only is behind time, the opposing train
+of the same class will wait for it a specified time, usually ten
+minutes, and five minutes more for possible variation of watches,
+then go ahead, keeping fifteen minutes behind its schedule.</p>
+
+<p>3. But should such a train, running on delayed time, lose
+more time, or in any other way should both trains get behind time,
+then the one which is bound in a certain direction&mdash;for instance,
+north&mdash;has the right to the track, and the other must lie by indefinitely.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span><br />
+   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_165.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The General Despatcher.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>These principles, duly observed, will prevent collisions, but they
+will often cause trains to lose a great deal of time. The train-despatcher,
+therefore, has authority to handle extra and delayed
+trains by direct telegraphic order. Every possible precaution is
+taken to insure that such orders are received and correctly understood.
+As there are great advantages following uniformity of
+usages and rules among connecting roads, after years of conference,
+in conventions and by committees, approved forms of all running
+rules and signals have recently been adopted and are now in very
+general use over the United States. Yet, in spite of all possible
+precautions, accidents will sometimes happen. Richard Grant
+White gave a name to a mental habit which, in train-despatchers,
+has caused many fatal accidents. It is "heterophemy," or
+thinking one thing while saying, hearing, or reading another. A
+case within my knowledge, which cost a dozen lives, was as follows:
+Two opposing trains were out of time, and the train-despatcher
+wished to have them meet and pass at a certain station
+we will call "I," as Nos. 1 and 2 are represented as doing on the
+diagram (see diagram of schedule board, <a href="#Page_161">p. 161</a>). So he telegraphed
+the following message, to be delivered to No. 1 at "H"
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
+and to No. 2 at "J": "Nos. 1 and 2 will meet at 'I.'" This message
+was correctly received at "J" and delivered to No. 2. But at
+"H" the operator had just sold a passenger a ticket to "K," and,
+getting this name in his head, he wrote out the message: "Nos. 1
+and 2 will meet at 'K.'" But the mistake was not yet past correction.
+The operator had to repeat the message back to the despatcher,
+that the latter might be sure it was correctly understood.
+He repeated it as he had written it&mdash;"K." But the despatcher
+was also "heterophemous." He <em>saw</em> "K," but he <em>thought</em> "I,"
+and replied to the operator that the message was O. K.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_167.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Entrance Gates at a Large Station.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>So it was delivered to No. 1, and that train left "H" at full
+speed, expecting to run thirty-five miles to "K" before meeting
+No. 2. There was no telegraph office at "I," and there were no
+passengers to get off or on, and it passed there without stopping,
+and three miles below ran into No. 2 on a curve.</p>
+
+<p>By one of those strange impulses which seem to come from
+some unconscious cerebration, the train-despatcher meanwhile had
+a feeling that something was wrong, and looked again at the message
+received from "H" and discovered his mistake. But the
+trains were then out of reach. He still hoped that No. 2 might arrive
+at "I" first, or that they might meet upon a straight portion
+of road, and as the time passed he waited at the instrument in a
+state of suspense which may be imagined. When the news came
+he left the office, and never returned.</p>
+
+<p>Double tracks make accidents of this character impossible; but
+introduce a new possibility, that a derailment from any cause upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+one track may obstruct the
+other track so closely ahead
+of an opposing train that
+no warning can be given.</p>
+
+<div class="sandbagbox" id="img168">
+ <div id="i168b1">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i168b2">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<div class="center fs70">Central Switch and Signal Tower.</div>
+
+<p>Where trains become
+very numerous additional
+safeguards are added by multiplying telegraph stations at short intervals,
+and giving them conspicuous signals of semaphore arms and
+lanterns, until finally the road is divided into a number of so-called
+"blocks" of a few miles each; and no train is permitted to enter
+any block until the train preceding has passed out. And in the
+approaches to some of our great depots, where trains and tracks are
+multiplied and confused with cross-overs and switching service, all
+switches are set and all movements controlled by signals from a single
+central tower. Sometimes, by very expensive and complicated
+apparatus, it is made mechanically impossible to open a track for the
+movement of a train without previously locking all openings by which
+another train might interfere. The illustrations on pages 169, 171,
+and above will serve to give some general idea of these appliances.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
+</div>
+
+
+    <div class="HandHeld">
+    <div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_168.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+    <div class="caption">Central Switch and Signal Tower.</div>
+    </div>
+
+    <p>Where trains become
+    very numerous additional
+    safeguards are added by multiplying telegraph stations at short intervals,
+    and giving them conspicuous signals of semaphore arms and
+    lanterns, until finally the road is divided into a number of so-called
+    "blocks" of a few miles each; and no train is permitted to enter
+    any block until the train preceding has passed out. And in the
+    approaches to some of our great depots, where trains and tracks are
+    multiplied and confused with cross-overs and switching service, all
+    switches are set and all movements controlled by signals from a single
+    central tower. Sometimes, by very expensive and complicated
+    apparatus, it is made mechanically impossible to open a track for the
+    movement of a train without previously locking all openings by which
+    another train might interfere. The illustrations on pages 169, 171,
+    and above will serve to give some general idea of these appliances.<a name="FNanchor_17_17h" id="FNanchor_17_17h"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
+    </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span><br />
+   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_169.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Mantua Junction, West Philadelphia, showing a Complex System of Interlacing Tracks.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There remains one other branch of the duties of the master of
+transportation&mdash;the proper daily distribution of cars to every station
+according to its needs, and the keeping record of their whereabouts.
+And now that the gauges of all roads are similar, and
+competition enforces through shipments, roads are practically making
+common property of each other's cars, and the detail and
+trouble of keeping record of them become enormous.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_171.jpg" width="500" height="586" alt="" />
+<div class="caption"><p>Interior of a Switch-tower, showing the Operation of Interlocking Switches.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The records are made up from daily reports, by every conductor,
+of every car, home or foreign, handled in his train, and from
+every station-agent of all cars in his yard at certain hours. From
+these returns the car accountant reports to their respective owners
+all movements of foreign cars and gives the transportation department
+information where cars are lying. The honesty of each
+other's reports concerning car movements is generally relied upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+by railroads, but "lost car agents" are kept travelling to hunt up
+estrays, and to watch how the cars of their roads are being handled.</p>
+
+<p>It has been suggested that a great step in advance would be to
+have all the roads in the United States unite and put all cars
+into a common stock and let them be distributed, record kept of
+movements, and mileage paid through a general clearing house.
+This would practically form a single rolling-stock company owned
+by the roads contributing their cars to it. It could gradually introduce
+uniform patterns of construction, improved couplers, and
+air-brakes, and could concentrate cars in different sections of the
+country in large numbers as different crops required movement,
+thus avoiding the blockades which often occur in one section while
+cars are superabundant in another. Consolidations usually render
+more efficient and cheaper service than separate organizations can
+do, and this may come about in the course of time.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p>
+
+<p>We have now seen how the road is maintained and its trains
+safely handled. The next step in order is to see how business is
+secured and the rates to be charged are fixed. This department
+may be controlled by a traffic manager, with two assistants&mdash;the
+general freight agent and the general passenger agent&mdash;or the officers
+may report directly to the general manager without the intervention
+of a traffic manager. But it would be a more accurate expression
+to say, not that these officers "fix" the rates, for if they
+did few railroads would ever fail, but that they accept and announce
+the rates that are fixed by conditions of competition between different
+markets and products, and between different railroads and water
+lines. Among these complex forces a railroad freight agent is
+nearly as powerless to regulate rates as a professor of grammar is
+to regulate the irregularities of English verbs. He can accept them
+and use them, or he may let them alone, but the irregularities will
+remain, all the same. There is no eccentricity, for example, more
+idiotic or indefensible to the ordinary citizen than a habit railroads
+have of sometimes charging less money for a long haul than they
+charge for a shorter haul. Yet I believe there is not a railroad
+line in the United States which will not be found guilty of this apparent
+folly of charging "less for the long haul" if its rates to distant
+points are followed far enough. For if followed far enough we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
+shall come to the ocean, and find the railroad accepting business
+between two seaports. For instance, all railroads running westward
+from New York through some of their connections finally
+reach San Francisco, and compete for freight between these ports.
+But the rates they are able to obtain are limited by steamers using
+the ocean for a highway, and sailing vessels using the wind for
+motive power, and able to carry heavy freights at one-tenth the
+average cost to railroads across mountains and deserts. This
+average cost must fix the average rates charged by the railroads
+to intermediate points, such as to Ogden, in Utah. So the railroad
+must either charge less for the long haul to San Francisco, or leave
+that business to be done solely by water. Yet it may be profitable
+to the railroad to accept the business at such rates as it can obtain;
+for, as in all business ventures, manufacturing or mercantile, <em>new</em>
+business can be profitably added at less than the average cost.
+And if profitable to the railroad its tendency is beneficial, even to
+the intermediate points which pay higher rates, as promoting better
+service, besides being advantageous to the whole Pacific Coast in
+tending to keep down the rates by water.</p>
+
+<p>But it would lead too far from our subject to follow this and
+several other questions which are suggested by it. Only it may
+be said briefly that the original Interstate Commerce Bill, introduced
+by Mr. Reagan, absolutely prohibited "less for the long
+haul." The Senate amended by adding "under similar circumstances
+and conditions," and the Interstate Commerce Commission
+has held that "water competition" makes dissimilar circumstances
+and thus legalizes it.</p>
+
+<p>And in this connection it may be added that the other Senate
+amendment to the Reagan bill, creating an Interstate Commerce
+Commission, was, next to the above amendment, the wisest measure
+of the bill. It forms a body of experts whose opinions and
+decisions must gradually educate the public, on the one hand, to a
+better understanding of transportation problems, and restrain the
+railroads, on the other, from many of the abuses incident to unchecked
+competition among them. For, however theorists may
+differ as to the advantages or disadvantages of competition in manufactures
+and commerce, either absolutely unchecked or checked
+only by high or low tariffs, I think all will agree that unchecked<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
+<em>railroad</em> competition is a great evil, because it results in fluctuating
+rates and private rebates to large shippers. The rebates, to be
+sure, are forbidden by law, but they can be disguised past recognition.
+I have known a case, for instance, where a receipt was
+given for 75 barrels of whiskey, when only 73 were shipped. The
+shipper was to make claim for two barrels lost and be paid an agreed
+value as a rebate on his freight bill. In another case, a road
+agreed with a certain shipper to pay his telegraph bills for a certain
+period in order to control his shipments. Understating the weight
+or class of the shipment is another common device for undercharging
+or rebating.</p>
+
+<p>In nearly every foreign country there is either a railroad pool
+or a division of territory, to prevent this sort of competition, which
+is only pernicious. A merchant needs to feel assured that rates
+are stable and uniform to all, and not that he must go shopping for
+secret rates, in order to be on an equality with his competitor.
+In the United States the railroads had largely resorted to pools
+before the Interstate Commerce Law forbade them. The result
+of this prohibition has generally been very advantageous to the
+best lines, which, under the pool, really paid a sort of blackmail to
+the poorer lines to maintain rates. If the penalties of the law can
+restrain such lines from rebating and under-billing, to be rid of the
+pool will be a great blessing to the well-located roads. If not,
+then the roads will be driven into consolidation, for the end of
+fighting will be bankruptcy and sale. Fortunately consolidation
+has already gone so far in many sections of the country that the
+difficulties of abolishing rebates have been greatly reduced. And
+as far as it has gone it has proved of much advantage both to the
+public and to the stockholders.</p>
+
+<p>Fortunately, too, the other results attendant upon consolidation
+have been sufficiently demonstrated to remove any intelligent fear
+of extortion in rates or deterioration of service. Who would to-day
+desire to undo the consolidations which have built up the
+Pennsylvania Railroad or the New York Central, and call back to
+life the numberless small companies which preceded them? The
+country has outgrown such service as they could render, and the
+local growth and development along the lines of these consolidated
+companies certainly indicates improved conditions. In this con<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>nection,
+too, the improvement in cost and character of service is
+instructive. In 1865 the average rate per ton per mile on the principal
+Eastern lines was about 2.900 cents; in 1887 it was 0.718
+for a service twice as speedy and efficient.</p>
+
+<p>There are many other live issues of great interest and importance
+in transportation suggested by this subject, such as "re-billing"
+or "milling in transit," and "differentials," but space forbids
+more than an explanation of the meaning of these two especially
+prominent ones.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<br />
+A<span class="pad10">B</span><span class="pad10">C</span><br />
+<hr class="chapa" />
+<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>Let A B and B C be two railroads connecting at B. Let the
+local rates A to B be 10 cents per 100 lbs. on grain, and B to C
+also 10 cents. Let the through rate A to C be 18, since longest
+hauls are usually cheapest per mile. Let A be a large grain market,
+such as Chicago. Now a merchant at C can save 2 cents per
+100 lbs. by buying direct from A instead of buying from a merchant
+at B. For the grain will pay less for the single long haul
+than for the two short hauls. But perhaps the town of B has for
+many years enjoyed the trade of C, and there are large mills and
+warehouses erected there. B will then say it is "discriminated
+against," and will demand the privilege of "re-billing" or "milling
+in transit." That is to say, when a merchant or miller at B
+ships to C grain, or flour made of grain, which he received from A,
+the two roads consent to make a new way-bill and treat the shipment
+as a through shipment from A to C. The road B C charges
+but 8 cents, and the road A B gives B C one cent from the 10 it
+originally collected. This involves much trouble and a loss of revenue
+to the roads, and is, apparently, a discrimination against the
+home products of B, but roads frequently do it where there is competition
+at C by rival lines, and also at local points along their lines
+to build up mills, distilleries, and factories of all kinds in competition
+with those located elsewhere. As yet the Interstate Commerce
+Commission has not pronounced upon this practice.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_176.jpg" width="275" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The question of differentials is as follows: Suppose there are
+three lines, B, D, and E, between the cities A and C (Diagram,
+<a href="#Page_176">page 176</a>). B, being the shortest, will get most of the business when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
+rates are the same (10 cents, for instance) by each line. But D
+and E insist upon participating, so they demand that B shall allow
+them to operate lower or "differential"
+rates&mdash;that is, B must
+maintain his rate at 10 while allowing
+D to charge only 8 and
+E 6 cents, on account of their
+disadvantages. So that a differential is practically a premium
+offered for business by an inferior line.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing will illustrate how the rivalry of railroads with
+each other complicates the making of rates. But even more difficult
+to manage is the rivalry of markets, and of products, and of
+new methods which threaten property invested in old methods; as,
+for instance, the dressed-beef traffic from the West threatens the
+investments in slaughter-houses and stock-yards in the East.</p>
+
+<p>As the roads have found it necessary to act together in establishing
+running rules and regulations, so, in spite of all rivalries,
+there must also be joint agreements reached in some way concerning
+rates. Usually the roads serving a certain territory form an
+"association," and their freight agents form "rate committees,"
+which fix and publish joint rates. A tariff published by one of the
+trunk lines from the Eastern cities forms a good example. As the
+result of many long and bitter wars and many compromises, it has
+been agreed among these roads that the rates from New York to
+Chicago shall form a basis for all other rates, and a scale has been
+fixed showing the percentage of the Chicago rate to be used as
+the rate to each important point in the West. Thus Pittsburgh,
+Pa., is 60 per cent. of Chicago rate; Indianapolis is 93; Vandalia,
+116. The tariff above referred to gives an alphabetical list of some
+5,000 towns reached over these roads, and opposite each town the
+figure showing its percentage of the Chicago rate. The list begins
+with Abanaka, O., 90, and ends with Zoar, O., 74.</p>
+
+<p>The tariff next gives what is called the "Trunk Line Classification,"
+which is a list comprising every article known to commerce,
+in all the different conditions, shapes, and packages in which it is
+offered for transportation, and opposite each article is given its assigned
+"class." This particular classification assigns every article
+to one of six regular, or two special, classes, and the present rates<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
+to Chicago in cents per 100 lbs. are given as 75, 65, 50, 35, 30, 25,
+26, 21. The list of articles begins with Acetate of Lime, in car-loads,
+5th class; in less quantities, 4th; and ends with Zinc, in various
+forms from 1st to 6th&mdash;comprising in all nearly 6,000 articles.
+From these tables any desired rate readily appears. Thus, 500
+pounds of acetate of lime would cost, from New York to Zoar, O.,
+74 per cent. of Chicago's 4th class rate, or 74 per cent. of 35&mdash;say,
+26 cents per 100 lbs., or $1.30.</p>
+
+<p>There is also given in the tariff pamphlet a list of some 300
+manufacturing towns in New England, from each of which the same
+rates apply as from New York. So, on the whole, the pamphlet
+gives rates on about 6,000 articles from 300 points of origin to
+5,000 destinations.</p>
+
+<p>In different sections of the country different classifications are
+in use, some of them embracing twenty or more classes, and allowing
+finer shades of difference between articles according to their
+value, bulk, or many other varying conditions which determine the
+class into which each article is put.</p>
+
+<p>Great efforts have been made to bring about a uniformity of
+classification over the whole United States, and the number of classifications
+in extensive use has been reduced from a very large number
+to perhaps a dozen.</p>
+
+<p>But absolute uniformity cannot be obtained under the widely
+different conditions which prevail in different sections, without great
+loss and sacrifices somewhere. A road, for instance, competing with
+a river or canal must adjust the classification of the particular kinds
+of freight best adapted to river or canal transportation so as to
+secure the traffic in competition with boats. It must almost entirely
+disregard bulk, value, and all other conditions upon which a
+road not affected by this particular kind of competition arranges its
+classification. Uniformity would either force one of them to lose
+a legitimate business, or the other to reduce reasonable rates.</p>
+
+<p>These rates and classifications are the battle-ground for all the
+innumerable rivalries of trade and commerce. Every city is here
+at war with every other city, every railroad with every other road,
+every industry with those which rival it, and every individual shipper
+is a skirmisher for a little special rate, or advantage, all to himself.
+State legislatures and commissions, Congress, and the Inter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>state
+Commerce Commission are the heavy artillery which different
+combatants manage to bring into the contest. On these rates
+probably a million dollars are collected every day, yet it is very
+rarely that the <em>positive</em> rates are fought over or complained of.
+Their average is considerably below that of the average rates of
+any other country in the world, even though other nations have
+cheaper labor and denser populations. Fifty cents for carrying a
+barrel of flour a thousand miles cannot be called exorbitant, and, indeed,
+the retail prices paid for bread and clothing would probably
+not be reduced in the slightest were the transportation of all such
+articles absolutely free. But the battle is over the <em>comparative</em>
+rates to different points, over different routes, and for different commodities.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+<p>Passenger rates are established in much the same manner as
+freight rates. There are passenger-agents' associations and conventions,
+and they fight as do the freight men over comparative
+rates and differentials, and commissions to agents. The last within
+a few years has been a fearful abuse, and is not yet entirely
+abolished. This will illustrate:</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_179.jpg" width="275" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The road A B has two connections, C and D, to reach E. It
+sells tickets over each at the same rate, and stands neutral between
+them. But C agrees with A's ticket-seller that he will give him a
+dollar for every ticket he can sell over C's line. D finds that he is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>
+losing travel, and offers, privately, a larger commission. Neither
+knows what the other is doing. The ticket-seller gets his regular
+salary from A, and from C and
+D often enormous sums as commissions,
+and is interested, not
+in sending ignorant travellers over the line which might suit them
+best, but over the one paying him the largest secret commission.
+This should be held as against public policy, because it tends to
+prevent reductions in rates to the public by robbing the roads of
+much of their revenue, and it also demoralizes the officers who
+handle a business which is practically but the giving away of large
+sums of money as bribes.</p>
+
+<p>There is another practice in the passenger business which is
+unfair at the best and is the source of many abuses. It is charging
+the same to the man with no baggage as to the man with a Saratoga
+trunk. If the baggage service were specially organized as a
+trunk express, it could be more efficiently handled and without any
+"baggage smashing," while the total cost of travelling to persons
+with baggage would be no more than at present, and to those
+without, much less.</p>
+
+<p>As an illustration of the sort of abuses to which it is now liable,
+I may cite a single case. I have known a merchant buy a lot of
+twenty trunks for his trade, pack them all full of dry-goods, check
+them to a city 1,000 miles away by giving a few dollars to baggage-men,
+and himself buy a single ticket and go by a different route.
+The roads which handled that baggage imagined that it belonged
+to their passengers, and were never the wiser. While the baggage
+service is free, no efficient checks can be provided against such frauds.</p>
+
+<p>Essential parts of both freight and passenger departments are
+the soliciting agents. They are like the cavalry pickets and scouts
+of an army, scattered far and wide over the country and looking
+after the interests of their lines, making personal acquaintances of
+all shippers and travellers, advertising in every possible manner,
+and reporting constantly all that the enemy&mdash;the rival lines&mdash;are
+doing, and often a great deal that they are not. For the great
+railroad wars usually begin in local skirmishes brought on by the
+zeal of these pickets when the officers in command would greatly
+prefer to live in peace.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Besides their receipts from freight and passenger traffic, railroads
+derive revenue also from the transportation of mails and express
+freight on passenger trains, from the sleeping-car companies,
+and from news companies for the privilege of selling upon trains.
+Of the total revenue about 70 per cent. is usually derived from
+freight, 25 per cent. from passengers, and 5 per cent. from mail, express,
+sleeping-cars, and privileges. When it is considered that
+high speed involves great risks and necessitates a far more perfect
+roadway, more costly machinery and appliances, and a higher grade
+and a greater number of employees, the fast passenger, mail, and
+express traffic hardly seems at present to yield its due proportion
+of income.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>We have now followed the line of organization and management
+through the physical maintenance of the road and rolling
+stock, the safe handling of the trains, the establishment of rates,
+and solicitation of business. It only remains to show how the revenue
+is collected, how the expenses of operation are paid, and all
+statistics of the business prepared. These duties are usually united
+under charge of an officer called the comptroller, general auditor,
+or some equivalent title. His principal subordinates, whose duties
+are indicated by their titles, are the auditor of receipts, auditor of
+disbursements, local treasurer, paymaster, and clerk of statistics.</p>
+
+<p>The record of a single shipment of freight will illustrate methods,
+so far as limits will permit. A shipper sending freight for shipment
+sends with each dray-load a "dray ticket" in duplicate, showing
+the articles, weight, marks, and destination. If he has prepaid
+the freight, or advanced any charges which are to be paid at destination,
+it is also noted on the dray ticket. When the drayman
+reaches the outbound freight depot with his load, he is directed to
+a certain spot where all freight for the same destination is being
+collected for loading. A receiving clerk checks off his load against
+the duplicate dray tickets, keeps one and files it, and gives the
+drayman the other, receipted. In case of any loss arising afterward,
+the original dray ticket, made by the shipper himself, with
+his marks and instructions, becomes a valuable record. When the
+entire shipment has been delivered at the loading point, the shipper
+takes the dray tickets representing it to the proper desk, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+receives "a bill of lading." This bill of lading is made in triplicate.
+The original and a duplicate are given to the shipper. He keeps
+the last and sends the former to the consignee. It represents the
+obligation of the railroad to transport and deliver the articles named
+on it to the person named, or his assignee. It is negotiable, and
+banks advance money upon it. But the shipper may still, by a
+legal process, have the goods stopped <em>en route</em> should occasion
+arise, as, for instance, by the bankruptcy of the consignee. The
+goods are also liable for garnishments in certain cases, and there
+is much railroad and commercial law which it behooves the officials
+interested to be well posted in. When the goods arrive at destination
+the possession of the bill of lading is the evidence of the
+consignee's right to receive them.</p>
+
+<p>Now we will return to the shipment itself and see how it is
+taken care of. The whole structure of the system of collecting
+freight revenue, holding accountable all agents who assess it and
+collect it, dividing it in the agreed proportions between all the railroads,
+boats, bridges, wharves, and transfer companies who may
+handle it in its journeys, even across the continent, and the tabulating
+of the immense mass of statistics which are kept to show, separately,
+the quantities of freight of every possible class and variety,
+by every possible route, and to and from every possible point of
+destination and departure&mdash;all this system, neither the magnitude
+nor the minute elaboration of which can be adequately described
+within limits, is founded upon a paper called the way-bill.</p>
+
+<p>The theory of the way-bill is that no car must move without
+one accompanying it, describing it by its number and the initials of
+the road owning it, and showing its points of departure and destination,
+its entire contents, with marks and weights of each package,
+consignors and consignees, freight and charges prepaid or to
+be collected at destination, and the proportion of the same due to
+each carrier or transfer in the line. And not only must a way-bill
+accompany the car, but a duplicate of it must be sent immediately
+and directly, by the office making the original, to the office of the
+auditor of freight receipts. If the railroad is a member of any association,
+as the Trunk Line Association in New York, another duplicate
+is sent to its office, that it may supervise all rates, and see
+what each road is doing. The sum of all the way-bills is the total<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>
+of a road's freight business. To facilitate taking copies they are
+printed with an ink which will give several impressions on strong,
+thin tissue-paper, forming "soft copies," while the "hard copy," or
+original, goes with the freight to be checked against it when the
+car is unloaded.</p>
+
+<p>And while the original way-bill fulfils its important function of
+conducting the freight to destination and delivery, the duplicate
+which was forwarded directly to the auditor of freight receipts has
+no less important purposes. It is the initial record that freight
+has been earned, and it shows which agent of the company has
+been charged with its collection. Before making any entries from
+it its absolute correctness must be assured. For this purpose all
+its figures are first checked by a rate-clerk, who is kept constantly
+supplied by the traffic department with all current rates, classifications,
+and percentage tables by which through freights are divided.
+These way-bills, coming in daily by hundreds and thousands, are
+then the grist upon which the office of the auditor of receipts
+grinds, and from which come forth the accounts with every agent,
+showing his debits for freight received, and the consolidations
+showing the freight earnings of the road. Agents remit the moneys
+they collect direct to the treasurer, who makes daily reports
+of the credits due to each one. A travelling auditor visits every
+station at irregular intervals and checks the agent's accounts, requiring
+him to justify any difference between his debits and credits
+by an exhibit of undelivered freight.</p>
+
+<p>The passenger earnings are obtained from daily reports by all
+conductors of their collections, and by all ticket-sellers of tickets
+sold. These reports are also checked by a passenger rate-clerk,
+and the travelling auditor frequently examines and verifies the
+tickets reported by agents as on hand unsold.</p>
+
+<p>After the auditor of receipts has finished with the way-bills and
+ticket reports, they go to the statistical department, where are
+prepared the great mass and variety of statistics required by different
+officers to keep themselves thoroughly posted on the growth
+or decrease of business of every variety, and from and to every
+market reached by the road. Finally, the way-bills are filed away
+for reference in case of claims for overcharges, or lost or damaged
+goods.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The auditor of disbursements has supervision of all expenditures
+of money, which is only paid out by the paymaster or treasurer
+upon vouchers and pay-rolls approved by proper authority.
+The vouchers and pay-rolls then form the grist upon which his
+office works, and from which are produced the credits to be given
+all officers and agents who disburse money, and the classified
+records of expenses, and comparison of the same with previous
+months and years, and between different divisions.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>I have thus outlined the skeleton of a railroad organization,
+and suggested briefly the relations between its most important
+parts, and some of the principles upon which its work is conducted.
+The scheme of authority is outlined in the diagram on
+<a href="#Page_185">page 185</a>. But space is utterly lacking to clothe the skeleton with
+flesh and go into the innumerable details and adjustments involved
+in the economical and efficient discharge of all of its
+functions.</p>
+
+<p>It seems a very simple matter for a railroad to place a barrel of
+flour in a car, to carry it to its destination, and to collect fifty cents
+for the service. It is done apparently so spontaneously that even
+the fifty cents may seem exorbitant, and I have actually heard appeals
+for free transportation on the ground that the cars were
+going anyhow. So it also seems a very simple matter for a man
+to pick up a stone and place it on a wall. But this simple act involves
+in the first place the existence of a bony frame, with joints,
+sinews, and muscles, sustained by a heart, lungs, and digestive
+system, with eyes to see, a brain to direct, nerves to give effect to
+the will-power, and a thousand delicate adjustments of organs and
+functions without which all physical exertion would soon cease.
+Similarly, a railroad organized to respond efficiently to all the
+varied demands upon it as a common carrier, by the public, and
+as an investment by its owners, becomes almost a living organism.
+That the barrel of flour may be safely delivered and the fifty cents
+reach the company's treasury, and a part of it the stockholder's
+pocket, the whole organization outlined in the diagram must thrill
+with life, and every officer and employee, from president to car-greaser,
+must discharge his special functions. All must be coordinated,
+and the organization must have and use its eyes and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>
+its ears, its muscle, its nerves, and its brain. It must immediately
+feel and respond to every demand of our rapidly advancing
+civilization.</p>
+
+<p>Each road usually has its own individuality and methods, and
+its employees are animated with an <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">esprit de corps</i>, as are the soldiers
+in an army. There is much about the service that is attractive,
+and, on the whole, the wages paid railroad employees are
+probably in excess of the rates for similar talent in any other industry,
+although labor in every other industry in the United
+States is protected by high tariffs, while in this it is under the
+incubus of legislation as oppressive as constitutional limits will
+permit.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span></p>
+
+    <div class="screenonly">
+<div class="center fs70">
+<table class="org" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="99%" summary="">
+<tr><th class="wd20"></th><th class="wd3"></th><th class="wd25"></th><th class="wd25"></th><th class="wd25"></th><th></th></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc medium smcap" colspan="3">President &nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc"></td><td></td><td class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bt bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><em>Secretary and Treasurer</em></td><td class="tdc" colspan="3"><em>General Manager</em></td><td class="tdr"><em>General&nbsp;Counsel</em></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl bt">&nbsp;</td><td class="bt">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bt">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Auditor of Receipts</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Auditor&nbsp;of&nbsp;Disbursements</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Comptroller&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&ndash;</td><td class="tdl">&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Travelling Auditor</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Local Treasurers</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Local Paymasters</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Clerk of Statistics</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Purchasing Agent&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl">&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Local Storekeepers</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">&mdash;Receiving Clerks and Laborers</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">&mdash;Loading Clerks and Laborers</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">&mdash;Billing Clerks</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl btx blx"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Station Agents&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">&mdash;Discharging Clerks and Laborers</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl blx"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Delivery Clerks</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Superintendent of </td><td class="tdl blx"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Collectors</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Yard Engines</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">Transportation&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl blx"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Yard Master&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Switchmen</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Brakemen</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Train Despatchers</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Train Master&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Operators</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Conductors</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Trainmen</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Division</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">Superintendents&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl">&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl "></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Engine Runners</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Firemen</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Foreman</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Hostelers and</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdr bl">Machine Shop&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; Cleaners</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Mechanics</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Laborers</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Superintendent of</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">Machinery&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl">&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Master Mechanic&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Car Inspectors</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Foreman</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Greasers</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdr">Car Shop&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Mechanics</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Laborers</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Bridge Foremen</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Supervisors of </td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Watchmen</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdr bl">Bridges&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Carpenter Gangs</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Superintendent of </td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Mason Gangs</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr bl">Roadway&mdash;</td><td class="tdl">&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Road Master&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Section Foremen</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Gangs and Track Walkers</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Supervisors of </td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Wood and Water</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">Road&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; Tenders</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Floating Gangs</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Construction Trains</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Car Accountant&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl">&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl">&mdash;Lost Car Agents</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Travelling Agents</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;General Passenger</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Local Agents</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr bl"> Agent&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">&mdash;Rate and Division Clerks</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Traffic Manager&mdash;&mdash;&ndash;</td><td class="tdl">&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Claim Agent</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Travelling Agents</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;General Freight</td><td class="tdl bl">&mdash;Local Agents</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr"> Agent&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">&mdash;Rate and Division Clerks</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="5">Diagram showing the Skeleton of a Railroad Organization, and Lines of Responsibility.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="handonly">
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_185.jpg" width="475" alt="" />
+</div>
+    </div>
+
+<p class="p2" />
+<p>In Europe, where the pooling system practically prevails, the
+service is much more stable than in the United States, and in
+many instances there are pensions and insurances and disability
+funds, and regular rules for promotion and retirement, and provision
+for the children of employees being brought into service in
+preference to outsiders. Such relations between a company and
+its employees as must result from arrangements of this character
+are surely of great benefit to both. They are the natural outgrowth
+of <em>stability of business</em>. Their most advanced form is
+found in France, where each road is practically protected from
+dangerous competition by means of a division of territory. In the
+United States we are still in the midst of a fierce competition for
+territory and business, and, as pooling is forbidden, the railroad
+companies will be in unstable equilibrium until consolidation takes
+place. As that goes on, and large and rich corporations are
+formed, with prospects of stability in management and in business,
+we may hope to see similar relations established between our companies
+and their employees. Already there is a beginning upon
+some of the largest roads, such as the Baltimore &amp; Ohio and the
+Pennsylvania Central. But the ground still needs preparation also
+on the employees' side, for our American spirit is aggressive and
+is sometimes rather disposed to resent, as interfering with its independence,
+any paternal relations with a corporation. And as we
+have before found railroad management in intimate contact with
+every problem of finance and commerce, it is here confronted with
+the social and industrial questions involved in labor unions and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
+problems of co-operation. As to the results, we can only say that,
+as war is destructive, no state of warfare, even between capital and
+labor, can be permanent. Peaceful solutions must prevail in the
+end, and progress toward stability, peace, and prosperity in railroad
+operation and ownership will be progress toward the happy
+solution of many vexed social questions.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> See "How to Feed a Railway," <a href="#Page_302">page 302.</a></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> See "The Freight-car Service," <a href="#Page_275">page 275.</a></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Of course, this "stringing" of an extra train
+is not always done in actual operation. Practice
+and experience will give as wonderful expertness
+to a train-despatcher in handling trains "in his
+head" as to a mathematician in solving problems,
+and often all trains on a road will be handled entirely
+"by order," or as extras. But the example
+given illustrates the principle upon which expert
+practice is based.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a>
+   <span class="screenonly"><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a></span>
+   <span class="handonly"><a href="#FNanchor_17_17h"><span class="label">[17]</span></a></span>
+See "Safety in Railroad Travel," <a href="#Page_204">page 204.</a></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> See "The Freight-car Service," <a href="#Page_288">page 288.</a></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> An idea may be gained of the extent and minuteness of the classification, and of the constant
+changes and adjustments, both of rates and classifications, perpetually going on from the following partial
+list of subjects submitted to a recent meeting of the Rate Committee of the Southern Railway and
+Steamship Association.
+</p>
+<p>
+<span class="smcap">Rates.</span>&mdash;Watermelon rates; canned goods, Richmond to Atlanta; rates on cement from Eastern
+cities to Association territory; rates on sulphuric acid from Atlanta; rates from Atlanta, etc., to California
+and Transcontinental terminals; special iron rates from Cincinnati, etc., to Carolina points;
+rates on earthenware, East Liverpool to S. E. territory; rates on cotton bags to Memphis from Atlanta;
+rates on fertilizers to Mobile, Ala.; beer rates; rates on special iron articles from Chattanooga;
+rates from the West to Camden, S. C.; rates from Evansville and Cairo, on business from points between
+Cairo, Evansville, and Chicago.
+</p>
+<p>
+<span class="smcap">Classification.</span>&mdash;Classification of paper twine; beer packages, empty returned; old machinery
+returned for repairs; steel car springs; cotton softener; iron safes or vaults weighing over 12,000
+lbs.; toys, etc.; portable powder magazines; coffee extract; empty lard tierces returned; bolts and
+nuts in barrels; box and barrel material; glass oil bottles in tin jackets; cast-iron radiators; malleable
+iron castings; dried beef; sausage; straw paper; burlaps; tobacco stems; hinges; straw braids;
+lawn hose reels; excelsior; car-load rates.
+</p>
+<p>
+<span class="smcap">Subjects not on the Regular List.</span>&mdash;Demurrage rules; adjustment of rates as per instructions
+from the Executive Board; rates from Cincinnati to Columbus, Eufaula, Opelika, etc.; classification
+of iron tanks; classification of whiting; rates to Eufaula, Ala., from East; rates to Milledgeville,
+Ga.; classification of cast-iron cane mills; classification of locomotives and tenders.</p></div></div>
+
+
+    <div class="chapter"></div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">SAFETY IN RAILROAD TRAVEL</a></h2>
+
+<p class="pfs90 smcap">By H. G. PROUT.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>The Possibilities of Destruction in the Great Speed of a Locomotive&mdash;The Energy of
+Four Hundred Tons Moving at Seventy-five Miles an Hour&mdash;A Look ahead from a
+Locomotive at Night&mdash;Passengers Killed and Injured in One Year&mdash;Good Discipline
+the Great Source of Safety&mdash;The Part Played by Mechanical Appliances&mdash;Hand-brakes
+on Old Cars&mdash;How the Air brake Works&mdash;The Electric Brake&mdash;Improvements
+yet to be Made&mdash;Engine Driver Brakes&mdash;Two Classes of Signals: those
+which Protect Points of Danger, and those which Keep an Interval between Trains
+on the Same Track&mdash;The Semaphore&mdash;Interlocking Signals and Switches&mdash;Electric
+Annunciators to Indicate the Movements&mdash;The Block Signal System&mdash;Protection for
+Crossings&mdash;Gates and Gongs&mdash;How Derailment is Guarded Against&mdash;Safety Bolts&mdash;Automatic
+Couplers&mdash;The Vestibule as a Safety Appliance&mdash;Car Heating and
+Lighting.</p></div>
+
+
+<div><img class="drop-cap" src="images/i_187dc.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap">In 1829, when Ericsson's little locomotive "Novelty,"
+weighing two and a half tons, ran a short
+distance at the rate of thirty miles an hour, a
+writer of the time said that "it was the most
+wonderful exhibition of human daring and human
+skill that the world had ever seen." To-day
+trains weighing four hundred tons thunder by at
+seventy-five miles an hour, and we hardly note
+their passage. We take their safety as a matter of course, and seldom
+think of the tremendous possibilities of destruction stored up
+in them. But seventy-five miles an hour is one hundred and ten feet
+a second, and the energy of four hundred tons moving at that rate
+is nearly twice as great as that of a 2,000-pound shot fired from a
+100-ton Armstrong gun. This is the extreme of weight and speed
+now reached in passenger service, and, indeed, is very rarely attained,
+and then but for short distances; but sixty miles is a common
+speed, and a rate of forty or fifty miles is attained daily on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
+almost every railroad in the country. We cannot tell from the
+time-tables how fast we travel. The schedule times do not indicate
+the delays that must be made up by spurts between stations.
+The traveller who is curious to know just how fast he is going,
+and likes the stimulus of thinking that he is in a little danger, may
+find amusement in taking the time between mile-posts; and when
+these are not to be seen, he can often get the speed very accurately
+by counting the rails passed in a given time. This may be
+done by listening attentively at an open window or door. The
+regular clicks of the wheels over the rail-joints can usually soon be
+singled out from the other noises, and counted. The number of
+rail-lengths passed in twenty seconds is almost exactly the number
+of miles run in an hour.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span><br />
+   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_189.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Danger Ahead!</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>But if one wants to get a lively sense of what it means to rush
+through space at fifty or sixty miles an hour, he must get on a
+locomotive. Then only does he begin to realize what trifles stand
+between him and destruction. A few months ago a lady sat an
+hour in the cab of a locomotive hauling a fast express train over a
+mountain road. She saw the narrow bright line of the rails and
+the slender points of the switches. She heard the thunder of the
+bridges, and saw the track shut in by rocky bluffs, and new perils
+suddenly revealed as the engine swept around sharp curves. The
+experience was to her magnificent, but the sense of danger was
+almost appalling. To have made her experience complete, she
+should have taken one engine ride in a dark and rainy night. In
+a daylight ride on a locomotive, we come to realize how slender is
+the rail and how fragile its fastenings, compared with the ponderous
+machine which they carry. We see what a trifling movement
+of a switch makes the difference between life and death. We learn
+how short the look ahead must often be, and how close danger
+sits on either hand. But it is only in a night ride that we learn
+how dependent the engineer must be, after all, upon the faithful
+vigilance of others. We lean out of the cab and strain our eyes
+in vain to see ahead. The head-light reveals a few yards of glistening
+rail, and the ghostly telegraph poles and switch targets.
+Were a switch open, a rail taken up, or a pile of ties on the track,
+we could not possibly see the danger in time to stop. The
+friendly twinkle of a signal lamp, shining faintly, red or white, tells
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
+the engineer that the way is blocked or is clear, and he can only
+rush along trusting that no one of a dozen men on whom his life
+depends has made a mistake.</p>
+
+<p>When one reflects upon the destructive energy which is contained
+in a swiftly moving train, and sees its effects in a wreck;
+when he understands how many minute mechanical details, and
+how many minds and hands must work together in harmony to insure
+its safe arrival at its destination, he must marvel at the safety
+of railroad travel. In the year 1887, the passengers killed in train
+accidents in the United States were 207; those injured were 916.
+The employees killed were 406, and injured 890.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> These were in
+train accidents only, it must be remembered, and do not include
+persons killed at crossings, or while trespassing on the track, or
+employees killed and injured making up trains. As will be seen
+later, the casualties in these two classes are much greater than
+those from train accidents. The total passenger movement in
+1887 was equal to one passenger travelling 10,570,306,710 miles.
+That is to say, a passenger might have travelled 51,000,000 miles
+before being killed, or 12,000,000 miles before being injured. Or
+he might travel day and night steadily at the rate of 30 miles an
+hour for 194 years before being killed. Mark Twain would doubtless
+conclude from this that travelling by rail is much the safest
+profession that a man could adopt. It is unquestionably true that
+it is safer than travelling by coach or on horseback, and probably
+it is safer than any other method of getting over the earth's surface
+that man has yet contrived, unless it may be by ocean steamer.
+If one wants anything safer he must walk.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_192a.jpg" width="275" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Stephenson's Steam Driver-brake. Patented 1833.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In considering the means that have been adopted to make railroad
+travel safe, it must be remembered that there are very few
+devices in use that are purely safety appliances. Nearly everything
+used on a railroad has an economic or mechanical value, and
+if it promotes safety that is but part of its duty. The great source
+of safety in railroad working is good discipline. Of all the train
+accidents which have happened in the United States in the last<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>
+sixteen years, nearly ten per cent. were due to negligence in operation,
+and seventeen per cent. were unexplained. Of these no
+doubt many were due to negligence, and many that were attributed
+to defects of track and equipment
+would have been prevented, had
+men done their duty. The value
+of mechanical appliances for safety
+is perhaps as often overrated
+as underrated. Undoubtedly the
+best, and in the long run the
+cheapest, practice will be that
+which combines in the highest
+degree both elements&mdash;disciplined
+intelligence and perfection of mechanical details.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_192b.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Driver-brake on Modern Locomotive.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>First in importance among the mechanisms which demand attention
+here is the brake. From the beginning of railroads the
+necessity for brakes was apparent, and in 1833 Robert Stephenson
+patented a steam driver-brake (the brake on the driving-wheels).
+This was but four years after the Rainhill trials, which settled the
+question of the use of locomotives on the Liverpool &amp; Manchester
+Railroad. This
+early brake contained
+the principle
+of the driver-brake,
+operated
+by steam or air,
+which has in late
+years come into
+wide use. The
+apparatus is so
+simple that the
+cut representing
+it hardly needs
+explanation. Admission
+of steam
+into the cylinder
+raised the piston, which through a lever and rod raised the toggle-joint
+between the brake-blocks and forced them against the treads<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>
+of the wheels. Essentially the same method of applying the retarding
+force can now be seen on most passenger engines, and
+often, but not so commonly, on engines for freight service. For
+various reasons Stephenson's
+driver-brake did not come into
+use.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_193a.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">English Screw-brake, on the Birmingham and Gloucester
+Road, about 1840.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Innumerable devices for car-brakes
+have been invented, but
+they divide themselves into two
+groups: those in which the retarding
+force is applied to the circumference of the wheel, and
+those in which it is applied to the rail. The class of brakes in
+which the retarding force is applied to the rail has been little used,
+although various contrivances have been devised to transfer a portion
+of the weight of the car from the wheels to runners sliding on
+the rails. There are many objections to the principle, and it will
+probably never again be seriously considered by railroad men.
+The apparatus is necessarily heavy, the power required to apply
+it is great, and its action is slow. When brought into action it is
+not as efficient as the brake applied to the tread of the wheels, and
+the transfer of the load increases the chance of derailment.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_193b.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">English Foot-brake on the Truck of a Great Western
+Coach, about 1840.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many different devices have been used to apply the brake-shoes
+to the wheels, and various sources of power. Hand-power
+brakes have been used, worked by
+levers, or by screws, or by winding
+a chain on a staff; or, in still other
+forms, springs wound up by hand
+are released and apply the brakes
+by their pressure. The momentum
+of the train has been employed to wind up chains by the rotation
+of the axles. This is the principle of the chain-brake, very
+much used in England. This same source of power has been utilized
+by causing the drawheads, when thrust in as the cars run together,
+to wind up the brake-chains. Hydraulic pressure has been
+used in cylinders under the cars; and finally air, either under pressure
+or acting against a vacuum, has been found to be the most
+useful of all means of operating train-brakes. Early forms of hand-brakes
+are seen in the illustrations of some old English cars. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span>
+coach shows a hand-brake operated by a screw and system of
+levers. By turning a crank the guard puts in operation the system
+of levers which apply the brake with great force; but the operation
+is slow. The common hand-brake of the United States is too
+well known to need illustration. With this brake a chain is wound
+around the foot of a staff, and the pull of this chain is transmitted
+by a rod to the brake-levers. This apparatus is simple, and when
+a train is manned by a sufficient number of smart brakemen it is
+capable of doing good service. This simple form of hand-brake
+will probably be used in freight-car service until it is replaced by
+air-brakes, and the various forms of chain and momentum brakes
+do not appear likely to be much more used in the future than they
+have been in the past. Therefore, no further space will be given
+to them.</p>
+
+<p>The expression, electric brake, is now often heard, and requires
+a word of explanation. There are various forms of so-called electric
+brakes which are practicable, and even efficient, working devices.
+In none of them, however, does electricity furnish the
+power by which the brakes are applied; it merely puts in operation
+some other power. In one type of electric brake the active
+braking force is taken from an axle of each car. A small friction-drum
+is made fast to the axle. Another friction-drum hung from
+the body of the car swings near the axle. If, when the car is in
+motion, these drums are brought in contact, that one which hangs
+from the car takes motion from the other, and may be made to
+wind a chain on its shaft. Winding in this chain pulls on the
+brake-levers precisely as if it had been wound on the shaft of the
+hand-brake. The sole function of electricity in this form of brake
+is to bring the friction-drums together. In a French brake which
+has been used experimentally for some years with much success,
+an electric current, controlled by the engine-driver, energizes an
+electro-magnet which forms part of the swinging-frame in which the
+loose friction-pulley is carried. This electro-magnet being vitalized,
+is attracted toward the axle, thus bringing the friction-drums
+in contact. In an American brake lately exhibited on a long freight
+train, a smaller electro-magnet is used, but the same end is accomplished
+by multiplying the power by the intervention of a lever and
+wheel. The other type of so-called electric brake is that in which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>
+the motive power is compressed air, and the function of the electric
+device is simply to manipulate the valves under each car, by
+which the air is let into the brake-cylinder or allowed to escape,
+thus putting on or releasing the brakes. All of these devices have
+this advantage, that, whatever the length of the train, the application
+of the brakes is simultaneous on all the wheels, and stops can
+be made from high speed with little shock. Up to two years ago
+it seemed as if this advantage might be a controlling one, and compel
+the introduction of electric brakes for freight service. Since
+then the new "quick-acting" form of the air-brake has been developed,
+by which the brakes are applied on the rear of a fifty-car
+train in two seconds, and there is no longer any necessity to turn
+to other devices. It is doubtful, therefore, if the additional complication
+of electricity is widely introduced into brake mechanism
+for many years, if ever.</p>
+
+<p>It is now universally held that the brake, both for freight and
+for passenger service, must be continuous; that is, it must be applied
+to every wheel of every car of the train from some one point,
+and ordinarily that point must be the engineer's cab. With the
+valve of an efficient continuous brake constantly under his left
+hand, the engine-driver can play with the heaviest and fastest train.
+Without that instrument his work is far more anxious, and much
+less certain.</p>
+
+<p>The continuous brake which to-day prevails all over the world,
+is the automatic air-brake. In the United States much the largest
+part of the rolling stock used in passenger service is equipped
+with the Westinghouse automatic brake. A few roads peculiarly
+situated use the Eames vacuum-brake. That brake is used on the
+elevated roads of New York, and on the Brooklyn bridge roads.
+The Westinghouse brake is also largely used in England, on the
+Continent of Europe, in India, Australia, and South America. In
+the United States it is being rapidly applied to freight cars also.
+This brake, therefore, being the highest development of the automatic
+air-brake, and the one most widely used, will be briefly described,
+as best representing the most approved type of the most
+important of all safety appliances.</p>
+
+<p>The general diagram which is given on pages 196&ndash;97 shows
+all of the principal parts as applied to a locomotive, a tender, and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>
+passenger car. The diagram is reduced from one prepared by
+Mr. M. N. Forney for a new edition of his "Catechism of the
+Locomotive." In the plan view are shown very clearly the hand-wheels,
+the chains, the rods, and the levers by which the brake
+is applied by hand. In passenger service the hand-wheels are
+rarely used, but they are retained for convenience in switching
+cars in the yard, and for those rare emergencies in which the air-brakes
+fail. Under the middle of the car the ordinary pull-rod of
+the old hand-brake is cut and two levers are inserted. One lever
+is connected with the brake-cylinder, and the other with the piston
+which slides in that cylinder. When air is admitted to the
+cylinder the piston is driven out, and the brakes are applied
+exactly as they would be were the chains wound up by turning the
+hand-wheels. Compressed air is supplied to the cylinder from the
+reservoir near it, in which pressure is maintained at from 70 to 80
+pounds per square inch by a pump placed on one side of the locomotive.
+The pump fills the main reservoir on the engine, and also the
+car-reservoirs, by means of the train-pipe which extends under all
+the cars. When the brakes are off there is a full pressure of air in
+all of the car-reservoirs and train-pipes. It is a <em>reduction</em> of the
+pressure in the train-pipes which causes the brakes to be applied.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i_197ab-large.jpg">
+<img src="images/i_197ab.jpg" width="650" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption">Plan and Elevation of Air-brake Apparatus.&mdash;Reservoirs and piping in solid black; brake gear shaded.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This fact must be borne in mind, for it is on this principle that
+the automatic action of the brakes depends. If a train parts, or if
+the air leaks out of the train-pipe, the brakes go on. This automatic
+principle is a vital one in most safety appliances, and it is
+secured in the case of the air-brake by one of the most ingenious
+little devices that man ever contrived, that is, the triple valve, which
+is placed in the piping system between the brake-cylinder and
+the car-reservoir. This triple valve has passages to the brake-cylinder,
+to the car-reservoir, to the train-pipe, and to the atmosphere.
+Which of these passages are open and which are closed
+depends upon the position of a piston inside of the triple valve,
+and the position of that piston is determined by the difference in
+air-pressure on either side of it. Thus, when the pressure in the
+train-pipe is greater than that in the car-reservoir, the triple valve
+piston is forced over, say to the left, a communication is opened
+from the train-pipe to the car-reservoir, and the air pressure in the
+latter is restored from the main reservoir on the locomotive. At
+the same time a passage is opened from the brake-cylinder to the
+atmosphere, the compressed air escapes, the brake-piston is driven
+back by a spring, and the brakes are released. If the pressure in
+the train-pipe is reduced, the triple-valve piston is driven to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>
+right (we will assume) by the pressure from the car-reservoir, the
+passage to the atmosphere is closed, air flows freely from the car-reservoir
+to the brake-cylinder, and the brakes are applied.</p>
+
+<p>The function of the engineer's valve is to control these operations.
+Naturally the runner's left hand rests on this instrument,
+which is fixed to the back head of the boiler. To apply the brakes
+he turns the handle to such a position as to allow air to escape
+from the train-pipe; to release, he turns it to allow air to pass
+from the main or locomotive reservoir into the train-pipe, and
+thence into the car-reservoir. It is hardly necessary to say that
+the operation of the brake, which has been described for one car,
+is practically simultaneous throughout the train. The brakes on
+the driving-wheels of the engine are also automatically applied at
+the same time as those of the cars and the tender.</p>
+
+<p>In the plan on <a href="#Page_197">page 197</a> the several different positions of the
+handle of the engineer's valve are indicated, and among them the
+service-stop and the emergency-stop positions. The quickness of
+the stop can be to some degree controlled by the rapidity with
+which the air-pressure in the train-pipe is reduced. To make a
+stop in the shortest possible time, the runner moves the throttle
+lever with his right hand and shuts off steam, and with his left
+hand moves the handle of the engineer's valve to the emergency
+position, then pulls the sand-rod handle to let sand down to the
+rails, and finally, if the engine is not fitted with driver-brakes, he
+must reverse the engine and again open the throttle. These
+movements must be made in order and with precision; and to
+make them instantly and without mistake in the face of sudden
+danger requires coolness and presence of mind. It sometimes
+happens that an engine-runner reverses his engine before shutting
+off steam, in which case the cylinder-heads will very likely be
+blown out and the engine be instantly disabled. Then, if there
+are no driver-brakes, the locomotive is worse than useless, for instead
+of aiding in making the stop, its momentum adds to the work
+to be done by the train-brakes. Again, if the air-pressure in the
+brake-cylinders is so high, and the adjustment of the levers such
+that an instant application of the full pressure will stop the rotation
+of the wheels, and cause them to slide on the rails, the stop will
+take longer than if the wheels continued to revolve. The maximum<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>
+braking effect is obtained when the pressure on the wheels is as
+great as it can be without causing them to slide, and it may happen
+that a quicker stop can be made by putting the engineer's
+valve to the service-stop position than by trying to make an
+emergency-stop. The runner must, therefore, be familiar with the
+special conditions of his brakes, and must have that kind of mind
+which can be depended upon to work clearly and quickly in a
+moment of tremendous responsibility. Fortunately, such minds
+are not very rare. The world is full of heroes who want only
+discipline, habit, and opportunity.</p>
+
+<p>The pressure of air in the main reservoir and the train-pipe is
+maintained by the air-pump on the locomotive, the speed of which
+is automatically regulated by an ingenious governor. It is the
+throbbing of this vigilant machine which one hears during short
+stops at stations. The air-pressure has been reduced in applying
+the brakes, and the governor has set the pump at work.</p>
+
+<p>All of those parts of the air-brake apparatus which are shown
+in the diagram (<a href="#Page_196">pp. 196&ndash;97</a>) can be easily seen on a train standing
+at a station; but the curious traveller must be careful not to
+mistake the gas-tank carried under some cars for the car-reservoir.
+The gas-tank is about eight feet long; the car-reservoir is
+about thirty-three inches.</p>
+
+<p>Although the air-brake can almost talk, it is still not perfect.
+There are several fortunes to be made yet in improving it. For
+instance, it is desirable, in descending long and steep grades, that
+the brake-pressure should be just sufficient to control the speed of
+the train, and should be steadily applied; otherwise the descent
+will be by a succession of jerks which may become dangerous.
+With the automatic the brakes must be occasionally released to recharge
+the reservoirs, or when the speed of the train is too much
+reduced; and it is difficult to keep a uniform speed. So far, the
+means devised to overcome this difficulty and keep a constant and
+light pressure on the wheels have been thought too costly or complicated
+for general use. With hand-brakes long trains are controlled
+by the brakes of but a few of the cars in any one train. It
+follows that in the descent of grades the braked wheels must often
+run for miles with the pressure as great as it can be without sliding
+the wheels. The rim of the wheel is rapidly heated by the friction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
+of the brake-shoe, and the unequal expansion of the heated and the
+unheated parts of the wheel causes a fracture. This is why so
+many broken car-wheels are found at the foot of grades&mdash;of all
+places the worst for such an accident to happen. With "straight
+air," that is, with the pressure from the main reservoir, or the air-pump,
+going directly to the brake-cylinder, the engineer can apply
+the brakes to all the wheels of his train simultaneously, and with
+great delicacy of graduation; and by turning a three-way cock
+which is placed in the piping of each car, the air can be used
+"straight." This is regularly done on some mountain-roads. At
+summits the trains are stopped and the brakes are changed from
+"automatic" to "straight." This practice is dangerous, however,
+and is not approved by the best brake-experts, for if a hose
+bursts, or through some other accident the air in the train-pipe escapes,
+the brakes are useless. The automatic arrangement by
+which a reduction of air-pressure in the train-pipe applies the
+brakes, as previously explained, is much preferred, although no entirely
+satisfactory means has yet been devised for automatically
+regulating the air-pressure in the brake-cylinder.</p>
+
+<p>There is not space here to enter into the history of the air-brake.
+It was first practically applied to passenger trains in 1868.
+The first great epoch in its subsequent development was the invention,
+by Mr. George Westinghouse, Jr., of the triple valve. The
+introduction of the triple valve at once reduced the time of full
+application of the brake for a ten-car train from twenty-five seconds
+to about eight seconds. This means, at forty miles an hour,
+a reduction by more than one thousand feet in the distance in
+which a train can be stopped. The next great epoch in the history
+of the air-brake was made by the celebrated Burlington brake-trials
+of 1886 and 1887. These trials were undertaken by a committee
+of the Master Car-builders' Association, to determine whether or
+not there was any power-brake fit for freight service. For general
+freight service the brake must be capable of arresting a very long
+train, with cars loosely coupled, running at a fair average passenger
+speed, without producing objectionable shocks in the rear of
+the train. The two series of trials were carried out in July, 1886,
+and May, 1887. The competing brake-companies brought to the
+trials trains of fifty cars each, equipped with their devices. Skilled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
+mechanical engineers from various railroad and private companies
+assisted both years. These trials were most exhaustive, and have
+contributed more to the art of braking than any that preceded or
+have followed them. The first year's trials developed the fact that
+the air-brakes could not be applied on the rear of a fifty-car train
+in less than eighteen seconds, whereas the head of a train moving
+twenty miles an hour could be completely stopped in fifteen seconds.
+The result was that disastrous collisions between the cars of any
+one train were produced in the act of stopping. Men in the rear
+cars were thrown down and injured, and much damage was done
+to the cars. At the end of nineteen days the brake-companies
+went home to work another year over the new problem. In 1887
+they reappeared on the same ground, and in eighteen days proved
+that no simple air-brakes, as then operated, could prevent disastrous
+shocks in a long train; but it was shown that by bringing
+in electricity to actuate the air-valves, the application of the brakes
+could be made practically simultaneous throughout the train. Mr.
+Westinghouse, however, during the summer following, made such
+modifications in the triple valve and in the train-pipe that he succeeded
+in applying the brakes throughout a fifty-car train in two
+seconds. That settled the matter. He at once equipped a train
+of fifty cars, and in October and November, 1887, that train made
+a journey of about three thousand miles, making exhibition stops
+at various cities. The journey was a splendid and conclusive demonstration
+that the air-brake is now a thoroughly efficient and
+reliable contrivance for freight as well as for passenger service.
+The result has been a very rapid application of the new quick-acting
+brake to freight cars. The performance of this train was to
+railroad men most impressive. A freight train of fifty cars is about
+one-third of a mile long. To see such a train, running forty miles
+an hour, smoothly stopped in one-third of its own length, without
+shock or fuss, was an object-lesson that no one could fail to understand
+or to remember. Some of the stops made by this train will
+give a fair notion of the relative power of hand- and air-brakes
+for quick stops. The following figures are averages of stops made
+in six different cities. They give the distances run in feet from
+the instant of applying the brakes till the train was brought to
+a stand-still:</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="center fs80">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr fs90">Feet.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Hand-brakes, 50 cars, 20 miles an hour</td><td class="tdr">794</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Air-brakes, 50 cars, 20 miles an hour</td><td class="tdr">166</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Air-brakes, 50 cars, 40 miles an hour</td><td class="tdr">581</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Air-brakes, 20 cars, 20 miles an hour</td><td class="tdr">99</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>With twenty cars at twenty miles an hour even shorter stops
+were made than those recorded above. In the Burlington trials
+the hand-brake stops, with fifty-car trains at forty miles an hour,
+were made in from two thousand five hundred to three thousand
+feet.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_202.jpg" width="250" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Dwarf Semaphores and Split Switch.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The air-brake is somewhat complicated, but the complicated
+mechanism is strong, has little movement, and is securely protected
+from dirt and the elements. It is therefore little liable to derangement.
+It is, however, becoming better understood that brake-gear
+must be good, and employees carefully instructed in the care and
+use of the air-brake to get its best results; and in recent years
+two or three elaborate instruction-cars have been fitted up for the
+education of the enginemen and
+trainmen.</p>
+
+<p>Space does not permit more
+than an allusion to driver-brakes,
+which are operated by steam
+and by air. The forms in constant
+use are made by the
+Eames, the American, the Westinghouse,
+and the Beals companies.
+Nor can much be said
+here of the water-brake, used
+to some extent on locomotives
+working heavy grades. It consists
+of a simple arrangement of
+admitting a little hot water, instead
+of steam, to the cylinders.
+The engine is reversed and the
+cylinder-cocks are opened to
+the air. The cylinders then act
+as air-pumps, and the retarding effect is due to the back pressure.
+The use of the water is to prevent overheating of the parts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sandbagbox" id="img203">
+ <div id="i203b1">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i203b2">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<div class="caption">Semaphore Signal with Indicators.<br />
+
+(One arm governs several tracks. The number of the track<br />which is clear is
+shown on the indicator disk.)</div>
+
+<p>If it is important to have efficient means of stopping trains, it is
+scarcely less important to have timely information of the need of
+stopping them. To give such information is the function of signals,
+which, among safety appliances, must
+stand next after brakes. Signals fall naturally
+into two great classes: Those
+which protect points of danger and govern
+the movements of engines in yards, and
+those which keep an interval of space between
+two trains running on one track.
+For the protection of switches, crossings,
+junctions, and the like, signals in immense
+variety have been used, and, unfortunately,
+are still used; but
+in the last ten or fifteen
+years the semaphore
+signal has
+become the general
+standard in the
+United States, as it
+long has been in
+England. This consists
+of a board,
+called the blade or
+arm, pivoted on the
+post, and back of the
+pivot is a heavy casting
+which carries a
+colored glass lens,
+either green or red.
+On the post is hung
+a lantern. The danger position is with the blade horizontal. In
+this position the lens is in front of the lamp, and the light shows
+red or green, as the case may be. The safety position is with the
+blade hanging about sixty degrees from the horizontal. In this
+position the light of the lantern shows white. Red is the universal
+danger color, and green the color of caution. Therefore, a semaphore
+signal at a point of danger shows by day a blade painted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>
+red, with the end of the blade cut square. At night it shows a
+red light. At a position some distance from the point of actual
+danger, but where it is desirable to warn an engine-runner that
+he is likely to find the danger signal against him, a caution signal
+is placed. This is a semaphore blade painted green, with the end
+notched in a V-shape, or, as it is called, a fish-tail. At night this
+signal shows a green light. There is nothing very remarkable
+about a piece of board arranged to wag up and down on a pin
+stuck through a post, but it is wonderful how much of good brains
+and good breath have been expended in getting these boards to
+wag harmoniously, and in getting railroad officers to understand
+that a plain board, having two possible positions, is a better signal
+than any more complicated form.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="HandHeld">
+    <div class="figleft">
+    <img src="images/i_203.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
+    <div class="caption">Semaphore Signal with Indicators.<br />
+
+    (One arm governs several tracks. The number of the track<br />which is clear is
+    shown on the indicator disk.)</div>
+    </div>
+
+    <p>If it is important to have efficient means of stopping trains, it is
+    scarcely less important to have timely information of the need of
+    stopping them. To give such information is the function of signals,
+    which, among safety appliances, must
+    stand next after brakes. Signals fall naturally
+    into two great classes: Those
+    which protect points of danger and govern
+    the movements of engines in yards, and
+    those which keep an interval of space between
+    two trains running on one track.
+    For the protection of switches, crossings,
+    junctions, and the like, signals in immense
+    variety have been used, and, unfortunately,
+    are still used; but
+    in the last ten or fifteen
+    years the semaphore
+    signal has
+    become the general
+    standard in the
+    United States, as it
+    long has been in
+    England. This consists
+    of a board,
+    called the blade or
+    arm, pivoted on the
+    post, and back of the
+    pivot is a heavy casting
+    which carries a
+    colored glass lens,
+    either green or red.
+    On the post is hung
+    a lantern. The danger position is with the blade horizontal. In
+    this position the lens is in front of the lamp, and the light shows
+    red or green, as the case may be. The safety position is with the
+    blade hanging about sixty degrees from the horizontal. In this
+    position the light of the lantern shows white. Red is the universal
+    danger color, and green the color of caution. Therefore, a semaphore
+    signal at a point of danger shows by day a blade painted
+    red, with the end of the blade cut square. At night it shows a
+    red light. At a position some distance from the point of actual
+    danger, but where it is desirable to warn an engine-runner that
+    he is likely to find the danger signal against him, a caution signal
+    is placed. This is a semaphore blade painted green, with the end
+    notched in a V-shape, or, as it is called, a fish-tail. At night this
+    signal shows a green light. There is nothing very remarkable
+    about a piece of board arranged to wag up and down on a pin
+    stuck through a post, but it is wonderful how much of good brains
+    and good breath have been expended in getting these boards to
+    wag harmoniously, and in getting railroad officers to understand
+    that a plain board, having two possible positions, is a better signal
+    than any more complicated form.</p>
+    </div>
+
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_204.jpg" width="250" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Section of Saxby &amp; Farmer Interlocking Machine.<br />
+
+(Showing two levers and locking mechanism.<br />
+<em>A</em> is normal, <em>B</em> is reversed.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The arrangement of a group of signals and switches in such a
+way that their movements are made
+mutually dependent one upon the
+other, and so that it is impossible to
+make these movements in any but
+prearranged sequences, is called, in
+railroad vernacular, "interlocking,"
+and in this sense the word will be
+used here. Interlocking has become
+a special art. The objects which it
+is sought to accomplish by interlocking,
+and the admirable way in which
+those objects are attained, may best
+be understood from an actual example.
+For that purpose we shall take
+a double-track junction completely
+equipped with signals, facing-point
+locks, and derailing switches (<a href="#Page_205">p. 205</a>).</p>
+
+<p>A general view of an interlocking
+frame was given on <a href="#Page_171">page 171</a> of this
+volume. Two levers from such a
+frame are here shown. The normal
+position of the levers is forward, as lever <em>A</em>. When pulled back,
+as lever <em>B</em>, the lever is said to be reversed.</p>
+
+<p>Let it be supposed that a main-line train is to be passed eastward<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
+in the direction of the arrow <em>B</em>. The first movement of the
+signalman in the signal-tower would naturally be to lower signals
+1 and 2. He attempts to pull over lever 1, but cannot move it,
+and, in spite of any effort or ingenuity on his part, that signal remains
+at danger. The reason is that lever 2 when normal locks
+lever 1 normal. The logic of this will be at once apparent.
+Clearing signal 1 is an indication to the engineer that the way is
+clear, and that he may pass the junction at speed. So long as this
+signal (which, it must be remembered, is a <em>caution</em> signal) stands
+at danger he knows that he may pass it, but must be ready to stop
+before he reaches No. 2, the home-signal. Therefore No. 1 must
+never be lowered till all is arranged for passing the junction at
+speed. As the signalman cannot lower signal 1, he attempts to
+lower signal 2. Again he finds that he cannot budge the lever.
+It is locked by lever No. 3. This lever works a facing-point lock,
+which must be described just at this point (<a href="#Page_206">p. 206</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_205.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Diagram of a Double-track Junction with Interlocked Switches and
+Signals.<br />
+
+<p><em>A</em> is the west-bound main line track; <em>B</em>, the east-bound; <em>C</em> and <em>D</em> are the west-bound
+and east-bound branch-tracks. Nos. 1, 10, and 12 are distant signals; Nos. 2,
+9, and 11, home signals; Nos. 3, 6, and 8, facing-point locks; and Nos. 4, 5, and 7
+are switches. The levers which move all of these parts are placed side by side in a frame in the signal-tower. It will
+be noticed that No. 7 is a switch designed merely to derail an engine on track A. A similar switch is provided on
+track <em>C</em>, and is worked by the same lever which works junction switch No. 5. In the sketch all levers are supposed to
+stand in their "normal" position, all signals are at danger, and the switches are set for the main line. The switches
+themselves are not locked in this position of the facing-point lock levers.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The front rod of the switch, that is, the rod which connects the
+points of the two moving rails of the switch, is pierced with two
+holes placed a distance apart just equal to the throw of the switch.
+In front of these holes is a bolt which is worked by a lever in the
+signal-tower. After the switch is set the lock-lever is reversed
+and the bolt enters one of the holes, thus securely locking the
+switch in position. There is one other interesting feature of this
+facing-point lock. It has happened very often that a switch has
+been thrown under a moving train, splitting the train and derailing
+more or less of it. This class of accidents is especially likely to
+happen when train movements are very frequent, and may be prevented
+by the use of the "detector-bar." This is a bar about forty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>
+feet long, placed alongside the rail, and carried on swinging links,
+like those of a parallel ruler, in such a way that any effort to move
+the bar lengthwise of the rail must raise it above the top of the
+rail. This bar is moved by the same lever which moves the locking-bolt.
+So long as there is a wheel on the rail above the detector-bar
+it cannot be moved, therefore the locking-bolt cannot be
+withdrawn, and the switch cannot be moved until the train has
+passed completely off it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_206.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Split Switches with Facing-point Locks and Detector-bars.<br />
+
+(The rod on the right of the track is the mechanical connection to the lever in the signal-tower by which the locks and
+detector-bars are moved.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_207.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Derailing Switch.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>We left the signalman trying to lower signal No. 2; vainly, because
+No. 3 lever was still normal and the switch unlocked (Diagram,
+p. 205). Probably he would not have begun his operations
+in the bungling way that has
+been supposed, but would have
+first reversed lever 3. That
+locks the switch by the facing-point
+lock, and locks also
+switch-lever 4 in the frame in
+the signal-tower and releases
+lever 2. Then he reverses
+lever 2. That locks lever 3
+and releases lever 1. Then he
+reverses lever 1, which locks
+lever 2. Now the way is made
+for a train to pass east on the
+main line, and the signals are
+clear. The last signal could
+not have been lowered until
+the chain of operations was complete; none of the levers can now
+be moved until lever 1 is again put normal and signal 1 made
+to show danger. There is one point of great danger in this particular
+train-movement which has not been mentioned; that is, the
+crossing of main-line east-bound track <em>B</em> by the branch-line west-bound
+track <em>C</em>. It will be noticed that with the levers normal, derailing
+switch 5 is open, and it is impossible for a locomotive to
+pass beyond it. Lever 5 is interlocked in the tower with lever 4
+in such a way that, before 5 can be reversed to let a train pass
+west from <em>C</em>, lever 4 must be reversed to trap any train on <em>B</em> and
+turn it down the branch <em>D</em>. It must not be understood that the
+use of "derailers" is universal. In fact, they are not recommended
+by the best signal engineers, except in special conditions. In the
+absence of derailer No. 5, signals 11 and 12 would be interlocked
+with switch 4, so that, so long as that switch stands open for the
+main line a clear signal cannot be given to a train coming west on
+<em>C</em>. It will be noticed that signal 2 carries two semaphores on one
+post. The upper one is for the main line and the lower one for
+the branch. Both are operated by one lever, 2, and whether reversing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>
+lever 2 lowers the main-line signal or the branch signal
+depends on the position of the switch. The switch is made to pick
+out its signal by an ingenious but very simple little arrangement,
+called a selector, which is placed somewhere in the line of ground
+connections.</p>
+
+<p>It would be an interesting study, were there space, to follow
+the possible and proper combinations of movements to pass trains
+over the various tracks. It will be seen that, by concentrating the
+levers which move switches and signals in one place and interlocking
+them, it is made mechanically impossible for a signalman
+to give a signal which would lead to a collision or a derailment
+within the region under his control. The only danger at such
+points is that an engineer may overrun the signals. This description
+of the objects and the capacity of the system of interlocking is
+no fancy sketch. The system has been in use for many years,
+doing just what has been here described, and more. A recent
+close estimate gave the number of interlocked levers now in use in
+the United States as about eight thousand, and the number is rapidly
+increasing. Recent official reports showed that in Great
+Britain and Ireland there were thirty-eight thousand cases in which
+a passenger line was connected with or crossed by another line,
+siding, or cross-over. In eighty-nine per cent. of these cases the
+levers operating the switches and protecting signals were interlocked.</p>
+
+<p>The example of interlocking which has been given is one of the
+simplest; the principle is capable of almost indefinite expansion,
+and any one lever may be made to lock any one or more levers
+among hundreds in the same frame. The greatest number of
+levers assembled in any one signal-tower in this country is one
+hundred and sixteen, at the Grand Central Station in New York.
+In the London Bridge tower there are two hundred and eighty
+levers. This is probably the greatest number in any one tower in
+the world. All of these levers may be more or less interlocked.
+The same principle is applied to the locking of two levers at a single
+switch, and to the protection of drawbridges and highway
+crossings.</p>
+
+<p>The mechanism by which the interlocking is done is strong and
+comparatively simple, but a detailed description of it seems out of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
+place here. Two levers from a Saxby &amp; Farmer machine are
+shown on <a href="#Page_204">page 204</a>, with lever <em>A</em> normal and <em>B</em> reversed. The
+locking mechanism is in front of the levers, and is actuated not by
+the levers themselves, but by their catch-rods. It follows that it is
+not the actual movement of a signal which prevents the movement
+of other signals, or of switches, but it is the intention to move that
+signal. This principle of "preliminary locking" is one of great
+importance.</p>
+
+<p>Switches and signals are often worked at such distances from
+the tower that it is impossible for the operator to know whether or
+not the movement contemplated has taken place. The British
+Board of Trade does not permit switches to be worked more than
+750 feet away. In this country there is no limit, but probably 800
+feet is very rarely exceeded. Signals are worked in England up
+to 3,000 or 3,500 feet very commonly, and they are even worked
+a mile away, but not satisfactorily. This is with direct mechanical
+connection, by rod or wire, from the levers. It is obvious that a
+break in the connections between the lever and the switch or
+signal might take place, and the lever be pulled over, without having
+produced the corresponding movement at the far end. The
+locking mechanism in the tower would not be affected by such an
+accident, and consequently conflicting signals might be given.
+Even this contingency is provided against with almost perfect
+safety. If a signal connection breaks, the signal is counter-weighted
+to go to danger. The worst that can happen is to delay
+traffic. If a switch connection breaks, the locking-bolt, in the
+latest form of facing-point lock, will not enter the hole in the
+switch-rod, and consequently warning is given in the tower that
+the switch has not moved. Electric annunciators are often placed
+in the signal-tower, to show on a board before the operator
+whether or not the movements of switches and signals have taken
+place.</p>
+
+<p>Considerable work must be done in the movement of each
+lever. The ground connections must be put down with great care,
+as nearly straight and level as may be, well drained, and protected
+from ice and snow. All of these difficulties have been overcome
+in a beautiful pneumatic interlocking apparatus which has been introduced
+within the last two or three years. In this system the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>
+motive power is compressed air. Near each switch is a small
+cylinder, containing a piston which is attached directly to the
+switch movement. Compressed air admitted to one side or the
+other of this piston moves the switch one way or the other. But,
+as it would take some time for the necessary quantity of air to flow
+from the signal-tower to a distant switch, a small reservoir is
+placed near the switch, and the air from this reservoir is admitted
+to one end or the other of the switch cylinder according to the
+position of a valve. For transmitting the motion from the tower
+to the valve compressed air might be used, but, as air is elastic, a
+quicker movement is got by using in the pipes some liquid which
+does not readily freeze, and which, being practically non-compressible,
+transmits an impulse given at one end almost instantly to
+the other. The signals are worked in essentially the same manner
+as the switches, except that the pneumatic valves are moved by
+electricity. The tower apparatus of a pneumatic system in the
+yard of the Pennsylvania Railroad at Pittsburg is shown in the
+engraving opposite. In the front of the apparatus is seen a rank
+of small handles, which can be turned from side to side with as
+much ease as the keys of a piano can be depressed. Turning one
+of these handles admits compressed air to the end of a pipe containing
+liquid. Instantly the pressure is transmitted 500 or 1,000
+feet to the valve at the switch to be moved. The small levers are
+interlocked perfectly, and in that particular perform the duties of
+the ordinary machine. A model of the tracks controlled is placed
+before the operator, showing the switches and signals, and when
+a movement is made on the ground it is at once repeated back by
+electricity and duplicated on the model. This beautiful system is
+due to the same genius that gave us the perfected air-brake and
+the triple valve, and is the greatest improvement that has been
+made in interlocking in the last dozen years.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span><br />
+   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_211.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Interlocking Apparatus for Operating Switches and Signals by Compressed Air, Pittsburg Yards, Pennsylvania Railroad.<br />
+
+(A model of the track is shown above the levers, on which the movements of the switches and signals are electrically indicated after they are completed.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_213.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Torpedo Placer.<br />
+
+(The torpedo is carried forward by the plunger<br />and exploded
+by the depression of the hammer shown<br />near the
+rail.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>If the reader has grasped the full significance of interlocking,
+he understands that it makes it impossible to give a signal that
+would lead to a collision or to a derailment at a misplaced switch.
+The worst that a stupid, or drunken, or malicious signalman could
+do would be to delay traffic, if the signals were obeyed. Here
+comes in the failing case. The brake-power may be insufficient
+to stop a train after a danger signal is given. That is a rare occurrence,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>
+but may happen. The engineer may not see the danger
+signal because of fog, or he may carelessly run past it. Provision
+against a failure to see and to obey a signal may be made by placing
+on the track a torpedo, which will explode with a loud report
+when struck by a wheel. The
+use of hand-torpedoes in fogs,
+and for emergencies in places
+unprovided with fixed signals,
+is very common. These are
+little disks filled with a detonating
+powder, and provided with
+tin straps that are bent down to
+clasp over the top of the rail.
+A simple and very efficient torpedo
+machine, which has been
+used for some years on the
+Manhattan Elevated and elsewhere,
+is here shown. This
+machine has a magazine holding
+five torpedoes. It is connected to a signal-lever in such a
+way that, when the signal is put to danger, one torpedo is placed
+in a position to be exploded by the first passing wheel. When the
+signal returns to the clear position the torpedo, if unexploded, is
+withdrawn to the magazine. If the torpedo is exploded another
+one takes its place at the next movement of the signal-lever. One
+of these machines on the Elevated Road moves about five thousand
+times every day. In such a case a torpedo would soon be
+worn out if it was not exploded or frequently changed. When
+this apparatus is in operation, an unmistakable alarm is at once
+given to the engineer and to others if a danger signal is passed.
+On the Manhattan Elevated lines an engineman who overruns a
+danger signal and can show no good reason for it is suspended
+for the first offence, and discharged for the second. The torpedo
+makes it impossible for him to escape detection.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_214.jpg" width="350" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Old Signal Tower on the Philadelphia &amp; Reading, at Phœnixville.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The second great class of signals comprises those which are
+intended to keep fixed intervals of space between trains running
+on the same track. These are block signals. The block system<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>
+is used on a few of the
+railroads of the United
+States which have the
+heaviest and fastest
+traffic. Much the most
+common practice in this
+country, however, is to
+run trains by time intervals,
+and under the
+constant control of the
+train despatcher. In
+England the block system
+is almost universal.
+About ninety per cent.
+of all the passenger
+lines of that country are
+worked under the absolute
+block system.</p>
+
+<p>When the block system
+is not used, it is
+quite common to protect
+particularly dangerous
+points, such as
+curves and deep cuts,
+by stationing watchmen
+there with flags or with
+some form of fixed signal.
+The watchman can notify an approaching engine-runner
+that a preceding train has or has not passed beyond his own range
+of vision; or can notify him that it has been gone a certain time.
+Travellers by the Philadelphia &amp; Reading must have noticed
+the queer structures, with revolving vanes on top, looking like a
+feeble sort of windmill, which appear in positions to command a
+view of cuts, curves, etc. These are examples of the devices for
+local protection. The non-automatic block signal develops naturally
+from the protection of scattered points. Instead of placing
+watchmen at points of especial danger, they are placed at regular
+intervals of one mile, two miles, or five miles. Instead of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
+watchman looking to see that a train has disappeared from his
+field of vision before he lets another train pass, he uses the eyes
+of the next watchman ahead, who telegraphs back that the train
+has passed his station. Suppose A, B, and C to be three block-signal
+stations placed at intervals of two miles. When a train
+passes A, the operator at that point at once puts a signal to danger
+behind it. This signal stands at danger until the train passes B,
+and the operator puts his signal to danger, and telegraphs back to
+A to announce that train No. 1 has passed out of the block A B,
+and is protected by the signal at B. Then, and not until then, the
+operator clears the signal at A and allows train No. 2 to enter the
+block. Meanwhile train No. 1 is proceeding through the block
+B C, its rear protected at B; and the same sequence of events
+happens when it arrives at C as happened at B. This is the simplest
+form of block signalling. In the more elaborate form there
+are at each block-station three signals&mdash;the distant, the home, and
+the starting. The signals are often electrically interlocked, from
+one station to another, in such a way that it is mechanically impossible
+for the operator at A to give a signal for a train to pass that
+station until the signal at B has been put to danger behind the
+preceding train.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<br />
+A<span class="pad10">B</span><span class="pad10">C</span><br />
+<hr class="chapa" />
+<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>It is seen that no two trains can be in the same block and on
+the same track at the same time. If all run at a uniform speed,
+they will be kept just the length of a block apart. If No. 2 is
+faster than No. 1, it will arrive at B before No. 1 gets to C, but
+will have to wait there. The block system, therefore, while it
+gives security, does not always facilitate traffic. The longer the
+blocks the greater will be the delay to trains; but the shorter the
+blocks, the greater the cost of establishment, maintenance, and
+operation.</p>
+
+<p>Various systems have been contrived to have block signals displayed
+automatically by the passage of trains. This, if it can be
+done reliably, will do away with the wages of part of the operators,
+and will also eliminate the dangers arising from human carelessness.
+But there are very great objections to relying solely upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>
+the automatic action of signals, and automatic block signals are
+little used except as auxiliary to a system employing operators
+also. So used, they are of decided advantage, as they make sure
+that a danger signal is set behind every train in spite of the operator,
+and that it cannot be again set to the all-clear position till
+the train has passed out of the block. All this is accomplished by
+electricity.</p>
+
+<p>Brakes, interlocking, and the apparatus of signalling have been
+considered at length because they are very much the most important
+of all the appliances which go to increase the safety of operating
+railroads. They act chiefly to prevent collisions, but often prevent
+or mitigate accidents from derailments and other causes. Of
+all train-accidents happening in the last sixteen years, over one-third
+have been from collisions, and more than one-half from derailments.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_217.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Crossing Gates worked by Mechanical Connection from the Cabin.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>After brakes and signals, the devices next in importance as
+means of saving life are those for the protection of highway crossings
+at the grade of railroads. In years to come, as wealth increases
+and as traffic becomes more crowded, we may suppose
+there will be few such crossings; but their abolition must be slow,
+and meantime the loss of life at them is great. The most accurate
+and complete statistics bearing on this matter are those collected
+by the Railroad Commissioners of Massachusetts. In 1888, of all
+those killed in the operation of the railroads of the State, seven per
+cent. were passengers, thirty-three per cent. were employees, and
+sixty per cent. were others. The others include trespassers, forty-seven
+per cent.; and killed at grade crossings, eleven per cent.
+More trespassers were killed than any other class; but the deaths
+at highway crossings considerably exceeded those among passengers.
+The difficulty of preventing this class of accidents is strikingly
+shown by the fact that, of all crossing accidents, forty-two per
+cent. were due to the victims' disregard of warnings given by closed
+gates or flags. It is evident that the efforts of the railroad companies
+to save people's lives at crossings are largely nullified by the
+carelessness of the public, and the lack of proper laws to punish
+those who venture upon railroad tracks when they should keep off
+them. Still, it remains the duty and the policy of the railroads to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>
+protect street crossings by all practicable means. The best protection
+is afforded by gates with watchmen, and of all forms of
+gate the most common, because it is the simplest and most convenient
+to operate, is the familiar arm-gate. This is usually worked
+by a man turning a crank, but it is also worked by compressed air.
+On this page is shown a group of gates worked from an elevated
+cabin by a mechanical connection. A bell fixed at a crossing, to
+be rung by an approaching train, is a very useful auxiliary to gates
+and to watchmen with flags, and is considerably used where the
+traffic does not warrant the expense of maintaining a watchman.
+There are several good devices of this sort, either electric or magneto-electric.
+One of the latter class has a lever alongside the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>
+rail, which is depressed by each wheel that passes over it. This
+lever is geared to a fly-wheel, which is set rapidly revolving and
+causes an armature to revolve in the field of a magnet, and thus
+generates a current and rings a gong, precisely as is done with the
+familiar magnetic bell used with the telephone.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_218.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Some Results of a Butting Collision&mdash;Baggage and Passenger Cars Telescoped.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_219.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Wreck at a Bridge.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>About thirteen per cent. of the train-accidents in the United
+States, in the last sixteen years, were derailments due to defects
+of road. These include not only defective rails, switches, and
+frogs, but bridge wrecks. There are, however, few devices used
+in the track, other than those already mentioned, that can be called
+safety appliances. This class of accidents is to be provided against
+only by good material, good workmanship, and unceasing care.
+Many so-called safety switches and safety frogs are offered to railroad
+officers, but those actually in wide use are confined to a very
+few standard forms. The split-switch, which is shown in the engravings
+on pages 206 and 207, has gradually replaced the old
+stub-switch, as well as most of the "safety" switches that have
+been from time to time introduced; although the stub-switch is
+still in considerable use in yards where movements are slow, and
+in the main tracks of the less progressive roads. It consists of a
+pair of moving rails the ends of which are brought opposite to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
+ends of the main-line rails, or to those of the turnout, as the case
+may be. It follows that but one of these tracks is continuous at
+any one time, and a train reaching the switch by the other track
+must be derailed. The distressing accident which happened at
+Rio, Wis., in 1886, where seventeen people lost their lives, was a derailment
+of this sort. Since that time the railroad on which the accident
+happened has taken out all stub-switches on thousands of
+miles of main-line track. The split-switch provides against such
+derailments, for if the switch is set for the turnout, and a train
+approaches it from the main line in the "trailing" direction, the
+flanges of the wheels move the switch-rails to make the track
+continuous. The terms "facing" and "trailing," as applied to
+switches, are almost self-explanatory. If a train approaches toward
+the points of the moving rails, the switch is said to be facing.
+If it runs through the switch from the rear of the moving
+rails, the switch is said to be trailing. This will be made clear
+by reference to the illustration on <a href="#Page_206">page 206</a>. If a train were coming
+from the bridge, the first switch reached by it would be a
+trailing and the second a facing switch. In the newspaper reports
+an accident will very often be assigned to one of two causes, failure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>
+of the air-brakes or spreading of the rails. The chances are that
+it will be found on investigation to be due to neither of these
+causes. Those interested to maintain the credit of the air-brake
+or of the track department are not often on the ground when the
+reporter gets his information, and the temptation is always great
+to shift the responsibility to the shoulders of the absent. Probably
+the displacement of the rail will have taken place after the derailment;
+but rails do sometimes spread. Loose spikes and rotten
+ties allow the outer edge of the rail-flange to sink into the wood,
+and the rail to roll outward enough to let the wheels drop. Sound
+ties are the first safeguard against such accidents. Metal plates
+under the rails are useful also; but one of the most efficient means
+of preventing displacement of the rails is the interlocking bolt
+shown above. These bolts cross in the timber, and slots cut in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
+the two bolts engage with each other in such a way that when the
+nuts are screwed down on the rail-flange it is impossible to pull
+the bolts out. They can only be moved by tearing through the
+wood contained in the angle between them. This bolt is much
+used on bridges and trestles, where it is of vital importance that
+the rails should be held in place and no part of the floor broken.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_220.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">New South Norwalk Drawbridge. Rails held by safety bolts.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1853 an express train went through an open draw at South
+Norwalk, Conn., and forty-six lives were lost. This, one of the
+most serious railroad accidents that ever happened, is still remembered
+as an historical calamity. The bridge which stands on the
+same site is shown opposite. In May, 1888, a west-bound express
+train, consisting of an engine and seven cars, was derailed just as
+it was entering the draw-span. The train ran three hundred feet
+on the sleepers before it was stopped. Then it was found that all
+of the driving-wheels of the engine had regained the rails, but all
+the other wheels were off, except those of two sleeping-cars in
+the rear. This was a remarkable escape from a bad accident, and
+much of the credit of it has been given to the interlocking bolts
+with which the rails were fastened. They are supposed to have prevented
+the rails being crowded aside, and thus to have made possible
+the rerailing of the engine. Besides, they helped the oak
+guard-timbers to hold the ties in place. The destruction of a
+bridge in an accident frequently begins by the ties bunching in
+front of the wheels and allowing the wheels to drop through and
+strike the floor-beams below. For this reason guard-timbers,
+notched down over the ties, should always be used.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_222.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Engines Wrecked during the Great Wabash Strike.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The traveller will have noticed, on all bridges of various roads,
+two rails placed inside the track-rails, and curved to meet in a point
+at either end of the bridge. These are known as inside guard-rails,
+and their function is to keep derailed trucks in line till the
+train can be stopped. Besides the bunching of the ties, there is
+danger in a bridge derailment that a truck may swing around and
+strike one of the trusses. Then the bridge is very likely to be
+wrecked. A further provision for the protection of bridges is the
+rerailing frog invented by the late Charles Latimer, whose name
+is dear to railroad men all over America. This consists of a pair
+of castings combined with inside guard-rails, designed to raise the
+derailed wheels and guide them on to the rails. There is no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>
+doubt that it has prevented several wrecks, although it has never
+been widely used. The subject of bridges should not be left without
+a word of explanation of the stout timber-posts often seen at
+either end placed in line with the trusses. These are designed to
+stop any derailed vehicle which might otherwise strike against and
+destroy a truss.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>There is one track-fixture that has no duty or value except as
+it promotes safety. It helps only one humble class of railroad employees.
+That device is the foot-guard. At all places where two
+rails cross or approach each other, as at frogs and guard-rails,
+dangerous boot-jacks are formed by the rail-heads. The overhang
+of the heads of the rail makes it easy for one to so fasten his foot
+in one of those boot-jacks that it is hard to get it out. If a man
+finds himself in this position in front of an approaching train, he
+sometimes has the alternative of standing up to be struck by the
+engine or lying down and having his foot cut off. Fortunately
+this class of accidents is comparatively rare; probably not more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>
+than two or three per cent. of all deaths and injuries to passengers
+and employees is caused in this way. Nevertheless, the means of
+guarding against accidents of this class is so cheap that it should
+be more generally adopted than it is. It consists simply in partly
+filling the space between the rail-heads by putting in wooden
+blocks or strips of metal, or even packing with cinders, gravel, or
+any sort of ballast. Various wooden and metal foot-guards have
+been patented. They are all too simple to require description.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_224a.jpg" width="250" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Link-and-pin Coupler.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of all accidents to employees the most numerous are those
+which arise in coupling and uncoupling cars. In Massachusetts, in
+1888, the employees killed and injured were 391; of these casualties
+154 occurred in coupling accidents. The commissioners of
+other States, especially of Iowa, have for years published statistics
+showing nearly the same ratio. Fortunately accidents of this class,
+although numerous, are not proportionately fatal. Far the greater
+part of them result in the loss of part of a hand; but they are so
+frequent as to have caused much discussion, legislation, and invention.
+Several States have, one time and another, passed laws requiring
+the use of automatic couplers; and two or three years ago
+there were on record in the United States over four thousand
+coupler patents. The laws have been futile because impracticable;
+and most of the patents have been worthless for the same reason.
+It was obvious that the business of supplying couplers for the one
+million freight cars of the country could not be put into the hands
+of some one patentee unless his device was manifestly and pre-eminently
+superior to all others. It became important, therefore,
+to select as a standard some type of coupler general enough to include
+the patents of various men, and at the same time so definite
+that all couplers made to conform to the standard could work together
+interchangeably. Those who read Mr. Voorhees' story<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>
+of the wanderings of a freight car will understand that any one
+freight car in the United States or Canada should be prepared to
+run in the same train with any other car. A few years ago a committee
+of the Master Car-builders' Association was appointed to
+choose and recommend a type of coupler to be adopted as the
+standard of the association. After prolonged and careful study of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
+the subject, the committee recommended the type of which the
+Janney is the best known example, and that has now become the
+standard of the association. This
+action does not give a monopoly to
+the Janney company, as there are already
+half a dozen couplers which
+conform to the type. This coupler
+is shown by diagrams in the article
+by M. N. Forney, <a href="#Page_142">page 142</a>. A perspective
+view is herewith given. This
+device couples automatically, and thus
+does away with the necessity for the
+brakeman going between the cars.
+It can also be unlocked by the rod
+shown extending to the side of the
+car, and the locking device can be set
+not to couple, to facilitate switching
+and yard work. The mechanical principles of this coupler are a
+great and important improvement upon any form of link-and-pin
+coupler; and the coupler question has now come to this point:
+A type of coupler has been selected by a technical body representing
+most of the railroads of the United States. It is general
+enough to avoid the
+evils of a patent monopoly.
+It promises
+to be economical in
+operation, and will
+certainly do away
+with the terrible loss
+of life and limb which
+results from the use
+of the non-automatic
+coupler. The railroads
+are adopting it
+with reasonable
+speed, perhaps, but
+not as rapidly as simple considerations of humanity would dictate.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_224b.jpg" width="350" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Janney Automatic Coupler applied to a Freight Car.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Closely related to the coupler is the vestibule, which within the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>
+last two years has become so fashionable. The vestibule is not
+merely a luxury, but has a certain value as a safety device.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> The
+full measure of this value has not yet been proved. Occasionally
+lives are lost by passengers falling from or being blown from the
+platforms of moving trains. Such accidents the vestibule will prevent,
+and, further, it decreases the oscillation of the cars, and thus
+to some degree helps to prevent derailment. It is also some protection
+against telescoping. A few months ago a coal train on a
+double-track road was derailed, and four cars were thrown across
+in front of a solid vestibule train of seven Pullman cars approaching
+on the other track. The engine of the vestibuled train was
+completely wrecked. Even the sheet-iron jacket was stripped
+off it. The engineer and fireman were instantly killed, but not
+another person on the train was injured. They escaped partly because
+the cars were strong, and partly, doubtless, because the
+vestibules helped to keep the platforms on the same level and in
+line, and thus to prevent crushing of the ends of the cars.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_225.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Signals at Night.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The number of passengers burned in wrecks is greatly exaggerated
+in the public mind; but that fate is so horrible that it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>
+not wonderful that "the deadly car-stove" should be the object of
+persistent and energetic attacks by the press and in State legislatures.
+The result has been the development, in the last three
+years, of the entirely new business of inventing and trying to sell
+systems of heating by steam or hot water from the locomotive, and
+even by electricity. In fact, the manufacture of such apparatus has
+already become an industry of some importance, several thousand
+cars being equipped with it. This whole matter of steam-heating
+is still in a somewhat crude state, and it does not seem desirable to
+force it by legislation. It has been demonstrated that it is the
+cheapest way of heating trains, and the most easily regulated; and
+it has become a good advertisement to attract passengers. Consequently
+the whole subject may be safely left in the hands of the
+railroad companies, and allowed to develop itself naturally in a
+business way. There is not yet any system of continuous heating
+so perfected that a railroad company could without hardship be
+compelled to adopt it for all its passenger equipment.</p>
+
+<p>Fires in wrecked trains have originated probably quite as often
+from kerosene lamps as from the stoves. The danger of fire from
+this source, and the desire to give passengers the luxury of
+sufficient light, have led to methods of lighting by gas and, more
+recently by electricity. Lighting by compressed gas ceased years
+ago to be an experiment. In Germany it is almost universal, but
+in this country it has been brought into use very slowly. The
+system is almost absolutely safe, not unreasonably expensive, and
+may be made to give satisfactory and even brilliant illumination;
+but the ideal light for railroad trains will probably be found in
+electricity. It is even safer than gas, and is the most adaptable of
+any known method of lighting. Some sleeping-cars that have been
+recently put in service on the Chicago, Milwaukee &amp; St. Paul Railway
+are provided with small electric lamps in the sides of the car,
+between each two adjoining seats, so that the occupants can read
+comfortably either when sitting in their seats or lying in their
+berths.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>It is not to be supposed that so large a subject as that of safety
+appliances can be exhaustively treated within the limits of one
+article. It has been thought best, therefore, to give most of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>
+space available to the two or three devices of greatest and most
+useful application. There remain various others that are in daily
+use, and that have important offices, which have not even been
+mentioned. If the reader has gleaned from these very incomplete
+notes some clearer notions than he had before of the means by
+which the power of the locomotive is guided into safe and useful
+paths, the writer's object has been accomplished.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> The statistics of train accidents used in this article are those collected and published monthly for
+many years by the <cite>Railroad Gazette</cite>. In the nature of things such statistics cannot be absolutely accurate,
+but no others are in existence for the whole country. These are sufficiently accurate for all
+practical purposes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> See "The Freight-car Service," <a href="#Page_267">page 267.</a></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> See "Railway Passenger Travel," <a href="#Page_249">page 249.</a></p></div></div>
+
+
+    <div class="chapter"></div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">RAILWAY PASSENGER TRAVEL.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="pfs90 smcap">By HORACE PORTER.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>The Earliest Railway Passenger Advertisement&mdash;The First Time-table Published in
+America&mdash;The Mohawk and Hudson Train&mdash;Survival of Stage-coach Terms in English
+Railway Nomenclature&mdash;Simon Cameron's Rash Prediction&mdash;Discomforts of
+Early Cars&mdash;Introduction of Air-brakes, Patent Buffers and Couplers, the Bell-cord,
+and Interlocking Switches&mdash;The First Sleeping-cars&mdash;Mr. Pullman's Experiments&mdash;The
+"Pioneer"&mdash;Introduction of Parlor and Drawing-room Cars&mdash;The Demand for
+Dining-cars&mdash;Ingenious Devices for Heating Cars&mdash;Origin of Vestibule-cars&mdash;An
+Important Safety Appliance&mdash;The Luxuries of a Limited Express&mdash;Fast Time in
+America and England&mdash;Sleeping-cars for Immigrants&mdash;The Village of Pullman&mdash;The
+Largest Car-works in the World&mdash;Baggage-checks and Coupon Tickets&mdash;Conveniences
+in a Modern Depot&mdash;Statistics in Regard to Accidents&mdash;Proportion of Passengers
+in Various Classes&mdash;Comparison of Rates in the Leading Countries of the
+World.</p></div>
+
+
+<div><img class="drop-cap" src="images/i_228dc.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="p1 drop-cap">From the time when Puck was supposed to
+utter his boast to put a girdle round about
+the earth in forty minutes to the time when
+Jules Verne's itinerant hero accomplished the
+task in twice that number of days, the restless
+ingenuity and energy of man have been unceasingly
+taxed to increase the speed, comfort, and safety
+of passenger travel. The first railway on which passengers
+were carried was the "Stockton &amp; Darlington," of England,
+the distance being 12 miles. It was opened September 27,
+1825, with a freight train, or, as it is called in England, a "goods"
+train, but which also carried a number of excursionists. An engine
+which was the result of many years of labor and experiment on the
+part of George Stephenson was used on this train. Stephenson
+mounted it and acted as driver; his bump of caution was evidently
+largely developed, for, to guard against accidents from the recklessness
+of the speed, he arranged to have a signalman on horse-back
+ride in advance of the engine to warn the luckless trespasser<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
+of the fate which awaited him if he should get in the way of a
+train moving with such a startling velocity. The next month,
+October, it was decided that it would be worth while to attempt
+the carrying of passengers, and a daily "coach," modelled after
+the stage-coach and called the "Experiment," was put on, Monday,
+October 10, 1825, which carried six passengers inside and
+from fifteen to twenty outside. The engine with its light load
+made the trip in about two hours. The fare from Stockton to
+Darlington was one shilling, and each passenger was allowed fourteen
+pounds of baggage. The limited amount of baggage will appear
+to the ladies of the present day as niggardly in the extreme,
+but they must recollect that the
+bandbox was then the popular
+form of portmanteau for women,
+the Saratoga trunk had not been
+invented, and the muscular baggage-smasher
+of modern times
+had not yet set out upon his
+career of destruction. The advertisement
+which was published
+in the newspapers of the day is here given, and is of peculiar interest
+as announcing the first successful attempt to carry passengers by rail.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_229a.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Stockton &amp; Darlington Engine and Car.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_229b.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Liverpool &amp; Manchester road was opened in 1829.
+The first train was hauled by an improved engine called the
+"Rocket," which attained a speed of 25 miles an hour, and some
+records put it as high as 35 miles. This speed naturally attracted
+marked attention in the mechanical world, and first demonstrated
+the superior advantages of railways for passenger travel. Only
+four years before, so eminent a writer upon railways as Wood had
+said: "Nothing can do more harm to the adoption of railways
+than the promulgation of such nonsense as that we shall see locomotives
+travelling at the rate of 12 miles an hour."</p>
+
+<p>America was quick to adopt the railway system which had had
+its origin in England. In 1827 a crude railway was opened between
+Quincy and Boston, but it was only for the purpose of transporting
+granite for the Bunker Hill Monument. It was not until
+August, 1829, that a locomotive engine was used upon an American
+railroad suitable for carrying passengers. This road was constructed
+by the Delaware &amp; Hudson Canal Company, and the
+experiment was made near Honesdale, Pa. The engine was imported
+from England and was called the "Stourbridge Lion."</p>
+
+<p>In May, 1830, the first division of the Baltimore &amp; Ohio road
+was opened. It extended from Baltimore to Ellicott's Mills, a distance
+of 15 miles. There being a scarcity of cars, the regular passenger
+business did not begin till the 5th of July following, and
+then only horse-power was employed, which continued to be used
+till the road was finished to Frederick, in 1832. The term Relay
+House, the name of a well-known station, originated in the fact
+that the horses were changed at that place.</p>
+
+<p>The following notice, which appeared in the Baltimore newspapers,
+was the first time-table for passenger railway trains published
+in this country:</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2 pfs80">RAILROAD NOTICE.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquoty">
+
+<p>A sufficient number of cars being now provided for the accommodation of passengers,
+notice is hereby given that the following arrangements for the arrival and departure of carriages
+have been adopted, and will take effect on and after Monday morning next the 5th
+instant, viz.:</p>
+
+<p>A brigade of cars will leave the depot on Pratt St. at 6 and 10 o'clock A. M., and at 3
+to 4 o'clock P. M., and will leave the depot at Ellicott's Mills at 6 and 8½ o'clock A. M.,
+and at 12½ and 6 P. M.</p>
+
+<p>Way passengers will provide themselves with tickets at the office of the Company in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
+Baltimore, or at the depots at Pratt St. and Ellicott's Mills, or at the Relay House, near
+Elk Ridge Landing.</p>
+
+<p>The evening way car for Ellicott's Mills will continue to leave the depot, Pratt St., at
+6 o'clock P. M. as usual.</p>
+
+<p>N. B. Positive orders have been issued to the drivers to receive no passengers into
+any of the cars without tickets.</p>
+
+<p>P. S. Parties desiring to engage a car for the day can be accommodated after July 5th.</p></div>
+
+<p>It will be seen that the word train was not used, but instead
+the schedule spoke of a "brigade of cars."</p>
+
+<p>The South Carolina Railroad was begun about the same time
+as the Baltimore &amp; Ohio, and ran from Charleston to Hamburg,
+opposite Augusta. When the first division had been constructed,
+it was opened November 2, 1830.</p>
+
+<p>Peter Cooper, of New York, had before this constructed a locomotive
+and made a trial trip with it on the Baltimore &amp; Ohio
+Railroad, on the 28th of August, 1830, but, not meeting the requirements
+of the company, it was not put into service.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_231.jpg" width="350" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Mohawk &amp; Hudson Train.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A passenger train of the Mohawk &amp; Hudson Railroad which
+was put on in October,
+1831, between Albany
+and Schenectady, attracted
+much attention.
+It was hauled
+by an English engine
+named the "John
+Bull," and driven by
+an English engineer named John Hampson. This is generally
+regarded as the first fully equipped passenger train hauled by a
+steam-power engine which ran in regular service in America.
+During 1832 it carried an average of 387 passengers daily. The
+accompanying engraving is from a sketch made at the time.</p>
+
+<p>It was said by an advocate of mechanical evolution that the
+modern steam fire-engine was evolved from the ancient leathern
+fire-bucket; it might be said with greater truth that the modern
+railway car has been evolved from the old-fashioned English stage-coach.</p>
+
+<p>England still retains the railway carriage divided into compartments,
+that bear a close resemblance inside and outside to stage-coach
+bodies with the middle seat omitted. In fact, the nomen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>clature
+of the stage-coach is in large measure still preserved in
+England. The engineer is called the driver, the conductor the
+guard, the ticket-office is the booking-office, the cars are the carriages,
+and a rustic traveller may still be heard occasionally to object
+to sitting with his back to the horses. The earlier locomotives,
+like horses, were given proper names, such as Lion, North Star,
+Fiery, and Rocket; the compartments in the round-houses for
+sheltering locomotives are termed the stalls, and the keeper of the
+round-house is called the hostler. The last two are the only items
+of equine classification which the American railway system has
+permanently adopted.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_232.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">English Railway Carriage, Midland Road. First and Third Class and Luggage Compartments.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>America, at an early day, departed not only from the nomenclature
+of the turnpike, but from the stage-coach architecture, and
+adopted a long car in one compartment and containing a middle
+aisle which admitted of communication throughout the train.
+The car was carried on two trucks, or bogies, and was well adapted
+to the sharp curvature which prevailed upon our railways.</p>
+
+<p>The first five years of experience showed marked progress in
+the practical operation of railway trains, but even after locomotives
+had demonstrated their capabilities and each improved engine had
+shown an encouraging increase in velocity, the wildest flights of
+fancy never pictured the speed attained in later years.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_233a.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">One of the Earliest Passenger Cars Built in this Country;<br />used on the Western
+Railroad of Massachusetts (now the Boston &amp; Albany).</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the roads forming the line between Philadelphia and
+Harrisburg, Pa., were chartered in 1835, and town meetings were
+held to discuss their practicability, the Honorable Simon Cameron,
+while making a speech in advocacy of the measure, was so far<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
+carried away by
+his enthusiasm
+as to make the
+rash prediction
+that there were
+persons within
+the sound of his
+voice who would
+live to see a
+passenger take
+his breakfast in
+Harrisburg and
+his supper in
+Philadelphia on the same day. A friend of his on the platform
+said to him after he had finished: "That's all very well, Simon,
+to tell to the boys, but you and I are no such infernal fools as to
+believe it." They both lived to travel the distance in a little over
+two hours.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_233b.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Bogie Truck.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The people were far from being unanimous in their advocacy
+of the railway system, and charters were not obtained without severe
+struggles. The topic was the universal subject of discussion
+in all popular assemblages. Colonel Blank, a well-known politician
+in Pennsylvania, had been loud in his opposition to the new
+means of transportation. When one of the first trains was running
+over the Harrisburg &amp; Lancaster road, a famous Durham bull
+belonging to a Mr. Schultz became seized with the enterprising
+spirit of Don Quixote,
+put his head down and
+tail up, and made a
+desperate charge at
+the on-coming locomotive,
+but his steam-breathing
+opponent
+proved the better butter
+of the two and the
+bull was ignominiously
+defeated. At a public banquet held soon after in that part of
+the State, the toast-master proposed a toast to "Colonel Blank<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
+and Schultz's bull&mdash;both opposed
+to railroad trains." The
+joke was widely circulated and
+had much to do with completing
+the discomfiture of the
+opposition in the following
+elections.</p>
+
+<div class="sandbagbox" id="img234">
+ <div id="i234b1">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i234b2">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<div class="caption">Rail and Coach Travel in the White Mountains.</div>
+
+<p>The railroad was a decided
+step in advance, compared
+with the stage-coach
+and canal-boat, but, when we
+picture the surroundings of
+the traveller upon railways
+during the first ten or fifteen
+years of their existence,
+we find his journey was not
+one to be envied. He was
+jammed into a narrow seat with a stiff back, the deck of the car
+was low and flat, and ventilation in winter impossible. A stove at
+each end did little more than generate carbonic oxide. The passenger
+roasted if he sat at the end of the car, and froze if he sat
+in the middle. Tallow candles furnished a "dim religious light,"
+but the accompanying odor did not savor of cathedral incense.
+The dust was suffocating in dry weather; there were no adequate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
+spark-arresters on the engine, or screens at the windows, and the
+begrimed passenger at the end of his journey looked as if he had
+spent the day in a blacksmith-shop. Recent experiments in obtaining
+a spectrum-analysis of the component parts of a quantity of
+dust collected in a railway car show that minute particles of iron
+form a large proportion, and under the microscope present the appearance
+of a collection of tenpenny nails. As iron administered
+to the human system through the respiratory organs in the form
+of tenpenny nails mixed with other undesirable matter is not especially
+recommended by medical practitioners, the sanitary surroundings
+of the primitive
+railway car cannot be
+commended. There
+were no double tracks,
+and no telegraph to
+facilitate the safe despatching
+of trains.
+The springs of the car
+were hard, the jolting
+intolerable, the windows
+rattled like those
+of the modern omnibus,
+and conversation
+was a luxury that
+could be indulged in
+only by those of recognized
+superiority in
+lung power. The
+brakes were clumsy
+and of little service.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="HandHeld">
+    <div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_234.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
+    <div class="caption">Rail and Coach Travel in the White Mountains.</div>
+    </div>
+
+    <p>The railroad was a decided
+    step in advance, compared
+    with the stage-coach
+    and canal-boat, but, when we
+    picture the surroundings of
+    the traveller upon railways
+    during the first ten or fifteen
+    years of their existence,
+    we find his journey was not
+    one to be envied. He was
+    jammed into a narrow seat with a stiff back, the deck of the car
+    was low and flat, and ventilation in winter impossible. A stove at
+    each end did little more than generate carbonic oxide. The passenger
+    roasted if he sat at the end of the car, and froze if he sat
+    in the middle. Tallow candles furnished a "dim religious light,"
+    but the accompanying odor did not savor of cathedral incense.
+    The dust was suffocating in dry weather; there were no adequate
+    spark-arresters on the engine, or screens at the windows, and the
+    begrimed passenger at the end of his journey looked as if he had
+    spent the day in a blacksmith-shop. Recent experiments in obtaining
+    a spectrum-analysis of the component parts of a quantity of
+    dust collected in a railway car show that minute particles of iron
+    form a large proportion, and under the microscope present the appearance
+    of a collection of tenpenny nails. As iron administered
+    to the human system through the respiratory organs in the form
+    of tenpenny nails mixed with other undesirable matter is not especially
+    recommended by medical practitioners, the sanitary surroundings
+    of the primitive
+    railway car cannot be
+    commended. There
+    were no double tracks,
+    and no telegraph to
+    facilitate the safe despatching
+    of trains.
+    The springs of the car
+    were hard, the jolting
+    intolerable, the windows
+    rattled like those
+    of the modern omnibus,
+    and conversation
+    was a luxury that
+    could be indulged in
+    only by those of recognized
+    superiority in
+    lung power. The
+    brakes were clumsy
+    and of little service.</p>
+    </div>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_235.jpg" width="375" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">From an Old Time-table (furnished by the "A B C Pathfinder Railway Guide").</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ends of the flat-bar
+rails were cut
+diagonally, so that
+when laid down they
+would lap and form a
+smoother joint. Occasionally
+they became sprung; the spikes would not hold, and
+the end of the rail with its sharp point rose high enough for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
+wheel to run under it, rip it loose, and send the pointed end
+through the floor of the car. This was called a "snake's head,"
+and the unlucky being sitting
+over it was likely to be
+impaled against the roof.
+So that the traveller of that
+day, in addition to his other
+miseries, was in momentary
+apprehension of being spitted
+like a Christmas turkey.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_236a.jpg" width="350" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Old Boston &amp; Worcester Railway Ticket (about 1837).</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Baggage-checks and coupon
+tickets were unknown.
+Long trips had to be made over lines composed of a number of short
+independent railways; and at the terminus of each the bedevilled
+passenger had to transfer, purchase another ticket, personally pick
+out his baggage, perhaps on an uncovered platform in a rain-storm,
+and take his chances of securing a seat in the train in which he
+was to continue his weary journey.</p>
+
+<p>After the principal companies had sent agents to Europe to
+gather all the information possible regarding the progress made
+there, they soon began to aim at perfecting what may justly be
+called the American system of railways. The roadbed, or what in
+England is called the "permanent way," was constructed in such a
+manner as to conform to the requirements of the new country, and
+the equipment was adapted to the wants of the people. In no
+branch of industry has the inventive genius of the race been more
+skilfully or
+more successfully
+employed
+than in the
+effort to bring
+railway travel
+to its present
+state of perfection.
+Every year has shown progress in perfecting the comforts
+and safety of the railway car. In 1849 the Hodge hand-brake was
+introduced, and in 1851 the Stevens brake. These enabled the cars
+to be controlled in a manner which added much to the economy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
+and safety of handling the trains. In 1869 George Westinghouse
+patented his air-brake, by which power from the engine was transmitted
+by compressed air carried through hose and acting upon the
+brakes of each car in the train.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> It was under the control of the
+engineer, and its action was so prompt and its power so effectual
+that a train could be stopped in an incredibly short time, and the
+brakes released in an instant. In 1871 the vacuum-brake was devised,
+by means of which the power was applied to the brakes by
+exhausting the air.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/i_236b.jpg" width="450" height="127" alt="" />
+<div class="caption"><p>Obverse and Reverse of a Ticket Used in 1838, on the New York &amp; Harlem Railroad.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A difficulty under which railways suffered for many years was
+the method of coupling cars. The ordinary means consisted of
+coupling-pins inserted into links attached to the cars. There was
+a great deal of "slack," the jerking of the train in consequence was
+very objectionable, and the distance between the platforms of the
+cars made the crossing of them dangerous. In collisions one platform
+was likely to rise above that of the adjoining car, and "telescoping"
+was not an uncommon occurrence.</p>
+
+<p>The means of warning passengers against standing on the platform
+were characteristic of the dangers which threatened, and were
+often ingenious in the devices for attracting attention. On a New
+Jersey road there was painted on the car-door a picture of a new-made
+grave, with a formidable tombstone, on which was an inscription
+announcing to a terrified public that it was "Sacred to the
+memory of the man who had stood on a platform."</p>
+
+<p>The Miller coupler and buffer was patented in 1863, and obviated
+many of the discomforts and dangers arising from the old
+methods of coupling. This was followed by the Janney coupler<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a>
+and a number of other devices, the essential principle of all being
+an automatic arrangement by which the two knuckles of the coupler
+when thrust together become securely locked, and a system of
+springs which keep the buffers in close contact and prevent jerking
+and jarring when the train is in motion.</p>
+
+<p>The introduction of the bell-cord running through the train and
+enabling conductors to communicate promptly by means of it with
+the engineer, and signal him in case of danger, constitutes another
+source of safety, but is still a wonder to Europeans, who cannot understand
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>why passengers do not tamper with it, and how they can
+resist the temptation to give false signals by means of it. The only
+answer is that our people are educated up to it, and being accustomed
+to govern themselves, they do not require any restraint to make
+them respect so useful a device. Aside from the inconveniences
+which used to arise occasionally from a rustic mistaking the bell-cord
+for a clothes-rack, and hanging his overcoat over it, or from
+an old gentleman grabbing hold of it to help him climb into an
+upper berth in a sleeping-car, it has been singularly exempt from
+efforts to pervert it to unintended uses.</p>
+
+<p>The application of the magnetic telegraph to railways wrought
+the first great revolution in despatching trains, and introduced an
+element of promptness and safety in their operation of which the most
+sanguine of railroad advocates had never dreamed. The application
+of electricity was gradually availed of in many ingenious signal
+devices for both day and night service, to direct the locomotive engineer
+in running his train, and interpose precautions against accidents.
+Fusees have also been called into requisition, which burn
+with a bright flame a given length of time; and when a train is behind
+time and followed by another, by igniting one of these lights,
+and leaving it on the track, the train following can tell by noting
+the time of burning about how near it is the preceding train.
+Torpedoes left upon the track, which explode when passed over by
+the wheels of a following train and warn it of its proximity to a
+train ahead, are also used.</p>
+
+<p>In the early days more accidents arose from switches than from
+any other cause; but improvement in their construction has progressed
+until it would seem that the dangers have been effectually
+overcome. The split-rail switch prevents a train from being thrown
+off the track in case the switch is left open, and the result is that
+in such an event the train is only turned on another track. The
+Wharton switch, which leaves the main line unbroken, marks
+another step in the march of improvement. Among other devices
+is a complete interlocking-switch system, by means of which
+one man standing in a switch-tower, overlooking a large yard with
+numerous tracks, over which trains arrive and depart every few
+minutes, can, by moving a system of levers, open any required
+track and by the same motion block all the others, and prevent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
+the possibility of collisions or other accidents resulting from trains
+entering upon the wrong track.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p>
+
+<p>The steam-boats on our large rivers had been making great
+progress in the comforts afforded to passengers. They were providing
+berths to sleep in, serving meals in spacious cabins, and
+giving musical entertainments and dancing parties on board. The
+railroads soon began to learn a lesson from them in adding to the
+comforts of the travelling public.</p>
+
+<p>The first attempt to furnish the railway passenger a place to
+sleep while on his journey was made upon the Cumberland Valley
+Railroad of Pennsylvania, between Harrisburg and Chambersburg.
+In the winter season the east-bound passengers arrived at Chambersburg
+late at night by stage-coach, and as they were exhausted
+by a fatiguing trip over the mountains and many wished to continue
+their journey to Harrisburg to catch the morning train for
+Philadelphia, it became very desirable to furnish sleeping accommodations
+aboard the cars. The officers of this road fitted up a
+passenger car with a number of berths, and put it into service as a
+sleeping-car in the winter of 1836&ndash;37. It was exceedingly crude
+and primitive in construction. It was divided by transverse partitions
+into four sections, and each contained three berths&mdash;a lower,
+middle, and upper berth. This car was used until 1848 and then
+abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>About this time there were also experiments made in fitting
+up cars with berths something like those in a steam-boat cabin,
+but these crude attempts did not prove attractive to travellers.
+There were no bedclothes furnished, and only a coarse mattress
+and pillow were supplied, and with the poor ventilation and the
+rattling and jolting of the car there was not much comfort afforded,
+except a means of resting in a position which was somewhat
+more endurable than a sitting posture.</p>
+
+<p>Previous to the year 1858 a few of the leading railways had
+put on sleeping-cars which made some pretensions to meet a
+growing want of the travelling public, but they were still crude,
+uncomfortable, and unsatisfactory in their arrangements and appointments.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1858 George M. Pullman entered a train of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>
+Lake Shore Railroad at Buffalo, to make a trip to Chicago. It
+happened that a new sleeping-car which had been built for the
+railroad company was attached to this train and was making its
+first trip. Mr. Pullman stepped in to take a look at it, and finally
+decided to test this new form of luxury by passing the night in
+one of its berths. He was tossed about in a manner not very conducive
+to the "folding of the hands to sleep," and he turned out
+before daylight and took refuge upon a seat in the end of the car.
+He now began to ponder upon the subject, and before the journey
+ended he had conceived the notion that, in a country of magnificent
+distances like this, a great boon could be offered to travellers
+by the construction of cars easily convertible into comfortable and
+convenient day or night coaches, and supplied with such appointments
+as would give the occupants practically the same comforts as
+were afforded by the steam-boats. He began experiments in this
+direction soon after his arrival in Chicago, and in 1859 altered
+some day-cars on the Chicago &amp; Alton Railroad, and converted
+them into sleeping-cars which were a marked step in advance of
+similar cars previously constructed. They were successful in
+meeting the wants of passengers at that time, but Mr. Pullman did
+not consider them in any other light than experiments. One
+night, after they had made a few trips on the line between Chicago
+and St. Louis, a tall, angular-looking man entered one of the cars
+while Mr. Pullman was aboard, and after asking a great many intelligent
+questions about the inventions, finally said he thought he
+would try what the thing was like, and stowed himself away in an
+upper berth. This proved to be Abraham Lincoln.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_240.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The "Pioneer." First complete Pullman Sleeping-car.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_241.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1864 Mr. Pullman perfected his plans for a car which was to
+be a marked and radical departure from any one ever before attempted,
+and that year invested his capital in the construction of
+what may be called the father of the Pullman cars. He built it in
+a shed in the yard of the Chicago &amp; Alton Railroad at a cost of
+$18,000, named it the "Pioneer," and designated it by the letter
+"A." It did not then occur to anyone that there would ever be
+enough sleeping-cars introduced to exhaust the whole twenty-six
+letters of the alphabet. The sum expended upon it was naturally
+looked upon as fabulous at a time when such sleeping-cars as
+were used could be built for
+about $4,500. The constructor
+of the "Pioneer" aimed to produce
+a car which would prove
+acceptable in every respect to
+the travelling public. It had
+improved trucks and a raised
+deck, and was built a foot wider
+and two and a half feet higher
+than any car then in service.
+He deemed this necessary for
+the purpose of introducing a
+hinged upper berth, which, when
+fastened up, formed a recess behind
+it for stowing the necessary
+bedding in the daytime. Before
+that the mattresses had been
+piled in one end of the car, and
+had to be dragged through the
+aisle when wanted. It was
+known to him that the dimensions
+of the bridges and station-platforms would not admit of its
+passing over the line, but he was singularly confident in the belief
+that an attractive car, constructed upon correct principles, would find
+its way into service against all obstacles. It so happened that soon
+after the car was finished, in the spring of 1865, the body of President
+Lincoln arrived at Chicago, and the "Pioneer" was wanted
+for the funeral train which was to take it to Springfield. To enable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>
+the car to pass over the road, the station-platforms and other
+obstructions were reduced in size, and thereafter the line was in a
+condition to put the car into service. A few months afterward
+General Grant was making a trip West to visit his home in Galena,
+Ill., and as the railway companies were anxious to take him from
+Detroit to his destination in the car which had now become quite
+celebrated, the station-platforms along the line were widened for
+the purpose, and thus another route was opened to its passage.</p>
+
+<p>The car was now put into regular service on the Alton road.
+Its popularity fully realized the anticipations of its owner, and its
+size became the standard for the future Pullman cars as to height
+and width, though they have since been increased in length.</p>
+
+<p>The railroad company entered into an agreement to have this
+car, and a number of others which were immediately built, operated
+upon its lines. They were marvels of beauty, and their construction
+embraced patents of such ingenuity and originality that
+they attracted marked attention in the railroad world and created
+a new departure in the method of travel.</p>
+
+<p>In 1867 Mr. Pullman formed the Pullman Car Company and
+devoted it to carrying out an idea which he had conceived, of organizing
+a system by which passengers could be carried in luxurious
+cars of uniform pattern, adequate to the wants of both night
+and day travel, which would run through without change between
+far-distant points and over a number of distinct lines of railway, in
+charge of responsible through agents, to whom ladies, children,
+and invalids could be safely intrusted. This system was especially
+adapted to a country of such geographical extent as America. It
+supplied an important want, and the travelling public and the railways
+were prompt to avail themselves of its advantages.</p>
+
+<p>Parlor or drawing-room cars were next introduced for day runs,
+which added greatly to the luxury of travel, enabling passengers
+to secure seats in advance, and enjoy many comforts which were
+not found in ordinary cars. Sleeping and parlor cars were soon
+recognized as an essential part of a railway's equipment and became
+known as "palace cars."</p>
+
+<p>The Wagner Car Company was organized in the State of New
+York, and was early in the field in furnishing this class of vehicles.
+It has supplied all the cars of this kind used upon the Vanderbilt<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>
+system of railways and a number of its connecting roads. Several
+smaller palace-car companies have also engaged in the business at
+different times. A few roads have operated their own cars of this
+class, but the business is generally regarded as a specialty, and the
+railway companies recognize the advantages and conveniences resulting
+from the ability of a large car-company to meet the irregularities
+of travel, which require a large equipment at one season and
+a small one at another, to furnish an additional supply of cars for a
+sudden demand, and to perform satisfactorily the business of operating
+through cars in lines composed of many different railways.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_243.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Pullman Parlor Car.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Next came a demand for cars in which meals could be served.
+Why, it was said, should a train stop at a station for meals any
+more than a steam-boat tie up to a wharf for the same purpose?<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>
+The Pullman Company now introduced the hotel-car, which
+was practically a sleeping-car with a kitchen and pantries in one end
+and portable tables which could be placed between the seats of
+each section and upon which meals could be conveniently served.
+The first hotel-car was named the "President," and was put into
+service on the Great Western Railway of Canada, in 1867, and soon
+after several popular lines were equipped with this new addition to
+the luxuries of travel.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_244.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Wagner Parlor Car.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>After this came the dining-car, which was still another step beyond
+the hotel-car. It was a complete restaurant, having a large
+kitchen and pantries in one end, with the main body of the car
+fitted up as a commodious dining-room, in which all the passengers
+in the train could enter and take their meals comfortably. The
+first dining-car was named the "Delmonico," and began running
+on the Chicago &amp; Alton Railroad in the year 1868.</p>
+
+<p>The comforts and conveniences of travel by rail on the main
+lines now seemed to have reached their culmination in America.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span>
+The heavy <span class="bold fs120">T</span>-rails had replaced the various forms previously used;
+the improved fastenings, the reductions in curvature, and the greater
+care exercised in construction had made the trip delightfully
+smooth, while the improvements in rolling-stock had obviated the
+jerking, jolting, and oscillation of the cars. The roadbeds had
+been properly ditched, drained, and ballasted with broken stone
+or gravel, the dust overcome, the sparks arrested, and cleanliness,
+that attribute which stands next to godliness, had at last been
+made possible, even on a railway train.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_245.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Dining-car (Chicago, Burlington, &amp; Quincy Railroad.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The heating of cars was not successfully accomplished till a
+method was devised for circulating hot water through pipes running
+near the floor. The suffering from that bane of the traveller&mdash;cold
+feet&mdash;was then obviated and many a doctor's bill saved.
+The loss of human life from the destruction of trains by fires originating
+from stoves aroused such a feeling throughout the country
+that the legislatures of many States have passed laws within the
+last three years prohibiting the use of stoves, and the railway managers
+have been devising plans for heating the trains with steam
+furnished from the boiler of the locomotive. The inventive genius
+of the people was at once brought into requisition, and several
+ingenious devices are now in use which successfully accomplish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>
+the purpose in solid trains with the locomotive attached, but the
+problem of heating a detached car without some form of furnace
+connected with it is still unsolved.</p>
+
+<p>But notwithstanding the high standard of excellence which
+had been reached in the construction and operation of passenger
+trains, there was one want not yet supplied, the importance of
+which did not become fully recognized until dining-cars were introduced,
+and men, women, and children had to pass across the
+platforms of several cars in order to reach the one in which the
+meals were served. An act which passengers had always been
+cautioned against, and forbidden to undertake&mdash;the crossing of
+platforms while the train is in motion&mdash;now became necessary,
+and was invited by the railway companies.</p>
+
+<p>It was soon seen that a safe covered passageway between the
+cars must be provided, particularly for limited express trains.
+Crude attempts had been made in this direction at different times.
+As early as the years 1852 and 1855 patents were taken out for
+devices which provided for diaphragms of canvas to connect adjoining
+cars and form a passageway between them. These were applied
+to cars on the Naugatuck Railroad, in Connecticut, in 1857,
+but they were used mainly for purposes of ventilation, to provide
+for taking in air at the head of the train, so as to permit the car
+windows to be kept shut, to avoid the dust that entered through
+them when they were open. These appliances were very imperfect,
+did not seem to be of any practical advantage, even for the
+limited uses for which they were intended, and they were abandoned
+after a trial of about four years.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1886 Mr. Pullman went practically to work to devise
+a perfect system for constructing continuous trains, and at the
+same time to provide for sufficient flexibility in connecting the
+passageways to allow for the motion consequent upon the rounding
+of curves. His efforts resulted in what is now known as the
+"vestibuled" train.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span><br />
+   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_247.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Pullman Vestibuled Cars.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_249.jpg" width="350" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">End View of a Vestibuled Car.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This invention, which was patented in 1887, succeeded not only
+in supplying the means of constructing a perfectly enclosed vestibule
+of handsome architectural appearance between the cars, but it accomplished
+what is even still more important, the introduction of a
+safety appliance more valuable than any yet devised for the protection
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span>
+of human life in case of collisions. The elastic diaphragms
+which are attached to the ends of the cars have steel frames, the
+faces or bearing surfaces
+of which are pressed firmly
+against each other by
+powerful spiral springs,
+which create a friction
+upon the faces of the
+frames, hold them firmly
+in position, prevent the
+oscillation of the cars, and
+furnish a buffer extending
+from the platform to the
+roof which precludes the
+possibility of one platform
+"riding" the other and
+producing telescoping in
+case of collision. The
+first of the vestibuled
+trains went into service
+on the Pennsylvania Railroad in June, 1886, and they are rapidly
+being adopted by railway companies. The vestibuled limited trains
+contain several sleeping-cars, a dining-car, and a car fitted up with a
+smoking saloon, a library with books, desks, and writing materials,
+a bath-room, and a barber-shop. With a free circulation of air
+throughout the train, the cars opening into each other, the electric
+light, the many other increased comforts and conveniences introduced,
+the steam-heating apparatus avoiding the necessity of using
+fires, the great speed, and absence of stops at meal-stations, this
+train is the acme of safe and luxurious travel. An ordinary passenger
+travels in as princely a style in these cars as any crowned
+head in Europe in a royal special train.</p>
+
+<p>The speed of passenger trains has shown steady improvement
+from year to year. In the month of June in our Centennial year,
+1876, a train ran from New York to San Francisco, a distance of
+3,317 miles, in 83 hours and 27 minutes actual time, thus averaging
+about 40 miles an hour, but during the trip it crossed four
+mountain-summits, one of them over 8,000 feet high. This train<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span>
+ran from Jersey City to Pittsburg over the Pennsylvania Railroad,
+a distance of 444 miles, without making a stop. In 1882 locomotives
+were introduced which made a speed of 70 miles per hour.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_250.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Pullman Sleeper on a Vestibuled Train.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In July, 1885, an engine with a train of three cars made a trip
+over the West Shore road which is the most extraordinary one
+on record. It started from East Buffalo, N. Y., at 10.04 <span class="fs70">A.M.</span>,
+and reached Weehawken, N. J., at 7.27 <span class="fs70">P.M.</span> Deducting the
+time consumed in stops, the actual running time was 7 hours and
+23 minutes, or an average of 56 miles per hour. Between Churchville
+and Genesee Junction this train attained the unparalleled
+speed of 87 miles per hour, and at several other parts of the line
+a speed of from 70 to 80 miles an hour. The superior physical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span>
+characteristics of this road were particularly favorable for the attainment
+of the speed mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The trains referred to were special or experimental trains, and
+while American railways have shown their ability to record the
+highest speed yet known, they do not run their trains in regular
+service as fast as those on the English railways. The meteor-like
+names given to our fast trains are somewhat misleading.
+When one reads of such trains as the "Lightning," the "Cannonball,"
+the "Thunderbolt," and the "G&mdash;whiz-z," the suggestiveness
+of the titles is enough to make one's head swim, but, after all,
+the names are not as significant of speed as the British "Flying
+Scotchman" and the "Wild Irishman;" for the former do not
+attain an average rate of 40 miles an hour, while the latter exceed
+45 miles. A few American trains, however, those between Jersey
+City and Philadelphia, for instance, make an average speed of over
+50 miles per hour.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_251.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Immigrant Sleeping-car (Canadian Pacific Railway.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The transportation of immigrants has recently received increased
+facilities for its accommodation upon the principal through
+lines. Until
+late years economically
+constructed
+day-cars
+were
+alone used,
+but in these
+the immigrants
+suffered
+great discomfort
+in
+long journeys.
+An immigrant
+sleeper is now
+used, which is
+constructed
+with sections
+on each side of the aisle, each section containing two double
+berths. The berths are made with slats of hard wood running<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span>
+longitudinally; there is no upholstery in the car, and no bedding
+supplied, and after the car is vacated the hose can be turned in
+upon it, and all the wood-work thoroughly
+cleansed. The immigrants usually carry with
+them enough blankets and wraps to make them
+tolerably comfortable in their berths; a cooking
+stove is provided in one end of the car, on
+which the occupants can cook their food, and
+even the long transcontinental journeys of the
+immigrants are now made without hardship.</p>
+
+<div class="sandbagbox" id="img252">
+ <div id="i252b1">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i252b2">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<div class="caption">View of Pullman, Ill.</div>
+
+<p>The manufacture of railway passenger cars is a large item of
+industry in the country. The tendency had been for many years
+to confine the building of ordinary passenger coaches to the shops
+owned by the railway companies, and they made extensive provision
+for such work; but recently they have given large orders for
+that class of equipment to outside manufacturers. This has resulted
+partly from the large demand for cars, and partly on account
+of the excellence of the work supplied by some of the manufacturing
+companies. In 1880 the Pullman Company erected the
+most extensive car-works in the world at Pullman, fourteen miles
+south of Chicago; and, besides its extensive output of Pullman
+cars and freight equipment, it has built for railway companies large
+numbers of passenger coaches. The employees now number
+about 5,000, and an idea of the capacity and resources of the shops<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span>
+may be obtained from the fact that one hundred freight cars, of
+the kind known as flat cars, have been built in eight hours. The
+business of car-building has therefore given rise to the first model
+manufacturing town in America, and it is an industry evidently
+destined to increase as rapidly as any in the country.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="HandHeld">
+    <div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_252.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+    <div class="caption">View of Pullman, Ill.</div>
+    </div>
+
+    <p>The manufacture of railway passenger cars is a large item of
+    industry in the country. The tendency had been for many years
+    to confine the building of ordinary passenger coaches to the shops
+    owned by the railway companies, and they made extensive provision
+    for such work; but recently they have given large orders for
+    that class of equipment to outside manufacturers. This has resulted
+    partly from the large demand for cars, and partly on account
+    of the excellence of the work supplied by some of the manufacturing
+    companies. In 1880 the Pullman Company erected the
+    most extensive car-works in the world at Pullman, fourteen miles
+    south of Chicago; and, besides its extensive output of Pullman
+    cars and freight equipment, it has built for railway companies large
+    numbers of passenger coaches. The employees now number
+    about 5,000, and an idea of the capacity and resources of the shops
+    may be obtained from the fact that one hundred freight cars, of
+    the kind known as flat cars, have been built in eight hours. The
+    business of car-building has therefore given rise to the first model
+    manufacturing town in America, and it is an industry evidently
+    destined to increase as rapidly as any in the country.</p>
+    </div>
+
+<p>The transportation of baggage has always been a most important
+item to the traveller, and the amount carried seems to increase
+in proportion to the advance in civilization. The original allowance
+of fourteen pounds is found to be increased to four hundred
+when ladies start for fashionable summer-resorts.</p>
+
+<p>America has been much more liberal than other countries to
+the traveller in this particular, as in all others. Here few of the
+roads charge for excess of baggage unless the amount be so large
+that patience with regard to it ceases to be a virtue.</p>
+
+<p>The earlier method, of allowing each passenger to pick out his
+own baggage at his point of destination and carry it off, resulted
+in a lack of accountability which led to much confusion, frequent
+losses, and heavy claims upon the companies in consequence.
+Necessity, as usual, gave birth to invention, and the difficulty was
+at last solved by the introduction of the system known as "checking."
+A metal disk bearing a number and designating on its face
+the destination of the baggage was attached to each article and a
+duplicate given to the owner, which answered as a receipt, and
+upon the presentation and surrender of which the baggage could
+be claimed. Railways soon united in arranging for through checks
+which, when attached to baggage, would insure its being sent safely
+to distant points over lines composed of many connecting roads.
+The check system led to the introduction of another marked convenience
+in the handling of baggage&mdash;the baggage express or
+transfer company. One of its agents will now check trunks at the
+passenger's own house and haul them to the train. Another
+agent will take up the checks aboard the train as it is nearing its
+destination, and see that the baggage is delivered at any given
+address.</p>
+
+<p>The cases in which pieces go astray are astonishingly rare, and
+some roads found the claims for lost articles reduced by five thousand
+dollars the first year after adopting the check system, not to
+mention the amount saved in the reduced force of employees en<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>gaged
+in assorting and handling the baggage. Its workings are
+so perfect and its conveniences so great that an American cannot
+easily understand why it is not adopted in all countries; but he is
+forced to recognize the fact that it seems destined to be confined
+to his own land. The London railway managers, for instance,
+give many reasons for turning their faces against its adoption.
+They say that there are few losses arising from passengers taking
+baggage that does not belong to them; that most of the passengers
+take a cab at the end of their railway journey to reach
+their homes, and it costs but little more to carry their trunk with
+them; that in this way it gets home as soon as they, while the
+transfer company, or baggage express, would not deliver it for an
+hour or two later; that the cab system is a great convenience, and
+any change which would diminish its patronage would gradually
+reduce the number of cabs, and these "gondolas of London"
+would have to increase their charges or go out of business. It is
+very easy to find a stick when one wants to hit a dog, and the
+European railway officials seem never to be at a loss for reasons
+in rejecting the check system.</p>
+
+<p>Coupon tickets covering trips over several different railways
+have saved the traveller all the annoyance once experienced in
+purchasing separate tickets from the several companies representing
+the roads over which he had to pass. Their introduction necessitated
+an agreement among the principal railways of the country
+and the adoption of an extensive system of accountability for
+the purpose of making settlements of the amounts represented by
+the coupons.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span><br />
+   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_255.jpg" width="475" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">In a Baggage-room.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Like every other novelty the coupon ticket, when first introduced,
+did not hit the mark when aimed at the understanding of
+certain travellers. A United States Senator-elect had come on by
+sea from the Pacific Coast who had never seen a railroad till he
+reached the Atlantic seaboard. With a curiosity to test the workings
+of the new means of transportation, of which he had heard so
+much, he bought a coupon ticket and set out for a railway journey.
+He entered a car, took a seat next to the door, and was just beginning
+to get the "hang of the school-house" when the conductor,
+who was then not uniformed, came in, cried "Tickets!" and reached
+out his hand toward the Senator. "What do you want of me?"
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span>
+said the latter. "I want your ticket," answered the conductor.
+Now it occurred to the Senator that this might be a very neat job
+on the part of an Eastern ticket-sharp, but it was just a little too
+thin to fool a Pacific Coaster, and he said: "Don't you think I've
+got sense enough to know that if I parted with my ticket right at
+the start I wouldn't have anything to show for my money during
+the rest of the way? No, sir, I'm going to hold on to this till I
+get to the end of the trip."</p>
+
+<p>"Oh!" said the conductor, whose impatience was now rising
+to fever heat, "I don't want to take up your ticket, I only want to
+look at it."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_257.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Railway Station at York, England, built on a curve.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Senator thought, after some reflection, that he would risk
+letting the man have a peep at it, anyhow, and held it up before
+him, keeping it, however, at a safe distance. The conductor, with
+the customary abruptness, jerked it out of his hand, tore off the
+first coupon, and was about to return the ticket, when the Pacific
+Coaster sprang up, threw himself upon his muscle, and delivered a
+well-directed blow of his fist upon the conductor's right eye, which
+landed him sprawling on one of the opposite seats. The other
+passengers were at once on their feet, and rushed up to know the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>
+cause of the disturbance. The Senator, still standing with his
+arms in a pugnacious attitude, said:</p>
+
+<p>"Maybe I've never ridden on a railroad before, but I'm not
+going to let any sharper get away with me like that."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_258.jpg" width="575" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Outside the Grand Central Station, New York.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>"What's he done?" cried the passengers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"Why," said the Senator, "I paid seventeen dollars and a half
+for a ticket to take me through to Cincinnati, and before we're five
+miles out that fellow slips up and says he wants to see it, and when
+I get it out, he grabs hold of it and goes to tearing it up right before
+my eyes." Ample explanations were soon made, and the new
+passenger was duly initiated into the mysteries of the coupon system.</p>
+
+<p>The uniforming of railway employees was a movement of no
+little importance. It designated the various positions held by
+them, added much to the neatness of their appearance, enabled
+passengers to recognize them at a glance, and made them so conspicuous
+that it impressed them with a greater sense of responsibility
+and aided much in effecting a more
+courteous demeanor to passengers.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<div class="sandbagbox" id="img259">
+ <div id="i259b1">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i259b2">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i259b3">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i259b4">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<div class="caption">Boston Passenger Station, Providence Division, Old Colony Railroad.</div>
+
+<p>Many conveniences have been introduced
+which greatly assist the passenger
+when travelling upon unfamiliar
+roads. Conspicuous
+clock-faces stand in
+the stations with
+their hands set to the
+hour at which the
+next train is to start,
+sign-boards are
+displayed
+with horizontal
+slats
+on which the
+stations are
+named at
+which departing
+way-trains
+stop,
+and employees
+are stationed to call out necessary information and direct passengers
+to the proper entrances, exits, and trains. A "bureau of
+information" is now to be seen in large passenger-stations, in
+which an official sits and with a Job-like patience repeats to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span>
+curiously inclined passengers the whole railway catechism, and successfully
+answers conundrums that would stump an Oriental pundit.</p>
+
+<p>The energetic passenger-agent spares no pains to thrust information
+directly under the nose of the public. He uses every
+means known to Yankee ingenuity to advertise his regular trains
+and his excursion business, including large newspaper head-lines,
+corner-posters, curb-stone dodgers, and placards on the breast and
+back of the itinerant human sandwich who perambulates the streets.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="HandHeld">
+    <div class="figright">
+    <img src="images/i_259.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
+    <div class="caption">Boston Passenger Station, Providence Division, Old Colony Railroad.</div>
+    </div>
+
+    <p>Many conveniences have been introduced
+    which greatly assist the passenger
+    when travelling upon unfamiliar
+    roads. Conspicuous
+    clock-faces stand in
+    the stations with
+    their hands set to the
+    hour at which the
+    next train is to start,
+    sign-boards are
+    displayed
+    with horizontal
+    slats
+    on which the
+    stations are
+    named at
+    which departing
+    way-trains
+    stop,
+    and employees
+    are stationed to call out necessary information and direct passengers
+    to the proper entrances, exits, and trains. A "bureau of
+    information" is now to be seen in large passenger-stations, in
+    which an official sits and with a Job-like patience repeats to the
+    curiously inclined passengers the whole railway catechism, and successfully
+    answers conundrums that would stump an Oriental pundit.</p>
+
+    <p>The energetic passenger-agent spares no pains to thrust information
+    directly under the nose of the public. He uses every
+    means known to Yankee ingenuity to advertise his regular trains
+    and his excursion business, including large newspaper head-lines,
+    corner-posters, curb-stone dodgers, and placards on the breast and
+    back of the itinerant human sandwich who perambulates the streets.</p>
+    </div>
+
+<p>Railway accidents have always been a great source of anxiety
+to the managers, and the shocks received by the public when
+great loss of life occurs from such causes deepen the interest
+which the general community feels in the means taken to avoid
+these distressing occurrences.</p>
+
+<p>American railway officials have made encouraging progress in
+reducing the number and the severity of accidents, and while the
+record is not so good on many of our cheaply constructed roads,
+our first-class roads now show by their statistics that they compare
+favorably in this respect with the European companies.</p>
+
+<p>The statistics regarding accidents<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> are necessarily unreliable,
+as railway companies are not eager to publish their calamities from
+the house-tops, and only in those States in which prompt reports
+are required to be made by law are the figures given at all accurately.
+Even in these instances the yearly reports lead to wrong
+conclusions, for the State Railroad Commissioners become more
+exacting each year as to the thoroughness of the reports called
+for, and the results sometimes show an increase compared with previous
+years, whereas there may have been an actual decrease.</p>
+
+<p>In 1880, the last census year, an effort was made to collect statistics
+of this kind covering all the railways in the United States,
+with the following result:</p>
+
+<div class="p2 center fs80">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt bl" colspan="2"></td><td class="bt bl" colspan="2"></td><td class="bt bl" colspan="2"></td><td class="bt bl"></td></tr>
+<tr class="fs85"><td class="tdc" rowspan="2">To whom happened.</td><td class="tdc bl" colspan="2">Through causes beyond their control.</td><td class="tdc bl" colspan="2">Through their own carelessness.</td>
+    <td class="tdc bl" colspan="2">Aggregate.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Total accidents.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb bl" colspan="2"></td><td class="bb bl" colspan="2"></td><td class="bb bl" colspan="2"></td></tr>
+<tr class="fs85"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc bl">Killed.</td><td class="tdc bl">Injured.</td><td class="tdc bl">Killed.</td><td class="tdc">Injured.</td><td class="tdc bl">Killed.</td><td class="tdc bl">Injured.</td><td class="tdc bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Passengers</td><td class="tdrx bl">61</td><td class="tdrx bl">331</td><td class="tdrx bl">82</td><td class="tdrx bl">213</td><td class="tdrx bl">143</td><td class="tdrx bl">544</td><td class="tdrx bl">687</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Employees</td><td class="tdrx bl">261</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,004</td><td class="tdrx bl">663</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,613</td><td class="tdrx bl">924</td><td class="tdrx bl">3,617</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,541</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">All others</td><td class="tdrx bl">43</td><td class="tdrx bl">103</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,429</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,348</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,472</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,451</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,923</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Unspecified</td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">3</td><td class="tdrx bl">62</td><td class="tdrx bl">65</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl pad4">Total</td><td class="tdrx bl">365</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,438</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,174</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,174</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,542</td><td class="tdrx bl">5,674</td><td class="tdrx bl">8,216</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span><br />
+   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_261.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">"Show Your Tickets!"<br />
+(Passenger Station, Philadelphia.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Mulhall, in his "Dictionary of Statistics," an English work, uses
+substantially these same figures and makes the following comparison
+between European and American railways:</p>
+
+<p class="pfs90"><em>Accidents to Passengers, Employees, and Others.</em></p>
+
+<div class="p1 center fs80">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td></tr>
+<tr class="fs85"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc bl">Killed.</td><td class="tdc bl">Wounded.</td><td class="tdc bl">Total.</td><td class="tdc bl">Per million<br />passengers.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">United States</td><td class="tdrxx bl">2,349</td><td class="tdrxx bl">5,867</td><td class="tdrxx bl">8,216</td><td class="tdrxx bl">41.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">United Kingdom</td><td class="tdrxx bl">1,135</td><td class="tdrxx bl">3,959</td><td class="tdrxx bl">5,094</td><td class="tdrxx bl">8.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Europe</td><td class="tdrxx bl">3,213</td><td class="tdrxx bl">10,859</td><td class="tdrxx bl">14,072</td><td class="tdrxx bl">10.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>That the figures given above are much too high as regards the
+United States, there can be no doubt. For the fiscal year 1880&ndash;81
+the data compiled by the Railroad Commissioners of Massachusetts
+and published in their reports give as the total number of persons
+killed and injured in the United States 2,126, as against 8,216
+upon which the comparisons in the above table are based. If we
+substitute in this table the former number for the latter, it would
+reduce the number of injured per million passengers in the
+United States to 10.6, about the same as on the European railways.</p>
+
+<p>Edward Bates Dorsey gives the following interesting table of
+comparisons in his valuable work, "English and American Railroads
+Compared:"</p>
+
+<p class="negin2"><em>Passengers Killed and Injured from Causes beyond their own Control on all the Railroads
+of the United Kingdom and those of the States of New York and Massachusetts in
+1884.</em></p>
+
+<div class="p1 center fs80">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt" colspan="2"></td><td class="bt bl" colspan="2"></td><td class="bt bl" colspan="2"></td></tr>
+<tr class="fs85"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Total length of line operated.</td><td class="tdc bl bb" colspan="2">Total mileage.</td>
+    <td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Killed.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Injured.</td></tr>
+<tr class="fs85"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc"></td><td class="tdc bl">Train.</td><td class="tdc bl">Passengers.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">United Kingdom</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">18,864</td><td class="tdrx bl">272,803,220</td><td class="tdrx bl">6,042,659,990</td><td class="tdrx bl">31</td><td class="tdrx bl">864</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">New York</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">7,298</td><td class="tdrx bl">85,918,677</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,729,653,620</td><td class="tdrx bl">10</td><td class="tdrx bl">124</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Massachusetts</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">2,852</td><td class="tdrx bl">32,304,333</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,007,136,376</td><td class="tdrx bl">2</td><td class="tdrx bl">42</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">In&nbsp;1,000,000,000</td><td class="tdl">{&nbsp;United&nbsp;Kingdom</td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">5.15</td><td class="tdrx bl">143</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">passengers&nbsp;trans-</td><td class="tdl">{ New York</td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">5.78</td><td class="tdrx bl">70</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">ported 1 mile.</td><td class="tdl">{ Massachusetts</td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">2.00</td><td class="tdrx bl">42</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="p2 center fs80">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="bt tdpp"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt"></td></tr>
+<tr class="fs85"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc bl">Miles.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl tdpp"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl wd40" rowspan="3">The average number of miles a passenger can travel without being killed.</td><td class="tdl">{&nbsp;United&nbsp;Kingdom</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">194,892,255</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">{ New York</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">172,965,362</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">{ Massachusetts</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">503,568,188</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl" rowspan="3">The average number of miles a passenger can travel without being injured.</td><td class="tdl">{ United Kingdom</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">6,992,662</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">{ New York</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">13,940,754</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">{ Massachusetts</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">23,955,630</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="p1" />
+<p>From this it will be seen that in the United Kingdom the average
+distance a passenger may travel before being killed is about
+equal to twice the distance of the Earth from the Sun. In New York
+he may travel a distance greater than that of Mars from the Sun;
+and in Massachusetts he can comfort himself with the thought
+that he may travel twenty-seven millions of miles farther than
+the distance of Jupiter to the Sun before suffering death on the
+rail.</p>
+
+<p>The most encouraging feature of these statistics is the fact that
+the number of railway accidents per mile in the United States has
+shown a marked decrease each year. Taking the figures adopted
+by the Massachusetts commissions, the number of persons injured
+in the year 1880&ndash;81 was 2,126, and in 1886&ndash;87, 2,483, while in
+the same time the number of miles in operation increased from
+93,349 to 137,986.</p>
+
+<p>The amounts paid annually by railways in satisfaction of claims
+for damages to passengers are serious items of expenditure, and in
+the United States have reached in some years nearly two millions
+of dollars. About half of the States limit the amount of damages
+in case of death to $5,000, the States of Virginia, Ohio, and Kansas
+to $10,000, and the remainder have no statutory limit.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1840 the number of miles of railway per 100,000 inhabitants
+in the different countries named was as follows: United
+States, 20; United Kingdom, 3; Europe, 1; in the year 1882,
+United States, 210; United Kingdom, 52; Europe, 34.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1886 the total number of miles in the United
+States was 137,986; the number of passengers carried, 382,284,972;
+the number carried one mile, 9,659,698,294; the average distance
+travelled per passenger, 25.27 miles.</p>
+
+<p>In Europe the first-class travel is exceedingly small and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span>
+third class constitutes the largest portion of the passenger business,
+while in America almost the whole of the travel is first class,
+as will be seen from the following table:</p>
+
+<div class="p1 center fs80">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="bt tdpp"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td></tr>
+<tr class="fs85"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc bl" colspan="3">Percentage of passengers carried.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl" colspan="3"></td></tr>
+<tr class="fs85"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc bl">First Class.</td><td class="tdc bl">Second Class.</td><td class="tdc bl">Third Class.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">United Kingdom</td><td class="tdrx bl wd10">6</td><td class="tdrx bl wd10">10</td><td class="tdrx bl wd10">84</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">France</td><td class="tdrx bl">8</td><td class="tdrx bl">32</td><td class="tdrx bl">60</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Germany</td><td class="tdrx bl">1</td><td class="tdrx bl">13</td><td class="tdrx bl">86</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">United States</td><td class="tdrx bl">99</td><td class="tdrx bl">½ of 1</td><td class="tdrx bl">½ of 1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="p1" />
+<p>The third-class travel in this country is better known as immigrant
+travel. The percentages given in the above table for the
+United States are based upon an average of the numbers of passengers
+of each class carried on the principal through lines. If
+all the roads were included, the percentages of the second- and
+third-class travel would be still less.</p>
+
+<p>That which is of more material interest to passengers than anything
+else is the rate of fare charged.</p>
+
+<p>The following table gives an approximate comparison between
+the rates per mile in the leading countries in the world:</p>
+
+<div class="p1 center fs80">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="bt tdpp wd70"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td></tr>
+<tr class="fs85"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc bl">First Class.</td><td class="tdc bl">Second Class.</td><td class="tdc bl">Third Class.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+<tr class="fs85"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrx bl">Cents.</td><td class="tdrx bl">Cents.</td><td class="tdrx bl">Cents.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">United Kingdom</td><td class="tdrx bl">4.42</td><td class="tdrx bl">3.20</td><td class="tdrx bl">1.94</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">France</td><td class="tdrx bl">3.86</td><td class="tdrx bl">2.88</td><td class="tdrx bl">2.08</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Germany</td><td class="tdrx bl">3.10</td><td class="tdrx bl">2.32</td><td class="tdrx bl">1.54</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">United States</td><td class="tdrx bl">2.18</td><td class="tdrx bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdrx bl">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="p1" />
+<p>The rates above given for the United Kingdom, France, and
+Germany are the regular schedule-rates. An average of all the
+fares received, including the reduced fares at excursion rates, would
+make the figures somewhat less.</p>
+
+<p>The rate named as the first-class fare for the railways in the
+United States is, strictly speaking, the average earnings per passenger
+per mile, and includes all classes; but as the first-class
+passengers constitute about ninety-nine per centum of the travel
+the amount does not differ materially from the actual first-class fare.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span>
+In the State of New York the first-class fare does not exceed two
+cents, which is not much more than the third-class fare in some
+countries of Europe, and heat, good ventilation, ice-water, toilet
+arrangements, and free carriage of a liberal amount of baggage
+are supplied, while in Europe few of these comforts are furnished.</p>
+
+<p>On the elevated railroads of New York a passenger can ride
+in a first-class car eleven miles for 5 cents, or about one-half cent a
+mile, and on surface-roads the commutation rates given to suburban
+passengers are in some cases still less.</p>
+
+<p>The berth-fares in sleeping-cars in Europe largely exceed those
+in America, as will be seen from the following comparisons, stated
+in dollars:</p>
+
+<div class="p1 center fs80">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="bt tdpp wd70"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td></tr>
+<tr class="fs85"><td class="tdc">Route.</td><td class="tdc bl">Distance in<br />Miles.</td><td class="tdc bl">Berth fare.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Paris to Rome</td><td class="tdrx bl">901</td><td class="tdrx bl">$12.75</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">New York to Chicago</td><td class="tdrx bl">912</td><td class="tdrx bl">5.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Paris to Marseilles</td><td class="tdrx bl">536</td><td class="tdrx bl">11.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">New York to Buffalo</td><td class="tdrx bl">440</td><td class="tdrx bl">2.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Calais to Brindisi</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,373</td><td class="tdrx bl">22.25</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Boston to St. Louis</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,330</td><td class="tdrx bl">6.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="p1" />
+<p>While it would seem that the luxuries of railway travel in America
+have reached a maximum, and the charges a minimum, yet in
+this progressive age it is very probable that in the not far distant
+future we shall witness improvements over the present
+methods which will astonish us as much as the present methods
+surprise us when we compare them with those of the past.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> See "Safety in Railroad Travel," <a href="#Page_195">page 195.</a></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> See "Safety in Railroad Travel," <a href="#Page_224">page 224</a>; also, "American Locomotives and Cars," <a href="#Page_142">page 142.</a></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> See "Safety in Railroad Travel," <a href="#Page_204">page 204.</a></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> See "Safety in Railroad Travel," <a href="#Page_191">page 191.</a></p></div></div>
+
+
+    <div class="chapter"></div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">THE FREIGHT-CAR SERVICE.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="pfs90 smcap">By THEODORE VOORHEES.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>Sixteen Months' Journey of a Car&mdash;Detentions by the Way&mdash;Difficulties of the Car Accountant's
+Office&mdash;Necessities of Through Freight&mdash;How a Company's Cars are Scattered&mdash;The
+Question of Mileage&mdash;Reduction of the Balance in Favor of Other Roads&mdash;Relation
+of the Car Accountant's Work to the Transportation Department&mdash;Computation
+of Mileage&mdash;The Record Branch&mdash;How Reports are Gathered and Compiled&mdash;Exchange
+of "Junction Cards"&mdash;The Use of "Tracers"&mdash;Distribution of
+Empty Cars&mdash;Control of the Movement of Freight&mdash;How Trains are Made Up&mdash;Duties
+of the Yardmaster&mdash;The Handling of Through Trains&mdash;Organization of Fast
+Lines&mdash;Transfer Freight Houses&mdash;Special Cars for Specific Service&mdash;Disasters to
+Freight Trains&mdash;How the Companies Suffer&mdash;Inequalities in Payment for Car Service&mdash;The
+Per Diem Plan&mdash;A Uniform Charge for Car Rental&mdash;What Reforms might
+be Accomplished.</p></div>
+
+
+<h3>I.<br />
+
+<span class="fs70">THE WANDERINGS OF A CAR.</span></h3>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_267.jpg" width="150" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-capx">On the 14th of December, 1886, there was
+loaded in Indianapolis a car belonging to
+one of the roads passing through that city. It
+was loaded with corn consigned to parties in
+Boston. The car was delivered to the Lake
+Shore road at Cleveland on the 16th; but, owing
+to bad weather and various other local causes, it
+did not reach East Buffalo until December 28th.
+It was turned over by the New York Central &amp;
+Hudson River Railroad to the West Shore road the next day, and
+by this company was taken to Rotterdam Junction, and there delivered
+on December 31st to the Western Division of the Fitchburg
+Railroad, or what was then known as the Boston, Hoosac
+Tunnel &amp; Western. They took it promptly through to Boston.
+After a few days the corn was sold by the consignees for delivery
+in Medfield, on the New York &amp; New England Railway. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span>
+car was delivered to this road on January 24, 1887, and taken
+down to Medfield. There it remained among a large number of
+other cars, until it suited the convenience of the purchaser to put
+the corn into his elevator.</p>
+
+<p>On the 17th of March the car was unloaded, taken back to
+Boston, and delivered to the Fitchburg road to be sent West,
+homeward. That company took it promptly, but instead of delivering
+it to the West Shore road at Rotterdam Junction, as would
+have been the regular course, either through some mistake of a
+yardmaster at the junction station, or in pursuance of general instructions
+to load all Western cars home whenever practicable, the
+car was not delivered to the West Shore, but was turned over to
+the Delaware &amp; Hudson Canal Co's. Railroad, taken down to
+the coal regions, and on March 31st delivered to the Delaware,
+Lackawanna &amp; Western Railroad, by whom it was loaded with coal
+for Chicago. That company promptly delivered it to the Grand
+Trunk at Buffalo, and on April 10th the car reached Chicago. It
+was immediately reconsigned by the local agents of the coal company
+to a dealer in the town of Minot, 523 miles west of St. Paul,
+on the St. Paul, Minneapolis &amp; Manitoba Railroad. To reach that
+point, it was delivered to the Chicago, Rock Island &amp; Pacific on
+April 10th, then to the Burlington, Cedar Rapids &amp; Northern,
+Minneapolis &amp; St. Louis, St. Paul &amp; Duluth, St. Paul, Minneapolis
+&amp; Manitoba, arriving at its destination on the 14th of April.</p>
+
+<p>Winter still reigned in that locality, and the car was promptly
+unloaded, and returned to St. Paul, where it was loaded with wheat
+consigned to New York. It left St. Paul on the 26th of April, was
+promptly moved through to Chicago, and delivered to the Grand
+Trunk. Coming east, in Canada, the train of which this car
+formed a part, while passing through a small station, in the night
+ran into an open switch. The engine dashed into a number of
+loaded cars standing on the siding, and the cars behind it were
+piled up in bad confusion, a number of them being destroyed, and
+the freight scattered in all directions. Our car, whose history we
+are tracing, suffered comparatively slight damage. The drawheads
+were broken, and some castings on one truck, not sufficient
+to affect in any way the loading of the car. It was sent to the
+shops of the road; and it became necessary for them, on examina<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span>tion,
+to send to the owners of the car for a casting to replace that
+broken on the truck. This resulted in serious detention. The
+requisition for this casting had to be approved by the Superintendent
+and by the General Manager, and was forwarded, after a considerable
+delay, to the officers of the road owning the car. There
+it was sent through a number of offices before it finally reached the
+hands of the man who was able to supply the required casting.
+This in turn was sent by freight, and passed over the intervening
+territory at a slow rate; the whole involving a detention which
+held the car from April 28th, when it was delivered at Chicago to
+the Grand Trunk, until July 18th, when finally the Grand Trunk
+delivered it to the Delaware, Lackawanna &amp; Western at Buffalo.
+It came through promptly to New York, the grain was put in an
+elevator, the car was sent back once more to the mines at Scranton,
+and again loaded with coal for Chicago. On August 9th the
+record says the car was delivered by the Delaware, Lackawanna &amp;
+Western to the Grand Trunk, and on the 12th of August it was in
+Chicago.</p>
+
+<p>About this time the owners of the car began to make vigorous
+appeals to the various roads, urging them to send the car home.
+One of these tracers reached the Grand Trunk road while they
+still held the car in their possession; so that orders were sent that
+the coal must be unloaded at once, and the car returned. In order
+to unload it, it was necessary to switch it to the Illinois Central for
+some local consignee, and it was unloaded within four days and
+delivered back to the Grand Trunk at Chicago. This was on
+August 16th. During the few days that had elapsed since the
+order was given to send this car home, there had been an active
+demand for cars, and knowing that this one had to be sent to Buffalo
+in order to be delivered to the Lake Shore road, from which it
+had originally been received, the car was loaded for that point.
+This again resulted in detention, for we find that the car was held
+on the Grand Trunk tracks at Black Rock, awaiting the pleasure of
+the consignee to unload the freight, until the 27th of September;
+and then, instead of being unloaded and delivered to the Lake
+Shore road, as had been the intention of the Grand Trunk officials,
+the consignee sold the wheat in the car to a local dealer on the
+line of the Erie Railway, and the car was sent down on that road<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span>
+on October 1st, and not returned to the Grand Trunk again until
+the 10th day of October.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately, the Erie was as anxious at that time to load cars
+west with coal as the other roads, and when they brought the car
+back to the Grand Trunk, they brought it once more filled with
+coal, and back the car went to Chicago, reaching there on the 13th
+of October.</p>
+
+<p>It had now been away from home and diverted from its legitimate
+uses for nine months, and apparently was as far from home
+as ever. The delivery of the coal this time at Chicago put the car
+in the hands of the Louisville, New Albany &amp; Chicago Railway,
+and they promptly gave it a lading by the southern route to Newport
+News; for we find the car delivered by the Louisville, New
+Albany &amp; Chicago to the Chesapeake &amp; Ohio route on October
+28th, and at Newport News on the 10th of November. The
+owners of the car were meanwhile not idle. The occasional stray
+junction cards which came in notified them of the passage of the car
+by different junction points, giving them clews to work by, and
+they were in vigorous correspondence with the various roads over
+which the car had gone, urging, begging, and imploring the railway
+officers to make all efforts in their power to get the car back
+to its home road.</p>
+
+<p>On its last trip from Chicago to Newport News, the car passed
+through Indianapolis, the very point from which it began its long
+journey and many wanderings. Unfortunately, however, it passed
+there loaded, without detention, and the owners of the car did not
+discover until it had been for some time at Newport News, that
+the car had been anywhere near its home territory. By the time
+they made this discovery the car had been unloaded, and had
+started west once more. The records of the movement of the car
+here become dim. It was apparently diverted from its direct route
+back, which would have taken it once more to Indianapolis, and so
+home, for we find, after waiting at Newport News for some time
+to be unloaded, it was delivered to the Nashville, Chattanooga &amp;
+St. Louis, next on the Western &amp; Atlantic, and so down into
+Georgia and South Carolina. Again, on January 14, 1888, the
+car was reported on the Richmond &amp; Danville. They sent it
+once more down into South Carolina and Georgia. From there it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span>
+was loaded down to Selma, Ala., on the Atlanta &amp; West Point
+Railroad. They returned it promptly to Atlanta, and so to the
+Central Railroad of Georgia; and the car, after being used backward
+and forward between Montgomery and Atlanta and Macon,
+finally appeared at Augusta, Ga., where it stood on February 11,
+1888. Here the car remained for some time, long enough for the
+owners to get advices as to its whereabouts, and communicate with
+the road on whose territory the car was, before it was again
+moved. An urgent representation of the case having been laid
+before the proper authorities, they agreed, if possible, to load it in
+such a way that it should go back to Indianapolis. This could not
+be done at once, however; but about the 12th of March the car was
+sent to a near-by point in South Carolina loaded, and worked back
+over the Georgia road and the Western Atlantic, delivered to the
+Louisville &amp; Nashville on April 3d, and finally, after its many and
+long wanderings, was by that road delivered to the home road at
+Cincinnati on the 17th of April; having been away from home
+sixteen months and one day.</p>
+
+<p>This is a case taken from actual records, and is one that could
+be duplicated probably by any railroad in the country.</p>
+
+
+<h3>II.<br />
+
+<span class="fs70">THE CAR ACCOUNTANT'S OFFICE.</span></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquoty">
+
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">The Winnipeg &amp; Athabaska Lake Railway Co.</span>,</p>
+<p class="right padr4"><em>General Superintendent's Office</em>,</p>
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Winnipeg</span>, December 31, 1888.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">To John Smith, Esq.</span>,</p>
+<p class="pad2"><em>Supt. of Trans'n, L. &amp; N. R. R. Co., Louisville, Ky.</em></p>
+
+<br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>: Our records show forty-five of our box-cars on your line, some of which have
+been away from home over three weeks. I give below the numbers of those which have
+been detained over thirty days, viz.:</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="tdl">Nos.</td><td class="tdl">28542</td><td class="tdl">34210</td><td class="tdl">34762</td><td class="tdl">29421</td><td class="tdl">28437</td><td class="tdl">29842</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">34628</td><td class="tdl">34516</td><td class="tdl">29781</td><td class="tdl">28274</td><td class="tdl">34333</td><td class="tdl">28873</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>There is at this time a strong demand for cars for the movement of the wheat crop,
+and I must beg that you will send home promptly all that you have on your line.</p>
+
+<p class="right padr8">I remain,</p>
+<p class="right padr4">Yours very truly,</p>
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Thomas Brown</span>.
+</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="p2" />
+<div class="blockquoty">
+
+<p class="right padr2"><span class="smcap">Louisville &amp; Norfolk R. R. Co.</span>,</p>
+<p class="right"><em>Office of Superintendent of Transportation</em>,</p>
+<p class="right padr2"><span class="smcap">Louisville, Ky.</span>, Jan'y 3, 1889.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">To Thomas Brown, Esq.</span>,</p>
+<p class="pad2"><em>Gen'l Supt., W. &amp; A. L. R. W. Co., Winnipeg, Canada</em>.</p>
+
+<br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>: Your favor of the 31st ulto. was duly received and contents noted.</p>
+
+<p>I call your attention to the enclosed mem. from our Car Accountant, which shows
+that we have but seven of your cars now on our road; of these but three are bad cases,
+Nos. 28437, 34516, and 28873. One of these cars was crippled, and is in the shops; the
+other two are loaded with wheat consigned "to order."</p>
+
+<p>The necessary instructions have been given our agents, and we will do all in our
+power to hurry the return of your cars.</p>
+
+<p class="right padr8">I am,</p>
+<p class="right padr2">Very truly yours,</p>
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">John Smith</span>.</p>
+
+<p>(Mem. enclosed.)</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Memorandum.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center">W. &amp; A. L. Nos.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="tdlw wd10">28542&nbsp;to</td><td class="tdlw wd40">Ohio Northern, Dec. 5th.</td><td class="tdlw">29781&nbsp;to</td><td class="tdlw">Ohio Northern, Nov. 27th.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlw">34210 "</td><td class="tdlw">Ohio Northern, Dec. 10th.</td><td class="tdlw">28274 "</td><td class="tdlw">Niantic, Dec. 12th, loading home.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlw">34762 "</td><td class="tdlw">Kanawha Junc., 12/15 crippled.</td><td class="tdlw">34333 "</td><td class="tdlw">Louisville Belt, Dec. 8th.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlw">29421 "</td><td class="tdlw">Elmwood, 12/15 unloading.</td><td class="tdlw">29842 "</td><td class="tdlw">Brockton, Dec. 14th, empty, will load home.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlw">28437 "</td><td class="tdlw">Norfolk Shops, Dec. 6th.</td><td class="tdlw"></td><td class="tdlw"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlw">34628 "</td><td class="tdlw">No account.</td><td class="tdlw">28873 "</td><td class="tdlw">Blue Ridge, Nov. 18th, ordered out.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlw">34516 "</td><td class="tdlw">Blue Ridge, 12/4 ordered out.</td><td class="tdlw"></td><td class="tdlw"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>This is but an example of a correspondence that is constantly
+being exchanged between the officials who are in charge of the
+Transportation Department of the various railways of the country.</p>
+
+<p>The demands of trade necessitate continually the transportation
+of all manner of commodities over great distances.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, wheat is brought from the Northwest to the seaboard,
+corn from the Southwest, cotton from the South, fruit comes from
+California, black walnut from Indiana, and pine from Michigan.
+In the opposite direction, merchandise and manufactured articles
+are sent from the East to all points in the West, the North, and
+Southwest. The interchange is constant and steadily increasing
+in all directions.</p>
+
+<p>In the early period of railways in this country, when they were
+built chiefly to promote local interests, and the movement of either
+freight or passengers over long distances was a comparatively
+small portion of the traffic, it was customary for all roads to do
+their business in their own cars, transferring any freight destined
+to a station on a connecting road at the junction or point of interchange<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span>
+of the two roads. While this system had the advantage
+of keeping at home the equipment of each road, it resulted in a
+very slow movement of the freight. As the volume of traffic grew,
+and the interchange of commodities between distant points increased,
+this slow movement became more and more vexatious.
+Soon the railway companies found it necessary to allow their cars
+to run through to the destination of the freight without transfer, or
+they would be deprived of the business by more enterprising rivals.
+So that to-day a very large proportion of the freight business of
+the country is done without transfer; the same car taking the load
+from the initial point direct to destination. The result of this is,
+however, that a considerable share of all the business of any railway
+is done in cars belonging to other companies, for which mileage
+has to be paid; while, in turn, the cars of any one company
+may be scattered all over the country from Maine to California,
+Winnipeg to Mexico.</p>
+
+<p>The problem that constantly confronts the general superintendent
+of a railway is, how to improve the time of through freight,
+thereby improving the service and increasing the earnings of the
+company; and, at the same time, how to secure the prompt movement
+of cars belonging to the company, getting them home from
+other roads, and reducing as far as possible upon his own line the
+use of foreign cars, and the consequent payment of mileage therefor.</p>
+
+<p>By common consent the mileage for the use of all eight-wheel
+freight cars has been fixed at three-quarters of a cent per mile run;
+four-wheel cars being rated at one-half this amount, or three-eighths
+of a cent. This amount would at first sight appear to be
+insignificant, yet in the aggregate it comes to a very considerable
+sum. In the case of some of the more important roads in the
+country, even those possessing a large equipment, the balance
+against them for mileage alone often amounts to nearly half a million
+annually.</p>
+
+<p>It becomes therefore of the first importance to reduce to a
+minimum the use of foreign cars, thereby reducing the mileage
+balance; at the same time avoiding any action that will interfere
+with or impede in any way the prompt movement of traffic.</p>
+
+<p>The first step toward accomplishing this result is to organize<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span>
+and fully equip the Car Accountant's Department. The importance
+of this office has been recognized only of late years. Formerly,
+and on many lines even now, the Car Accountant was merely
+a subordinate in the Auditing Department of the company. His
+duties were confined strictly to computing the mileage due to other
+roads. This he did from the reports of the freight-train conductors,
+often in a cumbrous and mechanical manner, making no allowance
+for possible errors. At the same time, he received reports of
+foreign roads without question and without check. He was not
+interested in any way in the operations of the Transportation
+Department; and, as a consequence, it never occurred to him to
+make inquiries as to the proper use of the cars belonging to his
+own company. That he left entirely to the Superintendent. The
+latter, on the other hand, his time incessantly filled with many
+duties, could give but scant attention to his cars.</p>
+
+<p>The Superintendent of a railway in this country who has, let
+us say, three hundred miles of road in his charge, has perhaps as
+great a variety of occupation, and as many different questions of
+importance depending upon his decision, as any other business or
+professional man in the community. Fully one-half of his time
+will be spent out-of-doors looking after the physical condition of
+his track, masonry, bridges, stations, buildings of all kinds. Concerning
+the repair or renewal of each he will have to pass judgment.
+He must know intimately every foot of his track and, in
+cases of emergency or accident, know just what resources he can
+depend upon, and how to make them most immediately useful.
+He will visit the shops and round houses frequently, and will know
+the construction and daily condition of every locomotive, every
+passenger and baggage car. He will consult with his Master
+Mechanic, and often will decide which car or engine shall and
+which shall not be taken in for repair, etc. He has to plan and
+organize the work of every yard, every station. He must know
+the duties of each employee on his pay-rolls, and instruct all new
+men, or see that they are properly instructed. He must keep incessant
+and vigilant watch on the movement of all trains, noting the
+slightest variation from the schedules which he has prepared, and
+looking carefully into the causes therefor, so as to avoid its recurrence.
+The first thing in the morning he is greeted with a report<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span>
+giving the situation of business on the road, the events of the
+night, movement of trains, and location and volume of freight to
+be handled. The last thing at night he gets a final report of the
+location and movement of important trains; and he never closes
+his eyes without thinking that perhaps the telephone will ring and
+call him before dawn. During the day in his office he has reports
+to make out, requisitions to approve, a varied correspondence, not
+always agreeable, to answer. Added to this, frequent consultations
+with the officers of the Traffic Department, or with those of
+connecting lines, in reference to the movement of through or local
+business, completely fill his time.</p>
+
+<p>It is not to be wondered at that such a man gives but slight attention
+in many cases to the matter of car mileage. He frequently
+satisfies himself by arranging a system of reports from his agents
+to his office that give a summary each twenty-four hours of the
+cars of every kind on hand at each station; and leaves the distribution
+and movement of the cars in the hands of his agents. He
+will give some attention to the matter whenever he goes over his
+road on other and more pressing duties. Occasionally he will
+even take a day or two and visit every station, inquiring carefully
+as to each car he finds; why it is being held, for what purpose,
+and how long it has stood. Then, satisfied with having, as he
+says, "shaken up the boys," he will turn his attention to other
+matters, and let the cars take care of themselves. When the
+monthly or quarterly statements are made up, and he sees the
+amount of balance against his road for car mileage, he gives it but
+little thought, regarding it as one of the items like taxes, important,
+of course, but hardly one for which he is responsible.</p>
+
+<p>His General Manager, however, will note the car-mileage balance
+with more concern; and, looking into the matter carefully, he
+will discover that the remedy is to put the Car Accountant into
+the Transportation Department; thus at once interesting him in
+the economical use of the equipment, and also placing in the hands
+of the Superintendent the machinery he needs to enable him to
+promptly control and direct the use of all cars.</p>
+
+<p>The Car Accountant's Office may properly be divided into two
+main branches&mdash;mileage and record. The computation of mileage
+is made in most cases directly from the reports of each train.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span>
+These reports are made by the train conductors, and give the initials
+and number of each car in their train, whether loaded or
+empty, and the station whence taken and where left. To facilitate
+the computation of mileage of each car, the stations on the road
+are consecutively numbered, beginning at nought&mdash;each succeeding
+station being represented by a number equivalent to the
+number of miles it is distant from the initial station; excepting divisional
+and terminal stations, where letters are used, to reduce the
+work in recording. The conductors report the stations between
+which each car moves by their numbers or letters. So that all
+that is necessary for the mileage clerk to do is to take the difference
+between the station numbers in each case, and he has the miles
+travelled by that car. The mileage of each car having been so
+noted on the conductor's report, it is then condensed, the mileage
+of all cars of any given road or line being added together, and
+the results entered into the ledgers. At the close of the month
+these books are footed, and a report is rendered to each road in
+the country of the mileage and amount in money due therefor, in
+each case; and settlements are made accordingly, either in full or
+by balance. This is purely the accounting side of the Car Accountant's
+Office.</p>
+
+<p>There remains the record branch, equally important, and to
+the operating department far more interesting. This consists
+broadly in a complete record being kept of the daily movement
+and location of every car upon the road, local or foreign. At
+first sight this may seem to be a difficult and complicated operation,
+but, in fact, it is simple. The record is first divided between
+local and foreign; local cars being all cars owned by the home
+road, foreign being all those owned by other roads. The local
+books are of large size, ruled in such a way as to allow space for
+the daily movement or location of each car for one month, and
+admit of twenty-five or fifty cars being recorded upon each page.
+The record books for foreign cars are similarly ruled, a slight
+change being necessary to allow for the numbers and initials of the
+foreign cars, which cannot well be arranged for in advance.</p>
+
+<p>The train conductors' reports are placed in the hands of the
+record clerks, each one recording the movements of certain initials,
+or series of numbers, under the date as shown by the report; the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span>
+reports being handed from one to another until every car has been
+entered and the report checked.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_277.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A Page from the Car Accountant's Book.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In addition to the conductors' train reports, the Car Accountant
+receives reports from all junction stations daily, showing all
+cars received from or delivered to connecting roads, whether
+loaded or empty, and the destination of each. He also has reports
+from all stations showing cars received and forwarded, from midnight
+to midnight, cars remaining on hand loaded or empty; and
+if loaded, contents and consignee, and also cars in process of loading
+or unloading, and reports from shops or yards showing cars
+undergoing repairs, or waiting for the same. In fine, he endeavors<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span>
+to get complete reports showing every car that either may be
+in motion or standing at any point on his road. All of these are
+entered on his record books. The station reports check those of
+the conductor, and <em>vice versa</em>. It will thus be seen that the record
+gives a complete history of the movement and daily use of
+each car on the road.</p>
+
+<p>In case of stock and perishable freight, or freight concerning
+whose movements quick time is of the utmost importance, this
+record is kept not only by days but by hours; that is, the actual
+time of each movement is entered on the record. This is done by
+a simple system of signs, so that an exact account of the movement,
+giving date and hour of receipt and delivery, can be taken
+from the record. This is frequently of the greatest value.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to this, it is customary now for nearly all roads to
+exchange what are known as "junction cards." They are reports
+from one to another giving the numbers of all cars of each road
+passing junction stations. These junction reports when received
+are also carefully noted in the record, so that an account is kept in
+a measure of the movement of home cars while on foreign roads,
+and their daily location.</p>
+
+<p>It would be difficult, and beyond the scope of this article, to
+tell of the great variety of uses these records are put to. They
+serve as a check upon reports of the mileage clerks, insuring
+their accuracy. The junction reports serve also in a measure to
+check the reports of foreign roads. Then, at frequent intervals, a
+clerk will go over the record and note every car that is not shown
+to have moved within, say, five days, putting down on a "detention
+report" for each station the car number and date of its arrival.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span>
+These reports are sent to the agents for explanation, and then submitted
+to the Superintendent. In a similar manner reports will
+be made showing any use locally of foreign cars. From the record
+can be shown almost at a glance the location of all idle cars,
+information that is often very valuable, and that when wanted is
+wanted promptly. Also, from the record, reports are constantly
+being made out&mdash;"tracers," as they are termed&mdash;showing the location
+and detention of home cars on foreign roads. In turn, foreign
+tracers are taken to the record, and the questions therein asked
+are readily answered by the Car Accountant.</p>
+
+<p>Whenever possible, the distribution of empty cars upon the
+line should be under the direct supervision of the Car Accountant.
+Where this matter is left to a clerk in the Superintendent's office,
+or, as has often been the case, is left to the discretion of yardmasters
+and agents, the utmost waste in the use of cars is inevitable.
+An agent at a local station will want a car for a particular
+shipment. If he has none at his station suitable he will ask some
+neighboring agent; failing there, he will ask the Superintendent's
+office, and frequently also the nearest yardmaster. Some other
+agent at a distant station may want the same kind of car; orders
+in this way become duplicated, and the road will not only have to
+haul twice the number of cars needed, but very often haul the same
+kind of cars empty in opposite directions at the same time. This
+is no uncommon occurrence even on well-managed roads, and, it
+is needless to say, is most expensive.</p>
+
+<p>Where the cars are distributed under the direct supervision of
+the Car Accountant, he has the record at hand constantly, and
+knows exactly where all cars are, and the sources of supply to
+meet every demand. Not only that, but every improper use of
+cars is at once brought to light and corrected.</p>
+
+<p>The <em>theory</em> of the use of foreign cars is that they are permitted
+to run through to destination with through freight, on condition
+that they shall be promptly unloaded on arrival at destination;
+that they shall be returned at once to the home road, being loaded
+on the return trip if suitable loading is available; but by no means
+allowed to be used in local service, or loaded in any other direction
+than homeward.</p>
+
+<p>The <em>practice</em> of many agents, and many roads, too, unfortu<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span>nately,
+is hardly in keeping with this theory. Agents, especially
+if not closely watched, are prone to put freight into any car that
+is at hand, regardless of ownership, being urged to such course
+by the importunities of shippers and, at times, by the scarcity of
+cars. Frequently such irregularities are the result of pure carelessness,
+agents using foreign cars for local shipments, simply because
+they are on hand, rather than call for home cars which it
+may take some trouble and delay to procure. In this way at times
+a large amount of local business may be going on on one part of
+the road in foreign cars, while but a few miles distant the company's
+cars may be standing idle. The Car Accountant from his
+record can at once put a stop to this, and prevent its recurrence.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_280.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Freight Pier, North River, New York.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another valuable use to which the Car Accountant's Office may
+be put is to trace and keep a record of the movement of freight,
+locating delays, and tracing for freight lost or damaged. By a
+moderate use of the telegraph wire the Car Accountant can keep<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span>
+track of the movement of special freight-trains concerning which
+time is important, and so insure regularity and promptness in their
+despatch and delivery. From the mileage records may be obtained
+the work of each engine in freight service, the miles run,
+the number of loaded and empty cars hauled; and by considering
+two, or perhaps three, empty cars as equivalent to one loaded car,
+the average number of loaded cars hauled per mile is obtained.
+The information is often valuable, as on many roads the ability of
+a Superintendent is measured to a considerable extent by the
+amount of work performed by the engines at his command.</p>
+
+<p>In many other ways the resources of the Car Accountant's
+office will be found of the greatest value to the Superintendent.
+When the office is once fully organized and systematized, and all
+in good working order, the Superintendent will find that his capacity
+for control of his cars has been more than doubled, while
+the demands on his time for their care has been really lessened.
+He has all the information he needs supplied at his desk, far more
+accurate than any he was ever able to secure before, and in the
+most condensed form; while, at the same time, he will find his
+freight improving in time over his line, his agents will have cars
+more promptly and in greater abundance than ever, and last, and
+most gratifying of all, his monthly balance-sheets will show a
+steady decrease in the amount his road pays for foreign-car mileage,
+until probably the balance will be found in his favor, although
+his business and consequent tonnage may have increased meanwhile.</p>
+
+
+<h3>III.<br />
+
+<span class="fs70">USE AND ABUSE OF CARS.</span></h3>
+
+<p>A package of merchandise can be transported from New York
+to Chicago in two days and three nights. This is repeated day
+after day with all the regularity of passenger service. So uniform
+is this movement, that shippers and consignees depend upon it
+and arrange their sales and stocks of goods in accordance therewith.
+Any deviation or irregularity brings forth instant complaint
+and a threatened withdrawal of patronage. This is true of hun<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span>dreds
+of other places and lines of freight service. To accomplish
+it, there is necessary, first, a highly complicated and intricate organization,
+and, next, incessant watchfulness.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_282.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Hay Storage Warehouses, New York Central &amp; Hudson River Railroad, West Thirty-third Street, New York.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The shipper delivers the goods at the receiving freight-house
+of the railway company. His cartman gets a receipt from the
+tallyman. This receipt may be sent direct to the consignee, or
+more frequently is exchanged for a bill of lading. There the responsibility
+of the shipper ends. His goods are in the hands of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span>
+the railway company, which to all intents and purposes guarantees
+their safe and prompt delivery to the consignee.</p>
+
+<p>The tallyman's receipt is taken in duplicate. The latter is
+kept in the freight-house until the freight is loaded in a car, and is
+then marked with the initials and number of the car into which
+the freight has been loaded. After that it is taken to the bill clerk
+in the office, and from it and others is made the waybill or bills
+for that particular car.</p>
+
+<p>Where the volume of freight received at a given station is
+large, it is customary to put all packages for a common destination,
+as far as possible, in a car by themselves, thus making what
+are termed "straight" cars. This is not always possible, however,
+or if attempted would lead to loading a very large number
+of cars with but light loads. So that it becomes necessary to
+group freight for contiguous stations in one car, and again often
+to put freight for widely distant cities in the same car. These
+latter are known as "mixed" cars.</p>
+
+<p>We will assume the day's receipt of freight finished, and most
+of the cars loaded. About 6 <span class="fs70">P.M.</span> the house will be "pulled," that
+is, those cars already loaded will be taken away, and an empty
+"string" of cars put in their place. An hour later, this "string"
+will in turn be loaded and taken out, and the operation repeated,
+until all the day's receipt of freight is loaded. Meanwhile other
+freight will have been loaded direct from the shippers' carts on to
+cars on the receiving tracks. For all cars, there is made out in the
+freight-office a running slip or memorandum bill, which gives simply
+the car number, initials, and destination. These are given to the
+yardmaster or despatcher, and from them he "makes up" the trains.</p>
+
+<p>To a very great degree, the good movement of freight depends
+upon the vigilance of the yardmasters and the care with which
+they execute their duties. In an important terminal yard, the
+yardmaster may have at all times from one to two thousand cars,
+loaded and empty. He must know what each car contains, what
+is its destination, and on what track it is. To enable him to do
+this, he has one or more assistants, day and night. They, in turn,
+will have foremen in charge of yard crews, each of the latter having
+immediate charge of one engine. The number of engines employed
+will vary constantly with the volume of the freight handled,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span>
+but it is safe to assume that there will be at all times nearly as
+many engines employed in shifting in the various yards and important
+stations on a line as there are road engines used in the
+movement of the freight traffic.</p>
+
+<p>The work of the yard goes on without intermission day and
+night, Sundays as well as week-days. The men there employed
+know no holidays, get no vacations. The loaded cars are coming
+from the freight-houses all day long, in greater numbers perhaps
+in the afternoon and evening, but the work of loading and moving
+cars goes on somewhere or other, at nearly all times. As often
+as the yardmaster gets together a sufficient number of cars for a
+common destination to make up a train, he gathers them together,
+orders a road engine and crew to be ready, and despatches them.
+In the make up of "through" trains, care has to be exercised to
+put together cars going to the same point, and to "group" the
+trains so that as little shifting as possible may be required at any
+succeeding yard or terminal, where the trains may pass. To accomplish
+this, a thorough knowledge of all the various routes is
+necessary, and minute acquaintance with the various intermediate
+junction yards and stations.</p>
+
+<p>The train once "made up" and in charge of the road crew, its
+progress for the next few hours is comparatively simple. It will
+go the length of the "run" at a rate of probably twenty miles per
+hour, subject only to the ordinary vicissitudes of the road. At
+the end of the division, if a through train, it will be promptly transferred
+to another road crew with another engine, and so on.
+Each conductor takes the running slip for each car in his train.
+He also makes a report, giving the cars in his train by numbers
+and initials, whether loaded or empty, how secured; and detailed
+information in regard to any car out of order, or any slight mishap
+or delay to his train. These reports go to the Car Accountant.
+The running slips stay with the cars, being transferred from hand
+to hand until the cars reach their destination. At junction yards
+where one road terminates and connects with one or more foreign
+roads, a complete record is kept, in a book prepared especially
+for the purpose, of every car received from and delivered to each
+connecting road. A copy of this information is sent daily to the
+Car Accountant.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span><br />
+   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_285.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Freight Yards of the New York Central &amp; Hudson River Railroad, West Sixty-fifth Street, New York.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sandbagbox" id="img287">
+ <div id="i287b1">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i287b2">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i287b3">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<div class="caption">"Dummy" Train and Boy on Hudson Street, New York.</div>
+
+<p>A road is expected
+to receive back from a connecting
+line any car that it has
+previously delivered loaded. It
+becomes very necessary to know
+just what cars have been so delivered.
+Without such a record
+a road is at the mercy of its connections,
+and may be forced to
+receive and move over its length empty foreign cars that it never
+had in its possession before, thus paying mileage and being at the
+expense of moving cars that brought it no revenue whatever. The
+junction records put a complete check on such errors, and by
+their use thousands of dollars are saved annually.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="HandHeld">
+    <div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_287.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
+    <div class="caption">"Dummy" Train and Boy on Hudson Street, New York.</div>
+    </div>
+
+    <p>A road is expected
+    to receive back from a connecting
+    line any car that it has
+    previously delivered loaded. It
+    becomes very necessary to know
+    just what cars have been so delivered.
+    Without such a record
+    a road is at the mercy of its connections,
+    and may be forced to
+    receive and move over its length empty foreign cars that it never
+    had in its possession before, thus paying mileage and being at the
+    expense of moving cars that brought it no revenue whatever. The
+    junction records put a complete check on such errors, and by
+    their use thousands of dollars are saved annually.</p>
+    </div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_288a.jpg" width="175" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>To still more expedite the movement of through freight, very
+many so-called fast freight lines exist in this country, as, for example,
+the Traders' Despatch, the Star Union, the Merchants' Despatch
+Transportation Company, the Red, the White, the Blue,
+the National Despatch, etc. Some of these lines are simply co-operative
+lines, owned by the various railway companies whose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span>
+roads are operated in connection with one another. Their organization
+is simple. A number of companies organize a line, which
+they put in charge of a general manager. Each company will assign
+to the line a number of cars, the quota
+of each being in proportion to its miles of
+road. The general manager has control
+of the line cars. He has agents who solicit
+business and employees who watch the
+movement of his line cars, and report the
+same to him. He keeps close record of
+his business, and reports promptly to the
+transportation officer of any road in his
+line any neglect or delinquency he may
+discover. The earnings of the line and its
+expenses are all divided <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pro rata</i> among
+the roads interested. Such a line is simply an organization to insure
+prompt service and secure competitive business, and the entire
+benefit goes to the railway companies.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_288b.jpg" width="175" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Other lines are in the nature of corporations, being owned by
+stockholders and operating on a system of roads in accordance
+with some agreement or contract. Others, again, are organized
+for some special freight, and are owned wholly by firms or individuals,
+such as the various dressed-beef lines and some lines of
+live-stock cars. These are put in service
+simply for the mileage received for their use,
+and in many cases the railway companies have
+no interest in them whatever.</p>
+
+<p>The movement of "straight" cars and
+"solid" trains is comparatively simple. But
+there is a very large amount of through freight,
+particularly of merchandise, that cannot be put
+into a "straight" car. A shipper in New York
+can depend on his goods going in a straight
+car to St. Louis, Denver, St. Paul, etc., but he
+can hardly expect a straight car to any one of hundreds of intermediate
+cities and towns. Still less is it possible for a road at a
+small country-town, where there are perhaps but one or two factories,
+to load straight cars to any but a very few places. To over<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span>come
+this difficulty, transfer freight-houses have to be provided.
+These are usually located at important terminal stations.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_289a.jpg" width="200" alt="" />
+<div class="caption"><p>Coal Car, Central Railroad of New Jersey.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>To them are billed all mixed cars containing through freight.
+These cars are unloaded and reloaded, and out of a hundred
+"mixed" cars will be made probably
+eighty straight and the balance local.
+This necessarily causes some delay, but
+it is practically a gain in time in the end,
+as otherwise every car would have to be
+reloaded, and held at every station for
+which it contained freight.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_289b.jpg" width="200" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The variety of articles that is offered
+to a railway company for transportation is endless. Articles of all
+sizes and weights are carried, from shoe-pegs by the carload to a
+single casting that weighs thirty tons. The values also vary as
+widely. Some cars will carry kindling wood or refuse stone that
+is worth barely the cost of loading and carrying a few miles, while
+others will be loaded with teas, silks, or merchandise, where perhaps
+the value of a single carload will exceed twenty-five or thirty
+thousand dollars. The great bulk of all freight is carried in the
+ordinary box-cars, coal in cars especially planned for it, and coarse
+lumber and stone on flat or platform cars. But very many cases
+arise that require especial provision to be made for each. Chicago
+dressed beef has made the use of the refrigerator cars well known.
+These cars are also used for carrying fruit and provisions. They
+are of many kinds, built under various patents,
+but all with a common purpose; that is, to
+produce a car wherein the temperature can
+be maintained uniformly at about 40 degrees.
+On the other hand, potatoes in bulk are
+brought in great quantities to the Eastern
+seaboard in box-cars, fitted with an additional
+or false lining of boards, and in the centre an ordinary stove
+in which fire is kept up during the time the potatoes are in
+transit.</p>
+
+<p>An improvement on this plan is afforded by the use of cars
+known as the Eastman Heater Cars. They are provided with an
+automatic self-feeding oil-stove, so arranged that fire can be kept<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span>
+up under the car for about a fortnight without attention. These
+are largely used in the fruit trade.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_290.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Unloading a Train of Truck-wagons, Long Island Railroad.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For carrying milk, special cars have to be provided, as particular
+attention has to be given to the matter of ventilation in connection
+with a small amount of cooling for the proper carrying of
+the milk. Not only the cars but the train service has to be especially
+arranged for in particular cases.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span><br />
+   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_291.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Freight from all Quarters&mdash;Some Typical Trains.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As an instance, the Long Island Railroad Company makes a
+specialty of transporting farmers' truck-wagons to market. For
+this purpose they have provided long, low, flat cars, each capable
+of carrying four truck-wagons. The horses are carried in box-cars,
+and one farmer or driver is carried with each team, a coach
+being provided for their use. During the fall of the year, they frequently
+carry from 45 to 50 wagons on one train, charging a small
+sum for each wagon, and nothing for the horses or men. These
+trains run three times weekly, and are arranged so as to arrive
+in the city about midnight, returning the next day at noon. The
+trains by themselves are not very remunerative, but by furnishing
+this accommodation, farmers who are thirty or forty miles out on
+Long Island can have just as good an opportunity for market-gardening
+as those who live within driving distance of the city.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span>
+This builds up the country farther out on the island, which in turn
+gives the road other business.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>The movement of freight is not always successfully accomplished.
+In spite of good organization, every facility, incessant
+watchfulness, accidents will occur, freight will be delayed, cars will
+break down, trains will meet with disaster. The consequences
+sometimes fall heavily on the railway companies. The loss is frequently
+out of all proportion to the revenue. The following instance
+is from the writers own experience:</p>
+
+<p>Some carpenters repairing a small low trestle left chips and
+shavings near one of the bents. A passing train dropped some
+ashes. The shavings caught fire and burnt one or two posts in one
+bent. The section-men failed to notice the fire. Toward evening
+a freight train came to the trestle, the burnt bent gave way, and
+the train was derailed. Two men were killed, one severely injured,
+and eighteen freight cars were burned. The resulting loss
+to the railroad company was $56,113. Of this amount, the loss
+paid on freight was $39,613.12. As a matter of interest, and to
+show the disparity between the value of the commodities and the
+earnings from freight charges received by the railway company,
+the amount of each is given here in detail, taken from the actual
+records of the case:</p>
+
+<div class="p1 center fs80">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc wd60">Property destroyed.</td><td class="tdc bl">Amount paid by railroad company.</td><td class="tdc bl">Freight charges on the same.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl tdpp">Butter, 200 pounds at 35 cents</td><td class="tdrx bl">$70.00</td><td class="tdrx bl">$0.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Ore, 75.9 tons at $3.50</td><td class="tdrx bl">265.80</td><td class="tdrx bl">56.91</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Paper, 4,600 pounds</td><td class="tdrx bl">269.10</td><td class="tdrx bl">8.74</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Pulp, 10,400 pounds</td><td class="tdrx bl">160.00</td><td class="tdrx bl">12.65</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Shingles, 85 M</td><td class="tdrx bl">192.50</td><td class="tdrx bl">11.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Horsenails</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,986.06</td><td class="tdrx bl">37.44</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Lumber</td><td class="tdrx bl">252.00</td><td class="tdrx bl">18.40</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Apples, 159 barrels</td><td class="tdrx bl">508.80</td><td class="tdrx bl">15.26</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Hops, 209 bales, 37,014 pounds</td><td class="tdrx bl">34,908.86</td><td class="tdrx bl">59.22</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl tdpp"></td><td class="tdrx bl">$39,613.12</td><td class="tdrx bl">$220.12</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="p1" />
+<p>This was during the fall of 1882, when hops sold in New York
+for over $1 per pound.</p>
+
+<p>The plan of payment for car service by the mile run, without
+reference to time, has the merit of simplicity and long-established<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span>
+usage. It is, however, in reality, crude and unscientific, and has
+brought with it, in its train, numerous disadvantages.</p>
+
+<p>The owner of a car is entitled, first, to the proper interest in
+his investment, that is, on the value of the car; second, to a proper
+amount for wear and tear or for repairs. The life of a freight car
+may be reasonably estimated at ten years, so that ten per cent. on
+its value would be a fair interest-charge. The average amount
+for repairs varies directly as to the distance the car moves, and
+may be put at one-half cent per mile run.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that by the ordinary method of payment the car-owner
+is compensated for interest at the rate of ¼ of a cent for the
+time that the car is in motion, but receives nothing for all the time
+the car is at rest. If cars could be kept in motion for any considerable
+portion of each twenty-four hours, this would prove ample.
+But in practice it is found that few roads succeed in getting an
+average movement of all cars for more than one hour and a half in
+each twenty-four. This gives about five per cent. interest on the
+value of the car, only one-half of what is generally conceded to be
+a fair return. Still further, there is no inducement to the road on
+which a foreign car is standing to hasten its return home. On the
+contrary, there is a direct advantage in holding the car idle until
+a proper load can be found for it, rather than return it home empty.
+The most serious abuses of the freight business of the country
+have grown from this state of affairs. It costs nothing but the use
+of the track to hold freight in cars; consequently freight is held in
+cars instead of being put in storehouses, frequently for weeks and
+months at a time.</p>
+
+<p>There is but little earnest attempt made to urge consignees to
+remove freight; on the contrary, the consignees consider that they
+can leave their freight as long as they choose, and that the railroad
+companies are bound to hold it indefinitely.</p>
+
+<p>One special practice has grown up as a result of this condition,
+that of shippers sending freight to distant points to their own
+order. This practice is most prolific of detention to cars, and yet
+is so strongly rooted in the traffic arrangements of the country
+that it is most difficult to put an end to it. Cars "to order" will
+frequently stand for weeks before the contents are sold and the
+consignee is discovered, during which time the cars accumulate,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span>
+stand in the way, occupy
+valuable space, and have
+to be handled repeatedly
+by the transportation department
+of the road, all
+at the direct cost of
+handling to the road itself,
+and loss of interest
+to the owner of the car.</p>
+
+<div class="sandbagbox" id="img295">
+ <div id="i295b1">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i295b2">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<div class="caption">Floating Cars, New York Harbor.</div>
+
+<p>Only two methods have so far been suggested to abate or put
+an end to the evils which have been but slightly indicated above.
+The first is a change in the method of payment for car service to a
+compensation based upon time as well as mileage, which is commonly
+known as the "per diem plan."</p>
+
+<p>This plan consists in paying for the use of all foreign cars a
+fixed sum per mile run, based on the supposed cost of repairs of
+the car, and a price per day based upon what is estimated to be a
+fair return for the interest on its value. This plan was originally
+suggested by a convention of car accountants, and was brought up
+and advocated by Mr. Fink, the Chairman of the Trunk Line Commission,
+in New York, in the fall of 1887. At his suggestion, and
+largely through his influence, it was tried by a few of the roads
+(the Trunk Lines and some of their immediate connections) during
+the early part of the year 1888; the amounts as then fixed being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span>
+one-half cent per mile run, and fifteen cents per day. The results
+of this experiment, while they were quite satisfactory to the friends
+of the proposed change, yet were not sufficiently conclusive to
+demonstrate the value of the plan to those who were indifferent or
+hostile to it.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="HandHeld">
+    <div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_295.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+    <div class="caption">Floating Cars, New York Harbor.</div>
+    </div>
+
+    <p>Only two methods have so far been suggested to abate or put
+    an end to the evils which have been but slightly indicated above.
+    The first is a change in the method of payment for car service to a
+    compensation based upon time as well as mileage, which is commonly
+    known as the "per diem plan."</p>
+
+    <p>This plan consists in paying for the use of all foreign cars a
+    fixed sum per mile run, based on the supposed cost of repairs of
+    the car, and a price per day based upon what is estimated to be a
+    fair return for the interest on its value. This plan was originally
+    suggested by a convention of car accountants, and was brought up
+    and advocated by Mr. Fink, the Chairman of the Trunk Line Commission,
+    in New York, in the fall of 1887. At his suggestion, and
+    largely through his influence, it was tried by a few of the roads
+    (the Trunk Lines and some of their immediate connections) during
+    the early part of the year 1888; the amounts as then fixed being
+    one-half cent per mile run, and fifteen cents per day. The results
+    of this experiment, while they were quite satisfactory to the friends
+    of the proposed change, yet were not sufficiently conclusive to
+    demonstrate the value of the plan to those who were indifferent or
+    hostile to it.</p>
+    </div>
+
+<p>For various reasons, chiefly local to the roads in question, the
+plan was discontinued after a few months' trial. The experiment
+resulted, however, in the collection of a large mass of statistics
+and other data, the study of which has led many to believe that
+the plan is the proper solution of the difficulties experienced, and, if
+adjusted so as not to add too much to the burden of those railway
+companies who are borrowers of cars, that it would meet with the
+approval of the railway companies throughout the country. It certainly
+provided a strong inducement to all roads to promptly handle
+foreign cars, and in that particular it proved a great advance over
+the existing methods of car service. The charge per day of fifteen
+cents was found too high in practice. Ten cents per day and a half-cent
+per mile would produce a net sum to the car-owner very
+slightly in excess of three-fourths of a cent per mile run. While
+this appears but small, yet it would be quite sufficient to amount
+in the aggregate to a considerable sum, and would serve to urge
+all railway companies to promptly unload and send home foreign
+cars. This plan would result, if generally adopted, in largely increasing
+the daily movement or mileage of all cars, or, what would
+be equivalent, would practically amount to a very considerable increase
+in the equipment of the country.</p>
+
+<p>The plan has recently been approved by the General Time
+Convention, and there is strong probability that it will be very extensively
+adopted and given a trial by all the railways during the
+year 1890.</p>
+
+<p>The second method of remedying the existing evils of car service
+is in a uniform and regular charge for demurrage, or car rental,
+to be collected by all railroad companies with the same regularity
+and uniformity that they now collect freight charges. This car
+rental, or demurrage charge, would not be in any sense a revenue
+to the car-owner; the idea of it being that it is a rental to the delivering
+company, not only for the use of the car but for the track
+on which it stands, and the inconvenience and actual cost that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span>
+company is put to in repeated handling a car that is held awaiting
+the pleasure of the consignee to unload. The difficulty in the
+way of making such a charge has been the unwillingness of any
+railroad company to put any obstacle in the way of the free movement
+of freight to its line, and the fear that an equivalent charge
+would not be made by some one of its competitors. Of late, however,
+the serious disadvantages resulting from the privileges given
+to consignees at competing points, by allowing them to hold cars
+indefinitely, have led the different railway companies to come together
+and agree upon a uniform system of demurrage charges at
+certain competing points.</p>
+
+<p>If these two plans could be put into operation simultaneously,
+a fair and uniform method of charging demurrage, coupled with
+the per diem and mileage plan for car service, the results would
+be most satisfactory not only to the railway companies and car-owners,
+but also to the community.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>The matter of freight transportation is a vast one, and whole
+chapters might be written on any one of the various topics that
+have been but slightly mentioned in this sketch.</p>
+
+<p>The subject is fraught with difficulties; new complications
+arise daily which, each in its turn, have to be met and mastered.
+The publicity recently given to the various phases of the railway
+problem has done much to enlighten the public mind in regard to
+these difficulties.</p>
+
+<p>The result has already been evident in the growing spirit of
+mutual forbearance and good-will between the railway companies
+and the public. Let us hope that this will continue, and that as
+time goes on their relations will steadily improve, so that the public,
+while yielding nothing of their legitimate demand for safe, prompt,
+and convenient service, will at the same time see that this can only
+be secured by allowing the railways a fair return for the services
+rendered; while the railways will learn that their true interest lies
+in the best service possible at moderate, uniform rates.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Explanation.</span> Each connecting road at each junction station is assigned a number, and when
+a car is received from a connection the record is shown by entering the road number in the upper
+space of the block under the proper date, followed by the character × if loaded; or, if empty, together
+with the time, as for example: Car 29421 is shown as received, Dec. 2d, from the Amherst &amp; Lincoln
+Ry. at Port Chester (10), loaded (×), at 21 o'clock, or 9 <span class="fs70">P.M.</span> A similar entry in the lower space of the
+block indicates a <em>delivery</em> to connecting line. The middle space of the block is used for the car movement,
+the first number or letter showing the station from which the car moved. The character × as a
+prefix to a station number indicates that the car is being loaded at that station. The &mdash;, when used as
+a prefix, shows that the car is being unloaded; as an <em>affix</em> it indicates a movement empty, or on hand
+empty. When the &mdash; is used <em>under</em> a station number it indicates a change date record, that is, leaving
+a station on one date and arriving at another on the following date. Station numbers or letters without
+other characters show that the car is loaded.</p>
+
+<p>
+The sign (B) is used when a car is left at a station for repairs, while in transit. The sign (T) denotes
+that the lading was transferred to another car, a transfer record being kept showing to what car
+transferred; the sign (R), when a car is on hand at a station or yard for repairs. Shops are assigned
+numbers with an O prefix; the upper and lower spaces being used to show delivery to, or receipt from
+the shop, similar to the interchange record.</p>
+
+<p>
+For convenience the twenty-four hour system is used for recording time, and is shown in quarter-hours;
+thus, 10, 12<sup>1</sup>, 18<sup>2</sup>, 21<sup>3</sup>, representing 10 <span class="fs70">A.M.</span>, 12.15 <span class="fs70">P.M.</span>, 6.30 <span class="fs70">P.M.</span>, and 9.45 <span class="fs70">P.M.</span> This,
+used in the movement record, shows the running time on each division, or detention at train terminals.</p>
+
+<p>
+The "transfer" column shows the station at which the car was reported on the last day of the previous
+month, and the <em>arriving date</em>; also from what road received, with date.</p></div></div>
+
+
+    <div class="chapter"></div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">HOW TO FEED A RAILWAY.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="pfs90 smcap">By BENJAMIN NORTON.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>The Many Necessities of a Modern Railway&mdash;The Purchasing and Supply Departments&mdash;Comparison
+with the Commissary Department of an Army&mdash;Financial Importance&mdash;Immense
+Expenditures&mdash;The General Storehouse&mdash;Duties of the Purchasing Agent&mdash;The
+Best Material the Cheapest&mdash;Profits from the Scrap-heap&mdash;Old Rails Worked
+over into New Implements&mdash;Yearly Contracts for Staple Articles&mdash;Economy in Fuel&mdash;Tests
+by the Best Engineers and Firemen&mdash;The Stationery Supply&mdash;Aggregate
+Annual Cost of Envelopes, Tickets, and Time-tables&mdash;The Average Life of Rails&mdash;Durability
+of Cross-ties&mdash;What it Costs per Mile to Run an Engine&mdash;The Paymaster's
+Duties&mdash;Scenes during the Trip of a Pay-car.</p></div>
+
+<div><img class="drop-cap" src="images/i_298dc.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap">The commissary or supply department of a railroad
+is not unlike that of a large army. Like a vast
+army, its necessities are many, and the various departments
+which make up the whole system must
+be provided with their necessary requirements in
+order to accomplish the end for which it is operated.</p>
+
+<p>If, again, we regard a railroad as a huge animal, the quantity
+of supplies needed to fill its capacious maw is something overwhelming.
+It is always hungry, and the daily bill of fare (which
+includes pretty much everything known to trade) is gone through
+with an appetite as vigorous and healthy at the end as it exhibits
+in the beginning. Yet how few there are who realize the important
+part this one feature plays in the operation of the thousands of
+miles of railroad throughout the world! Upon the proper conduct
+of this department depends very largely the success of any road,
+so far as its relation to the stockholders is concerned; for while,
+as has been the case in the past, combinations and pools have
+aided in maintaining rates, and have served to increase the income,
+and attention has been paid to securing additional business
+in every possible way, the "out-goes" have often been overlooked,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span>
+to the detriment of dividends and the general welfare of
+the property.</p>
+
+<p>The supplies must be furnished in any event, in order that the
+various departments may perform their allotted duties&mdash;coal for the
+engines, stationery for the clerks, ties and rails for the tracks, oils
+for the lubrication of the thousands of axles daily turning, passage-tickets
+for the travellers, and a thousand and one things which are
+absolutely necessary for the safe and efficient conduct of every railroad
+in active operation. Each item serves its purpose, and,
+properly assimilated, keeps alive all the functions of one vast and
+complicated system. It is easy to see, then, the importance, first,
+of proper economy in buying, and then a correct and systematic
+distribution of all supplies. On the Philadelphia &amp; Reading
+Railroad, for instance, the annual supply bills aggregate more than
+$3,000,000, covering such supplies as those just mentioned, and, in
+fact, everything which is purchased and used in the operation of
+the road; so that on a large system like that, the commissary department
+requires no end of detail, both in the purchase and the
+distribution of all material.</p>
+
+<p>The expenditure for lubricating oils, waste, and greases alone
+amounts to more than $150,000 per annum, while the outlay for fuel
+represents about $1,200,000, and this is comparatively a small sum,
+since that road is a coal road, so called, and the cost for fuel, as a
+matter of course, is reduced to a minimum. There the store-room
+system, which has now been pretty generally adopted by many of
+the larger roads, is fully exemplified. With a General Store-keeper
+in charge, all supplies purchased are accounted for through
+him, and distributions are made daily among the sub-store rooms,
+which are located at convenient points; and they in turn distribute
+among the various departments, for consumption, all accounting
+daily to the General Store-keeper at Reading.</p>
+
+<p>To give an idea as to the quantity of material required in the
+service on such a road, it may be stated that from twelve to fifteen
+car-loads of supplies per day are shipped to various points.
+When we consider that an ordinary car will carry from fifteen to
+twenty tons of freight, we find that the annual requirements will
+average about four thousand car-loads, or, say, about fifty thousand
+tons, and if all the cars were made up into one solid train<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span>
+they would occupy fully twenty-five miles of track, and consume
+an hour and a half passing a given point running at the ordinary
+speed of freight-trains.</p>
+
+<p>To account carefully for all this requires necessarily a large
+army of clerks and other assistants, though, with the fundamental
+principles correct, it is no more difficult to account for large quantities
+than for small. The supplies are purchased in the first instance,
+delivered at the General Storehouse, are there weighed
+or measured and receipted for, are then distributed on requisition,
+and finally delivered to the several departments when needed;
+are charged out to the various accounts, after consumption, and
+all returns and records are finally kept on the books of the General
+Store-keeper.</p>
+
+<p>It would be a large army indeed which would require so much
+for its maintenance; and, remembering the hundreds of roads,
+small and large, throughout the country, the measure of one's
+comprehension is nearly reached in estimating the amount of
+money and the thousands of tons of material represented.</p>
+
+<p>If the buyer of railroad stocks for investment, besides looking
+into the returns of freight and passenger business for his decision,
+would investigate carefully the method adopted for the purchase
+and distribution of supplies on any road in which he may be interested,
+he might get information enough to satisfy himself that a
+large portion of the earnings were dribbling out through this department,
+and that, as a result, his stock might eventually cease
+to be a dividend payer.</p>
+
+<p>In the matter of buying, the result depends entirely upon the
+purchasing agent, and this position must necessarily be occupied
+by a man of honor and integrity, coupled with a reasonable amount
+of shrewdness and aptitude for such business. As this department
+covers to a greater or less degree pretty much all the known
+branches of trade, the buyer cannot, under ordinary circumstances,
+thoroughly master the whole field as an expert; but he can nevertheless
+inform himself in the most important articles of manufacture
+to the extent of preventing deception or fraud. The field is
+extensive, and the sooner railroad companies realize that the purchasing
+agent is not a mere order clerk, the sooner they will discover
+that their disbursements for supplies are very much less,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span>
+and that the chief part of the leakage has found its source in this
+very department.</p>
+
+<p>Exactly the same principles are involved in this matter as in
+the case of a thrifty proprietor of a country-store, whose profits
+each year depend materially upon the closeness and care with
+which his stock in trade is purchased from the wholesale dealers
+in a large city. A purchasing agent's experience is varied in the
+extreme, dealing as he does with all classes of salesmen and business
+houses. There is no end to the operations which skilful
+salesmen go through in offering their stock; but after some experience
+a sharp buyer will be able to fortify himself against the
+best of them&mdash;even against the clever vender of varnishes who
+disposed of one hundred barrels of his wares in small lots to different
+buyers, on a sample of maple-sirup. On the other hand,
+a salesman who, when a buyer asked him if his oil gummed, replied
+that "it gummed beautifully," lost the chance of ever selling
+any goods in that quarter.</p>
+
+<p>As has been said, the ordinary or general supplies consumed
+in the operation of the average railroad include almost everything
+known to trade. Tobacco, for the gratification of the taste of a
+gang of men out on the road with the snow-plough, is not outside
+the list; and even pianos, for some trains (since the days of absolute
+comfort and possible extravagance have begun) for the benefit
+of passengers setting out on long journeys; nor do we lose sight
+of books, bath-tubs, and barbers. The practical feature involved,
+however, calls for an endless variety of expensive as well as inexpensive
+materials.</p>
+
+<p>It is a safe rule to follow that anything which goes into the
+construction either of track, equipment, or buildings, should be
+the best. Care should always be exercised against the use of any
+material the failure of which might be the cause of loss of life, and
+consequently result in heavy damages to the company. Iron alone
+enters so extensively into railroad construction and operation that
+it is safe to say three-fourths of all manufactured in this country is
+consumed directly or indirectly in this way; and besides its use in
+rails and fastenings (the latter including spikes, fish-plates, and bolts
+and nuts), and in the many thousand tons of car-wheels and axles
+annually required, there must be reckoned the almost unlimited number<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span>
+of castings daily required in the way of brake-shoes, pedestals,
+draw-heads, grate-bars, etc. The lumber and timber for buildings,
+bridges, platforms, and crossings, and the large quantity of glass
+which is necessary, are among other large items of expenditure.</p>
+
+<p>Lubricating and illuminating oils, paints and varnishes, soaps,
+chalk, bunting, hardware, lamps, cotton and woollen waste, clocks,
+brooms, and such metals as copper, pig tin, and antimony are only
+a few of the many articles of diet which a railroad requires to keep
+body and soul together, and give it strength to perform the great
+duty it owes to commerce and the public. After they have all
+served their purposes, such as cannot be worked over again in the
+shops, and are not entirely consumed, are consigned to the scrap-heap
+under the head of "old material"&mdash;an all-important consideration
+in the economical management of any road. On many
+roads very little attention is paid to the sale of scrap. As a general
+rule, the purchasing agent has charge of it, and if he shows
+any shrewdness in buying, he will exercise more or less ingenuity
+in selling. Most railroad scrap has a fixed value in the market.
+Quotations for old rails, car-wheels, and wrought iron are found
+in all the trade journals; but as in buying one can usually buy of
+someone at prices less than market price, so in selling he can often
+find a buyer who is willing to pay more than the regular quotation.
+As it is found not wise in the long run to purchase ahead
+on some prospective rise, so in selling it is equally true that holding
+scrap over upon the possibility of a rise in prices is not always
+for the best advantage.</p>
+
+<p>There has always been a demand for old iron rails, and recently
+use for old steel rails has been found. They are worked over at
+the rolling mills into crowbars and shovels, spikes, fish-plates,
+bolts, and other necessary things to be employed in construction
+and maintenance. Not long since an experiment with old steel
+rails was successfully performed, whereby they were melted and
+poured into moulds for use as brake-shoes. The result showed a
+casting of unusual hardness which would outwear three ordinary
+cast-iron shoes. This opens up an entirely new field in railroad
+economy, for with ordinary foundry appliances accumulations of
+old steel rails can be worked over and cast into all sorts of shapes
+and patterns to better advantage than selling them at a nominal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span>
+price to outside buyers. While worn-out car-wheels will generally
+bring more money from wheel manufacturers than they command
+in the open market, it has not always been found the best
+policy to compel the mill from which the new wheels are purchased
+to take too many of them. It is apt to encourage the use
+of too much old material in the manufacture of the new; and while
+the company may consider that it is realizing much more money
+on sales of the old wheels than the market price, it does not take
+into account the inferior stock it is getting back, or the fact that
+possibly when the mileage is reckoned the wheels have signally
+failed to run as long as they ought. In the aggregate about ten
+per cent. of the original cost of all supplies purchased is realized
+out of the sales of old material. From cast-iron wheels and old
+rails, however, the percentage is much larger, for while at present
+new passenger car-wheels of this class, weighing about five hundred
+and fifty pounds, are worth about ten dollars each, they will
+bring in the market, when worn out after running say fifty thousand
+miles, about twenty dollars per ton. Four wheels go to the
+ton, which represents five dollars per wheel, or fifty per cent.
+of the original cost. With old rails the percentage is even higher,
+in the present condition of the rail market. Old iron rails are
+worth within four or five dollars of the price of new steel, and the
+old steel about seventy per cent. of the price of the new. These
+high percentages assist in making up for the materials which are
+entirely consumed in the service, and which never form a part of
+the ordinary scrap-heap, such as oils, waste, and paints.</p>
+
+<p>While the majority of general supplies just mentioned briefly
+may be arranged for as required and purchased from month to
+month upon regular requisitions, there are certain staple articles
+which are provided for in advance by contract. Among them
+principally are the engine-coal, rails and ties, stationery, passage-tickets,
+and time-tables. More money is expended for such supplies
+than for any others, and contracts with responsible business
+houses, for their delivery at fixed prices for the limit of at least a
+year, are generally made to insure, in the first place, the lowest
+market rates and, again, to make the delivery certain.</p>
+
+<p>Locomotive fuel is the largest single item of expense in the
+operation of any road, the consumption of it running up as high as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span>
+a million tons per annum on some large roads; and while there are
+a few exceptional cases where wood is used as fuel, coal is the
+necessary element in nearly every case in America to-day.</p>
+
+<p>Of the two general varieties&mdash;bituminous or soft, and anthracite
+or hard&mdash;it is safe to say that bituminous coal is the more
+economical, assuming that the grade employed is the best, this
+economy lying both in the original cost and the fact that the bulk
+of it goes to serve its purpose, there being comparatively little
+waste in the way of ashes; while the anthracite produces many
+ashes and clinkers, requires much more care and attention on the
+part of the stoker or fireman, and costs, as a general rule, about
+thirty per cent. more. Economy, however, should not be carried
+too far in any branch of the service, and if the passenger traffic be
+heavy the use of soft coal may be a great detriment. To a traveller
+there can be nothing more disagreeable than the smoke and
+cinders emanating from it; and if, besides this, the road be an
+especially dusty one, the combination of dust, smoke, and cinders
+will be quite sufficient to turn the tide of travel in some other
+direction and over another route.</p>
+
+<p>For freight service bituminous coal is decidedly the best, and
+perhaps might not be out of place on short local passenger trains;
+but the company that provides hard-coal-burning engines for
+passenger trains, and soft-coal burners for freight, does about the
+right thing, and economizes as far as practicable in this particular.
+In making contracts for this important commodity the necessity of
+careful tests in advance is very apparent, and such trials are
+generally left with the best engineers and firemen; otherwise it
+might be difficult to get at all the qualifications. On some roads
+inducements offered to firemen have brought the consumption of
+fuel down to the most economical point, and it is surprising how
+much depends upon their good judgment in this matter.</p>
+
+<p>Now that heating cars direct from the engines is coming into
+general use, and State legislatures have given the subject their consideration,
+the consumption of the domestic sizes of coal as fuel in
+cars is growing less; but this, too, is still a very important matter.</p>
+
+<p>Stationery is not only a very significant item, but also an expensive
+one. This includes all the forms and blanks used in the conduct
+of the freight and passenger business, and there is an endless<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span>
+variety of them&mdash;the inks, pens, pencils, mucilage, sealing-wax, and
+envelopes, besides many other odds and ends. Perhaps the envelopes
+represent one of the largest single items of expense in
+this line. The hundreds of thousands of them used in the course
+of a year, even at low prices, mean an outlay of many thousands
+of dollars. Agents must send in daily reports, there must be covers
+for all the correspondence passing between the different departments,
+while the daily average amount of outside correspondence
+is very considerable. It is surprising how many dollars might be
+saved in this direction, not only by a judicious contract, but by a
+careful use of the supply.</p>
+
+<p>When a railroad company takes up the question of time-tables,
+it has a matter of importance to handle which on many roads receives
+very little consideration. When the passenger traffic is
+heavy, the number of travellers during the year running into the
+millions, the demand for time-tables is very large. This refers
+directly to the time-table sheets or folders, which every company
+must keep on hand at its stations, and in other public places and
+hotels, for the convenience of the traveller, in addition to the
+printed schedules which are framed and hung up conspicuously on
+the walls of its waiting-rooms. A neat and attractive folder for
+general circulation is very desirable, particularly if competition is
+very strong. There is more virtue in a neatly made up schedule
+of trains than one would suppose. One in doubt is apt to reason
+that the road is kept up in a corresponding condition, and that the
+trains are made up on the same plan, and consequently would prefer
+to go by that route rather than by one whose trains were advertised
+on cheap leaflets.</p>
+
+<p>Fifteen thousand to twenty thousand dollars per annum for
+envelopes alone is spent on some roads, and twice as much more
+perhaps for time-tables.</p>
+
+<p>Passage-tickets, including all varieties of regular and special
+tickets, such as mileage books or coupons, family trip-books, and
+school-tickets are also an item of large expense, the annual consumption
+covering many tons, which once used are of no value
+save as waste paper; yet they are absolutely indispensable in the
+operation of the road. Yearly contracts for these are made, and
+while the actual cost of a single ticket may not exceed <em>one mill</em>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span>
+the aggregate on a road carrying fifteen millions to twenty millions
+or more passengers per annum is considerable.</p>
+
+<p>To induce the public to travel, and encourage shippers to send
+their freight to market over any road, attention must first be paid
+to the condition of the track and rolling stock.</p>
+
+<p>It is not economy to allow anything to be out of repair, on the
+supposition that it is less expensive than it would be to spend comparatively
+little from day to day to keep it up. The day of reckoning
+will come in the end, and the sacrifice will be considerable.
+As the track is the fundamental feature, the cross-ties or sleepers
+and rails should be the best. Iron rails are practically out of date,
+and it is fair to assume that the time is approaching when wooden
+ties will be things of the past. Where the traffic is light, heavy
+steel rails may not be necessary; but it has been generally found
+economical to put in use rails which do not weigh less than sixty-seven
+or seventy pounds to the yard; an even greater weight than
+this is not ill-advised&mdash;they require fewer cross-ties to the mile,
+and in consequence the force of men required to keep the track in
+condition is less. Light rails are soon worn and battered out on a
+road over which heavy engines are run and large trains are hauled.
+The powerful locomotives now built require a well-kept track and
+a solid and substantial road-bed. Heavier and faster trains have
+tended to reduce the average life of rails, even though the weight
+of the rails has also been steadily increasing. Circumstances vary
+on the different roads, but it is safe to say that eight to ten per
+cent. of all rails in the track must be renewed every year. This
+brings the average life of the steel rails down to about twelve years,
+under ordinary conditions. On some divisions, however, where
+the traffic is frequent, and in yards where a good deal of switching
+is done, and the rails are under pressure constantly, the average
+is, of course, very much less&mdash;even as low as two or three years.</p>
+
+<p>Aside from the durability of the timber employed, plenty of face
+for the rail bearings, and uniform thickness and length, are very
+important requirements in contracts for ties. While white oak is
+generally considered the most durable for this purpose, the growth
+of this timber is limited except in certain sections of the country,
+so that cedar, cypress, chestnut, and yellow pine are more commonly
+used than any other class. The millions of them used for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span>
+renewals and new roads each year are gradually reducing our
+forests; and, like some of the European roads, we shall some day
+fall back upon metal, which (while its life may not be measured)
+will make so rigid a track that the traveller over long distances
+will be worn out with his journey, and the rolling stock will require
+frequent repairs and overhauling. The practice of creosoting
+cross-ties is growing rapidly, and this tends to increase their durability
+three or four times. While the first cost of such ties may be
+double that for the unprepared timbers, the result in the end is
+economical, for the labor alone required to take out an old tie and
+put in a new one costs at least twelve cents.</p>
+
+<p>The general store-room is properly the intermediate stage, so
+far as supplies are concerned, between the different departments of
+the road and the Auditor, who charges up all material used to the
+different accounts into which his system is divided. Properly,
+everything in the nature of material, however small, directly or indirectly
+passes through the Store-keeper's books. An account is
+kept with each locomotive, station agent, switchman, and flagman,
+so that to a penny everything consumed in the operation of a road
+is accurately known. To accomplish this the Store-keeper, of
+course, must be a good accountant, and at the same time be more
+or less of an expert in railroad material. Under an economical administration
+of his affairs he is able to save a great deal of money
+for his company. By his system, with the aid of data from the mechanical
+department, he can tell the average number of miles run
+during the year to a pint of oil or a ton of coal; the number of
+pounds of coal consumed per mile run, as well as the number of
+pints of oil for the same distance. He can give in detail the cost
+in cents per mile run for all the oil, tallow, and waste, fuel, and
+other supplies consumed, and can account to a nicety for all the
+lanterns, brooms, hardware, and other material which he has received
+and distributed.</p>
+
+<p>The following statement of averages represents fairly what it
+costs to run a locomotive under ordinary conditions:</p>
+
+<p class="pfs90"><em>Averages.</em></p>
+
+<div class="center fs80">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="tdl">Number of miles run to pint of oil</td><td class="tdrx">15.32</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Number of miles run to ton of coal</td><td class="tdrx">46.17</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Number of pounds of coal per mile run</td><td class="tdrx">48.62</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Number of pints of oil per mile run</td><td class="tdrx">0.06</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="p2 pfs90"><em>Cost in Cents per Mile Run.</em></p>
+
+<div class="center fs80">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrx fs85">Cents.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">For oil, tallow, and waste</td><td class="tdrx">0.32</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">For fuel</td><td class="tdrx">7.42</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">For engineers</td><td class="tdrx">3.60</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">For firemen</td><td class="tdrx">1.79</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">For wipers and watchmen</td><td class="tdrx">1.25</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">For water supply</td><td class="tdrx">0.49</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">For supplies (miscellaneous)</td><td class="tdrx">0.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">For repairs</td><td class="tdrx">2.40</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrx">&mdash;&mdash;&ndash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl pad6">Total</td><td class="tdrx">17.37</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="p1" />
+<p>He will find that some engineers and firemen are more extravagant
+than others, and that some station agents and flagmen do
+not perform their respective duties with near so much regard for
+economy as others do under exactly similar circumstances. In
+such cases a report is made and a reminder from the Superintendent
+follows, calling attention to such carelessness. The result is
+apparent at the next monthly comparison.</p>
+
+<p>Prompt payment of all supply bills helps to insure economy,
+and any company unable to make its payments promptly and regularly,
+suffers to a greater or less extent always; for a firm not able
+to know whether its accounts are to be settled in thirty or ninety
+days cannot afford to allow all the discounts which it otherwise
+might, and this may mean an extra expense every year of many
+thousands of dollars.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>So far as the employees are concerned, it is for the best interests
+of the company to have a fixed time for the pay-day. They
+need their money and should get it regularly. Any road on which
+the men are paid at uncertain times may be subject to incalculable
+losses. It is apt to provoke dishonesty and carelessness. The
+road which is bankrupt and forced to pass its pay-day to some indefinite
+time is always hampered by some of the most inferior class
+of servants in the market. Except in some instances where special
+laws have been passed requiring railroad companies to meet
+their pay-rolls oftener, once each month is generally recognized as
+pay-time, and on large roads it would be simply out of the question
+for the pay-rolls to be made up correctly and the men paid off
+sooner. The paymaster is the wage-distributing medium, and by
+virtue of his generosity will command as much respect as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span>
+President of the road. No officer's face is more familiar than his,
+and surely no one connected with the institution is looked for with
+more eagerness by the hard-working employees. It is no easy
+task he has to perform, and the responsibility for the millions of
+dollars paid out in this way annually is very great. This responsibility,
+however, has been very much reduced on some roads,
+where wages are paid by checks entirely. Under some circumstances
+this system will not work satisfactorily, especially on a road
+running through a sparsely settled country. The employees may
+have to stand a good round discount to some store-keeper or
+tradesman in order to secure their money. The best and most
+satisfactory return for services can be nothing less than solid cash;
+it encourages better attention to business and relieves the men
+from possible annoyance and inconvenience. The Paymaster's
+car, which is virtually a moving bank or cashier's office, and arranged
+conveniently for the payment of money to the men as they
+pass through, is generally run "special," upon notice in advance
+to all foremen or heads of departments, either by telegraph or, as
+on some roads, by the display of special signal flags, which are carried
+on the front end of the locomotive of some regular train the
+day before the car is run over any division. In this way all men
+employed along the line of the road, whether at or between stations,
+are notified of the Paymaster's coming, and it does not usually
+require any other inducement than this to bring them all out.
+There is nothing that will prompt them to jump higher and run
+faster than the whistle of the pay-train as it comes around the
+curve to the station. Men have been known to forget their names,
+and do other foolish things under the excitement of drawing their
+month's pay. The fellow who said he could not write all his name
+when requested by the Paymaster to sign the pay-roll, but offered
+to write as much of it as he could, after some deliberation made a
+cross on the sheet with all the care and nicety he could muster.
+Others who could not write have been very slow to admit it, and
+have pleaded haste as an excuse for not doing so. So far as Italians
+are concerned (and what railroad service is now complete without
+its gang of Italian laborers?), they are usually designated by numbers,
+and in some cases their foremen have thought it well to name
+them after prominent statesmen or other public men, or possibly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span>
+some of the head officials of the company. To run across twenty-five
+or thirty Daniel Websters on the same road is not surprising,
+and the President of the company himself is liable to have a half-dozen
+namesakes throughout the different divisions of his road. A
+cage of jabbering monkeys is not a more amusing spectacle than
+some gangs of Italian laborers receiving their month's pay.</p>
+
+<p>The pay-department can be made very systematic, and to promote
+economy and accuracy it is absolutely necessary that it should
+be. The Paymaster is not simply a medium through whom wages
+are distributed. He may be one of the most important officers of his
+company, and ferret out frauds and dishonesty which otherwise might
+never be discovered. He knows all the men, and they, of course,
+know him. In fact, he is the only one connected with the road
+whose recognition among all the employees is absolutely certain.</p>
+
+<p>Some idea of the enormous amount of money earned annually
+by the railroad men in this country may be formed from the statement
+that it requires about $1,000,000 per month to pay twenty
+thousand men, and there are a good many roads on which the
+average monthly pay-roll embraces from fifteen thousand to twenty
+thousand names; in some cases even more.</p>
+
+<p>When the pay-rolls are all turned over to the Paymaster, properly
+approved by each head of department, he notifies the Superintendent
+or Trainmaster of his proposed trip, mapping out in detail
+the route, which is usually the same each month. The signals
+or telegrams are sent ahead to the various foremen, and the car is
+ordered ready for the journey. The funds are arranged in denominations
+to suit the circumstances, with plenty of small change,
+and enough money for a day or two only at a time is provided.
+The pay for the flagmen at crossings, and switchmen on the road,
+as well as for the agents at small stations, is generally done up in
+envelopes, and, as the train speeds by, the packages are handed or
+thrown out at the proper places; and sometimes, to warrant a safe
+delivery, a forked stick is used, into which the envelope is put, thus
+giving it plenty of weight and saving it from being tumbled about
+promiscuously on the ground. Much time is saved in this way, and
+the pay-train is able to keep well out of the way of any regular
+train which may be following. So the pay-car flies along, only
+stopping at some large station where the number of employees engaged<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span>
+is sufficient to warrant it. These are quickly paid off, however,
+and the journey is continued. Perhaps at some junction a
+freight crew is met; and as these fellows have to get their money
+when they can, a stop is made on the road to give them a chance
+to do it. At some stations are found two or three gangs of section
+or track men, a watchman, an agent and his assistant, a pumper,
+and possibly a mail-carrier. Perhaps a discharged trainman will
+turn up also, who may have part of a month's pay coming to him.</p>
+
+<p>Later in the day it may be a shop gang of five hundred or one
+thousand men, consisting of carpenters, painters, machinists, and
+boiler-makers, and these are paid in order, each set of men by itself.
+There is no noise or disturbance, everything goes like clock-work,
+as all pass through in regular order, each gang or class preceded
+by its foreman, and the men arranged in line in the order in
+which their names appear on the pay-rolls. When night comes,
+and two or three hundred miles of road have been covered, the
+balance of the funds is carefully locked up in the safe on board, the
+car run in upon some convenient siding, and the engine housed for
+a wiping and a thorough preparation for the next day's run. The
+car is generally provided with comfortable beds for the Paymaster
+and his clerks, and during the paying-off time they practically live
+in the car. This insures early starts in the morning, and on large
+roads the necessity for haste is very apparent, where possibly two
+or three weeks are consumed each month in paying off the rolls.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>The average traveller, spinning across the country at forty
+miles an hour, is not apt to think of the countless details involved
+in the make-up of the train in which he rides or the track over
+which he is wheeled; but when he considers how safely the millions
+of passengers are annually carried over the one hundred and
+fifty thousand miles or more of railroad in this country alone, he
+may be brought to realize that quite as much depends upon the
+quality of the material entering into the construction of the train
+and tracks as upon the efficiency of the engineer in the cab, or the
+conductor, brakeman, switchmen, and train-despatcher who perform
+their respective responsible duties in connection therewith.
+Feeding a railroad, then, means a great deal more than the majority
+of mankind supposes.</p>
+
+
+    <div class="chapter"></div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">THE RAILWAY MAIL SERVICE.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="pfs90 smcap">By THOMAS L. JAMES.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>An Object Lesson in Postal Progress&mdash;Nearness of the Department to the People&mdash;The
+First Travelling Post-Office in the United States&mdash;Organization of the Department
+in 1789&mdash;Early Mail Contracts&mdash;All Railroads made Post-routes&mdash;Compartments
+for Mail Clerks in Baggage-cars&mdash;Origin of the Present System in 1862&mdash;Important
+Work of Colonel George S. Bangs&mdash;The "Fast Mail" between New York and Chicago&mdash;Why
+it was Suspended&mdash;Resumption in 1877&mdash;Present Condition of the Service&mdash;Statistics&mdash;A
+Ride on the "Fast Mail"&mdash;Busy Scenes at the Grand Central
+Depot&mdash;Special Uses of the Five Cars&mdash;Duties of the Clerks&mdash;How the Work is
+Performed&mdash;Annual Appropriation for Special Mail Facilities&mdash;Dangers Threatening
+the Railway Mail Clerk's Life&mdash;An Insurance Fund Proposed&mdash;Needs of the
+Service&mdash;A Plea for Radical Civil Service Reform.</p></div>
+
+<div><img class="drop-cap1" src="images/i_312dc.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap1">At the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia, in the
+Post-Office exhibit, was a double picture showing
+the postal service at the beginning of the century
+and as it is to-day. On one side was a postman&mdash;perhaps
+Franklin&mdash;on horseback, jogging over
+a corduroy road, "through the forest primeval,"
+making a mile or two an hour; and on the other
+a representation of the fast mail train, the "catcher"
+taking a pouch from the "crane" as it passes at the rate of fifty
+miles an hour! Standing in the foreground is the pretty daughter
+of the village postmaster with the mail pouch just thrown from the
+car in her hand, a group of rustics, with ill-concealed admiration
+in their eyes, watching her as the swiftly passing train goes on its
+journey. This picture is not, perhaps, a work of art, but it is an
+"object lesson," giving at a glance the progress that our country
+has made in a hundred years.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_313.jpg" width="375" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Postal Progress, 1776&ndash;1876.<br />
+(Facsimile of a print in the Post-Office Department.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of all the executive departments of the Government, the Post-Office
+is the one nearest the people, and the one with which they
+are the most familiar. In addition to its work of collecting, transporting,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span>
+and delivering legitimate mail matter, viz., letters, newspapers,
+and magazines, it is the greatest express company of the
+continent, since it has
+an office at almost every
+cross-roads, even
+carrying merchandise
+cheaper (considering
+the distance) than its
+rivals. Its registration
+system affords a
+means of forwarding
+valuable packages, at
+a slight additional
+cost, with almost absolute
+security. It is
+the greatest banking
+institution on this side
+of the Atlantic. The
+transactions of its
+money-order system,
+not only in our own
+country, but with almost
+every nation in
+the civilized world
+(Russia and Spain excepted), run up to wellnigh fabulous sums.
+Its drafts are easily obtained and cheap. Its notes are "gilt
+edged," and have never been repudiated. With the creation of
+the Postal Savings Bank system, the working people's department
+in its organization will approach perfection.</p>
+
+<p>The first mention of a travelling post-office occurs in a memorial
+addressed to Congress in November, 1776, by Ebenezer
+Hazard, Postmaster-General under the Continental Congress, in
+which he states that, owing to the frequent removals of the Continental
+Army, he was subjected to extraordinary expense, difficulties,
+and fatigues, "having paid an exorbitant price for every
+necessary of life, and having been obliged, for want of a horse&mdash;which
+could not be procured&mdash;to follow the army on foot."</p>
+
+<p>Directly after the inauguration of General Washington, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span>
+April, 1789, the organization of the Post-Office Department followed,
+and Samuel Osgood, of Massachusetts, was appointed
+Postmaster-General. That the people might derive the greatest
+possible advantage from an institution peculiarly their own, this
+gigantic monopoly&mdash;for it is nothing else&mdash;was created, and all
+competition forbidden. The Postmaster-General had then but one
+clerk, and there were but 75 post-offices and 1,875 miles of post-roads
+in the United States; the cost of mail transportation being
+$22,081, the total revenue, $37,935, the total expenditures, $32,140;
+leaving a surplus of $5,795. From this time until 1836 the
+contracts made for the transportation of the mails do not mention
+any kind of service on post-roads except stages, sulkies, four-horse
+post-coaches, horseback, packets, and steam-boats.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_314.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The Pony Express&mdash;The Relay.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The growth of the Railway Mail Service has been coincident
+with that of the railway itself, and the importance of both cannot
+be underestimated in considering the future development of the
+country. Almost as soon as a railroad is fully organized it becomes
+a mail contractor with the Department.</p>
+
+<p>The Act of Congress constituting every railroad in the United
+States a post-route was approved July 7, 1838. Postmaster-General
+Barry, in his annual report for 1836, speaks of the multiplication<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span>
+of railroads in many parts of the country, and suggests it
+as a subject worthy of inquiry, whether measures may not be taken
+to secure the transportation of the mail on them, and adds: "Already
+have the railroads between Frenchtown, in Maryland, and
+Newcastle, in Delaware, and between Camden and South Amboy,
+in New Jersey, afforded great and important facilities to the transmission
+of the great eastern mail." At this time a railroad between
+Washington and New York was in process of construction,
+and Postmaster-General Barry dwelt in his report on the importance
+of the facilities that would be afforded for speedy service between
+the two cities, predicting that the run between them would
+probably be made in sixteen hours. The service is now performed
+in about five hours.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_315.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The Overland Mail Coach&mdash;A Star Route.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>At first the facilities for mail services were very limited. Postmaster-General
+Kendall, in 1835, suggested that the Baltimore &amp;
+Ohio Railroad Company might be asked to close in some portion
+of their baggage-cars, a strong lock being placed on the apartment,
+to which only the postmasters at Washington and Baltimore should
+have keys. In the same report he adds: "If wheels can be constructed
+which can be used alike upon the railroads and the streets
+of the cities respectively, the Department will furnish an entire car
+containing the mail to be delivered at one depot, and received at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span>
+the other, asking nothing of the company but to haul it." It was
+even proposed at this time that the Government should have its
+own locomotives, everything else on the road giving the right of
+way to the mail train. This proposition was not adopted. The
+fear was expressed,
+however, that
+if the Department
+did not have absolute
+control
+over the road,
+the people would
+have to depend
+on stage or other
+horse transportation
+for mail service.
+All these
+early troubles in
+time passed away,
+and, through concessions
+on both sides, the railways soon became the most important
+agent of the Post-Office Department.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_316.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Mail Carrying in the Country.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This, of course, was not accomplished without many trials and
+tribulations. It seems strange, in the light of the present, to read
+in an official report a remonstrance from route agents that nearly
+every night dead bodies were placed in the mail crates between
+Philadelphia and New York, and the mails packed around the
+coffins. This breach of good order disappeared after that time,
+and with it came to an end the freight methods and the old stage-coach
+ideas of dealing with the mails.</p>
+
+<p>A separate compartment in a baggage-car, fitted up with few
+conveniences necessary for the distribution of local way-mail, was
+the beginning of the system which has developed into the luxurious
+postal cars of the present time. As a matter of history, however,
+it is only fair to say that the system which we then adopted
+had been in use for some time by our northern neighbors of
+Canada, who had taken it from the mother country.</p>
+
+<p>The credit of suggesting the first step toward the present system
+has generally been given to Colonel G. B. Armstrong, who in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span>
+1864 was Assistant Postmaster at Chicago. This is incorrect;
+Mr. W. A. Davis, a clerk of the St. Joseph, Mo., Post-Office,
+where the overland mail was made up, conceived the idea, in 1862,
+that if the letters and papers could be assorted on the cars between
+Quincy and St. Joseph, the overland mail could start promptly on
+time. He was given permission to carry out this idea, and there
+are vouchers on file in the Department at Washington showing
+that he was paid for that specific work. In 1864 Colonel Armstrong
+was authorized and encouraged by the Hon. Montgomery
+Blair, then Postmaster-General, to undertake the difficult task of
+arranging and introducing the service. On August 31, 1864, he
+wrote: "To-day I commenced the new distribution." Subsequently,
+Colonel Armstrong became the first General Railway Mail
+Superintendent, and held this office until ill-health compelled him
+to resign, in 1871. To Colonel George S. Bangs, of Illinois, and
+his successors, Theodore N. Vail, William B. Thompson, and
+John Jameson, is due the excellence of the present system. Colonel
+Bangs was a thoroughly equipped post-office man, energetic,
+courageous, and progressive. Brimful of ideas, he was ever on
+the lookout for improvement. Never satisfied with old ways, he
+was constantly striving to simplify and better the service. He forgot
+himself in his work, and died a martyr to his duty, leaving the
+Travelling Post-Office of to-day a monument to his memory.
+While to Colonel Armstrong is due the credit for the skeleton of
+the system, it was the genius of Colonel Bangs that clothed the
+bones with flesh, developed the sinew, put the blood in circulation,
+and breathed into its body the breath of life. Colonel Bangs
+found, in 1871, that everything was disjointed, disconnected, and
+sluggish. There was no attempt at "certainty, security, or celerity."
+It was a "go-as-you-please" condition of affairs. He grappled
+at once with it and brought order out of chaos. He introduced
+a system of emulation among the employees, rewarding
+those who displayed proficiency by promotion over the sluggish,
+and thus, in fact, was probably the father of what is now known as
+Civil Service Reform. In 1874 he discussed the propriety of establishing
+a fast and exclusive mail train between New York and
+Chicago, "this train" (quoting his report to the Postmaster-General)
+"to be under the control of the Department, so far as it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span>
+necessary for the purposes designed, and to run the distance in
+about twenty-four hours. It is conceded by railway officials that
+this can be done. The importance of a line like this cannot be
+overestimated. It would reduce the actual time of mail between
+the east and west from twelve to twenty-four hours. As it would
+necessarily be established upon one or more of the trunk lines,
+having an extended system of connections, its benefit would be
+in no case confined, but extended through all parts of the country
+alike."</p>
+
+<p>This report met with the approval of Postmaster-General Jewell,
+who ordered Bangs to negotiate with the New York Central
+&amp; Hudson River Railroad and the Lake Shore Railroad for a fast
+mail train, leaving New York at four o'clock in the morning, and
+arriving at Chicago in about twenty-four hours. It was the old
+story of making bricks without straw. The Post-Office Department
+had no appropriation to pay for such facilities, hence it had
+to depend at first on the public spirit of the railroad authorities.
+Commodore Vanderbilt, the president of the companies whose
+lines were to be used, had had dealings with the Department, and
+was perhaps not altogether sanguine as to the practical issue of
+the experiment, or in respect to the countenance it would receive
+from Congress; but Mr. William H. Vanderbilt, the vice-president,
+lent a willing ear to Mr. Bangs's proposition, and did his utmost
+to aid him in putting it into effect. There being no special
+appropriation available for the purpose in hand, "the devil was
+whipped around the stump" by Colonel Bangs stipulating that if
+Mr. Vanderbilt would have twenty cars built and the service performed,
+all matter originating at or coming into the New York
+Post-Office, which could reach its destination at the same time by
+this line, should be sent by this train, and that the railway companies
+could have the right to demand a weighing of the mail matter
+at will, all railroads being paid according to weight. When
+the details of the plan were communicated to Commodore Vanderbilt,
+he is reported to have said to his son: "If you want to do this,
+go ahead, but I know the Post-Office Department, and you will,
+too, within a year." Mr. Vanderbilt did "go ahead." He constructed
+and equipped the finest mail train ever seen on the planet,
+ran it for ten months, never missed a connection at Chicago, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span>
+was always on time at New York. He did not have to wait a
+year, however, for a realization of the sagacious old commodore's
+prophecy. Within three weeks, despite the indignant protest of
+Colonel Bangs, the mails of three States were ordered to be taken
+from this and given to another route. A grosser and more wanton
+breach of plighted faith it would be hard to find, and its results
+were far-reaching and disastrous.</p>
+
+<p>This train was a marvel of completeness and efficiency. It was
+manned by picked men, and the only complaint ever made against
+it was that it ran so fast that the clerks had not time to sort the
+mails for the post-offices between New York and Poughkeepsie.
+To obviate this, Colonel Bangs requested the postmaster at New
+York to have two hundred mail-bags dyed red, which should contain
+the mail for those offices nearest together, so that the crew in
+the train could distribute them first. There was no complaint after
+that. But when the dyer's bill was sent by the postmaster to the
+Department, it was disallowed by a clerk of the Second Assistant
+Postmaster-General, who, in a letter announcing the fact, said that
+there was no necessity for the outlay if the postal clerks did their
+duty. Bangs, who had just arrived at the post-office from a day
+and night's ride on his favorite train, was lying on a sofa half
+asleep in the postmaster's private office, as that official was opening
+his mail. When he came to that letter he handed it to Bangs.
+He was wide-awake in an instant. "Mr. Postmaster," said he,
+"do you know the man who signed this letter? He is a wheezy
+priest, a fool, and a Baptist, at that. Give me the letter." The
+bill was allowed as soon as Bangs reached the Department. He
+was wrong, however, in crediting the subordinate to the Baptist
+faith. He was an ornament of another persuasion.</p>
+
+<p>So carefully had the project been considered and adapted that
+the service on the Central, from the start, moved with the precision
+of clock-work, and was an immediate success. It is proper to
+say that word of what was going on between the Department and
+the Vanderbilt system reached the Hon. Thomas A. Scott, President
+of the Pennsylvania Railroad, and he at once made up his
+mind that the corporation under his management could not afford
+to be behind its great rival. One Saturday morning he telegraphed
+to J. D. Layng (now General Manager of the West Shore<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span>
+and President of the C. C. C. &amp; I.), then General Manager of the
+Pennsylvania lines west of Pittsburg, to know if by the following
+Monday week, the date on which the train was to start, four postal
+cars could be built and the first one be in Chicago ready to start
+on its eastern trip. The answer came back, "Yes." The order
+was given to the Allegheny shops on Saturday afternoon, and on
+the following Saturday the first of the cars, complete and equipped
+for mail service, started for Chicago, and began its east-bound trip
+on Monday morning. The second and third cars were finished on
+Monday night, and the fourth&mdash;thus fully equipping the line&mdash;on
+Tuesday.</p>
+
+<p>Thus had been established two splendid fast trains, and the
+outlook was bright for the future, when Congress, in spite of the
+efforts of the Post-Office Department, passed an Act reducing
+the already inadequate compensation to the trunk lines, for the
+carrying of the mails. This action brought official notice from
+Messrs. Vanderbilt and Scott of the discontinuance of the fast mail
+trains between New York City and Chicago, and that service
+ended.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span><br />
+   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_321.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">At a Way-station&mdash;The Postmaster's Assistant.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Colonel Bangs was greatly mortified at this result, but he stood
+his ground and remained at his post until the close of the year.
+Then, worn out with never-ending toil, and disheartened by the
+action of Congress, he tendered his resignation and insisted on its
+acceptance. Parted from the Post-Office, President Grant, knowing
+his worth and wishing to recognize his services, appointed him
+Assistant Treasurer of the United States at Chicago. He lived to
+perform the duties of this office only a few months, as death overtook
+him suddenly, while on a visit to Washington on official business,
+December, 1876. His work, however, was not permitted to
+drop. He had left in the service three assistants, Theodore N. Vail,
+William B. Thompson&mdash;afterward Second Assistant Postmaster-General&mdash;and
+John Jameson, who were fully imbued with the ideas
+of their late chief and were fully loyal to them. They, in the order
+named, became his successors, and never permitted opportunities
+to escape wherein there was a possible benefit to the service to be
+secured. Although the fast mail service was suspended for lack of
+support from Congress, its usefulness and practicability had been
+so thoroughly demonstrated that an appropriation of $150,000 was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span>
+made in March, 1877, for its resumption on the trunk lines. This
+victory was not reached without untiring efforts on the part of Mr.
+Vail, and by generous support in both houses of Congress; in the
+Senate by the Hon. Hannibal Hamlin and James G. Blaine, of
+Maine, and in the House of Representatives by such broad and
+liberal statesmen as Mr. Waddell, of North Carolina, Mr. Randall,
+of Pennsylvania, and Mr. Cox, of New York.</p>
+
+<p>Since then, Messrs. Thompson and Jameson have watched the
+progress of the work with jealous eyes, and have succeeded in extending
+it practically to the whole country. The present service
+is due not alone to the liberality of Congress, because the appropriations
+have been parsimonious, but to the generosity of the railways,
+which have performed a valuable work for a price which in
+many cases does not pay the expense of the necessary additional
+labor involved.</p>
+
+<p>The Railway Mail Service at the close of the fiscal year ending
+June 30, 1888, gave employment to 5,094 clerks. Matter was distributed
+on 126,310 miles of railway, and on 17,402 miles additional
+closed pouches were carried. There were also operated 41 inland
+steam-boat lines on which postal clerks were employed. The
+postal clerks travelled (in crews) 122,031,104 miles by railway, and
+1,767,649 miles by steam-boats. They distributed 6,528,772,060
+pieces of ordinary mail matter, and handled 16,001,059 registered
+packages and cases, and 1,103,083 through registered pouches and
+inner registered sacks. The service is in charge of one General
+Superintendent, who has his headquarters at Washington, and it
+is divided into eleven divisions with a superintendent in charge of
+each.</p>
+
+<p>The majority of people who travel on railways (and how many
+Americans are there who do not?) have paid passing attention to
+the railway mail cars as they have stood at the station preparatory
+to the starting of the train, and have glanced through the open
+doors with more or less curiosity at the scene of energy and bustle
+witnessed within. At such a moment, no matter how great the
+curiosity, it is not feasible to investigate closely, for the workers
+must not be hampered by the prying public, however praiseworthy
+the motive. To supply this pardonable desire to know how it is
+done, I invite my readers to accompany me in spirit on a visit to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span>
+the Grand Central Station, to witness the preparations for the departure
+of train No. 11, known in railway parlance as "the New
+York and Chicago Fast Mail," which leaves New York every night
+at nine o'clock.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_324.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Loading for the Fast Mail, at the General Post-Office, New York.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It must not be supposed that everything has been left until the
+last moment, and that the mail matter has been tumbled into the
+cars on the eve of departure, to be handled as best it may in the
+short run to Albany; for under such conditions the task would be
+an impossibility even to an army of trained hands. Work has
+been in progress since four o'clock in the afternoon, and it has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span>
+been steady, hard labor every minute of the time. The five cars
+have been backed down to the tracks opposite Forty-fifth Street,
+and have been so placed that they are convenient of access to the
+big lumbering mail wagons which are familiar sights in the streets
+of the metropolis. The crew of nineteen men, skilled in the handling
+of mail matter, and thorough experts in the geography of the
+country, reported to the chief clerk and took up their stations in
+the various cars at the hour named. At the same time the wagons
+began arriving from the General Post-Office with their tons of matter
+which had "originated" in New York, and were soon transferring
+their loads to the cars, where agile hands were in waiting
+to receive them. Since the removal of the deadly stoves from the
+railway trains the occupants of the postal cars have suffered to no
+small extent owing to the lack of heat. These cars are provided
+with steam-heating apparatus which is worked from the engine,
+but they are occupied for five hours before the engine comes near
+them, and in cold weather the hands of the men employed in distributing
+letters become numb with cold. This is a matter which
+should receive prompt attention.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_326.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">At the Last Moment.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Before we deal with the mail matter, let us look at the cars and
+the men who occupy them. The train, as it leaves New York, is
+made up of five cars which are placed immediately behind the engine,
+and are followed by express and baggage cars and one passenger
+coach. The car next to the engine is devoted entirely to
+letter mail, and the four following it to papers and packages. The
+letter car is fifty feet in length, while those for the newspaper mail
+are ten feet longer. All are uniform in width, nine feet eight
+inches, and are six feet nine inches high in the clear. When newly
+built, before long and hard service had told on their appearance,
+their outsides were white in color, with cream-tinted borderings and
+gilt ornamentations, and were highly varnished. Midway on the
+outside, and below; the windows of each car, is a large oval gilt-finished
+frame within which is painted the name of the car, with
+the words, "United States Post Office" above and below. The
+cars used by the New York Central are named for the Governors
+of the State and the members of President Garfield's cabinet.
+Along the upper edge and centre are painted in large gilt letters
+the words, "The Fast Mail Train," while on a line with these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span>
+letters at the other end, in a square, are the words, in like lettering,
+"New York Central" and "Lake Shore." The frieze and minute
+trimmings around the windows are of gilt finish. The body of
+the car also contains other ornamentation, including the coat-of-arms
+of the United States. The running gear is of the most approved
+pattern. The platforms are enclosed by swinging doors
+which, when opened, afford a protected passage between the cars.
+This arrangement no doubt suggested the modern improvement
+now known as the vestibuled train. The letter car is provided with
+a "mail catcher," which is placed at a small door through which
+mail pouches are snatched from conveniently placed posts at wayside
+stations where stops are not made. Each car is divided into
+three sections, all fitted up alike with conveniences for the service
+to be performed. The letter car, however, is somewhat differently
+arranged from the others, to meet the requirements of that particular
+branch of the work.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span><br />
+   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_327.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Transfer of Mail at the Grand Central Station, New York.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_329.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Pouching the Mail in the Postal Car.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the first section of the letter car are received the pouches
+from the General Post-Office, which when opened are found to contain
+letters done up in packages of about a hundred, marked for
+Michigan, Indiana, New York, Ohio, Western Pennsylvania, Montana,
+Dakota, and California. When this mass of matter has been
+emptied out of the pouches and, in the vernacular of the service,
+"dumped up" preparatory to distribution, the section is clear for
+the registered mail which is worked in it. Before this is accomplished,
+however, much work is done; in fact, a sort of rough distribution
+is made. All packages which are directed to one office
+are distributed into pouches, which are afterward stored away until<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span>
+the towns are reached. The other packages are carried into the
+letter department for distribution, where a rack, similar to those
+seen in almost every post-office, although space is thoroughly
+economized, is used for the purpose. To give a slight idea of the
+work done in this section, it may be mentioned that the distribution
+for New York State alone requires 325 boxes. Still there is
+plenty of space, otherwise the third section of the car would not
+be used, as it is, for the distribution of Montana and Dakota newspapers.
+How closely everything is packed, and all available space
+utilized, may be imagined when it is stated that for this newspaper
+mail ninety-five pouches are hung in the section, and that there is
+still sufficient room for the storage of pouches locked up and ready
+for delivery, and also for the sealed registered mail. A separation
+of the California mail is also made in this car, so that when it
+reaches Chicago the pouches into which the matter is placed are
+transferred without delay, thus saving twenty-four hours on the
+time to the Pacific Coast, not by any means an unimportant accomplishment.</p>
+
+<p>There have been received in this car before it moves out of
+the Grand Central Station between 1,000 and 1,500 packages of
+letters and, in addition, forty or fifty sacks of Dakota and Montana
+papers. To handle this mass of correspondence there are six men
+in addition to the chief clerk, or superintendent. This official is
+not assigned to any particular duty, but he supervises the general
+work and lends aid where it is most required. The second clerk
+handles letters for Ohio, Dakota, and Montana; the third clerk
+takes charge of those for New York State; the fourth, Illinois; the
+fifth opens all pouches labelled, "New York and Chicago Railway
+Post-Office," distributes their contents, and afterward works
+on Dakota and Montana papers; the sixth, Michigan State letters,
+and the seventh, California letter mail. The salaries of these
+men, intrusted with so much responsibility and of whom so much
+is expected, range from $900 per annum for the lowest grade to
+$1,300 per annum for the superintendent.</p>
+
+<p>The second, or "Illinois Car," is devoted, as are the others
+which follow it, to the newspaper and periodical mail. In it are
+handled papers for Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, New York, Oregon,
+and Wyoming. Two clerks and two assistants man this car. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span>
+first assistant, who "faces up" papers ready to be distributed,
+draws mails from stalls to case, and removes boxes as fast as they
+are filled, has gained the sobriquet of the "Illinois derrick," owing
+to the heavy nature of his duties. The second, who lends
+what aid he can in the heavy work on the run between New York
+and Albany, has become known on the train as "the short stop."
+The third section of the car is used for storing the bags of assorted
+matter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_331.jpg" width="525" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A Very Difficult Address&mdash;known as a "sticker."</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The third car is used for storing through mail for San Francisco,
+Omaha, and points west of Chicago. In it are also carried
+stamped envelopes from the manufacturer at Hartford, Conn., to
+postmasters in the West. This car is frequently fully loaded with
+matter from the New York office when the journey is begun, and
+it is then found necessary to add a similar car to the train on its
+arrival at Albany for the accommodation of matter taken on by the
+way and bound for the same destination.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_332.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Distributing the Mail by States and Routes.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span><br />
+   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_333.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Sorting Letters in Car No. 1&mdash;The Fast Mail.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Michigan paper car is the fourth. In it are handled papers
+for Michigan, Iowa, and the mixed Western States. In the first
+section are piled the Iowa pouches and those for points out of
+Utica, which have been distributed in the centre section, and in
+the third section the distribution for Michigan, Nebraska, and
+Minnesota, as well as for points reached from Buffalo, is made.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span>
+Two men perform the work of the car, one of whom has already
+handled the registered mail and Indiana letters in the first car.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_335.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Pouching Newspapers for California&mdash;in Car No. 5.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fifth, or California paper car, is the last mail coach on the
+train, as it is made up when leaving the Grand Central Station.
+Besides the papers for the Golden State the car carries through
+registered pouches to Chicago
+and the West, which
+have been made up in the
+New York office, and, as a
+usual thing, a large lot of
+stamped envelopes for postmasters
+in the West. The
+California letter man from the
+first car looks after the papers
+for the same State, and has
+an eye to the safety of the
+car. On reaching Albany
+another car is added to the
+train, making six in all from
+that point. This last addition
+comes from Boston,
+brings the morning mail from
+Bangor, Me., and is manned
+by four men.</p>
+
+<p>The run to Chicago for
+post-office purposes is divided
+into three divisions: from New York to Syracuse, from Syracuse to
+Cleveland, and from Cleveland to Chicago. Each division has its
+own crew, so that the men leaving New York are relieved at Syracuse
+by others, and these in turn at Cleveland. The New York
+crew go to work, as has been said, at 4 <span class="fs70">P.M.</span>, and if the train is on
+time at Syracuse, as it usually is, they arrive there at 5.35 <span class="fs70">A.M.</span>,
+after thirteen and a half hours of as hard work as men are called
+upon to do. The same evening at 8.40 they relieve the east-bound
+crew, and are in New York again at six o'clock on the following
+morning. Half an hour later they are to be found on the top
+floor of the General Post-Office building, comfortably ensconced
+in bunks and in a large and airy room, provided as a dormitory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span>
+for their use by the postmaster of New York at the time of
+the inauguration of the fast mail service. Each crew makes
+three round trips and is then laid off for six days, but its members
+are all this time subject to extra duty, which they are called
+upon to perform with unpleasant frequency, particularly in holiday
+times.</p>
+
+<p>After leaving New York, the first stop the train makes is at
+Poughkeepsie, but no mail is taken on there. At Albany the second
+halt is made, and there twenty minutes are spent in taking on
+the mail from New England and northeastern New York. At
+Palatine Bridge there is a brief stop, and after that comes Utica,
+where the Delaware, Lackawanna &amp; Western, the Ontario &amp;
+Western, and the Rome, Watertown &amp; Ogdensburg roads exchange
+mail matter. At Syracuse more mails come, this time from
+the Oswego, Binghamton &amp; Syracuse, and the Auburn &amp; Rochester
+branch of the New York Central. Here also comes welcome
+relief for the crew which left New York. Those who follow have
+much to keep them busy, but the heaviest part of the work has
+been already performed.</p>
+
+<p>From Syracuse to Cleveland there are several distributing
+points where mail matter is also received on the train, and the
+routine is continued much as already described until the crew is
+relieved at Cleveland. There the men of the Western Division
+take charge and continue the work until Elkhart, Ind., is reached.
+There a special force from Chicago meets the train, takes possession
+of a portion of the letter car, and makes the distribution for
+the main office and stations of the city of Chicago, thus saving
+much time. When the train arrives in Chicago, it makes connection
+with a fast mail train on the Chicago, Burlington &amp; Quincy, as
+also on a like train on the Chicago, Milwaukee &amp; St. Paul. The
+former train arrives at Council Bluffs about 7 <span class="fs70">P.M.</span>, and there overtakes
+the train which left Chicago on the previous evening. The
+Pacific Coast mail is thus expedited just twenty-four hours. A
+similar train on the St. Paul road also saves twenty-four hours' time
+on the trip to the northwestern portion of the Pacific Coast.</p>
+
+<p>The appropriation for special facilities for the year ending June
+30, 1889, was $295,987.53. The uses to which the appropriation
+referred to is put are explained in the following table.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="p1 center fs80">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td></tr>
+<tr class="fs85"><td class="tdc tdpp">Termini.</td><td class="tdc bl">Railroad Company.</td><td class="tdc bl">Miles.</td><td class="tdc bl">Pay.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlw">New York to Springfield</td><td class="tdlw bl">New York, New Haven &amp; Hartford</td><td class="tdrx bl">136&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdrx bl">$17,647.06</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlw">4.35 <span class="fs70">A.M.</span> train</td><td class="tdlw bl">New York Central &amp; Hudson River</td><td class="tdrx bl">144&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdrx bl">25,000.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlw">Philadelphia to Bay View</td><td class="tdlw bl">Philadelphia, Wilmington &amp; Baltimore</td><td class="tdrx bl">91.80</td><td class="tdrx bl">20,000.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlw">Bay View to Quantico</td><td class="tdlw bl">Baltimore &amp; Potomac</td><td class="tdrx bl">79.80</td><td class="tdrx bl">21,900.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlw">Quantico to Richmond</td><td class="tdlw bl">Richmond, Fredericksburg &amp; Potomac</td><td class="tdrx bl">81.50</td><td class="tdrx bl">17,419.26</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlw">Richmond to Petersburg</td><td class="tdlw bl">Richmond &amp; Petersburg</td><td class="tdrx bl">23.39</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,268.67</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlw">Petersburg to Weldon</td><td class="tdlw bl">Petersburg</td><td class="tdrx bl">64&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdrx bl">11,680.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlw">Weldon to Wilmington</td><td class="tdlw bl">Wilmington &amp; Weldon</td><td class="tdrx bl">162.07</td><td class="tdrx bl">29,541.27</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlw">Wilmington to Florence</td><td class="tdlw bl">Wilmington, Columbia &amp; Augusta</td><td class="tdrx bl">110&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdrx bl">20,075.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlw">Florence to Charleston Junction</td><td class="tdlw bl">Northeastern</td><td class="tdrx bl">95&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdrx bl">17,337.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlw">Charleston Junction to Savannah</td><td class="tdlw bl">Charleston &amp; Savannah</td><td class="tdrx bl">108&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdrx bl">19,710.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlw">Savannah to Jacksonville</td><td class="tdlw bl">Savannah, Florida &amp; Western</td><td class="tdrx bl">171.50</td><td class="tdrx bl">31,309.70</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlw">Baltimore to Hagerstown</td><td class="tdlw bl">Western Maryland</td><td class="tdrx bl">86.60</td><td class="tdrx bl">15,804.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlw">Jacksonville to Tampa<br /><br /></td><td class="tdlw bl">Jacksonville, Tampa &amp; Key West &amp; South Florida</td><td class="tdrx bl">242.57</td><td class="tdrx bl">43,962.42</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlw tdpp pad6">Total</td><td class="tdrx"></td><td class="tdrx"></td><td class="tdrx bl">$295,655.38</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="p1" />
+<p>A careful perusal of this table develops the fact that the greater
+portion of this money is expended south of Philadelphia, the railroad
+companies in that section not having sufficient weight of mails
+to warrant fast trains without some additional compensation. It
+will also be noted that with the exception of the sum of $25,000
+for a special train to Poughkeepsie, which leaves New York City
+at 4.35 in the morning, the New York Central receives no compensation
+except that earned by them as common carriers of so many
+pounds of freight-mail matter carried, being paid for in accordance
+with its weight. It will also be observed that the Pennsylvania
+Railroad, on its trunk line, is not even so fortunate as its great rival.</p>
+
+<p>There may be more dangerous pursuits in life than that of the
+railway post-office clerk, but there are not many so, and there are
+few in which the risk to life and limb is so constant. The everyday
+citizen who is called upon occasionally to make a railroad
+journey of a few hundred miles feels it to be incumbent upon himself
+on such occasions to make special provision for those dependent
+on him in case injury or death should come while riding in
+the thoroughly appointed and luxurious coach placed in a portion
+of the train least likely to suffer from accident. But too little
+thought is devoted to the safety of those poorly paid but efficient
+servants of the State, in the forward cars, without whose services
+the business of the country, as conducted to-day, would come to a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span>
+stand-still. To show that the importance of this service is not here
+exaggerated, it is only necessary to recall the condition of affairs
+in New York City, and other cities as well, in March, 1888, when
+the great blizzard fell upon the land. There were then no mails
+for several days, and the prostration which came upon the community
+is too well remembered to need comment. The danger to
+those within the postal cars, however, is recognized by the railway
+people, and efforts have been made in the way of providing safety
+appliances, but it is, of course, impossible to lessen the danger to
+any great extent. All that American ingenuity suggests in the
+way of construction, both inside and outside of the cars, is provided.
+The body of the car is most substantially built, the platforms
+and couplings are of the most approved patterns, the trucks
+are similar to those used under the best passenger coaches, and
+the air-brakes and other safety apparatus are all brought into requisition.
+Within the cars are saws, axes, hammers, and crowbars
+conveniently placed in case of wreck, and safety-bars extend the
+length of the cars overhead to which the clerks may cling when the
+cars leave the track and roll down embankments, as they often do.
+In the year ending June, 1888, there were 248 accidents to trains
+upon which postal clerks were employed. In these wrecks four
+clerks were killed; sixty-three were seriously, several of the number
+permanently, and forty-five slightly injured. The official report of
+the accidents shows that the majority of them resulted from collisions,
+while others were due to the spreading of the rails, the failure
+of air-brakes to work at critical moments, and obstructions on
+the track.</p>
+
+<p>In every case where cars were wrecked the postal car was
+among the number.</p>
+
+<p>In many instances the cars were telescoped, and on such occasions
+the clerks were found buried in the wreckage or pinned
+under the engine or its tender. And many times true heroism was
+shown by the injured men. Over and over again the General
+Superintendent reports that, notwithstanding severe injuries received
+by the clerks, the scattered mail matter was collected by
+them and transferred either to another train or to the nearest post-office.
+Several times trains in the West were held up by robbers,
+who, after sacking the express car, visited the postal car, introducing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span>
+themselves with pistol-shots. One clerk was seriously wounded
+in the shoulder. An instance of self-possession is reported
+in Arkansas, where the robbers, before visiting the postal car, had
+secured $10,000
+from the
+express safe.
+When they
+came to clerk
+R. P. Johnson
+he suggested
+that they had
+secured booty
+enough, and
+that under the
+circumstances
+they might let
+the mail matter
+alone. The
+masked men
+agreed with
+him, and did
+not molest the
+mails.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_339.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Catching the Pouch from the Crane.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In view of
+the dangers to
+which employees of the
+Railway Mail Service are
+exposed, it may be permitted
+to quote from the last annual report
+of General Superintendent
+Bancroft on the subject of insurance.
+No action, he points out,
+has ever been taken by Congress
+toward providing for the care of clerks permanently injured in the
+service, or those dependent upon them in case of death, notwithstanding
+frequent recommendations by the Department. He
+attributes this to insurmountable objections on the part of the
+people's representatives to the creation of anything of the nature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span>
+of a civil pension-roll. He therefore suggests that there shall be
+deducted from the pay of each and every railway postal clerk ten
+cents per month, to be paid into "The Railway Postal Clerks' Insurance
+Fund," the custodian of which is to be the United States
+Treasury. In case of death from injuries while on duty, $1,000 is
+to be paid to the clerk's heirs. While this proposition is in the
+right direction, it hardly goes far enough. Provision should be
+made for the disabled, and to do so, the clerks doubtless would
+not object to an assessment of double the amount suggested. That
+they should be compelled to resort to such a mode of relief, however,
+is a reflection upon the Government of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The first great need of the Railway Mail Service is an adequate
+appropriation by Congress to extend its usefulness, and to keep it
+up to the demands and the needs of the public. Where speed is required
+to make connections, the Department should have the cash
+on hand to buy what is necessary. The railways are business institutions,
+managed as such, and when the Department desires extra
+facilities it should be prepared to pay in coin and not in talk. In
+this connection it is a pleasant duty for the writer of this very imperfect
+sketch to say that during his term of service in the post-office
+at New York, and at the Department, he always found Mr. William
+H. Vanderbilt, Mr. Cornelius Vanderbilt, Mr. J. H. Rutter, of
+the New York Central; Mr. John Newell, of the Lake Shore; Mr.
+George B. Roberts, Mr. A. J. Cassatt, and Mr. Frank Thomson, of
+the Pennsylvania system; Mr. R. R. Bridgers and Mr. H. B. Plant,
+of the Atlantic Coast Line, ready to grant any reasonable request
+for the improvement and extension of the service. Time after time
+Mr. Roberts has run a special train with the Australian transcontinental
+mail from Pittsburg to New York, that it might catch an
+outgoing steamer; and he and Mr. Vanderbilt practically re-established
+the fast mail, by taking letters on their limited trains. Mr.
+Roberts gave, in addition, an extra mail train from Philadelphia
+west at four o'clock in the morning, and Mr. Vanderbilt placed a
+postal car on the 4 <span class="fs70">P.M.</span> train from New York, receiving in return&mdash;what
+they had a right to demand&mdash;an extra weighing of the
+mails, and, what was not a matter of surprise to them, unmeasured
+abuse on the floor of Congress for giving these additional facilities
+to the people of the country.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The last and greatest need of the postal service is the total
+and complete elimination of partisan considerations as affecting appointments
+and removals in the working force. The spoils method
+invariably brings into the service a lot of do-nothings or a race of
+experimenters, whose performances never fail to breed disaster
+and to crush out substantial progress.</p>
+
+<p>There is no position in the Government more exacting than that
+of a postal clerk, and none that has so many requirements. He
+must not only be sound "in wind and limb," but possessed of more
+than ordinary intelligence, and a retentive memory. His work is
+constant, and his only recreation, study. He must not only be proficient
+in his own immediate work, but he must have a general
+knowledge of the entire country, so that the correspondence he
+handles shall reach its destination at the earliest possible moment.
+He must know no night and no day. He must be impervious
+to heat or cold. Rushing along at a rate of forty or fifty
+miles an hour, in charge of that which is sacred&mdash;the correspondence
+of the people&mdash;catching his meals as he may; at home only
+semi-occasionally, the wonder is that men competent to discharge
+the duties of so high a calling can be found for so small a compensation,
+and for so uncertain a tenure of official life. They have
+not only to take the extra-hazardous risks of their toilsome duties,
+but they are at the mercy of the practical politicians who believe
+that "to the victor belong the spoils." There are no public offices
+which are so emphatically "public trusts" as those whose duties
+comprise that of handling the correspondence of the people, because
+upon the proper and skilful performance of that duty depend&mdash;to
+a far greater degree than in the care of any other function
+accomplished through government agency&mdash;the business and social
+welfare of the entire community. The effects of ignorance,
+carelessness, and dishonesty in any other branch of the public
+service, although to be deplored, are not to be compared to those
+which follow the existence of such evils in the Post-Office. Can
+there be a more flagrant abuse of a "public trust" than the perversion
+of a branch of the public service into an agency for furthering
+the ambitious ends of local politicians and their partisans by
+allowing them to distribute its "patronage" as rewards for party
+services among those who, by reason of inexperience&mdash;if for no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span>
+graver cause&mdash;are incompetent to replace the skilled workman who
+must be routed out in order to give them room? This evil should
+be corrected at once. The Railway Mail Service must no longer
+be left at the mercy of the local partisans. The reform is not only
+a present necessity, but it was one in the past and will be in the
+future, until the force of public sentiment shall compel acquiescence
+in the reasonable demand that what was so eminently meant for
+mankind shall not be given up to party; that the non-political
+business of letter-carrying, which the Government has monopolized,
+shall be conducted by it solely with a view to prompt and
+expeditious carrying of mail matter, and not with the object of
+bolstering up local "statesmen" or carrying elections.</p>
+
+<p>At the coming in of Mr. Cleveland's administration, William B.
+Thompson was Second Assistant Postmaster-General&mdash;in charge
+of the contract office&mdash;and John Jameson was General Railway
+Mail Superintendent. Both of these gentlemen had worked their
+way from the ranks by sheer merit. In private business the value
+of their services would have been so highly appreciated that, no
+matter who became senior partner of the firm, under no circumstances
+would they have been permitted to retire. The case of
+these gentlemen is mentioned now simply to illustrate an idea and
+not to found a complaint. On the incoming of the new administration,
+General Thompson, in accordance with precedent,
+promptly tendered his resignation, and it was as promptly accepted;
+while General Superintendent Jameson struggled along
+doing his work until, to relieve his chief from embarrassment, he,
+too, tendered his resignation. The country was thus deprived of
+the services of two men who were experts in their profession,
+simply to give place to others, of high character, no doubt, but
+with no knowledge and special aptitude for the great trust that
+was committed to them. And now, in the first year of another
+administration, the experience that many valuable officials have
+gained has counted for nothing, and they have been rotated out.
+In no other civilized country would such an atrocity be possible.
+An attempt to remove, for similar reasons, such postal authorities
+as Messrs. Rich, of Liverpool, Johnston, of Manchester, or Hubson,
+of Glasgow, all of whom, under a sound, logical, just, and
+economical business system, have reached their present positions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span>
+by merit and efficiency from more or less inferior places, would
+hurl an administration in Great Britain from power, and justly
+too. The possession of the immense patronage of the Government
+did not save the Republican party from defeat in 1884, or keep
+the Democratic party in power in 1888. Ideas are stronger than
+"soap," and principles more potent than spoils. It is due to
+President Cleveland to state that toward the close of his administration
+he recognized the importance of permanency in the Railway
+Mail Service, and that he made a long step in advance by
+approving a series of rules submitted by the Civil Service Commission
+having for its object the removal of the service from the
+influences of politicians. It needs more than this, however; it
+needs the sanctity of the statute law, declaring that the clerks
+should not only keep their offices during good behavior, but that
+after twenty years of faithful and efficient service, or before that
+time, if injured in the discharge of their duty, they should retire
+on half-pay. In case of death from accident while on duty, proper
+provision should be made for the family of the official. Whenever
+justice is done by Congress in these particulars, the United States
+will have the best and most efficient Railway Mail Service in the
+world.</p>
+
+
+    <div class="chapter"></div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">THE RAILWAY IN ITS BUSINESS RELATIONS.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="pfs90 smcap">By ARTHUR T. HADLEY.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>Amount of Capital Invested in Railways&mdash;Important Place in the Modern Industrial
+System&mdash;The Duke of Bridgewater's Foresight&mdash;The Growth of Half a Century&mdash;Early
+Methods of Business Management&mdash;The Tendency toward Consolidation&mdash;How
+the War Developed a National Idea&mdash;Its Effect on Railroad Building&mdash;Thomson
+and Scott as Organizers&mdash;Vanderbilt's Capacity for Financial Management&mdash;Garrett's
+Development of the Baltimore &amp; Ohio&mdash;The Concentration of Immense
+Power in a Few Men&mdash;Making Money out of the Investors&mdash;Difficult Positions of
+Stockholders and Bondholders&mdash;How the Finances are Manipulated by the Board of
+Directors&mdash;Temptations to the Misuse of Power&mdash;Relations of Railroads to the Public
+who Use Them&mdash;Inequalities in Freight Rates&mdash;Undue Advantages for Large
+Trade Centres&mdash;Proposed Remedies&mdash;Objections to Government Control&mdash;Failure
+of Grangerism&mdash;The Origin of Pools&mdash;Their Advantages&mdash;Albert Fink's Great
+Work&mdash;Charles Francis Adams and the Massachusetts Commission&mdash;Adoption of
+the Interstate Commerce Law&mdash;Important Influence of the Commission&mdash;Its Future
+Functions&mdash;Ill-judged State Legislation.</p></div>
+
+
+<div><img class="drop-cap" src="images/i_344dc.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="drop-cap">The railroads of the world are to-day worth from
+twenty-five to thirty thousand million dollars.
+This probably represents one-tenth of the total
+wealth of civilized nations, and one-quarter, if not
+one-third, of their invested capital. It is doubtful
+whether the aggregate plant used in all manufacturing
+industries can equal it in value. The capital engaged in
+banking is but a trifle beside it. The world's whole stock of
+money of every kind&mdash;gold, silver, and paper&mdash;would purchase
+only a third of its railroads.</p>
+
+<p>Yet these facts by no means measure the whole importance of
+the railroad in the modern industrial system. The business methods
+of to-day are in one sense the direct result of improved means
+of transportation. The railroad enables the large establishment
+to reach the markets of the world with its products; it enables the
+large city to receive its food-supplies, if necessary, from a distance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span>
+of hundreds or thousands of miles. And while it thus favors the
+concentration of capital, it is in itself an extreme type of this
+concentration. Almost every distinctive feature of modern business,
+whether good or bad, finds in railroad history at once its
+chief cause and its fullest development.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_345.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">George Stephenson.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As befits a nineteenth century institution, the railroad dates
+from 1801. In that year Benjamin Outram built in the suburbs of
+London a short line of horse
+railroad&mdash;or tramroad, as it was
+named in honor of the inventor.
+Other works of the same
+kind followed in almost every
+succeeding year. They were
+recognized as a decided convenience,
+but nothing more. It
+was hard to imagine that a revolution
+in the world's transportation
+methods could grow out
+of this beginning. Least of all
+could such a result be foreseen
+in England, whose admirable
+canal system seemed likely to
+defy competition for centuries
+to come. And yet, curiously
+enough, it was a man wholly
+identified with canal business who first foresaw the future importance
+of the railroad. The Duke of Bridgewater had built
+canals when they were regarded as a hazardous speculation; but
+they proved a success, and in the early years of the century he
+was reaping a rich reward for his foresight. One of his fellow-shareholders
+took occasion to congratulate the Duke on the fact
+that their property was now the surest monopoly in the land, and
+was startled by the reply, "I see mischief in these&mdash;tramroads."
+The prophecy is all the more striking as coming from an enemy.
+Like Balaam, the Duke of Bridgewater had a pecuniary interest
+in cursing, but was so good a prophet that he had to tell the truth
+in spite of himself, even though his curse was thereby turned into
+a blessing.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is hardly necessary to tell in detail how this prediction was
+realized. Thanks to the skill and perseverance of George Stephenson,
+the difficulties in the use of steam as a mode of propulsion
+were rapidly overcome. What was a doubtful experiment as late
+as 1815 had become an accomplished fact in 1830. The successful
+working of the Liverpool &amp; Manchester Railway gave an impulse
+to similar enterprises all over the world. In 1835 there were
+1,600 miles of railroad in operation&mdash;more than half of it in the
+United States. In 1845 the length of the world's railroads had increased
+to more than 10,000 miles; in 1855 it was 41,000 miles;
+in 1865, 90,000; in 1875, 185,000; in 1885, over 300,000.</p>
+
+<p>There were perhaps a few men who foresaw this growth;
+there were almost none who foresaw the changes in organization
+and business methods with which it was attended. People at first
+thought of the railroad as merely an improved highway, which
+should charge tolls like a turnpike or canal, and on which the public
+should run cars of its own, independent of the railroad company
+itself. In many cases, especially in England, long sheets of tolls
+were published, based on the model of canal charters, and naming
+rates under which the use of the road-bed should be free to all.
+This plan soon proved impracticable. If independent owners tried
+to run trains over the same line, it involved a danger of collision
+and a loss of economy. The former evil could perhaps be avoided;
+the latter could not. The advantages of unity of management
+were so great that a road running its own trains could do a
+much larger business at lower rates than if ownership and carriage
+were kept separate. The old plan was as impracticable as it
+would be for a manufacturing company to own the buildings and
+engines, while each workman owned the particular piece of machinery
+which he handled. Almost all the technical advantages
+of the new methods would be lost for lack of system. The railroad
+company, to serve the public well, could not remain in the
+position of a turnpike or canal company, but must itself do the
+work of carriage.</p>
+
+<p>This was not all. The same economy which resulted from the
+union of road and rolling-stock under one management was still
+further subserved by the consolidation of connecting lines. This
+change did not come about so suddenly as the other. Half a century<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span>
+had elapsed before it was fully carried out. At first there
+was no need of it. The early railroads were chiefly built for local
+traffic, and especially for the carriage of local passengers. They
+were like the horse railroads of the present day in the simplicity
+of their organization and the shortness of their lines. England in
+1847 had chartered 700 companies, with an average authorized
+length of hardly fifteen miles each. The line from Albany to
+Buffalo and Niagara Falls was in the hands of a dozen independent
+concerns. These were but types of what existed all
+over the world. As through traffic, and especially through freight
+traffic, grew in importance, this state of things became intolerable.
+Frequent transshipment was at once an expense to
+the railroad and a burden to the public. Even when this could
+be avoided, there was a multiplication of offices and a loss of
+responsibility. The system of ownership and management had to
+adapt itself to the technical necessities of the business. The
+change was not the result of legislation; nor was it, except in a
+limited sense, the work of men like Vanderbilt or Scott. It occurred
+in all parts of the world at about the same time. It was
+the result of business necessity, strong enough to shape legislation,
+and to find administrative leaders who could meet its demands.</p>
+
+<p>From the very first there were some men who felt the importance
+of the railroads as national lines of communication. The
+idea was present in the minds of the projectors of the Baltimore
+&amp; Ohio, of the Erie, and of the Boston &amp; Albany. But it was
+not until 1850 that it became a controlling one; nor was it universally
+accepted even then. As late as 1858 we find that there
+was a violent popular agitation in the State of New York to prohibit
+the New York Central from carrying freight in competition
+with the Erie Canal. It was gravely urged that the railroad had
+no business to compete with the canal; that the latter had a natural
+right to the through traffic from the West, with which the
+railroads must not interfere. It is less than thirty years since a
+convention at Syracuse, representing no small part of the public
+sentiment of New York, formally recommended "the passage of
+a law by the next Legislature which shall confine the railroads of
+this State to the business for which they were originally created."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But matters had gone too far for effective action of this kind.
+Besides the New York Central, the Erie and the Pennsylvania
+were in condition to handle the through traffic which Western connections
+were furnishing. These connections themselves were
+rapidly growing in importance. Prior to 1850 there were very few
+railroads west of the Alleghanies. In 1857 there were thousands
+of miles. The policy of land-grants acted as an artificial stimulus
+to the building of such roads; and a land-grant road, when once
+built, was almost necessarily dependent on through traffic for its
+support. It could not be operated locally; it was forced into close
+traffic arrangements which paved the way for actual consolidation.</p>
+
+<p>The war brought this development to a stand-still for the time
+being; but it was afterward resumed with renewed vigor. It is
+probable that the final effect of the war was to hasten rather than
+to retard the growth of large systems. In the first place, it familiarized
+men's minds with national ideas instead of those limited
+to their own State. It is hard for us to realize that our business
+ideas were ever thus confined by artificial boundaries; but if we
+wish proof, we have only to look at the original location of the Erie
+Railway from Piermont to Dunkirk. Both were unnatural and undesirable
+terminal points; but people were willing to submit to inconvenience
+and to actual loss in order that the railroad might run
+as far as the New York State limits would allow, and not one whit
+farther. Similar instances can be found in other States. Hard as
+it is to understand, there seems to have been a positive jealousy of
+interstate traffic. The war did much to remove this by making
+the different sections of the country feel their common interest and
+their mutual dependence. It also had more direct effects. It produced
+special legislation for the Pacific railroads as a measure of
+military necessity; and this was but the beginning of a renewal of
+the land-grant policy, no longer through the medium of the States,
+but in the Territories and by the direct action of Congress. All
+the results in the way of extension or consolidation which had been
+noted in the first land-grant period were more intensely felt in the
+second. Never was there a time when business foresight and
+administrative power were more needed or more richly rewarded
+than in railroad management during the third quarter of the
+century.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_349.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">J. Edgar Thomson.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1847 J. Edgar Thomson, an engineer of experience, entered
+the service of the Pennsylvania Railroad, of which he afterward became
+president. Three years later, a young man without experience
+in railroad business applied to him for a position as clerk in
+the station at Duncansville, and was, with some hesitation, accepted.
+Not long after&mdash;so runs the story&mdash;an influential shipper entered
+the station, and demanded that some transfers should be made in
+a manner contrary to the rules of the company. This the clerk
+refused to do; and when the influential shipper tried to attend to
+the matter himself, he was forcibly ejected from the premises. Indignant
+at this, he complained to the authorities, demanding that
+the obnoxious employee be removed from his position. He was&mdash;and
+was promoted to a much higher one. This is said to have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span>
+been the beginning of the railroad career of Thomas Alexander
+Scott. Edgar Thomson was a sufficiently able man to appreciate
+Scott's talent at its full worth, and took every opportunity to make
+it useful in the service of the company. Both before and after the
+war the system was extended in every direction; and the man who
+in 1850 had need of all his nerve to defy a single influential shipper
+was a quarter of a century later at the head of 7,000 miles of the
+most valuable railroad in the country.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_350.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Thomas A. Scott.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As an enterprising and active railroad organizer, Scott was
+probably unrivalled&mdash;especially when aided by the soberer judgment
+of Thomson; nor has the operating department of any other
+railroad in the country reached the standard established on the
+Pennsylvania by Scott and Thomson and the men trained up
+under their eyes. But in business sagacity and those qualities
+which pertain to the financial management of property, Scott was
+surpassed by Vanderbilt. The work of the two men was so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span>
+totally different in character that it is hard to compare them.
+Vanderbilt was not so distinctively a railroad man as Scott. He
+had already made his mark as a ship-owner before he went into
+railroads. But he was a man who was bound to take the lead in
+the business world; and he saw that the day for doing it with
+steamships was passing away, and that the day of railroads was
+come. He therefore presented his best steamship to the United
+States Government in a time when it was sorely needed, disposed
+of the others in whatever way he could, and turned his undivided
+attention to railroads.</p>
+
+<p>In 1863 Vanderbilt began purchasing Harlem stock on a large
+scale. The road was unprofitable, but he at once improved its
+management and made it pay. Speculators on the other side of
+the market had not foreseen the possibility of this course of action,
+and were badly deceived in their calculations. Vanderbilt had begun
+buying at as low a figure as 3; within little more than a year
+he had forced some of its opponents to buy it of him at 285. He
+soon extended his operations to Hudson River, and somewhat later
+to New York Central. Defeated in an attempt to gain control of
+Erie, he turned his attention farther west; and was soon in virtual
+possession of a system which, in his hands at any rate, was fully a
+match for all competitors.</p>
+
+<p>These systems did not long remain without rivals. The Baltimore
+&amp; Ohio, whose development had been interrupted by the
+war, soon resumed, under the leadership of John W. Garrett, its
+old commanding position in the railroad world. Farther west, in
+the years succeeding, systems were developed and consolidated
+which surpassed their eastern connections in aggregate mileage.
+The combined Wabash and Missouri Pacific system in its best days
+included about 10,000 miles of line under what was virtually a single
+management. The Southern Pacific, the Atchison, the Northwestern,
+and the St. Paul systems control each of them in one way or
+another decidedly over 5,000 miles; and a half-dozen others might
+be named, scarcely inferior either in magnitude or in commercial
+power.</p>
+
+<p>The result of all this was to place an enormous and almost
+irresponsible power in the hands of a few men. The directors
+of such a system stand for thousands of investors, tens of thousands<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span>
+of employees, and hundreds of thousands of shippers. They
+have the interests of all these parties in their hands for good or ill.
+If they are fit men for their places, they will work for the advantage
+of all. A man like Vanderbilt gave higher profits, larger employment,
+and lower rate as the result of his railroad work. But if the
+head of such a system is unfit for his trust intellectually or morally,
+the harm which he can do is almost boundless.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_352.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Cornelius Vanderbilt.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of intellectual unfitness the chance is perhaps not great. The
+intense competition of the modern business world makes sure that
+any man, to maintain his position, must have at least some of the
+qualities of mind which it exacts. But of moral unfitness the danger
+is all the greater, because some of the present conditions of
+business competition directly tend to foster it. A German economist
+has said that the so-called survival of the fittest in modern industry
+is really a double survival, side by side, of the most talented<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span>
+on the one hand and the most unscrupulous on the other. The
+truth of this is already apparent in railroad business. A Vanderbilt
+on the Central meets a Fisk on the Erie. In spite of his superior
+power and resources he is virtually beaten in the contest&mdash;beaten,
+as was said at the time, because he could not afford to go
+so close to the door of State's prison as his rival.</p>
+
+<p>The manager of a large railroad system has under his control a
+great deal of property besides his own&mdash;the property of railroad
+investors which has been placed in his charge. Two lines of action
+are open to him. He may make money <em>for</em> the investors, and
+thereby secure the respect of the community; or he may make
+money <em>out</em> of the investors, and thereby get rich enough to defy
+public opinion. The former course has the advantage of honesty,
+the latter of rapidity. It is a disgrace to the community that the
+latter way is made so easy, and so readily condoned. A man has
+only to give to charitable objects a little of the money obtained by
+violations of trust, and a large part of the world will extol him as a
+public benefactor. Nay, more; it seems as if some of our financial
+operators really mistook the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vox populi</i> for the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vox Dei</i>, and believed
+that a hundred thousand dollars given to a theological seminary
+meant absolution for the past and plenary indulgence for the
+future. It is charged that one financier, when he undertook any
+large transaction which was more than usually questionable, made
+a covenant that if the Lord prospered him in his undertaking he
+would divide the proceeds on favorable terms. But&mdash;as Wamba
+said of the outlaws and "the fashion of their trade with Heaven"&mdash;"when
+they have struck an even balance, Heaven help them
+with whom they next open the account!"</p>
+
+<p>A word or two as to the methods by which such operations are
+carried on, and the system which makes them possible. From the
+very first, railroads have been built and operated by corporations.
+A number of investors, too large to attend personally to the management
+of the enterprise, took shares of stock and elected officers
+to represent them. These officers had almost absolute power;
+but while matters were in this simple stage, there was no great
+opportunity for its abuse. The losses of investors were due to
+<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bona fide</i> errors of judgment rather than to misuse of power. But
+soon the corporations found it convenient to borrow money by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span>
+mortgaging their property. We then had two classes of investors&mdash;stockholders
+and bondholders, the former taking the risks and
+having the full control of the property, the latter receiving a relatively
+sure though perhaps smaller return, but having no control
+over the management as long as their interest was regularly paid.</p>
+
+<p>Of course there is always some danger when the men who
+furnish the money do not have much control of the enterprise;
+but as long as the relations of stock and bonds were in practice
+what they pretended to be in theory, the resulting evils were not
+very great. Matters soon reached another stage. The amount
+of money furnished by the bondholders increased out of all proportion
+to that furnished by the stockholders. Sometimes the
+nominal amount of stock was unduly small; more commonly only
+a very small part of the nominal value was ever paid in.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> The
+stock was nearly all water, simply issued by the directors as a
+means of keeping control of the property. After the crisis of
+1857, people had become shy of buying railroad stock; but they
+bought railroad bonds because they thought they were safe. This
+was the case only when there was an actual investment of stockholders
+behind them; without this assurance, bonds were more
+unsafe than stock had been, because the bondholders had still less
+immediate control over the directors and officials. If there was
+money to be made at the time, the directors made it; if there was
+loss in the end, it fell upon the bondholders.</p>
+
+<p>Let us take a specific case. An inside ring issues stock certificates
+to the value of a million dollars, on which perhaps a hundred
+thousand is paid in. They then publish their prospectus and
+place on the market two million of bonds with which the road is
+to be built. They sell the bonds at 80, reimburse themselves for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span>
+the $100,000 advanced by charging the moderate commission of 5
+per cent. for services in placing the loan, and have at their disposal
+$1,500,000 cash. These same directors now appear as a
+construction company, and award themselves a contract to pay
+$1,500,000 for work which is worth $1,200,000 only. The road is
+finished, and probably does not pay interest on its bonds. It
+passes into the hands of a receiver. Possibly the old management
+may have an influence in his appointment. At the worst, they
+have got back all the money they put in, <em>plus</em> the profits of the
+construction company; in the case supposed, 300 per cent. The
+bondholders, on the other hand, have paid $1,600,000 for a $1,200,000
+road.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_355.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">John W. Garrett.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>But the troubles of the bondholders and the advantages of the
+old directors by no means end here. When the receiver takes
+possession he discovers that valuable terminals, necessary for the
+successful working of the road, are not the property of the company,
+but of the old directors. He finds that the road owns a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span>
+very inadequate supply of rolling-stock, and that the deficiency
+has been made up by a car-trust&mdash;also under the control of the
+old directors. Each of these things, and perhaps others, must be
+made the subject of a fight or of a compromise. The latter is
+often the only practicable alternative, and almost always the
+cheaper one; by its terms the ring perhaps secures hundreds of
+thousands more, at the expense of the actual investors.</p>
+
+<p>These are but a few of the many ways in which a few years'
+control of property may be made profitable to the officials at the
+expense of legitimate interests. In a case like this, all depends
+upon the possibility of selling bonds. It is usually impossible to
+place the whole loan before construction; and if the market-price
+falls below the cost of the work undertaken, as was the case with
+the West Shore, the loss falls upon the construction company.
+Such accidents were for a long time rare. It took the public
+nearly twenty years to learn the true character of imperfectly secured
+railroad bonds. Within the past five years it seems to have
+become a trifle wiser. The crisis of 1873 was insufficient to teach
+the lesson; but that of 1885 has been at least partially successful
+in this respect.</p>
+
+<p>In cases like the one just described the bondholders are largely
+to blame for their own folly. But sometimes the loss falls on
+those who are in no way responsible for it. A railroad may be
+built as a blackmailing job. If a company is sound and prosperous,
+speculators may be tempted to build a parallel road, not with
+the idea of making it pay, but because they can so damage the
+business of the old road as to force it to buy them out. They
+build the road to sell.</p>
+
+<p>It is but fair to say that operations as bad as those just described
+are the exception rather than the rule. But the fact that they can
+exist at all is by no means creditable to our financial methods.
+The whole system by which directors can use their positions of
+trust to make contracts in which they are personally interested
+puts a premium on dishonesty. Such contracts are forbidden in
+England. It may be true, as is urged by many railroad officials
+of undoubted honesty, that it would be inconvenient to apply the
+same law here; but on the whole, the gain would far outweigh
+the loss.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>At the very best, a railroad president is subject to temptations
+to misuse his financial powers, all the more dangerous because it
+is impossible to draw the line between right and wrong. He
+knows the probable value of his railroad and of the property affected
+by its action a great deal better than any outsider possibly
+can. The published figures of earnings of the road are the result
+of estimates by himself and his subordinates. Out of the current
+earnings he pays current expenses, and probably charges permanent
+expenditures to capital account. But what expenditures are
+current and what are permanent? This division is itself the result
+of an estimate, and a very doubtful one at that. There are
+some well-established general principles, but none which will apply
+themselves automatically. With the best will in the world he
+cannot make his annual reports give a thoroughly clear idea of
+what has been done. Is he to be forbidden to buy stock when it
+seems too low, or sell it when it is high? Shall we refuse him the
+right to invest in other property which he sees will advance in
+value? Apparently not; and yet, if we allow this, we open the
+door for some of the worst abuses of power which have occurred
+in railroad history. The line between good faith and bad faith in
+these matters is a narrow one, and the average conscience cannot
+be trusted to locate it with accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>But the relations to the investors cover but a small part either
+of the work or of the responsibility of the railroad authorities.
+They are managing not merely a piece of property, but a vast and
+complicated organization of men, and an instrument of public service.
+In all these capacities their cares are equally great. The
+operating and the traffic departments are not less important than
+the financial department. The relations of the railroad to its employees,
+and to the business community at large, are even more
+perplexing than its relations to the investors.</p>
+
+<p>Of the questions arising between the railroad and its employees
+we are just beginning to realize the full importance. They are
+not matters to be settled by private agreement or private war. If
+they involve a serious interruption of the business of the community
+they concern public interests most vitally. The community
+cannot afford to have its business interrupted by railroad strikes.
+On the other hand, it cannot allow the men to make this public<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span>
+duty of the railroads a means of enforcing their own will on every
+occasion, to the detriment of all discipline and responsibility, or in
+disregard of investors' rights. How to compromise between these
+two conflicting requirements is one of the most serious problems
+of the immediate future.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> Little progress in this direction has as
+yet been made, or even systematically attempted.</p>
+
+<p>The questions arising from the relations of the railroads to
+those who use them are wider and older. From the very outset
+attempts were made to regulate railroad charges by law in various
+ways. The fear at that time was that they might be made unreasonably
+high. This fear proved groundless. From the outset
+the rates were rather lower than had been expected, and much
+lower than by many of the means of transportation which railroads
+superseded. These low rates caused a great development in
+business; and this, in turn, gave a chance for such economy in
+handling it that rates went still lower. Each new invention rendered
+it easier to do a large business at cheap rates. The substitution
+of steel rails for iron, which began shortly after the close of
+the war, had an enormous influence in this respect. This was not
+merely due to the direct saving in repairs, which, though appreciable,
+was moderate in amount. It was due still more to improvements
+in transportation which followed. It was found that steel
+rails would bear heavier rolling-stock. Instead of building ten-ton
+cars to carry ten tons of cargo, companies built twelve-ton cars
+to carry twenty tons of cargo, or fourteen-ton cars to carry thirty
+tons; and they made the locomotives heavy enough to handle
+correspondingly larger trains. A given amount of fuel was made
+to haul more weight; and of the weight thus hauled, the freight
+formed a constantly increasing proportion as compared with the
+rolling-stock itself. The system of rates was adopted to meet the
+new requirements. Charges were made incredibly low in order
+to fill cars that would otherwise go empty, or to use the road as
+nearly as possible to its full capacity. In the twenty years following
+the introduction of steel rails the traffic of the New York
+Central increased from less than 400,000,000 ton-miles to decidedly
+over 2,000,000,000; while the average rates fell from 3.09 cents
+per ton per mile in 1866 to 0.76 cent in 1886. This is but a single<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span>
+instance of a process which has gone on all over the country.
+The average freight charge on all railroads of the country to-day
+is a little over one cent per ton a mile: less than half what would
+have been deemed possible on any railroad a few years ago.</p>
+
+<p>The progress of railroad consolidation contributed greatly
+to this economy. It saved multiplication of offices; it saved re-handling
+of freight; it enabled long-distance business to be done
+systematically. So great were its advantages that co-operation
+between connecting lines was carried far beyond the limits of actual
+consolidation. Through traffic was handled without transshipment,
+sometimes by regularly incorporated express companies or
+freight companies on the same plan, but more commonly by what
+are known as fast-freight lines.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> These are little more than combinations
+for keeping account of through business; they are by no
+means ideal in their working, but they have the advantage of few
+expenses and no income, so that the temptation to steal, which
+is the bane of such organizations, is here reduced to a minimum.</p>
+
+<p>But all these things, while they increased the efficiency of the
+service, also increased the power of the railroad authorities and
+rendered the shipper more helpless. The very cheapness of rates
+only made a recourse to other means of transportation more difficult.
+If <em>A</em> was charged 30 cents while his competitor <em>B</em> was paying
+only 20 cents for the same service, he was worse off than
+when they were both paying a dollar; and the fact that no other
+means of conveyance could be found to do the work for less than
+a dollar simply put <em>A</em> all the more completely at the mercy of
+the railroad freight-agent. In other words, the fact that rates
+were so low made any inequality in rates all the more dangerous.
+The lower the rate and the wider the monopoly, the less was the
+chance of relief.</p>
+
+<p>Such inequalities existed on a large scale: and they were all
+the more difficult to deal with because there was a certain reason
+for some of them arising from the nature of railroad business.
+The expenses of a railroad are of two kinds. Some, like train and
+station service, locomotive fuel, or repairs of rolling-stock, are
+pretty directly chargeable to the different parts of the traffic. It
+costs a certain amount in wages and in materials to run a particular<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span>
+train; if that train is taken off, that part of the expense is
+saved. But there is another class of items, known as fixed
+charges, that do not vary with the amount of business done. Interest
+on bonds must be paid, whether the volume of traffic be
+large or small. The services of track-watchmen must be paid for,
+whether there be a hundred trains daily or only a dozen. In
+short, most of the expenses for interest and maintenance of way
+are chargeable to the business as a whole, but not to particular
+pieces of work done. The practical inference from this is obvious.
+In order that the railroad as a whole may be profitable, the fixed
+charges must be paid somehow. The railroad manager will try
+to get them as he can from different parts of his traffic. But if,
+for any reason, a particular piece of business cannot or will not
+pay its share of the fixed charges, it is better to secure it at any
+price above the bare expense of loading and hauling, without
+regard to the fixed charges. For if the business is lost, these
+charges will run on just the same, without any added means of
+meeting them.</p>
+
+<p>The consequence is that there is no natural standard of rates;
+or, rather, that there are two standards, so far apart that the difference
+between the two is quite sufficient to build up one establishment
+or one locality and ruin another, in case of an arbitrary exercise
+of power on the part of the freight-agent. In the use of such
+a power it was inevitable that there should be a great many mistakes,
+and some things which were worse than mistakes. Colbert
+once cynically defined taxation as "the art of so plucking the
+goose as to secure the largest amount of feathers with the least
+amount of squealing." Some of our freight-agents have taken
+Colbert's tax theories as a standard, and have applied them only
+too literally. It is this short-sighted policy which has made the
+system of charging "what the traffic will bear" a synonyme for extortion.
+Interpreted rightly, this phrase represents a sound principle
+of railroad policy&mdash;putting the burden of the fixed charges on
+the shipments that can afford to pay them. But practically&mdash;in
+the popular mind at least&mdash;it has come to mean almost exactly the
+opposite.</p>
+
+<p>The points which got the benefit of the lowest rates were the
+large trade centres, which had the benefit of competing lines of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span>
+railroad, and often of water competition also. The threat to ship
+goods by a rival route was the surest way of making a freight-agent
+give low rates. The result was that the growth of such
+places was specially stimulated. In addition to their natural advantages
+they had an artificial one due to the policy of competing
+lines of railroad. It may well be the case, as is argued by railroad
+men, that sound railroad economy demands that goods in
+large masses should be carried much more cheaply than those
+which are furnished in smaller quantities. But it is certain the
+practice went far beyond the limits of any such justification. There
+was a time when cattle were carried from Chicago to New York
+at a dollar a car-load; and many other instances, scarcely less
+marked, could be cited from the history of trunk-line competition.
+The fact was, that in an active railroad war freight-agents
+would generally accede to a demand for reduced rates at a competing
+point, whether well founded or not, and would almost always
+turn a deaf ear to similar demands from local shippers, however
+strongly supported by considerations of far-sighted business
+policy.</p>
+
+<p>But this was not the worst. Inequalities between different
+places might after some hardship correct themselves; differences
+of treatment between individuals could not be thus adjusted. And
+the system of making rates by special bargain almost always led
+to differences between individuals, where favors were too often
+given to those who needed or deserved them least. The fluctuation
+of rates was first taken advantage of by the unscrupulous
+speculator. Often, if he controlled large sources of shipment, he
+might receive the benefit of a secret agreement by which he could
+obtain lower rates than his rivals under all circumstances. A more
+effective means for destroying straightforwardness in business
+dealings than the old system of special rates was never devised.
+Sometimes, where one competitor was overwhelmingly strong, the
+pretence of secrecy was thrown aside, and the railroad companies
+so far forgot their public duties as almost openly to assist one concern
+in crushing its rivals. The state of things in this respect
+twelve or fifteen years ago was so bad that it is painful to dwell
+upon; but the reformation to-day is not so complete that we can
+wash our hands of past sins.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Less was said or felt of similar evils in passenger traffic, because
+the passenger business of the country generally is of much
+less importance than its freight business, either to the railroad investors
+or to the producers themselves. But there was the same
+fluctuation in passenger rates; and there was an outrageous form
+of discrimination in the development of the free-pass system; a
+practice which would have fully deserved the name of systematic
+bribery, had it not become so universal that most men hardly recognized
+any personal obligation connected with the acceptance of
+a pass. Officials and other citizens of influence had come to regard
+it as a right; it was not so much bribery on the part of the
+companies as blackmail levied against them.</p>
+
+<p>The remedies proposed for all these evils have been various.
+From the very beginning until now there have been some who
+held that such abuses could be avoided only by State railroad ownership.
+Such experiments in the United States have not gone far
+enough to furnish conclusive evidence either way; but the experience
+of other countries indicates that State railroads, as such, do not
+avoid these evils. Where they have been worked in competition
+with other lines, they have been as deeply involved in these abuses
+as their private competitors&mdash;perhaps more so. Where the government
+has obtained control of all the railroads of the country,
+and made such arrangements with the water-routes as to render
+competition impossible, the abuses have vanished, because there
+was no longer any conceivable motive to continue them. But this
+was the result of the monopoly, not of the State ownership; and
+the advantage was purchased by a sacrifice of all the stimulus of
+competition toward the development of new facilities.</p>
+
+<p>Many people assume that, because the government represents
+the nation as a whole, therefore government officials will not be
+under the same temptations to act unjustly which are felt by the
+representatives of a private corporation. This is a mistake. It is
+not as representatives of the investor that railroad agents do much
+injustice; this motive has practically nothing to do with it. Most
+of the abuses complained of are positively injurious to the investor
+in the long run. When officials really represent the interests of
+the property with wise foresight, they, as a rule, give the public no
+ground to complain. The question reduces itself to this: Will the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span>
+State choose better representatives and agents than a private corporation?
+Will it secure a higher grade of officials, more competent,
+more honest, and more enterprising? The difference between
+state and private railroads is not so much on matters of
+policy as on methods of administration. The success of government
+administration varies with different countries. In Prussia,
+where it is seen at its best, the results are in some respects remarkably
+good; yet even here the roads are not managed on anything
+like the American standard of efficiency, either in amount of
+train service, in speed, or in rapidity of development. And what
+is barely successful in Prussia, with its trained civil service on the
+one hand and its less intense industrial demands on the other, can
+hardly be considered possible or desirable in America. No one
+who has watched the workings of a government contract can desire
+to have the whole trade of the country put to the expense of
+supporting such methods in its transportation business.</p>
+
+<p>A more easy method of trying to regulate railroad charges has
+been by forced reductions in rates. This was tried on the largest
+scale in the Granger movement fifteen years ago. A fall in the
+price of wheat had rendered it difficult for the farmers to make
+money. The Patrons of Husbandry, in investigating the causes,
+saw that the larger trade centres, where there was competition,
+were getting lower rates than the local producer. They reasoned
+that if all the farmers could get such low rates, they could make
+money; and that, if the roads could afford to make these low
+rates for any points, they could afford to do it for all. The railroad
+agents, instead of foreseeing the storm and trying to prevent
+it, assumed a defiant attitude. The result was that legislatures
+of the States in the upper Mississippi Valley passed laws of more
+or less rigidity, scaling down all rates to the general level of competitive
+ones. After a period of some doubt, the right of the States
+to do this was admitted by the courts. But before the legal
+possibility had been decided, the practical impossibility of such a
+course had been shown. If all rates were reduced to the level of
+competitive ones, it left nothing to pay fixed charges. On such
+terms, foreign capital would not come into the State; nor could it
+be enticed by such a clumsy effort as that of one of the States,
+which provided "that no road <em>hereafter constructed</em> shall be subject<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span>
+to the provisions of this act." The goose which laid the
+golden eggs was not such a goose as to be deceived by this. The
+untimely death of several of her species meant more than any
+promises of immunity to those who should follow in her footsteps.
+In those States which had passed the most severe laws capital
+would not invest; railroads could not pay interest, their development
+stopped, and the growth of the community was seriously
+checked thereby. The most obnoxious laws were either repealed
+or allowed to remain in abeyance. Where the movement was
+strongest in 1873 it had practically spent its force in 1876. There
+have been many similar attempts in all parts of the country since
+that time; just now they are peculiarly active; but nothing which
+approaches in recklessness some of the legislation of 1873 and 1874.
+The lesson was at least partly learned.</p>
+
+<p>We had hardly passed the crisis of the effort to level down,
+when some of the more intelligent railroad men made an effort to
+level up. Recognizing that discriminations and fluctuating rates
+were an evil, they sought to avoid it by common action with regard
+to the business at competing points. A mere agreement as to
+rates to be charged was not enough to secure this end. Such an
+agreement was sure to be violated. Even if the leading authorities
+meant to observe it, their agents could always evade its requirements
+to some extent. Such evasion was favored by loose arrangements
+between connecting roads, and by the somewhat irresponsible
+system of fast freight lines. Wherever it existed, it
+gave rise to mutual suspicion. <em>A</em> believed that his road did it because
+he could not help it, but that <em>B</em> and <em>C</em> were allowing their
+roads to do it maliciously; while <em>B</em> and <em>C</em> had the same consciousness
+of individual rectitude and the same unkind suspicions with
+regard to <em>A</em>. It was at best a rather hollow truce, which did not
+really accomplish its purpose, and which might change to open
+war on very slight provocation.</p>
+
+<p>To avoid this difficulty a pool, or division of traffic, was arranged.
+It is a fact that, whatever wars of rates there may be,
+the percentage of traffic carried by the different lines varies but
+little. If an arbitrator can examine the books and decide what
+these percentages have been in the past, he can make an award for
+the future, under which the competitive traffic of the different roads<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span>
+may be fairly divided. The arrangements for doing this are various.
+Sometimes the roads carry such traffic as may happen to be
+offered, and settle the differences with one another by money balances;
+sometimes they actually divert traffic from one line to
+another. But the advantage of either of these arrangements over
+a mere agreement to maintain rates is that they cannot be violated
+without direct action on the part of the leading authorities of the
+roads concerned&mdash;either in open withdrawal, or in actual bad faith.
+The ordinary irregularities of agents do not, under a pooling
+system, give rise to much suspicion, because they do not benefit
+the road in whose behalf they are undertaken. Its percentage
+being fixed there is no motive for rate-cutting. So great is this
+advantage that pooling is accepted in almost all other countries as
+a natural means of maintaining equality of rates; the state railroads
+of Central Europe entering into such contracts with competing
+private lines and even with water-routes. In America itself,
+pools have had a longer and wider history than is generally supposed.
+In New England they arose and continued to exist on a
+moderate scale without attracting much attention. In the Mississippi
+Valley, the Chicago-Omaha pool was arranged as early as
+1870, and formed the model for a whole system of such arrangements
+extending as far as the Pacific Coast. But, as involving
+wider questions of public policy, the activity of the Southern and
+the Trunk Line Associations has attracted chief attention.</p>
+
+<p>The man whose name is most prominently identified with both
+these systems is Albert Fink. A German by birth and education,
+his long experience as a practical railroad engineer did not deprive
+him of a taste for studying traffic problems on their theoretical
+side. As Vice-President of the Louisville &amp; Nashville, he had
+given special attention to the economic conditions affecting the
+Southern roads; and when, in the years 1873&ndash;75, a traffic association
+was formed by a number of these roads to secure harmony of
+action on matters of common interest, he became the recognized
+leader. His success in arrangements for through traffic was so
+conspicuous that when, in 1877, the trunk lines were exhausted
+with an unusually destructive war of rates, they looked to him as
+the only man who could deliver them from their trouble. In some
+lines, division of traffic had already been resorted to; but it was in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span>
+the hands of outside parties, like the Standard Oil Company or the
+cattle eveners, and was made a means of oppression against shippers
+not in the combination itself.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_366.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Albert Fink.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The conditions were not favorable; the result of Fink's efforts
+to bring order out of chaos was slow and by no means uninterrupted.
+Yet on the whole, as was admitted even by opponents of
+the pooling system, it contributed to steadiness and equality of
+rates. The arrangement of these agreements was hampered by
+their want of legal status. While the law did not at that time actually
+prohibit them, it refused to enforce them. Existing thus on
+sufferance, they depended on the good will of the contracting parties.
+None but a man of Fink's unimpeached integrity and high
+intellectual power could have kept matters running at all; and even
+he could not prevent the adoption of a policy of making hay while
+the sun shines, more or less regardless of the future. The results
+of the trunk-line pool were unsatisfactory&mdash;most of all to those who
+believed in pools as a system; but it is fair to attribute a large part<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span>
+of this failure to the absence of legal recognition, which in a manner
+compelled the agreements to be arranged to meet the demands
+of the day rather than of the future.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime an equally important contribution to the solution of
+the railroad question was being worked out in another quarter. In
+the year 1869 the Massachusetts Railroad Commission was established.
+Its powers were so slight that it was not regarded as likely
+to be an influential public agency. Fortunately it numbered among
+its members Charles Francis Adams, Jr.; a man whose efficiency
+more than made up for any want of nominal powers. In his hands
+the mere power to report became the most effective of all weapons.
+Representing at once enlightened public judgment and far-sighted
+railroad policy, he did much to bring the two into harmony and
+protect the legitimate interests on both sides from short-sighted
+misuse for the benefit of either party. The detail of his work is
+matter of past history; perhaps its most prominent result was to
+introduce to State legislation the idea of a railroad commission as
+an administrative body. Those States which had no stringent
+laws appointed commissions to
+take their place; those which
+had overstringent ones appointed
+commissions to use discretion
+in applying them. In
+either case, the existence of a
+body of men representing the
+State, but possessing the technical
+knowledge to see what
+the exigencies of railroad business
+demanded, was a protection
+to all parties concerned.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_367.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Charles Francis Adams.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>But matters were rapidly
+passing beyond the sphere of
+State legislation. Each new
+consolidation of systems, each
+additional development of through traffic, made it more impossible
+to control railroad policy by the action of individual States. It
+could only be done by a development of the law in the United
+States courts or by Congressional legislation. The former result<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368]</a></span>
+was necessarily slow; each year showed an increased demand for
+special action on the part of Congress. But such action was hindered
+by divergence of opinion in that body itself. One set of
+men wished a moderate law, prohibiting the most serious abuses
+of railroad power, and enforced under the discretionary care of a
+commission. These men were for the most part not unwilling to
+see pools legalized if their members could thereby be held to a
+fuller measure of responsibility. On the other hand, the extremists
+wished to prescribe a system of equal mileage rates; they would
+hear of no such thing as a commission, and hated pools as an invention
+of the adversary. Between the two lay a large body of
+members who had no convictions on the matter, but were desirous
+to please everybody and offend nobody&mdash;a hard task in this particular
+case. It was nearly nine years from the time Mr. Reagan
+introduced his first bill when a compromise was finally effected&mdash;largely
+by the influence of Senator Cullom. As compromises go,
+it was a tolerably fair one. The extremists sacrificed their opposition
+to a commission, but secured the prohibition of pools; the
+disputed points with regard to rates were left in such a shape that
+no man knew what the law meant, and each was, for the time being,
+able to interpret it to suit the wishes of his Congressional district.</p>
+
+<p>The immediate effects of the law were extremely good. There
+were certain sections of it, like those which secured publicity of
+rates and equal treatment for different persons in the same circumstances,
+whose wisdom was universally admitted. Indeed it was
+rather a disgrace, both to the railroad agents and to the courts,
+that we had to wait for an act of Congress to secure these ends;
+and most of the railroads made up for past remissness in this respect
+by quite a spasm of virtue. In some instances it was even
+thought that they "stood up so straight as to lean over backward."
+But this was not the only part of the law which proved
+efficient. The very vagueness of the clause concerning the relative
+rates for through and local traffic, which under other circumstances
+might have proved fatal, put a most salutary power into
+the hands of the Interstate Commerce Commission, and one which
+they were not slow to use.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_369.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Thomas M. Cooley.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The President was fortunate in his selection of commissioners;
+above all in the chairman, Judge T. M. Cooley, of Michigan, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span>
+man whose character, knowledge of public law, and technical familiarity
+with railroad business made him singularly well fitted for the
+place. The work of the Interstate Commission, like that of its
+Massachusetts prototype, shows
+how much more important is
+personal power than mere technical
+authority. It was supposed
+at first that the commission would
+be a purely administrative body,
+with discretion to suspend the
+law. Instead of this, they have
+enforced and interpreted it; and
+in the process of interpretation
+have virtually created a body of
+additional law, which is read and
+quoted as authority. With but
+little ground for expecting it from
+the letter of the act, they have become a judicial body of the highest
+importance. Their existence seems to furnish a possibility for
+an elastic development of transportation law, neither so weak as
+to be ineffective nor so strong as to break by its own rigidity.</p>
+
+<p>But the final test of their success is yet to come. They have
+laid down a few principles as to the cases when competition justifies
+through rates lower than those at intermediate points. But
+the application of these principles is as yet far from settled; and it
+is rendered doubly hard by the clause against pools, which does
+much to hamper the roads in any attempt to secure common action
+on the matter of through rates. Each ill-judged piece of State
+legislation, and each reckless attempt to attack railroad profits, increases
+the difficulty. There was a time when the powers of railroad
+managers were developed without corresponding responsibility.
+In many parts of the country we are now going to the
+other extreme&mdash;increasing the responsibility of railroad authorities
+toward shipper and employees, State law and national commission,
+and at the same time striving to restrict their powers to the utmost.
+Such a policy cannot be continued indefinitely without a disastrous
+effect upon railroad service, and, indirectly, upon the business of
+the country as a whole.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> In 1886 the capital stock and the indebtedness of the railroads of the United States amounted to
+about four thousand million dollars each. Most of the debt represents money actually paid in; but a
+very large fraction of the stock is a merely nominal liability on which no payments have been made.
+Some was issued as here described merely as a means of keeping control of the property; some, as
+the easiest method of balancing unequal values in reorganization; some, to represent increased value
+of the property, so as to be able to divide all the current earnings without calling public attention too
+prominently to the very profitable character of the business. On the other hand, some stock on which
+money was actually paid has been wiped out of existence; and something has been paid out of earnings
+for capital account without corresponding issue of securities. The net amount of "water," or
+excess of nominal liabilities over actual investments, in the capital account of the railroads of the country
+can only be made the subject of guesswork. Estimates of responsible authorities vary all the way
+from nothing to $4,000,000,000.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> See following article on <a href="#Page_370">"The Prevention of Railway Strikes."</a></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> See "The Freight-car Service," <a href="#Page_287">page 287.</a></p></div></div>
+
+
+    <div class="chapter"></div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">THE PREVENTION OF RAILWAY STRIKES.</a>
+    <a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor"><span class="xs">[31]</span></a></h2>
+
+<p class="pfs90 smcap">By CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>Railways the Largest Single Interest in the United States&mdash;Some Impressive Statistics&mdash;Growth
+of a Complex Organization&mdash;Five Divisions of Necessary Work&mdash;Other
+Special Departments&mdash;Importance of the Operating Department&mdash;The Evil of
+Strikes&mdash;To be Remedied by Thorough Organization&mdash;Not the Ordinary Relation
+between Employer and Employee&mdash;Of what the Model Railway Service Should
+Consist&mdash;Temporary and Permanent Employees&mdash;Promotion from One Grade to
+the Other&mdash;Rights and Privileges of the Permanent Service&mdash;Employment during
+Good Behavior&mdash;Proposed Tribunal for Adjusting Differences and Enforcing Discipline&mdash;A
+Regular Advance in Pay for Faithful Service&mdash;A Fund for Hospital
+Service, Pensions, and Insurance&mdash;Railroad Educational Institutions&mdash;The Employer
+to Have a Voice in Management through a Council&mdash;A System of Representation.</p></div>
+
+
+<div><img class="drop-cap" src="images/i_370dc.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap">In 1836&mdash;fifty years ago&mdash;there were but a little more than
+1,000 miles of railroad on the American continents, representing
+an outlay of some $35,000,000, and controlled by
+a score or so of corporations. There are now (1886) about 135,000
+miles in the United States alone, capitalized at over eight
+thousand millions of dollars.</p>
+
+<p>The railroad interest is thus the largest single interest in the
+country. Probably 600,000 men are in its employ as wage-earners.
+It is safe to say that over two millions of human beings are
+directly dependent upon it for their daily support. The Union
+Pacific, as a single and by no means the largest member of this
+system, controls 5,150 miles of road, represented by stock and
+bonds to the amount of $275,000,000. More than 15,000 names<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span>
+are borne upon its pay-rolls. Its yearly income has exceeded
+$29,000,000, and in 1885 was $26,000,000. Large as these aggregates
+sound, there are other corporations which far exceed the
+Union Pacific both in income and in capitalization, and not a few
+exceed it in mileage. The Pennsylvania, for instance, either owns
+or directly controls 7,300 miles of road. It is represented by a
+capitalization of $670,000,000; its annual income is $93,000,000;
+it carries 75,000 names on its pay-rolls.</p>
+
+<p>This has been the outgrowth of a single half-century. The
+vast and intricate organization implied in the management of such
+an interest had, as it were, to be improvised. The original companies
+were small and simple affairs. Some retired man of business
+held, as a rule, the position of president; while another
+man, generally a civil engineer, and as such supposed to be
+more or less acquainted with the practical working of railroads,
+acted as superintendent. The superintendent, in point of fact, attended
+to everything. He was the head of the commercial department;
+the head of the operating department; the head of
+the construction department; and the head of the mechanical department.
+But there is a limit to what any single man can do;
+and so, as the organization developed, it became necessary to relieve
+the railroad superintendent of many of his duties. Accordingly,
+the working management naturally subdivided itself into
+separate departments, at the head of which men were placed who
+had been trained all their lives to do the particular work required
+in each department. In the same way, the employees of the company&mdash;the
+wage-earners, as they are called&mdash;originally few in
+number, held toward the company relations similar to those which
+the employees in factories, shops, or on farms, held to those who
+employed them. In other words, there was in the railroad system<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span>
+no organized service. As the employees increased until they
+were numbered by hundreds, better organization became a necessity.
+The community was absolutely dependent upon its railroad
+service for continued existence, for the running of trains is to the
+modern body politic very much what the circulation of blood is to
+the human being. An organized system, therefore, had to grow
+up. This fact was not recognized at first; and, indeed, is only
+imperfectly recognized yet. Still the fact was there; and inasmuch
+as it was there and was not recognized, trouble ensued. No
+rationally organized railroad service&mdash;that is, no service in which
+the employer and employed occupy definite relations toward each
+other, recognized by each, and by the body politic&mdash;no such service
+exists. Approaches to it only have been made. A discussion,
+therefore, of the form that such a service would naturally
+take if it were organized, cannot be otherwise than timely.</p>
+
+<p>It has already been noticed that in the process of organization
+the railroad, following the invariable law, naturally subdivides itself
+into different departments.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> In the case of every corporation
+of magnitude there are of these departments, whether one man is
+at the head of one or several of them, at least five. These are:</p>
+
+<p>1st. The financial department, which provides the ways and
+means.</p>
+
+<p>2d. The construction department, which builds the railroad
+after the means to build it are provided.</p>
+
+<p>3d. The operating department, which operates the road after
+it is built.</p>
+
+<p>4th. The commercial department, which finds business for the
+operated road to do, and regulates the rates which are to be
+charged for doing it.</p>
+
+<p>5th. The legal department, which attends to all the numerous
+questions which arise in the practical working of everyone of the
+other departments.</p>
+
+<p>These five divisions of necessary work exist in the organization
+of every company, no matter how small it may be, or how few
+officers it may employ. In the larger companies the need is found
+for yet other special departments. In the case of the Union
+Pacific, for instance, there are two such: First, the comptroller's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span>
+department, which establishes and is responsible for the whole
+method of accounting; second, a department which is responsible
+for all the numerous interests which a large railroad company
+almost of necessity develops outside of its strict, legitimate work
+as a common carrier.</p>
+
+<p>When it comes to dealing with the employees of the company,
+it will be found that the vast majority of those whose names are
+on the pay-rolls belong to the operating department. This department
+is responsible not only for the running of trains and,
+usually, for the maintenance of the permanent way, but also for
+the repairs of rolling stock. All the train-hands, all the section-men
+and bridge-gangs, and all the mechanics in the repair shops
+thus belong to the operating department. The accounting department
+employs only clerks. The same is true of the commercial
+department, though the commercial department has also agents at
+different business centres who look after the company's interests
+and secure traffic for it. The construction department is in the
+hands of civil engineers, and the force employed by it depends entirely
+upon the amount of building which may at any time be going
+on. As a rule, the bulk of the employees in the construction department
+are paid by contractors, and not directly by the railroad
+company. The legal department consists only of lawyers and
+the few clerks necessary to aid them in transacting their business.</p>
+
+<p>In the operating department of the Union Pacific at the present
+time (1886) about 14,000 names are carried upon the pay-roll.
+The number varies according to the season of the year and the
+pressure of traffic. In January, and during the winter months, the
+average will fall to 12,000, while in June and during the summer it
+rises to 14,000.</p>
+
+<p>Of these, 2,800, or 20 per cent., are engaged in train movement;
+4,200, or 30 per cent, are in the machine-shops and in
+charge of motive power and rolling-stock; 7,000, or 50 per cent.,
+are employed in various miscellaneous ways, as flag-men, section-hands,
+station agents, switch-men, etc., etc.</p>
+
+<p>So far as the wage-earner is concerned, it is, therefore, this
+portion of the force of a railroad company which may be called
+distinctively "the service." If good relations exist between the
+men employed in its operating department and the company no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374]</a></span>
+serious trouble can ever arise in the operation of the road. The
+clerks in the financial department, or the engineers in the construction
+department, might leave the company's employ in a body,
+and their places could soon be filled. In point of fact, they never
+do leave it; but should they do so, the public would experience no
+inconvenience. The inconvenience&mdash;and it would be very considerable&mdash;would
+be confined to the office of the company, and
+their work would fall into arrears. It is not so with the operating
+department. So far as the community at large is concerned, whatever
+difficulties arise in the working of railroads develop themselves
+here. All serious railroad strikes take place among those
+engaged in the shops, on the track, or in handling trains. That
+these difficulties should be reduced to a minimum is therefore a
+necessity. They can be reduced to a minimum only when the railroad
+service is thoroughly organized.</p>
+
+<p>How then can this service be better organized than it is? It
+is usually maintained that only the ordinary relation of employer
+and employed should exist between the railroad company and the
+men engaged in operating its road. If the farmer is dissatisfied with
+his hands, he can dismiss them. In like manner, if the laborer is
+dissatisfied with the farmer, he can leave his employ. It is argued
+that exactly the same relation should exist between the great
+railroad corporation and the tens of thousands of men in its operating
+department. The proposition is not tenable. The circumstances
+are different. In the first place, it is of no practical consequence
+to the community whether difficulties which prevent the
+work of the farm from going on arise or do not arise between
+an individual farmer and his laborers. The work of innumerable
+other farms goes on all the same, and it is a matter of indifference
+what occurs in the management of the particular farm. So it is
+even with large factories, machine-shops&mdash;in fact, with all industrial
+concerns which do not perform immediate public functions. A
+railroad company does perform immediate public functions. The
+community depends upon it for the daily and necessary movements
+of civilized existence. This fact has to be recognized. For a railroad
+to pause in its operation implies paralysis to the community
+which it serves.</p>
+
+<p>Such being the fact, it is futile to argue that the ordinary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[375]</a></span>
+relations of employer and employed should obtain in the railroad
+service. Something else is required; and because something else
+is required but has not yet been devised we have had the numerous
+difficulties which have taken place during the present year&mdash;difficulties
+which have occasioned the community much inconvenience
+and loss.</p>
+
+<p>The model railroad service, therefore, is now to be considered.
+Of what would it consist? At present, there is practically no
+difference between individuals in the employ of a great railroad
+corporation. All the wage-earners in its pay stand in like position
+toward it. There should be a difference among them; and a
+marked difference, due to circumstances which should receive recognition.
+Take again the case of the Union Pacific. The Union
+Pacific, it has already been mentioned, numbers 14,000 employees
+in its operating department as a maximum, and 12,000 as a
+minimum. They vary with the season of the year, increasing in
+summer and diminishing in winter. Consequently there is a large
+body of men who are permanently in its employ; and there is a
+smaller body, although a very considerable portion of the whole,
+who are in its employ only temporarily. Here is a fact, and facts
+should be recognized. If this particular fact is recognized, the
+service of the company should be organized accordingly, and each
+of the several divisions of the operating department would have on
+its rolls two classes of men: First, those who have been admitted
+into the permanent service of the company; and, second, those
+who for any cause are only temporarily in that service. And no
+man should be admitted into the permanent service until after he
+has served an apprenticeship in the temporary service. In other
+words, admission into the permanent service would be in the nature
+of a promotion from an apprenticeship in the temporary service.</p>
+
+<p>Those in the temporary service need not, therefore, be at present
+considered. They hold to the companies only the ordinary
+relation of employee to employer. They may be looked upon as
+candidates for admission into the permanent service&mdash;they are on
+probation. So long as they are on probation they may be engaged
+and discharged at pleasure. The permanent service alone
+is now referred to.</p>
+
+<p>The permanent service of a great railroad company should in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[376]</a></span>
+many essential respects be very much like a national service, that of
+the army or navy, for instance, except in one particular, and a very
+important particular: to wit, those in it must of necessity always
+be at liberty to resign from it&mdash;in other words, to leave it. The
+railroad company can hold no one in its employ one moment against
+his will. Meanwhile, to belong to the permanent service of a
+railroad company of the first class, so far as the employee is concerned,
+should mean a great deal. It should carry with it certain
+rights and privileges which would cause that service to be eagerly
+sought. In the first place, he who had passed through his period
+of probation and whose name was enrolled in the permanent service
+would naturally feel that his interests were to a large extent
+identified with those of the company; and that he on the other
+hand had rights and privileges which the company was bound to
+respect. It has been a matter of boast in France that every private
+soldier in the French army carried the possibility of the field-marshal's
+baton in his knapsack. It should be the same with every
+employee in the permanent service of a great American railroad
+company. The possibility of his rising to any position in that
+service for which he showed himself qualified should be open before
+him and constantly present in his mind. Many of the most
+remarkable and successful men who have handled railroads in the
+United States began their active lives as brakemen, as telegraph
+operators, even as laborers on the track. Such examples are of
+inestimable value. They reveal possibilities open to all.</p>
+
+<p>Beyond this, the man who is permanently enrolled should feel
+that, though he may not rise to a high position, yet, as a matter of
+right, he is entitled to hold the position to which he has risen just
+so long as he demeans himself properly and does his duty well.
+He should be free from fear of arbitrary dismissal. In order that
+he may have this security, a tribunal should be devised before
+which he would have the right to be heard in case charges of misdemeanor
+are advanced against him.</p>
+
+<p>No such tribunal has yet been provided in the organization of
+any railroad company; neither, as a rule, has the suggestion of
+such a tribunal been looked upon with favor either by the official or
+the employee. The latter is apt to argue that he already has such
+a tribunal in the executive committee of his own labor organization;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[377]</a></span>
+and a tribunal, too, upon which he can depend to decide always
+in his favor. The official, on the other hand, contends that
+if he is to be responsible for results he must have the power of
+arbitrarily dismissing the employee. Without it he will not be
+able to maintain discipline. The two arguments, besides answering
+each other, divide the railroad service into hostile camps. The
+executive committees of the labor organizations practically cannot
+save the members of those organizations from being got rid of,
+though they do in many cases protect them against summary discharge;
+and, on the other hand, the official, in the face of the executive
+committee, enjoys only in theory the power of summary discharge.
+The situation is accordingly false and bad. It provokes
+hostility. The one party boasts of a protection which he does not
+enjoy; the other insists upon a power which he dares not exercise.
+The remedy is manifest. A system should be devised based on
+recognized facts; a system which would secure reasonable protection
+to the employee, and at the same time enable the official to
+enforce all necessary discipline. This a permanent service, with
+a properly organized tribunal to appeal to, would bring about.
+Meanwhile the winnowing process would be provided for in the
+temporary service. Over that the official would have complete
+control, and the idle, the worthless, and the insubordinate would
+be kept off. The wheat would there be separated from the chaff.
+Until such a system is devised the existing chaos, made up of
+powerless protection and impotent power, must apparently continue.
+None the less it is a delusion on the one side and a mockery
+on the other.</p>
+
+<p>How the members of such a court as has been suggested
+would be appointed and by whom is matter for consideration. It
+would, of course, be essential that the appointees should command
+the confidence of all in the company's service, whether officials or
+employees. The possible means of reaching this result will
+presently be discussed.</p>
+
+<p>Not only should permanent employees be entitled to retain
+their position during good behavior, but they should also look
+forward to the continual bettering of their condition. That is,
+apart from promotion, seniority in the service should carry with
+it certain rights and privileges. Take the case of conductors,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[378]</a></span>
+brakemen, engineers, machinists, and the like; there seems to be
+no reason why length of faithful service should not carry with it a
+stipulated increase of pay. If conductors, for example, have a
+regular pay of $100 a month, there seems no good reason why
+the pay should not increase by steps of $5 with each five years'
+service, so that when the conductor has been twenty-five years in
+the service his pay should be increased by one-quarter, or $25 a
+month. The increase might be more or less. The figures suggested
+merely illustrate. So also with the engineer, the brakeman,
+the section-man, the machinist. A certain prospect of increased
+pay, if a man demeans himself faithfully, is a great incentive
+to faithful demeanor. This is another fact which it would
+be well not to lose sight of.</p>
+
+<p>There ought likewise to be connected with every large railroad
+organization certain funds, contributed partly by the company
+and partly by the voluntary action of employees, which would provide
+for hospital service, retiring pensions, sick pensions, and insurance
+against accident and death. Every man whose name has
+once been enrolled in the permanent employ of the company
+should be entitled to the benefit of these funds; and he should be
+deprived of it only by his own voluntary act, or as the consequence
+of some misdemeanor proved before a tribunal. At present the
+railroad companies of this country are under no inducement to
+establish these mutual insurance societies, or to contribute to them.
+Their service, in principle at least, is a shifting service; and so
+long as it is shifting the elaborate organizations which are essential
+to the safe management of the funds referred to cannot be
+called into existence. A tie-up, as it might be called, between the
+companies and their employees is a condition precedent. Were
+this once effected the rest would follow by steps both natural and
+easy. For a company like the Union Pacific to contribute $100,000
+a year to a hospital fund and retiring pension and insurance
+associations would be a small matter, if the thing could be so
+arranged that the permanent employees themselves would contribute
+a like sum; and permanent employees only would contribute
+at all. Once let the growth of associations like these begin,
+and it proceeds with almost startling rapidity. At the end of ten
+years the accumulated capital on the basis of contribution suggested<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[379]</a></span>
+would probably amount to millions. Every man who was
+so fortunate as to become a permanent employee of the company
+would then be assured of provision in case of sickness or disability,
+and his family would be assured of it in case of his death.</p>
+
+<p>The moment a permanent service was thus established it would
+also involve further provision of an educational nature. That is,
+the companies must continually provide a stock of men for the
+future. Where a boy&mdash;the son of an employee&mdash;grows up always
+looking forward to entering the company's service, he becomes to
+that company very much what a cadet at West Point or Annapolis
+is to the army or the navy of the United States; the idea of
+loyalty to the company and of pride in its service grows up with
+him. Railroad educational institutions of this sort have already
+been created by at least one corporation in the country, and they
+should be created by all railroad corporations of the first class.
+The children of employees would naturally go into these schools,
+and the best of them would at the proper age be sent out upon
+the road to take their places in the shops, on the track, or at the
+brake. From those thus educated the higher positions in the
+company would thereafter be filled. The cost of maintaining
+these schools, at least in part, would become a regular item in the
+operating expenses of the road. Properly handled, a vast economy
+would be effected through them. The morale of the service would
+gradually be raised, and the morale of a railroad is, if properly
+viewed, no less important than the morale of an army or navy. It
+is invaluable.</p>
+
+<p>But it is futile to suppose that such a service as that outlined
+could be organized, in America at least, unless those concerned in
+it were allowed a voice in its management. Practically the most
+important feature of the whole is therefore yet to be considered.
+How is the employee to be assured a voice in the management
+of these joint interests, without bringing about demoralization?
+No one has yet had the courage to face this question; and yet it
+is a question which must be faced if a solution of existing difficulties
+is to be found. If the employees contribute to the insurance
+and other funds, it is right that they should have a voice in the
+management of those funds. If an employee holds his situation
+during good behavior, he has a right to be heard in the organization<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[380]</a></span>
+of the board which, in case of his suspension for alleged
+cause, is to pass upon his behavior. No system will succeed
+which does not recognize these rights. In other words, it will be
+impossible to establish perfectly good faith and the highest
+morale in the service of the companies until the problem of giving
+this voice to employees, and giving it effectively, is solved. It
+can be solved in but one way: that is, by representation. To
+solve it may mean industrial peace.</p>
+
+<p>It is, of course, impossible to dispose of these difficult matters
+in town-meeting. Nevertheless, the town-meeting must be at the
+base of any successful plan for disposing of them. The end in
+view is to bring the employer&mdash;who in this case is the company,
+represented by its president and board of directors&mdash;and the employees
+into direct and immediate contact through a representative
+system. When thus brought into direct and immediate contact,
+the parties must arrive at results through the usual method:
+that is, by discussion and rational agreement. It has already been
+noticed that the operating department of a great railroad company
+naturally subdivides itself into those concerned in the train movement,
+those concerned in the care of the permanent way, and those
+concerned in the work of the mechanical department. It would
+seem proper, therefore, that a council of employees should be
+formed, of such a number as might be agreed on, containing representatives
+from each of these departments. In order to make
+an effective representation, the council would have to be a large
+body. For present purposes, and for the sake of illustration
+merely, it might be supposed that, in the case of the Union Pacific,
+each department in a division of the road would elect its own
+members of the employees' council. There are five of these divisions
+and three departments in every division. The operating-men,
+the yard and section-men, and the machinists of the division
+would, therefore, under this arrangement choose a given number
+of representatives. If one such representative was chosen to each
+hundred employees in the permanent service those thus selected
+would constitute a division council. To perfect the organization,
+without disturbing the necessary work of the company, each of
+these division councils would then select certain (say, for example,
+three) of their number, representing the mechanical, the operating,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[381]</a></span>
+and the permanent way departments, and these delegates from
+each of the departments would, at certain periods of the year, to
+be provided for by the articles of organization, all meet together
+at the head-quarters of the company in Omaha. The central
+council, under the system here suggested, would consist of fifteen
+men; that is, one representing each of the three departments of
+the five several divisions. These fifteen men would represent the
+employees. It would be for them to select a board of delegates,
+or small executive committee, to confer directly with the president
+and board of directors. Here would be found the organization
+through which the voice of the employees would make itself heard
+and felt in matters which directly affect the rights of employees,
+including the appointment of a tribunal to pass upon cases of misdemeanor,
+and the management of all institutions, whether financial
+or educational, to which the employees had contributed and
+in which they had a consequent interest.</p>
+
+<p>There is no reason whatever for supposing that, within the
+limits which have been indicated, such an organization would lead
+to difficulty. On the contrary, where it did not remove a difficulty
+it might readily be made to open a way out of it. The employees,
+feeling that they too had rights which the company frankly
+recognized and was bound to respect, would in all cases of agitation
+proceed through the regular machinery, which brought them
+into easy and direct contact with the highest authority in the
+company's service. They would not, therefore, be driven into outside
+organizations. Meanwhile, on the other hand, the highest
+officers of the company, including the president and the board of
+directors, would be brought into immediate relations with the representatives
+of the employees on terms of equality. Each would
+have an equal voice in the management of common interests; and
+it would only remain to make provision for arriving at a solution
+of questions in case of deadlock. This would naturally be done
+by the appointment of a permanent arbitrator, who would be
+selected in advance.</p>
+
+<p>The organization suggested includes, it will be remembered,
+only those employees whose names are on the permanent rolls of
+the operating department. For reasons which have been sufficiently
+referred to, those whose names are on the rolls of the other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[382]</a></span>
+four departments have not been considered. But there would be
+no difficulty in making provision for them also, should it be found
+expedient or desirable so to do. Through the system of representation
+the organization could in fact be made to include every
+employee in the permanent service of the company, not excepting
+the president, the general manager, or the general counsel. Each
+employee included would have one vote, and each division and
+department its representatives. The organization in other words
+is elastic. No matter how large it might be it would never become
+unwieldy so long as it resulted in the small committee which met
+in direct conference face to face with the board of directors.</p>
+
+<p>Could such a system as that which has been suggested be
+devised and put in practical operation there is reason to hope that
+the difficulties which have hitherto occurred between the great
+railroad companies and those in their pay would not occur in future.
+The movement is the natural and necessary outcome of the vast
+development referred to in the opening paragraphs of this paper.
+It is based on a simple recognition of acknowledged facts, and follows
+the lines of action with which the people of this country are
+most familiar. The path indicated is that in which for centuries
+they have been accustomed to tread. It has led them out of many
+difficulties. Why not out of this difficulty?</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Note</span>.&mdash;The following paper was prepared for a special purpose in June, 1886, and then submitted
+to several of the leading officials directly engaged in the local management of the lines operated by
+the Union Pacific Railway Company, of which the writer had been president for two years. It drew
+forth from them various criticisms, which led to the belief that the publication of the paper at that time
+might easily result in more harm than good. It was accordingly laid aside, and no use made of it.
+</p>
+<p>
+Nearly three years have since elapsed, and the events of the year 1888&mdash;with its strike of engineers
+on the Chicago, Burlington &amp; Quincy&mdash;seem to indicate that the relations of railroad employees to the
+railroad companies have undergone no material change since the year 1886, when the strike on the
+Missouri Pacific took place. The same unsatisfactory condition of affairs apparently continues.
+There is a deep-seated trouble somewhere.
+</p>
+<p>
+No sufficient reason, therefore, exists for longer suppressing this paper. Provided the suggestions
+contained in it have any value at all, they may at least be accepted as contributions to a discussion
+which of itself has an importance that cannot be either denied or ignored.
+</p>
+<p>
+The paper is printed as it was prepared. The figures and statistics contained in it have no application,
+therefore, to the present time; nor has it been thought worth while to change them, inasmuch as
+they have little or no bearing upon the argument. That is just as applicable to the state of affairs
+now as it was to that which existed then. The only difference is that the course of events during the
+three intervening years has demonstrated that the paper, if it does no good, will certainly do no harm.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap pad2">Boston</span>, February 4, 1889.</p>
+<p class="rt">C. F. A.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> See "Railway Management," <a href="#Page_151">page 151.</a></p></div></div>
+
+
+    <div class="chapter"></div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[383]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">THE EVERY-DAY LIFE OF RAILROAD MEN.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="pfs90 smcap">By B. B. ADAMS, Jr.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>The Typical Railroad Man&mdash;On the Road and at Home&mdash;Raising the Moral Standard&mdash;Characteristics
+of the Freight Brakeman&mdash;His Wit the Result of Meditation&mdash;How
+Slang is Originated&mdash;Agreeable Features of his Life in Fine Weather&mdash;Hardships
+in Winter&mdash;The Perils of Hand-brakes&mdash;Broken Trains&mdash;Going back to Flag&mdash;Coupling
+Accidents&mdash;At the Spring&mdash;Advantages of a Passenger Brakeman&mdash;Trials
+of the Freight Conductor&mdash;The Investigation of Accidents&mdash;Irregular Hours
+of Work&mdash;The Locomotive Engineer the Hero of the Rail&mdash;His Rare Qualities&mdash;The
+Value of Quick Judgment&mdash;Calm Fidelity a Necessary Trait&mdash;Saving Fuel on a
+Freight Engine&mdash;Making Time on a Passenger Engine&mdash;Remarkable Runs&mdash;The
+Spirit of Fraternity among Engineers&mdash;Difficult Duties of a Passenger-train Conductor&mdash;Tact
+in Dealing with Many People&mdash;Questions to be Answered&mdash;How
+Rough Characters are Dealt with&mdash;Heavy Responsibilities&mdash;The Work of a Station
+Agent&mdash;Flirtation by Telegraph&mdash;The Baggage-master's Hard Task&mdash;Eternal Vigilance
+Necessary in a Switch-tender&mdash;Section-men, Train Despatchers, Firemen,
+and Clerks&mdash;Efforts to Make the Railroad Man's Life Easier.</p></div>
+
+
+<div><img class="drop-cap" src="images/i_383dc.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="drop-cap">The typical railroad man "runs on the road;" he
+is not the one whose urbane presence adorns the
+much-heralded offices of the railroad companies on
+Broadway, where the gold letters on the front window
+are each considerably larger than the elbow-room
+allowed the clerks inside; nor, indeed, is he,
+generally speaking, the one with whom the public or
+the public's drayman comes in contact when visiting
+a large city station to ship or receive freight. These and others,
+whose part in the complex machinery of transportation is in a degree
+auxiliary, are indeed largely imbued with the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">esprit de corps</i>
+which originates in the main body of workers; but their duties are
+such that their interest is not especially lively. Even the men
+employed at stations in villages and large towns acquire a share
+of their railroad spirit at second hand, as life on a train is necessary
+to get the experience which embodies the true fascination
+which so charms Young America.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[384]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The railroad man's home-life is not specially different from
+other people's. There have been Chesterfields among conductors,
+and mechanical geniuses have grown up among the locomotive
+engineers, but these were products of an era now past. Station-men
+are a part of the communities where their duties place
+them. Trainmen and their families occupy a modest though
+highly respectable place in the society they live in. Trainmen
+who live in a city generally receive the same pay that is given to
+their brothers, doing the same work, whose homes are in the
+country. The families of the latter therefore enjoy purer air, lessened
+expenses, and other advantages which are denied the
+former.</p>
+
+<p>On most railroads the freight trainmen&mdash;engineers, conductors,
+brakemen, and firemen&mdash;are the most numerous and prominent
+class, as the number of freight trains is generally larger than
+that of passenger trains; and among these men there are more
+brakemen than anything else, because there are two or more on
+every train, while there is but one of each of the other classes.
+And as the ranks of the passenger-train service are generally recruited
+from the freight trainmen, it follows that the <em>freight brakeman</em>
+impresses his individuality quite strongly upon not only the
+circles in which he moves but the whole train-service as well.
+Freight conductors are promoted brakemen, and most (though
+not by any means all) passenger conductors are promoted freight
+conductors; so that the brakeman's prominent traits of character
+continue to appear throughout the several grades of the service.
+As he is promoted he of course improves. The general character
+of the <em>personnel</em> of the freight-train service has undergone a considerable
+change in the last twenty years. Whiskey drinkers have
+been weeded out, and pilferers with them. Improved discipline
+has effected a general toning up, raising the moral standard perceptibly.
+One reforming superintendent, a few years ago, on undertaking
+an aggressive campaign found himself compelled to discharge
+three-fifths of all his brakemen before he could regard the
+force as reasonably cleared of the rowdy element.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>The brakeman, like the "drummer," is a characteristic American
+product. Each has his wits sharpened by peculiar experiences,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[385]</a></span>
+and, while important lines of intellectual training are almost
+wholly neglected, there is contact with the world in various directions,
+which develops qualities that tend to elevate the individual
+in many ways. Although freight brakemen do not have any intercourse
+with the public, they somehow learn the ways of the
+world very quickly, and the brightest ones among them need very
+little training to fit them for a place on a passenger train where
+they are expected to deal with gentle ladies and fastidious millionaires,
+and bear themselves with the grace of a hotel clerk.
+Perhaps one reason why brakemen impress their characteristics
+on the whole <em>personnel</em> of the service is because they have abundance
+of opportunity for meditation. Many of them have a superfluity
+of hours and half-hours when they have nothing to do but
+ride on the top of a car and keep a general watch of the train, and
+they have ample time to think twice before speaking once. Even
+a circus clown or the vender of shoestrings or ten-cent watches
+has to study the arts of expression; why should not the intelligent
+trainman, who wishes to let people know that he is of some account
+in the world? If he wants a favor from a superior he knows
+just the best way of approach to secure success. If he deems it
+worth while to complain of anything, he formulates his appeal in a
+way that is sure to be telling. Everyone knows the old story of
+the brakeman who was refused a free pass home on Saturday
+night with the argument that his employer, if a farmer, could not
+be reasonably expected to hitch up a horse and buggy for such a
+purpose. The reply that, admitting this, the farmer who had his
+team already harnessed up and was going that way with an empty
+seat would be outrageously mean to refuse his hired man a ride,
+is none too 'cute to be characteristic. The brakeman who is not
+able to puncture the sophistries of narrow-souled or disingenuous
+superiors is the exception and not the rule.</p>
+
+<p>The brakeman gives the prevailing tone to the "society" of
+despatchers' lobbies and other lounging places which he frequents.
+If he be profane or fault-finding or sour, he can easily spread the
+influence of these unpleasant traits. A lazy brakeman becomes
+more lazy, because his work is in many respects easy. Having
+little to do he demands still less. A foul-mouthed one gives himself
+free rein because many usual restraints are absent. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[386]</a></span>
+prevalence of profanity, which, aside from the question of sinfulness,
+hampers a man in any aspirations he may have toward more
+elevating society, is perhaps the worst blot on the reputation of
+brakemen as a class. Many worthy men among them, and especially
+among conductors and engineers, have, however, done much
+to improve the tone of conversation in trainmen's haunts, and on
+the better disciplined roads decorum is the rule, and rowdyism the
+exception. There is abundance of humor and spirit, however. The
+brakeman originates whatever slang may be deemed necessary to
+give spice to the talk of the caboose and round-house. He calls a
+gravel train a "dust express," and refers to the pump for compressing
+air for the power-brakes as a "wind-jammer." The fireman's
+prosaic labors are lightened by being poetically mentioned as the
+"handling of black diamonds," and the mortification of being called
+into the superintendent's office to explain some dereliction of duty
+is disguised by referring to the episode as "dancing on the carpet."</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_386.jpg" width="350" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">"Dancing on the Carpet."</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The disagreeable features of a freight brakeman's life are chiefly
+those dependent upon
+the weather. If he
+could perform his duties
+in Southern California
+or Florida in
+winter, and in the
+Northern States in
+summer, his lot would
+ordinarily be a happy
+one, though the annoyance
+of tramps is
+almost universal in
+mild climates, and in
+many cases takes the
+shape of positive danger.
+These vagabonds
+persist in riding
+on or in the cars, while
+the faithful trainman
+must, according to his instructions, keep them off. In some sections
+of the country they will board a train in gangs of a dozen, armed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[387]</a></span>
+with pistols, and dictate where a train shall carry them. Not long
+ago in Chicago a conductor, while ejecting a tramp from the caboose,
+was shot and killed by the ruffian.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_387.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Trainman and Tramps.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The hardships of cold and stormy weather are serious, both because
+of the test of endurance involved and the added difficulties in
+handling a train. The Westinghouse automatic air-brake, which
+has served so admirably on passenger trains for the past fifteen
+years, has only recently been adapted and cheapened so as to make
+it available for long freight trains, but it is now so perfected that
+in a few years the brakeman who now has to ride on the outside of
+cars in a freezing condition for an hour at a time will be privileged
+to sit comfortably in his caboose while the speed of the train is
+governed by the engineer through the instantaneous action of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[388]</a></span>
+air-brake. On the steep roads of the Rocky Mountains, and a
+few other lines, this brake is already in use.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_389.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Braking in Hard Weather.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>But "braking by hand" is still the rule. In running on ascending
+grades or at slow speeds, the brakemen can ride under
+cover, but in descending grades, or on levels when the speed is
+high, they must be on the tops of the cars ready to instantly apply
+the brakes, for the reason that there are generally only three or
+four men to a long train weighing from 500 to 1,000 tons, whose
+momentum cannot be arrested very quickly. In descending steep
+grades, only the most constant and skilful care prevents the train
+from rushing at breakneck speed to the foot of the incline, or to a
+curve, where it would be precipitated over an embankment and
+crushed into splinters. One of the mountain roads in Colorado
+which now uses air-brakes is said to be lined its whole length with
+the ruins of cars lying in the gorges, where they were wrecked in
+the former days of hand-brakes. Even on grades much less steep
+than those in Colorado the danger of this sort of disaster is one
+that has to be constantly guarded against. Take the case of a
+40-car train descending a 1½ per cent. grade (79<sup>2</sup>/<sub>10</sub> feet per mile).
+Before all of the cars have passed over the summit and commenced
+to descend, the forward part of the train will have increased its velocity
+very perceptibly and will thus by its weight exert a strong
+pull on the rear portion, "yanking" it very roughly sometimes, and
+if one of the couplings between the cars chances to be weak it
+breaks, separating the train into two parts. Mishaps of this kind
+are frequent, and two or more breakages often occur at the same
+time, dividing the train so that one of the parts&mdash;between the two
+end portions&mdash;is perhaps left with no brakeman upon it. The
+engineman then has the choice of slackening his speed and allowing
+the unmanageable cars to violently collide with his portion, or
+of increasing his own speed to such a rate that he is soon in danger
+of suddenly overtaking a train ahead of him. To avoid this breaking-in-two
+the brakemen must be wide awake on the instant and
+see that their brakes are tightened before the speed even begins
+to elude control. As soon as the whole train has got beyond the
+summit, and the speed is reduced to a proper rate by the application
+of the brakes on, say, one-third or one-half the cars, it will
+perhaps be found that one or two brakes too many have been put<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[389]</a></span>
+on and that the train is running
+too slowly. Some of them must
+then be loosened. Or perhaps some are set so tightly that the
+friction heats the wheels unduly or causes them to slide along the
+track instead of rolling; then those brakes must be released and
+some on other cars applied instead; and all this must be done
+(sometimes for an hour) when the temperature is 20 degrees below
+zero, or the wind is blowing a gale, just as under more favorable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[390]</a></span>
+circumstances. A train moving at 20 miles an hour against a wind
+with a velocity of 30 miles increases the latter to 50, so far as the
+brakeman is concerned; and if rain or sleet is falling, the force of
+it on his hands and face is very severe. If we add to this the danger
+attendant upon stepping from one car to another over a gap of
+27 to 30 inches, in a dark night, when the cars are constantly moving
+up and down on their springs and are swaying to one side or
+the other every few seconds, we get some idea of, though we cannot
+realize, the sensations that must at such times fill the minds of
+the men whose pleasant berth seems so enjoyable on a mild summer's
+day. And this is not an overdrawn picture or the worst that
+might be given; for rain and snow combined often coat the roofs
+of cars so completely and solidly that they are worse than the
+smoothest skating-pond, and moving upon them is attended with
+danger at every step. Jumping&mdash;it cannot be called walking&mdash;from
+one car to another is in such cases positively reckless. The brake-apparatus
+will in a snow-storm be coated with ice so rapidly that
+vigorous action is required to keep it in working condition. Even
+a wind alone, in dry weather, sometimes compels the men to <em>crawl</em>
+from one car to another, grasping such projections as they may.
+The brakeman who forgets to take his rubber coat and overalls
+sometimes suffers severely from sudden changes of temperature.
+In spring or fall a lively shower will be encountered in a sheltered
+valley, and the clothing be completely drenched, and then within
+perhaps half an hour the ascent of a few hundred feet brings the
+train into an atmosphere a few degrees below the freezing point, so
+that with the aid of the wind, fanned by the speed of the train, the
+clothes are very soon frozen stiff.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_391.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Flagging in Winter.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another feature which often involves discomfort, and occasionally
+positive suffering and danger, is "going back to flag." When
+a train is unexpectedly stopped upon the road, the brakeman at
+the rear end must immediately take his red flag or lantern and go
+back a half-mile or more to give the "stop" signal to the engine-men
+of any train that may be following. This rule is sometimes
+disregarded in clear weather on straight lines, and is even evaded
+by lazy or unfaithful brakemen where the neglect is positively dangerous,
+but still many a faithful man has to go out and stand for a
+long time in a severe snow-storm or risk his life in walking several<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[391]</a></span>
+miles to a station. The record of individual perils and heroisms
+in the New York blizzard of March, 1888, are paralleled, or at least
+repeated, on a slightly milder scale, by brakemen every winter.
+Even in the blizzard country of the Northwest, where a half hour's
+exposure is often fatal, the system of train-running is such that
+the stopping of a train at an unexpected place involves danger of
+collision if the brakeman does not at once go back and <em>stay back</em>.
+A "tail-end" brakeman has various anxieties, which cannot be detailed
+here. Often there is a possibility that the advancing engineer
+will not see his red lantern. One brakeman in New Brunswick
+several years ago ignominiously deserted his post, leaving<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[392]</a></span>
+his train to look out for itself, because of a visit from a huge bear
+whose residence was in the woods near the point on the railroad
+where the brakeman
+was keeping his lonely
+night-vigil.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_392.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Coupling.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The danger of sudden
+accidental death
+or maiming is constant
+and great, and the
+bare record of the numerous
+cases is acutely
+suggestive of inexpressible
+suffering;
+but, strange to say, it
+does not worry the
+average brakeman
+much. Though probably a thousand trainmen are killed in this
+country every year, and four or five thousand injured, by collisions
+and derailments, in coupling cars, falling off trains, striking low
+overhead bridges, and from other causes, <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;Original text: 'no one brakeman'">not one brakeman</ins>, from
+what he sees in his own experience, realizes the danger very vividly.
+As in other dangers which are constant but inevitable, familiarity
+breeds carelessness which is closely akin to contempt. Falling
+from trains is really a serious danger, because the most
+ceaseless caution&mdash;next to impossible for the average man to
+maintain&mdash;is necessary to avoid missteps. This will be practically
+abolished when the long-wished-for air-brake comes into use, as
+that will obviate the necessity of riding on the tops of the cars.</p>
+
+<p>Coupling accidents are practically unavoidable because, although
+the necessary manipulations <em>can</em> be made without going
+between the cars or placing the hands in dangerous situations, the
+men as a general thing prefer to take the risk of the more dangerous
+method. With the ordinary freight-car apparatus (which,
+however, is destined to be superseded by an automatic coupler)
+the link by which the cars are connected is retained by a pin in
+the drawbar of either car; as one car approaches another at considerable
+speed, this link, which hangs loosely down at an angle of
+thirty degrees, must be lifted and guided into the opening in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[393]</a></span>
+opposite drawbar. This operation must, according to the regulations
+of most roads, be performed by the aid of a short stick; but,
+disregarding the regulation, partly to save time and partly because
+of fear of the ridicule that would be called out by the exhibition
+of a lack of dexterity, the average brakeman uses his fingers.
+He must lift the link and hold it horizontally until the end enters
+the opening, and then withdraw his hand before the heavy drawbars
+come together. A delay of a fraction of a second would
+crush the hand or finger as under a trip-hammer. And, in point
+of fact, this delay does, for various reasons, frequently happen, and
+the number of trainmen with wounded hands to be found in every
+large freight-yard is sad evidence of the fact. But again, assuming
+that this part of the operation is accomplished in safety, there
+is another and worse danger in the possibility of being crushed
+bodily. Cars are built with projecting timbers on their ends at or
+near the centre, for the purpose of keeping the main body of each
+car twelve or fifteen inches from its neighbor; but cars of dissimilar
+pattern sometimes meet in such a way that the projections on
+one lap past those on the other, and the space which should afford
+room for the man to stand in safety is not maintained. If the
+brakeman, in the darkness of night or the hurry of his work, fails
+to note the peculiarities of the cars, he is mercilessly crushed, the
+ponderous vehicles often banging together with a force of many
+tons. A constant danger in coupling and uncoupling is the liability
+to catch the feet in angles in the track.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> Freight conductors
+are peculiarly liable to this, as the duty of uncoupling (pulling out
+the coupling-pin) generally devolves upon them, and must be
+done while the train is in motion. Walking rapidly along, in the
+dark, with the right hand holding a lantern and grasping the car,
+while the left is tugging at a pin which sticks, involves perplexities
+wherein a moment's hesitation may prove fatal.</p>
+
+<p>The dangers here recounted are those which only brakemen
+(or those acting as brakemen) have to meet. The liability of all
+trainmen to be killed by the cars tumbling down a bank, colliding
+with another train, and a hundred other conditions, is also considerable.
+The horror which the public feels on the occurrence of
+such a disaster as that at Chatsworth, Ill., in the summer of 1887,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[394]</a></span>
+or the half-dozen other terrible ones within the past few years,
+could reasonably be repeated every month if railroad employees
+instead of passengers were considered. There are no accurate
+official statistics kept of the train accidents in the country, but the
+accounts compiled monthly by the <cite>Railroad Gazette</cite> always show
+a large number of casualties to railroad men from causes <em>beyond
+their own control</em> (collisions, running off the track, etc.), no mention
+being made of the larger number resulting from the victims'
+own want of caution. In the month of March, 1887, in which
+occurred the terrible Bussey Bridge disaster, near Boston, 25 passengers
+were killed in the United States; but the same month
+recorded 34 employees killed. At Chatsworth 80 passengers were
+killed; but in that and the following month the number of employees
+killed in the country reached 97. In both of these comparisons
+the number of passengers is exceptional, while that of
+employees is ordinary. But, as already intimated, these dangers
+and discouragements are distributed over such a large territory
+and among such a large number of individuals that the general
+serenity of the brakeman's life is not much disturbed by them. In
+spite of them all, he enjoys his work and, if he is adapted to the
+calling, he sticks to it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_395.jpg" width="550" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The Pleasant Part of a Brakeman's Life.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The brakeman must be on hand promptly at the hour of his
+train's preparation for departure, and generally he must do his
+part in 15, 30, or 60 minutes' lively work in assembling cars from
+different tracks, changing them from the front to the rear or middle
+of the train, and setting aside those that are broken or disabled;
+but, once on the road, by far the greater portion of his time
+is his own, for his own enjoyment, almost as fully as that of the passenger
+who travels for the express purpose of entertaining himself.
+In mild weather and in daylight, life on the top of a freight train is
+almost wholly devoid of unpleasant features, and it takes on the
+nature of work only for the same reason that any routine becomes
+more or less irksome after a time. Much of the time there are a
+few bushels of cinders from the engine flying in the air, which a
+novice can get into his eyes with great facility, but the brakeman
+gets used to them. He sees every day (on many roads) the
+beauties of nature in great variety. Much of the scenery of the
+adjoining country is 500 per cent. more enjoyable from the brakeman's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[395]</a></span>
+perch on the roof than from the car windows, for the reason
+that the increased height gives such an enlarged horizon. This
+education from nature is an element in railroad men's lives not to
+be despised. The trainman whose daily trips take him past the
+panoramic charms of the Connecticut Valley in summer, through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[396]</a></span>
+the gorgeous-hued mountain-foliage along the Erie in autumn, or
+the perennial grandeur of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado, certainly
+enjoys a privilege for which many a city worker would gladly
+make large sacrifices. But to trainmen the refining influence of
+these surroundings is often an unconscious influence, and with the
+majority of them is perhaps generally so, because of the prosaic
+round of every-day thoughts filling their minds. There are also
+some other advantages, not wholly unæsthetic, which a millionaire
+might almost envy the freight trainman. Every twenty miles or
+so the engine must stop for water, and it often happens that this
+is in a cool place where the men can at the same time refresh
+themselves with spring water whose sparkling purity is unknown
+in New York or Chicago. Though brakemen who love beer are
+not by any means scarce, an accessible spring or well of pure water
+along the line always finds appreciative users during warm weather;
+and the Kentuckian who sojourned six months in Illinois without
+thinking to try the water there is not represented in the ranks of
+level-headed brakemen. A certain railroad president regales himself
+in summer on spring water brought in jugs from 100 miles
+up the road by trainmen who find in this service an opportunity to
+"make themselves solid" at headquarters. Freight trainmen get
+all the delicious products of the soil at first hands. In their stops
+at way-stations they get acquainted with the farmers, and can make
+their selection of the best things at low prices, thus (if they keep
+house) living on fruits, vegetables, etc., of a quality fit for a king.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<div class="sandbagbox" id="img397">
+ <div id="i397b1">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i397b2">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i397b3">&nbsp;</div>
+ <div id="i397b4">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<div class="caption right">At the Spring.</div>
+
+<p>The passenger-train brakeman differs from the freight trainman
+chiefly in the fact that he must deal with the public, and so
+must have a care for his personal appearance and behavior, and in
+the fact that he is <em>not a brakeman</em>, the universal air-brake relieving
+him of all work in this line. His chief duties are those of a
+porter, though the wide-awake American brakeman, with an eye
+to future promotion to a conductorship, maintains his dignity and
+is not by any means the servile call-boy that the English railway
+porter is. The wearing of uniforms has been introduced here from
+England and is, in the main, a good feature, though some roads,
+whose discipline is otherwise quite good, allow their men to appear
+in slovenly and even ragged clothes. Superintendents should give<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[397]</a></span>
+more care to this matter, as it is not an unimportant one. It
+affects the men's self-respect and influences their usefulness in other
+ways. The frugal brakeman cannot
+wear his blue suit on Sunday
+or a-visiting, and his Sunday
+suit when old cannot
+be used up by week-day
+wear, so he naturally
+concludes that his
+employer is guilty of a little
+undue severity toward him. Brakemen on the modern "limited"
+trains (a three hours' run without a stop constituting a day's
+work) have in some respects too easy a task, and their minds are
+more likely to rust out than to wear out. They have a constant
+care, to be sure, and sometimes must "go back to flag," the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[398]</a></span>
+as a freight trainman, but, in the main, their berth would about fill
+the ideal of the Irish shoveller who confided to his fellow-workman
+that "for a nice, clane, aisy job" he would like to be a bishop.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="HandHeld">
+    <div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_397.jpg" width="575" alt="" />
+    <div class="caption">At the Spring.</div>
+    </div>
+
+    <p>The passenger-train brakeman differs from the freight trainman
+    chiefly in the fact that he must deal with the public, and so
+    must have a care for his personal appearance and behavior, and in
+    the fact that he is <em>not a brakeman</em>, the universal air-brake relieving
+    him of all work in this line. His chief duties are those of a
+    porter, though the wide-awake American brakeman, with an eye
+    to future promotion to a conductorship, maintains his dignity and
+    is not by any means the servile call-boy that the English railway
+    porter is. The wearing of uniforms has been introduced here from
+    England and is, in the main, a good feature, though some roads,
+    whose discipline is otherwise quite good, allow their men to appear
+    in slovenly and even ragged clothes. Superintendents should give
+    more care to this matter, as it is not an unimportant one. It
+    affects the men's self-respect and influences their usefulness in other
+    ways. The frugal brakeman cannot
+    wear his blue suit on Sunday
+    or a-visiting, and his Sunday
+    suit when old cannot
+    be used up by week-day
+    wear, so he naturally
+    concludes that his
+    employer is guilty of a little
+    undue severity toward him. Brakemen on the modern "limited"
+    trains (a three hours' run without a stop constituting a day's
+    work) have in some respects too easy a task, and their minds are
+    more likely to rust out than to wear out. They have a constant
+    care, to be sure, and sometimes must "go back to flag," the same
+    as a freight trainman, but, in the main, their berth would about fill
+    the ideal of the Irish shoveller who confided to his fellow-workman
+    that "for a nice, clane, aisy job" he would like to be a bishop.</p>
+    </div>
+
+<p>Brakemen have had the reputation of doing a good deal of
+flirting, and many a country-girl has found a worthy husband
+among them; but there is not so much of this method of diversion
+as formerly; both passenger and freight men now have to attend
+more strictly to business, and they cannot conveniently indulge in
+side play. There are still, however, enough short branch-lines
+and slow-going roads in backwoods districts to insure that flirting
+shall not become a lost art in this part of the world.</p>
+
+<p>The freight conductor is simply a high grade of brakeman.
+His work is almost wholly supervisory and clerical, and so, after
+several years' service, he becomes more sober and business-like in
+his bearing, the responsibilities of his position being sufficient to
+effect this change; but he generally retains his sympathies with his
+old associates who have become subordinates. His duties are to
+keep the record of the train, the time, numbers of cars, etc.; to see
+that the brakemen regulate the speed when necessary, and to keep
+a general watch. The calculations necessary to make a 75-mile
+trip and get over the line without wasting time are often considerable,
+and an inexperienced conductor can easily keep himself in a
+worry for the whole trip. Often he cannot go more than ten miles
+after making way for a passenger train before another overtakes
+him; so that he must spend a good share of his time sitting in his
+caboose with the time-table in one hand and his watch in the other,
+calculating where and when to side-track the train. On single-track
+roads perplexities of this kind are generally more numerous
+than on double lines, because trains both in front and behind must
+be guarded against, and because the regulations are frequently
+modified by telegraphic instructions from headquarters. A mistake
+in reading these instructions, which are written in pencil, often by
+a slovenly penman, and on tissue-paper, may, and occasionally does,
+cause a disastrous collision. These duties of conductors are especially
+characteristic of trains that must keep out of the way of passenger
+trains, so that in this particular line it will be seen that
+the passenger conductor has much the easier berth. The freight
+and "work-train" conductor must really be a better calculator, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[399]</a></span>
+many ways, than the wearer of gilt badges and buttons, though the
+latter receives the higher pay.</p>
+
+<p>The <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">bête noire</i> of the freight conductor is an investigation at
+headquarters concerning delinquencies in which the blame is divided.
+A typical case of this kind is that of a freight train which
+has stopped at some unusual place and been run into by a following
+train, doing some hundreds of dollars damage, if not killing or injuring
+persons. "Strict adherence to rules will avert all such
+accidents," the code says; but they do happen, and the inquiry as
+to whether the conductor used due diligence in sending a man with
+a red flag to warn the oncoming train, or the engineer of the
+latter was heedless, or what was the trouble, is the occasion of
+much anxiety.</p>
+
+<p>Conductors, concerning whose life I have only noted a few of
+the duties and perplexities, are not so much subject to the vicissitudes
+of cold and wet weather, and therefore have in many respects
+better opportunities than the brakemen to avail themselves
+of the enjoyments of a trainman's life. The risk to life and limb
+from coupling cars, etc., is also somewhat less, though many a
+faithful conductor has lost his life in the performance of a dangerous
+duty which he had assumed out of generous consideration for
+an inexperienced or overworked subordinate. The beneficial influences
+on health, mind, and morals coming from contact with nature
+are, as before remarked, largely unconscious influences, because
+of the counteracting effect of the immediate surroundings.
+The irregular hours are unfavorable to health. The crews run in
+turn; if there are forty crews and forty trains daily, each crew will
+start out at about the same hour each day. But if on Monday
+there are forty trains, on Tuesday thirty, and on Wednesday fifty,
+it will be seen that the starting time must be very irregular. Ten
+of the crews which worked on Monday will have nothing to do on
+Tuesday, but on Wednesday or Thursday will have to do double
+service. The first trip will be all in the daytime, and the next all
+in the night, perhaps. This irregularity is constant, and it is impossible
+to tell on Monday morning where one will be on Wednesday.
+All the week's sleep may have to be taken in the daytime
+or all at night. There may be five days' work to do between
+Monday morning and the following Monday morning, or there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[400]</a></span>
+may be nine. The trainman has to literally board in his "mammoth"
+dinner-pail, and his wife or boarding mistress knows less
+about his whereabouts than if he were on an Arctic whaling vessel.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>The locomotive engineer is the popular "hero of the rail," and
+the popular estimate in this respect is substantially just. Others
+have to brave dangers and perform duties under trying circumstances;
+but the engine-runner has to ride in the most dangerous
+part of the train, take charge of a steam-boiler that may explode
+and blow him to atoms, and of machinery that may break and kill
+him, and try to keep up a vigilance which only a being more than
+human could successfully maintain. He must be a tolerably skilful
+machinist&mdash;he cannot be too good&mdash;and have nerves that will
+remain steady under the most trying circumstances. If running a
+fast express through midnight darkness over a line where a similar
+train has been tipped off a precipice (and a brother runner
+killed) by train-wreckers the night before, he must dash forward
+with the same confidence that he would feel in broad daylight on
+an open prairie. But he does not "heroically grasp the throttle"
+in the face of danger, when the throttle has been already shut,
+nor does he "whistle down brakes," in order to add a stirring element
+to the reporter's tale, when by the magic of the air-brake he
+can, with a turn of his hand, apply every brake in the train with
+the grip of a vise in less time than it would take him to reach the
+whistle-pull. When there is danger ahead there is generally just
+one thing to do, and that is to stop as soon as possible. An instant
+suffices for shutting off the steam and applying the brake.
+With modern trains this is all that is necessary or can be done.
+Reversing the engine is necessary on many engines, and formerly
+was on all; this would, in fact, be done instinctively by old runners,
+in any case, but this also is done in a second. After taking
+these measures there is nothing for the engineman to do but look
+out for his own safety. In some circumstances, as in the case of
+a partially burned bridge which may possibly support the train
+even in a weakened condition, it may be best to put on all steam.
+The runner is then in a dilemma, and a right decision is a matter
+of momentary inspiration. Many lives have been saved by
+quick-witted runners in such cases, but there is no ground for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[401]</a></span>
+censure of the engineer who, in the excitement of the moment, decides
+to slacken instead of quicken his speed. The rare cases of
+this kind are what show the value of experience, and of men of
+the right temperament and degree of intelligence to acquire experience-lessons
+readily. The writer recalls an instance several
+years ago where an alert, steady, and experienced runner found
+himself on the crossing of another railroad with a heavy train rushing
+toward him on the transverse track at uncontrollable speed.
+It was too late to retreat, and in less than ten seconds the oncoming
+train would crash broadside into his cars, filled with passengers.
+A frantic effort to increase the speed and clear the crossing
+would have either broken the weak couplings then in use or
+would have simply whirled the driving-wheels with such excessive
+force as to slacken the speed of the train rather than accelerate it.
+In point of fact, the rear car just escaped being struck by the ponderous
+engine bearing down upon it at the rate of twenty or thirty
+feet a second; and the preservation of the lives of the passengers
+was due to the fact that the engineer was well-balanced, quick to
+act, and not excitable. What did he do? He instantly put on
+more steam, but with unerring judgment opened the valve just far
+enough and no more.</p>
+
+<p>But the terrible cloud constantly hanging over the engineer and
+fireman of a fast train is the chance of encountering an obstacle
+which cannot possibly be avoided, and which leaves them no alternative
+but to jump for their lives, if, indeed, it does not take away even
+that. To the fact that this cloud is no larger than it is, and that
+these men have sturdy and courageous natures, must be attributed
+the lightness with which it rests upon them. On one road or another,
+from a washout, or inefficient management, or a collision
+caused by an operator's forgetfulness, or some one of a score of
+other causes, there are constantly occurring cases of men heroically
+meeting death under the most heart-rending circumstances.
+Every month records a number of such, though happily they are
+not frequent on any one road. The case of Engineer Kennar, a
+year or more ago, is a typical one. Precipitated with his engine
+into a river by a washout which the roadmaster's vigilance had
+failed to discover, his first thought, as zealous hands tried to rescue
+him, was for the safety of his train; and, forgetting his own<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[402]</a></span>
+anguish, he warned those about him to attend first to the sending
+of a red lantern to warn a following train against a collision. The
+significance of facts like this is not so much in the service to humanity
+done at the time, or even in the example set for those who
+shall meet such crises in the future, but rather in the evidence they
+give of the firm and lofty conscientiousness that inspires the every-day
+conduct of thousands of engineers all over the land. As has
+already been said, the critical occasions on which engineers are
+supposed to be heroic often allow them no chance at all to be
+either heroic or cowardly, and their heroism must be, and is, manifested
+in the calm fidelity with which they, day after day and year
+after year, perform their exacting and often monotonous round of
+duties while all the time knowing of the possibilities before them.</p>
+
+<p>On the best of roads a freight train wrecked by a broken wheel
+under a borrowed car may be thrown in the path of a passenger
+train on another track, just as the latter approaches. This has
+happened more than once lately. No amount of fidelity or forethought
+(except in the maker of the wheels) can prevent this kind
+of disaster. There is constant danger, on most roads, of running
+off the track at misplaced switches, many switches being located
+at points where the runner can see them only a few seconds before
+he is upon them; but the chance is so small&mdash;perhaps one in ten
+or a hundred thousand&mdash;that the average runner forgets it, and it
+is only by severe self-discipline that he can hold himself up to compliance
+with the rule which requires him to be on the watch for
+every switch-target as long before reaching it as he possibly can.
+He finds the switches all right and the road perfectly clear so regularly,
+day after day and month after month, that he may easily
+fall into the snare of thinking that they will always be so. But,
+like other trainmen, the engineman finds enough more agreeable
+thoughts to fill his mind, and reflects upon the hazards of his vocation
+perhaps too little.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_403.jpg" width="375" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Just Time to Jump.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The freight engineman's every-day thoughts are largely about
+the care of his engine and the perplexities incident to getting out
+of it the maximum amount of work with the minimum amount of
+fuel. The constant aim of his superiors is to have the engine draw
+every pound it possibly can. To haul a train up a long and steep
+grade when the cars are so heavily loaded that a single additional<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[403]</a></span>
+one would bring the whole to a dead stand-still requires a knack
+that can be appreciated only by viewing the performance on the
+spot. Failure not only wastes
+time and fuel (it may necessitate
+a return to the foot
+of the hill or going to
+the top with only
+half the load), but
+it raises a suspicion
+that some other
+runner might
+have succeeded
+better. The runner
+whose engine
+"lays down on the
+road" (fails to draw
+its load because of
+insufficient fire and
+consequent low
+steam-pressure) is
+liable to the jeers of his comrades on his return home, if not to
+some sharp inquiries from his superior.</p>
+
+<p>The passenger runner's greatest concern is to "make time."
+Some trains are scheduled so that the engineman must keep his locomotive
+up to its very highest efficiency over every furlong of its
+journey in order to arrive at his destination on time. A little carelessness
+in firing, in letting cold water into the boiler irregularly, or
+in slackening more than is necessary where the right to the track is
+in doubt for a few rods; these and a score of similar circumstances
+may make five minutes' delay in the arrival at the terminus and
+necessitate an embarrassing interview with the trainmaster. A
+trip on a crowded line may involve watching for danger-signals
+every quarter of a mile and the maintenance of such high speed
+that they must be obeyed the instant they are espied in order to
+avoid the possibility of collision.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[404]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The passenger runner finds himself now and then with a disabled
+engine on his hands, and two or three hundred passengers
+standing around apparently ready to eat him up if he does not
+remedy the difficulty in short order. Often in such cases he is in
+doubt himself whether the repairs necessary to enable his engine
+to proceed will occupy fifteen minutes or an hour. This, with
+the knotty question of where the nearest relief engine is, causes
+the brow to knit and the sweat to start, and to the young runner
+proves an experience which he long remembers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[405]</a></span><br />
+   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[406]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_405.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A Breakdown on the Road.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Stories of fast running are common but unreliable; and when
+truthful, important considerations are often omitted. There are
+so many elements to be considered, that usually the verdict can be
+justly rendered only after a careful comparison with previous records.
+Most regular runs include a number of stops, and are subject
+to numerous slackenings of the speed, thus dimming the lustre
+of the record of the trip as a whole. Frequently, quick runs which
+have been reported as noteworthy have had favoring circumstances
+not told of. The most remarkable single run on record was that
+of Jarrett &amp; Palmer's special train chartered to carry their theatrical
+company from New York to San Francisco (Jersey City to
+Oakland), June 1&ndash;4, 1876, which is well known to all Americans.
+Perhaps the fastest long run ever made in this country was that of
+a special train over the West Shore Railroad from East Buffalo to
+Frankfort, N. Y., two hundred and one miles, on July 9, 1885,
+which ran this distance in four hours, including several stops.
+This train ran thirty-six miles in thirty minutes, and ran many single
+miles in forty-three seconds each. An engine with two cars ran
+over the Canada Southern Division of the Michigan Central from
+St. Clair Junction to Windsor, Ont., on November 16, 1886, a distance
+of one hundred and seven miles, in ninety-seven minutes;
+and this included two or three stops. The average rate of speed
+was about sixty-nine miles an hour, and in places it rose to seventy-five
+and over. The engineers and their firemen, and all connected
+with the handling of the trains, certainly deserve credit for performances
+like these, and they receive it; but the supplying of the
+perfect machine, the smooth and safe roadway comparatively clear
+of other trains, and other conditions, is so manifestly beyond their
+control, while at the same time constituting such an important factor
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[407]</a></span>
+in the result, that praise should be given discriminatingly. An
+engineer who makes a specially quick trip feels proud of his engine,
+and of the honor of having been chosen for an important run,
+and he shares with the passengers the exhilaration produced by
+such a triumph of science and skill in annihilating space; but in
+the matter of credit to himself for experience and judgment, patience
+and forethought, he feels and knows that many a trip in his
+every-day service is worthy of greater recognition. Many a runner
+has to urge his engine, day after day, with a load twenty-five per
+cent. heavier than it was designed for, over track that is fit only
+for low speeds, at a rate which demands the most constant care.
+He must run fast enough over the better portions of the track to
+allow of slackening where prudence demands slackening. The
+tracks of many roads are rendered so uneven by the action of
+frost in winter that with an unskilful runner the passengers would
+be half-frightened by the unsteady
+motion of the cars.
+This condition is not common
+on the important trunk-lines,
+of course; but it does prevail
+on roads that carry a great
+many passengers, nevertheless;
+and engineers who
+guide trains over such difficult
+journeys, gently luring
+the passengers, with the aid
+of the excellent springs under
+the cars, into the belief
+that they are riding over a
+track of uniform smoothness,
+should not be forgotten in
+any estimate of the fraternity
+as a whole.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_407.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Timely Warning.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The engineer whose humanity
+is not hardened has
+his feelings harrowed occasionally by pedestrians who risk their
+lives on the track. Tramps and other careless persons are so numerous
+that the casual passenger in a locomotive cab generally cannot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[408]</a></span>
+ride fifty miles without seeing what seems to him a hair-breadth
+escape, but which is nevertheless treated by the engineer as a commonplace
+occurrence. These heedless wayfarers do, however, occasionally
+carry their indifference to danger too far, and they are
+tossed in the air like feathers.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> Doubtless there are those who,
+like the fireman who talked with the tender-hearted young lady,
+regret the killing of a man chiefly "because it musses up the engine
+so;" but, taking the fraternity as a whole, warmth of heart
+and tenderness of feeling may be called not only well-developed
+but prominent traits of character. The great strike on the Chicago,
+Burlington &amp; Quincy road in 1888, which proved to have been
+ill-advised, would have been possible only in a body of men actuated
+by the most loyal friendship. Undoubtedly a large conservative
+element in the Brotherhood of Engineers believed the move
+injudicious, but they joined in it out of an intense spirit of fidelity
+to their brethren and leaders.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_409.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The Passenger Conductor.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The passenger-train conductor has in many respects the most
+difficult position in the railroad ranks. He should be a first-class
+freight conductor and a polished gentleman to boot. But in his
+long apprenticeship on a freight train he has very likely been
+learning how <em>not</em> to fulfil the additional requirements of a passenger
+conductorship. In that service he could be uncouth and
+even boorish, and still fill his position tolerably well; now he feels
+the need of a life-time of tuition in dealing with the diverse phases
+of human nature met with on a passenger train. He must now
+manage his train in a sort of automatic way, for he has his mind
+filled with the care of his passengers and the collection of tickets.
+He must be good at figures, keeping accounts, and handling
+money, though the freight-train service has given him no experience
+in this line. Year by year the clerical work connected with
+the taking up of tickets and collecting of cash fares has been increased
+until now, on many roads, an expert bank clerk would be
+none too proficient for the duties imposed. The conductor who
+grumblingly averred that "it would take a Philadelphia lawyer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[409]</a></span>
+with three heads" to fill his shoes was not far out of the way.
+Every day, and perhaps a number of times a day, he must collect
+fares of fifty or a hundred persons in less time than he ought to
+have for ten. Of that large number a few will generally have a
+complaint to make, or an objection to offer, or an impudent assertion
+concerning a fault of the railroad company which the conductor
+cannot remedy and is not responsible for. A woman will
+object to paying half-fare for a ten-year-old girl or to paying full
+rates for one of fifteen. A person whose income is ten times
+larger than he deserves will argue twenty minutes to avoid paying
+ten cents more (in cash) than he would have been charged for a
+ticket. Passengers with legitimate questions to ask will couch
+them in vague and backhanded terms, and those with useless ones
+will take inopportune times to propound them. These are not occasional
+but every-day experiences. The very best and most intelligent
+people in the community (excepting those who travel much)
+are among those who oftenest leave their wits at home when they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[410]</a></span>
+take a railroad trip. All these people must be met in a conciliatory
+manner, but without varying the strict regulations in the least
+degree. The officers of the revenue department are inexorable
+masters, and passengers offended by alleged uncivil treatment are
+likely to make absurd complaints at the superintendent's office. A
+conductor dreads an investigation of this sort, however unreasonable
+the passengers' complaints may be, because it may tend to
+show that he lacked tact in handling the case. But after becoming
+habituated to this sort of dealings, there are still left the occasional
+disturbances which no amount of philosophy can make
+pleasant. These are the encounters with drunken and disorderly
+passengers. The conductor, starting at the forward end of his
+train, finds, perhaps, in the first car one or two "toughs" who refuse
+payment of fare and are spoiling for a fight. Care must be
+taken with this sort of character not to punish him or use the least
+bit of unnecessary severity, for he will, when sobered off, quite
+likely be induced by a sharp lawyer to sue the railroad company
+for damages by assault. The conductor, however, if he be one
+who has (in his freight-train experience) dealt with tramps, is able
+to cope with his customer and confine him to the baggage-car or
+put him off the train. But a tussle of this kind is at best far from
+soothing to the temper, and the very next car may contain the
+wife of a nabob, who will expect the most genteel treatment
+and critically object to any behavior on the part of the conductor
+which is not fully up to the highest drawing-room standard. Experiences
+of this kind, it can be readily imagined, are exceedingly
+trying. The conductor cannot give himself up completely to learning
+gentility, for he still has need for his old severity.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulty of always finding the ideal person when wanted
+has led to the employment of men of good address who have had
+little or no training on freight trains; so that we find some conductors
+who are able to deal with all sorts of passengers with a
+good degree of success, but who are far from brilliant as managers
+of trains, technically speaking; while others, who from their early
+experience have first-class executive ability, are slow in discarding
+the somewhat rough habits of the freight train. While there are
+not wanting those who strive faithfully to reach the ideal, and succeed
+admirably, it may be said that the average conductor retains<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[411]</a></span>
+more of the severe than of the gentle side of his character, at least
+so far as outward behavior goes. The rigid requirements of his
+financial superiors, which compel him to actually fight for his
+rights with dishonest and stingy passengers, make it almost impossible
+that he should be otherwise. Ignorant foreigners, poor
+women and girls who have lost their way, and other unfortunates
+are, however, encountered often enough to preclude the conductor's
+forgetting how to be compassionate.</p>
+
+<p>The heroic element is not wholly lacking in the conductor's
+life. The temporary guardianship of several hundred people is an
+important trust even in smooth sailing, but the conductor's possibilities
+are entirely different from the engineer's. He has so much
+to do to attend to the petty wants of passengers that their remoter
+but more important interests are not given much thought.
+The anxieties of a hundred nervous passengers who terribly
+dread the loss of an hour by a missed connection are much more
+likely to weigh down a conductor's mind than any thoughts of his
+duty to them in a possible emergency that will happen only once
+in five years. And yet the last-mentioned contingency is a real
+one. Only last year, in the great Eastern blizzard, conductors
+risked their lives in protecting their passengers. One spent
+three or four hours in travelling a mile and a half to a telegraph-office;
+in consequence of the six feet of snow, the blinding storm,
+and the darkness, he had to constantly hug a barbed-wire fence to
+avoid losing his way, and was on the point of exhaustion when
+he reached the station.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>The term "station-agent" means, practically, the person in
+charge of a small or medium-sized station. When one of these
+men is promoted to the charge of a large city station, either
+freight or passenger, he becomes really a local superintendent,
+his duties then consisting very largely in the supervision of an
+army of clerks and laborers who must, each in his place, be as
+capable as the agent himself. The agent at a small station has
+a great multiplicity of duties to perform. He must sell tickets,
+be a good book-keeper, and a faithful switch-tender. He generally
+must be a telegraph-operator and must be vigorous physically.
+He must be ready, like the conductor, to submit to some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[412]</a></span>
+abuse from ill-bred customers, and should be the peer of the business
+men of his town. He often encounters almost as great a
+variety of knotty problems as the superintendent himself, though
+he has the advantage that he can generally turn them over to a
+superior if he feels unequal to them. The practical difficulties
+that most beset him are those incident to doing everything in a
+hurry. People who buy tickets wait until the train is about to
+start before presenting themselves at the office. Then the agent
+has a dozen other things to attend to, and must therefore detect
+counterfeit ten-dollar bills with the expertness of a Washington
+treasury-clerk. Just as a train reaches his station the train despatcher's
+click is heard on the wires, and he must drop everything
+and receive (for the conductor) a telegram in which an error
+of a single word would very likely involve the lives of passengers.
+At a very small station the checking of baggage devolves on the
+agent, his overburdened back being thus loaded with one more
+straw. He is in many cases agent for the express company, and
+so must count, seal, superscribe, and way-bill money packages
+and handle oyster-kegs and barrels of beer at a moment's notice.
+Women with wagon-loads of loose household effects to go by
+freight, and shippers of car-loads of cattle, for which a car must be
+specially fitted up, will appear just as the distracted station-man is
+receiving a telegram with one side of his brain and selling a ticket
+with the other. The household goods must be weighed and
+tagged, the sewing-machine tied up, and tables repaired; the
+cattle-shipper must be given a short lecture on the legal bearings
+of the bargain for transportation which he is about to make, and his
+demand that his live-stock shall be carried 500 miles more quickly
+than human animals are taken over the same road is to be gently
+repressed. It is not every day that a small station is enlivened
+by this sort of excitement, yet it is common, and is familiar to
+every station agent. The variety in the duties of this position is,
+however, a great advantage to the ambitious young man, because
+it serves to give him a good lift toward a valuable business education.
+He can learn about the methods and knacks and tricks of
+many different kinds of business, and can profit by the knowledge
+thus gained. Thomas J. Potter, the lately deceased vice-president
+of the Union Pacific Railway, whose memory it is proposed to perpetuate
+by a bronze statue, began his railroad career as agent at a
+small station in Iowa. Others of equal ability and perfection of
+character have risen from similar places and by the same means.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[413]</a></span><br />
+   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[414]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_413.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">In the Waiting Room of a Country Station.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[415]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The agent at a small station catches his breath between trains.
+There is then generally ample time for calming the nerves and preparing
+for the next onslaught. If he is a telegraph-operator he
+can chat with the operators at other stations&mdash;a common resource
+if the wires are not occupied with more important affairs. In the
+class periodicals of operators and railroad men, reference to this
+phase of their life may be constantly seen, and incidents of even
+romantic interest are not infrequent. Many of the men at small
+stations are young and unmarried, while at places where the business
+has increased enough to warrant the employment of an assistant,
+a young woman to do the telegraphing is frequently the first
+helper engaged. With this combination it is unnecessary to tell
+what follows. If iron bars and stone walls are things which Cupid
+holds in contempt, an electric telegraph wire is the thing
+which makes him "snicker right out," if we may use the language
+of the circus ring. A distance of 100 miles, instead of
+being a barrier, is, under these circumstances, an advantage.
+There is, to be sure, a slight disadvantage in the fact that any
+tender communication confided to the wires will be liable to fall on
+the ears of unfeeling persons at intermediate offices, but the overcoming
+of this obstacle provides the agreeable incidental excitement
+which is always necessary in genuine love-making. Young
+persons (or old, either) can study each other's characters, in important
+phases at least, at a distance better than at short range.
+The telegraphic mode of sending communications discloses one's
+disposition far better than does handwriting. Working on the
+same wire with another for a few months enables one to form judgments
+of that other's generosity or narrowness, serenity or excitability,
+industry or laziness, refinement or boorishness, kindliness of
+heart or otherwise, which are quite sure to be correct judgments.
+Judgments ripen into attachments, and romances of the wire are
+common.</p>
+
+<p>At the railroad station next larger in size, the work is more
+divided. One man sells tickets, another attends to the freight
+office, another to the baggage, and so on. The ticket-seller must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[416]</a></span>
+make five-cent bargains with the same urbanity that is given to a
+$100 trade, and must be able to toss off the latter in two minutes
+if occasion requires, or to spend an hour in helping the passenger
+choose the best route among a score of possible ones. The <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;Original text: 'fusilade'">fusillade</ins>
+of questions that must be met by the ticket-seller every time he
+opens his window is familiar to everyone who has ever watched a
+place of the kind for ten minutes. The inexperienced traveller
+wants to be fully posted as to the exact hour of departure of a tri-weekly
+stage with which he is to connect at a railroad station a thousand
+miles away, and the more intelligent ones demand an oral
+time-table covering the trains for the ensuing week on all railroads
+within a radius of 50 miles. Those who cannot read or understand
+the time-tables are too modest to ask aid, and their misfortune is
+disclosed only after their train has gone and they are found in
+tears; while those who can read the table ignore it and ask questions
+simply to be sociable.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[417]</a></span><br />
+   <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[418]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_417.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The Trials of a Baggage-master.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_416.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Station Gardening.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The station baggage-master has an important but rather thankless
+place. He must handle 200-pound trunks with as much ease
+as though they contained feathers, and, if he break a moulding off
+one, must meet the reproaches
+of the owner, who imagines that
+the time available for handling
+the trunk was five minutes instead
+of two seconds. He must
+handle much dirty and otherwise
+unpleasant stuff, and on the
+whole pursue a very unpoetic
+life. He has little to do with
+train-handling, but he "keeps in
+with" the trainmen and furnishes
+them with a share of their entertainment.
+They lounge in
+his room sometimes and he
+keeps on tap a supply of jokes
+such as that about the new brakeman
+who sent to headquarters for a supply of red oil for his red
+lantern, and the engineer who lost time with an excursion train on
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[419]</a></span>
+the Fourth of July because the extremely hot weather had elongated
+the rails and thus materially increased the distance to be travelled
+over. When "hot boxes" (friction-heated axles) are given as the
+cause of a delay the real cause of which is concealed (by the conductor
+who is ashamed of it), the baggage-master gently punctures the
+deception by suggesting that perhaps a hot <em>fire</em>-box (in the engine)
+is what is meant. Whether the roguish clerk of an inexperienced
+general manager, who slyly induced his chief to issue an order to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[420]</a></span>
+station agents directing that "all freight cars standing for any
+length of time on side tracks must be occasionally moved a short
+distance in order to prevent flattening of the wheels," had formerly
+been a baggage-master, history does not state.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_419.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">In the Yard at Night.</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>The switch-tender, whose momentary carelessness has many a
+time caused terrible disaster, but whose constant faithfulness outweighs
+a million-fold even that painful record, is one of the essential
+figures around a station. Nothing but eternal vigilance will
+suffice to keep switches always in safe position, and the conscientious
+custodian of these always possible death-traps often takes his
+burden of care to his pillow. The mishaps which do occur strikingly
+illustrate the practical impossibility of holding the human
+brain always to the highest pitch. A conductor in New Jersey
+(trainmen have to set switches at many places where no switchmen
+are employed) recently caused a slight collision by misplacing a
+switch, and on seeing the consequences exclaimed, "I deserve to
+be discharged; my mistake was inexcusable." And yet an honest
+man of that type is the kind demanded for such a place. The
+interlocking of switches and signals (the arrangement in a frame
+of the levers moving the switches and those moving signals in
+such a way that the signal which tells the engineer to come on
+<em>cannot be given</em> until the switch is actually in proper position) is one
+of the notable improvements of the last twenty years, and is a great
+boon to switchmen, as well as to passengers and the owners of railroads.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>
+By the aid of this apparatus and its distant signals, connected
+by wire ropes, the switchman's anxieties are reduced immeasurably.
+By concentrating the levers of a number of switches
+in a single room one man can do the work of several, and to the
+looker-on the perplexities of the position seem to have been increased
+instead of diminished. But the switchman's task now is of
+a different sort. Under the old plan he was constantly on guard
+lest he make a mistake and throw an engine or car off the track.
+Under the new, his calculations are chiefly about saving time and
+facilitating the work of the trainmen. Questions of danger rarely
+come up, being provided against by the perfection of the machinery.
+By long familiarity with the ground and the ways of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[421]</a></span>
+handling the trains, the switch-tender in an "interlocking tower"
+is enabled to safely conduct a score of trains through a labyrinth
+of switches in the time that the novice would take to make the first
+move for a single train. Without this admirable apparatus, and
+skilful and experienced attendants, the business of great stations
+like the Grand Central at New York would be impossible in the
+space allowed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_421.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A Track-walker on a Stormy Night.</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>One of the habitués of every station is the section-master, who
+looks after three, five, or ten miles of track and a gang of from five<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[422]</a></span>
+to twenty-five men who keep it in repair. He is not much seen,
+because he is out on the road most of the time; and his duties are
+not of a kind that the reader could study, on paper, to much advantage;
+but he deserves mention because his place is a really important
+one. Railroad tracks cannot be made, like a bridge, five
+times as strong as is necessary, and thus a large margin be allowed
+for deterioration; they must be constantly watched to see
+that they do not fall even a little below their highest standard.
+This care-taking can be intrusted only to one who has had long
+experience at the work. In violent rain-storms the trackman must
+be on duty night and day and patrol the whole length of his division
+to see that gravel is not washed over the track or out from
+under it. Though roughly dressed and sunburnt, he is an important
+personage in the eye of the engineer of a fast express train,
+and if he be the least bit negligent, even to the extent of letting a
+few rails get a quarter of an inch lower than they ought to, he
+hears a prompt appeal from the engine-runner. The latter could
+not feel the confidence necessary to guide his 50-ton giant over the
+road at lightning speed with its precious human freight if he had
+not a trusty trackman every few miles; and passengers who feel
+like expressing gratitude for a safe railroad journey should never
+forget this unseen guardian.</p>
+
+<p>A number of classes of men in the railroad service must be
+turned off with a word for lack of space. The train despatcher,
+with his constant burden of care, deserves a chapter. The locomotive
+fireman, who has not been directly alluded to, is practically
+an apprentice to the engineer, and, like apprentices in some other
+callings, has a good deal of hard work to do. He generally has
+longer hours than the engineer, as he has to clean a portion of the
+polished brass- and iron-work of the engine. He has to throw into
+the fire-box several tons of coal a day, and gets so black that his
+best friends would not know him when washed up. Those who
+begin young and are intelligent, and conserve their strength, are
+at length promoted to be engineers. The fireman's twin brother
+is the "hostler," who is employed at the larger termini to get the
+iron horse out of its stable, lead it to the watering place and feed-trough
+(coal-bin), and harness it to the train.</p>
+
+<p>The clerk in the freight office has almost as much variety of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[423]</a></span>
+work as the ticket-seller, and is by no means a mere book-keeper.
+The workmen at the freight station are not common
+laborers. Their work requires peculiar skill and experience, and
+they have diversions worth telling
+of, if there were space. The
+men in the shops, and those who
+go out with derricks and chains
+to pick up wrecks, are an important
+class by themselves, and
+bridge-builders, gate-tenders,
+and various others bring up the
+rear.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_423.jpg" width="275" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A Crossing Flagman.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In conclusion, railroad men
+as a body are industrious, sober
+when at work, and lively when
+at play, using well-trained minds,
+in their sphere, and possessing
+capacity for a high degree of
+further training. The public is
+not without its duty toward the
+million or so of men in the railroad service. The liability to death
+or maiming from accident is such a real factor in railroad men's
+lives that the public, and especially shareholders in railroads, are
+bound to not only uphold officers in providing every possible appliance
+and regulation for safety, but to demand the introduction
+of such devices. Some of the State railroad commissioners have
+done and are doing noble service in this direction, and should be
+vigorously supported by their constituencies. The demands of
+the public, re-enforced by the exigencies of competition, have made
+Sunday trains in many localities almost as common as on week-days,
+so that many train and station men work seven days in the
+week. In addition to this, holidays oftener increase their work
+than diminish it, so that there is room for a considerable reform
+in this regard.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_424.jpg" width="275" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A Little Relaxation.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The general moral welfare of railroad men has received much
+attention in late years, and affords a wide field for work by all who
+will. Many railroads have co-operated with the Young Men's
+Christian Association branches, started by a few of the employees,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[424]</a></span>
+in building and equipping reading-rooms, libraries, etc., and the
+companies give many hundred dollars annually toward the support
+of these resorts, which serve to keep many a young trainman away
+from loafing places of a questionable
+character or worse. Mr.
+Cornelius Vanderbilt, whose millions
+came largely out of the profits
+of the New York Central &amp;
+Hudson River Railroad, has set
+a good example to other railroad
+millionaires in the erection of a
+building for the employees of that
+road in New York City, whose
+luxuriousness is an evidence that
+he loves his neighbor as himself,
+even if that neighbor be a plain
+brakeman earning but low wages.
+That the resorts provided for railroad men are appreciated is evidenced
+by their records. Of the trainmen who regularly come
+into the Grand Central Station in New York, 46 per cent. are
+members of the Association occupying the building given by Mr.
+Vanderbilt, and 65 per cent. make use of the rooms more or less
+regularly. Rooms in numerous other cities also make encouraging
+showings.</p>
+
+<p>Railroad officers, with their great advantages for enlightenment,
+owe it to themselves and their men to see that the thousands
+under them have fair opportunities for rising in the world,
+and that the owners of the immense corporations which stand as
+masters of such vast armies fully understand their measure of responsibility
+in the premises. Science and invention, machinery
+and improved methods, have effected great changes in the railroad
+art, but the American nation, which travels more than any other,
+still recognizes the fact that faithful and efficient <em>men</em> are an essential
+factor in the prosecution of that art. People desire to deal
+with a personality, and therefore wish to see the <em>personnel</em> of the
+railroad service fostered and perfected.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> See "Safety in Railroad Travel," <a href="#Page_222">page 222.</a></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> The New York elevated roads run 3,500 trains a day, each one passing signals (likely to indicate
+danger) every hundred rods, almost. Who can expect engineers never to blunder in such innumerable
+operations?</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Mr. Porter King, of Springfield, Mass., who has run an engine on the Boston &amp; Albany road for
+forty-five years, and who served on the Mohawk &amp; Hudson, the Long Island, and the New Jersey Railroads
+in 1833&ndash;44, when horses were the motive power and the reverse lever consisted of a pair of reins,
+ran until December, 1887, before his engine ever killed a person.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> See "Safety in Railroad Travel," <a href="#Page_204">page 204.</a></p></div></div>
+
+
+    <div class="chapter"></div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[425]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">STATISTICAL RAILWAY STUDIES.</a><a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor"><span class="fs70">[37]</span></a></h2>
+
+<p class="pfs90 smcap">By FLETCHER W. HEWES.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>Railway Mileage of the World&mdash;Railway Mileage of the United States&mdash;Annual Mileage
+and Increase&mdash;Mileage Compared with Area&mdash;Geographical Location of Railways&mdash;Centres
+of Mileage and of Population&mdash;Railway Systems&mdash;Trunk Lines
+Compared: By Mileage; Largest Receipts; Largest Net Results&mdash;Freight Traffic&mdash;Reduction
+of Freight Rates&mdash;Wheat Rates&mdash;The Freight Haul&mdash;Empty Freight
+Trains&mdash;Freight Profits&mdash;Passenger Traffic&mdash;Passenger Rates&mdash;Passenger Travel&mdash;Passenger
+Profits&mdash;General Considerations&mdash;Dividends&mdash;Net Earnings per Mile
+and Railway Building&mdash;Ratios of Increase&mdash;Construction and Maintenance&mdash;Employees
+and their Wages&mdash;Rolling Stock&mdash;Capital Invested.</p></div>
+
+<div><img class="drop-cap" src="images/i_425adc.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="drop-cap">Although the United States was the second
+nation to open a line of railway, it operates to-day
+nearly half the mileage of the world, and it has
+so many miles of double, triple, and quadruple
+track that, were the data of trackage available,
+such a comparison would undoubtedly show it to more than
+equal all the rest of the world combined.</p>
+
+<p>Below is given a chart comparing the mileage of the principal
+railway countries. The list contains all countries having a mileage
+of over ten thousand kilometers.</p>
+
+<p class="p1" />
+<div class="bbox">
+<div class="center fs80">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="tdc bll btt wd20">Countries.</td><td class="tdc bl btt brr">Kilo-</td><td class="tdla"></td><td class="tdla"></td><td class="tdl large bll btt brr bbb" colspan="9" rowspan="2">Principal Railway Countries, 1887.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bll"></td><td class="tdc bl brr">meters.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bll bt"></td><td class="tdla bl bt brr"></td><td class="tdla"></td><td class="tdla" colspan="4">25,000 Kilometers</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bll">Italy</td><td class="tdr bl brr">11,759</td><td class="tdla">»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla" colspan="2">50,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bll">Australia</td><td class="tdr bl brr">15,297</td><td class="tdla">»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td>
+    <td class="tdla" colspan="2">75,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bll">Canada</td><td class="tdr bl brr">19,883</td><td class="tdla">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td>
+    <td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla" colspan="2">100,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bll">British India</td><td class="tdr bl brr">22,665</td><td class="tdla">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td>
+    <td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla" colspan="2">125,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bll">Austria-Hungary</td><td class="tdr bl brr">24,432</td><td class="tdla">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td>
+    <td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla" colspan="2">150,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bll">Russia</td><td class="tdr bl brr">28,517</td><td class="tdla">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td>
+    <td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla" colspan="2">175,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bll">France</td><td class="tdr bl brr">31,208</td><td class="tdla">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td>
+    <td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla" colspan="2">200,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bll">Great Britain</td><td class="tdr bl brr">31,521</td><td class="tdla">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td>
+    <td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla" colspan="2">225,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bll">Germany</td><td class="tdr bl brr">39,785</td><td class="tdla">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td>
+    <td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla" colspan="2">250,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bll bbb">United States</td><td class="tdr bl brr bbb">241,210</td><td class="tdla">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td>
+    <td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="p1" />
+<p>The most prominent fact is impressed by the very long line
+representing the mileage of the United States. A second impressive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[426]</a></span>
+fact is that the United States has more than six times the
+mileage of any other country. A third, that there are but five
+other countries that have even a tenth as much railway.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="fs70">RAILWAY MILEAGE OF THE UNITED STATES.</h3>
+
+<p><em>Total Annual Mileage and Increase.</em>&mdash;On <a href="#Page_429">page 429</a> is given
+a chart which, beginning with the 23 miles of 1830 and ending
+with the 156,082 miles of 1888, delineates our ever-increasing
+total mileage. It also portrays the fluctuations in the number of
+miles built annually. This latter study is the more interesting,
+especially during the last twenty-five years, which cover the periods
+of extreme activity.</p>
+
+<p><em>Mileage Compared with Area.</em>&mdash;The shaded map on the same
+page pictures the railway mileage of each State as compared with
+its total area. The eleven States bearing the deepest shade (5)
+are those having the larger proportions of mileage to area. Of
+these, New Jersey stands first, having almost exactly one-fourth of
+a mile of railroad for each square mile of land. The proportion of
+total area occupied by this mileage is measured to the eye by the
+accompanying diagram.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_426.jpg" width="200" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Mileage to Area in New Jersey.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The entire square stands for one square mile of land, and the
+space at the upper left-hand corner stands for that part of the
+square mile which the railroad occupies, counting from fence to
+fence on each side of the road. This comparison
+is made on the basis of one hundred
+feet for the "right of way" (the
+width allowed in government grants), and
+is useful in connection with the study of
+the historical maps, especially those of
+1880 and 1889, on which the area of some
+of the States seems to be nearly all taken
+up with roads, owing to the small scale of
+the maps. Iowa has the smallest proportion
+of any in Group 5. The figures show her proportion to be a
+little over one-seventh of a mile of road to one square mile of area.
+(Nevada has the smallest proportion of all the States and Territories,
+viz., a trifle over <sup>1</sup>/<sub>117</sub> of a mile of line to one square mile.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[427]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>That part of the map bearing the deepest shade shows at a
+glance that an unbroken belt, averaging some two hundred miles
+wide, stretching from Cape Cod to beyond the Mississippi River,
+is that part of the country best supplied with railways.</p>
+
+<p>The lighter shades grouped on either side of this belt show
+how the mileage grades away north and south.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="fs70">GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF RAILWAYS.</h3>
+
+<p>On pages 430 to 433 is a series of historical maps showing
+the location of railway lines at each census-year from 1830 to
+1880, and in 1889. Charts comparing and ranking the mileage
+by States accompany the maps of 1870, 1880, and 1889. These
+maps and charts give a better idea of the location and extent of
+progress than could be given by a dozen pages of description and
+a hundred columns of figures.</p>
+
+<p><em>Centre of Mileage and of Population.</em>&mdash;The space for notes
+on the maps permits the bare mention of the meaning of the series
+of stars in the 1889 map (<a href="#Page_433">page 433</a>), which mark the centres of
+mileage and of population. It is well to state the manner of determining
+the centres of mileage, that it may have its proper
+bearing in any study of the subject into which the showing may
+enter.</p>
+
+<p>The locations are necessarily approximate. Each centre was
+determined by selecting, on the proper map, a line running east
+and west which seemed, to the eye, to nearly divide the mileage
+into equal parts. The sum of the mileage of the States north,
+was then compared with that of the States south of the line.
+By this means the position of the line chosen by the eye was
+corrected and the right parallel determined. The meridian dividing
+the total mileage into equal parts was ascertained in like
+manner. The point of intersection of the parallel and meridian is
+marked in the map by a star, having the proper date printed to
+the right of it.</p>
+
+<p>The upper series of stars locates the centres of railway mileage,
+and the lower series the centres of population, as given by
+the returns of the census of 1880.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[428]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The following table describes the several locations thus ascertained:</p>
+
+<p class="p1 pfs90"><em>Centres of Railway Mileage.</em></p>
+
+<div class="center fs80">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="bt tdpp"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl wd10">Date.</td><td class="tdl bl wd15">Latitude.</td><td class="tdl bl wd15">Longitude.</td><td class="tdl bl">Approximate location by towns.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">1840</td><td class="tdl bl">40° 50′ N.</td><td class="tdl bl">76° 10′ W.</td><td class="tdl bl">Twenty miles west of Mauch Chunk, Pa.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">1850</td><td class="tdl bl">41° 30′ N.</td><td class="tdl bl">77° 27′ W.</td><td class="tdl bl">Twenty-five miles northwest of Williamsport, Lycoming County, Pa.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">1860</td><td class="tdl bl">40° 40′ N.</td><td class="tdl bl">82° 30′ W.</td><td class="tdl bl">Ten miles south of Mansfield, O.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">1870</td><td class="tdl bl">41° 10′ N.</td><td class="tdl bl">84° 35′ W.</td><td class="tdl bl">Paulding, Paulding County, O.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">1880</td><td class="tdl bl">41° 05′ N.</td><td class="tdl bl">86° 50′ W.</td><td class="tdl bl">Thirty miles northwest of Logansport, Ind.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">1888</td><td class="tdl bl">39° 50′ N.</td><td class="tdl bl">88° 40′ W.</td><td class="tdl bl">Pontiac, Ill., about ninety miles S. S. W. of Chicago.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bb tdpp"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td><td class="bb bl"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="p1" />
+<p>The remarkable movement of the centre of mileage from 1850
+to 1860 is easily understood when one turns to the maps of those
+dates (<a href="#Page_430">page 430</a>) and locates the fields of activity. The wonderful
+increase in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa gave the
+Western impulse, while the growth in Tennessee and the States
+south of it furnishes the principal explanation of the southerly
+motion.</p>
+
+<p>Although the study of this period is the most interesting of
+the series, in the space passed over, yet each period has its points
+of special interest, which the reader will easily solve by referring
+to the proper maps on pages 430 to 433.</p>
+
+<p><em>Railway Systems.</em>&mdash;The consolidation of separate lines under
+central controlling interests has resulted in several "systems" of
+great extent. Five such are mapped on pages 434 and 435. The
+roads controlled by them are printed in broad lines, while all others
+are printed in narrow lines. It needs but a glance to see whether
+any of them has so far absorbed the roads of a given region as
+to be able to control rates. The systems selected are believed to
+be representative ones, and the mapping of a dozen others would
+not tell the story any more plainly.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="fs70">TRUNK LINES COMPARED.</h3>
+
+<p><em>Compared by Mileage.</em>&mdash;At present there are twenty-four corporations
+reporting over one thousand miles of line each. A comparison
+of these roads by mileage is profitless, as it furnishes no
+just clew to their importance in point of business transacted.
+Several of the shorter of these twenty-four lines largely exceed
+some of the longer ones in the volume of business transacted. As
+an example of the little value of comparison by mileage, the New
+York Central &amp; Hudson River Road, with but 1,421 miles of line,
+reports $63,132,920 receipts, while the Union Pacific, with 6,288
+miles, reports but $19,898,817. Two of the twenty-four roads,
+viz., the Southern Pacific Railroad (5,931 miles) and the Richmond,
+West Point &amp; Terminal Railroad (6,869 miles) report
+neither gross or net earnings. The remaining twenty-two report
+both, and these reports furnish a satisfactory basis for study.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[429]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i_429-large.jpg">
+<img src="images/i_429.jpg" width="600" alt="" /></a></div>
+
+<div class="captionx">
+<p>Railway Mileage of the United States.<span class="pad6">Compared with Area, 1888.</span></p>
+
+
+<p><b>Explanatory.</b>&mdash;The horizontal black lines
+below interpret the right-hand column of figures,
+and therefore picture the annual total mileage of
+railways operated.&mdash;The color below interprets
+the left-hand column, and therefore pictures the
+fluctuations in the number of miles built annually.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Key</b> explains the shades on the map. The
+lightest shade indicates an average of less than
+one-fiftieth of a mile of railway for each square
+mile of land. The second shade, from one-fiftieth
+to one-twentieth of a mile of railway, for each
+square mile of land, etc.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">KEY TO SHADES ON THE MAP.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="tdl">Less than</td><td class="tdl"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>50</sub> m. to 1 sq. m.</td><td class="tdc bl bt br "><b>1</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>50</sub> m. &mdash;</td><td class="tdl"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>20</sub> m. &nbsp;" &nbsp;" &nbsp;" &nbsp;&nbsp;"</td><td class="tdc bl bt br"><b>2</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>20</sub> m. &mdash;</td><td class="tdl"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>15</sub> m. &nbsp;" &nbsp;" &nbsp;" &nbsp;&nbsp;"</td><td class="tdc bl bt br"><b>3</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>15</sub> m. &mdash;</td><td class="tdl"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub> &nbsp;m. &nbsp;" &nbsp;" &nbsp;" &nbsp;&nbsp;"</td><td class="tdc bl bt br"><b>4</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub> m. and</td><td class="tdl">over, per &nbsp;&nbsp; " &nbsp; "</td><td class="tdc bl bt br bb"><b>5</b></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="p2 center">Total and Increase.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl bt" rowspan="2">Years</td><td class="tdc bl bt br" colspan="2">Miles.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl bt">Built</td><td class="tdrx bl bt br">Operated</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl bt">1830</td><td class="tdrx bl bt">&mdash;</td><td class="tdrx bl bt br">23</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1831</td><td class="tdrx bl">72</td><td class="tdrx bl br">95</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1832</td><td class="tdrx bl">134</td><td class="tdrx bl br">229</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1833</td><td class="tdrx bl">151</td><td class="tdrx bl br">380</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1834</td><td class="tdrx bl">253</td><td class="tdrx bl br">633</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1835</td><td class="tdrx bl">465</td><td class="tdrx bl br">1,098</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1836</td><td class="tdrx bl">175</td><td class="tdrx bl br">1,273</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1837</td><td class="tdrx bl">224</td><td class="tdrx bl br">1,497</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1838</td><td class="tdrx bl">416</td><td class="tdrx bl br">1,913</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1839</td><td class="tdrx bl">389</td><td class="tdrx bl br">2,302</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1840</td><td class="tdrx bl">516</td><td class="tdrx bl br">2,818</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1841</td><td class="tdrx bl">717</td><td class="tdrx bl br">3,535</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1842</td><td class="tdrx bl">491</td><td class="tdrx bl br">4,026</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1843</td><td class="tdrx bl">159</td><td class="tdrx bl br">4,185</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1844</td><td class="tdrx bl">192</td><td class="tdrx bl br">4,377</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1845</td><td class="tdrx bl">256</td><td class="tdrx bl br">4,633</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1846</td><td class="tdrx bl">297</td><td class="tdrx bl br">4,930</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1847</td><td class="tdrx bl">668</td><td class="tdrx bl br">5,598</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1848</td><td class="tdrx bl">398</td><td class="tdrx bl br">5,996</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1849</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,369</td><td class="tdrx bl br">7,365</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1850</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,656</td><td class="tdrx bl br">9,021</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1851</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,961</td><td class="tdrx bl br">10,982</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1852</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,926</td><td class="tdrx bl br">12,908</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1853</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,452</td><td class="tdrx bl br">15,360</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1854</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,360</td><td class="tdrx bl br">16,720</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1855</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,654</td><td class="tdrx bl br">18,374</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1856</td><td class="tdrx bl">3,642</td><td class="tdrx bl br">22,016</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1857</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,487</td><td class="tdrx bl br">24,503</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1858</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,465</td><td class="tdrx bl br">26,963</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1859</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,821</td><td class="tdrx bl br">28,789</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1860</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,846</td><td class="tdrx bl br">30,635</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1861</td><td class="tdrx bl">651</td><td class="tdrx bl br">31,286</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1862</td><td class="tdrx bl">834</td><td class="tdrx bl br">32,120</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1863</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,050</td><td class="tdrx bl br">33,170</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1864</td><td class="tdrx bl">738</td><td class="tdrx bl br">33,908</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1865</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,177</td><td class="tdrx bl br">35,085</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1866</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,716</td><td class="tdrx bl br">36,801</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1867</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,249</td><td class="tdrx bl br">39,250</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1868</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,979</td><td class="tdrx bl br">42,229</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1869</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,615</td><td class="tdrx bl br">46,844</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1870</td><td class="tdrx bl">6,070</td><td class="tdrx bl br">52,914</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1871</td><td class="tdrx bl">7,379</td><td class="tdrx bl br">60,293</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1872</td><td class="tdrx bl">5,878</td><td class="tdrx bl br">66,171</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1873</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,097</td><td class="tdrx bl br">70,268</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1874</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,117</td><td class="tdrx bl br">72,385</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1875</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,711</td><td class="tdrx bl br">74,096</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1876</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,712</td><td class="tdrx bl br">76,808</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1877</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,280</td><td class="tdrx bl br">79,088</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1878</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,679</td><td class="tdrx bl br">81,767</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1879</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,817</td><td class="tdrx bl br">86,584</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1880</td><td class="tdrx bl">6,712</td><td class="tdrx bl br">93,296</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1881</td><td class="tdrx bl">9,847</td><td class="tdrx bl br">103,143</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1882</td><td class="tdrx bl">11,569</td><td class="tdrx bl br">114,712</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1883</td><td class="tdrx bl">6,743</td><td class="tdrx bl br">121,455</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1884</td><td class="tdrx bl">3,924</td><td class="tdrx bl br">125,379</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1885</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,930</td><td class="tdrx bl br">128,309</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1886</td><td class="tdrx bl">8,100</td><td class="tdrx bl br">136,409</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1887</td><td class="tdrx bl">12,872</td><td class="tdrx bl br">149,281</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1888</td><td class="tdrx bl">6,801</td><td class="tdrx bl br">156,082</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb br"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[430]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i_430-large.jpg">
+<img src="images/i_430.jpg" width="600" alt="" /></a></div>
+
+<div class="captionx">
+<p class="pfs120">Railways in the United States, 1830&ndash;1860.</p>
+
+<p class="pfs70">(From Scribner's Statistical Atlas.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Note.</b>&mdash;These maps are reductions of larger maps referred to in the titles.
+This makes it possible to bring them within very convenient space for comparison,
+and compensates for any indistinctness of lettering in the maps.</p>
+
+<p>The railways of 1830 are pointed out by red arrows. Those of the other maps are
+easily seen. The growth by decades is thus quickly located. In 1840, one continuous
+line stretched from New York to Washington, D. C. Another considerable line
+was that from Fredericksburg, Va., to Wilmington, N. C. In 1850, one could not go
+by direct railway from New York to either Albany or Boston. In 1860, several direct
+routes stretched from New York to far west of the Mississippi.</p>
+
+<p><em><b>Note.</b></em>&mdash;In 1860 there was also in California,
+a railway from Sacramento to Folsom City (22 miles).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[431]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i_431-large.jpg">
+<img src="images/i_431.jpg" width="600" alt="" /></a></div>
+
+<div class="captionx">
+<p class="pfs120">Railways in the United States. 1870</p>
+
+<p class="pfs70">(From Scribner's Statistical Atlas.)</p>
+
+<p class="p1 pad6">Railway Mileage by States, 1870.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="">
+<tr><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl bl">Rank</td><td class="tdl bl">State</td><td class="tdl bl">Miles</td><td class="tdrx bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">41</td><td class="tdl bl">Dak.</td><td class="tdrx bl">65</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">40</td><td class="tdl bl">R.I.</td><td class="tdrx bl">136</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">39</td><td class="tdl bl">Colo.</td><td class="tdrx bl">157</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">38</td><td class="tdl bl">Oreg.</td><td class="tdrx bl">159</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">37</td><td class="tdl bl">Del.</td><td class="tdrx bl">197</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">36</td><td class="tdl bl">Ark.</td><td class="tdrx bl">256</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">35</td><td class="tdl bl">Utah</td><td class="tdrx bl">257</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">34</td><td class="tdl bl">W.&nbsp;Va.</td><td class="tdrx bl">387</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla" colspan="2">1,000 Miles</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">33</td><td class="tdl bl">Fla.</td><td class="tdrx bl">446</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">32</td><td class="tdl bl">La.</td><td class="tdrx bl">450</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">31</td><td class="tdl bl">Wyo.</td><td class="tdrx bl">459</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">30</td><td class="tdl bl">Nev.</td><td class="tdrx bl">593</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">29</td><td class="tdl bl">Vt.</td><td class="tdrx bl">614</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">28</td><td class="tdl bl">*Md.</td><td class="tdrx bl">671</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">27</td><td class="tdl bl">Nebr.</td><td class="tdrx bl">705</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">26</td><td class="tdl bl">Tex.</td><td class="tdrx bl">711</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla">2,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">25</td><td class="tdl bl">N.H.</td><td class="tdrx bl">736</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">24</td><td class="tdl bl">Conn.</td><td class="tdrx bl">742</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">23</td><td class="tdl bl">Me.</td><td class="tdrx bl">786</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla">3,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">22</td><td class="tdl bl">Cal.</td><td class="tdrx bl">925</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">21</td><td class="tdl bl">Miss.</td><td class="tdrx bl">990</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">20</td><td class="tdl bl">Ky.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,017</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">19</td><td class="tdl bl">Minn.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,092</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">18</td><td class="tdl bl">N.J.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,125</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla">4,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">17</td><td class="tdl bl">S.C.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,139</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">16</td><td class="tdl bl">Ala.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,157</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">15</td><td class="tdl bl">N.C.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,178</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">14</td><td class="tdl bl">Mass.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,480</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla">5,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">13</td><td class="tdl bl">Va.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,488</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">12</td><td class="tdl bl">Tenn.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,492</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">11</td><td class="tdl bl">Kans.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,501</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">10</td><td class="tdl bl">Wis.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,525</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 9</td><td class="tdl bl">Mich.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,638</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 8</td><td class="tdl bl">Ga.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,845</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 7</td><td class="tdl bl">Mo.</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,000</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 6</td><td class="tdl bl">Iowa</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,683</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 5</td><td class="tdl bl">Ind.</td><td class="tdrx bl">3,177</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 4</td><td class="tdl bl">Ohio</td><td class="tdrx bl">3,538</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 3</td><td class="tdl bl">N.Y.</td><td class="tdrx bl">3,924</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 2</td><td class="tdl bl">Pa.</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,658</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 1</td><td class="tdl bl">Ill.</td><td class="tdrx bl">&nbsp;4,823</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»&nbsp;</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="pad6">* Includes District of Columbia.</p>
+
+<p>In 1850 Chicago had one short road. In 1860 she had
+several main lines, reaching hundreds of miles.&mdash;east,
+west, north, and south. In 1850, Ohio, Indiana, and
+Illinois were open fields. In 1860 they were crossed and
+recrossed many times A similar change had taken place
+in the south east. The 1860 map marks the condition at
+the breaking out of the Civil War.&mdash;In 1870 there does not
+appear to have been much change except in the north-west,
+and the completion of the first Pacific line, and
+yet there were 22,296 more miles than in 1860, nearly 700
+miles more than the 1850&ndash;1860 growth, but being spread
+over a wider area it does not appear as clearly. A little
+careful study shows that many States had added considerably
+to their mileage.&mdash;The names in the maps are
+given mainly to mark terminal points.&mdash;While the map
+locates the mileage, the chart at the left accurately
+measures and compares it State by State.</p>
+
+<p>Before turning to the 1880 map, let the eye go carefully
+over the 1870 lines, that the comparison may be the more
+properly made.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[432]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i_432-large.jpg">
+<img src="images/i_432.jpg" width="600" alt="" /></a></div>
+
+<div class="captionx">
+
+<p class="pfs120">Railways in the United States. 1880</p>
+
+<p class="pfs70">(From Scribner's Statistical Atlas.)</p>
+
+<p class="p1 pad6">Railway Mileage by States, 1880.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc bl">Rank</td><td class="tdc bl">State</td><td class="tdc bl">Miles</td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">47</td><td class="tdl bl">Mont.</td><td class="tdrx bl">106</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">46</td><td class="tdl bl">Ida.</td><td class="tdrx bl">206</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">45</td><td class="tdl bl">R.I.</td><td class="tdrx bl">210</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">44</td><td class="tdl bl">Del.</td><td class="tdrx bl">275</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">43</td><td class="tdl bl">Wash.</td><td class="tdrx bl">289</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">42</td><td class="tdl bl">I. T.</td><td class="tdrx bl">289</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">41</td><td class="tdl bl">Ariz.</td><td class="tdrx bl">349</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">40</td><td class="tdl bl">Oreg.</td><td class="tdrx bl">508</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">39</td><td class="tdl bl">Wyo.</td><td class="tdrx bl">512</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">38</td><td class="tdl bl">Fla.</td><td class="tdrx bl">518</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">37</td><td class="tdl bl">La.</td><td class="tdrx bl">652</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">36</td><td class="tdl bl">W.&nbsp;Va.</td><td class="tdrx bl">691</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">35</td><td class="tdl bl">Nev.</td><td class="tdrx bl">739</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">34</td><td class="tdl bl">N.Mex.</td><td class="tdrx bl">758</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">33</td><td class="tdl bl">Utah</td><td class="tdrx bl">842</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">32</td><td class="tdl bl">Ark.</td><td class="tdrx bl">859</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">31</td><td class="tdl bl">Vt.</td><td class="tdrx bl">914</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">30</td><td class="tdl bl">Conn.</td><td class="tdrx bl">923</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">29</td><td class="tdl bl">Me.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,005</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">28</td><td class="tdl bl">N.H.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,015</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla" colspan="2">2,000 Miles</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">27</td><td class="tdl bl">*Md.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,040</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">26</td><td class="tdl bl">Miss.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,127</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">25</td><td class="tdl bl">Dak.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,225</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">24</td><td class="tdl bl">S.C.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,427</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">23</td><td class="tdl bl">N.C.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,486</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">22</td><td class="tdl bl">Ky.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,530</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">21</td><td class="tdl bl">Colo.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,570</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">20</td><td class="tdl bl">N.J.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,684</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">19</td><td class="tdl bl">Tenn.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,843</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">18</td><td class="tdl bl">Ala.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,843</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">17</td><td class="tdl bl">Va.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,893</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">16</td><td class="tdl bl">Mass.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,915</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla">4,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">15</td><td class="tdl bl">Nebr.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,953</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">14</td><td class="tdl bl">Cal.</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,195</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">13</td><td class="tdl bl">Ga.</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,459</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">12</td><td class="tdl bl">Minn.</td><td class="tdrx bl">3,151</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">11</td><td class="tdl bl">Wis.</td><td class="tdrx bl">3,155</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">10</td><td class="tdl bl">Tex.</td><td class="tdrx bl">3,244</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 9</td><td class="tdl bl">Kans.</td><td class="tdrx bl">3,400</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 8</td><td class="tdl bl">Mich.</td><td class="tdrx bl">3,938</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla">6,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 7</td><td class="tdl bl">Mo.</td><td class="tdrx bl">3,965</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 6</td><td class="tdl bl">Ind.</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,373</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla">8,000<span class="pad2">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 5</td><td class="tdl bl">Iowa</td><td class="tdrx bl">5,400</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 4</td><td class="tdl bl">Ohio</td><td class="tdrx bl">5,792</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla">10,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 3</td><td class="tdl bl">N.Y.</td><td class="tdrx bl">5,991</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 2</td><td class="tdl bl">Pa.</td><td class="tdrx bl">6,191</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 1</td><td class="tdl bl">Ill.</td><td class="tdrx bl">&nbsp;7,851</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»&nbsp;</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="pad6">* Includes District of Columbia.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult to believe that so many roads could have been added in
+ten years. All the 1870 area north of the Ohio River seems crowded at
+nearly every point, and the network of advance westward, in the
+States of Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, and Dakota,
+is equally surprising. The growth in Texas was also very large, and
+many new lines appear in other Southern States. The total increase
+of the ten years was over forty thousand miles (40,374).</p>
+
+<p>It would not seem possible that this rate of building could be longer
+maintained, and yet the 1889 map shows a still greater growth. At
+the close of 1888 (only eight years), the increase was 62,785 miles.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[433]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i_433-large.jpg">
+<img src="images/i_433.jpg" width="600" alt="" /></a></div>
+
+<div class="captionx">
+
+<p class="pfs120">Railways in the United States, 1889</p>
+
+<p class="pfs70">(From the "Scribner-Black Atlas of the World.")</p>
+
+<p class="p1 noindent pad6">Railway Mileage by States,<br />
+Dec. 31, 1888.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc bl">R'k</td><td class="tdc bl">States</td><td class="tdc bl">Miles</td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">&nbsp;&nbsp;48</td><td class="tdl bl">D.C.</td><td class="tdrx bl">21</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">47</td><td class="tdl bl">R.I.</td><td class="tdrx bl">214</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">46</td><td class="tdl bl">Del.</td><td class="tdrx bl">315</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">45</td><td class="tdl bl">Ida.</td><td class="tdrx bl">868</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">44</td><td class="tdl bl">Wyo.</td><td class="tdrx bl">902</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">43</td><td class="tdl bl">Nev.</td><td class="tdrx bl">948</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">42</td><td class="tdl bl">Vt.</td><td class="tdrx bl">959</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">41</td><td class="tdl bl">I. T.</td><td class="tdrx bl">973</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">40</td><td class="tdl bl">Conn.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,006</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">39</td><td class="tdl bl">N.H.</td><td class="tdla bl">l,079</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">38</td><td class="tdl bl">Ariz.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,095</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">37</td><td class="tdl bl">Utah</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,133</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">38</td><td class="tdl bl">Md.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,162</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">35</td><td class="tdl bl">W.&nbsp;Va.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,281</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla" colspan="2">2,000 Miles</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">34</td><td class="tdl bl">Wash.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,319</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">33</td><td class="tdl bl">Me.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,321</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">32</td><td class="tdl bl">N.Mex.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,321</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">31</td><td class="tdl bl">Oreg.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,412</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">30</td><td class="tdl bl">La.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,505</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">29</td><td class="tdl bl">Mont.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,804</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">28</td><td class="tdl bl">N.J.</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,981</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">27</td><td class="tdl bl">Ark.</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,046</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">26</td><td class="tdl bl">Mass.</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,074</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">25</td><td class="tdl bl">N.C.</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,084</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">24</td><td class="tdl bl">Miss.</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,218</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">23</td><td class="tdl bl">Fla.</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,250</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">22</td><td class="tdl bl">Tenn.</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,488</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td><td class="tdla">4,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">21</td><td class="tdl bl">N.C.</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,529</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">20</td><td class="tdl bl">Ky.</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,585</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">19</td><td class="tdl bl">Va.</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,931</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">18</td><td class="tdl bl">Ala.</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,986</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">17</td><td class="tdl bl">Ga.</td><td class="tdrx bl">3,928</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">16</td><td class="tdl bl">Colo.</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,038</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">15</td><td class="tdl bl">Cal.</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,128</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">14</td><td class="tdl bl">Dak.</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,465</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td><td class="tdla">6,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">13</td><td class="tdl bl">Nebr.</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,980</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">12</td><td class="tdl bl">Wis.</td><td class="tdrx bl">5,330</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">11</td><td class="tdl bl">Minn.</td><td class="tdrx bl">5,375</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">10</td><td class="tdl bl">Ind.</td><td class="tdrx bl">5,890</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 9</td><td class="tdl bl">Mo.</td><td class="tdrx bl">5,901</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 8</td><td class="tdl bl">Mich.</td><td class="tdrx bl">6,490</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td><td class="tdla">8,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 7</td><td class="tdl bl">N.Y.</td><td class="tdrx bl">7,598</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 6</td><td class="tdl bl">Ohio</td><td class="tdrx bl">7,636</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 5</td><td class="tdl bl">Tex.</td><td class="tdrx bl">8,211</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td><td class="tdla">10,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 4</td><td class="tdl bl">Pa.</td><td class="tdrx bl">8,225</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 3</td><td class="tdl bl">Iowa</td><td class="tdrx bl">8,365</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 2</td><td class="tdl bl">Kans.</td><td class="tdrx bl">8,755</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 1</td><td class="tdl bl">Ill.</td><td class="tdrx bl">&nbsp;9,901</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The figures in the two charts show that four States alone claim more
+than one-fourth of the growth (Kansas, 5,354; Texas, 4,967; Dakota,
+8,240 and Nebraska, 3,207 miles; total, 16,768 miles.) Six other States
+(Iowa, Mich., Col., Minn., Wis., and Penn.) had each an increase of
+over 2,000 miles.&mdash;The charts give Illinois the longest line from 1870,
+but the position of Texas in the three charts seems to prophesy that
+Illinois must soon yield. In 1860, Ohio led; in 1850, New York, and in
+1840, Pennsylvania.&mdash;The upper series of stars in the 1880 map locate
+the center of railway mileage. See <a href="#Page_427">page 427</a>, preceding.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[434]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i_434a-large.jpg">
+<img src="images/i_434a.jpg" width="600" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption">Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul System, 1889.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i_434b-large.jpg">
+<img src="images/i_434b.jpg" width="600" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption">Chicago, Burlington and Quincy System, 1889.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i_434c-large.jpg">
+<img src="images/i_434c.jpg" width="600" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption">Chicago and Northwestern System, 1889.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[435]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i_435a-large.jpg">
+<img src="images/i_435a.jpg" width="600" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption">Pennsylvania System, 1889.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i_435b-large.jpg">
+<img src="images/i_435b.jpg" width="600" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption">Vanderbilt System, 1889.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i_435c-large.jpg">
+<img src="images/i_435c.jpg" width="600" alt="" /></a></div>
+
+<div class="captionx">
+
+<p class="pfs120">Largest Receipts, 1888.</p>
+
+<p class="pfs70">(See <a href="#Page_437">page 437</a>, following)</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc bl">R.</td><td class="tdc bl wd25">Corporation</td><td class="tdc bl">Receipts</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla">$10M</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">&nbsp;&nbsp;15</td><td class="tdl bl">Ill. Cent.</td><td class="tdrx bl">$13,660,245</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">14</td><td class="tdl bl">Mich. Cent.</td><td class="tdrx bl">13,770,593</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td><td class="tdla">$20M</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">13</td><td class="tdl bl">A. T. &amp; St. F.</td><td class="tdrx bl">15,612.913</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">12</td><td class="tdl bl">N. Pacific</td><td class="tdrx bl">15,846,328</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">11</td><td class="tdl bl">L. &amp; N.</td><td class="tdrx bl">17,122,026</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla">$30M</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">10</td><td class="tdl bl">L. S. &amp; M. S.</td><td class="tdrx bl">18,029,627</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">9</td><td class="tdl bl">U. Pacif.</td><td class="tdrx bl">19,898,817</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">8</td><td class="tdl bl">B. &amp; O.</td><td class="tdrx bl">20,353,492</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla">$40M</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">7</td><td class="tdl bl">C. B. &amp; Q.</td><td class="tdrx bl">23,789,168</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">6</td><td class="tdl bl">C. M. &amp; St. P.</td><td class="tdrx bl">24,867,730</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">5</td><td class="tdl bl">C. &amp; N. W.</td><td class="tdrx bl">26,697,559</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla">$50M</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">4</td><td class="tdl bl">N. Y. L. E. &amp; W.</td><td class="tdrx bl">27,217,990</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">3</td><td class="tdl bl">N. Y. C. &amp; H. R.</td><td class="tdrx bl">36,139,920</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">2</td><td class="tdl bl">Penn. W. of P.</td><td class="tdrx bl">37,894,370</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">1</td><td class="tdl bl">Penn. E. of P.</td><td class="tdrx bl">58,172,078</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="p1 pfs120">Largest Net Results, 1888.</p>
+
+
+<p class="pfs70">(See <a href="#Page_437">page 437</a>, following)</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc bl">R.</td><td class="tdc bl wd25">Corporation</td><td class="tdc bl">Net %</td><td class="tdla bl"></td><td class="tdla">10%</td><td class="tdla">20%</td><td class="tdla">30%</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">&nbsp;&nbsp;15</td><td class="tdl bl">N. Y. C. &amp; H. R.</td><td class="tdrx bl">31.85</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">14</td><td class="tdl bl">Penn. E. of P.</td><td class="tdrx bl">33.39</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">13</td><td class="tdl bl">D. &amp; R. G.</td><td class="tdrx bl">33.43</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">12</td><td class="tdl bl">A. T. &amp; St. F.</td><td class="tdrx bl">33.47</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">11</td><td class="tdl bl">N. Y. L. E. &amp; W.</td><td class="tdrx bl">33.85</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl">10</td><td class="tdl bl">Ill. Cent.</td><td class="tdrx bl">34.41</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 9</td><td class="tdl bl">C. R. I. &amp; P.</td><td class="tdrx bl">35.29</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 8</td><td class="tdl bl">E. T. V. &amp; G.</td><td class="tdrx bl">36.06</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 7</td><td class="tdl bl">L. &amp; N.</td><td class="tdrx bl">36.11</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td><td class="tdrx">40%</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 6</td><td class="tdl bl">L. S. &amp; M. S.</td><td class="tdrx bl">37.27</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 5</td><td class="tdl bl">C. &amp; N. W.</td><td class="tdrx bl">37.56</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 4</td><td class="tdl bl">U. Pacif.</td><td class="tdrx bl">40.80</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 3</td><td class="tdl bl">N. Pacif.</td><td class="tdrx bl">41.52</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 2</td><td class="tdl bl">St. L. &amp; San F.</td><td class="tdrx bl">41.88</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl"> 1</td><td class="tdl bl">St. P. M. &amp; M.</td><td class="tdrx bl">&nbsp;46.08</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»»»»</td><td class="tdla bl">»»»»»»</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[436]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i_436-large.jpg">
+<img src="images/i_436.jpg" width="600" alt="" /></a></div>
+
+<div class="captionx">
+
+<p class="pfs120">AVERAGE CHARGE PER MILE FOR EACH TON OF FREIGHT HAULED.</p>
+
+<p class="pad4">
+TRUNK LINES. 1870&mdash;1889<br />
+Chicago and Northwestern<br />
+Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul<br />
+Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific<br />
+<b>Av. of 6 Lines West of Chicago</b><br />
+Chicago, Burlington and Quincy<br />
+Illinois Central<br />
+Chicago and Alton<br />
+Boston and Albany<br />
+Michigan Central<br />
+New York Central<br />
+<b>Av. of 7 Lines East of Chicago</b><br />
+Pennsylvania<br />
+Lake Shore and Michigan Southern<br />
+New York, Lake Erie and Western<br />
+Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><b>Explanatory.</b>&mdash;The upper edge of the deep shade marks the
+fluctuations of the average rate charged by the seven lines east of
+Chicago.&mdash;The upper edge of the light shade marks the fluctuations
+of the average rate charged by the six lines west of Chicago.&mdash;Each
+particular road has a distinctive line, which makes it easy to trace
+it among other lines.&mdash;All Western lines are accompanied by lines
+of color, to distinguish them plainly from the Eastern lines, and to
+make their relation to their own average more easily discovered.
+The Boston and Albany is the only Eastern line whose rate places
+it near the Western lines, but the absence of color prevents it from
+being taken for a Western line, which it might otherwise be, especially
+during the last three years, in its journey through and above
+them all.&mdash;The C. B. &amp; Q. Road makes no report later than 1879.&mdash;The
+Chicago and Alton report begins at 1874.</p>
+
+<p><b>Explanatory.</b>&mdash;The diagram upon which the rates are charted (like all such
+diagrams) is constructed of perpendicular and horizontal lines. Each line, and
+each space between lines, has a particular meaning. The perpendicular spaces
+represent years, indicated by the figures at the top of each space. The horizontal
+spaces represent money values, each space representing .2c (two mills). Each
+horizontal line represents a particular money value, marked by the figures at the
+end of the line. Each black dot represents the average annual rate of some particular
+road. For example, take the Boston and Albany Road. Starting with the
+name and following the tracing line, the 1870 dot is found just below the 2.2c
+(2 cents and 2 mills) line. This indicates that the average rate charged by that
+road in 1870 was a trifle less than 2.2c. Following the line leading from the 1870
+dot into the 1871 space, the 1871 dot is found a little below the center of the space
+between the 2c line and the 2.2c line, indicating a rate of a little less than 2 cents
+and 1 mill for 1871. The next year it is lower still. In this way the history of
+any road is quickly traced.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[437]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><em>Largest Receipts.</em>&mdash;A comparison on the basis of gross receipts
+gives the best means of judging of the financial importance of the
+several roads, for it measures the volume of business done. On
+<a href="#Page_435">page 435</a> is given such a comparison of the fifteen roads (of the
+twenty-two referred to above) reporting the largest gross receipts.</p>
+
+<p><em>Largest Net Results.</em>&mdash;While the gross receipts measure the
+volume of business they may not give any indication of net results.
+A chart, immediately under that comparing gross receipts,
+compares the net receipts of the fifteen roads (of the same twenty-two)
+which report the highest per centages.</p>
+
+<p>Of the ten reporting largest net results, seven are west of
+Chicago. This fact, coupled with the desire of the great western
+systems to possess new territory in advance of others, suggests a
+reason for the large railway growth in that part of the country.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="fs70">FREIGHT TRAFFIC.</h3>
+
+<p>The gross traffic receipts of the railways of the United States
+are divided between freight and passenger business in very nearly
+the proportion of three to one in favor of the freight traffic. For
+this reason, and because the data are still more largely available on
+the same side, the freight service receives herein the fuller treatment.</p>
+
+<p><em>Reduction of Freight Rates.</em>&mdash;On the opposite page is a chart
+delineating the fluctuations in freight rates since 1870. To one
+not familiar with the subject the picture presented is a most remarkable
+one. It looks as though the roads are all in a mad
+scramble to see which can reach the bottom of the hill first. To
+railway managers the picture is a painful reminder of a serious
+struggle, the end of which no one can yet predict.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[438]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The lines selected are representative lines of the east and west
+divisions of the country, north of the Ohio River, where the great
+number of competing roads has induced sharp competition.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the <em>averages</em> is very clear, and it is easy to see
+that they are steadily approaching common ground, for while in
+1870 the eastern average marked almost exactly one cent six
+mills, the western marked two cents four mills, a separation of
+eight mills; in 1888 they recorded seven mills and a trifle over
+nine mills, a separation of about one-quarter of the 1870 record.</p>
+
+<p><em>Wheat Rates.</em>&mdash;The chart below repeats the lesson of the
+larger chart as to reduction of rates. The persistency with
+which water rates have kept below rail rates, emphasizes the
+fact that wherever water-ways exist, they are stubborn competitors
+for such freight traffic as will not suffer by the longer
+time required for the journey.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_438.jpg" width="600" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Average Freight Rates
+per Bushel of Wheat from
+Chicago to New York.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><em>The Freight Haul.</em>&mdash;It costs as much to load and unload a
+train that hauls its freight ten miles as it does one that carries it a
+thousand miles. In other words, the longer the haul the less the
+proportional cost to the carriers. The great extension of long
+lines westward in the last few years naturally raises the question
+whether the average freight haul has increased. The largely diminished
+rates suggest that probably producers have been led
+thereby to ship both agricultural and manufactured products
+greater distances to market. One or both of these conditions
+may have operated favorably for some roads, but, plausible as
+the theories seem, the facts prove that neither of them is supported<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[439]</a></span>
+in a study of the average haul of the country. The available
+figures permit us to go back only to 1882. Within that period
+the little chart given herewith delineates
+the fluctuations, but indicates no
+permanency in either direction. It is
+a matter of regret that in this, as in
+many other studies, the history is not
+available for earlier years, as the more
+extended the view the better the judgment
+of such questions becomes.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/i_439a.jpg" width="250" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Average Number of Miles each Ton of
+Freight was Hauled.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><em>Empty Freight Trains.</em>&mdash;One of the considerable items of expense
+in the freight traffic is that of returning empty cars to their
+point of starting. Just how large an item this is depends chiefly
+upon the demands of the population at either end of the operating
+line for the product of the population at the opposite end. Thus
+the carriage of the great agricultural product of the West to feed
+the denser population of the East, and for export to foreign countries,
+may or may not be met by the demand of the western people
+for the manufactures of the East and the imports from foreign
+countries arriving at the eastern seaboard. It is scarcely probable
+that any line, short or long, running east and west or north
+and south, finds its traffic in opposite directions balanced.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_439b.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Percentage of East-Bound and West-Bound Freight carried by the Lake Shore
+and Michigan Southern Railway Co.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>An interesting study of this problem is presented in the accompanying
+chart, the road selected for the illustration being one
+of the large carriers between Chicago and Buffalo. The upper
+chart-line marks the proportion of freight carried from west to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[440]</a></span>
+east, while the lower line (at the top of the shaded part of the diagram)
+marks the portion carried from east to west. It is readily
+seen that in 1877 the west-bound freight was less than half as
+much as the east-bound, for they stand 30.8 per cent, and 69.2 per
+cent., respectively; and in 1878 the difference is still greater. From
+that year, however, there has been great improvement, so that
+now it would appear that there is on that road a much diminished
+need for hauling empty cars. The history of the Pennsylvania
+Road is similar to that shown in the chart, but the ratios have not
+come so nearly together. That of the New York Central &amp;
+Hudson River Road shows very little change in the ratios since
+1870, and all the time both these roads report a very large excess
+of east-bound freight.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_440.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Profit per Ton per Mile.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><em>Freight Profits.</em>&mdash;The change in rates are of great moment to
+the producer; that of profits is the important one to the carrier.
+No matter how great the reduction of rates, if the reduction of expense
+is as great, the profits are not disturbed. This question
+can be studied best by examining the figures which measure the
+actual profits. But few corporations furnish such figures, and the
+two whose history is delineated on the accompanying chart are
+among those giving the most readily available data. It will be
+seen that the reduction of profits is no less remarkable than the reduction
+of rates, which shows that the reduction of rates has far
+exceeded that of expense of carriage; for, had the reduction of expenses
+kept pace with that of rates, the profits would have remained
+level. As it is, the reduction of profits in the history of these roads,
+as shown, is from about six mills per ton per mile in 1870, to about
+two mills in 1888. These two roads are probably good representatives<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[441]</a></span>
+of the experience of the general freight service of all railways
+north of the Ohio River. If so, the prospect of the future
+of freight traffic is not cheerful.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="fs70">PASSENGER TRAFFIC.</h3>
+
+<p>The study of passenger traffic is less satisfactory than that of
+freight traffic. Fewer lines furnish a history of their passenger
+rates, and ordinarily those histories cover shorter periods. The
+study is therefore confined to narrower limits and its lessons are
+necessarily less conclusive.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_441.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Passenger Rates per Mile.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><em>Passenger Rates.</em>&mdash;Below is given a chart interpreting the available
+data of six representative lines. The first lesson impressed is
+that no such reduction marks the history of passenger rates as is
+shown in freight rates, although the general trend of the chart-lines
+is plainly downward. The line indicating the average rate for all
+the roads in the country (marked U. S. in the chart) shows a reduction
+of over one-fourth of a cent per passenger per mile since
+1882.</p>
+
+<p>Certain features of this chart attract special attention. The reduction
+of rates by the Pennsylvania, and the New York Central
+&amp; Hudson River roads in 1876, and that by the same roads in
+1885, are suggestive. Equally noticeable are the reductions of
+the Illinois Central in 1871, 1872, 1880, and 1888.</p>
+
+<p>This chart would seem to indicate that competition has not
+operated as sharply on passenger as on freight traffic.</p>
+
+<p><em>Passenger Travel.</em>&mdash;The average distance that passengers ride
+is not as important an element of railway business as is the average<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[442]</a></span>
+freight haul, for the passengers load and unload themselves; so
+that, whether they ride few or many miles, the cost of loading and
+unloading is neither increased nor diminished. On the contrary, if
+a thousand tons of freight, once loaded, is to be hauled one hundred
+miles instead of fifty, the proportional cost of loading and unloading
+is reduced one-half.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/i_442a.jpg" width="250" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Average Number of Miles each Passenger
+was Carried.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Still, the average distance passengers ride is important; for, if
+the number of passengers remains the same and their ride is shorter,
+the receipts are diminished. The returns show that while the
+number of passengers has increased since 1882 about fifty-six per
+cent., the total miles travelled have not increased quite fifty per
+cent., marking a falling off in the average number of miles each
+passenger rode. The reduction is
+graphically shown in the little chart
+given herewith. This result is no
+doubt largely due to the great increase
+of suburban travel which has
+developed about our large cities within
+the past few years.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary to state, however,
+that the figures embraced in this study do not include the traffic of
+the elevated roads of New York and Brooklyn.</p>
+
+<p><em>Passenger Profits.</em>&mdash;Again a marked difference between freight
+and passenger traffic appears in comparing the chart given below
+with the corresponding chart on <a href="#Page_440">page 440</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_442b.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Profit per Passenger per Mile.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The study covers the history of the same roads in each case.
+The history of freight profits shows a persistent falling off, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[443]</a></span>
+in the nineteen years amounts to four mills per ton per mile, a loss
+of two-thirds of the six mills of 1870. The history delineated on
+this chart shows the average profit of the two roads to be almost
+exactly at the same point that it was in 1870, while the profits for
+most of the intervening years have been much greater.</p>
+
+<p>Were this the record of the freight traffic, it would be much
+more gratifying to the managers of the roads, for the New York
+Central &amp; Hudson River Railway receives about twice as much,
+and the Pennsylvania Railway receives four times as much, from
+freights as from passengers. Attention is invited to the opposite
+results of the same policy on these two roads in 1876. The chart
+of passenger rates on <a href="#Page_441">page 441</a> marks a decided reduction of rates
+by the Pennsylvania Road, and a slight reduction by the New York
+Central &amp; Hudson River Road. The chart of profits records an
+increase for the former and a decrease for the latter. This year
+(1876) is the date of the Centennial World's Fair at Philadelphia.
+The Pennsylvania Road had an enormous increase of passenger
+traffic (double that of the following year), a record which it did
+not equal until 1887. The New York Central &amp; Hudson River
+Road had but a slightly increased traffic, the record of which it
+passed in 1881.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="fs70">GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.</h3>
+
+<p><em>Dividends.</em>&mdash;While many readers are probably not holders of
+railway stocks, yet a look at the dividends received by those who
+are will not be without interest. The little chart given below tells
+an interesting, although a not over-attractive story.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_443.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Average Dividend Paid on Total Capital Stock.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It shows that, comparing the aggregate of all the railroad
+stocks of the country with the aggregate of all dividends paid,
+the holders of stock realized an average of 3.03% on their investment
+in 1876. In 1878 it had fallen to less than 2½%. From that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[444]</a></span>
+date to 1885 the record makes a curve ending just above 2%. A
+slight rally is indicated for 1886 and 1887, but 1888 carries it down
+to 1.81%. The stock of many roads has paid no dividend whatever
+these later years, and the lines whose stock proves a good
+investment at par are very few.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_444.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Net Earnings and Mileage Built.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><em>Net Earnings per Mile.</em>&mdash;Although the studies of the financial
+question already made undoubtedly point out the true drift of
+railway business, yet one more comparison is worth making, both
+for its bearing on the question of profits and the study of the influence
+of profits on railway building. The upper one of the two
+charts given herewith is the record of net earnings per mile of
+road in operation, and is based on the reported net earnings less
+the interest-charge. It therefore shows the average number of
+dollars each mile had earned, after paying all expenses and the interest
+on its debt. This money, then, is the clear amount each
+mile could apply each year to pay the principal of its debt and
+the dividends on its capital stock, or to use for improvements, such
+as rolling stock, stations, better road-bed, new rails, or any other
+betterments which might seem advisable.</p>
+
+<p>In 1876 this sum was $1,264; in 1880 it was $1,798, since
+which time it has suffered a serious decline, until in 1888 it was
+only $650. It is the story of the previous studies repeated, and
+needs no further reiteration.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[445]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><em>Railway Building.</em>&mdash;The larger chart given on <a href="#Page_429">page 429</a>,
+gives the history of railway building from 1831 to 1888. The
+lower chart of the two given together on <a href="#Page_444">page 444</a>, repeats the
+annual record from 1876, for the purpose of studying the influence
+of profits on the progress of building. The net earnings
+per mile show a reduction in 1877. The following year
+shows an increase of earnings, and the building responded somewhat
+feebly the same year. The next two years (1879 and 1880)
+show great gains in net earnings, and the impetus given thereby
+to building, carries its increase steadily forward even two years
+beyond the turning-point of the earnings. The decline is then
+mutual to 1885. In 1886 the advance in earnings was responded
+to by such a remarkable increase in building that the stimulus
+is to be sought for partly outside of the increase of earnings,
+and is undoubtedly found in the desire to occupy the newly
+opening fields of western settlement; for the records mark unparalleled
+activity among the great trunk lines of the West in
+pushing their advances in Dakota, Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado,
+in 1886 and 1887. This is graphically shown in the
+map of 1889, when compared with that of 1880 (pages 432 and
+433).</p>
+
+<p><em>Ratios of Increase.</em>&mdash;It is difficult to obtain a just impression of
+values when expressed by figures alone. It is easy when these
+values are expressed in lines or colors. The greater difficulties
+come in the effort to compare values expressed in differing terms.
+To read that the increase of population was 23,400,000 from
+1870 to 1888; and that of railway mileage was 62,785 miles; and
+that of freight traffic was nearly 30,000,000,000 tons, in the same
+period, and then to attempt the comparison of increase without
+further aid, is a hopeless task.</p>
+
+<p>As a study of financial economy the comparison is worth making,
+for evidence of the over-development of an industry or a financial
+interest, rightly considered, may prevent suicidal development.
+The chart given on the next page makes the comparison easy.
+The actual increase in each instance is reduced to percentages, and
+the several chart-lines measure the progress. The increase of
+population is estimated on the basis of 62,000,000 persons in 1888.
+(So far as the lesson conveyed by the chart is concerned, the estimate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[446]</a></span>
+might as well have been 60,000,000, the variation in the location
+of the line would be trifling.)</p>
+
+<p>It appears, then, that railway mileage has increased nearly two
+hundred per cent. and that the rate of increase of freight traffic
+(as measured by ton-miles<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a>) has been enormously larger, considering
+the history of the thirteen trunk lines as indicative of the
+whole. It further appears that the freight traffic of the West has
+developed much more rapidly than that of the East, during the
+last eight years.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i_446.jpg" width="650" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Ratios of Increase.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><em>Construction and Maintenance.</em>&mdash;The tabulated statistics of
+these subjects are not of special interest, as the annual variation of
+cost is slight. In both these elements the wage-question is so
+large a factor that a comparative level is maintained from year to
+year. The available figures touching these subjects are few. The
+first table on the opposite page gives the average cost of construction
+per mile of the <em>total mileage of the country</em>; and the cost of
+maintenance per mile as reported by the New York, Lake Erie
+&amp; Western Road. The second table furnishes interesting <em>details</em>
+of the cost of maintenance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[447]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="p1 pfs90"><em>Construction and Maintenance for Ten Years.</em></p>
+
+<div class="p1 center fs80">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="tdrx bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc">Years.</td><td class="tdc bl">Cost of construction<br /> per mile.</td><td class="tdc bl">Cost of maintenance<br /> per mile.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">&nbsp;1879</td><td class="tdrx bl">$57,730</td><td class="tdrx bl">$1,671</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1880</td><td class="tdrx bl">58,624</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,371</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1881</td><td class="tdrx bl">60,645</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,448</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1882</td><td class="tdrx bl">61,303</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,335</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1883</td><td class="tdrx bl">61,800</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,533</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1884</td><td class="tdrx bl">61,400</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,281</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1885</td><td class="tdrx bl">61,400</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,082</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1886</td><td class="tdrx bl">61,098</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,496</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1887</td><td class="tdrx bl">58,603</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,533</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1888</td><td class="tdrx bl">60,732</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,226</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="p2 pfs90 pg-brk"><em>Comparative Statement of Maintenance of Way of the Illinois Central Road for Ten Years.</em></p>
+
+<p class="p1 pfs90">[Table&mdash;Part 1 of 2]</p>
+
+<div class="p1 center fs80">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="tdrx bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Year.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Miles of road<br /> at end of year.</td><td class="tdc bl smcap" colspan="5">Maintenance of Way.<br /><br /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc bt bl tdpp">Labor on track.</td><td class="tdc bl bt" colspan="2">New rails.</td><td class="tdc bl bt" colspan="2">Cross-ties.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bb tdpp"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bb"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx tdpp"></td><td class="tdrx bl"></td><td class="tdc bl">$</td><td class="tdc bl">Tons.</td><td class="tdc">$</td><td class="tdc bl">Number.</td><td class="tdc">$</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1879</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,286.72</td><td class="tdrx bl">297,363.40</td><td class="tdrx bl">9,276.00</td><td class="tdrx">125,062.70</td><td class="tdrx bl">264,520</td><td class="tdrx">93,107.51</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1880</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,320.35</td><td class="tdrx bl">343,982.23</td><td class="tdrx bl">9,767.49</td><td class="tdrx">215,365.32</td><td class="tdrx bl">260,116</td><td class="tdrx">93,330.32</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1881</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,320.35</td><td class="tdrx bl">411,018.91</td><td class="tdrx bl">10,098.47</td><td class="tdrx">169,718.80</td><td class="tdrx bl">345,260</td><td class="tdrx">127,279.76</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1882</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,908.65</td><td class="tdrx bl">690,112.59</td><td class="tdrx bl">8,438.00</td><td class="tdrx">128,521.48</td><td class="tdrx bl">604,096</td><td class="tdrx">201,648.26</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1883</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,927.99</td><td class="tdrx bl">742,476.20</td><td class="tdrx bl">8,191.79</td><td class="tdrx">183,239.65</td><td class="tdrx bl">425,627</td><td class="tdrx">153,739.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1884</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,066.35</td><td class="tdrx bl">706,751.86</td><td class="tdrx bl">6,342.73</td><td class="tdrx">93,446.25</td><td class="tdrx bl">462,665</td><td class="tdrx">154,083.19</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1885</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,066.35</td><td class="tdrx bl">749,254.19</td><td class="tdrx bl">8,747.31</td><td class="tdrx">87,331.95</td><td class="tdrx bl">508,756</td><td class="tdrx">176,835.69</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1886</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,149.07</td><td class="tdrx bl">705.553.82</td><td class="tdrx bl">6,376.40</td><td class="tdrx">63,238.84</td><td class="tdrx bl">492,524</td><td class="tdrx">174,515.72</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1887</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,355.12</td><td class="tdrx bl">760,093.33</td><td class="tdrx bl">6,092.66</td><td class="tdrx">79,917.84</td><td class="tdrx bl">573,898</td><td class="tdrx">197.989.47</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1888</td><td class="tdrx bl">2,552.55</td><td class="tdrx bl">847,806.67</td><td class="tdrx bl">8,172.36</td><td class="tdrx">106,372.94</td><td class="tdrx bl">654,141</td><td class="tdrx">214,130.73</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bb tdpp"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bb"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="p2 pfs90">[Table&mdash;Part 2 of 2]</p>
+
+<div class="p1 center fs80">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="tdrx bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Year.</td><td class="tdc bl smcap" colspan="3">Maintenance of Way.<br /><br /></td><td class="tdc bl wd10" rowspan="2">Expense per mile run by engines.</td><td class="tdc bl wd15" rowspan="2">Repairs of fences.</td>
+    <td class="tdc bl wd15" rowspan="2">Repairs of station building and water-works.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc bl bt tdpp">Repair of<br />bridges.</td><td class="tdc bl bt">Other items.</td><td class="tdc bl bt">Total.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bb tdpp"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx"></td><td class="tdc bl">$</td><td class="tdc bl">$</td><td class="tdc bl">$</td><td class="tdc bl">Cents.</td><td class="tdc bl">$</td><td class="tdc bl">$</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1879</td><td class="tdrx bl">73,119.56</td><td class="tdrx bl">125,041.92</td><td class="tdrx bl">640,575.53</td><td class="tdrx bl">11.73</td><td class="tdrx bl">$33,416.86</td><td class="tdrx bl">45,755.09</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1880</td><td class="tdrx bl">105,551.62</td><td class="tdrx bl">49,399.09</td><td class="tdrx bl">807,628.58</td><td class="tdrx bl">12.39</td><td class="tdrx bl">36,981.94</td><td class="tdrx bl">80,887.34</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1881</td><td class="tdrx bl">114,193.18</td><td class="tdrx bl">30,399.46</td><td class="tdrx bl">852,610.11</td><td class="tdrx bl">12.16</td><td class="tdrx bl">36,690.33</td><td class="tdrx bl">70,699.58</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1882</td><td class="tdrx bl">174,826.24</td><td class="tdrx bl">17,277.34</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,212,385.91</td><td class="tdrx bl">11.87</td><td class="tdrx bl">31,032.57</td><td class="tdrx bl">87,588.26</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1883</td><td class="tdrx bl">121,101.03</td><td class="tdrx bl">72,294.71</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,272,850.59</td><td class="tdrx bl">11.89</td><td class="tdrx bl">30,084.49</td><td class="tdrx bl">87,291.93</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1884</td><td class="tdrx bl">173,831.23</td><td class="tdrx bl">107,236.13</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,235,348.66</td><td class="tdrx bl">12.20</td><td class="tdrx bl">21,394.71</td><td class="tdrx bl">94,122.03</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1885</td><td class="tdrx bl">164,586.39</td><td class="tdrx bl">88,126.28</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,266,134.50</td><td class="tdrx bl">11.27</td><td class="tdrx bl">21,932.48</td><td class="tdrx bl">94,518.19</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1886</td><td class="tdrx bl">172,144.65</td><td class="tdrx bl">63,976.69</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,179,429.72</td><td class="tdrx bl">10.15</td><td class="tdrx bl">26,668.91</td><td class="tdrx bl">123,519.83</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1887</td><td class="tdrx bl">250,337.47</td><td class="tdrx bl">61,441.88</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,349.779.99</td><td class="tdrx bl">9.95</td><td class="tdrx bl">31,905.46</td><td class="tdrx bl">129,526.76</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1888</td><td class="tdrx bl">310,908.42</td><td class="tdrx bl">115,898.04</td><td class="tdrx bl">1,595,116.80</td><td class="tdrx bl">10.74</td><td class="tdrx bl">40,423.39</td><td class="tdrx bl">170,023.85</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bb tdpp"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="p2" />
+<p><em>Employees.</em>&mdash;This item is also one touching which railways
+make few reports. The New York Central &amp; Hudson River Road
+reports as follows: "Average number of employees, 20,659, being
+at the rate of 14.54 per mile of road worked; aggregate wages,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[448]</a></span>
+$12,460,708.89, or $603.16 each. Payments in wages equalled
+50.60 per cent. of the total working expenses, against 51.90 per
+cent. in 1886&ndash;87." Reckoning that each employee's wages supports
+an average of three persons, we have a total of 61,977 persons
+clothed, housed, and fed by this one corporation.</p>
+
+<p>"Poor's Manual" discusses this subject at some length, but
+mainly on theoretical ground.</p>
+
+<p><em>Rolling Stock.</em>&mdash;A table showing the history of the growth of
+the rolling stock of the country is given on <a href="#Page_148">page 148</a>; it is therefore
+unnecessary to repeat it here.</p>
+
+<p><em>Capital Invested.</em>&mdash;It is folly for the human mind to attempt to
+grasp the immensity of the financial interest expressed in the statement,
+that the combined capital invested in the railways of the
+United States is $9,369,398,954. No more can it comprehend
+that this vast aggregate has been the growth of about fifty years
+in a single interest, in a single country.</p>
+
+<p class="p1 pfs90"><em>Capital Invested.</em></p>
+
+<div class="p1 center fs80">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="tdrx bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bll bt"></td><td class="bl bt"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc">Year.</td><td class="tdc bl">Capital.</td><td class="tdc bll">Year.</td><td class="tdc bl">Capital.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bb tdpp"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bll bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1876</td><td class="tdrx bl">&nbsp;$4,468,592,000</td><td class="tdrx bll">1883</td><td class="tdrx bl">&nbsp;$7,477,866,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1877</td><td class="tdrx bl">5,106,202,000</td><td class="tdrx bll">1884</td><td class="tdrx bl">7,676,399,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1878</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,772,297,000</td><td class="tdrx bll">1885</td><td class="tdrx bl">7,842,533,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1879</td><td class="tdrx bl">4,872,017,000</td><td class="tdrx bll">1886</td><td class="tdrx bl">8,163,149,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1880</td><td class="tdrx bl">5,402,038,000</td><td class="tdrx bll">1887</td><td class="tdrx bl">8,673,187,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1881</td><td class="tdrx bl">6,278,565,000</td><td class="tdrx bll">1888</td><td class="tdrx bl">9,369,399,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx">1882</td><td class="tdrx bl">7,016,750,000</td><td class="tdrx bll"></td><td class="tdrx bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdrx bb tdpp"></td><td class="bl bb"></td><td class="bll bb"></td><td class="bl bb"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="p2" />
+<p>The first date in the table marks the close of the first century
+of our national life. Since that time the investment has more than
+doubled; an increase of nearly five billion dollars in twelve years&mdash;an
+average of over four hundred million dollars per year. More
+exactly expressed, this means $1,118,906 per day, or $46,621 for
+every hour, day and night, during the first twelve years of our
+second century.</p>
+
+<p>It is safe to say that no other financial interest shows a total of
+such wonderful magnitude. And with greater emphasis may it
+be said, that the finances of the world, record, in all the ages, to
+the present day, no such astounding increase of investment.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Data drawn from "Poor's Manual of Railroads," 1889, and the "Statistical Abstract of the United
+States," 1888, and carefully revised, form, in large part, the basis of the several studies; and the writer
+hereby expresses obligation to Mr. John P. Meany, editor of the "Manual," for kindly aid in his work.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> A ton-mile means a ton of freight hauled one mile; ten ton-miles, a ton of freight
+hauled ten miles, or two tons hauled five miles.</p></div></div>
+
+
+    <div class="chapter"></div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[449]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CONTENTS">INDEX.</a></h2>
+
+
+<div class="fs85">
+
+<p class="noindent">
+Accidents, chances of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">at crossings, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">from coupling cars, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">investigation of, <a href="#Page_399">399</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">to railway bridges, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">South Norwalk, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">statistics of, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">to trainmen, <a href="#Page_393">393</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">to trains, origin of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Adams, Charles Francis, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a><br />
+<br />
+Air-brake, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br />
+<br />
+Allen, Horatio, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br />
+<br />
+Arbitration between railways and their employees, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a><br />
+<br />
+Armstrong, Colonel G. G., <a href="#Page_316">316</a><br />
+<br />
+Atkinson, Edward, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Auditor's duties, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Baggage-check system, <a href="#Page_253">253</a><br />
+<br />
+Baggage-master, work of, <a href="#Page_416">416</a><br />
+<br />
+Baggage service, abuses in, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
+<br />
+Baggage transportation, <a href="#Page_253">253</a><br />
+<br />
+Baldwin Locomotive Works, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br />
+<br />
+Ballast of a railway, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
+<br />
+Baltimore &amp; Ohio, the, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">cars, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">early passenger-trains, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">in 1830, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Bangs, George S., <a href="#Page_317">317</a><br />
+<br />
+Bell-cord train-signal, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br />
+<br />
+Bessemer, Sir Henry, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
+<br />
+Bessemer steel, invention of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
+<br />
+Blaine, James G., <a href="#Page_323">323</a><br />
+<br />
+Blair, Montgomery, <a href="#Page_317">317</a><br />
+<br />
+Block-signal, automatic, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">system, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Boilers, construction of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br />
+<br />
+Bonds and stock, relative position of, <a href="#Page_354">354</a><br />
+<br />
+Brake, air-, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">advantages of air-, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">improvements suggested to air-, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">American, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">and coupler, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">Beals, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">chain, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">continuous, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">early forms of, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">electric, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">hand, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">perils of, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">how to manage, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">hydraulic, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">steam driver-, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">trials at Burlington, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">vacuum, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">water, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">Westinghouse air-, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Brakemen, characteristics of, <a href="#Page_384">384</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">duties of, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">life, agreeable and disagreeable features of, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">passenger-train, advantages of, <a href="#Page_396">396</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">pleasures of, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">wit of, the result of meditation, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Bridges, railway, accidents to, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">American iron, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">American, development of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">length of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">American wooden, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">and culverts, how built, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">Bismarck, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">Britannia, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">builders, <a href="#Page_423">423</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">cantilever, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">connecting two tunnels, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">connections, types of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></span><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[450]</a></span><span class="pad1">foundations by crib or open caisson, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Bridges, foundations by pneumatic caisson, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">foundations, how made, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">foundations under water, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">gangs, work of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">great, over cañons and valleys, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">guard-rails and frogs for, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">Hawkesbury River, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">Howe truss, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">how to build safe, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">Kentucky River, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">Kinzua, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">Lachine, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">masonry arch, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">Niagara cantilever, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">Portage, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">Poughkeepsie, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">steel truss, development of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">strength of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">St. Louis, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">trusses, types of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">tubular, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">typical American truss, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">Verrugas, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">Victoria, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">Washington, over Harlem River, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">wooden, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">wood, stone, and iron, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Bridgers, R. R., <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br />
+<br />
+Bridgewater, Duke of, <a href="#Page_345">345</a><br />
+<br />
+Broken trains, dangers of, <a href="#Page_388">388</a><br />
+<br />
+Burr &amp; Wernwag, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Caissons for bridge foundations, how made, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">open, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">pneumatic, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Camden &amp; Amboy locomotives, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br />
+<br />
+Cameron, Simon, prediction of, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br />
+<br />
+Campbell, Henry R., <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br />
+<br />
+Cantilever bridges, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br />
+<br />
+Capital invested in railways, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a><br />
+<br />
+Car-accountant, and the transportation department, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">office of, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Car-accounting, benefits of a good system, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br />
+<br />
+Car-builders' dictionary, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br />
+<br />
+Car-couplers, imperfections of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">need of uniformity in, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Car-coupling, accidents from, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a><br />
+<br />
+Cars, American and English, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">American, evolution of, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">Baltimore &amp; Ohio freight-, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">different kinds of, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">old, discomforts of, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">distribution of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">empty, distribution of, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">first American passenger-, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">first sleeping-, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">for special uses, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">freight-, wanderings of a, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">heating by gas, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">heating by steam, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">heating, methods of, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">lighting safely, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">mileage and records, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">mileage charges, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">Mohawk &amp; Hudson passenger-, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">number of, in the United States, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">records of movement, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">service charges, per diem plan, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">service of, payment for, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">service records and reports, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">tracers for, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">trucks, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">invention of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">use and abuse of, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Car-wheels, European, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">how made, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">paper, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Cassatt, A. J., <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br />
+<br />
+Check system for baggage, <a href="#Page_253">253</a><br />
+<br />
+Chief engineer, duties of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br />
+<br />
+Chimbote Railway in the Andes, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Civil service reform in the mail service, <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br />
+<br />
+Classifications of freight, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br />
+<br />
+Clerks, railway, <a href="#Page_422">422</a><br />
+<br />
+Coffer-dam foundations for bridges, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
+<br />
+Commissions to passenger agents, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
+<br />
+Competing points and pools, <a href="#Page_364">364</a><br />
+<br />
+Concentration of power, <a href="#Page_351">351</a><br />
+<br />
+Conducting transportation, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br />
+<br />
+Conductors, freight, trials of, <a href="#Page_398">398</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">heroism of, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">passenger, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Consolidation, effects of, <a href="#Page_351">351</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">tendency to, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Construction companies, <a href="#Page_355">355</a><br />
+<br />
+Contractors, railway, work of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br />
+<br />
+Conveniences at stations, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[451]</a></span><br />
+Cooley, Judge Thomas M., <a href="#Page_368">368</a><br />
+<br />
+Cooper, Peter, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br />
+<br />
+Council, proposed railway, <a href="#Page_380">380</a><br />
+<br />
+Couplers and brakes, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">imperfections of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">uniform automatic, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Coupling cars, accidents from, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a><br />
+<br />
+Coupon tickets, <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">misunderstood, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Cox, S. S., <a href="#Page_323">323</a><br />
+<br />
+Cranes, large travelling, in locomotive shops, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br />
+<br />
+Crib foundations for bridge piers, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br />
+<br />
+Crises of 1873 and 1885, effects of, <a href="#Page_356">356</a><br />
+<br />
+Crossings, accidents at, <a href="#Page_408">408</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">protection for, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Cullom, Senator S. M., <a href="#Page_368">368</a><br />
+<br />
+Culverts, building of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">log, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">masonry, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">on American railways, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Curves, American and European railway, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">least, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Cutting, largest ever made, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+<br />
+Cylinders, locomotive, construction of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Darwin, Erasmus, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<br />
+Davis &amp; Gartner, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br />
+<br />
+Davis, Phineas, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br />
+<br />
+Davis, W. A., <a href="#Page_317">317</a><br />
+<br />
+Death and accident provisions for postal clerks, <a href="#Page_343">343</a><br />
+<br />
+Delays in a long journey, <a href="#Page_267">267</a><br />
+<br />
+Delaware &amp; Hudson Canal Company, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br />
+<br />
+Demurrage charges, <a href="#Page_296">296</a><br />
+<br />
+Derailing switches, use of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
+<br />
+Derailments of trains, causes of, <a href="#Page_218">218</a><br />
+<br />
+Destructive force of a locomotive at high speed, <a href="#Page_187">187</a><br />
+<br />
+Detector-bar for switches, <a href="#Page_205">205</a><br />
+<br />
+Differentials, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br />
+<br />
+Dining-cars, introduction of, <a href="#Page_243">243</a><br />
+<br />
+Discipline necessary on a railway, <a href="#Page_377">377</a><br />
+<br />
+Distribution of cars, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br />
+<br />
+Dividends, average, on railway stock, <a href="#Page_443">443</a><br />
+<br />
+Drawbridge accidents, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br />
+<br />
+Driving-wheels, large and small, <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Eads, Captain James B., <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br />
+<br />
+Eames vacuum brake, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br />
+<br />
+Eccentric, operation of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br />
+<br />
+Educational institutions for railway employees, <a href="#Page_379">379</a><br />
+<br />
+Electric annunciator for signals, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br />
+<br />
+Electric lights for cars, <a href="#Page_226">226</a><br />
+<br />
+Electricity applied to brakes, <a href="#Page_194">194</a><br />
+<br />
+Elevated Railroad, New York, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Employees, railway, benefit funds, <a href="#Page_378">378</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">permanent and temporary, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">promotion of, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">number of, in the United States, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">permanency of service during good behavior, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">relations of, to the railway, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">representative system for, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">rights and privileges of permanent, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">to have a voice in management, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">wages of, <a href="#Page_448">448</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Engineer, the, as a public benefactor, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">civil, qualifications of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">responsibilities and duties of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Engineering, good, true test of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Ericsson, John, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Facing and trailing point switches, <a href="#Page_219">219</a><br />
+<br />
+Facing-point locks, <a href="#Page_205">205</a><br />
+<br />
+Fast freight lines, <a href="#Page_287">287</a><br />
+<br />
+Fast mail service, appropriations for, <a href="#Page_337">337</a><br />
+<br />
+Fast mail train, trip with, <a href="#Page_323">323</a><br />
+<br />
+Fast runs, remarkable instances, <a href="#Page_404">404</a><br />
+<br />
+Fast time on railways, conditions of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br />
+<br />
+Field &amp; Hayes, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br />
+<br />
+Fink, Albert, <a href="#Page_365">365</a><br />
+<br />
+Fisk, James, Jr., <a href="#Page_353">353</a><br />
+<br />
+Flagging trains, <a href="#Page_390">390</a><br />
+<br />
+Foot-guard for frogs, <a href="#Page_222">222</a><br />
+<br />
+Foreign cars, theory and practice in their use, <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br />
+<br />
+Foster, Rastrick &amp; Company, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br />
+<br />
+Free-pass system, <a href="#Page_362">362</a><br />
+<br />
+Freight-car wanderings, <a href="#Page_267">267</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">classifications and rates, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">conductor and his trials, <a href="#Page_398">398</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">department, organization of, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">engines, saving fuel on, <a href="#Page_402">402</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">empty trains of, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">handlers at stations, <a href="#Page_423">423</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">movement, accidents in, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">cost of delays in, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[452]</a></span>
+Freight profits, <a href="#Page_440">440</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">rates, reduction of, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">traffic, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">how handled, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Freight trains, air-brakes for, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">transportation, needs of the service, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Fuel, saving, on freight-engines, <a href="#Page_402">402</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Garrett, John W., <a href="#Page_351">351</a><br />
+<br />
+Gate-tenders on the railway, <a href="#Page_423">423</a><br />
+<br />
+General Freight Agent, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
+<br />
+General Manager, duties of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br />
+<br />
+General Passenger Agent, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
+<br />
+Geographical location of railways in the United States, <a href="#Page_427">427</a><br />
+<br />
+Goold, James, <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br />
+<br />
+Grades, limit of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+Grand Central Station interlocking signals, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br />
+<br />
+Grand River cañon, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+Granger movement, <a href="#Page_363">363</a><br />
+<br />
+Guard-rails and frogs for bridges, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Hamlin, Hannibal, <a href="#Page_323">323</a><br />
+<br />
+Hampson, John, <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br />
+<br />
+Harrison, Joseph, Jr., <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br />
+<br />
+Hawkesbury River bridge, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br />
+<br />
+Heater-cars, Eastman, <a href="#Page_289">289</a><br />
+<br />
+Heating cars, <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br />
+<br />
+Highway crossing accidents, <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">crossing gates, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Holley, Alexander L., <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
+<br />
+Hoosac Tunnel, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+Hospital funds for railway employees, <a href="#Page_378">378</a><br />
+<br />
+Hotel-cars, <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br />
+<br />
+Howe truss bridges, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Immigrant sleeping-cars, <a href="#Page_251">251</a><br />
+<br />
+Inclined planes for overcoming elevations, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+<br />
+Injectors, principle of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br />
+<br />
+Insurance funds for railway employees, <a href="#Page_378">378</a><br />
+<br />
+Interchange of cars, methods of, <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br />
+<br />
+Interlocking bolts, uses of, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">signals and switches, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Interstate commerce law, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">Commerce Commission and its work, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Investigation of accidents, <a href="#Page_399">399</a><br />
+<br />
+Investors and managers, relations of, <a href="#Page_357">357</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">difficult position of, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Irregular hours of work, <a href="#Page_399">399</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Jameson, John, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a><br />
+<br />
+Janney car-coupler, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br />
+<br />
+Jervis, John B., <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a><br />
+<br />
+Johnson, R. P., <a href="#Page_339">339</a><br />
+<br />
+Judgment, value of, in a locomotive-runner, <a href="#Page_407">407</a><br />
+<br />
+Junction-cards and car-reports, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Kentucky River cantilever bridge, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br />
+<br />
+King, Porter, <a href="#Page_408">408</a><br />
+<br />
+Kinzua Bridge, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Lachine Bridge, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br />
+<br />
+Latimer, Charles, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br />
+<br />
+Latrobe, Benjamin H., <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+Layng, J. D., <a href="#Page_319">319</a><br />
+<br />
+Legal department of a railway, duties of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br />
+<br />
+Lighting cars, safe methods, <a href="#Page_226">226</a><br />
+<br />
+Lincoln, Abraham, in the first sleeping-car, <a href="#Page_240">240</a><br />
+<br />
+Link motion for locomotive valves, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br />
+<br />
+Location, approximate, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">final, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">how governed, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">in old and new countries, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">importance of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[453]</a></span>
+Locomotives, ability to climb grades, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">American type, origin of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">Baltimore &amp; Ohio "grasshopper," <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">boiler construction, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">cab, what is in it, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">capacity to draw loads, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">consolidation, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">cost of running, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">cylinders, how supplied with steam, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">decapod, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">destructive force of, at high speed, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">"DeWitt Clinton," <a href="#Page_105">105</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">driving-wheels, how made, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">earliest American, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">early eight-wheeled, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">engineer, the duties and qualifications of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">peculiarities of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">duties and dangers of, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">spirit of fraternity of, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">English type of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">equalizing levers, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">fireman, <a href="#Page_422">422</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">first trial of, in America, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">fuel, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">consumption, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">hostler, <a href="#Page_422">422</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">how to start and stop, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">"John Bull," <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">Mogul, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">number of, in the United States, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">Peter Cooper's, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">prize offered for, by the Baltimore &amp; Ohio, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">pumps and injectors, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">"Rocket," <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">running, systems of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">cost of, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">running gear, adjustment of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">flexible, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">shops, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">size, weight, and price, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">speed, law of, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">suburban traffic, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">ten-wheeled, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">trials, Liverpool &amp; Manchester Railway, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">truck, invention of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">types of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">valve motion, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></span><br />
+<br />
+London Underground Railway, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+"Long and short haul," <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Mail service, railway, civil service reform in, <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br />
+<br />
+Mail train, fast, <a href="#Page_317">317</a><br />
+<br />
+Managers and investors, relations of, <a href="#Page_357">357</a><br />
+<br />
+Masonry arch bridges, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br />
+<br />
+Massachusetts Railroad Commission and traffic questions, <a href="#Page_367">367</a><br />
+<br />
+Master Car Builders' Association brake-trials, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">type of car-coupler, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Master car-builder's duties, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
+<br />
+Master mechanic's work, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br />
+<br />
+Master of transportation, duties of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br />
+<br />
+Mexican Central Railway, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+<br />
+Mileage balances, reduction of, <a href="#Page_273">273</a><br />
+<br />
+Miller coupler and buffer, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br />
+<br />
+Miller, Ezra, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br />
+<br />
+Milling in transit, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br />
+<br />
+Model railway service, <a href="#Page_375">375</a><br />
+<br />
+Mohawk &amp; Hudson passenger-cars, <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br />
+<br />
+Mont Cenis Tunnel, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+Moral standard on the railway, improvement in, <a href="#Page_384">384</a><br />
+<br />
+Mount Washington Railway, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+<br />
+Mountain climbing by rack railways, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">railways, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+National regulation of railways, <a href="#Page_367">367</a><br />
+<br />
+Newell, John, <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br />
+<br />
+New York Elevated Railways, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Niagara cantilever bridge, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">suspension bridge, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Nochistongo cut, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Operating department of a railway, importance of, <a href="#Page_373">373</a><br />
+<br />
+Oroya Railway in the Andes, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Outram, Benjamin, <a href="#Page_345">345</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Paper car-wheels, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br />
+<br />
+Passenger advertisement, first, <a href="#Page_229">229</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">brakeman, <a href="#Page_396">396</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">burned in wrecks, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">cars, early, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">English and American, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">first American, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">manufacture of, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">Mohawk &amp; Hudson, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">conductor, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">fares, comparative rates, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">profits, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">rates and commissions, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">tickets, old, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">traffic, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">trains, first, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">early American, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">making time on, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">travel, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">amount of, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">safety of, in England and America, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">speed of, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Pay-car, trip of the, <a href="#Page_309">309</a><br />
+<br />
+Pay, increase of, for faithful service, <a href="#Page_378">378</a><br />
+<br />
+Paymaster's work, <a href="#Page_308">308</a><br />
+<br />
+Parallel roads, <a href="#Page_356">356</a><br />
+<br />
+Pensions for railway employees, <a href="#Page_378">378</a><br />
+<br />
+Pennsylvania Railroad shops at Altoona, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">maintenance of track, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">system, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Permanent service of a railway, <a href="#Page_375">375</a><br />
+<br />
+Pile-driver, work of a, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br />
+<br />
+Pile foundations for bridges, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br />
+<br />
+Plant, H. B., <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[454]</a></span>
+Pneumatic caissons for bridge foundations, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">interlocking apparatus, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Pœtsch method of building foundations for bridge piers, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br />
+<br />
+Pooling rates, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br />
+<br />
+Pools and competing points, <a href="#Page_364">364</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">railway, origin and nature of, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Pope, Thomas, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br />
+<br />
+Portage Bridge, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
+<br />
+Postal cars, <a href="#Page_325">325</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">first used, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">provision against accident in, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Postal clerks, accidents to, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br />
+<br />
+Postal progress, object lesson in, <a href="#Page_312">312</a><br />
+<br />
+Postal service, early history, <a href="#Page_313">313</a><br />
+<br />
+Potter, Thomas J., <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br />
+<br />
+Poughkeepsie cantilever bridge, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br />
+<br />
+Predecessors of the railway, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br />
+<br />
+Premiums to section-men, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+<br />
+Promotion of employees, <a href="#Page_376">376</a><br />
+<br />
+Pullman, George M., <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">Palace Car Company, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">sleeper, first, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Purchasing agent's varied duties and experience, <a href="#Page_300">300</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Rails, development of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">increased weight of, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">iron, first used, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">joints for, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">steel, first introduction, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">supply and renewal of, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">weight which they will carry, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Railroading fifty years ago, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+Railways, American, key to the development of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;<br />
+<span class="pad2">rolling stock of, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">and English, essential differences, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">amount of capital invested in, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">and their employees, nature of relations, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">and democracy, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">and their customers, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">beginning of, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">building, cost of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">example of rapid, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">history of, <a href="#Page_445">445</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">competition of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">with canals, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">consolidation, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">council, proposed, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">division of expenses on, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">earnings, average net, per mile, <a href="#Page_444">444</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">earliest, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">in America, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">early systems of management, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">economic view of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">educational institutions, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">employees, permanent and temporary, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">general characteristics of, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">moral welfare of, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">a typical, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">wages of, <a href="#Page_448">448</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">growth of, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">income, sources of, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">influence on the world, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">mail first carried on, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">mail service, growth of, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">importance of, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">needs of, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">organization of, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">party injury to, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">management, development of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">in Europe, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">organization and division of authority, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">results expected from, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">special departments of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">stability of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">subdivisions of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">men's building in New York, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">mileage, comparative, of the principal countries, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">of the United States, <a href="#Page_426">426</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">national idea developed by, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">national regulation, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">officers' duties and responsibilities, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">organization analyzed, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">complex, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">growth of, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">personnel, importance of, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">place in the modern industrial system, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">postal clerks' dangers, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">just claims, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">need of provision against disability, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pad2">work, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">relations of, to their employees, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">shop-men, <a href="#Page_423">423</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">State ownership of, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">statistics of, <a href="#Page_425">425</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">systems, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">the largest single industrial interest, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">United States, extent of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">"wars" between, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Randall, Samuel J., <a href="#Page_323">323</a><br />
+<br />
+Rates and rebates, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">causes of reduction, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">combinations and adjustments, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[455]</a></span>
+<span class="pad1">forced reductions, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">how made and regulated, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">inequalities of, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">passenger, and commissions, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">plans for regulating, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">special, wars over, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">without a natural standard, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Reagan, John H., <a href="#Page_368">368</a><br />
+<br />
+Reconnoissance, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br />
+<br />
+Refrigerator cars, <a href="#Page_289">289</a><br />
+<br />
+Representation for railway employees, <a href="#Page_380">380</a><br />
+<br />
+Restriction of railways, tendency to, <a href="#Page_369">369</a><br />
+<br />
+Ride on a locomotive at night, <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br />
+<br />
+Righi Railway, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Road-bed of a railway, how made, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br />
+<br />
+Roadway department of a railway, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br />
+<br />
+Roberts, George B., <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br />
+<br />
+Roebling, John A., <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<br />
+Rolling stock, growth of, <a href="#Page_448">448</a><br />
+<br />
+Routine of the railway mail service, <a href="#Page_325">325</a><br />
+<br />
+Rutter, J. H., <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Safety appliances, railway, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">devices needed, <a href="#Page_423">423</a></span><br />
+<br />
+St. Gothard Tunnel and spirals, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+St. Louis Bridge, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br />
+<br />
+Schneider, C. C., <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br />
+<br />
+Scott, Thomas Alexander, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a><br />
+<br />
+Scrap-heap, value of, <a href="#Page_302">302</a><br />
+<br />
+Section-master's duties, <a href="#Page_421">421</a><br />
+<br />
+Section-men's work, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br />
+<br />
+Semaphore signals, <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br />
+<br />
+Shepard, General D. C., <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+<br />
+Signals and switches, interlocking, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">automatic block, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">block system, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">semaphore, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">torpedo, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Sleeping-car rates, comparative, <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br />
+<br />
+Sleeping-cars, first experiments, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">immigrant, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">Pullman, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Smith, Colonel C. Shaler, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br />
+<br />
+Snow-sheds and fences, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br />
+<br />
+South American mountain-railways, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+South Carolina Railway, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">early passenger trains, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Special rates, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a><br />
+<br />
+Spoils system, how it works in the railway mail service, <a href="#Page_342">342</a><br />
+<br />
+Spreading of rails, <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br />
+<br />
+State ownership of railways, <a href="#Page_362">362</a><br />
+<br />
+State regulation of railways, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a><br />
+<br />
+Station agent's duties, <a href="#Page_411">411</a><br />
+<br />
+Station indicators, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br />
+<br />
+Station, large, work at, <a href="#Page_415">415</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">small, work at, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Stationery and blanks, quantity used on a railway, <a href="#Page_304">304</a><br />
+<br />
+Statistics, railway, <a href="#Page_425">425</a><br />
+<br />
+Steam driver-brake, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">how distributed to the cylinders, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">shovel, work of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">supply and speed, relations of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Steel bridges, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br />
+<br />
+Steel rails, first introduction, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
+<br />
+Steel truss-bridges, development of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br />
+<br />
+Stephenson, George, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">Robert, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Stock and bonds, relative position, <a href="#Page_354">354</a><br />
+<br />
+Storekeeper's duties on a railway, <a href="#Page_307">307</a><br />
+<br />
+Stockton &amp; Darlington passenger train, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br />
+<br />
+"Stourbridge Lion," <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br />
+<br />
+Strikes, evils of, <a href="#Page_374">374</a><br />
+<br />
+Superintendent, duties of, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">of machinery, powers and duties, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Supply department, <a href="#Page_298">298</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">importance of, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Supplies, aggregate of, on a railway, <a href="#Page_299">299</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">variety required for a railway, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Surveying party, life of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">from a rope ladder, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Surveys, preliminary, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br />
+<br />
+Suspension bridges, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br />
+<br />
+Switchbacks and loops, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;<br />
+<span class="pad1">types of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Switches, interlocking, <a href="#Page_420">420</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">stub, accidents caused by, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Switch-tender's work, <a href="#Page_420">420</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Telegraph in railroading, <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br />
+<br />
+Thompson, William B., <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a><br />
+<br />
+Thomson, Frank, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br />
+<br />
+Thomson, J. Edgar, <a href="#Page_349">349</a><br />
+<br />
+Through and local freight, <a href="#Page_288">288</a><br />
+<br />
+Through lines, growth of, <a href="#Page_348">348</a><br />
+<br />
+Tickets, cost of, on a railway, <a href="#Page_305">305</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">coupon, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">old, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">sales and reports, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Ties and timber supplies, <a href="#Page_306">306</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[456]</a></span>
+Time, fast, instances of, <a href="#Page_404">404</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">making, on passenger trains, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Time-tables, cost of, <a href="#Page_305">305</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">earliest American, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">how made, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Torpedo signals, <a href="#Page_213">213</a><br />
+<br />
+Track, early experiments with, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">how laid, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">how maintained and kept in order, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">inspection on the Pennsylvania Railroad, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">laid on stone, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">standards of excellence, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Trackmen's duties, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">organization and officers, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Track-walker's duties and trials, <a href="#Page_422">422</a><br />
+<br />
+Trade centres, advantages of, <a href="#Page_360">360</a><br />
+<br />
+Traffic, how influenced and secured, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">manager, duties of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">questions and the Massachusetts Railroad Commission, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">receipts, how returned and accounted for, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Train despatcher and his work, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a><br />
+<br />
+Train despatching, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">old and new, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Train orders and rules, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br />
+<br />
+Train signals, bell-cord and other, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br />
+<br />
+Train work, irregularity of, <a href="#Page_399">399</a><br />
+<br />
+Trainmen, accidents to, <a href="#Page_393">393</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">and tramps, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Trains, rules for running, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br />
+<br />
+Tramways, Roman, of stone, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
+<br />
+Transfer freight stations, <a href="#Page_288">288</a><br />
+<br />
+Transportation, cost of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">conducting, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">department and the car-accountant, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Trestles, wooden, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
+<br />
+Trevithick, Richard, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<br />
+Tribunal, proposed, for adjusting differences between railways<br />
+       <span class="pad4">and their employees, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Trucks for cars, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">for locomotives, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Trunk lines compared, <a href="#Page_428">428</a><br />
+<br />
+Trunk-line pool, origin and history, <a href="#Page_365">365</a><br />
+<br />
+Truss-bridge, typical American, <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br />
+<br />
+Tubular bridges, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br />
+<br />
+Tunnels, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">American, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">connected by a bridge, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">difficulties of construction, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">great, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">how avoided, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">located by triangulation, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">Mont Cenis, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></span><br />
+<span class="pad1">St. Gothard, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Underground Railway, London, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Union Pacific Railway system, extent of, <a href="#Page_370">370</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Vacuum-brake, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br />
+<br />
+Vail, Theodore N., <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a><br />
+<br />
+Valleys, how crossed by a railway, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
+<br />
+Valve-motion arrangements, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br />
+<br />
+Vanderbilt business methods, <a href="#Page_351">351</a><br />
+<br />
+Vanderbilt, Commodore, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br />
+<br />
+Vanderbilt, Cornelius, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a><br />
+<br />
+Vanderbilt, William H., <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br />
+<br />
+Verrugas Viaduct, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+Vestibule train, luxury of, <a href="#Page_248">248</a><br />
+<span class="pad1">as a safety device, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Viaducts, American metal, <a href="#Page_79">79</a><br />
+<br />
+Victoria Bridge, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Waddell, A., <a href="#Page_323">323</a><br />
+<br />
+Wagner Palace Car Company, <a href="#Page_242">242</a><br />
+<br />
+Wagon cars, <a href="#Page_290">290</a><br />
+<br />
+War, the late, effect of, on railway growth, <a href="#Page_348">348</a><br />
+<br />
+Washington Bridge over the Harlem River, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br />
+<br />
+Waste and saving in supplies, <a href="#Page_302">302</a><br />
+<br />
+Water-jet method of sinking piles, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br />
+<br />
+Watt, James, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
+<br />
+Way-bill and its theory, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br />
+<br />
+Westinghouse air-brake, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br />
+<br />
+Westinghouse, George, Jr., <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br />
+<br />
+West Point Foundry as a locomotive shop, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br />
+<br />
+Whipple, Squire, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br />
+<br />
+Winans, Ross, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Yardmaster's duties, <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br />
+<br />
+Young Men's Christian Association, Railway Department, <a href="#Page_424">424</a><br />
+</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="transnote">
+<a name="TN" id="TN"></a>
+<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE</strong></p>
+
+<p>Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been
+corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within
+the text and consultation of external sources.</p>
+
+<p>Basic fractions are displayed as ½ ¼ ¾; other fraction are shown in
+the form <sup>a</sup>/<sub>b</sub> as <sup>1</sup>/<sub>117</sub> or 39<sup>2</sup>/<sub>10</sub> for example.</p>
+
+<p>A large dense table spanning two pages in the original book (<a href="#Page_158">page 158
+and 159</a>) has been split into 4 parts, with column #1 (engine number)
+being repeated in each part. The vertical column headings have been
+replaced by a key, A B etc, with an explanation of the keys at the
+beginning of each part. Some cell values were unclear in the scanned
+image and a best guess of the digit has been made.</p>
+
+<p>Another large table at <a href="#Page_447">page 447</a> has been split into 2 parts.</p>
+
+<p>In several tables with dollar.cent values the decimal point is faint
+or missing. For consistency the decimal point has been inserted in
+all cases.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Page_370">Footnote #31</a> had no anchor; this has been added in the chapter title.</p>
+
+<p>Two illustrations and their captions were placed sideways in the original
+book at pages 87 and 97. These are displayed normally (horizontally)
+in the etext at <a href="#Page_86">pages 86</a> and <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Nine consecutive full-page illustrations placed after <a href="#Page_428">page 428</a> have
+detailed maps and Gantt charts and many have large amounts of text on them.
+Most of this text, and the Gantt chart information, have been copied
+and placed under the illustration in a dotted-line box. <span class="screenonly">If
+the image is clicked, a larger version of the image is shown.</span></p>
+
+<p>In the organization chart on <a href="#Page_185">page 185</a>, it is very likely that the
+Train Master and the Station Agents were all intended to report to the Superintendant of
+Transportation. <span class="screenonly">The missing connecting line has been inserted using a
+dotted line to indicate this insertion.</span></p>
+
+<p>Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text,
+and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. For example,
+untravelled; sirup; smouldering; box car, box-car; cast iron,
+cast-iron.</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#Page_42">Pg 42</a>, 'from 1 to 10' replaced by 'from 0 to 10'.<br />
+<a href="#Page_114">Pg 114</a>, 'have ournal-boxes' replaced by 'have journal-boxes'.<br />
+<a href="#Page_392">Pg 392</a>, 'no one brakeman' replaced by 'not one brakeman'.<br />
+<a href="#Page_416">Pg 416</a>, 'fusilade' replaced by 'fusillade'.<br />
+</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The American Railway, by 
+Thomas Curtis Clarke and Theodore Voorhees and John Bogart and and others
+
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+</body>
+</html>
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