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diff --git a/old/54266-0.txt b/old/54266-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index b61cd87..0000000 --- a/old/54266-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8680 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, History of the Indians, of North and South -America, by Samuel G. (Samuel Griswold) Goodrich - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - - -Title: History of the Indians, of North and South America - - -Author: Samuel G. (Samuel Griswold) Goodrich - - - -Release Date: March 1, 2017 [eBook #54266] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE INDIANS, OF NORTH -AND SOUTH AMERICA*** - - -E-text prepared by Cindy Horton, WebRover, Adrian Mastronardi, and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page -images generously made available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 54266-h.htm or 54266-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/54266/54266-h/54266-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/54266/54266-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - https://archive.org/details/histindiansnorth00goodrich - - - - - -HISTORY OF THE INDIANS, OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA. - -By the Author of Peter Parley’S Tales. - - - - - - -Boston: -Bradbury, Soden & Co. -M DCCC XLIV. - -[Illustration] - -Entered according to Act of Congress, -in the year 1844, -by S. G. GOODRICH, -in the Clerk’s Office of the District -Court of Massachusetts. - -Stereotyped by -Metcalf, Keith & Nichols, -Cambridge. - -Wm. A. Hall & Co., Printers, -12 Water Street. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - - INTRODUCTION 5 - - ORIGIN OF THE ABORIGINES 10 - - CLASSIFICATION OF THE INDIANS 16 - - THE ABORIGINES OF THE WEST INDIES 22 - - THE CARIBS 34 - - EARLY MEXICAN HISTORY 41 - - MEXICO, FROM THE ARRIVAL OF CORTÉS 54 - - THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS 80 - - THE ARAUCANIANS 98 - - SOUTHERN INDIANS OF SOUTH AMERICA 112 - - INDIANS OF BRAZIL 121 - - THE INDIANS OF FLORIDA 129 - - THE INDIANS OF VIRGINIA 147 - - THE SOUTHERN INDIANS 160 - - INDIANS OF NEW ENGLAND 170 - - THE FIVE NATIONS, &c. 192 - - THE SIX NATIONS 205 - - WESTERN INDIANS EAST OF THE MISSISSIPPI 219 - - WESTERN AND SOUTHERN INDIANS 233 - - VARIOUS TRIBES OF NORTHERN AND WESTERN INDIANS 241 - - THE INDIANS WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI 256 - - PRESENT CONDITION OF THE WESTERN INDIANS IN THE - UNITED STATES 287 - - THE PROSPECTS OF THE WESTERN TRIBES 297 - -[Illustration] - - - - - HISTORY - OF THE - AMERICAN INDIANS. - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -When America was first discovered, it was found to be inhabited by a -race of men different from any already known. They were called INDIANS, -from the West Indies, where they were first seen, and which Columbus, -according to the common opinion of that age, supposed to be a part -of the East Indies. On exploring the coasts and the interior of the -vast continent, the same singular people, in different varieties, -were everywhere discovered. Their general conformation and features, -character, habits, and customs were too evidently alike not to render -it proper to class them under the same common name; and yet there were -sufficient diversities, in these respects, to allow of grouping them -in minor divisions, as families or tribes. These frequently took their -names from the parts of the country where they lived. - -The differences just mentioned were, indeed, no greater than might have -been expected from the varieties of climate, modes of life, and degree -of improvement which existed among them. Sometimes the Indians were -found gathered in large numbers along the banks of rivers or lakes, or -in the dense forest, their hunting-grounds; and not unfrequently also, -scattered in little collections over the extended face of the country. -As they were often engaged in wars with each other, a powerful tribe -would occasionally subject to its sway numerous other lesser ones, whom -it held as its vassals. - -No accurate account can be given of their numbers. Some have estimated -the whole amount in North and South America, at the time of the -discovery of the continent, even as high as one hundred or one hundred -and fifty millions. This estimate is unquestionably much too large. -A more probable one would be from fifteen or twenty to twenty-five -millions. But they have greatly diminished, and of all the ancient -race not more than four or five millions, if so many, now remain. -Pestilence, wars, hardships, and sufferings of various kinds have -been their lot for nearly four hundred years; and they have melted -away at the approach of the white man; so that even a lone Indian -is now scarcely found beside the grave of his fathers, where once -the war-whoop might have called a thousand or more valiant men to go -forth to engage in the deadly fray. With them have perished, in many -instances, their ancient traditions; and as they had no other means of -handing down the records of their deeds, their history is lost, except -here and there a fragment, which has been treasured up by some white -man more curious than his fellows, in studying their present or former -fates. Monuments, indeed, exist, widely scattered over the countries -they once occupied; some rude and inartificial, marked by no skill or -taste; and others evidently reared at not a little expense of time and -labor, and characterized by all the indications of a people far in -advance of their neighbours in the arts and in civilization. - -By whom were these reared, when, and for what cause? How long have they -been thus reposing in their undisturbed quiet, and crumbling in silent -ruin? are questions that force themselves on the mind of the reflective -traveller, as he stands beside or amid their strange forms, and pores -over what seem the sepulchres of buried ages. But the tongue of history -is mute, and they who could have answered his inquiries have long since -passed away. - -To give, therefore, a historical account of the American Indians is a -task beset with not a few difficulties. The sources of information must -be almost wholly derived from their conquerors and foes; and though the -incidents related may be in the main correct, and the causes that lie -on the surface be easily known, yet the more hidden ones, the secret -springs of action, are beyond our reach. We have not the Indian himself -recording for us the motives that have prompted his stern spirit, -carefully veiling his designs from all around, nourishing the dark -purpose, and maturing his plans. We are not admitted to the council -of the warriors or wise men, and allowed to listen to their relation -of the wrongs, real or fancied, they have suffered, or to see how one -after another of the chiefs or counsellors utters his opinions, and the -deep plot is laid which is to issue in wreaking a dire revenge, even to -extermination, on the hated intruders. - -All these various incentives to action, are nearly or quite beyond our -inspection. Yet it is in the contemplation of such only, that Indian -history can be truly estimated; for all these particulars throw their -lights and shades across and into the portraiture of this most singular -people. It could hardly be expected, that they, who suffered from the -fearful revenge of the red man, who saw, as it were, the scalping-knife -gleaming around the head of a beloved wife, or child, or friend, or who -felt the arrow quivering in their own flesh, or who heard the war-whoop -ringing terrifically on the domestic quiet of their habitation,--it -could hardly, indeed, be expected, that such persons should be as -truthful or impartial as if they had been called to record scenes of a -more peaceful and grateful kind. Without, therefore, doing the early -writers the injustice of supposing that they mean to misrepresent -facts,--yet, in glancing over their descriptions of perfidy, plots, -murders, cruelties, and revenge, we must remember that the red man -had no one of his race to record for him his history, and be candid -and just in our judgments, where there may often be not a little to -extenuate, if not wholly to excuse from blame. - -Let us also bear in mind one remarkable fact, that, in their first -intercourse, the reception extended to the Europeans by the Americans -was confiding and hospitable, and that this confidence and hospitality -were generally repaid with treachery, rapine, and murder. This was the -history of events for the first century, till at last the red men, over -the whole continent, learned to regard the Europeans as their enemies, -the plunderers of their wealth, the spoilers of their villages, the -greedy usurpers of their liberty and lands. We are told of tribes of -birds, in the interior of Africa, which at first permitted travellers -to approach them, not having yet learned the lesson of fear; but after -the fowler had scattered death among them, they discovered that man was -a being to be dreaded, and fled at his approach. The natives of America -had a similar lesson to learn; and though they did not always fly from -the approach of their European enemy, it was not because they expected -mercy at his hands. - -[Illustration] - - - - -ORIGIN OF THE ABORIGINES. - - -The origin of the aborigines of America is involved in mystery. Many -have been the speculations indulged and the volumes written by learned -and able men to establish, each one, his favorite theory. Conjecture, -by a train of ingenious reasonings and comparisons, has grown into -probability, and finally almost settled down into certainty. For -a time, as in the case of the celebrated “Letters of Junius,” the -question has seemed decided; so plausible have appeared the proofs, -that it would have been deemed almost like incredulity to gainsay -them. But another supposition, more likely, has been started, and has -supplanted the former; each, in its turn, has passed away, and we are -perhaps no nearer the truth than before. We will notice a few of the -most prominent of these opinions. - -1. The Indians have been supposed, by certain writers, to be of -_Jewish_ origin; either descended from a portion of the ten tribes, -or from the Jews of a later date. This view has been maintained -by Boudinot and many others; and Catlin, in his “Letters,” has -recently advocated it, especially with respect to the Indians west -of the Mississippi. In proof of this opinion, reference is made -to similarities, more or less striking, in many of their customs, -rites, and ceremonies, sacrifices, and traditions. Thus, he has -found many of their modes of worship exceedingly like those of the -Mosaic institutions. He mentions a variety of particulars respecting -separation, purification, feasts, and fastings, which seem to him very -decisive. “These,” he says, “carry in my mind conclusive proof, that -these people are tinctured with Jewish blood.” Efforts have also been -made, but with little success, to detect a resemblance of words in -their language to the Hebrew, and some very able writers have adopted -the opinion, that this fact is established. That there may be such -resemblances as are supposed is very probable, yet they are perhaps -accidental, or such only as are to be found among all languages. -Besides, allowance must be made for the state of the observer’s mind, -and his desire to find analogies, as also for his ignorance of the -Indian language in its roots, and his liability to confound their -traditions with his own fancies. Many of these similarities, moreover, -belong rather to the general characteristics of the Patriarchal age, -than to the peculiarities of the Jewish economy. Even admitting the -analogies in manners and customs mentioned by Catlin and others, they -are not so striking as are those of the Greeks, as depicted by Homer, -to those of the Jews, as portrayed in the Bible. There are striking -resemblances between the ideas and practices of our American Indians, -and those of many Eastern nations, which show them to be of Asiatic -origin, but yet they do not identify them more with the Jews than with -the Tartars, or Egyptians, or even the Persians. - -2. Some have supposed that the ancient _Phœnicians_, or the -_Carthaginians_, in their navigation of the ocean, penetrated to this -Western Continent, and founded colonies. As this is mere conjecture, -and is sustained by no proof in history, though here also fancied -resemblances have been detected in language and some minor things, it -may be dismissed as unworthy of serious consideration. - -3. Others again have imagined that the _Eastern and Western Continents -were once united_ by land occupying the space which is now filled -by the Atlantic Ocean; and that previous to the great disruption an -emigration took place. With respect to this view, it is embarrassed by -greater difficulties than the former. There is not the remotest trace -of such an event recorded in history. It is only, therefore, entitled -to be considered as a _possible_ mode by which the Western Continent -might have been peopled. - -4. The pretensions of the _Welsh_ have been put forth with not a little -zeal, and have been considered by some as having more plausibility. -They assert, that, about the year 1170, on the death of Owen Gwyneth, -a strife for the succession arose among his sons; that one of them, -disgusted with the quarrel, embarked in ten ships with a number of -people, and sailed westward till he discovered an unknown land; that, -leaving part of his people as a colony, he returned to Wales, and -after a time again sailed with new recruits, and was never heard of -afterwards. Southey has built on this tradition his beautiful poem of -“Madoc,” the name of the fancied chieftain who was at the head of the -enterprise. The writer, by whom the story was first published, is -said, however, to have lived at least 400 years after the events, and -discredit is thus thrown over the whole. Mr. Catlin, in the appendix -to his second volume, forgetful, apparently, that he had already -attributed certain rites and ceremonies of the same people to Jewish -origin, seems to suppose that the Mandans are undoubted descendants of -Madoc and his Welshmen, who, he thinks, entered the Gulf of Mexico, -and sailed up the Mississippi even to the Ohio River, whence they -afterwards emigrated to the Far West. He furnishes some words of the -Mandan language, which he compares with the Welsh, and which must be -allowed to have considerable resemblance to each other, for the same -ideas. Still, the theory must be regarded as wholly fanciful. - -5. A supposition more plausible than any other is, that America was -peopled from the _northeastern part of Asia_. This seems to correspond -with the general view of the Indians themselves, who represent their -ancestors as having been formerly residents in Northwestern America. -It corresponds also with history in another respect. By successive -emigrations, Asia furnished Europe and Africa with their population, -and why not America? If it could supply other quarters of the globe -with millions, and these of various physical and moral characteristics, -why not also supply America with its first inhabitants? The identity of -the aborigines with the nations of Northeastern Asia cannot, indeed, -be fully established; but, while many causes may have contributed to -destroy this resemblance, enough is shown, with other facts, to make -this theory preponderate over all others. - -If this supposition be true, it is not to be imagined that the -emigration to this continent all took place at once. There were -doubtless successive arrivals of persons from various parts of Asia; -and thus the Indian traditions, which refer to the Northwest as the -country of their ancestors, and to periods and intervals separating -them, in which people of various character made their appearance, -one after another, and left some traces of their residence, may be -accounted for. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: _North American Indians in Council._] - - - - -CLASSIFICATION OF THE INDIANS. - - -In respect to the general resemblance of the Indians, an able writer -of a recent date, treating of this question, says,--“The testimony of -all travellers goes to prove that the native Americans are possessed -of certain physical characteristics which serve to identify them -in places the most remote, while they assimilate not less in their -moral character. There are also, in their multitudinous languages, -some traces of a common origin; and it may be assumed as a fact, -that no other race of men maintains so striking an analogy through -all its subdivisions, and amidst all its varieties of physical -circumstances,--while, at the same time, it is distinguished from all -the other races by external peculiarities of form, but still more by -the internal qualities of mind and intellect.” - -M. Bory de St. Vincent attempted to show that the American race -includes four species besides the Esquimaux; but he appears to have -failed in establishing his theory. - -Dr. Morton has paid great attention to the subject. He conducted -his investigations by comparisons of the skulls of a vast number of -different tribes, the results of which he has given to the public in -his “_Crania Americana_.” He considers the most natural division to be -into the _Toltecan_ and _American_; the former being half-civilized, -and including the Peruvians and Mexicans; the latter embracing all the -barbarous nations except the Esquimaux, whom he regards as of Mongolian -origin. - -He divides each of these into subordinate groups, those of the American -class being called the _Appalachian_, _Brazilian_, _Patagonian_, and -_Fuegian_. - -The APPALACHIAN includes all those of North America except the -Mexicans, together with those of South America north of the Amazon and -east of the Andes. They are described thus. “The head is rounded, the -nose large, salient, and aquiline, the eyes dark-brown, with little -or no obliquity of position, the mouth large and straight, the teeth -nearly vertical, and the whole face triangular. The neck is long, the -chest broad, but rarely deep, the body and limbs muscular, seldom -disposed to fatness.” In character, they “are warlike cruel, and -unforgiving,” averse to the restraints of civilized life, and “have -made but little progress in mental culture or the mechanic arts.” - -Of the BRAZILIAN it is said, that they are spread over a great part -of South America east of the Andes, including the whole of Brazil and -Paraguay between the River Amazon and 35 degrees of south latitude. -In physical characteristics, they resemble the Appalachian; their -nose is larger and more expanded, their mouth and lips also large. -Their eyes are small, more or less oblique, and farther apart, the -neck short and thick, body and limbs stout and full, to clumsiness. In -mental character, it is said, that none of the American race are less -susceptible of civilization, and what they are taught by compulsion -seldom exceeds the humblest elements of knowledge. - -The PATAGONIAN branch comprises the nations south of the River La Plata -to the Straits of Magellan, and also the mountain tribes of Chili. They -are chiefly distinguished by their tall stature, handsome forms, and -unconquerable courage. - -The FUEGIANS, who call themselves _Yacannacunnee_, rove over the -sterile wastes of Terra del Fuego. Their numbers are computed by -Forster to be only about 2,000. Their physical aspect is most -repulsive. They are of low stature, with large heads, broad faces, and -small eyes, full chests, clumsy bodies, large knees, and ill-shaped -legs. Their hair is lank, black, and coarse, and their complexion a -decided brown, like that of the more northern tribes. They have a -vacant expression of face, and are most stupid and slow in their mental -operations, destitute of curiosity, and caring for little that does not -minister to their present wants. - -Long, black hair, indeed, is common to all the American tribes. Their -real color is not copper, but brown, most resembling cinnamon. Dr. -Morton and Dr. McCulloh agree, that no epithet is so proper as the -_brown_ race. - -The diversity of complexion cannot be accounted for mainly by climate; -for many near the equator are not darker than those in the mountainous -parts of temperate regions. The Puelches, and other Magellanic tribes -beyond 35 degrees south latitude, are darker than others many degrees -nearer the equator; the Botecudos, but a little distance from the -tropics, are nearly white; the Guayacas, under the line, are fair, -while the Charruas, at 50 degrees south latitude, are almost black, and -the Californians, at 25 degrees north latitude, are almost white. - -The color seems also not to depend on local situation, and in the same -individual the covered parts are not fairer than those exposed to the -heat and moisture. Where the differences are slight, the cause may -possibly be found in partial emigrations from other countries. The -characteristic brown tint is said to be occasioned by a pigment beneath -the lower skin, peculiar to them with the African family, but wanting -in the European. - -Another division of the American race has been suggested, into three -great classes, according to the _pursuits_ on which they depend for -subsistence, namely, _hunting_, _fishing_, and _agriculture_. The -American race are further said to be intellectually inferior to the -Caucasian and Mongolian races. They seem incapable of a continued -process of reasoning on abstract subjects. They seize easily and -eagerly on simple truths, but reject those which require analysis or -investigation. Their inventive faculties are small, and they generally -have but little taste for the arts and sciences. A most remarkable -defect is the difficulty they have of comprehending the relations of -numbers. Mr. Schoolcraft assured Dr. Morton, that this was the cause -of most of the misunderstandings in respect to treaties between the -English and the native tribes. - -The _Toltecan_ family are considered as embracing all the -semi-civilized nations of Mexico, Peru, and Bogota, reaching from the -Rio Gila, in 33 degrees of north latitude, along the western shore -of the continent, to the frontiers of Chili, and on the eastern coast -along the Gulf of Mexico. In South America, however, they chiefly -occupied a narrow strip of land between the Andes and the Pacific -Ocean. The Bogotese in New Grenada were, in civilization, between the -Peruvians and the Mexicans. The Toltecans were not the sole possessors -of these regions, but the dominant race, while the American race -composed the mass of the people. - -The great difference between the Toltecan and the American races -consisted in the intellectual faculties, as shown in their arts -and sciences, architectural remains, pyramids, temples, grottos, -bass-reliefs, and arabesques; their roads, aqueducts, fortifications, -and mining operations. - -With respect to the American languages, there is said to exist a -remarkable similarity among them. From Cape Horn to the Arctic Sea, -all the nations have languages which possess a distinctive character, -but still apparently differing from all those of the Old World. This -resemblance, too, is said not to be of an indefinite kind. It generally -consists in the peculiar modes of conjugating the verbs by inserting -syllables. Vater, a distinguished German writer on this subject, says, -that this wonderful uniformity favors, in a singular manner, the -supposition of a primitive people which formed the common stock of the -American indigenous nations. According to M. Balbi, there are more -than 438 different languages, embracing upwards of 2,000 dialects. He -estimates the Indians of the brown race at 10,000,000, and the races -produced by the intermixture of the pure races at 7,000,000. - -We have thus given a general classification of the great American -family, and the main points respecting the question of their origin. -We must confess our inability wholly to lift the veil of obscurity in -which their early history is involved, or answer, conclusively, the -inquiry, whence they came, or when America was first peopled. We can -only offer what we have already stated as the most plausible theory, -that, ages ago, a great nation of Asia passed, at different times, -by way of Behring’s Straits, into the American Continent, and in the -course of centuries spread themselves over its surface. Here we suppose -them to have become divided by the slow influences of climate, and -other circumstances, into the several varieties which they display. - -[Illustration] - - - - -THE ABORIGINES OF THE WEST INDIES. - - -The authentic history of this remarkable and peculiar race of men opens -with the morning of the 12th of October, 1492. Columbus, the discoverer -of the New World, at that memorable date, landed upon the American -soil, and, as if his first action was to be a type of the consequences -about to follow in respect to the wondering natives who beheld him -and his companions, _he landed with a drawn sword in his hand_. If -the philanthropic spirit of the great discoverer could have shaped -events, the fate of the aborigines of the new continent had been widely -different; but who, that reads their history, can fail to see that the -Christians of the Eastern Hemisphere have brought but the sword to the -American race? - -Nor were the first actions of the natives, upon beholding this -advent of beings that seemed to them of heavenly birth, hardly less -significant of their character and doom. They were at first filled with -wonder and awe, and then, in conformity with their confiding nature, -came forward and timidly welcomed the strangers. The following is -Irving’s picturesque description of the scene. - -“The natives of the island, when at the dawn of day they had beheld the -ships hovering on the coast, had supposed them some monsters, which -had issued from the deep during the night. When they beheld the boats -approach the shore, and a number of strange beings, clad in glittering -steel, or raiment of various colors, landing upon the beach, they fled -in affright to the woods. - -“Finding, however, that there was no attempt to pursue or molest -them, they gradually recovered from their terror, and approached the -Spaniards with great awe, frequently prostrating themselves, and making -signs of adoration. During the ceremony of taking possession, they -remained gazing, in timid admiration, at the complexion, the beards, -the shining armor, and splendid dress of the Spaniards. - -“The admiral particularly attracted their attention, from his -commanding height, his air of authority, his scarlet dress, and the -deference paid him by his companions; all which pointed him out to be -the commander. - -“When they had still further recovered from their fears, they -approached the Spaniards, touched their beards, and examined their -hands and faces, admiring their whiteness. Columbus was pleased with -their simplicity, their gentleness, and the confidence they reposed -in beings who must have appeared so strange and formidable, and he -submitted to their scrutiny with perfect acquiescence. - -“The wondering savages were won by this benignity. They now supposed -that the ships had sailed out of the crystal firmament which bounded -their horizon, or that they had descended from above on their ample -wings, and that these marvellous beings were inhabitants of the skies. - -“The natives of the island were no less objects of curiosity to the -Spaniards, differing, as they did, from any race of men they had seen. -They were entirely naked, and painted with a variety of colors and -devices, so as to give them a wild and fantastic appearance. Their -natural complexion was of a tawny or copper hue, and they had no -beards. Their hair was straight and coarse; their features, though -disfigured by paint, were agreeable; they had lofty foreheads, and -remarkably fine eyes. - -“They were of moderate stature, and well shaped. They appeared to be -a simple and artless people, and of gentle and friendly dispositions. -Their only arms were lances, hardened at the end by fire, or pointed -with a flint or the bone of a fish. There was no iron among them, nor -did they know its properties; for, when a drawn sword was presented to -them, they unguardedly took it by the edge. - -“Columbus distributed among them colored caps, glass beads, hawk’s -bells, and other trifles, which they received as inestimable gifts, -and, decorating themselves with them, were wonderfully delighted with -their finery. In return, they brought cakes of a kind of bread called -cassava, made from the yuca root, which constituted a principal part of -their food.” - -Thus kindly began the intercourse between the Old World and the New; -but the demon of avarice soon disturbed their peace. The Spaniards -perceived small ornaments of gold in the noses of some of the natives. -On being asked where this precious metal was procured, they answered by -signs, pointing to the south, and Columbus understood them to say, that -a king resided in that quarter, of such wealth that he was served in -great vessels of gold. - -Columbus took seven of the Indians with him, to serve as interpreters -and guides, and set sail to find the country of gold. He cruised -among the beautiful islands, and stopped at three of them. These were -green, fertile, and abounding with species and odoriferous trees. The -inhabitants everywhere appeared the same,--simple, harmless, and happy, -and totally unacquainted with civilized man. - -Columbus was disappointed in his hopes of finding gold or spices in -these islands; but the natives continued to point to the south, and -then spoke of an island in that direction called Cuba, which the -Spaniards understood them to say abounded in gold, pearls, and spices. -People often believe what they earnestly wish; and Columbus sailed in -search of Cuba, fully confident that he should find the land of riches. -He arrived in sight of it on the 28th of October, 1492. - -Here he found a most lovely country, and the houses of the Indians, -neatly built of the branches of palm-trees, in the shape of pavilions, -were scattered under the trees, like tents in a camp. But hearing of -a province in the centre of the island, where, as he understood the -Indians to say, a great prince ruled, Columbus determined to send a -present to him, and one of his letters of recommendation from the king -and queen of Spain. - -For this purpose he chose two Spaniards, one of whom was a converted -Jew, and knew Hebrew, Chaldaic, and Arabic. Columbus thought the prince -must understand one or the other of these languages. Two Indians were -sent with them as guides. They were furnished with strings of beads, -and various trinkets, for their travelling expenses; and they were -enjoined to ascertain the situation of the provinces and rivers of -Asia,--for Columbus thought the West Indies were a part of the Eastern -Continent. - -The Jew found his Hebrew, Chaldaic, and Arabic of no avail, and the -Indian interpreter was obliged to be the orator. He made a regular -speech after the Indian manner, extolling the power, wealth, and -generosity of the white men. When he had finished, the Indians crowded -round the Spaniards, touched and examined their skin and raiment, and -kissed their hands and feet in token of adoration. But they had no gold -to give them. - -It was here that _tobacco_ was first discovered. When the envoys were -on their return, they saw several of the natives going about with -firebrands in their hands, and certain dried herbs which they rolled up -in a leaf, and, lighting one end, put the other into their mouths, and -continued inhaling and puffing out the smoke. A roll of this kind they -called _tobacco_. The Spaniards were struck with astonishment at this -smoking. - -When Columbus became convinced that there was no gold of consequence -to be found in Cuba, he sailed in quest of some richer lands, and soon -discovered the island of Hispaniola, or Hayti. It was a beautiful -island. The high mountains swept down into luxuriant plains and green -savannas, while the appearance of cultivated fields, with the numerous -fires at night, and the volumes of smoke which rose in various parts -by day, all showed it to be populous. Columbus immediately stood in -towards the land, to the great consternation of his Indian guides, who -assured him by signs that the inhabitants had but one eye, and were -fierce and cruel cannibals. - -Columbus entered a harbour at the western end of the island of Hayti, -on the evening of the 6th of December. He gave to the harbour the name -of St. Nicholas, which it bears to this day. The inhabitants were -frightened at the approach of the ships, and they all fled to the -mountains. It was some time before any of the natives could be found. -At last three sailors succeeded in overtaking a young and beautiful -female, whom they carried to the ships. - -She was treated with the greatest kindness, and dismissed finely -clothed, and loaded with presents of beads, hawk’s bells, and other -pretty bawbles. Columbus hoped by this conduct to conciliate the -Indians; and he succeeded. The next day, when the Spaniards landed, -the natives permitted them to enter their houses, and set before them -bread, fish, roots, and fruits of various kinds, in the most kind and -hospitable manner. - -Columbus sailed along the coast, continuing his intercourse with -the natives, some of whom had ornaments of gold, which they readily -exchanged for the merest trifle of European manufacture. These poor, -simple people little thought that to obtain gold these _Christians_ -would destroy all the Indians in the islands. No,--they believed the -Spaniards were more than mortal, and that the country from which they -came must exist somewhere in the skies. - -The generous and kind feelings of the natives were shown to great -advantage when Columbus was distressed by the loss of his ship. He -was sailing to visit a grand cacique or chieftain named Guacanagari, -who resided on the coast to the eastward, when his ship ran aground, -and, the breakers beating against her, she was entirely wrecked. He -immediately sent messengers to inform Guacanagari of this misfortune. - -When the cacique heard of the distress of his guest, he was so much -afflicted as to shed tears; and never in any civilized country were -the vaunted rites of hospitality more scrupulously observed than by -this uncultivated savage. He assembled his people and sent off all his -canoes to the assistance of Columbus, assuring him, at the same time, -that every thing he possessed was at his service. The effects were -landed from the wreck and deposited near the dwelling of the cacique, -and a guard set over them, until houses could be prepared, in which -they could be stored. - -There seemed, however, no disposition among the natives to take -advantage of the misfortune of the strangers, or to plunder the -treasures thus cast upon their shores, though they must have been -inestimable in their eyes. On the contrary, they manifested as deep -a concern at the disaster of the Spaniards as if it had happened to -themselves, and their only study was, how they could administer relief -and consolation. - -Columbus was greatly affected by this unexpected goodness. “These -people,” said he in his journal, “love their neighbours as themselves; -their discourse is ever sweet and gentle, and accompanied by a smile. -There is not in the world a better nation or a better land.” - -When the cacique first met Columbus, the latter appeared dejected; -and the good Indian, much moved, again offered Columbus every thing -he possessed that could be of service to him. He invited him on -shore, where a banquet was prepared for his entertainment, consisting -of various kinds of fish and fruit. After the feast, Columbus was -conducted to the beautiful groves which surrounded the dwelling of the -cacique, where upwards of a thousand of the natives were assembled, -all perfectly naked, who performed several of their national games and -dances. - -Thus did this generous Indian try, by every means in his power, to -cheer the melancholy of his guest, showing a warmth of sympathy, a -delicacy of attention, and an innate dignity and refinement, which -could not have been expected from one in his savage state. He was -treated with great deference by his subjects, and conducted himself -towards them with a gracious and prince-like majesty. - -Three houses were given to the shipwrecked crew for their residence. -Here, living on shore, and mingling freely with the natives, they -became fascinated by their easy and idle mode of life. They were -governed by the caciques with an absolute, but patriarchal and easy -rule, and existed in that state of primitive and savage simplicity -which some philosophers have fondly pictured as the most enviable on -earth. - -The following is the opinion of old Peter Martyr: “It is certain that -the land among these people (the Indians) is as common as the sun and -water, and that ‘mine and thine,’ the seeds of all mischief, have no -place with them. They are content with so little, that, in so large a -country, they have rather superfluity than scarceness; so that they -seem to live in a golden world, without toil, in open gardens, neither -intrenched nor shut up by walls or hedges. They deal truly with one -another, without laws, or books, or judges.” - -In fact, these Indians seemed to be perfectly contented; their -few fields, cultivated almost without labor, furnished roots and -vegetables; their groves were laden with delicious fruit; and the coast -and rivers abounded with fish. Softened by the indulgence of nature, -a great part of the day was passed by them in indolent repose. In the -evening they danced in their fragrant groves to their national songs, -or the rude sound of their silver drums. - -Such was the character of the natives of many of the West India -islands, when first discovered. Simple and ignorant they were, and -indolent also, but then they were kind-hearted, generous, and happy. -And their sense of justice, and of the obligations of man to do right, -are beautifully set forth in the following story. - -It was a custom with Columbus to erect crosses in all remarkable -places, to denote the discovery of the country, and its subjugation to -the Catholic faith. He once performed this ceremony on the banks of a -river in Cuba. It was on a Sunday morning. The cacique attended, and -also a favorite of his, a venerable Indian, fourscore years of age. - -While mass was performed in a stately grove, the natives looked on -with awe and reverence. When it was ended, the old man made a speech -to Columbus in the Indian manner. “I am told,” said he, “that thou -hast lately come to these lands with a mighty force, and hast subdued -many countries, spreading great fear among the people; but be not -vainglorious. - -“According to our belief, the souls of men have two journeys to -perform, after they have departed from the body: one to a place dismal, -foul, and covered with darkness, prepared for such men as have been -unjust and cruel to their fellow-men; the other full of delight, for -such as have promoted peace on earth. If, then, thou art mortal, and -dost expect to die, beware that thou hurt no man wrongfully, neither do -harm to those who have done no harm to thee.” - -When this speech was explained to Columbus by his interpreter, he was -greatly moved, and rejoiced to hear this doctrine of the future state -of the soul, having supposed that no belief of the kind existed among -the inhabitants of these countries. He assured the old man that he -had been sent by his sovereigns, to teach them the true religion, to -protect them from harm, and to subdue their enemies, the Caribs. - -Alas for the simple Indians who believed such professions! Columbus, -no doubt, was sincere; but the adventurers who accompanied him, and -the tyrants who followed him, cared only for riches for themselves. -They ground down the poor, harmless red men beneath a harsh system of -labor, obliging them to furnish, month by month, so much gold. This -gold was found in fine grains, and it was a severe task to search the -mountain-pebbles and the sands of the plains for the shining dust. - -Then the islands, after they were seized upon by the Christians, were -parcelled out among the leaders, and the Indians were compelled to be -their slaves. No wonder deep despair fell upon the natives. Weak and -indolent by nature, and brought up in the untasked idleness of their -soft climate and their fruitful groves, death itself seemed preferable -to a life of toil and anxiety. - -The pleasant life of the island was at an end: the dream in the shade -by day; the slumber during the noontide heat by the fountain, or under -the spreading palm; and the song, and the dance, and the game in the -mellow evening, when summoned to their simple amusements by the rude -Indian drum. They spoke of the times that were past, before the white -men had introduced sorrow, and slavery, and weary labor among them; and -their songs were mournful, and their dances slow. - -They had flattered themselves, for a time, that the visit of the -strangers would be but temporary, and that, spreading their ample -sails, their ships would waft them back to their home in the sky. In -their simplicity, they had frequently inquired of the Spaniards when -they intended to return to Turey, or the heavens. But when all such -hope was at an end, they became desperate, and resorted to a forlorn -and terrible alternative. - -They knew the Spaniards depended chiefly on the supplies raised in -the islands for a subsistence; and these poor Indians endeavoured to -produce a famine. For this purpose they destroyed their fields of -maize, stripped the trees of their fruit, pulled up the yuca and other -roots, and then fled to the mountains. - -The Spaniards were reduced to much distress, but were partially -relieved by supplies from Spain. To revenge themselves on the Indians, -they pursued them to their mountain retreats, hunted them from one -dreary fastness to another, like wild beasts, until thousands perished -in dens and caverns, of famine and sickness, and the survivors, -yielding themselves up in despair, submitted to the yoke of slavery. -But they did not long bear the burden of life under their civilized -masters. In 1504, only twelve years after the discovery of Hayti, -when Columbus visited it, (under the administration of Ovando,) he -thus wrote to his sovereigns: “Since I left the island, six parts -out of seven of the natives are dead, all through ill-treatment and -inhumanity; some by the sword, others by blows and cruel usage, or by -hunger.” - -No wonder these oppressed Indians considered the Christians the -incarnation of all evil. Their feelings were often expressed in a -manner that must have touched the heart of a real Christian, if there -was such a one among their oppressors. - -When Velasquez set out to conquer Cuba, he had only three hundred -men; and these were thought sufficient to subdue an island above -seven hundred miles in length, and filled with inhabitants. From this -circumstance we may understand how naturally mild and unwarlike was -the character of the Indians. Indeed, they offered no opposition to -the Spaniards, except in one district. Hatuey, a cacique who had fled -from Hayti, had taken possession of the eastern extremity of Cuba. He -stood upon the defensive, and endeavoured to drive the Spaniards back -to their ships. He was soon defeated and taken prisoner. - -Velasquez considered him as a slave who had taken arms against his -master, and condemned him to the flames. When Hatuey was tied to the -stake, a friar came forward, and told him that if he would embrace the -Christian faith, he should be immediately, on his death, admitted into -heaven. - -“Are there any Spaniards,” says Hatuey, after some pause, “in that -region of bliss you describe?” - -“Yes,” replied the monk, “but only such as are worthy and good.” - -“The best of them,” returned the indignant Indian, “have neither worth -nor goodness; I will not go to a place where I may meet with one of -that cruel race.” - - - - -THE CARIBS. - - -Columbus discovered the islands of the Caribs or Charibs, now called -the Caribbees, during his second voyage to America, in 1493. The first -island he saw he named Dominica, because he discovered it on Sunday. As -the ships gently moved onward, other islands rose to sight, one after -another, covered with forests, and enlivened with flocks of parrots -and other tropical birds, while the whole air was sweetened by the -fragrance of the breezes which passed over them. - -This beautiful cluster of islands is called the Antilles. They extend -from the eastern end of Porto Rico to the coast of Paria on the -southern continent, forming a kind of barrier between the main ocean -and the Caribbean Sea. Here was the country of the Caribs. - -Columbus had heard of the Caribs during his stay at Hayti and Cuba, at -the time of his first voyage. The timid and indolent race of Indians in -those pleasant islands were afraid of the Caribs, and had repeatedly -besought Columbus to assist them in overcoming these their ferocious -enemies. The Caribs were represented as terrible warriors, and cruel -cannibals, who roasted and ate their captives. This the gentle -Haytians thought, truly enough, was a good pretext for warning the -Christians against such foes. Columbus did not at first imagine that -the beautiful paradise he saw, as he sailed onward among these green -and spicy islands, could be the residence of cruel men; but on landing -at Guadaloupe, he soon became convinced he was truly in a Golgotha, a -place of skulls. He there saw human limbs hanging in the houses, as if -curing for provisions, and some even roasting at the fire for food. He -knew then that he was in the country of the Caribs. - -On touching at the island of Montserrat, Columbus was informed that -the Caribs had eaten up all the inhabitants. If that had been true, it -seems strange how he obtained his information. - -It is probable many of these stories were exaggerations. The Caribs -were a warlike people, in many respects essentially differing in -character from the natives of the other West India islands. They -were enterprising as well as ferocious, and frequently made roving -expeditions in their canoes to the distance of one hundred and fifty -leagues, invading the islands, ravaging the villages, making slaves of -the youngest and handsomest females, and carrying off the men to be -killed and eaten. - -These things were bad enough, and it is not strange report should make -them more terrible than the reality. The Caribs also gave the Spaniards -more trouble than did the effeminate natives of the other islands. They -fought their invaders desperately. In some cases the women showed as -much bravery as the men. At Santa Cruz the females plied their bows -with such vigor, that one of them sent an arrow through a Spanish -buckler, and wounded the soldier who bore it. - -There have been many speculations respecting the origin of the -Caribs. That they were a different race from the inhabitants of the -other islands is generally acknowledged. They also differed from -the Indians of Mexico and Peru; though some writers think they were -culprits banished either from the continent or the large islands, and -thus a difference of situation might have produced a difference of -manners. Others think they were descended from some civilized people -of Europe or Africa, and imagine that there is no difficulty attending -the belief, that a Carthaginian or Phœnician vessel might have been -overtaken by a storm, and blown about by the gales, till it entered the -current of the trade-winds, when it would have been easily carried to -the West Indies. - -The Caribs possessed as many of the arts as were necessary to live -at ease in that luxurious climate. Some of these have excited the -admiration of Europeans.[1] In their subsequent intercourse with -the Europeans, they have, in some instances, proved faithless and -treacherous. In 1708, the English entered into an agreement with the -Caribs in St. Vincent to attack the French colonies in Martinico. -The French governor heard of the treaty, and sent Major Coullet, who -was a great favorite with the savages, to persuade them to break the -treaty. Coullet took with him a number of officers and servants, and -a good store of provisions and liquors. He reached St. Vincent, gave -a grand entertainment to the principal Caribs, and, after circulating -the brandy freely, he got himself painted red, and made them a flaming -speech. He urged them to break their connection with the English. -How could they refuse a man who gave them brandy, and who was red as -themselves? They abandoned their English friends, and burned all the -timber the English had cut on the island, and butchered the first -Englishmen who arrived. But their crimes were no worse than those of -their Christian advisers, who, on both sides, were inciting these -savages to war. - -But the Caribs are all gone, perished from the earth. Their race is -no more, and their name is only a remembrance. The English and the -French, chiefly the latter, have destroyed them. There is, however, one -pleasant reflection attending their fate. Though destroyed, they were -never enslaved. None of their conquerors could compel them to labor. -Even those who have attempted to hire Caribs for servants have found -it impossible to derive any benefit or profit from them; they would not -be commanded or reprimanded. - -This independence was called pride, indolence, and stubbornness, by -their conquerors. If the Caribs had had historians to record their -wrongs, and their resistance to an overwhelming tyranny, they would -have set the matter in a very different light. They would have -expressed the sentiment which the conduct of their countrymen so -steadily exemplified,--that it was better to die free than to live -slaves. - -So determined was their resistance to all kinds of authority, that it -became a proverb among the Europeans, that to show displeasure to a -Carib was the same as beating him, and to beat him was the same as to -kill him. If they did any thing, it was only what they chose, how they -chose, and when they chose; and when they were most wanted, it often -happened that they would not do what was required, nor any thing else. - -The French missionaries made many attempts to convert the Caribs to -Christianity, but without success. It is true that some were apparently -converted; they learned the catechism and prayers, and were baptized; -but they always returned to their old habits. - -A man of family and fortune, named Chateau Dubois, settled in -Guadaloupe, and devoted a great part of his life to the conversion of -the Caribs, particularly those of Dominica. He constantly entertained -a number of them, and taught them himself. He died in the exercise of -these pious and charitable offices, without the consolation of having -made one single convert. - -As we have said, several had been baptized, and, as he hoped, they -were well instructed, and apparently well grounded in the Christian -religion; but after they returned to their own people, they soon -resumed all the Indian customs, and their natural indifference to all -religion. - -Some years after the death of Dubois, one of these Carib apostates was -at Martinico. He spoke French correctly, could read and write, had -been baptized, and was then upwards of fifty years old. When reminded -of the truths he had been taught, and reproached for his apostasy, -he replied, “that if he had been born of Christian parents, or if he -had continued to live among the French, he would still have professed -Christianity; but that, having returned to his own country and his own -people, he could not resolve to live in a manner differing from their -way of life, and by so doing expose himself to the hatred and contempt -of his relations.” Alas! it is small matter of wonder that the Carib -thought the Christian religion was only a _profession_. Had those who -bore that name always been Christians in reality, and treated the poor -ignorant savages with the justice, truth, and mercy which the gospel -enjoins, what a different tale the settlement of the New World would -have furnished! - -The Caribs, who spread themselves over the main land contiguous to -their islands, were similar in characteristics to those of the West -Indies, of whom they are supposed to have been the original stock. -They formed an alliance with the English under Sir Walter Raleigh, -in one of his romantic expeditions on that coast, in 1595, and for a -long time preserved the English colors which were presented to them -on that occasion. The Caribs of the continent are said to have been -divided into the Maritimos and the Mediterraneos. The former lived in -plains, and upon the coast of the Atlantic, and are said to have been -the most hostile of any of the Indians who infest the settlements of -the missions of the River Orinoco, and have been sometimes called the -Galibis. The Mediterraneos inhabited the south side of the source of -the River Caroni, and are described as of a more pacific nature, and -began to receive the Jesuit missionaries and embrace the Christian -faith in 1738. - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTE: - -[1] For an account of these, see “Manners and Customs of the Indians” -in “The Cabinet Library.” - - - - -EARLY MEXICAN HISTORY. - - -According to the annals preserved by the Mexicans, the country embraced -in the vale of Mexico was formerly called Anahuac. The rest of the -territory contained the kingdoms of Mexico, Acolhuacan, Tlacopan, -Michuacan, and the republics of Tlaxcallan or Tlascala, Cholollan, and -Huexotzinco. The people who settled the country came from the north. -The first inhabitants were called Toltecs or Toltecas, who came from a -distant country at the northwest in the year 472. They migrated slowly, -cultivating and settling as they proceeded, so that it was 104 years -before they reached a place fifty miles east of the situation where -Mexico was afterwards built; there they remained for twenty years, and -built a city called Tollantzinco. Thence they removed forty miles to -the westward, and built another city called Tollan or Tula. - -When they first commenced their migration, they had a number of chiefs, -who, by the time they reached Tollantzinco, were reduced to seven. This -form of government was afterwards changed to a monarchy; why, we know -not, but probably some one of the chiefs was more valiant or cunning -than his associates, and supplanted them. This monarchy began A. D. -607, and lasted 384 years, in which time they are said to have had only -eight princes. This fact, however, is accounted for by the custom which -prevailed, of keeping up the name of each king for fifty-two years. - -They remained prosperous for 400 years, when a famine succeeded, -occasioned by a severe drought, which was followed by a pestilence that -destroyed many of them. Tradition says, that a demon appeared once at a -festival ball, and with giant arms embraced the people, and suffocated -them; that he appeared again as a child with a putrid head, and brought -the plague; and that, by his persuasion, they abandoned Tula, and -scattered themselves among various nations, by whom they were well -received. - -A hundred years afterwards, succeeded a more barbarous people from -Amaquemecan. Who or what they were is not known, as there is no trace -of them among the American nations; nor is there any reason given why -they left their own country. They are said to have been eight months on -their way, led by a son of their monarch, called Xolotl, who sent his -son to survey the country, which he took possession of by shooting four -arrows to the four winds. He chose for his capital Tenayuca, six miles -north of the site of Mexico; in which direction most of the people -settled. It is asserted that their numbers amounted to 1,000,000; as -ascertained by twelve piles of stones which were thrown up at a review -of the people; but this is probably an exaggeration. - -This barbarous people formed alliances with the relics of the Toltecan -race, and their prince, Nopaltzin, married a descendant of the -Toltecan royal family. The effect of these intermarriages on them was a -happy one, as they were civilized by the Toltecas, who were much their -superiors in a knowledge of the arts. Heretofore they had subsisted -only on roots and fruits, and by hunting; sucking the blood of the -animals they killed, and taking their skins for clothing; but now they -began to dig up and sow the ground, to work metals, and attempt other -useful arts. About eighteen years after their arrival, six persons made -their appearance as an embassy from a people living near Amaquemecan; a -place was assigned them, and in a few years three princes came with a -large army of Acolhuans, who received three princesses in marriage. The -two nations gradually coalesced in one, and took the name of the new -comers; the name Chechemecas being left to the ruder and more barbarous -tribes who lived by hunting and on roots. These latter joined the -Otomies, a barbarous people who lived farther north, in the mountains. - -Xolotl divided his dominions into three states, namely, Azcapozalco, -eighteen miles west of Tezcuco, Xaltocan, and Coatlichan, which he -conferred, in fief, on his three sons-in-law. As was natural, various -civil wars afterwards occurred during the reigns of the sovereigns who -succeeded Xolotl. Nopaltzin reigned thirty-two years, and is said to -have died at the advanced age of ninety-two. After him came Tlotzin, -who reigned thirty-six years, and was a good prince. He was succeeded -by Quinatzin, a luxurious tyrant, who, on the removal of his court from -Tenayuca to Tezcuco, caused himself to be borne thither in a litter by -four lords, while a fifth held an umbrella over him to keep off the -sun; he is said to have reigned sixty years. In his reign, there were -many rebellions, and on his death he was succeeded by a prince named -Techotlala. - -In the year 1160, the Mexicans, Aztecas, or Aztecs made their -appearance. They are said to have come from the region north of the -Gulf of California, and were induced to migrate from the country where -they lived by the persuasion of Huitziton, a man of great influence -among them. He is said to have observed a little singing-bird, whose -notes sounded like _Tihui_, which in their language meant, _Let us go_. -He led another person, also a man of influence, to observe this, and -they persuaded the people to obey the suggestion, as they said, of the -secret divinity. This was no difficult matter in a partially civilized -and superstitious community. They proceeded, as their tradition -relates, to the River Gila, where they stopped for a time, and where, -it is affirmed, remains have been found at a somewhat recent date. - -They then removed to a place about 250 miles from Chihuahua, toward -the north-northwest, now called in Spanish _Casas Grandes_, on account -of a large building found there, on the plan of those in New Mexico, -having three floors with a terrace above them, the door for entrance -opening on the second floor, to which the ascent was by a ladder. Other -remains, also, of a fortress, and various utensils, have been found -there. From this spot they proceeded southward, crossed the mountains, -and stopped at Culiacan, a place on the Gulf of California in Lat. 24° -N. Here they made a wooden image, called Huitzilopochtli, which they -carried on a chair of reeds, and appointed priests for its service. -When they left their country, on their migration, they consisted of -seven different tribes; but here the Mexicans were left with their god -by the others, called the Xochimilcas, Tepanecas, Chalchese, Colhuas, -Tlahuicas, and Tlascalans, who proceeded onwards. The reason of this -separation is not mentioned, except that it was at the command of the -god, from which it may be conjectured that some quarrel had arisen with -respect to his worship. - -On their way to Tula, the Mexicans became divided into two factions; -yet they kept together, for the sake of the god, while they built -altars, and left their sick in different places. They remained in -Tula nine years, and spent eleven more in the countries adjoining. -In 1216, they reached Tzompanco, a city in the vale of Mexico, and -were hospitably received by the lord of the district; his son, named -Ilhuitcatl, married among them. From him have descended all the Mexican -monarchs. The people continued to migrate along the Lake Tezcuco -during the reign of Xolotl, but in the reign of Nopaltzin they were -persecuted, and obliged, in 1245, to go to Chapoltepec, a mountain two -miles from Mexico. They then took refuge in the small islands Acocolco, -at the southern extremity of the Lake of Mexico. Here they lived -miserably for 52 years, till the year 1314, when they were reduced to -slavery by a petty king of Colhuacan, by whom they were treacherously -entrapped and cruelly oppressed. - -Some years after, on the occasion of a war between the Colhuas and -the Xochimilcas, in which the latter were victorious, the Colhuas -were obliged to release their slaves, who fought with great bravery, -cutting off the ears of the enemies they had killed, which they -produced on being reproached with cowardice. The effect of this was to -excite such a detestation of them, that they were desired to leave the -country. They did so, and went north till they came to a place called -Acatzitzintlan, and afterwards Mexicaltzinco; but not liking this, -they went on to Iztacalco, still nearer to the site of Mexico. Here -they remained two years, and then went to a place on the lake, where -they found the _nopal_ growing on a stone, and over it the foot of an -eagle; this was the place marked out by the oracle. Here they ended -their wanderings, and erected an altar to their god; one of them went -for a victim, and found a Colhuan, whom they killed, and offered as -a sacrifice to the idol. Here, too, they built their rush huts, and -formed a city, which was called Tenochtitlan, and afterwards Mexico, or -the place of Mexitli, their god of war. - -This was in 1325; the city was situated on a small island in the middle -of a great lake, without ground sufficient for cultivation, or even to -build upon. It was necessary, therefore, to enlarge it; and for this -purpose they drove down piles and palisades, and with stones, turf, -&c., thus united the other small islands to the larger one. To procure -stone and wood, they exchanged fish and water-fowl with some other -nations, and made, with incredible industry, floating gardens, on which -they raised vegetable products. They here remained thirteen years at -peace, but afterwards quarrels ensued, and the factions separated; one -of them went to a small island a little northward, named Xaltilolco, -afterwards Tlatelolco. - -These divided their city into four parts, each quarter having its -tutelar deity. In the midst of the city, Mexitli was worshipped -with horrible rites, and the sacrifice of prisoners. Under pretence -of consecrating her to be the mother of their god, they sought the -presence of a Colhuan princess at their rites; and when the request -was granted, they put her to death, flayed her body, and dressed one -of their brave men in her skin. The father was invited to be present -and officiate as the priest. All was darkness, till, on lighting the -copal in his censer to begin the rites of worship, he saw the horrible -spectacle of his immolated daughter. - -In 1352, the Mexicans changed their aristocracy of twenty lords for a -monarchy, and elected as their king Acamapitzin, who married a daughter -of the lord of Coatlichan. The Tlatelolcos also chose a king, who was -a son of the king of the Tepanecas. The king of the Tepanecas was -persuaded by them to double the tributes of the Mexicans, and oppress -them. They were commanded to transport to his capital, Azcapozalco, -a great floating garden, producing every kind of vegetable known -in Anahuac; when this was done, the next year, another garden was -required, with a duck and a swan in it sitting on their eggs, ready to -hatch on arriving at Azcapozalco; and then again, a garden was exacted -from them having a live stag, which they were obliged to hunt in the -mountains, among their enemies. - -Acamapitzin, the king of Mexico, reigned thirty-seven years, and -died in 1389, and, after an interregnum of four months, his son -Huitzilihuitl succeeded him. He requested, for a wife, one of the -daughters of the king of Azcapozalco, on which occasion the ambassadors -are said to have made the following speech: “We beseech you, with -the most profound respect, to take compassion on our master and your -servant, Huitzilihuitl. He is without a wife, and we are without -a queen. Vouchsafe, Sire, to part with one of your jewels or most -precious feathers. Give us one of your daughters, who may come and -reign over us in a country which belongs to you.” This request was -granted. - -It will be recollected that the Acolhuans were under the government of -Techotlala, son of Quinatzin. After a thirty years’ peace, a revolt -was begun by a prince called Tzompan, a descendant of one of the three -original Acolhuan princes. The rebel was defeated and put to death. The -Mexicans, in this war, were the allies of Techotlala, and showed great -valor. - -The son of the king of the Tepanecas, Maxtlaton, fearing that his -sister’s son by the Mexican king might obtain the Tepanecan crown, -began to oppress the Mexicans, and sent assassins to murder his nephew. -The Mexicans, however, were too weak to resent this baseness. - -The rival Mexicans and Tlatelolcos advanced together in wealth and -power. Techotlala, the Acolhuan king, was succeeded by Ixtlilxochitl in -1406. The king of Azcapozalco, his vassal, sought to stir up rebellion, -but he was defeated, and compelled to sue for peace. The same year in -which this occurred, the Mexican king died, and his son, Chimalpopoca, -was chosen his successor. - -The king of the Acolhuans, mentioned above, was driven from his -kingdom, and both he and one of his grandsons were cut off by the -treachery of the Tepanecas. The rebels, led on by their king, -Tezozomoc, poured in, and conquered Acolhuacan. Tezozomoc then gave -Tezcuco to the Mexican king, Chimalpopoca, and other portions to the -king of Tlatelolco, and proclaimed his own capital, Azcapozalco, the -metropolis of all the kingdoms of Acolhuacan. He was a great tyrant, -and was tormented with dreams, that the son of the murdered king of the -Acolhuans, Nezahualcoyotl, transformed into an eagle, had eaten out his -heart, or, in the shape of a lion, had sucked his blood. He enjoined -it, therefore, on his sons, to put the prince, of whom he had dreamed, -to death. He survived his dreams but a year, and died in 1422. - -He was succeeded by his son Tajatzin, but the throne was at once -usurped by another son, Maxtlaton, and Tajatzin took refuge with -Chimalpopoca, who advised him to invite his brother to a feast, and -murder him. This being overheard and told to Maxtlaton, he pretended -not to believe it, but took the same means to get rid of Tajatzin. -The king of Mexico declined the invitation, and escaped for a time; -but his wife having been ravished by Maxtlaton, he resolved not to -survive his dishonor, but to offer himself in sacrifice to his god, -Huitzilopochtli. In the midst of the ceremonies, Maxtlaton burst in, -took him, carried him off, and caged him like a criminal. - -This success excited afresh in the mind of Maxtlaton the desire to get -the Acolhuan prince, Nezahualcoyotl, into his power. He, discovering -the designs of the tyrant, went boldly to him and told him he had -heard that he wished his life also, and he had therefore come to offer -it. Maxtlaton, struck by his conduct, assured him he had no designs -against him, nor was it his purpose to put the king of Mexico to death. -He then gave orders that he should be hospitably entertained, and even -allowed him to visit Chimalpopoca in prison. The Mexican king, however, -soon after, hanged himself with his girdle; and Nezahualcoyotl, -suspecting the sincerity of Maxtlaton’s professions, left the court. -After wandering about for some time, exposed to various dangers from -his inveterate foe, he finally took refuge among the Cholulans, who -agreed to assist him with an army for the purpose of overthrowing -Maxtlaton, and restoring him to the throne, which had been usurped by -the father of the tyrant. - -On the death of their king, the Mexicans raised to the throne Itzcoatl, -a son of their first monarch, Acamapitzin, a brave, prudent, and just -prince. This choice was offensive to Maxtlaton,--but to Nezahualcoyotl, -on the contrary, it afforded the highest satisfaction. The new monarch, -immediately on his elevation to the throne, resolved to unite all his -forces with this prince against the tyrant Maxtlaton. On a certain -occasion, he sent an ambassador to Nezahualcoyotl, named Montezuma, -who, with another nobleman, was taken captive on the way, and carried -to Chalco. They were then sent to the Huexotzincas to be sacrificed. -This people, however, spurned the barbarous proposal. Maxtlaton was -then informed of their capture; but he commanded the lord of Chalco, -whom he called a double-minded traitor, to set them both at liberty. -Before this, however, they had escaped, by the connivance of the man to -whom they had been intrusted, and returned to Mexico. Maxtlaton then -made war against Mexico. Montezuma offered to challenge him, which -he did by presenting to him certain defensive weapons, anointing his -head, and fixing feathers on it. Maxtlaton, in turn, commissioned him -in like manner to bear a challenge from himself to the king of Mexico. -A terrible battle ensued; the tyrant was defeated, his city taken, and -himself killed, being beaten to death while attempting to escape. His -people, the Tepanecas, were entirely subdued. - -The Mexican king now replaced the Acolhuan prince on the throne of his -ancestors, and carried on his conquests by his general, Montezuma. -On his death in 1436, he was succeeded by Montezuma the First. This -monarch was the greatest that ever sat on the throne of Mexico. He -engaged in a war with Chalco, the king of which city had taken three -Mexican lords, and two sons of the king of Tezcuco, put them to -death, salted and dried their bodies, and placed them in his hall as -supporters to torches! Montezuma took the city, and executed vengeance -on the barbarous people. He then reduced Tlatelolco, whose king -had conspired against the late king of Mexico. He also subdued the -Mixtecas, and thus enlarged his dominions. - -In 1457, he sent an expedition against the Cotastese, and took 6,200 -prisoners, whom he sacrificed to his god. He also took signal vengeance -again on the Chalchese, who had rebelled, and had sought to make one -of his brothers king in his stead. The brother pretended to comply; -but mounting a scaffold which he ordered to be erected, and taking a -bunch of flowers in his hand, then urging his attendant Mexicans to -be faithful to their king, he threw himself from the scaffold. This -enraged the Chalchese so much that they put the Mexicans to death, for -which Montezuma made war against them till he had almost exterminated -them. He finally, however, proclaimed a general amnesty. He constructed -a dike, nine miles long and eleven cubits broad, to prevent the -recurrence of an inundation which had happened, and which was followed -by a famine. He died in 1464. - -Montezuma the First was succeeded by Axayacatl, who pursued the -conquests so successfully begun by the late king. A war broke out -between the Mexicans and Tlatelolcos, which ended in the final -subjection of the latter. Their king was killed, and carried to the -Mexican monarch, who, with his own hand, cut open his breast, and -tore out his heart. He also fought the Otomies, and gained a complete -victory, making 11,060 prisoners, among whom were three chiefs. -He died in 1477, and was succeeded by his oldest brother, Tizoc, -who was probably cut off by poison. Tizoc was succeeded by another -brother, named Ahuitzotl, who finished the great temple begun by his -predecessor, and, having reserved the prisoners taken in his wars for -this purpose, he sacrificed, at its dedication, as Torquemada asserts, -72,344; others say, 64,060. This was in the year 1486. He carried on -his conquests even as far as Guatemala, 900 miles south of Mexico. He -was only once defeated; this was in 1496, by Toltecatl, a Huexotzincan -chief. He died in 1502, in consequence of striking his head against a -door. Two years previous to his death there was an inundation, which -was followed by a famine, proceeding, it is said, from the decay of the -grain. - -Ahuitzotl was succeeded by Montezuma the Second, a man of great -bravery, and also a priest, but excessively haughty. His coronation -was attended with the greatest display and pomp. He lived in exceeding -splendor; lords were his servants, and no one was permitted to enter -his palace without putting off his shoes and stockings. Even the -meanest utensils of his service were of gold plate and sea-shell. -His dinner was carried in by 300 or 400 of his young nobles, and he -pointed with a rod to such dishes as he chose. He was served with -water for washing by four of his most beautiful women. The vast -expenses necessary to support such luxury displeased his subjects. He -was, however, munificent in rewarding his generals, by which means he -retained their services, and still further secured the soldiery by -appointing a hospital for invalids. Unsuccessful for a time in a war -with the Tlascalans, he finally took captive a brave Tlascalan general, -named Tlahuicol, and put him into a cage. When, however, he gave him -his liberty to return home, Tlahuicol wished to sacrifice himself, and -perished in a gladiatorial combat, after having killed eight men, and -wounded twenty more. - -In his reign, the conquest of Mexico was effected by Cortés. Previous -to the arrival of the Spaniards, a vague apprehension seems to have -troubled the minds of Montezuma and his people, respecting the downfall -of their empire, an event which was supposed likewise to be portended -by a comet. But the history of this catastrophe must be reserved for -another chapter. - - - - -MEXICO, FROM THE ARRIVAL OF CORTÉS. - - -Mexico was first discovered by Juan de Grijalva. He, however, seems to -have made no attempt to penetrate into the interior from the sea-coast. -In 1518, when its conquest was undertaken by Cortés, the Mexican -empire is said to have extended 230 leagues from east to west, and 140 -from north to south. After arranging his expedition, on the 10th of -February, 1519, Cortés set sail from Havana, in Cuba, and landed at the -island of Cozumel, on the coast of Yucatan. His whole army consisted of -but 553 soldiers, 16 horsemen, and 110 mechanics, pilots, and mariners. -Having released some Spanish captives whom he found there, he proceeded -to Tabasco. Here he was attacked by the natives, but defeated them, -and then pursued his course north-west to San Juan de Ulua, where he -arrived on the 20th of April. - -Hardly had the Spaniards cast anchor, when they saw two canoes, -filled with Indians, put off from the shore, and steer directly for -the general’s ship. Cortés received his visiters courteously, and, in -exchange for the presents of fruit, flowers, and little ornaments of -gold which they brought, gave them a few trinkets, of European fabric, -with which they seemed to be greatly pleased. Through the medium of an -interpreter, whom he chanced to have on board, a Mexican female slave, -the celebrated Marina, he learned from the Indians that they belonged -to a neighbouring province which was subject to the emperor of Mexico, -a mighty monarch who lived far in the interior, called Montezuma; -and that they had been sent to ascertain who the strangers were, and -what they wanted. Cortés replied, that he had come only with the most -friendly purposes, and expressed a desire for an interview with the -governor of their province. Their inquiries being satisfied, his guests -shortly afterwards took their leave, and returned to the shore. - -The next morning, Cortés landed with all his troops and munitions of -war, and immediately set to work, with the assistance of the natives, -in erecting barracks. One can scarcely help being reminded, on reading -the account of the readiness with which the simple Indians engaged in -this object, of the fatal alacrity with which the Trojans are said to -have received within their walls the wooden horse that was so soon to -prove their ruin. - -Once on shore, Cortés informed the governor, Teuhtlile, that he must -go to the capital. He said that he came as the ambassador of a great -monarch, and must see Montezuma himself. To this the governor replied, -that he would send couriers to the capital, to convey his request to -the emperor, and so soon as he had learned Montezuma’s will he would -communicate it to him. He then ordered his attendants to bring forward -some presents which he had prepared, the richness and splendor of -which only confirmed Cortés in the determination to prosecute his -schemes. In the mean while, some Mexican painters who accompanied the -governor were employed in depicting the appearance of the Spaniards, -their ships and horses; and Cortés, to render the intelligence to be -thus conveyed to the emperor more striking, arrayed his horsemen, -commanded his trumpets to sound, and the guns to be fired, by which -display the Mexicans were deeply impressed with the idea of the -greatness of the Spaniards. - -Couriers, stationed in relays along the whole line of the distance, -in a day or two informed Montezuma of these things, though it was 180 -miles to the capital. The monarch, who, in the midst of his fears, -seems to have summoned somewhat more resolution, commanded Cortés to -leave his dominions. He likewise sent him more presents; fine cotton -stuffs resembling silk, pictures, gold and silver plates representing -the sun and moon, bracelets, and other costly things. Cortés, however, -still persisted in his purpose; on hearing which, the Mexican -ambassadors turned away with surprise and resentment, and all the -natives deserted the camp of the Spaniards, nor came any more to trade -with them. Cortés, already threatened with a mutiny among his soldiers, -evidently felt his situation to be critical, but he nevertheless went -on to found a city, and establish a government for his colony. - -In this juncture of his affairs, he was visited by some people from -Cempoalla and Chiahuitztla, two small cities or villages tributary to -Montezuma. With the caciques of these places he formed a treaty of -alliance, and agreed to protect them against Montezuma. Encouraged -by his promises, they went so far as to insult the Mexican power, of -which they had before stood in the greatest dread. Having secured -their submission, Cortés, to take away all hope of a return to Cuba, -and inspire his soldiers with a desperate courage, burned his fleet; -and, leaving a garrison in his new city, called Vera Cruz, he set out -for the capital of the Mexican empire with 400 infantry, 15 horsemen, -and seven field-pieces, having also been furnished by the Cempoallans -with 1300 warriors and 1000 _tamanes_, or men of burden, to carry the -baggage. - -On the route to Mexico lay the little republic of Tlascala, and -between these two powers there had existed for a long period an -inextinguishable feud. On arriving near the confines of the republic, -therefore, Cortés sent forward an embassy of Cempoallans inviting the -Tlascalans to an alliance, and requesting, that, at least, he might be -allowed to pass through their territories. The senate was immediately -convened to decide upon this application. Maxicatzin, one of the oldest -of the senators, alluded to a tradition respecting the coming of white -men, and favored the request. He was opposed by Xicotencatl, who sought -to prove that the Spaniards were magicians, and asserted, as they had -pulled down the images in Cempoalla, that the gods would be against -them. They resolved therefore on war; seized the ambassadors, and -placed them in confinement. - -Their plans were well laid. They prepared an ambush, allowed Cortés -to pass the frontier, and then, after a little skirmishing, suddenly -fell upon him with an overwhelming force, which to the astonished view -of the Spaniards appeared to number 100,000 men. Notwithstanding the -immense odds opposed to them, the Spaniards bravely maintained their -ground; and at length, after a desperate conflict, the Tlascalans, -daunted by the horses and the fire-arms of the Spaniards, to which they -were unaccustomed, and disheartened by the havoc they sustained in this -to them novel species of warfare, retreated. Among the slain were eight -of their principal chiefs. On the side of the Spaniards the loss was -inconsiderable. - -Thinking that this experience of the prowess of the Spaniards might -have wrought a change in the disposition of the Tlascalans towards -him, Cortés now determined to send an embassy to their camp with -overtures of peace. The proposals were promptly rejected, and a message -of defiance was returned from the Tlascalan general. The next day -another battle followed, the odds being even greater than in the former -engagement; but Spanish prowess, aided by dissensions in the Tlascalan -camp, again proved victorious. - -The Tlascalans, thus repulsed, were assured by their priests, that -their enemies, being children of the sun, received strength from his -beams by day, and therefore must be attacked in the night; and that, -being withdrawn from his rays, their vigor declined, and they faded and -became like other men. A renewed trial, however, proved the falsity of -this assertion, and, after desperate efforts against the invading foe, -the Tlascalans were compelled to sue for peace. A treaty of alliance -was formed for mutual protection, and Cortés and his troops were -received, as beings of a superior order, into the city of Tlascala. - -After recruiting himself for twenty days at Tlascala, during which -time Cortés sought to gain all the information he could respecting -the condition of the Mexican empire, he prepared to resume his march. -During his stay, the Tlascalans yielded readily to all his requests and -commands, except the one by which they were required to dethrone their -own gods, and substitute the objects of the Spaniards’ worship. Cortés, -indignant at their refusal, was going to effect his object by force, -had he not been restrained by the prudence of his chaplain, Olmedo, -who represented to him the danger of such an attempt. The Tlascalans, -therefore, were left to their own religious rites and objects of -worship. - -Cortés, accompanied by 6,000 of them, now directed his course towards -Cholula. This place was only six leagues distant from Tlascala, was -formerly an independent state, and had been but lately subjected to -the Mexican empire. It was considered by all the people around as a -peculiarly holy place, the sanctuary or principal seat of their gods, -to which pilgrimages were made, and in whose temple even more human -victims were sacrificed than in that of Mexico. Montezuma professed -now to be willing to receive Cortés in his capital. He had, however, -laid a deep plot for the extermination of his enemies. They were to -be received into Cholula under the mask of friendship, and, when not -expecting it, a vigorous onset was to be made on them from every -quarter, while, by means of pits dug, and barricades erected, and -large collections of stones on the tops of the temples, their retreat -would be cut off, and their ruin completed. Cortés was forewarned of -the treachery, and took decisive measures to defeat the project. He -arrested some of their chief priests, and thus obtained a confession -of the meditated crime, drew up his troops, seized the magistrates and -chief citizens, and, on a preconcerted signal, both the Spaniards and -Tlascalans poured upon the multitude, who were so amazed, that they -were unable to offer any resistance. The streets were filled with blood -and carnage. The temples were set on fire, and many of the priests and -chiefs perished in the flames. More than 6,000 Cholulans are said to -have fallen in the massacre, without the loss of a single Spaniard. The -magistrates were then released, and commanded to recall the people, -who had, in the mean time, fled in every direction. After so terrible -a lesson, they dared not disobey the command of one who seemed to them -of a character something more than human, and the city was soon filled -again with those who yielded their service to the very men who had so -mercilessly butchered their friends and relatives. - -Cholula was but twenty leagues from Mexico, and Cortés, on his march, -was everywhere hailed as a deliverer, who came to free the people from -the oppression of the Mexican yoke. Complaints were made of Montezuma -and his governors, and Cortés was encouraged in the belief of the -ultimate success of his enterprise against so mighty a monarchy. -Without entering into the details of his march, it is enough to say, -that, on crossing the Sierra of Ahualco, the valley of Mexico lay -outstretched below, and the city, the object of his schemes, with its -temples, and walls, and palaces, was in full view before him. - -While the Spanish adventurer became more bold as he proceeded, -the Mexican monarch, on the other hand, seems to have grown more -irresolute and timid. The rapid march of the new enemy, the success -which had crowned his arms, his sagacity in detecting the plans for -his defeat,--all these things, combined with the traditions to which -allusion has been made, seem to have withheld Montezuma from that wise -and valiant course which might have been expected from the descendant -of a long line of brave men. Had Montezuma the First been in his place, -as the adversary with whom Cortés was to contend, the result might have -been different. - -As the Spaniards approached Mexico, they were met by 1,000 persons -of high rank adorned with plumes and clothed in fine cotton mantles. -These saluted Cortés after the manner of their country, and announced -the approach of Montezuma. Next came two hundred persons dressed -alike, with large plumes, marching two and two, in deep silence, and -barefooted, with their eyes fixed on the ground. Then came a company -of still higher rank in their most costly and splendid attire, in -the midst of whom was Montezuma, borne on the shoulders of four of -his principal favorites, while others supported a canopy of curious -workmanship above his head. Before him marched three officers, bearing -rods of gold, which they lifted up on high at certain intervals, as -a signal for the people to bow and hide their faces, as unworthy to -look on so glorious a monarch. As he drew near, Cortés dismounted, and -respectfully advanced to meet him. Montezuma likewise alighted, the -ground being covered with cotton cloths, and, leaning on the arm of an -attendant, proceeded at a slow pace. For the first time, the invader -and the monarch stood face to face. They made their salutations, Cortés -after the European fashion, and the Mexican by touching the earth with -his hand, and kissing it. This condescension in so mighty a monarch -only tended to confirm his people in their belief, that the Spaniards -belonged to a superior race; and, as they passed along, these latter -heard themselves often called _Teules_, or gods. - -[Illustration: ANCIENT SCULPTURE, FROM PALENQUE.] - -This interview had no decisive results. Montezuma conducted Cortés -to the quarters he had prepared for him, being a palace built by his -father; he then left him, saying, “You are now with your brothers, in -your own house; refresh yourself after your fatigue, and be happy till -I return.” In the evening he returned, loaded with rich presents to -all. Cortés was now informed that the Mexicans were convinced, from -what they had seen and heard, that the Spaniards were the very persons -predicted by the Mexican traditions, and therefore they were received, -not as strangers, but as relations of the same blood and parentage. -Montezuma also recognized him as entitled to command, and assured him -that he and his subjects would be ready to comply with his will and to -anticipate his wishes. This impression Cortés sought to confirm still -more, while at the same time he treated him with the respect due to -the dignity of the sovereign. He had also a public audience with the -monarch, and then spent three days in viewing the city. - -The city of Mexico was situated on a large plain surrounded by -mountains, the moisture of which collected in several lakes. The -two largest of these were sixty or seventy miles in circuit, and -communicated with each other. Mexico was built, as has been before -said, on some small islands in one of these lakes. The access to it -was by causeways or dikes of stone and earth, forty feet broad. As -the water overflowed the flat country, these causeways were somewhat -long. That of Tacuba, on the west, extended a mile and a half; that -of Tepejacac, on the north, three miles; and that of Iztapalapan -on the south, seven miles. The east side of the city could only be -approached by canoes. Each causeway had openings for the passage of -the water, over which were thrown bridges of timber and earth. Many of -the buildings, as the temples, palaces, and houses of the rich and the -nobles, were large; but there was also a great number of poor huts. The -great square, or market of Tlatelolco, was of vast extent, and would -hold 40,000 or 50,000 persons. The city contained 300,000 inhabitants, -at least, and some writers assert that there were many more. - -The Spaniards soon began to feel uneasy, and to expect treachery on -the part of Montezuma; which suspicions seemed to be confirmed by -the information, that two soldiers belonging to the garrison at Vera -Cruz had been treacherously murdered by Quauhpopoca, a Mexican chief, -governor of a neighbouring province, instigated, it was believed, by -Montezuma; and that, in an expedition subsequently undertaken by the -commandant of the garrison for the purpose of avenging this act, this -officer, with seven or eight soldiers, had been slain. One Spaniard -had also been taken prisoner, and his head cut off and carried in -triumph through different cities, to show that the invaders were not -invincible. The charm was now broken, and Cortés felt that nothing but -the most desperate measures would save his enterprise from ruin. He -therefore seized Montezuma in his palace, and hurried him away to the -Spanish quarters. - -The manner in which this was effected shows the power he had gained -over the monarch and his people. Admitted to his presence, the Mexicans -having retired from respect, Cortés reproached the monarch with the -conduct of Quauhpopoca, and demanded that Montezuma himself should -become a hostage for the fulfilment of an order for his arrest. The -haughty Mexican, surprised as he was, indignantly replied, that this -was contrary to all custom, and that his subjects would never suffer -such an affront to be offered to their sovereign; but, seized with -dread at the threatening language and gestures of one of the cavaliers -who attended Cortés, he finally yielded to the daring invader of his -kingdom and authority. Conducted to the Spanish quarters, he received -his officers, and issued his orders, as usual, but was carefully -watched by the Spaniards. - -Quauhpopoca, his son, and fifteen of his principal officers, were -brought to the capital and delivered up to the Spaniards, and, not -denying their guilt, they were condemned to be burnt alive. The -Mexicans gazed in silence on these insults offered their monarch, who -is said to have been even put in fetters by Cortés, as a punishment for -his treachery. The daring adventurer had now so quelled the spirit of -Montezuma, that he became himself the virtual sovereign of the realm. -He displaced and appointed officers as he chose; sent out Spaniards to -survey the country, and selected stations for colonies, and by various -means sought to prepare the minds of this unfortunate people for the -Spanish yoke. - -To secure the command of the lake, he excited the curiosity of -Montezuma to see some of those moving palaces which could pass through -the water without oars. Naval equipments were brought from Vera Cruz -by the aid of the Mexicans, and others of them were employed in -cutting down timber for the construction of two brigantines. Cortés -still further urged on Montezuma to own himself the vassal of the -king of Castile, and to pay him an annual tribute. With tears and -groans, broken in spirit, the Mexican monarch obeyed the humiliating -requisition, while the indignant people by their murmurs showed how -deeply they felt the degradation inflicted on the empire. Immense -treasures were lavished on the Spaniards, and, when Montezuma refused -utterly to change his religion, they became at last so daring, as to -attempt to throw down the idols by force from the great temple. The -priests then rallying to defend them, Cortés prudently desisted from -his undertaking. - -This insult to their deities roused at last the spirit of the people, -who had hitherto submitted to the exactions of their conquerors -and the indignities heaped on themselves and their monarch. They -determined either to expel or destroy the Spaniards, and nothing but -the captive condition of their monarch, and his danger, prevented an -outbreak. After many consultations between Montezuma and his priests -and officers, Cortés was decidedly told, that, as he had finished -his embassy, the gods had signified it as their desire, that he -and his band should leave the realm, or sudden destruction would -fall on them. Temporizing and affecting to comply, the wily Spaniard -informed Montezuma that he must have time to rebuild his vessels. To -so reasonable a request no objection could be urged; and Mexicans were -sent to Vera Cruz to aid in the prosecution of this labor, while the -Spanish carpenters were to superintend the work. - -In consequence of the arrival of an armament from Cuba against him, -Cortés was forced to leave an officer with 150 men at Mexico, and -hasten towards Vera Cruz. He met the advancing foe and defeated them, -received the soldiery thus conquered into his own ranks, and hurried -back again to the Mexican capital. During his absence, infuriated by a -wanton massacre committed upon their nobles by the Spanish commandant, -Alvarado, the Mexicans had risen, attacked the garrison, killed and -wounded some of the men, and burned the brigantines, so that the -Spaniards, now closely invested in their own quarters, were threatened -with famine or by the fury of the people, by whom they were continually -attacked. On his return, Cortés found that the disaffection was widely -spread, and he was welcomed by none of the towns on his route, except -Tlascala. - -On his arrival in Mexico, Montezuma, who still remained a prisoner in -the Spanish quarters, came to welcome him; but Cortés received him so -coldly that the emperor soon retired. Earnestly desirous, however, of -vindicating himself from the imputation of having been accessory to -the assault on the garrison, he soon after sent some of his attendants -to solicit an interview with the Spanish general. Irritated by the -continued demonstrations of hostility on the part of the people, Cortés -now threw off all restraint, and treated the message with the utmost -contumely, exclaiming, “What have I to do with this dog of a king?” The -nobles, swelling with indignation, withdrew. - -Meanwhile the people of the city were busily engaged in preparing for -a vigorous assault on the Spanish quarters. Cortés had just despatched -a messenger to Vera Cruz, to announce his safe arrival in the capital, -and his confident expectation of a speedy submission on the part of -the rebels, as he termed them, when suddenly the din of war rose on -the air, and his messenger, who had been gone scarcely half an hour, -returned in breathless haste with the intelligence that the city was -all in arms. The appalling tidings were speedily confirmed, by the -appearance of the furious populace rushing on through every avenue -towards the fortress, as if determined to carry it by storm. The -conflict was fierce and obstinate. Nothing daunted by the storm of -iron hail poured in upon their defenceless bodies from the Spanish -ordnance, which stretched them on the ground by hundreds, they pressed -on up to the very muzzles of the guns. Repulsed on one quarter, they -turned with undiminished fury to another,--striving, now, to scale the -parapet, now to force the gates, and now to undermine or open a breach -in the walls,--and finally endeavouring to fire the edifice by shooting -burning arrows into it. In this last they were partially successful; -but the approach of night at length caused them to retire. - -On the following day the Mexicans prepared to renew the attack; but -Cortés resolved to anticipate it by a sortie. Accordingly he sallied -out at the head of his cavalry, supported by the infantry and his -Tlascalan allies. The Mexicans fled in disorder; but soon rallying -behind a barricade which they had thrown up across the street, they -began to pour in volleys of missiles upon the Spaniards, which served -in a degree to check their career. With the aid of his field pieces, -however, Cortés speedily cleared away the barricade, when the Mexicans -again turned and fled. But now, as the Spaniards continued to advance, -the enemy had recourse to a new mode of annoyance. Mounting to the -roofs of the houses, they hurled down large stones upon the heads -of the cavaliers with a force which would often tumble them from -their saddles. Unable to protect themselves against this species of -missiles, Cortés ordered the buildings to be set on fire, and in this -manner several hundred houses were destroyed. The Spaniards were -now victorious at every point; at length, sated with slaughter, and -perceiving that the day was beginning to decline, Cortés withdrew his -troops to their quarters. - -The Mexicans, however, were determined to allow the hated strangers no -rest. Although, conformably to the usage of their nation, they made -no attempt to renew the combat during the night, they nevertheless -bivouacked around the fortress, and disturbed the slumbers of their -enemy by insulting taunts and menaces, which indicated but too clearly -that their ferocity was in no degree subdued by the terrible havoc -dealt out to them during the two preceding days. - -In the hope of influencing the Mexicans, Cortés now brought out -Montezuma to command them to cease from hostilities. At the sight -of their venerated sovereign in his royal robes, they dropped their -weapons, and silently bowed their heads in prostration to the ground. -Obeying Cortés’s directions, he addressed them, and plied them with -arguments to urge them to peace. When he ceased, sullen murmurs and -indignant reproaches ran through the ranks, and, in a rage, deeming -their sovereign only the supple instrument of their foe, flights of -arrows and volleys of stones were poured forth on the ramparts where he -stood, so that, before he could be protected, Montezuma fell, wounded -by the hand of one of his own subjects. Horror-struck, the Mexicans -fled; while Montezuma, disdaining to live after this degradation, died -in the Spanish quarters. - -Cortés, knowing that affairs had arrived at the greatest extremity, -now prepared for his retreat, which he was not, however, suffered to -effect, till after long and bloody conflicts, in one of which his own -life was endangered by the devotion of two young Mexicans, who seized -on him and hurried him to the edge of the platform of the temple, -intending to cast him and themselves down, that they all might be -dashed in pieces. Many of his soldiers were driven into the lake, -and there perished; others were killed, and others still were taken -prisoners. He lost, it is said, more than half his army, escaping with -only about 400 foot soldiers and twenty horsemen, with which force -he broke through the multitudes by whom he was everywhere hemmed in. -He lost also his artillery, baggage, and ammunition; besides 4,000 -Tlascalans who were killed and taken prisoners, which latter the -Mexicans sacrificed to their gods. - -The retreat continued for six days, during which time Cortés and his -soldiers were forced to feed on berries, roots, and stalks of green -maize. On the seventh day, they reached Otumba, on the route from -Mexico to Tlascala, the point towards which he was directing his -course. The Mexicans, as he advanced, hung on his rear, exclaiming, -exultingly, “Go on, robbers! go where you shall quickly meet the -vengeance due to your crimes!” On reaching the summit of the mountain -range, they understood too well the meaning of this threat; for the -whole wide plain below them in front was covered with a vast army, -drawn up in battle array. The Mexicans, leaving the smaller portion of -their force to pursue the flying enemy on one side of the lake, had -gathered the main body of their army on the other side, and, marching -forward, posted it in the plain of Otumba. - -Cortés, without a moment’s hesitation, lest the sight of such vast -numbers might strike his troops with dismay, led them on to the charge; -and, notwithstanding the fortitude of the Mexicans, succeeded in -penetrating their dense battalions. But, as one quarter gave way, the -Mexicans rallied on another, and continued to pour upon the foe in -such numbers, that, but for a fortunate event which turned the tide -of battle, the Spaniards must have been overpowered from exhaustion. -Cortés, availing himself of the knowledge which his stay at Mexico had -enabled him to gain, directed his efforts against the quarter where the -standard was carried before the Mexican general, assured, that, by the -capture of this, he could throw the whole Mexican army into confusion. - -The event justified his expectation; for when, in spite of the -resistance of the nobles, he killed the Mexican general, and seized on -the standard, the whole Mexican army, panic-struck, threw down their -weapons and fled to the mountains. The spoils of the field in some -degree compensated the Spaniards for the losses they had sustained in -their retreat from the capital. Pursuing their march without further -molestation from the enemy, they shortly afterwards reached Tlascala, -where they were received with the greatest kindness by their faithful -allies. Here Cortés remained, raising recruits, and forming new plans -for the subjugation of the empire. - -The Mexicans, on the death of Montezuma, had raised to the throne his -brother, Cuitlahua, who showed himself worthy of the choice. After -expelling Cortés from the capital, he repaired the fortifications, -provided magazines, caused long spears to be made, headed with the -swords and daggers taken from the Spaniards, gathered the people -from the provinces, and exhorted them to prove faithful. He also -sent embassies to Tlascala, to persuade that people to break off -their alliance with men who were the avowed enemies of the gods, and -who would assuredly impose on them the yoke of bondage. It was no -easy matter for Cortés to withstand the influence of such reasonable -suggestions on the minds of the Tlascalans; and had he not been on the -spot, their fidelity might perhaps have wavered. - -But, while Cuitlahua was thus planning the defence of his kingdom, and -performing the part of a wise and valiant prince, he was attacked by -the small-pox, a disease introduced, it is said, by the Spaniards, and -fell a victim to this scourge of the natives of the New World. He was -succeeded by his nephew, Guatemozin, a young man of great ability and -valor. - -In the mean time, Cortés was busily employed in making arrangements for -the renewal of operations against Mexico. Reinforcements of troops, -arms, and ammunition came in from various quarters. The strongholds on -the Mexican frontier were reduced, and the people of the surrounding -country, who had made demonstrations of hostility, were summarily -chastised and subdued. Cortés likewise gave orders for the construction -of thirteen brigantines at Tlascala, which, when finished, might be -taken to pieces and transported to Mexico, to be employed in the siege -of the city. - -His arrangements being now completed, on the 24th of December, 1520, -Cortés set forward on his march. On reëntering the Mexican territories, -he found that various preparations had been made to oppose him. He, -however, forced his way, and took possession of Tezcuco, the second -city of the empire, situated on the lake about twenty miles from -Mexico. Fixing his head-quarters here, he now occupied himself in the -subjugation of the towns around bordering on the lake. By treating -the inhabitants kindly, he won them to himself, and, as they had been -originally independent, and were reduced by the Mexican power, he -promised them a restoration to their former privileges, subject only to -the sway of the king of Castile. In this manner, the Mexican monarch -and those who remained faithful to him became more and more limited in -their resources, while Cortés was gaining additional strength. - -Having finally completed the preparation of the materials for his -brigantines, he sent a strong convoy to transport them to Tezcuco. The -Tlascalans furnished him 8,000 _tamanes_, or carriers, and appointed -15,000 warriors to accompany the Spanish troops. The materials were -carried sixty miles across the mountains, and finally reached Tezcuco -in safety. - -A new reinforcement of soldiers, with horses, battering cannon, and -ammunition, now also joined him from Hispaniola, whither he had sent -to raise recruits. The brigantines were soon finished; for the purpose -of floating them into the lake, a canal, two miles long, was made by -deepening a small rivulet, and amid shouts, firing of cannon, and -religious ceremonies, they were launched. - -The force, destined for this final attack on Mexico, amounted to 86 -horsemen and 818 foot-soldiers, of whom 118 were armed with muskets or -crossbows; a train of artillery of three battering cannon, and fifteen -field pieces. Each brigantine was manned by twenty-five Spaniards, and -bore one of the small cannon. These Cortés commanded in person. The -points selected for the attack were, from Tepejacac on the north side -of the lake, from Tacuba on the west, and Cojohuacan towards the south, -corresponding to the causeways which have been heretofore mentioned. -By cutting off the aqueducts, the inhabitants were reduced to great -distress; and the efforts of the Mexicans to destroy the fleet were -entirely unsuccessful. - -Cortés, now master of the lake, pushed on his attack from all points, -broke down the barricades, forced his way over the trenches, and -sought to penetrate into the heart of the city. The Mexicans, though -losing ground every day, repaired the breaches by night, laboring -with incredible effort to recover their posts. With his small force, -the Spaniard dared not attempt a lodgment where he might be hemmed in -by numbers, and thus defeated. Finally, however, his troops, by the -most desperate assaults, penetrated into the city; a success which -was shortly turned into a disastrous and nearly fatal defeat, in -consequence of the commander of one of the divisions, Juan de Alderete, -neglecting his instructions to fill up the canals and gaps in the -causeways, as he proceeded, in order to secure the means of retreat. - -Guatemozin, hearing of this, with great presence of mind, directed the -Mexicans to retire, thus drawing forward the unwary Spaniards; while -chosen bodies of troops were judiciously posted in various places -to act when needed. The Spaniards eagerly pressed on, till, at the -signal, a stroke of the great drum in the temple of the war-god, the -Mexicans poured upon them with the utmost fury, and driving them on -to the causeway, horsemen, foot, and Tlascalans plunged into the gap, -and Cortés was unable to rally them. The rout became general, and he -himself was wounded, and with difficulty saved from being led off -captive by the Mexicans. Besides those who perished in the conflict, -above sixty Spaniards fell into the hands of the victors. These, as -night drew on, illuminated their city, and compelled their captives -to dance before the image of the war-god. They then sacrificed them, -their shrieks reaching the ears of their companions, who were unable to -render them any assistance. - -The priests now declared their god to be so propitiated by the -sacrifices which had been offered upon his altar, that in eight days -their enemies should be destroyed, and peace and prosperity restored. -The effect of this confident prediction was such, that the Indian -allies of Cortés abandoned him, and even the Tlascalans, hitherto -faithful, also deserted him. - -In this trying emergency, the Spaniards remained true to their -commander. At length, the eight days, prescribed by the priests, having -expired, and their prediction proving false, the superstitious allies -of Cortés, believing that the gods, who had deceived the Mexicans, -had abandoned them, returned. Cortés now prosecuted the siege with -renewed vigor. The Mexicans, as before, disputed every inch of ground -with incredible bravery. Still Cortés gradually advanced his lines -in various quarters, and, giving up his former cherished purpose of -sparing the city, as fast as any portion was gained, it was levelled to -the ground, and the materials were used for filling up the canals. - -This course hemmed in the Mexicans more and more closely. Famine -and disease, too, made their appearance in the devoted city. Their -provisions were exhausted, and their supplies of water were cut off. -Still, Guatemozin remained firm, rejecting all the overtures of Cortés, -and determined to die rather than to yield to the oppressors of his -country. At length the Spaniards penetrated to the great square in -the centre of the city. Three quarters of the whole place were now in -ruins: and the remainder was so closely invested, that it could not -long hold out. - -The Mexicans finally prevailed upon Guatemozin to attempt an escape -to the remoter provinces, where he might still be able to carry on a -struggle with the invaders. To deceive Cortés, they proposed terms of -submission. The general, however, became aware of their object, and -gave strict injunctions to his officers to watch every motion of the -enemy. The commander of one of the brigantines, perceiving at one time -several canoes rowing across the lake with the greatest rapidity, gave -the signal to make chase. On being overtaken, and seeing preparations -making to fire on one of the canoes, all the rowers dropped their -oars, threw down their arms, and besought the officer commanding the -brigantine not to fire, as their king was among them. - -Guatemozin immediately gave himself up, only requesting that no insult -might be offered to his wife and children. When brought before Cortés, -the Mexican chief, with great dignity, said: “I have done what became -a monarch. I have defended my people to the last. I have nothing now -to do but to die. Take this dagger,” laying his hand on one worn by -Cortés, “plant it in my breast, and put an end to a life which can no -longer be useful.” - -As soon as the capture of Guatemozin was known, all resistance ceased, -and the city, as much of it as remained, was taken possession of by the -Spaniards. The Mexicans had endured the siege for nearly three months, -during most of which time, attack and defence were carried on with -almost uninterrupted effort. The fatal mistake of the Mexicans was in -allowing Cortés a second time to enter their city, when the officer he -had left in charge was so hemmed in, that he and his troops must soon -have perished by famine. Still, the final conquest is, no doubt, in a -great degree to be attributed to the great disparity of arms, and the -wisdom of Cortés in enlisting the superstition of the Tlascalans and -their enmity to the Mexicans on his side, and thus securing them as -allies. - -Guatemozin, while a captive, bore his sufferings with dignity, and -when subjected with one of his ministers to torture, to make him -reveal the place where his treasures were concealed, he said to his -fellow-sufferer, who, overcome by anguish, was groaning aloud,--“Am I, -then, taking my pleasure, or enjoying a bath?” The favorite, stung by -the reproach, suffered in silence till he expired. The royal victim was -taken by Cortés from this scene of torture and indignity only to be -subjected to further sufferings. - -The extensive provinces of the empire readily submitted, on learning -the fall of the capital. Still, the Spaniards did not maintain their -sway without effort. The Mexicans, from time to time, sought to assert -their rights; and their oppressors, considering them as slaves, -punished them in the most ignominious and cruel manner. In Panuco, -a part of the ancient empire, 400 nobles, who were concerned in an -insurrection, were burned to death. On the mere suspicion of a design -to shake off the yoke and excite his former subjects to revolt, Cortés -ordered Guatemozin to be hung, together with the cacique of Tacuba. -The poor inhabitants were everywhere reduced to bondage, and forced -to live under the galling yoke of their oppressors. The Spaniards -revelled in the luxuries and splendors of this ancient empire, while -the descendants of kings and caciques were their vassals and slaves. - -The hardships the people endured, while following their conquerors in -their various military expeditions, the attacks of disease, and other -causes, swept off numbers of the original population. After mining was -introduced, they were driven to the mines to procure treasures for -their oppressors. Some of them have since intermarried with the whites, -and thus a mixed race has been introduced. A portion have embraced the -Roman Catholic religion, and have been indebted to the ecclesiastics -for some amelioration of their sufferings. - -At present, it is computed that of about 8,000,000 of inhabitants, of -which the republic of Mexico is composed, nearly two fifths are of pure -native blood. They are said to be grave and melancholy, having a taste -for music, great talent for drawing, being skilful in modelling in wood -or wax, and having a great passion for flowers. As a class, though -gentle, they are poor and miserable, yet live to a great age, sometimes -even to a hundred years. They are still much oppressed, and, though -having the nominal rights of citizens, they are often kept as laborers -for years against their will. By tempting their appetite, they are -brought in debt, and then, when they have nothing to pay the creditor, -he assumes the right of a master. They are allowed magistrates of -their own race, but their caciques, degraded themselves, take every -opportunity of oppressing those beneath them. - - - - -THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS. - - -Not many years after the conquest of Mexico, a similar enterprise -was undertaken, which resulted in the overthrow and subjugation of a -people resembling the Mexicans, in their comparative advancement in -civilization, and in the extent and riches of their empire. Peru is -situated on the western coast of South America, and the empire of its -sovereigns then extended, from north to south, above 1,500 miles on -the Pacific Ocean. Its breadth was limited by the range of the mighty -Andes, and therefore varied in different parts of its extent. This vast -territory was originally peopled by independent tribes, characterized -by different manners and forms of policy. According to the Peruvian -traditions, their modes of life were not superior to those of the most -uncivilized savages. They roamed naked through the forests, without any -fixed habitations, living more like wild beasts than men. - -For several ages, the tradition declares that they made little or no -advances towards improvement, enduring hardships and privations of all -kinds, till there suddenly appeared, on the banks of the Lake Titicaca, -a man and woman of majestic form, and clothed in decent garments. -These persons called themselves Children of the Sun, and asserted that -they were sent by that benignant deity to instruct those who were the -objects of his pity, and thus to improve their condition and render -them happier. The names of these persons, as given, were Manco Capac -and Mama Oello. The motives they addressed to the poor savages, to -induce them to quit their barbarous mode of life, seem to have been -effectual, and, by their persuasions, these scattered people were some -of them united together, and obeying the supposed divine mandate, they -followed the strangers to Cuzco, where they settled, and commenced the -building of a city. - -These extraordinary individuals thus laid the foundation of the great -empire, over which their descendants afterwards reigned for several -generations. Manco Capac taught the men how to till the ground, and -various arts by which their comforts might be increased, while Mama -Oello, at the same time, showed the women how to weave and spin. Having -thus convinced them of their interest in their welfare, and provided -them with food, clothing, and suitable abodes, Manco Capac enacted -various laws, and introduced different institutions, by which the -people might be cemented together as a nation of established character. -He prescribed to them such regulations as might govern them both in -public and private life; defined the relations of all, and constituted -such offices, and appointed such persons to fill them, as comported -with his design of founding a perpetual and well governed state. - -This new kingdom was called the Empire of the _Incas_. At first, the -territory of Manco Capac did not extend more than twenty or thirty -miles round Cuzco. He exercised, however, absolute authority, to which -the people rendered a willing obedience. His memory was not merely -cherished in after ages as the founder of their nation, but as a true -benefactor. If this tradition be admitted to be founded on the truth, -it forms an interesting subject of inquiry, who these extraordinary -personages were, and from what part of the world they probably came.[2] - -The successors of Manco Capac followed his example, gradually extending -their dominions, and, with this enlargement of territory, rendering -their authority yet more and more absolute. In time, they were -regarded, not only as sovereigns and descendants of the founder of the -empire, but they were adored as divinities. Their blood was considered -sacred, and by forbidding their posterity to intermarry with the people -they continued to preserve their own race and rank pure from all -others. This peculiar family, thus set apart as a royal or noble race, -were also distinguished from all the rest of the nation by a certain -garb and ornaments, which it was unlawful for any of the lower ranks to -assume. The monarch himself appeared with the ensigns which he alone -might wear, and was ever received by his subjects with a deferential -homage scarcely short of adoration. - -The character of the people was very different from that of the -Mexicans, for while these latter, as we have seen, were warlike and -ferocious, engaged almost constantly in bloody wars, and preserving -cruel rites, the Peruvians or Quichuas, as they were also termed, were -united in a peaceful subjection to a milder superstition. The Mexicans -pushed forward their conquests by their valor, and, by force of arms, -subdued those who opposed them; but the Peruvian Incas, in the capacity -of legislators and benefactors, extended their sway, and induced -numerous tribes to submit to them, and learn the arts and comforts of -peace and good government. Not one, it is said, out of twelve monarchs, -descendants of Manco Capac, varied from this character. - -The empire, by degrees, became one of great extent, comprehending not -only all that which is now called Peru, but also Ecuador, which is -still covered with the monuments of the Incas. In this vast region, the -most perfect order reigned; the fields were tilled; the rivers were -employed in irrigating the soil; mountains were formed into terraces; -canals were prepared, means being taken to preserve the water in -its passage; and many large tracts, before mere deserts, were thus -rendered productive, if not fertile. As a means of communication for -the convenience of the people, a national road was constructed, with -great labor, from Quito to Cuzco, 1,500 miles in length. This was a -surprising work of art. It was not designed, indeed, for carriages, -for no such vehicles were in use among the Peruvians, but for a great -thoroughfare from one end of the empire to the other. Numerous flying -bridges were thrown across the deep ravines, which often interposed -obstacles to the progress of the work that required skill and patient -industry to overcome. - -The structures, too, of stone, either temples or palaces, were composed -of immense blocks, inclosing vast spaces, and divided into numerous -apartments, one of which at Caxamalca is said to have been capable -of containing 5,000 men. Instead of the hieroglyphics, by which the -Mexicans preserved the records of their nation, and conveyed from one -to another the knowledge of passing events, the Peruvians used the -_quipos_, or strings, which, by their colors, knots, &c., represented -different parts of the record they wished to preserve. Vast treasures -were accumulated by the Incas, from the rich silver mines in their -dominions, and when they died, many of their vessels and other portions -of their wealth were buried in the grave with them. - -When the Spaniards first visited Peru, in 1526, the twelfth monarch, -named Huayna Capac, was on the throne. He is said to have been a great -prince, as much distinguished by his wisdom and benevolence as for his -martial talents. He subdued Quito, and thus added to his dominions -a country nearly as large in extent and resources as his own. This -city became another capital of his realm, and here he often resided. -Contrary to the law, which forbade the intermarriage of the Incas with -others than their own race, he wedded a daughter of the King of Quito. -He died in the year 1529, leaving Atahualpa, his son by the princess -of Quito, heir to that kingdom. The rest of his dominions he left to -Huascar, his eldest son by another wife of the race of the Incas. - -This procedure was so contrary to all the laws and usages of the -empire, that the Peruvians, though they revered in the highest degree -their deceased monarch, who had added such lustre to his reign, could -not contentedly submit to the division of the empire. They urged on -Huascar, therefore, to require his brother to renounce his claim to the -government of Quito, and acknowledge him as his liege lord. Atahualpa, -however, had already gained a large body of Peruvian troops, who had -followed his father to Quito, and who were the best portion of the -army. He therefore not only refused to comply with his brother’s -demand, but marched against him with a chosen army. A civil war ensued. -Atahualpa, being superior in force, triumphed over Huascar, the -rightful monarch; and, conscious that he was only partially descended -from the Incas, he sought to confirm himself by utterly exterminating -all the children of the sun, or the descendants of Manco Capac. To -establish yet further his own authority, he kept his brother alive, in -whose name he issued his own orders to the various parts of the empire. - -The effect of this civil war was most disastrous to this hitherto -prosperous empire. It rent it asunder at the very time when a crafty -foe was preparing its subjugation, and when the force of united -counsels and efforts were needed for the safety of the nation. Had the -Spaniards entered Peru under the reign of Huayna Capac, they would have -found a far different state of things, and possibly Peru might, for -many succeeding years, have enjoyed prosperity under the sway of her -own beneficent monarchs, instead of being trampled under the foot of a -foreign invader. - -When Pizarro, with Almagro and De Luque, first established a colony at -the mouth of the River Piura, in 1532, he had already acquired some -knowledge of the unnatural contest in which the brothers had been -engaged. He had been advancing gradually, for three or four years, -from Panama, till he had gained the very heart of the empire, without -the contending parties apparently being aware that the common enemy -was on his march for their ruin. Huascar, having finally learned of -this event, sent messengers to Pizarro to entreat his aid against his -usurping brother. The wily Spaniard at once saw the advantage he might -derive from the intestine divisions of the empire, and hastened forward -without waiting for the reinforcements he was expecting from Panama. -He began his march from his new colony, called St. Michael, where he -left a garrison, with only sixty-two horsemen and one hundred and two -foot soldiers, of whom twenty were armed with cross-bows, and three -with muskets. He marched for Caxamalca, a small town at the distance -of twelve days’ march from St. Michael. Here Atahualpa was encamped -with a considerable number of troops. While Pizarro was on his way, -a messenger met him from that prince, offering his alliance, and an -assurance of his friendly reception at Caxamalca. Pizarro, seizing upon -the occasion, returned answer that he came from a powerful monarch, -with the design of offering his aid to Atahualpa to sustain him against -those who disputed his right to the throne. - -The Peruvians were utterly at a loss how to account for the sudden -appearance of the Spaniards. They viewed them as superior beings, but, -as was the case with the inhabitants of Cholula, in respect to Cortés, -they could not decide whether they were to be regarded as possessed of -beneficent or cruel intentions. The conduct of the Spaniards did not -apparently agree with their professions; for while they declared that -their object was to enlighten the natives in the truth, and render them -more happy, they were often guilty of flagrant outrage and cruelty. -The Inca, however, satisfied by the message of Pizarro, was prepared -to repose unbounded confidence in his expected visiter. The Spaniards -were allowed to cross the desert, where they might have been easily -checked on their march, and to pass in safety through the defiles of -the mountains, which were so narrow and difficult of entrance, that a -few men might have maintained their ground against a large force. They -also took possession of a fortress erected there for the defence of the -country, and then advanced to Caxamalca. - -As they approached, Atahualpa sent them messengers with more costly -presents than before. Pizarro entered the city with his troops, and -took possession of a large court, having on one side of it the palace -of the Inca, and on the other a temple of the sun. Around the whole was -a strong rampart, or wall of earth. Atahualpa was in his camp about -three miles from the city. Messengers, therefore, were despatched -immediately to him by Pizarro, with the same declarations and -assurances as before, to request an interview, that he might in person -more fully inform him respecting his design in visiting his empire. - -These messengers were astonished at the appearance of order and decency -which reigned at the Peruvian court, and still more at the display of -gold and silver which everywhere met their view. They were received -with the utmost cordiality, and hospitably entertained. On their -return to Pizarro, the account they gave of the splendor with which -their eyes had been dazzled, led him to form the perfidious resolution -of seizing the monarch, as Cortés had done Montezuma, in the very -heart of his empire. He deliberately formed his plan, regardless of -the character of ambassador which he had assumed, or of the confidence -that Atahualpa reposed in his promises, and made all the requisite -preparations for executing it at once. Dividing his horsemen into three -small squadrons or companies, he selected from his infantry twenty men -of the most tried courage, whom he retained as his body-guard and to -aid him in his attempt, while he posted his artillery and cross-bowmen -opposite the avenue by which Atahualpa was to make his approach. - -Early on the morning of the 16th of November, Atahualpa made -preparations for visiting the new comers. Desirous to impress on his -visitors the strongest sense of his greatness and splendor, the day was -far advanced before the procession began its march, and so slow was its -progress, that Pizarro finally became apprehensive lest the monarch had -penetrated his treacherous designs, and determined not to place himself -within his reach. To quiet such fears, if any existed, the Spaniard -sent him still another embassy to assure him of his friendship and -kind intentions. Finally the Inca made his appearance with the pomp -of a mighty monarch. He was preceded by 400 men in a uniform dress, -to prepare his way, and sitting on a throne adorned with beautiful -plumes, almost covered with plates of gold and silver, and enriched -with precious stones, he was borne on the shoulders of a number of his -principal attendants. After him followed his chief officers, carried -in a similar manner; bands of singers and dancers also mingling in the -procession, and troops to the number, it is said, of 30,000 men. - -The Spanish priest, Valverde, met him, on his approach to Pizarro, with -a crucifix in his hand, and, discoursing to him on various doctrines -of the Catholic faith, demanded of him an acknowledgment of the Pope -and the monarch of Castile as his spiritual and temporal liege lords, -on penalty of war and vengeance. Atahualpa, even with the aid of -interpretation, was unable to comprehend this harangue so entirely -unexpected to himself, and when made acquainted with a portion of it, -was most indignant at such an attack on his rights as an independent -ruler of his realm. He calmly replied, however, that he was possessed -of his dominions by hereditary succession; that no pope or priest could -grant his realm to another without his consent; that he had no wish to -renounce the worship of his country’s god, the sun, to embrace that of -the Spaniards. As for what the priest had assured him of, he desired to -know where these extraordinary matters were to be found. - -“In this book,” replied Valverde, reaching out his breviary. The Inca, -opening it, and turning over its leaves, applied it to his ear. “This,” -said he, “is silent, it tells me nothing,” and threw it contemptuously -to the ground. The monk, roused to the utmost pitch of indignation, -ran towards the Spaniards, crying out, “To arms, to arms, Christians, -the word of God is insulted; avenge the profanation of these impious -heathen dogs.” Pizarro, who had hitherto restrained his soldiery, -though inflamed with the desire of plundering the wealth which met -their view, now gave the signal of assault. The sound of the martial -music, the roar of the cannon and musketry, with the charge of horse, -and the impetuosity of the attack, all combined at once, threw the -Peruvians into confusion. They fled in dismay, without the slightest -attempt at defence, while Pizarro, with his chosen band, at once -pressed forward to the royal seat, and piercing the crowd of devoted -nobles, who sacrificed themselves to protect him, seized on the Inca, -dragged him to the ground, and led him off prisoner to the Spanish -quarters. The flying troops were pursued with the most unrelenting -fury, and they continued to fall victims to their merciless invaders -till the day closed. More than 4,000 Peruvians are said to have -perished; not a single Spaniard was killed, and but one was wounded. - -The captive Inca was miserably dejected in spirit, though Pizarro -affected to treat him with kindness and respect. Gradually becoming -acquainted with the ruling passion of the invaders, he offered, on -condition of his being liberated, to fill the room in which he was -confined, which was twenty-two feet long and sixteen broad, with -vessels of gold, as high as he could reach. Pizarro agreed to the -proposal, and marked out the requisite height by a line on the walls. -The Inca, accordingly, sent out orders for the ransom to be gathered -from Quito and Cuzco, where the greatest quantities of gold and -silver were amassed in the temples. The commands of the monarch were -respected and obeyed, and persons were instantly employed in bringing -together the needed treasure. While this was going on, Pizarro received -information of the approach of a reinforcement. This was a new source -of alarm to the captive sovereign, especially as he also learned that -some Spaniards had visited his brother Huascar in his prison, who had -promised them, if they would take his part, far greater wealth than -Atahualpa had done. To prevent this, he determined to have his brother -put to death, and his commands to that effect were executed accordingly. - -The promised treasure was now collected, but Pizarro, with unexampled -treachery, not only refused to release his prisoner, but determined -to put him to death. To this he was instigated not only by the newly -arrived Spaniards, but by an Indian, his interpreter, whom he had -carried off some years before from beyond Panama, and who had conceived -a passion for one of the wives of Atahualpa. He also alarmed the -Spaniard with accounts of forces assembling in various parts of the -empire, and imputed these preparations for war, to the commands of the -captive monarch. Atahualpa himself, by his own imprudence, brought -about the fatal result. Attaching himself especially to Ferdinand -Pizarro and De Soto, persons superior, both in birth and education, to -Pizarro himself, and who treated him with kindness and attention, he -began gradually to regard Pizarro with contempt. He appears to have -been a prince of no mean talents, and, observing the mode by which the -Spaniards communicated their thoughts to each other by writing, he -greatly admired the art, but was at a loss to determine whether it was -a natural or an acquired one. - -To satisfy himself on this point, he requested one of the soldiers -to write the name of God on the nail of his thumb. This he showed to -numbers of the Spaniards, asking its meaning, and, to his astonishment, -they all told him the same thing. At length, when Pizarro came, he -put the question to him, and the illiterate adventurer, blushing with -shame, was compelled to acknowledge his ignorance. Ever after this, -Atahualpa regarded the Spanish commander with a degree of contempt, -and the consciousness of this fact, rankling in the breast of Pizarro, -fixed his purpose of putting his royal captive to death. - -To give some color to his injustice, a species of trial was instituted. -The monarch was arraigned on the charges of usurping the throne, of -putting his brother and sovereign to death, of having commanded human -sacrifices, of maintaining many concubines or wives, and having wasted -treasures since his captivity which belonged to the Spaniards. Beside -all these charges, he was accused of having excited his subjects to -rebellion against his conquerors. On such accusations as these, before -the self-constituted tribunal who had already doomed their victim, the -wretched Atahualpa was found guilty and condemned to be burned alive. -He besought Pizarro to send him to Spain to be tried, and condemned, if -he must be so, by a king. But this was not part of Pizarro’s plan, and -he gave orders for his immediate execution. To save himself from the -cruel death which was prepared for him, the miserable victim of perfidy -and cruelty asked to be baptized; in consideration of which he was -strangled at the stake, instead of being burned alive. - -A son of the murdered Inca was then proclaimed by Pizarro as monarch -of Peru, in the hope that he might thus control the empire as he -pleased. But the people of Cuzco and the country in that vicinity -chose Manco Capac, a brother of Huascar, as the Inca, and rightful -successor to the supreme authority. Civil wars at once followed, and -the government was rent in pieces. Usurpers and aspirants sprung up in -various parts of the realm, claiming independent power; the general of -the late sovereign at Quito, seized the brother and children of his -master, put them to death, and claimed the throne for himself. - -These intestine divisions, as they weakened the Peruvian power, -prepared the way for Pizarro to advance to Cuzco. Several battles -were fought, but the city was finally reached and taken without -resistance. The son of Atahualpa died on the march, and the Peruvians -seem generally to have admitted the claim of Manco Capac to the -vacant throne. Quito also soon fell into the hands of another band -of invaders, who were led on by the officer whom Pizarro had left -as governor of St. Michael. The Spaniards, however, found to their -disappointment, that the city was stripped of its treasures, the people -having carried them away. - -Once in possession of Peru, Pizarro devoted himself to the arranging -of its districts, to the appointment of officers, the establishing -of regulations for the administration of justice, the collection -of revenue, and the working of the mines. Here the Peruvians, the -former masters, were driven as slaves to toil for their oppressors. -Multitudes of adventurers from Spain now flocked to the conquered -country, and forming themselves into various small bands, each led by -some adventurous officer, they set forth for the invasion of different -provinces of the empire, which were yet unsubdued. - -Manco Capac was not a listless observer of these proceedings. -Perceiving that but a few troops remained in Cuzco, where he resided, -jealously watched by the Spaniards, he secretly issued his commands -for his subjects to assemble at a short distance from the capital, -where he obtained leave to go to attend a solemn festival. As soon -as he appeared, the banner was unfurled, and the war began. All the -warriors were gathered, and the whole country from Quito to Chili was -soon in arms. Many of the Spaniards, scattered over the country, and -not expecting such an attack, were cut off. An army, according to the -Spanish writers, of 200,000 men assaulted Cuzco, which was defended -by only 170 Spaniards. At the same time, Pizarro’s new city of Lima -was besieged, while he was obliged to remain within. All communication -between the two cities was cut off; and the besieged in either place -were in utter ignorance of the fate of each other. - -The Inca commanded in person at Cuzco, and here it was that the -Peruvians made their greatest efforts. For nine whole months, they -carried on the siege, displaying great skill, and profiting by their -observations on the discipline of their enemies. To render their -efforts yet more successful, they armed some of their most valiant -men with the swords, spears, and bucklers which they had taken from -the Spaniards whom they had put to death throughout the country. Some -even made trial of the Spanish muskets, and charged their foe, mounted -on horses, and led by the Inca in person. In spite of the most active -defence, Manco Capac gained possession of one half of his capital, and -probably nothing but the sudden appearance of Almagro’s troops saved -the dispirited Spaniards from quitting Cuzco, or perishing in battle. - -The force of Almagro was regarded by both parties as the umpire of -the contest, and both sought his aid. He and the Pizarros had been -at variance, as the Peruvians knew, and Manco Capac at first sought -his friendship; but at length, despairing of success in this way, he -attacked him by surprise. This decided the question. The Peruvians -unable to effect their purpose, were defeated with great slaughter, and -their army was mostly dispersed. - -Soon after this, Pizarro, having dispersed the Peruvians, who had held -him shut up in Lima, and having received also reinforcements from -Spain, advanced towards Cuzco. After fruitless negotiations, a terrible -battle was fought between himself and his brothers, and Almagro, in -which the latter was defeated and put to death. The Peruvians who seem -at first to have resolved to profit by the divisions of the Spaniards, -instead of falling on the exhausted troops of the victors, as they -should have done, retired quietly after the battle, perhaps more than -ever impressed with a sense of the superiority of their discipline. -This bloody engagement took place on the 26th of April, 1538. - -In the following ten or twelve years, there were a succession of -contests for power between different parties of the Spaniards, -during which time we lose sight of Manco Capac and the Peruvians, -except that we know that these people, pressed by hard service, were -rapidly wasting away. The representations of the benevolent Las -Casas at length reached the Spanish monarch, and influenced him to -avert some of the evils with which the natives were threatened, by -the establishment of a more firm and equitable government. This was -finally accomplished by the wisdom of the viceroy, Pedro de la Gasca, -after the entire defeat and death of the last of the Pizarros, who had -rebelled against the king’s appointment, in 1549. This officer made -regulations concerning the treatment of the Indians, by which they -might be protected from oppression, and be instructed in the principles -of religion. Still they were obliged to labor for the Spaniards, being -attached to the land itself, and apportioned out to the various persons -who owned the estates. - -Like almost all conquered and enslaved people, their numbers have -lessened, while they have been subjected to the fluctuations of ages. -They are now said to be feeble and depressed beyond any people of -America, seeming scarcely capable of bold and manly exertion. Some -whole districts, especially in the ancient kingdom of Quito, have -continued to be occupied almost entirely by the Indians. In some places -they exercise the mechanic arts, and belong to the lower class of the -population. Some of them have become converts to the Roman Catholic -priests; while some still remember and reverence the institutions of -their fathers, and sometimes secretly assemble and engage in ancient -idolatrous rites. - -Robertson computed the number of native Indians in Peru at the time he -wrote to be 2,449,120. They are said to have “small features, little -feet, sleek, coarse, black hair, and scarcely any beard.” They have -been represented as sunk in apathy and insensibility, but the shy, -reserved, and gloomy, though tame aspect which they present, is the -fruit of long oppression, and accumulated wrongs. They still retain the -deepest and most mournful recollections of the Inca, and celebrate his -death by a sort of rude drama, accompanied by the most melting strains -of music. - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTE: - -[2] In the “Lives of Famous Indians,” we have offered a few suggestions -on this subject. If the reader perceives some repetition of facts in -this article, to be found in that just mentioned, he will consider -that it is a part of our design to render each volume of the “Cabinet -Library,” complete in itself. - - - - -THE ARAUCANIANS. - - -The Araucanians inhabit the southern part of Chili, and derive their -name from the province of Arauco. They are a nation enthusiastically -attached to freedom, and pride themselves in the appellation of _Auca_, -which signifies free. They are muscular, robust, of great strength -of constitution, and often attain the age of 90 or 100 years. They -are bold and warlike, and have ever been most determined foes to all -the Spanish invaders of their native country; and, by their warlike -disposition and fiery courage, have occasioned great trouble to the -Spaniards ever since they became acquainted with them. All attempts to -subjugate them to the sway of the Europeans have been unsuccessful. - -Their military system is greatly superior to that of the surrounding -nations, and the degree of discipline they had gained enabled them to -carry on long and bloody wars with the Spaniards who overrun Chili, -in the early part of the sixteenth century. Their state was divided -into four nearly equal portions, to which they gave the name of the -_maritime_ country, the _plain_ country, the country _at the foot of -the Andes_, and that of the _Andes_. Each of these great divisions was -also subdivided into five smaller ones, and each of these in turn into -nine still less. These divisions of Araucania were existing previous to -the arrival of the Spaniards. - -The government, which is aristocratic, is said to be a sort of state, -in which there are three orders of nobility, with gradations of rank, -called the _toquis_, the _asse-ulmenes_, and the _ulmenes_, all of whom -have their vassals. Each order has its badge, and the triple power that -constitutes the sovereign authority is vested in a general diet, or -grand council, which is usually held in some large plain, where they -feast and deliberate. The grand council elect a commander-in-chief -to lead them in war, who may belong to the inferior ranks, if he is -thought of greater ability than any one in the superior ranks. The -Puelches, a hardy race of mountaineers, formerly a distinct people, -have been united with the Araucanians, under the same government, and -this part of the nation are considered entitled to have the vice-toqui -chosen from among them. - -The first account we have, which may properly be called the history of -this people, is at the beginning of their wars with the Spaniards, in -1550. Their toqui was named Aillavila, and the Europeans having invaded -the inhabitants of Penco, the Araucanians ordered that officer to march -to their assistance at the head of 4,000 men. He accordingly crossed -the great River Biobio, the northern boundary of Araucania, and boldly -offered battle to the Spaniards. Unlike the other Indians, with whom -the Spaniards had been engaged, the Araucanians were not disconcerted -or terrified by the discharge of fire-arms, but fell at once on -the front and flanks of the enemy who were thrown into confusion. -Valdivia, their general, had his horse killed under him, and was -exposed to great danger, when the toqui received a mortal wound, in -consequence of which the Indians drew off in good order and unpursued -by the Europeans. Valdivia, who had been in many battles both in Europe -and America, declared that his life had never been in such great hazard -in any of them as in this engagement. - -The next year, the Araucanians were again led on by their new toqui, -Lincoyan, and the Spaniards, remembering the former engagement, -were inspired with such terror, that after confessing themselves, -and receiving the sacrament, they took shelter under the cannon of -their fortifications. In his first attack on these, Lincoyan was -unsuccessful, and obliged to retreat, which the Spaniards ascribed to -the immediate interposition of St. James, their patron saint, who they -affirmed was seen riding on a white horse, armed with a flaming sword, -and striking terror into their enemies. The governor having received -some reinforcements from Peru, after a year elapsed, resolved to attack -them; and, unopposed by Lincoyan, he penetrated to the Cauten, by which -Araucania is divided into two equal parts. Here he built a city which -he called Imperial, and also despatched one of his officers to found -another, called Villarica, on the Lauquen. - -Proceeding on, he traversed the whole of Araucania, from north to -south, with but small loss, and finally arrived at the territory of the -Cunches. Here he found a valiant nation, allies of the Araucanians, -who were prepared to oppose his passage of the Calacalla. The Cunchese -general, however, was induced to permit the invaders to pass -unmolested. Valdivia here founded another city, to which he gave his -own name, and then, satisfied with his conquests, prepared to return, -building fortresses and founding cities in various parts. Ercilla says -that the Spaniards in this expedition had to fight many battles, but -the details are not given. - -To Lincoyan, succeeded Caupolican, an account of whose exploits -has been already given in another volume of this Library. He was a -brave warrior, and drove the Spaniards from several of the towns -and fortresses which Valdivia had established. But these successes -were succeeded by a severe reverse, and he was on the point of being -defeated, when Lautaro, incited by patriotism, broke forth from the -Spanish ranks, and led on his countrymen to victory. The whole Spanish -army was destroyed except a few prisoners, and two Promaucians, their -Indian allies. - -After the death of Valdivia, who was put to death while pleading for -his life, the Spaniards evacuated all the cities which the Spanish -governor had founded, except two. These were immediately besieged -by Caupolican, while Lautaro, now appointed lieutenant-general, or -vice-toqui, fortified himself for the defence of the frontiers on the -lofty mountains of Mariguena. The mountain being full of precipices and -clefts, and covered on one side by impenetrable thickets, presented -only a single winding by-path, which led to the top of the mountain. -Villagran, the successor of Valdivia, engaged in battle with the young -Lautaro, but, after a desperate fight, he was worsted, and compelled to -retire. Believing it impossible to defend the city of Concepcion, he -embarked a portion of the inhabitants, consisting of old men, women, -and children, on board of two ships, then in the harbour, while he led -the remainder to Santiago. - -Lautaro entered the deserted city, where he found a great booty, and -after having plundered it, burned the houses, and razed the citadel to -the ground, and returned in triumph to Arauco. Caupolican, however, was -forced to raise the siege of Imperial and Valdivia, in consequence of -the strong reinforcements which had been thrown into them by Villagran. -While he was engaged in ravaging the country around Imperial, -the small-pox, that destructive scourge of the natives, made its -appearance, probably communicated by some Spanish soldiers, and made -terrible havoc, so that there were some districts almost depopulated. -In one of these containing 12,000 inhabitants, it is asserted that not -more than 100 persons escaped death. - -Villagran, availing himself of these circumstances, rebuilt Concepcion, -which however was no sooner done than Lautaro recrossed the Biobio, and -attacking the Spaniards whom he found in the open plain, put them to -flight. He then entered the fort, killed great numbers of the citizens, -and once more plundered and burnt the city. Emboldened by this success, -he resolved to carry the war still farther into the enemy’s country, -and marched the distance of 500 miles, to Santiago, near which he -encamped with his forces. The Spanish general here surprised and fell -upon them, and cut them all to pieces, including the brave Lautaro, who -fell in the outset. - -The Araucanians fought with the most determined bravery to the very -last, despising every offer of quarter; thus the victory was dearly -earned, with a great loss both of officers and men. This battle took -place in the year 1556, and Lautaro, at his death, was only nineteen -years of age. Probably, had he lived, the Spaniards might have been -eventually driven, not only from Chili, but a large portion of Peru. -His name is said to be still celebrated in their heroic songs, and -his actions proposed as the most glorious example to their youth. The -result of this disaster was, that Caupolican quitted the siege of -Imperial, and returned to his own country. - -A succession of battles followed, in which the Araucanians were -generally defeated, and Caupolican himself, being taken prisoner, was -put to a cruel death by impalement. The Spanish general now advanced -into the country, and reached the place where Valdivia, as related -above, had been defeated and taken prisoner. Here he built a city, in -contempt of the Araucanians, which he called Canete; and, considering -the war now terminated, he gave orders for once more rebuilding -Concepcion. - -In the year 1558, he marched against the Cunches. When this people -first heard of the arrival of the strangers, they met to deliberate -as to the best course for them to take in this emergency; whether -to submit or attempt resistance to an enemy flushed with victory. -An Araucanian, present in their council, being invited to give his -opinion, replied in the following language: “Be cautious how you -adopt either of these measures; as vassals, you will be despised and -compelled to labor; as enemies, you will be exterminated. If you wish -to free yourselves from these dangerous visiters, make them believe -you are miserably poor; hide your property, particularly your gold; -they will not remain where they have no expectation of obtaining that -sole object of their wishes; send them such a present as will impress -them with an idea of your poverty; in the mean time, retire to the -woods.” - -This advice was approved, and the Araucanian and nine of their -own people were commissioned by the Cunches to carry the present -recommended to the Spanish general. Accordingly, they clothed -themselves in rags, and, counterfeiting fear, appeared before the -Spaniard, and, after a rude address, presented him with a basket -containing some roasted lizards and wild fruits. The Spanish soldiery -could not refrain from laughter at the ridiculous appearance of -these ambassadors, and begged their commander to go no farther; but -he exhorted them to proceed, assuring them that he had heard of a -country beyond, which abounded with metals. The wily Araucanian, being -requested to furnish a guide, gave him one, who, by his direction, led -the invaders by the most rugged and difficult roads of the coast. - -The year 1559 was signalized by numerous battles fought between the -two armies. The Araucanians were led by Caupolican the Second, the son -of the former toqui of that name, whom he succeeded. He was, like his -father, a man of distinguished talents, but was not equally prosperous -in his early efforts in defending his country. At the battle of Quipeo, -he lost nearly all his valiant officers, and, being pursued by a -detachment of Spaniards, slew himself, to avoid being taken prisoner, -as his father had been. - -The Araucanians were not, however, utterly disheartened; but the -few ulmenes who had escaped the defeat of Quipeo met in a wood, and -elected as toqui an officer of inferior rank, named Antiguenu, who had -distinguished himself in that battle. - -He, with a few soldiers, retired to the inaccessible marshes of Lumaco, -where he caused high scaffolds to be erected to secure his men from the -extreme moisture of the gloomy retreat he had chosen. The youth, who -were from time to time enlisted, went there to be instructed, and the -Araucanians still considered themselves free and independent. - -Antiguenu began soon to make incursions into the Spanish territory, -to practise his troops, and feed them at the enemy’s expense. Grown -bolder, he came to an engagement with a son of Villagran, whom he -defeated, and then marched against Canete; but Villagran, feeling that -its defence was impracticable, withdrew the inhabitants to Concepcion -and Imperial. The Araucanians, finding the town deserted, set fire -to it, and utterly consumed it. Villagran, affected by this loss, -and worn down by care and anxiety, soon after died; and Antiguenu, -learning the fact, and having raised 4,000 men, divided them into two -parties; with one of these he directed the vice-toqui to lay siege to -Concepcion, while he marched with the other against Arauco. The siege -was protracted, and the commanders decided upon settling the affair by -single combat. After having fought two hours, they were separated by -their men. - -The garrison, however, were at last compelled by famine to abandon the -place, the houses were burned, and the walls demolished. In attempting -the conquest of another place, called Angol, Antiguenu, after the most -brilliant feats of valor and courage, was forced along with a crowd of -retreating soldiers, and falling from a high bank into the river, was -drowned. - -His successor was Paillataru, the brother or cousin of Lautaro. In -the year 1665, the fort of Arauco and the city of Canete were rebuilt -by the Spanish commander. The history of this remarkable people -is henceforward a series of battles; and, though they fought with -various success, they never lost their indomitable spirit, or their -determination not to be brought into subjection to the Europeans. -Observing the advantage obtained by cavalry, they early organized a -body of horsemen, and in seventeen years after their first encounters -with the Spaniards, were able to oppose them with cavalry on the field -of battle. - -In 1589, while Guanoalca was toqui, the Spanish governor, believing -that it would be impossible for him to defend the forts of Purea, -Trinidad, and Espiritu Santo, which had been established, evacuated -them; and the war is said to have been reduced to the construction and -demolition of fortifications. - -During the toquiate of Guanoalca, and his successors, Quintuguenu -and Paillaeco, the Araucanians suffered a number of severe defeats. -After the one last mentioned, the Araucanians, unsubdued in courage, -appointed to the chief command a man named Paillamachu, the hereditary -toqui of the second district; who, though advanced in years, is said to -have been a person of wonderful activity. The tide of fortune seemed -to turn at once in his favor, and his success was so great, that he is -declared to have surpassed all his predecessors in military glory, and -was enabled to restore his country again to her full independence. - -In 1598, owing to his victories, not only the Araucanian provinces, -but those of the Cunches and the Huilliches, were in arms, comprising -the whole country to the Archipelago of Chiloe. Every Spaniard found -without the garrisons was put to death, and the cities of Osorno, -Valdivia, Villarica, Imperial, Arauco, Canete, Angol, and Caya, were -all closely besieged at one and the same time. Paillamachu also crossed -the Biobio, burned Concepcion and Chillan, laid waste the provinces -dependent on them, and returned laden with spoils. He also forced the -Spaniards to evacuate the fort and city of Arauco, and obliged the -inhabitants to retire to Concepcion. - -In the month of November, 1599, he caused his army to cross the broad -river Valdivia, by swimming, stormed the city, burned the houses, and -killed a great number of inhabitants. He attacked the vessels that lay -at anchor, which only escaped by immediately setting sail, and then -returned in triumph to the guard he had stationed on the Biobio, with -a spoil of 2,000,000 of dollars, all the cannon, and upwards of 400 -prisoners. - -Villarica also, after a siege of two years and eleven months, fell -into the hands of the Araucanians in the year 1602, and the city of -Imperial shared the same fate. Indeed, all the Spanish settlements -in the country were destroyed, which Valdivia and his successors had -established, and preserved at the expense of so much toil and blood, -and they remained unbuilt, scarcely a vestige of their ruins being -left. - -The prisoners were numerous; the unmarried females were taken into the -seraglios of their conquerors, while the unmarried men were allowed to -espouse the women of the country. From these mixed marriages, it is -said, have proceeded the Mestizos, who became, in subsequent wars, the -most terrible enemies of the Spanish name. Some of the prisoners were -ransomed by their friends or exchanged; though many were induced, from -love to their children, to remain with their captors. - -Paillamachu died soon after, at the close of the year 1603, and was -succeeded by Hunecura. The disasters experienced by the Spaniards were -severely felt, and the court of Spain gave orders that there should be -constantly maintained a body of 2,000 regular troops on the Araucanian -frontier, for whose support the sum of 292,279 dollars was annually -drawn from the treasury of Peru. - -A jesuit, named Luis Valdivia, desirous of preaching to the -Araucanians, and perceiving how utterly impossible any such attempt -would be while war was carried on, went to Spain, and represented to -the then reigning king, Philip the Third, the great injury done to the -cause of religion by these continued wars. The prince listened to his -representations, and directed that the River Biobio should be fixed as -the boundary line between the contending parties. The articles of peace -had been discussed and agreed upon, when the whole was frustrated by -an untoward event. The toqui, whose name was Ancanamon, had espoused a -Spanish woman, who, taking advantage of his absence, fled for refuge to -the governor, accompanied by her children and four other women, whom -she had likewise persuaded to become Christians; two of these were the -wives, and two the daughters of her husband. The toqui, exasperated -to the highest degree, met the missionaries who were sent to the -Araucanians, and put them all to death. - -The Spanish provinces were incessantly harassed, and in 1617, the war -is said to have commenced with redoubled fury. During the period which -intervened from this to 1637, the toquis Leintor and Putapichion also -held sway, and engaged in enterprises against the Spaniards. Affairs, -however, were not materially changed; the Araucanians still retaining -their territory and independence. In the year 1638, the Dutch attempted -to form an alliance with the Araucanians, with a view to the conquest -of Chili; but their fleet being dispersed by a storm, only one or two -of their boats were able to make the land. Being well manned and armed, -the Araucanians supposed them to have come with hostile intentions; -they therefore attacked them and destroyed the crews. In 1640, the war -was brought to a close, and in 1641, the articles of peace were agreed -upon, and the day of ratification appointed; the place of meeting was -the village of Quillan, in the province of Purea. - -The Spanish governor, the Marquis de Baydes, appeared at the specified -time with a retinue of 10,000 persons from all parts of the kingdom. -Lincopichion, the toqui, at the head of the four hereditary toquis, and -a great number of ulmenes, and other natives, opened the conference -with an eloquent speech. He then, according to the Chilian custom, -killed a llama, and, sprinkling some of the blood on a bunch of -cinnamon, presented it, in token of amity, to the governor. The -articles of peace were then proposed and ratified. The Araucanians, -in one of these, agreed that they would not permit the landing of any -strangers on the coast, or furnish any foreign nation with supplies. -The war of ninety years’ duration was thus brought to a close; -twenty-eight llamas were sacrificed, and the whole was concluded by an -eloquent harangue from Antiguenu, chief of the district, in which he -dwelt on the advantages that both nations would derive from the peace. - -In the year 1643, the Dutch made a second attempt on Chili, and had -they been seconded by the Araucanians, whose alliance they sought, they -would undoubtedly have succeeded; but these brave defenders of their -country were faithful to their pledges, and refused the overtures of -the Dutch. They also advised the Cunches to take the same course. The -Dutch, therefore, were forced to retire unsuccessful. - -The peace continued for a number of years; a war broke out in 1653, -the cause of which is not assigned. The Araucanians elected as their -commander the toqui Eleutaru, who in his first campaign totally -defeated the Spaniards, and continued for ten years to harass them, -when a peace was again concluded, which proved more lasting than the -former. In 1686, however, a Spanish governor came near breaking it by -removing the inhabitants of the island of Mocha to the northern shore -of the Biobio, in order to cut off all communication with foreign -enemies. - -Missionaries in the mean time were introduced among the Araucanians, -accompanied by a species of force called the _Captains of the -friends_, as a pretended guard. These having become insolent, the -Araucanians determined to create a toqui, and resort to arms. War -therefore ensued, but after a succession of little skirmishes, the -peace of Negrete terminated it. In this, the treaty of Quillan was -confirmed, and the odious title of _Captains of the friends_ was -abolished. - -The next occasion of war was caused by the endeavour of the Spanish -governor, Gonzaga, to compel the Araucanians to live in cities. At -this time also, the Pehuenches, who at the commencement of the war -were allies of the Spaniards, having been defeated by the Araucanians, -resolved to change sides, and have ever since been firmly allied with -this brave people. Various battles were fought, and among others, a -bloody one in the beginning of the year 1773. The same year, however, -peace was agreed upon, and the Araucanians were allowed to have a -minister resident in the city of St. Jago. The treaties of Quillan and -Negrete were revived, and, under the wise administration of the Spanish -viceroys, Jauqui and Benavides, the country for a long time enjoyed the -blessings of unbroken tranquillity. - -The Araucanians have thus by their courage and perseverance been -enabled to maintain their liberties against some of the best -disciplined troops of Spain, even those who had served in the Low -Countries during the reigns of Charles the Fifth and Philip the Second, -and who were armed with weapons before unknown and calculated to strike -terror into all the native tribes. They remain still secure in their -mountain fastnesses, enjoying the blessings of liberty, and determined -as ever never to be subjugated by any foreign foe. - - - - -SOUTHERN INDIANS OF SOUTH AMERICA. - - -The whole interior of the southern portion of South America, from Terra -del Fuego up to Paraguay, was long occupied by numerous savage tribes -of Indians. Of these little was known till long after the occupation of -portions of the country by the Spaniards. They soon obtained horses, -and were divided by the Europeans into equestrian and pedestrian -tribes. They were generally ferocious in their character, and engaged -in almost perpetual wars with each other. The equestrian tribes, -especially, were accustomed to make long excursions for the purpose of -plunder or revenge. Many of these nations have since been swept off by -that dreadful scourge of the Indian race, the small-pox, and many have -been driven still farther back by the Europeans. - -Our knowledge of their history, which is, indeed, but scanty, is -derived from the accounts furnished by the Catholic missionaries, who -labored long and with some degree of success among them.[3] The views -they give of their manners and customs is often most interesting, and -will be treated of in our sketch of the manners and customs of the -American Indians. The vast plains, or _pampas_, as they are called, -which lie southwest of Buenos Ayres, were inhabited by the equestrian -savages, who, with the Araucanians, and other tribes which dwelt in the -mountains, were termed by the Peruvians, AUCAS, or rebels, probably -from some event in their former history. It would seem, indeed, that -several of the tribes originally came from the Northwest, and perhaps -there gained the knowledge of horsemanship, in which they are so -expert, from the earlier European invaders. - -Similar groups of Indians were found through all that vast tract of -land east of the Andes, and reaching up from Buenos Ayres to Brazil. Of -these, perhaps, the most distinguished were the Abipones and Guaranies, -who inhabited what formerly bore the name of Paraguay,--now Paraguay -and Uruguay. Dobrizhoffer, a German Catholic priest, who resided many -years among them, has given a full description of the most remarkable -events of their history which occurred while he was with them, from -which we extract a few scattered notices, adding some facts gathered -from other sources. - -Formerly these tribes seem to have been numerous, but now they are -dwindled away to a small remnant. Some idea may be formed of their -decrease, when it is stated that the Guaranies, who in 1752 numbered -141,252, lost 30,000 soon after by the small-pox, and afterwards, -11,000 more. In 1767, there were only about 100,000 left. They suffered -great oppression from the Spaniards, and, though they fought bravely -to avoid expulsion from their native land, they were finally driven -out. Thirty thousand, it is said, were expelled by the Spaniards from -seven towns. - -The zealous missionaries penetrated the forests, and visited the most -barbarous tribes. They were often unexpectedly received with kindness -and hospitality, where they least had reason to hope for it. In one -of these visits, when one of the missionaries, or fathers, went among -them, and had gained their favor, the old cacique said that he had a -daughter, the prettiest girl in the world, and was resolved to marry -her to the father, that he might always stay in the family. On being -informed that the fathers never married, the old man was thunderstruck, -and, with his tobacco reed suspended in the air, he exclaimed, “What -strange thing is this you tell me?” - -The Indians watched, with great jealousy, the intrusion of the -Spaniards on their territory. Some of them, on a certain occasion, -having sent out men into the forest to gather _maté_, or Paraguay tea, -by some misfortune their hut caught fire, and eighteen of them perished -in the flames. The Indians beheld the conflagration at a distance; -finally, one of them, armed with arrows and a club, stole into the only -remaining Spanish hut, where a single man had taken refuge. “So,” said -the savage, with a stern aspect, “you have dared to enter these woods -which were never yours. Know you not this is our soil, left us by our -fathers? Are you not content with having usurped immense tracts and -innumerable woods, in spite of the opposition of our fathers? Should -any one of _us_ invade _your_ domains, would he return alive? No; and -we will imitate your example. If, then, you are wise, if life is -dear to you, haste away, and advise your countrymen carefully to shun -our woods, unless they would be the cause of their own death.” The -Spaniard, to save his life, offered knives, axes, garments, and other -trifles; pacified by these gifts, the savage returned to his comrades. -The former, deeming any further stay perilous, ran off, leaving many -thousand pounds of the _maté_ which had been gathered. - -The Guaycuras or Albayas were very expert horsemen, and were in -the highest degree hostile to the Spaniards; they were brave, and -exceedingly skilful in the use of their arms. The Calchaquis, -also, were formerly famous for their military ferocity, and their -irreconcilable enmity to the Europeans. A branch of the Guaranies were -said to wander over the remote forests, on the banks of one of the -rivers of the interior, and leap from tree to tree like monkeys, in -search of honey and little birds. The Guaranies were noted for their -voracity. After fasting a few hours, it is said that one of them would -devour a young calf. These Indians were accustomed, before they lay -down to sleep, to place a piece of meat before the fire, that it might -be ready for them to eat immediately upon waking. - -The havoc made by the Europeans among this tribe, as well as other -Indians, especially those near Brazil, is almost incredible. It -is supposed, that, in 130 years, 2,000,000 Indians were slain, or -carried into captivity; and it is stated, that, in five years, 300,000 -Paraguayans were carried off to Brazil; and that more than 1,000 -leagues of country, extending as far as the River Amazon, were stripped -of their inhabitants. In the years 1628-1630, 600,000 Indians were -sold as slaves at Rio Janeiro. Upwards of 400 Indian towns were utterly -destroyed, and such was the devastation, that King Joseph was obliged -to make a decree, on the 6th of July, 1755, forbidding further ravages. -This, however, is but a small part of the evils which the Spaniards and -Portuguese inflicted on those unhappy regions. - -Among the equestrian tribes, the horse was the great dependence of the -Indians for various comforts. He supplied them with food, clothes, -lodging, bed, arms, medicine, and thread. Of the hides they made -their couch, clothing, boots, tents, saddles, and thongs which served -for bridle and weapons. The sinews they used for thread. They drank -melted horse-fat, washed their heads with the blood, and afterwards -with water, to strengthen them; and twisted the hair into ropes. They -were almost constantly on horseback, and their highest delight was to -display their peculiar ability to manage the most spirited animals. - -The Abipones, especially, were an extraordinary people, and almost -realized in themselves the fabulous centaurs,--so completely did they -seem identified with the horses they bestrode. No account of them is -given in history before they settled in the province of Chaco in the -sixteenth century. In the year 1641, they possessed horses, and had -become formidable to the Spaniards, with whom they carried on long and -bloody wars. They first obtained horses, it is said, by stealing them -from Santa Fe, and in the space of fifty years they carried off 100,000 -of these animals from the estates of the Spaniards. Sometimes not -less than 4,000 were taken in a single assault. They settled on the -territory formerly possessed by the Calchaquis, who had fallen victims -to the small-pox. Here they formed alliances with other equestrian -nations, especially the Mocobios and Tobos, savage tribes, formidable -on account of their numbers and bravery. The confederates harassed the -province of Asuncion for a long time, and also the colonies of St. Jago -del Estero and Cordoba. Various expeditions were planned against them -with various results; but still they continued their incursions for -plunder or revenge. Many battles and heroic actions are narrated by -Dobrizhoffer, who describes some of their caciques as men of uncommon -bravery, and as having manifested great ability in leading their people -to war. - -The Abipones were divided into three classes, the Rickahes, who -inhabited extensive plains, the Nakaigetergehes, who were fond of the -lurking-places in the woods, and the Yaaucanigas, who were formerly a -distinct nation, and used a separate language. The Spaniards almost -destroyed them, and the few who survived fled to the Abipones, with -whom they became incorporated. The Abipones, as also the other -equestrian tribes of Chaco, boast themselves to be grandsons of the -evil spirit. Their language and that of the Tobos and Mocobios, -likewise equestrian Indians, is said to have a similarity that betrays -a common origin; the same appears to be the case with that of the -Guaranies and Chiriguanas, though 500 miles apart from each other. - -Many fruitless efforts were for a long time made by the Jesuits to -reduce the Abipones to submission to the king of Spain, and to convert -them to the Catholic religion. But they prized their independence, -and their own wild way of living, too much to be willing to renounce -them for the benefits which were promised in agricultural pursuits. At -last, however, a colony was founded for the Mocobios, the allies of the -Abipones; finally, the latter were induced to follow their example, and -colonies were likewise established among them. The first of these was -founded for the Abipones Rickahes. All the tribes, however, did not -readily come into the project. A portion of them preferred to remain as -they were. This brought on long and bloody contests among them. Those -who remained wild in the woods often attacked the colonies, and carried -off their cattle and other plunder. The Jesuits were also exposed to -no little danger in some of these invasions. The Spaniards joined the -Abipones, and finally subdued the Charruas, a fierce equestrian nation, -whom they instructed and converted. The Jesuits carried on their labors -for a long time among the colonies, whither they had induced the -Abipones to remove, and many instances of strong attachment towards -them were exhibited by the caciques or chiefs, whom they had instructed -and baptized. Their efforts, however, were terminated by the breaking -out of a war between the Spaniards and the Guaranies, in which the -Abipones finally became engaged. The result of this was to disperse -them again from their settlements, and many of them relapsed from their -more civilized habits into those of savage life. - -It is a remarkable fact in the history of the Abipones, that they -should have first learned the use of the horse from the Europeans, -and afterwards have become so dexterous in its management. They -still exist, it is said, in South America, but whether they are a -distinct people, and addicted as before to their wild forest-life, or -whether they have mingled with the nations which have sprung up from -the Spanish settlements, and bear a Christian name, we have no means -of determining. Some curious practices among them will be related -hereafter, in describing the manners, customs, and antiquities of the -Indian tribes of this part of South America. - -A remarkable incident, respecting an Indian chief of a powerful tribe -near Buenos Ayres, is related to have occurred in the year 1745. -Orellana, as he is named in the account, with ten of his followers, -having been taken captive by the Spaniards, was placed on board a -Spanish ship of 66 guns and 500 men, and there treated with great -cruelty. Finding means to communicate his plan to his men, they watched -their time, and when a favorable opportunity occurred, they suddenly -rose, armed with thongs of leather loaded with double-headed shot, -prepared beforehand, and drove the Spaniards below. They then killed -forty of them, and kept possession of the ship for two hours, in spite -of all the efforts of the Spaniards to regain it; but Orellana being -at last wounded by a random shot through the cabin doors, and seeing -the Spaniards on the point of success, he, with his brave men, leaped -overboard, and they were all drowned. - -Of the several Indian tribes that inhabit that large tract of territory -known by the name of Patagonia, and which terminates in the cold and -desolate regions of Terra del Fuego, we can give no history. They are -now, as when first discovered, mere savages, and have continued to -occupy the soil with little disturbance from Europeans. Their country -is too poor and repulsive to tempt the cupidity of civilized man, hence -it has remained in the possession of its original masters. As they have -no history worthy of remembrance, so they have no means of preserving -the memory of events; and thus, like the leaves of the forest, they -live, pass away, and then slumber in oblivion for ever. Their manners -and customs alone are worthy of record, and these will be given in -their proper place. - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTE: - -[3] For an account of the operations of the missionaries in Paraguay, -see “Lights and Shadows of American History.” - - - - -INDIANS OF BRAZIL. - - -Brazil was discovered in 1500. The first Spaniard who ventured to cross -the equator was Vincent Pinzon. He landed at a point on the coast of -Brazil, about twenty miles south of Pernambuco. A fleet was soon after -sent out from Portugal, in which sailed that fortunate adventurer, -Americus Vespucius, who has given his name to the New World. - -The Indians of Brazil were real savages, perfidious, cruel, and -cannibals, and appear to have had scarcely a single noble or generous -trait in their characters. The dreadful depravity of these tribes seems -to have infused the spirit of furies into the hearts of the females; -and when the women of a people are rendered ferocious, there is -little, if any, chance, that the nation will ever, by its own efforts, -become civilized. The following account of the first interview between -the Portuguese and the Brazilian Indians is sufficient to show the -character of the latter. - -When the ships arrived on the coast, in Lat. 5° S., a party of natives -was discovered on a hill near the seaside. Two sailors volunteered to -go ashore, and several days passed without their return. At length the -Portuguese landed, sent a young man to meet the savages, and returned -to their boats. Some _women_ came forward to meet him, apparently as -negotiators. They surrounded him, and seemed to be examining him with -curiosity and wonder. Presently another woman came down from the hill, -having a stake in her hand, with which she got behind him, and dealt -him a blow that brought him to the ground. Immediately the others -seized him by the feet, and dragged him away, and then the Indian men, -rushing to the shore, discharged their arrows at the boats. - -The sailors finally escaped, but they had to witness the horrid -spectacle of their poor comrade destroyed by the ruthless savages. -The women cut the body in pieces, and held up the mutilated limbs -in mockery; then, broiling them over a huge fire, which had been -prepared, as it seemed, for that purpose, they devoured them, with loud -rejoicings, in presence of the Portuguese. The Indians also made signs -that they had eaten the other two sailors! - -It will be neither pleasant nor useful to give any more minute accounts -of the practice of cannibalism. It is sufficient to say, that the -tribes inhabiting the eastern part of South America appear to have been -sunk in the grossest ignorance and most deplorable state of vice and -misery to which human beings can be reduced. They were more like tigers -and serpents than men; for they used poisoned arrows, deadly as the -“serpent’s tooth,” in battle; and they tore and devoured their enemies -with the voracity of beasts of prey. - -The Europeans, who first settled in Brazil, had to gain all their -possessions by the sword; and few would go voluntarily to such a place; -the Portuguese settlers being mostly convicts, banished for their -crimes. As might be expected, this class of men, rendered desperate by -their situation, and often hardened in crime, were not very merciful to -the natives, who, in turn, showed them no mercy. The bloody conflicts -and the atrocities on both sides were awful; yet we can hardly feel the -same sympathy for the cannibal Indian as for the gentle Peruvian, when -his country is laid waste by the invader. - -It was about fifty years from the time of the first landing of the -Portuguese, before a regular administration was established and a -governor appointed by the king of Portugal. The Jesuits then settled in -Brazil, and began their labor of Christianizing the savages. Several -tribes had entered into alliance with the colonists, and these Indians -were forbidden, by the governor, to eat human flesh. To conquer this -propensity was the great aim of the Jesuits; but finding that they -could not reclaim those who had grown old in this vice, they set -themselves to instructing the children. - -One gentle propensity these Brazilian savages showed, which seems -hardly compatible with their cruel and vindictive characters,--they -were passionately fond of music,--so fond, that one Jesuit thought -he could succeed in Christianizing them by means of songs. He taught -the children to sing; and when he went on his preaching excursions, -he usually took a number of these little choristers with him, and on -approaching an inhabited place, one child carried the crucifix before -them, and the others followed, singing the litany. The savages, like -serpents, were won by the voice of the charmer, and received the Jesuit -joyfully. He set the catechism, creed, and ordinary prayers, to _sol -fa_; and the pleasure of learning to sing was such a temptation, that -the children frequently ran away from their parents to put themselves -under the care of the Jesuits. - -These priests labored with devoted zeal to convert the natives. Their -exertions were productive of great effect; a change has been gradually -wrought, and the cannibal propensities, among those tribes that still -remain independent, are no longer indulged. - -Many missions, as they are called, that is, villages, where a priest -resides and instructs the Indians in agriculture and the most -essential arts of civilized life, as well as in their Catholic duties, -were established by the Jesuits, and are still continued. One very -unfortunate circumstance has done much to alienate the independent -tribes from their white neighbours. It was thought best to make slaves -of the savages, in order to civilize them. Walsh thus describes the -decree and its effect. - -“The Indians were, as late as 1798, the occupants of the woods, -and were generally found resident on the banks of the rivers and -streams which intersected the country. An elderly gentleman, who was -secretary to the undertaking, informed me that it was necessary for -the commissioners and workmen to go constantly armed, to be protected -against their hostility. The Puvis lay on the River Parahiba, and -others on the streams which fall into it. - -“By a mistaken humanity, however, permission was afterwards given to -the Brazilians to convert their neighbours to Christianity; and for -this laudable object, they were allowed to retain them in a state of -bondage for ten years, and then dismiss them free, when instructed -in the arts of civilized life, and the more important knowledge of -Christianity. This permission, as was to be expected, produced the very -opposite effects. - -“A decree for the purpose was issued so late as the year 1808, by Don -John, and it was one of the measures which he thought best to reclaim -the aborigines, who had just before committed some ravages. He directed -that the Indians, who were conquered, should be distributed among the -agriculturists, who should support, clothe, civilize, and instruct -them in the principles of our holy religion, but should be allowed to -use the services of the same Indians for a certain number of years, in -compensation for the expense of their instruction and management. - -“This unfortunate permission at once destroyed all intercourse between -the natives and the Brazilians. The Indians were everywhere hunted down -for the sake of their salvation; wars were excited among the tribes, -for the laudable purpose of bringing in each other as captives, to be -converted to Christianity; and the most sacred objects were prostituted -to the base cupidity of man, by even this humane and limited permission -of reducing his fellow-creatures to slavery. - -“In the distant provinces, particularly on the banks of the Maranhāo, -it is still practised, and white men set out for the woods to seek -their fortunes; that is, to hunt Indians and return with slaves. The -consequence was, that all who could escape retired to the remotest -forests; and there is not one to be now found in a state of nature in -all the wooded region. - -“It frequently happened, as we passed along, that dark wreaths of what -appeared like smoke arose from among distant trees on the sides of -the mountains, and they seemed to us to be decisive marks of Indian -wigwams; but we found them to be nothing more than misty exhalations, -which shot up in thin, circumscribed columns, exactly resembling smoke -issuing from the aperture of a chimney. - -“We met, however, one, in the woods, with a copper-colored face, -high cheek-bones, small dark eyes approaching each other, a vacant, -stupid cast of countenance, and long, lank, black hair hanging on his -shoulders. He had on him some approximation to a Portuguese dress, -and belonged to one of the _aldêas_ formed in this region; but he had -probably once wandered about these woods in a state of nature, where he -was now going peaceably along on a European road. - -“We had passed, in going through Valença, one of these aldêas of the -Indians of the valley of Parahiba, Christianized and instructed in the -arts of civilized life. Another, called the Aldêa da Pedra, is situated -on the river, nearer to its mouth, where the people still retain their -erratic habits, though apparently conforming to our usages. - -“They live in huts, thatched with palm-leaves; and when not engaged -in hunting and fishing, which is their chief and favorite employment, -they gather ipecacuanha, and fell timber. They are docile and pacific, -having no cruel propensities, but are disposed to be hospitable to -strangers. Their family attachments are not very strong, either for -their wives or children, as they readily dispose of both to a traveller -for a small compensation.” - -One of the most ferocious tribes of Brazil was the Botocudos, thought -to be the remains of a powerful and most cruel race, which the early -settlers called Aymores. This tribe disfigured themselves by making -a large hole in the under-lip, and wearing therein a piece of white -wood, or some ornament. They also cut large holes in their ears, and -stuck feathers in the aperture for ornaments. They used to go entirely -naked, and, brown as the beasts of the forest, were frightful objects -to behold. - -“The Brazilian government,” says Mr. Walsh, “deserves credit for the -manner in which it has managed these Indians. They lived on the Rio -Doce, and laid waste every settlement attempted in that beautiful and -fertile region. In 1809, a party of Europeans were sent up the river, -and they found one hundred and fifty farms in ruins, whose proprietors -had either perished or fled. Detachments were accordingly ordered in -all directions, to restrain the inroads of the savages, and to punish -their aggressions; and every encouragement was held out, to establish -new settlements and civilize them. - -“Every village consisting of twelve huts of Indians and ten of -whites was to be considered a villa, with all its benefits and -privileges; and _sesmarios_, or grants of land, were made to such as -would become cultivators, giving all the privileges and advantages -of original _donotorios_. New roads were then opened to form a more -easy communication, and considerable effect was produced on these -intractable natives. The Puvis, a neighbouring tribe, to the number of -one thousand, were located in villages, called aldêas; and the arts -and industry of civilized life made more progress among them, in a few -years from this period, than they had before done in so many centuries.” - -[Illustration] - - - - -THE INDIANS OF FLORIDA. - - -The peninsula of Florida was discovered and named by a Spanish -adventurer, called Ponce de Leon, who, on his second voyage, was -mortally wounded in a conflict with the natives. A few years after -this, a small vessel was driven on the coast by severe weather, and -a traffic commenced with the natives for silver and gold. Other -adventurers began to turn their attention to this supposed land of -wealth, and Lucas Vasquez de Ayllon fitted out two vessels to cruise -among the islands, and kidnap the Indians for laborers in the mines. -The ships were driven to the shore, near a cape, which was named -St. Helena. When the natives of the country, which bore the name -of Chicorea, first saw the vessels, they fancied them to be huge -sea-monsters; but when they saw white, bearded men, clad in armor, -come forth from them, they were so terrified that they ran away. Their -fears, however, were soon dispelled, and a trade was begun, in which -they received trinkets in exchange for pearls, skins, gold, and silver. - -When, at length, the Spaniards were ready for sailing, the Indians -were invited on board of the ships; and while many of them crowded -the vessels, gazing in wonder at all they saw, the adventurers -treacherously closed the hatches on those who were below, and set sail -for St. Domingo. The natives, thus entrapped, remained sullen and -gloomy, and refused to partake of food, so that most of them perished -on their voyage. - -Ayllon now determined to make an expedition to Florida in person, and -fitted out three large vessels, taking with him a former adventurer -as a guide. The latter, however, was unable to find the place sought -for, and they finally landed near Chicorea, where they were so well -received that the chief allowed two hundred of the men to visit his -principal village, three leagues in the interior. The natives feasted -them for three days, and having thus thrown them off their guard, rose -upon them by night, and massacred the whole. After this, they repaired, -early in the morning, to the harbour, where they surprised Ayllon and -his guards. The few who survived speedily got on board the vessel, and -hastened back to St. Domingo. - -In 1628, Panfilo Narvaez reached the coast of Florida with a squadron -of four barks and a brigantine. He landed four hundred men and fifty -horses, and took possession of the country in the name of the king of -Spain, unopposed by the natives. On penetrating into the interior, in -search of gold, he and his men found the principal village deserted; -and not only were they disappointed of finding the chief object of -their wishes, but the warlike natives harassed them on their march -through swamps filled with decayed trees, where they had often to -wade in the water up to their breasts. The Indians seemed of giant -height; they had enormous bows, and discharged their arrows with -such prodigious force as to penetrate steel armor at the distance of -two hundred yards. After a most disastrous march, the greater part of -the Spaniards finally reached the shore, and embarked, but they were -lost at sea. Five of the party, who had set out in another direction, -crossed Northern Florida, the Mississippi, the desert and mountains -beyond, and, after some years, succeeded in reaching the Spanish -settlements in Mexico. - -But the most important exploration of Florida, and the territory north -and west, was made at an early period by Hernando de Soto and his band. -He left Cuba on the 12th of May, 1539, with a squadron of eight large -vessels, a caravel, and two brigantines; his armament, besides the -ships’ crews, consisting of not less than one thousand men and three -hundred and fifty horses. On the thirteenth day, he arrived in the bay -which he called Espiritu Santo. The natives, alarmed at the sight of -such an invading force, immediately kindled fires all along the coast, -to summon their warriors. The troops, on landing, the last day of the -month, did not encounter a single Indian, and they remained all night -on shore in a state of careless security. - -At break of day, however, a sudden onset was made upon them by a -vast army of the Indians. Several of the troops were wounded, others -were panic-struck, and retreated to the shore. Relief was sent from -the ships, and the Indians were finally put to flight. Landing -the remainder of his forces, De Soto found the villages deserted, -and learned, from some prisoners he took, that the hostility he -had encountered was occasioned by outrages committed by Narvaez -on a cacique of the village, called Hivrihigua. Having gained his -friendship, and formed a treaty with him, the treacherous Spaniard, in -a fit of passion, ordered the cacique’s nose to be cut off, and his -mother to be torn in pieces by dogs. De Soto endeavoured, by sending -presents to the mutilated chief, to gain his favor; but he indignantly -replied to the messages, “I want none of their speeches and promises; -bring me their heads, and I will joyfully receive them.” - -Juan Ortiz, a follower of Narvaez, who had been captured by Hivrihigua, -was obtained as an interpreter. This man was one of four on whom the -cacique had determined to wreak his vengeance, on account of the -treatment he had received. The others were stripped naked, led out -into the public square, and set at liberty, to be shot to death by -arrows. To prolong their torture, only one Indian was allowed to shoot -at a time, and in this manner they were all killed, with the exception -of Juan Ortiz. This was a youth hardly eighteen years old, and his -appearance, as he was led forth to execution, so touched the hearts of -the wife and daughters of the cacique, that, at their intercession, he -was spared. He was, however, reduced to a state of slavery, made to -bear burdens, and be the object of barbarous amusements. At one time, -he was bound down on a wooden frame, over a bed of live coals, to be -roasted alive. Again his pitying protectors came to his relief, and, by -their entreaties, he was once more spared. - -After various adventures, he was committed to a neighbouring cacique, -by the daughter of Hivrihigua, and remained there till sent for by De -Soto to act as an interpreter. The cacique under whose protection -he had been, named Mucozo, also came to the Spanish camp with his -warriors, and, in reply to the assurances of De Soto that he should -be kindly treated, he magnanimously said, “What I have done to Ortiz -is but little; he came commended to me, and threw himself on my -protection. There is a law of our tribe which forbids our betraying a -fugitive who asks of us an asylum. But his own virtue and dauntless -courage entitled him to all the respect which was shown him. That I -have pleased your people, I rejoice exceedingly, and by devoting myself -henceforth to their service, I hope to merit their esteem.” - -The mother of Mucozo, distressed with fears for her son, also came, and -begged De Soto to deliver him up. “He is young,” said she; “only give -him his liberty, and take me, who am a poor old woman, and do with me -as you please. I will bear any punishment for both.” Though treated -with kindness, she still continued anxious and suspicious. She would -eat nothing at the governor’s table till Ortiz had first tasted it; -and when asked how it happened that she, who so feared death, should -offer to die for her son, she replied, “I love life as others do, but I -would willingly lose it to save a son who is far dearer to me than life -itself.” Though assured by her son that he was entirely at liberty, she -returned home in sorrow. - -By means of kindness to some of his captives, whom he allowed to go -home loaded with presents, De Soto tried to soften the stern cacique, -Hivrihigua. His reply was, “The memory of my injuries forbids my -sending a kind answer, and a harsh one your courtesy will not allow -me to return.” Learning that Hivrihigua was concealed in a forest not -far from the camp, one of De Soto’s followers undertook to capture him. -He had not gone far, before he met a messenger from the cacique, who -begged him, in the name of his master, not to proceed any further, as -the old cacique was secure in his fortress, and he could not reach him, -while he would be exposed to great danger in the morasses and forests -which lay in his way. The event proved according to the warning; for, -notwithstanding repeated messages to the same effect, the foolhardy -cavalier persisted, and was finally compelled to return home without -having accomplished his purpose. - -As the Spaniards advanced into the interior of the country, they found -warlike Indians hanging about their path, and harassing them at every -step. The savages assailed their enemy with great fury, and fought -bravely; but they were no match for horsemen so armed at all points -that the arrows could make no impression on them. On the approach of De -Soto, the caciques fled into the woods, and prepared for resistance. -One of these, named Acuera, being invited to a peaceable interview, -replied, “Others of your accursed race have, in years past, poisoned -our peaceful shores. They have taught me what you are. What is your -employment? To wander about, like vagabonds, from land to land; to -rob the poor; to betray the confiding; to murder, in cold blood, the -defenceless. No; with such a people I want no peace, no friendship. -War, never-ending, exterminating war, is all that I ask. You boast -yourselves valiant, and so you may be; but my faithful warriors are not -less brave, and this, too, you shall one day know; for I have sworn -to maintain an unsparing hostility, while one white man remains in my -borders. Not openly in the battle,--though even thus we fear not to -meet you,--but by stratagem, and ambush, and midnight surprisal, shall -you be met.” - -To the demand of obedience to the emperor of Spain, the Indian replied, -“I am king in my own land, and will never become the vassal of a mortal -like myself. Vile and pusillanimous is he who will submit to the yoke -of another, when he may be free. As for me and my people, we choose -death, yes, a hundred deaths, before the loss of our liberty, and the -subjugation of our country.” - -De Soto sent out persons in every quarter to explore the country, but -the Indians lurked in ambush, and cut off every Spaniard who strayed -from the camp; and though De Soto caused the bodies to be buried, yet -the Indians always returned in the night, dug them up, cut them in -pieces, and hung them on the trees. Fourteen Europeans thus perished, -and many more were wounded. In this manner the natives fulfilled their -threats. “Keep on, robbers and traitors,” said they; “in Acuera and -Apalachee, we will treat you as you deserve. Every captive will we -quarter and hang up on the highest trees along the road.” - -As De Soto advanced still further, he was attacked by some of the -subjects of the cacique, Ocali. The adventures of the Spaniards with -Vitachuco were remarkable, but we cannot detail them here.[4] In the -fierce battles fought, with De Soto, the Indian warriors showed great -bravery, but they were finally defeated, and nearly exterminated. The -same determined spirit of resistance was manifested by almost every -tribe of the Florida Indians. - -After many battles and skirmishes, the Spaniards approached a village -called Anhayea. The Indians had fled, but it was found to contain two -hundred and fifty large and commodious houses; besides which, there -were said to be many others in the province, consisting of from fifty -to a hundred houses. There were, also, many dwellings scattered about -the country. De Soto, to relieve himself from the harassing attacks of -the Indians in this quarter, formed a plan to get possession of the -cacique, Capafi. This person was so fat and unwieldy, that he could -neither walk nor stand. When he went about his dwelling, he was obliged -to move on his hands and knees, and in going from place to place was -borne in a litter on the shoulders of his subjects. Learning that he -was in the midst of a dense and vast forest, about eight leagues off, -fortified in the strongest manner known to this people, and garrisoned -by a band of his bravest and choicest warriors, so that he felt himself -to be impregnable, De Soto determined to attack him. - -The Spaniards met with a strong resistance at the entrance of the -defile which led to the open place where the cacique had taken up -his abode. It was so narrow that but two could go in abreast. The -palisades were, however, gained in succession, and the place of the -cacique’s refuge finally reached. Here a desperate conflict took place. -Perceiving the danger of their chief, the Indians threw themselves on -the swords and spears of the Spaniards. Many were the valiant feats -performed on both sides; but as the Indians were without defensive -armor, most of them were at last cut down, and the cacique, knowing -that further resistance was vain, called on the survivors to surrender. -They therefore threw themselves before the Spanish leader, and offered -their own lives, but besought him to spare that of their cacique. - -De Soto assured them of pardon, and that he would henceforth consider -them as his friends. Capafi, unable to walk, was taken up on the -arms of his attendants to kiss De Soto’s hands, who treated him with -urbanity and kindness. The wily chief, however, on the return to -the village of Anhayea, found means to escape. This was effected in -the following manner. The Indians, notwithstanding the captivity of -their chief, did not cease their efforts to annoy the Spaniards. De -Soto reproached the cacique with ingratitude, and threatened a war of -extermination. The cacique expressed his grief, and said, that as the -chief assailants were concealed in a thick forest, five or six leagues -off, he would go there under guard of some Spaniards, and persuade them -to submit. - -De Soto sent him, attended by a company of horse and foot, who were -ordered to watch him closely, and not allow him to escape. On reaching -the forest, at sunset, the cacique sent some Indians to the warriors -who were there concealed, with orders to assemble before him the next -morning. The Spaniards, satisfied that the orders of the cacique -would be obeyed, betook themselves to rest, having stationed their -sentinels, and placed a guard over the chief; but, owing to the -fatigue of their long march, they all fell asleep. Perceiving this, the -cacique watched his opportunity, crawled on his hands and knees through -the camp, and soon fell in with a party of his warriors, who took him -on their shoulders and carried him away. The Spaniards, mortified with -the result of their expedition, returned, and on their march were -taunted by the Indians for the failure of their schemes. They pretended -to De Soto that they had lost their captive by some art of necromancy, -and he, though aware of the truth, apparently yielded to the story, -saying, that the Indians were such wonderful necromancers that they -might have performed still greater feats of skill. - -In an attempt made by a garrison left behind at Hivrihigua to reach De -Soto, a terrible battle ensued in a morass, which came near proving -fatal to the whole party. Nothing but the fall of the Indian chief who -led the onset saved them from destruction. The battle took place in -the water, and the Indians rushed with wild yells from behind bushes, -brakes, and the trunks of trees, discharging showers of arrows at -their enemy. The horses, being wounded, became furious, and threw off -the foot-soldiers, who were mounted behind the horsemen. They were -thus exposed to the arrows of the enemy, who perceived their fall, and -rushed forward to despatch them. - -In front of the assailants was an Indian entirely naked, bold and -fearless, with a large plume of feathers on his head. He sought to gain -the shelter of a great tree which lay between him and the Spaniards. -One of these, bearing a crossbow, sent an arrow with so true an aim, -that it pierced him through the breast. He staggered forward a few -paces, crying out to his followers, “These traitors have slain me!” -His comrades then rushed to his aid, received him in their arms, and, -passing him on from one to another, carried him away. - -In another part of the morass, the battle was not less bloody, and -the Spaniards were losing ground, when, at the most critical moment, -the news came to the Indians that their chief was mortally wounded; -this checked their ardor, and they began to retreat. The Spaniards -halted for the night, and it is said that scarcely a man among them had -escaped without a wound. - -On resuming their march, every inch of ground was disputed by the -enemy, till the adventurers came to an open plain, where the cavalry -could act with effect. The Indians then departed, but, when night came, -they hovered round the camp with dreadful yells and howlings, taunting -their foes, and launching against them clouds of arrows, thus forcing -them to keep in perpetual motion. Frequently, the Spaniards were -obliged to remove barriers and palisades which obstructed their march, -and to cut their way through the tangled thicket; while the Indians, -from their ambush, cried out, “Where are you going, robbers? We have -already killed your chief and all his warriors!” - -The Spaniards having spent the winter of 1539 in Apalachee, where they -were perpetually annoyed by the bold and warlike savages, resumed their -march on the arrival of spring. As they advanced, they came to the -deserted village of Achese, where they made prisoners of two warriors, -who, being brought before De Soto, demanded, in a bold and fearless -manner, “What seek you in our land, peace or war?” De Soto replied, -“We seek not war with any one; but our wish is to cultivate peace and -friendship. We are in search of a distant province, and all we ask -is food by the road.” The warriors promised to supply all necessary -food, and an embassy being sent to the cacique of Cofa, he returned -a deputation of two thousand Indians, with a present of rabbits, -partridges, and maize, and a great number of dogs. The cacique also -gave the Spaniards a generous welcome, and set apart his own dwelling -for De Soto, providing, likewise, quarters for the army. The province -is said to have been very extensive, fertile, and populous. The natives -were peaceful, domestic, and affable, treating the strangers with great -kindness. - -De Soto, who had brought with him a piece of ordnance, showed its power -by prostrating, with ten shots, a large oak-tree. The cacique and his -people manifested great amazement as well as pleasure; and when the -Spaniards departed, the chief sent messengers to his brother Cofaqui, -the cacique of an adjoining province, still more opulent and powerful -than his own, begging him to receive the strangers kindly. He likewise, -in company with his warriors, escorted the army one day’s march, and, -having bidden them farewell, charged some of his people to go on -further, and do all in their power to serve them. - -The cacique Cofaqui, on receiving his brother’s message, sent four -chiefs, with a train of Indians, to welcome De Soto and his band. As -they drew near, he went out, richly decorated, to receive them; taking -with him a company of warriors who carried their bows and arrows in -their hands, and wore tall plumes on their heads, with rich mantles -of martin-skin, finely dressed, over their shoulders. Four thousand -warriors were appointed to escort the strangers, with an equal number -of retainers to carry supplies and clothing. These Indians depended on -the chase for animal food; but their principal articles of provision -were maize, dried plums, grapes, walnuts, and acorns. - -A short time before the Spaniards departed, the cacique called his -chief warrior to him in the public square, and there, in the presence -of De Soto and his officers, said, “You well know that a perpetual -enmity has existed between our fathers and the Indians of Cofachiqui. -That bitter hatred, you are aware, has not abated in the least; the -deep wrongs, the notorious injuries, we have suffered from that vile -tribe, still rankle in our hearts, unrevenged! The present opportunity -must not be lost! You, the leader of my warriors, must accompany this -chief and his braves, and under their protection wreak vengeance on our -enemies! I need say no more to you; I leave our cause and our honor in -your hands.” - -The Indian chief, to whom this message was addressed, was called -Patofa; he had a graceful form and striking features, with a noble -expression of countenance; and his whole demeanour showed that he was -worthy of the trust confided in him. Rising up, he threw off his mantle -of skin, seized a broadsword of palm-wood, and performed an exercise -with it which excited the admiration of even the Spanish cavaliers. -After many singular evolutions, he stopped before the cacique, and, -with a profound reverence, said, “I pledge my word to fulfil your -commands, so far as I am able; and, by the favor of these strangers, I -promise to revenge the insults, the deaths, and losses that our fathers -have sustained from the people of Cofachiqui. My vengeance shall be -such that the memory of your past evils shall be for ever wiped away. -My daring again to appear in your presence will be a token that your -commands have been executed. For if the fates deny my hopes, never -again shall you behold me, never again shall the sun shine upon me. If -the enemy deny me death, my own hand will find it. I will inflict upon -myself the punishment my cowardice or evil fortune will merit.” - -The cacique rose up and embraced him, and, taking from his own -shoulders a beautiful mantle of martin-skins, placed it on Patofa’s -shoulders, and said, “I consider that what you have promised is as -certain as if it were already done; therefore do I reward you as for -services already rendered.” - -The march now commenced, and soon after an Indian deserted. Patofa -sent some men in pursuit of him, and he was brought back in fetters. -The chief ordered him to be led to the banks of a small stream, where -he was stripped, thrown on the ground, and commanded to drink the -streamlet dry. The culprit drank till he could swallow no more; but -the moment he raised his head from the water, five Indians, who were -stationed near, belabored him with their clubs till he began again. -Some of his comrades hurried to De Soto, and begged his interposition; -and he was accordingly released, though half dead with the water he -had swallowed. - -The army, as they advanced on the high road, at length came to a dense -forest, and, as the Indians professed to be as ignorant of the way as -the Spaniards, De Soto suspected treachery, and called upon Patofa to -explain how it was, that, of his eight thousand men, not one knew the -way to Cofachiqui, with the people of which they had been so often -engaged in war? Patofa declared his ignorance of the place, saying, -that the wars referred to had been carried on solely by skirmishes; and -as the natives of Cofachiqui were the most powerful and had been most -frequently victorious, his people were afraid to pass beyond their own -frontiers. “But,” said he, “do you suspect that I have led your army -into these deserts to perish? If so, take what hostages you please. If -my head will suffice, take it; if not, you may behead every individual -of my band, as they will obey me even to the death.” - -At length, they came in sight of a country studded with numerous -villages. Here Patofa and his men stole out of the camp by night, -assaulted a temple, and massacred every Indian in it, taking their -scalps as trophies, to be carried to their cacique, Cofaqui. After -laying waste the country for many leagues, slaying and scalping every -man, woman, and child, sacking and pillaging villages and temples, and -even breaking into the sepulchres,--Patofa and his followers returned -home, laden with spoils, and pleased with having fulfilled the promise -made to the cacique. - -De Soto had now reached the dominions of the kind princess Cofachiqui, -which doubtless formed a part of the present State of Georgia;[5] -but as the Indians here, and even farther on, belonged to the Florida -tribes, and as the country itself constituted a portion of the -territory originally called Florida, it will be proper to give some -account of them in this connection. We therefore pursue the narrative -of De Soto’s march through this region. - -The next place mentioned in the story of the adventurers is the -province of Achalaque, said, by the narrator, to be the most wretched -in all Florida. The inhabitants were a feeble, peaceful race, nearly -naked, living chiefly on herbs, roots, and wild fowl. Beyond this, was -a province called Xuala. Crossing a chain of low mountains which were -uninhabited, the Spaniards next reached the province of Guaxule. When -within a league of the principal town, they were met by the cacique, -with 500 warriors richly dressed in mantles of various kinds of skins, -and adorned with gay feathers. His village consisted of about 300 -houses. His own dwelling, into which he received De Soto, stood on a -mound, and was encircled by a terrace wide enough for six men to walk -upon it abreast. - -Still farther on, after passing through a desert country, they came -to a village named Ichiaha, standing at the extremity of an island -more than five leagues in length, the cacique of which gave them a -polite and friendly welcome. After another day’s march, they came to -a village called Acoste, the cacique of which was a fierce warrior. -He placed himself in battle array at the head of 1,500 of his men, -who were decorated with war plumes, and equipped with arms. After some -difficulties, a good understanding was established, and the Spaniards -were received with hospitality. Continuing their march, they met -with numerous tribes, and encountered a great variety of adventures. -From the giant chieftain, Tuscaloosa,[6] they received the fiercest -resistance; and the Chickasaws, who were a brave and numerous people, -assailed them with desperate resolution. As they proceeded, new enemies -sprang up to meet them, who either gave them open battle, or hung -upon their skirts, and harassed them with perpetual attacks. At one -time, they came in sight of a fortress, garrisoned by Indians, whose -bodies were painted in stripes of white, black, and red, and their -faces blackened, with red circles about their eyes. Some of them wore -feathers, and some horns on their heads, so that they looked more like -devils than men. Having kindled a fire in front of their fort, they -pretended to knock one of their companions on the head with a club, -and then swung him by the feet and shoulders, as if they were throwing -him into the flames; thus intimating to the Spaniards the kind of -treatment they might expect if any of them fell into their hands. The -fortress was, however, stormed and carried after a desperate fight, and -a fearful scene of blood and carnage ensued, in which multitudes of the -Indians were slaughtered. - -It is unnecessary to give further details respecting the adventures of -De Soto and his companions. We need only say, that, having proceeded -westward till he had crossed the Mississippi, this daring leader was -seized with fever, of which he died after an illness of seven days. His -band of followers, after experiencing great vicissitudes, succeeded in -descending the Mississippi, amid hosts of enemies, and, though greatly -reduced in numbers, they at length reached the Gulf of Mexico in 1543. -Thus terminated this celebrated expedition, which occupied four years, -and in which the troops are said to have marched between four and five -thousand miles. - -The subsequent history of the original Indian tribes of Florida affords -nothing of interest. Under the oppression of the Spanish dominion, -many of them were destroyed, and others driven off, so that but few -remained. Most of them seem to have been conquered, incorporated with -the later Seminoles, and intermingled with fugitive negroes. The -recent painful history of these we shall hereafter notice. The greater -part have been removed across the Mississippi, by the United States -government, and only a remnant are left to occupy what is now the -Territory of Florida. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[4] See “Lives of Famous Indians.” - -[5] For an account of Cofachiqui, see “Lives of Famous Indians.” - -[6] See “Lives of Famous Indians.” - - - - -THE INDIANS OF VIRGINIA. - - -When the Europeans began their settlements in what is now the territory -of the United States, the whole country was occupied by a great -number of separate and independent tribes. Upon the investigation of -their languages, it has been found that they consisted of a few great -families, or nations, which have been thus distributed by learned -writers. - -The _Algonquins_, or _Chippewas_, were spread over the entire continent -east of the Mississippi and north of Cape Hatteras, with the exception -of the regions inhabited by the _Esquimaux_, far to the north, and the -territory claimed by the _Hurons_, or _Wyandots_. This latter family, -which included the _Iroquois_, or _Six Nations_, spread themselves -over the space now occupied by New York, a part of Ohio, and the whole -of Upper Canada. The _Mobilian_, or _Florida_ nations, included the -tribes south of Cape Fear and west of the Mississippi, excepting the -_Natchez_, inhabiting the country around the modern city of that name, -and the _Uchees_, who held the country contiguous to the present town -of Augusta, in Georgia. The _Cherokees_, _Tuscaroras_, and _Catawbas_, -three considerable nations, occupied the territory of the Carolinas, -Virginia, and Tennessee. The _Sioux_, or _Dahcotahs_, dwelt along the -western borders of the Mississippi. - -These families, or nations, as we have already said, were broken into -a multitude of distinct tribes, each having, for the most part, its -particular dialect, and carrying on war against every other tribe. In -some instances, several tribes were confederated together, either for -the purposes of defence or aggression. Their whole number has been -variously estimated, but it probably did not exceed 500,000 at the time -of the settlement at Jamestown, in 1607. - -When our ancestors came to these shores, they found the Indians -thinly scattered over the country, though occasionally gathered in -considerable groups in the more fertile valleys, and along the banks -of rivers, lakes, and bays. They were in the rudest state of society, -without science, without arts, without any metallic instruments, -without domestic animals. They raised a little corn, which the women -cultivated with a clam-shell, or the shoulder-blade of the buffalo. -Devouring this with savage improvidence, they obtained a precarious -supply for the rest of the year by gathering nuts and roots, or by -hunting and fishing. Half clad in skins, or entirely naked, they roamed -from place to place, passing their lives, alternately, in stupid -idleness, and the fiercest excitements of war and the chase. Ignorant -of the past, and improvident of the future, most of these tribes were -sunk in the lowest depths of human degradation. - -Such were the occupants of the soil, when the European settlers came -to establish themselves here. Throughout the continent, the Indians -appear to have been at first disposed to give a hospitable reception -to the strangers who visited their shores; but they were soon taught -to dread, and then to hate, a people, who shot them down, subjected -them to slavery, and robbed them of their property and lands, without -mercy or scruple. When the settlements began along our Atlantic coast, -more than a century had passed since the discovery of the continent -by Columbus, and ample time had elapsed for many of the tribes to -experience, and all to know, the oppressive and formidable character of -these European invaders. - -Though the number of the Indians in this quarter was not great, yet -their skill in war, and the deep-seated jealousy and hatred of the -white race, which had grown up with them, rendered them a fearful foe -to feeble colonies, separated by a wide ocean from the protection and -succour of their native land. The contests of our forefathers with the -Indians, therefore, were full of the deepest interest to them, and -abound in incidents which cannot fail to arrest the attention of every -reader. - -When the Europeans first planted themselves at Jamestown, according -to Captain Smith’s account, the country, from the sea-coast to the -mountains, was inhabited by forty-three different tribes. Thirty of -these spread over the tract of country south of the Potomac, within a -space of about 8,000 square miles. Within sixty miles of Jamestown, -it is said, there were 5,000 of these natives. There were several -confederacies among them, the chief of which were the Powhatan -confederacy, the confederacy of the Mannahoacks, and that of the -Monacans. These last two were united in a grand alliance against the -Powhatan league. Long and bloody wars were maintained between these -rival sovereignties. The Mannahoack confederacy embraced thirteen -tribes, eight of whom were under the Mannahoacks, and five under the -Monacans. Besides these, there were also the independent tribes of the -Nottoways, Meherriks, Tuteloes, and various others. - -These tribes, especially the Powhatan confederacy, were not disposed -to allow the English to settle down among them unmolested. Though at -times preserving a show of peace, feelings of hostility rankled in -their hearts, and the colonists were obliged to be always on their -guard. Nor can we blame the Indians that they felt inimical to the -settlers. Hitherto, they had remained sole lords and proprietors of the -vast territory over which they roamed, undisturbed except by the wars -which they carried on with each other. To break in upon this supremacy, -and to appropriate their lands, the white man came and planted himself -down, not only assuming a superiority of intelligence and power, but of -right. The means of communication with distant tribes were evidently -greater than has sometimes been imagined, and doubtless the story of -Cortés, De Soto, and other invaders, had reached the ears of these -savages. We shall not be surprised, therefore, to find that Powhatan, -the chief of the tribe of that name, soon began to grow hostile to his -new neighbours at Jamestown, after their settlement in 1607. The enemy -he had to oppose, however, was the undaunted and chivalrous Captain -Smith, whose earlier history seems almost like a romance, appropriately -followed out by the strange incidents of his residence in the -colony.[7] - -The Indians, in the course of numerous attacks and skirmishes, learned -to regard Smith as a foe by no means to be despised; and when, in one -of his expeditions, he was taken captive, their joy knew no bounds. -After being led from one chief to another, Captain Smith was finally -presented to Powhatan himself. Opechancanough, who was his successor, -seems to have cherished strong feelings of dislike to Smith, and had -Powhatan felt disposed to spare him, he would have found himself -opposed by his chief warriors. Finally, when he had been seen by all -the Indians, and experiments had been tried on his courage, it was -determined, in a council of chiefs, that he should have his brains -beaten out with a club. - -The appointed day arrived. Powhatan and his warriors were present, -exulting in the scene. The captive was brought forth; two large stones -were placed in a suitable position, and he was laid upon them. At this -moment, the compassionate Pocahontas, the darling daughter of Powhatan, -sprang forward, and, clasping Smith in her arms, shielded his head with -her person, and declared that he should not be killed, unless she, -too, fell beneath the same blow. So strange an event appears to have -made a deep impression on the father. His daughter persisting in her -determination to die with the captive, the chief yielded, Smith was -saved, and sent home to Jamestown. This striking event took place in -1607. - -Still, Powhatan, for a considerable time, remained the foe of the -whites, and at various times designed evil against the colony; but -his schemes were frustrated by the vigilance of Smith, aided by the -cautions of Pocahontas, who proved herself, on many occasions, his -friend. The heroic girl herself was afterwards taken prisoner, and -during her residence at Jamestown was married to Mr. Rolfe, a gentleman -of great respectability. Powhatan was then induced to relinquish his -hostility, and become the friend of the whites. His daughter and her -husband went to England, where she was admitted to see the queen, but -she died as she was about to return. - -Opechancanough, the successor of Powhatan, was said to be originally -from the south, and some have conjectured that he was of Mexican -descent, as his appearance is described to have differed from that of -the other Indians of the Powhatan confederacy. He was a man of more -than ordinary abilities, and burned with a desire to rid his country -of those whom he viewed as invaders of her soil. In 1622, he concerted -a plan for a general massacre, hoping even to effect the entire -extermination of the colony. The plot was deeply laid, and planned with -great skill. All the members of the confederacy had their several parts -assigned them. At the time the plot was formed, many of the Indians -mingled with the whites for the purpose of ascertaining the avenues by -which to gain access to the town, and the means of striking the blow -with most effect. - -On the appointed day, the 22d of March, about noon, while the people -were at work, and mostly unarmed, the Indians rushed upon them, and at -once massacred three hundred and forty-seven men, women, and children. -So well devised was the plan, that, but for its being betrayed, the -whole colony, including Jamestown, must have been cut off at a blow. A -Christian Indian, who had been solicited by his brother to kill a Mr. -Pace, with whom he then lived, informed him of the plot, and, though -not in season to save hundreds from falling victims to the savage -enemy, yet intelligence was sent to Jamestown, and the people, in many -instances, were seasonably put upon their guard. The Indians, finding -they were betrayed, did not attempt an attack upon the town, but -plundered and burned the undefended houses, the mills and iron works, -and whatever else came in their way. - -The next autumn, the Virginians, in their turn, attacked the Indians, -burned several of their towns, and took many thousand bushels of corn, -which they found stored up for the winter. The consequence of this -was, that the Indians were greatly distressed, and suffered much for -want of food and the necessaries of life. The succeeding July, the war -was carried on with still more vigor; four or five separate parties -were appointed to attack the Indians at different points, and many -were slain, among whom were some of their kings and war-captains. -These disasters at once disheartened and weakened them. Still, they -continued to seize upon every advantage that offered, and, in 1630, -Opechancanough, observing that the colony was in a state of disunion -and anarchy, formed a plan for another surprise and massacre. - -The experience they had so dearly bought should have made the colonists -vigilant, and put them upon their guard at all times. But they seem, -at this period, to have relapsed into a state of fatal confidence -or indifference. The Indians fell upon the settlers, principally on -the south side of James River, and at the head of York River, and so -carefully had they concealed their design, so well was it arranged, and -so resolutely executed, that they cut off five hundred of the colonists -at a blow. This was a dreadful event to the infant settlement, and -seems, at first, to have almost entirely disheartened the survivors. -A long and bloody war followed, with various results, till, finally, -the Indians being defeated, and tired of the strife, a peace was once -more made, which continued unbroken for many years. The death of -Opechancanough, the master spirit of the savages, and the implacable -foe of the colony, doubtless contributed to this end. Every contest -also taught the Indians the power of European discipline, and they at -last learned that the field of battle was the grave of their warriors, -and that even a successful war always resulted in a diminution of their -strength. - -No very striking event succeeded, in the history of the Virginia -colony, till the year 1675, when the Indians again began to rob and -murder the colonists. Intestine divisions raged, and they seemed, in -their broils, to forget that an enemy lurked around them, who might -take fatal advantage of their unguarded and feeble condition. Although -the Indians dared not appear, as they had formerly done, in the very -heart of the settlements,--for these had increased, and the tribes -had been driven back into the interior,--yet they attacked those who -dwelt on the frontiers, wasted their fields, burned their houses, and -committed other ravages. The colonists were in no condition to avenge -themselves of these outrages. Had the Indians, indeed, known the full -extent of their weakness, they might have been emboldened to still more -daring invasions; but, being successfully attacked by the whites, after -a brief conflict, they were glad to accept of peace. The ascendency of -the English being once established, the tribes gradually wasted away, -and it would now be difficult to find a remnant of the once powerful -people by which the eastern portion of Virginia was formerly inhabited. - -The tract of country first called Virginia embraced more than is now -comprised in the limits of the State; and as a part of North Carolina -was included in its boundaries, it may be proper, in this connection, -to notice the history of the Indians who occupied this region. - -North Carolina was first discovered by Sir Walter Raleigh, in 1584. -In the account given by him, it seems the Indian name of this region -was Wingandacoa, the king being called Wingina. His chief town was -six days’ journey from Wococon. His brother, Ganganameo, resided at -a village on the Roanoke. The third day after the English arrived, -some natives appeared, and one of them went on board of the ships. The -English gave him a shirt, some wine, and plenty to eat. He paddled -away, and, having laden his boat with fish, returned, and divided -them into two parts, meaning one portion for one ship, and the rest -for the other. The next day Ganganameo came to see them, with fifty -men, spread out his mat on the point, without any apparent fear, and, -sitting down, made signs to the English to sit down with him. He then -stroked his head and breast, and theirs also in a gentler manner, thus -signifying, that, henceforth, their heads and hearts should be one. -He made a long speech, and they presented him with some toys, which -greatly pleased him. They then opened a trade, and he gave them twenty -deer-skins for a pewter basin; a sample of the dealings between the -English and natives. The chief made a hole through the basin, and hung -it about his neck for a breastplate. He also gave fifty more skins for -a copper kettle. - -Some days after this interview, Ganganameo came again with his wife and -children. They were of a low stature, but quite handsome. His wife wore -a coat and short apron of leather, and a band of white coral about her -forehead, with ear-rings of pearls as large as peas, and hanging down -to her waist. He was himself dressed in the same manner, except that -his hair was long on one side, and cut short on the other. The English, -in return, went to see him; but, as the chief was absent, his wife ran -to meet them, and, as they approached the shore, ordered her people to -take them on their backs to the land. The season being rainy, she had -their boat drawn up on the bank. Her visiters were then taken into her -house, where she washed their clothes and feet. After they had warmed -and dried themselves by a fire, she took them into another room, where -a dinner was prepared, consisting of various dishes,--boiled venison, -roots, melons, and other fruits. When they returned to their boats, -she gave them mats to shield them from the rain. Well might these -voyagers say, as they did, “A more kind and loving people cannot be.” - -Notwithstanding this favorable view, it appears, that, subsequently, -the North Carolina Indians were more or less enlisted in the various -enterprises of the natives against the colony of Virginia, of which -an account has already been given, and, to some extent, shared the -fortunes of their countrymen. In 1712, a part of them, the Corees, -Tuscaroras, and others, formed a league for the purpose of expelling -the colonists, who had now encroached upon their territories. Their -plan was arranged with great secrecy and cunning. To secure their own -families, they surrounded their principal town with a breastwork. -Here the warriors of the different tribes met, to the number of -twelve hundred bowmen. The plan was matured, and the time fixed for -the massacre. When the fatal night came, small parties went out by -different roads, and, under the mask of friendship, were admitted to -the houses of the colonists. Rising at a preconcerted signal, they -slaughtered men, women, and children, without distinction. To prevent -discovery or alarm, they ran as speedily as possible from house to -house, hastening the bloody work. - -In the vicinity of Roanoke, they thus butchered one hundred and -thirty-seven persons in a single night. A few escaped and gave the -alarm, by which means the settlements were preserved from extinction. -Nearly one thousand troops were immediately raised in South Carolina, -by whom the Indians were pursued. On coming up with them, a severe -battle was fought, in which three hundred Indians were slain, and one -hundred taken prisoners. It was supposed that nearly one thousand -of the Indians were finally killed, wounded, and captured. After -this event, the remnant of the Tuscaroras fled to the Five Nations, -with whom they became incorporated. From this period, the northern -confederacy assumed the title of the Six Nations. - -In Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, and the part of New York below -the Highlands, there were likewise numerous tribes of Indians. It is -said that there were not less than thirty kings within these limits, -and the whole number of Indians is computed by Dr. Trumbull to have -been about 10,000, and the warriors 2,000. The principal tribes were -the Manhattans and the Delawares, or, as they are often termed, the -Lenni Lenape. The peaceful policy of William Penn prevented any Indian -wars in the early settlement of Pennsylvania, though another cause -doubtless contributed to this result. The Five Nations had subdued the -Lenni Lenape, obliged them to put themselves under their protection, -deprived them of the power of making war, and confined them to the -raising of corn, hunting, and fishing. To use the Indian phrase, they -had been thus reduced to the state of women. The interior portion of -Virginia had also been subjected to the same sway. - -Many of the Indians of whom we are now speaking were greatly benefited -by the missionary labors of David Brainerd, who instructed them in -Christianity. Numbers became professors of religion, and were bright -examples of the power of the gospel even over the savage heart. The -Moravians, also, at a still later date, were not less successful, -and the account of their residence among the Indians, as related by -Heckewelder and others, deserves a careful perusal. The history of -these Indians, however, is similar to that of the tribes in other -quarters, when brought in contact with the whites. They wasted away in -the competition with a master race, and not a vestige of them is left -upon their original domains. - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTE: - -[7] For the details of Smith’s life, see “Curiosities of Human Nature,” -and “Lives of Celebrated American Indians,” article “Pocahontas.” - - - - -THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. - - -The Southern Indians, in the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida, were -composed of many different tribes. Of these, the most distinguished -were the Catawbas, Cherokees, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Creeks. In -1671, the Cherokees in South Carolina were estimated at 6,000 bowmen. -It is thought that the Corees, Stonoes, Westoes, Savannas, Yamassees, -Catawbas, and Congarees could not have been less numerous, and that, -in this colony alone, there were as many as 35 or 36,000 Indians, -including 12,000 warriors. The Creeks numbered about 25,000. The -Chickasaws, Alabamas, and Natchez were computed at 10,476 fighting -men, and the whole population at 31,128 souls. The Natchez were once a -great nation, and were able, at one time, to raise not less than 4,000 -warriors. - -These Indians, as well as the others, viewed with jealousy the -settlements of the whites, and were, from time to time, more or less -engaged in attacks upon the colonists, whom they greatly annoyed in -their infant state. They also carried on war with the Five Nations, and -many remarkable feats of their valor are related. One of these deserves -to be mentioned. A party of Senecas, in an excursion far south, near -the territories of the Catawbas, discovered a young hunter in a light -summer dress. They intercepted him, and he ran towards a hollow for the -purpose of concealing himself. He was swift of foot, and so skilful in -archery, that he shot down seven of his pursuers before they were able -to capture him. They then took him to their own country, and there he -was condemned, in a council of warriors, to die by torture. - -On being led out to the stake where he was to be burned alive, he -suddenly collected his strength, dashed down his nearest enemies, -sprang to the waters of a neighbouring stream, plunged in, and swam -underneath, rising only at intervals to take breath, till he reached -the shore. The Senecas followed him through the water, and fired their -guns, but they were at such a distance they could not reach him. He -stopped for a moment or two, contemptuously set them at defiance, and -then fled into the forest. Closely pursued, he ran on till midnight, -and then lay by among the bushes, hiding himself under some logs. - -Five of his enemies came near, and, kindling their fire, lay down -to sleep. He watched them earnestly, till they were all in a sound -slumber. He then silently crawled to the place, seized a tomahawk, and, -by a sudden attack, killed them, and scalped them. He then clothed -himself in the dress of one of them, took their guns, ammunition, and -provisions, and pursued his way. Still he was not satisfied with his -revenge, but went directly to the spot where he had killed the seven -Senecas, dug up the bodies from their graves, scalped them, burned -them to ashes, and went home in triumph. Another party of the Senecas -afterwards came up, but finding the five warriors whom he had killed -and scalped, they gave up the pursuit. A war-council was called, and it -was determined, that a man who could do such things must be a wizard, -whom it was vain to pursue or oppose. - -In 1715, there was a general conspiracy and rising of the Southern -Indians, especially those in South Carolina. The league comprised the -Yamassees, a powerful tribe, the Creeks, Cherokees, Appalachians, -Catawbas, Congarees, and all the Indians from Florida to Cape -Fear River. The object of this extensive conspiracy was the total -destruction of the Carolinians. The 15th of April was the day fixed -upon for its execution. The whole plot was managed with such secrecy -and under such a guise of friendship, that the English had not the -least suspicion of treachery. Even traders among them slept the very -night before with the king and his war-captains, in the chief town of -the Yamassees. - -All was peace and silence until the morning. They then burst forth, -fell on the traders, and killed them all at a single volley, except -one man and a boy. The nation immediately rose in arms, and proclaimed -their designs of vengeance. The chiefs stimulated the young warriors, -who caught their spirit, and poured forth like a torrent on the -unsuspecting settlers. In a few hours they massacred a hundred men -in the town of Pocataligo and the neighbouring plantations. The man -and boy, who were not killed at the first fire, made their escape -to Port Royal, and the inhabitants generally fled on board a ship -for Charleston. Some other families, who were unable to escape, were -murdered. - -While the Yamassees were thus desolating the southern frontiers, the -Congarees, Catawbas, and Cherokees came down in great force on the -north. The southern division of the Indians in this war was computed -at 6,000 bowmen, and the northern at 600 or 1,000. A company, which -was sent against the northern division, was betrayed by the treachery -of an Indian; the captain was slain, and his party defeated. In one -place, seventy whites and about forty negroes, having bravely defended -their post against the northern division, capitulated, and, after their -surrender are said to have been perfidiously massacred. Flushed with -their success, the Indians went on burning, murdering, and plundering. -They were soon, however, met by a band of militia, raised on the -emergency, and totally defeated. - -The governor of South Carolina advanced with an army, and, at a place -called Saltcalches, a bloody battle was fought. The Indians, uttering -fearful war-cries and yells, sometimes retired behind the bushes, and -then, when the English were beginning to be encouraged with the hope -of success, they returned to the fight with redoubled fury. They were, -however, at last wholly defeated, and driven across the Savannah River. -The Yamassees, despairing of being able to expel or exterminate the -whites, and cherishing a spirit of bold independence, fled to Florida, -where they were afterwards troublesome to the settlements in that -vicinity. - -In April, 1730, a commissioner was sent to treat with the Cherokees. -A general assembly of the chiefs was thereupon summoned, who swore -allegiance to King George. A treaty was made, which was kept inviolate -by the Indians for thirty years. In 1760, they again made war on the -English. Parties of them had assisted in the expedition against Fort du -Quesne. In that enterprise they were treated with coldness and neglect, -and felt themselves insulted. Returning home, as many of the warriors -had lost their horses, they caught and appropriated such as they found -loose in the woods. The Virginians, roused by these aggressions, fell -on them, killed twelve or fifteen, and took several prisoners. - -The Cherokees were at once kindled into rage; they went home, and -told their wrongs to their nation. The relatives of those who were -slain breathed nothing but revenge. The French emissaries secretly -fanned the flame, and added fresh fuel to their angry passions. The -young warriors rushed down on the frontier settlements, and committed -ravages on the defenceless inhabitants. They attacked the troops -stationed at Fort Loudon, a portion of whom were killed, and the -remainder confined within the fort. Still, the nation generally were -averse to war, particularly as they heard that the English were making -great preparations to attack them. They therefore sent thirty-two of -their chief men to settle the difficulties in an amicable manner. The -governor of North Carolina received them haughtily, and overwhelmed -them with reproaches. Ouconnostota, who was considered a great warrior -in the Cherokee nation, began to reply, but the governor would not hear -him. This treatment greatly exasperated the Indians, who had now a new -insult added to their other wrongs. The governor soon after marched for -the country of the Congarees, 140 miles from Charleston, taking with -him the Cherokee sachems, who were detained as prisoners, a guard being -set over them. On reaching Fort George, they were shut up in a hut -scarcely fit to accommodate a dozen soldiers, and were not allowed to -see their friends, or even enjoy the light of day. - -Here the governor opened a conference with the Indians, who had -been assembled for the purpose. He had sent, among others, for -Attakullakulla, or Little Carpenter, who was esteemed the wisest man -in the nation, and the most attached of all to the English. By his -request, Ouconnostota and two more of the chiefs were set free. Two -others, who were delivered up as hostages, being put in irons, the -Cherokees were alarmed and fled. Attakullakulla returned home to await -the result. He was, however, soon summoned back, and finally a treaty -was signed by the governor, and the head men of the Cherokees. Still, -the remembrance of the treatment they had received lay deeply buried in -the breasts of the Indians; and Attakullakulla, on account of his known -attachment to the English, had little influence with them. - -Ouconnostota, under a sense of his wrongs, was implacable and -vindictive. He collected his warriors, made a fierce attack on the -whites, killed fourteen men near Fort George, and besieged the -garrison. He also contrived a stratagem to surprise the fort. He -sent two Indian women, who were always welcome there, to decoy out -the garrison; the lieutenant went forth to inquire the news, when -Ouconnostota joined them, saying that he wished to see the commanding -officer on important business. Accordingly, the captain, lieutenant, -and ensign went out to meet him. The chief said he was going to -Charleston to procure a release of prisoners, and wished a white man -for a safeguard. - -The request seemed reasonable, and the captain told him he should have -one. No sooner was the answer returned, than Ouconnostota gave the -signal agreed on, and nearly thirty guns were at once discharged on the -English. The captain was killed, and the lieutenant and ensign were -wounded. This treachery so exasperated the garrison, that the hostages -in the fort were immediately put to death. In the evening, the Indians -approached the fort, and, after firing their guns, and crying out in -the Cherokee language, “Fight manfully and you shall be assisted,” they -made a most furious attack, which they kept up all night. But they were -so well met by the fire of the troops within the fort, that they were -obliged to retire. - -Disappointed in this project, they turned their rage upon the Indian -traders, and massacred them. The war now became general; large -parties of warriors fell on the defenceless frontiers, and cut off -many families. About 200 of them attacked the fort at Ninety-Six, but -were obliged to retire with loss. In the mean time an expedition was -planned against the Indians; and presents were given to such Creeks, -Chickasaws, and Catawbas, as joined in the war against the Cherokees. -Their towns in the lower settlement were attacked and destroyed, and -many of the natives slain. After this, a message was sent to Fort -Loudon, requesting the commanding officers to use their best endeavours -to obtain peace with the Cherokees of the upper towns. But they were -unsuccessful, and an attack on the middle settlements was therefore -resolved upon. - -On the third day, as the army were advancing, the Cherokees made a most -furious assault upon them. A long and obstinate fight ensued, but, -finally, the Indians gave way, and fled. The army immediately pressed -forward to Etchowa, but the Indians had removed their property, and -forsaken the town. Again an attack was made, and the English, after a -severe contest, though claiming the victory, found themselves forced -to retreat. Soon after this, Fort Loudon surrendered, and the Indians -fell upon the garrison as they were marching homeward. All were slain -except Captain Stewart, whom Attakullakulla ransomed and sent home, at -the price of nearly all he possessed. The conduct of the chief, in this -case, forms a bright and beautiful passage in Indian history. - -The war with the Cherokees still continued, and the French sought -with all their art to engage the Creeks and Choctaws against the -English. A force of Scotch Highlanders, and a provincial regiment, -with numbers of Chickasaws and Catawbas, who had been induced, by -presents, to engage in the service,--the whole consisting of 2,600 -men,--were now sent forward to Fort Prince George. Here Attakullakulla -met them, and besought the commander to proceed no farther till he -had used his endeavours to bring about a peace with his countrymen. -But his entreaties were vain. The officer proceeded, and the troops -were attacked by the Cherokees, who rushed down from the high grounds -with great fury. The battle was long and dubious; the Indians, when -repulsed at one point, assailed another, and the fight was maintained -from nine to eleven o’clock, when the Cherokees, overpowered by -superior discipline, fled, and were pursued till two o’clock. Etchowa, -and fourteen other towns of the middle settlements, were now utterly -destroyed, together with several magazines of corn, and 1,400 acres -of cornfields. After ravaging the country, far and wide, the English -returned to Fort Prince George. - -Soon after this, Attakullakulla and several chiefs went to the camp -and expressed earnest wishes for peace. Articles were drawn up and -interpreted, and Attakullakulla agreed to accept all but one, which he -had no power from his nation to grant. This was, that four Cherokees -should be delivered up, and put to death in front of the army. As -they could not accede to this cruel demand, the chiefs were sent -to Charleston to confer with the governor. He met them at Ashley -Ferry, and gave them a welcome. The fire was kindled, and the pipe of -peace was lighted and smoked, in silence and great solemnity. Then -Attakullakulla rose up and made an eloquent and manly speech, saying, -“that he came as a messenger of peace; that his people were in great -distress; that, though the English were their superiors, and lived in -light, while they were in darkness, yet that one God was the Father -of both; that they lived in one country, and that he wished what had -happened might now be forgotten, and that they might be as one people.” - -A peace was thereupon established, and both parties expressed their -wish that it might last as long as the rivers should run, or the sun -shine. This was at the close of the year 1761. - -The Natchez were a powerful tribe of Indians, who inhabited that part -of our country now called Louisiana. They differed, in many respects, -from the rest of the Southern Indians, and many of their customs were -singular. In their worship of the sun, they bore a strong resemblance -to the ancient Peruvians, and may, perhaps, have had a common ancestry -with them. But they were much more warlike, and occasioned great -trouble to the French settlements in that vicinity. On one occasion, -they formed a deep plan for the extermination of every Frenchman among -them. A considerable time was taken in maturing it, and it was so -complete in its details, that nothing but its discovery by a female, -who was attached to the French, could probably have defeated its -execution. - -A day was fixed upon, when the savages were to rise simultaneously and -massacre the whites. Those who planned the enterprise, in order to -insure unity of action, furnished a number of rods to each tribe; one -rod was to be taken from the collection every day, till there remained -but one, and this was to indicate the time for the massacre. The woman, -to whom we have alluded, in order to defeat the scheme of her people, -took away one of these rods, and, as the Indians never counted them, -a part of the Natchez began the massacre one day too soon. The French -were thus apprized of the hostile design, and took measures to defeat -it. Still, many of them fell victims to the fury of the Indians. In -revenge, the whites attacked them, and, in the end, this powerful tribe -were nearly all destroyed, and their habitations reduced to ashes. -These events took place in 1729. - -The settlements of the French on the Yazoo and Washita rivers were -subjected to an attack similar to that just related, and with the like -result. The Natchez, who survived the French retaliation of their -massacres, fled to the Chickasaws. - - - - -INDIANS OF NEW ENGLAND. - - -The tract of country known by the name of New England was formerly -inhabited by numerous bands of Indians, though none of them equalled -the more southern tribes. They were, however, warlike, and were led by -chiefs of great ability. Dr. Trumbull computes the New England Indians -as, at one time, amounting to 123,000. In the winter of 1617, the -plague, or some other mortal disease, broke out among them, and almost -depopulated the country. - -When the English first landed at Plymouth, they saw few indications of -inhabitants. Yet the number of Indians in Massachusetts was probably -not less than 10,000 or 12,000, and in Rhode Island not less than -8,000. The Pequods and Mohegans, in Connecticut, had about 1,000 -warriors; these, with others, made the Indian population there equal -to about 12,000. In New Hampshire, there were probably about 4,000. -The whole number of warriors in New England might be estimated at -12,000, upon the arrival of our ancestors at Plymouth. Had these been -all united in hostility against the strangers, they must have proved -formidable enemies, indeed, to the little company landing on the coast -in the bleak month of December. - -The Pequods were the most warlike of all the Indians in New England. -More than twenty kings were their tributaries. It was fortunate for the -colonies that this tribe was not in the immediate vicinity of Plymouth. -Their chief seat was in Connecticut. - -The Indians in the western part of this region were so often exposed -to the incursions of the Mohawks, that they were not only weakened, -but they lived in constant dread of their fierce and savage foe. This -terrible enemy was wont to burst suddenly and unexpectedly into their -country, and, as they rushed upon their victims, they yelled in their -ears, “_Hadree, hadree succomce, succomce_,” We come, we come to -suck your blood! The cry of “The Mohawks! the Mohawks!” was the most -appalling sound that could assail the ears of these people. - -The Indians of Massachusetts were greatly exasperated by the conduct of -a Captain Hunt, previous to the arrival of the pilgrims. He had enticed -twenty-seven Indians on board of his ship, carried them off, and sold -them as slaves. After they heard of the arrival of the colonists, they -meditated their extermination, and held a powow, or council, in a -swamp, where, for three days, they deliberated as to what they should -do. According to their usage, they cursed the white men; but, not being -aware of their weak condition, they did not venture to attack them. An -overruling hand withheld them, and a voice spoke to them, though they -knew not whence it came, “Touch not my people, and do my servants no -harm!” - -The landing at Plymouth took place on the 22d of December, 1620. On -the 16th of March, 1621, Samoset--one of the Indians who had been -kidnapped by the English, and found his way back to his people, and -who had acquired some knowledge of our language--came to Plymouth, and -saluted the colonists with the agreeable words, “Welcome, Englishmen!” -We may imagine how joyfully they listened to his story, as he portrayed -to them the kindly character of Massasoit, the sachem who bore rule in -that vicinity. For days exposed to cold, hunger, and sickness, they had -waited the opening of spring, doubtless with many anxious fears as to -what evils might threaten them from the savages of the wilderness; and -to be now assured that the principal chief was kindly disposed must -have been cheering indeed. - -Samoset was soon despatched to the sachem, charged with a message of -peace, and Massasoit himself, and his brother Quadequina, with sixty -armed men, came to pay a visit to Governor Carver. After exchanging -hostages, Massasoit advanced to a brook with twenty unarmed men, where -he was met by a file of musketeers, and was conducted to a house -and seated on a green rug, with a number of cushions. Here the two -chiefs saluted each other, kissed hands, and entered into a league of -friendship, commerce, and mutual defence. This treaty gave peace to all -that part of the country, and Massasoit always continued to be a firm -friend to the colonists. - -The first attack on the Europeans, by the Indians of New England, was -at Connecticut, in 1636, by the Pequod tribe. They felt jealous of -the strangers who had come upon their ancient soil, over which they -had so long roamed as the sole possessors. With the hope, therefore, -of expelling or exterminating the intruders, they attacked the fort -at Saybrook, and slew and took captive the inhabitants of that early -settlement. Determined on more extensive and fatal measures against the -colonists, the Pequods sought to gain over the adjacent tribe of the -Narragansets, with whom they had before carried on a bloody warfare. -They represented to them that these foreigners were mere intruders, -dispossessing the original inhabitants, and that, unless, by a general -combination, they were driven off or destroyed, they would become -masters of the whole country. They also bade them reflect, that, if -the English should destroy the Pequods, they would soon root out the -Narragansets themselves. - -In consequence of their attacks, the colonists felt it necessary to -take vigorous measures for carrying the war even into the intrenchments -of the enemy. Captain Mason, with ninety Englishmen and seventy Mohegan -and River Indians, who had been secured as allies, was accordingly -despatched from Hartford, to search out the enemy, and give them -battle. These were joined by Captain Underhill, of Saybrook, with -nineteen men. - -On the 26th of May, 1637, Mason, after a fatiguing march, surprised -Mystic, near the present town of Stonington, one of the principal -Indian forts. After a volley from their fire-arms, they entered the -place, sword in hand, their Indian allies leaving them to make the -assault alone. Captain Mason, with his company, had approached on the -east side, and Captain Underhill, with his men, on the west side. -When they were within about a rod of the fort, the barking of a dog -awakened the sleeping sentinel, who cried out, “_Owannux! Owannux!_” -Englishmen! Englishmen! The Indians, roused by the cry, rallied, and -fought bravely, and victory for a time hung in suspense, till Captain -Mason, observing that the wigwams were covered with mats, or other -combustible materials, had recourse to the expedient of setting them on -fire. - -This decided the fate of the Pequods. In an hour, about seventy -wigwams were destroyed, and most of the Indians, estimated at four or -five hundred, were burned to death, shot down, or slain by the sword. -Sassacus, the Pequod sachem, and his warriors, were so panic-struck -by the loss of their fort and the destruction of their men, that -they burned their remaining wigwams and the royal fortress, and fled -towards the Hudson River. They were pursued to a swamp near Fairfield, -where another battle took place, in which the Pequods were entirely -vanquished. The Mohawks, treacherously hired, as has been supposed, -by the Narragansets, then fell upon the remnant of the tribe, and cut -them to pieces. It was calculated, that, in the whole, not less than -seven hundred Indians fell in this war. A few, who still lingered on -their ancient grounds, at last united with the Mohegans, under Uncas. -This chief had shown himself a friend to the English, and some of his -descendants have remained, till within a few years, among the few -Mohegans who still hold lands in the vicinity of Norwich, Connecticut. - -This effort of the Pequods, under the renowned Sassacus, was the first -great attempt of the Indians to destroy the settlers of New England. So -speedy and terrible was the retribution which followed this attempt, -that the humbled Indians remained at peace for many years after. -Other circumstances aided to promote this state of things. Sassacus, -the monarch of the country, reigning over twenty Indian kings, had -maintained a long and successful war with Miantonimoh, the sachem -of the Narragansets, and was an object of terror to that people. -Miantonimoh and his nation, therefore, desired a league with the -colonists, to defend them against the Pequods. Massasoit, also, and his -people, had sought the same alliance as a defence against their bitter -and dangerous foes, the Tarratines of Maine; and all the New England -Indians desired, especially, to secure themselves against the attacks -of the terrible Mohawks. Thus mutual weakness and mutual fears led to -general peace. - -Attempts were early made by the colonists to instruct the Indians -in the Christian religion. About the year 1644, Mr. Mayhew and Mr. -Eliot began, successfully, to engage in labors for the conversion of -the Indians on Martha’s Vineyard and at Natick. At first, there was -great opposition by the sachems and powows, or priests, who used every -effort to baffle and discourage the devoted missionaries. But, in 1660, -there were whole towns of “praying Indians,” and in 1687, there were -more than twenty assemblies of these savages who worshipped the true -God. Eliot, with vast labor, translated the Bible into the language -of those among whom he preached. This was printed, and a copy of it -may occasionally be found treasured up as a curiosity in our public -libraries. In 1695, there were not less than 3,000 adult Indians, -reckoned as converts to the Christian religion, in the islands of -Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket. - -About the year 1675, another Indian war began, which proved the most -serious contest in which the colonists had ever been engaged. For -several years previously, the Indians had been silently forming a -general conspiracy for the extermination of the New England colonies. -Massasoit, the good friend of the English, was dead, and his grandson -Philip, sachem of the Wampanoags, whose chief seat was in Rhode Island, -did not inherit the kindly feeling of his ancestor toward the whites. -He was a man of great abilities, and, had his means been equal to -his skill and bravery, the result might have proved fatal to the now -flourishing colonies. - -A Christian Indian, named John Sausaman, discovered to the English -the mischiefs he was plotting against them. Philip, burning with rage -that his plan should be revealed, caused Sausaman to be murdered. The -English detected the murderers, apprehended them, and after a trial, in -which their guilt was sufficiently apparent, executed them. This still -further incited Philip to revenge. On the 20th of June, he commenced -open hostilities on the town of Swansey, near his territory. - -The torch of war, thus lighted, continued to rage over the whole extent -of New England, for several years, with unabated fury. Its details -would fill a volume. Philip,[8] who was the master spirit of the league -against the whites, displayed a courage, sagacity, and perseverance, -worthy of a king and a patriot. Nor was he ill seconded by the tribes -whom he drew into the conspiracy by his eloquence and his intrigues. -Though often defeated, he was never discouraged, and, while his foe -seemed about to trample him to the earth, he frequently arose with -renewed vigor and more desperate resolution. He was at length slain, -and, though the struggle was maintained for some time longer, it at -last resulted in a general defeat of the Indians, from which they -never recovered. The war had extended from Rhode Island to Maine, and, -throughout the whole extent of this region, the smoke of the dwellings -and the cries of the victims were seen and heard on every hand. Many of -the most flourishing English villages were laid in ashes. The struggle -was not finished till the spring of 1678. Six hundred of the flower of -the colonists perished, and three hundred houses were consumed. The -Mohegans and a few other tribes remained friendly, but the rest shared -in the war and its fatal consequences. - -The next efforts of the Indians against the New England colonies took -place during the long and bloody wars between the French and English, -called the wars of William and Queen Anne. In June, 1689, instigated -by the French, they surprised Cocheco, part of the town of Dover, New -Hampshire, and killed and took captive about fifty of the inhabitants. -They began depredations, also, in various parts of Maine, plundering, -burning, and carrying off captives, wherever they were able. For ten -years the provinces of New Hampshire and Massachusetts were subjected -to the fury of the savages. Deerfield, on the Connecticut River, was -surprised and burnt, forty persons were killed, and nearly a hundred -men, women, and children led away captive. The eastern settlements, -also, were again ravaged and depopulated. A treaty was at last -concluded in the year 1699. From time to time, however, the war was -renewed, as the French often succeeded in engaging the Indians in -their plans. In 1713, a peace having been agreed upon between the -French and English, the Eastern Indians, who had again been involved in -hostilities with the colonists, sent a flag, desiring peace. A general -pacification ensued, to the great joy of all parties. - -We must now turn our attention to the severe contest with the Indians -along the northeastern border, which commenced in 1722. Before the -subjugation of Canada by the British, the New England settlements, as -we have seen, were exposed to the hostilities of the Eastern Indians, -and a spirit of jealousy and revenge was kept up, not only between -the different nations, but between individuals. The boundaries of -the different territories being loosely defined, both sides were -left exposed to real or fancied encroachments, so that pretexts for -war were always at hand. The French Jesuits had planted themselves -among the Indian tribes at an early period; and at the beginning -of the eighteenth century, they had two churches among the Eastern -Indians,--one at Penobscot, and the other at Norridgewock, within the -boundaries of the present State of Maine. - -At the latter settlement resided the Jesuit, Sebastian Rasle, a man -of talent, learning, and address, who, by accommodating himself to -the Indian mode of life, and maintaining a gentle, condescending -deportment, had completely won the affection of the savages, and his -influence over them was supreme. Knowing the power of superstition -over their minds, he took advantage of this, and of their prejudice -against the English, to strengthen the interest of the French among -them. He even made the offices of devotion serve as incentives to their -ferocity; he kept a banner, on which was depicted a cross surrounded -by bows and arrows, which he was accustomed to hoist on a pole at the -door of his church, and gave the Indians absolution, previous to their -setting out on a warlike expedition. - -The governor of Canada held a constant correspondence with this -Jesuit, and received through his hands information of every thing that -transpired among the tribes in that quarter. From these individuals -the savages received every encouragement to assert their title to -lands occupied by the English, and to molest the settlers, by killing -their cattle, burning their haystacks, and robbing and insulting them. -Many of the inhabitants, alarmed by these demonstrations of hostility, -removed from the frontiers in 1720. The garrisons were reinforced, and -scouting parties were sent abroad, which checked for a time the hostile -movements of the Indians, who were compelled, the same year, to give -hostages for their good behaviour. This last requisition was highly -disrelished by the governor of Canada, who renewed his efforts to keep -up the quarrel, and secretly promised to supply the Indians with arms -and ammunition, although, as Great Britain and France were not then -at war, he could not openly assist them. The New England governments -obtained information of these intrigues; yet, though highly incensed, -they judged it best not to rush into hostilities. The main dispute lay -between the Indians and the proprietors of the eastern lands, and the -public were not directly concerned in it. No blood had as yet been shed -within the limits of the English territory. - -Rasle was considered the principal instigator of the Indians, and it -was thought, that, if he were removed, all would be quiet. A proposal -was made to send the sheriff of York County with a posse of a hundred -and fifty men, to seize him and bring him to Boston, but this bold -stroke was not ventured upon. In the summer of 1721, Rasle, in company -with the Count de Castine from Penobscot, and Croisil from Canada, -appeared at one of the English garrisons, and presented a letter, -written in the name of the several Indian tribes to Governor Shute -of Massachusetts, declaring, that, “if the English did not remove in -three weeks, they would kill them and their cattle, and burn their -houses.” The lands in question were comprehended within the limits of -the English patents, and the settlers were considered the only legal -proprietors. They had been accustomed to obtain regular deeds of sale -from the Indians, and pay them a valuable consideration; but some of -these titles were from an obscure and questionable source; and the -memory of such transactions is soon lost among people possessing no -written records. The Indians easily forget the sales made by their -ancestors, or imagine that such bargains are not binding upon their -posterity. - -The Massachusetts government, on receiving this menacing epistle, sent -an additional force to the Maine frontiers; and, being desirous to -avoid a rupture, invited the Indians to a conference, from which the -French emissaries were to be excluded. This invitation was treated -with neglect; and in the succeeding winter, a party under Colonel -Westbrooke was ordered to Norridgewock to seize Rasle. They reached the -village undiscovered; but, before they could surround his house, he had -escaped into the woods, leaving his papers in his strong box, which -they brought away, without committing any act of violence. Among these -papers were his letters of correspondence with the governor of Canada, -which afforded positive proof that he was deeply engaged in intrigues -to incite the Indians to hostilities. The savages were enraged at this -attempt to seize their spiritual father, and resolved upon revenge. -In the summer of 1722, they made a descent upon the settlements at -Merry-Meeting Bay, and captured nine families; dismissing some of the -prisoners, they retained enough to secure the redemption of their -hostages in the hands of the English, and sent them off to Canada. -Their next attack was on the fort at St. George, on the Androscoggin, -where they were repulsed with considerable loss. They afterwards -surprised some fishing vessels in the eastern harbours, and at length -made a furious attack on the town of Brunswick, which they destroyed. -These hostilities determined the government of Massachusetts to issue a -declaration of war against them, which was published in form, at Boston -and Portsmouth, on the 25th of July, 1722. - -Troops were raised and enlisted for two years’ service, and the -government had no scruples in offering a bounty of forty pounds -sterling for every Indian scalp. This war obtained the name of -“Lovewell’s War,” from Captain John Lovewell, of Dunstable, in New -Hampshire, who was the most prominent commander in the enterprise -against the enemy, and was killed in a severe engagement. Various -incursions were made upon the settlements by the Indians during the -year 1723, and several of the inhabitants were killed and carried into -captivity. On the 10th of June, 1724, a farmer and his son, being at -work on Oyster River, planting corn, went to a brook to drink, and -discovered three Indian packs. They immediately ran to give information -to a company of volunteers, which had lately been raised in the -neighbourhood, for the defence of the frontier. The company marched -towards the spot, but were fired upon from an ambush, and the farmer -and his son, who acted as guides, were both killed. The company then -fired and killed one of the Indians, and wounded two others who made -their escape, though they were pursued and tracked by their blood to a -considerable distance. The slain Indian was a person of distinction, -and wore a species of coronet, made of fur, dyed scarlet, with an -appendage of four small bells, by the sound of which the others might -follow him through the thickets. His hair, contrary to what is almost -universal among the natives, was remarkably soft and fine; and he had -about him a devotional book, and a muster-roll of one hundred and -eighty Indians. From these various circumstances, it was supposed that -he was a natural son of the Jesuit, Rasle, by an Indian woman, who -served him as a domestic. - -Garrison-houses were built among the frontier settlements, to which the -inhabitants were warned to repair in time of danger. At Dover there -were many families of Quakers, who, doubting the lawfulness of war, -could not be persuaded to use any means for their defence, although the -Indians never spared them on that account. One of these, John Hanson, -lived remote from the garrison, and refused to take shelter in it with -his family, although he had a large number of children. A party of -thirteen Indians, called French Mohawks, had marked his house for their -prey, and lay several days in ambush, waiting for an opportunity to -attack it. On the 27th of June, while Hanson and his eldest daughter -were gone to attend the weekly meeting, and his two eldest sons were -at work in a meadow at some distance, the Indians entered the house, -killed and scalped two small children, and took his wife, with her -infant of fourteen days old, her nurse, two daughters, and a son, and, -after rifling the house, carried them off. This was done so suddenly -and secretly, that the first person who discovered it was the eldest -daughter, on her return from the meeting. Seeing the two children dead -at the door, she uttered a shriek of distress, which was distinctly -heard by her mother, then in the hands of the enemy among the bushes, -and by her brothers in the meadow. The people, being soon alarmed, -went in pursuit of the enemy; but the Indians, cautiously avoiding all -beaten paths, went off with their captives undiscovered. The mother, -though of a tender constitution, had a firm and vigorous mind, and -passed through the various hardships of an Indian captivity with much -resolution and patience. When her milk failed, she supported her infant -with water warmed in her mouth, till the squaws taught her to beat -the kernel of walnuts and boil it with bruised corn, which proved -a nourishing food for the babe. The prisoners were all sold to the -French in Canada. Hanson redeemed them the following year, one daughter -remaining behind. - -These and other outrages of the enemy caused the government of -Massachusetts to resolve on an expedition against the Indian town of -Norridgewock. Two hundred men, under Captains Moulton and Harman, -marched from York in August. They left forty of their men at Teconic -Falls, on the Kennebec, and, dividing the remainder into two bodies, -one of them, under Harman, took a circuitous route, hoping to surprise -some of the enemy in their cornfields, while the other, under Moulton, -marched directly for the village of Norridgewock, which, being -surrounded by trees, could not be seen till they were close upon -it. All the Indians were in their wigwams, and the English advanced -cautiously and in perfect silence. When they had approached very near, -an Indian came out of his wigwam, and, discovering the English, set -up the war-whoop, ran in, and seized his gun. In a few minutes the -warriors were all in arms, and advanced to meet them. Moulton gave -orders not to fire till the Indians had made the first discharge. This -was done, and, as he expected, they overshot the English, who then -immediately fired with great execution. After another volley had been -exchanged, the savages fled with precipitation to the river. They were -pursued and slaughtered in every quarter, and their wigwams set on -fire. Moulton wished to take Rasle alive, and gave strict orders that -no one should kill him. But the Jesuit having shut himself up in his -house, from which he continued to fire upon the English, one of them -burst into it, and shot him through the head. They then set fire to -the church, which was a handsome structure, and brought away the plate -and furniture of the altar, with the devotional banner, as trophies of -their victory. Eighty of the Indians were killed in this attack, and -three English captives rescued. - -The fate of Norridgewock struck great terror into the savages, and -they no longer thought themselves safe at any of their former places -of abode, but occupied them as resting-places only, when they were -scouting or hunting. This successful undertaking, and the large premium -offered for scalps, brought several volunteer companies into the field. -In December, Captain Lovewell, with thirty men, made an excursion to -the north of Lake Winnipiseogee. They discovered an Indian wigwam, -in which were a man and a boy. They killed and scalped the man, and -brought the boy alive to Boston, where they received the reward -promised by the government, and a considerable gratuity besides. This -company was soon increased to seventy, and Lovewell marched again, -early in 1725, toward the head of Salmon-Fall River. Their provision -falling short, thirty of them, selected by lot, were dismissed, and -returned home. The remaining forty continued their march till the -20th of February, when they discovered a track, which they followed -till they saw a smoke, just before sunset; from this they judged that -the enemy were encamped for the night. They kept themselves concealed -till after midnight, when they cautiously advanced, and discovered ten -Indians asleep round a fire, by the side of a frozen pond. Lovewell -now determined to make sure work, and, stationing his men conveniently, -ordered five of them to fire in rapid succession, and the remainder -to reserve their shot. He gave the signal by discharging his own gun, -which killed two Indians; and the men, firing according to order, -despatched five more on the spot. The remaining three started up from -their sleep, but two of them were immediately shot dead by the reserve, -and the other was wounded. He attempted to escape across the pond, but -was seized by a dog, who held him fast until the English came up and -despatched him. Thus, in the space of a few minutes, the whole party -was destroyed, and an attempt against the frontiers of New Hampshire -prevented;--for these Indians were marching from Canada, well furnished -with new guns and plenty of ammunition for that object; they had also -a number of spare blankets, moccasins, and snow-shoes, for the use of -the prisoners whom they expected to take. The pond near which these -events transpired is now known as Lovewell’s Pond. The company, with -their ten scalps stretched on hoops, in the Indian fashion, marched to -Boston in great triumph, and received their bounty out of the public -treasury. The English spoke of this enterprise with great exultation, -and pronounced it a capital exploit. In the light of the present day, -the barbarity of giving a premium for scalps would be justly censured. - -This brilliant success, as it was then termed, encouraged Lovewell -to his last and fatal undertaking. Early in March, he again took the -field, intending to attack the Indian villages of Piguacket, on the -upper part of the Saco, where a formidable tribe had anciently a -settled habitation, though at this period they only paid occasional -visits there. His company consisted of forty-six men, including a -chaplain and a surgeon. Two of them became lame, and returned. Another -falling sick, they halted, and built a stockade fort on the west side -of Great Ossipee Lake, partly for the accommodation of the sick man, -and partly for a stronghold in case of any reverse. Here the surgeon -was left with the invalid man, and eight of the company for a guard. -Lovewell, with his thirty-four men, advanced to the northward about -twenty-two miles, and encamped on the shore of a pond in the evening of -the 7th of May. Early the next morning, while the men were at prayer, -they heard the report of a gun, and discovered an Indian about a mile -distant, standing on a point of land jutting out into the water. They -had been alarmed during the night by noises round their camp, which -they imagined were made by Indians, and now suspected that the one whom -they saw was placed there to decoy them, and that a body of the enemy -was in their front. A council of war was held, and they decided to go -forward, and, by marching round the pond, to gain the spot where the -Indian stood. That they might be ready for action, they disencumbered -themselves of their packs, and left them, without any guard, in a pine -plain, where the trees were too thinly set to hide them. - -Lovewell, on his march, had crossed a carrying-place, by which two -parties of Indians, consisting of forty-one warriors, commanded by -the noted chiefs Paugus and Wahwa, who had been on a scout down the -Saco, were returning to the lower village of Piguacket, about a mile -and a half from the pond. Having fallen on Lovewell’s track, they -followed it, and came at last to the baggage, which they carried off. -On counting the packs, they found the number of the English to be -less than that of their own force. They therefore placed themselves -in ambush to attack them on their return. The Indian who had stood -on the point, and was returning to the village by another path, met -the English and received their fire, which he returned, and wounded -Lovewell and another person with small shot. By a second fire the -Indian was killed, and they took his scalp. Seeing no other enemy, the -company returned toward their packs, and, while they were searching for -them, the Indians sprang from their ambush and ran towards them with -a horrid yell. A smart firing commenced on both sides, and Lovewell -was speedily slain, with eight others. Several of the Indians fell, -but, being superior in numbers, they were by no means daunted, and -endeavoured to surround the English, who, perceiving their design, -retreated, hoping to gain a shelter behind a point of rocks and some -large pine-trees on the shore of the pond. Here they took their -station, having on their right the mouth of a brook, and on their left -the rocky point,--their front being partly covered by a deep bog, with -the pond in their rear. - -The battle now recommenced. The Indians poured in their fire from -front and flank, and had so much the advantage of position, that, by a -little skill, they might have shot down every man of the English, or -compelled them to surrender at discretion, as they were totally unable -to extricate themselves, and were entirely destitute of provisions. -Under the conduct of Lieutenant Wyman, the latter kept up their fire, -and maintained a resolute countenance the remainder of the day,--the -action having begun a little after ten in the morning. The chaplain -and three others were mortally wounded. The Indians invited them to -surrender by holding up ropes to them, and endeavoured to intimidate -them by hideous yells; but they determined to die rather than yield, -and, by their well directed fire, the number of the savages was -reduced, and their cries became fainter, till, just before night, -they quitted their advantageous ground, carrying off their killed and -wounded, and leaving the dead bodies of Lovewell and his men unscalped. -The shattered remnants of this brave company, on coming together, found -three of their number unable to move from the spot, eleven wounded, -but able to march, and nine unhurt. It was melancholy to leave their -dying companions behind, but there was no possibility of removing them. -One of these, Ensign Robbins, desired them to lay his gun beside him -loaded, that, if the Indians should return before his death, he might -be able to kill one more. - -After the rising of the moon, those who were able quitted the fatal -spot, and directed their march toward the fort where the surgeon and -guard had been left. To their great surprise, they found it abandoned. -In the beginning of the action, one man had deserted and fled to the -fort, where, in the style of Job’s messengers, he informed them of -Lovewell’s death and the defeat of the whole company, upon which they -made the best of their way home, leaving a quantity of provisions, -which proved a seasonable relief to the retreating survivors. From -this place they endeavoured to get home. Lieutenant Farwell, and the -chaplain, who had the journal of the march in his pocket, and one -other, perished in the woods, for want of a dressing for their wounds. -The others, after enduring the most severe hardships, reached the -settlements, one after another. There were no white residents within -fifty miles of the scene of the battle. - -A party from the New Hampshire frontier was ordered out to bury the -dead. Fourteen bodies were found, which were interred, and their names -carved on the trees. Three Indian graves were discovered and opened; -one of them contained the body of the warrior-chief, Paugus. Tracks of -blood were traced to a great distance from the scene of action, but the -exact loss of the enemy never was known. After this battle, the Indians -abandoned the neighbourhood of Piguacket, and did not return till the -war was over. - -A doggerel ballad, on the subject of “Lovewell’s Fight,” made its -appearance the same year that these events happened, and was for a -long time very popular in New England. As the reader may wish to see a -specimen of it, we quote the opening stanza, which is as follows. - - “Of worthy Captain Lovewell I purpose now to sing, - How valiantly he served his country and his king. - He and his valiant soldiers did range the woods full wide, - And hardships they endured to quell the Indian’s pride.” - -We add the sixteenth stanza, as it notices a striking circumstance. - - “Our worthy Captain Lovewell among them there did die. - They killed Lieutenant Robbins, and wounded good young Frye, - Who was our English chaplain; he many Indians slew, - And some of them he scalped, when bullets round him flew.” - -The following winter, four chiefs came to Boston to ratify the treaty -which followed these hostilities. The government of the colonies -prohibited all private traffic with the Indians, as it had been the -cause of many troubles. Truck-houses were established in convenient -places, at which they were supplied with all the necessaries of life -on advantageous terms. Though the government was a loser by the trade, -this was deemed the most economical method of preserving peace, and it -seems fully to have accomplished its purpose. - -The natives throughout the New England provinces, now thinned and -weakened, while the English had gained strength and extended their -settlements in every direction, made no more serious attempts upon the -peace of the country. In the French wars, even down to the period just -preceding the Revolution, it is true that incursions were occasionally -made, but they produced no lasting results. - -There are few Indians now remaining in the New England States. A -small number of Mohegans still reside in the vicinity of Norwich, -Connecticut, where they have a neat little church, and a missionary has -labored among them with some success. A few Penobscot Indians, too, are -found in Maine, and here and there, in other places, may be met one or -more of the descendants of the aborigines; but they are like the last -scattered leaves of autumn,--withered, decaying, and frozen by the -wintry blasts; spring finds them not again. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[8] For the life of Philip and an account of the war, see “Lives of -Famous Indians.” - - - - -THE FIVE NATIONS, &c. - - -This noted confederacy consisted of the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, -Cayugas, and Senecas. The name given them, by the French writers, is -the Iroquois. Each nation was divided into three tribes or families, -distinguished by their ensigns, as the Tortoise, the Bear, and the -Wolf. Their original seat was the island of Montreal and its vicinity. -Many years before the French discovered Canada, they employed -themselves in the peaceful pursuits of agriculture. The Adirondacks, -who then dwelt about 300 miles from Trois Rivières, where the Ottawas -afterwards lived, pursued hunting, and exchanged their venison for the -corn raised by the Five Nations. - -The Adirondacks, or, as they are more frequently called by the -French, the Algonquins, despised the Five Nations, as a weak people, -occupied with business fit only for women. But on a certain occasion, -their game failed, and they employed some of the young men of the -Five Nations to assist them in hunting. These soon became expert and -capable of enduring fatigue beyond the Adirondacks themselves. The -latter consequently became jealous of them, and, fearing that they -would throw off the yoke to which they were subjected, murdered them -in cold blood. Not having any serious fears of the resentment of so -unwarlike a people, they ordered a small compensation to be paid to -the Five Nations, whom they looked upon as incapable of avenging the -atrocity which had been perpetrated. These were, however, greatly -exasperated, and resolved to be revenged. The Adirondacks, when -informed of this, deemed it a good occasion to subject them to their -sway, and accordingly attacked them. The Five Nations at first defended -themselves faintly against their fierce and warlike assailants, and -were forced to leave their own country, and fly to the shores of the -Lakes. This occurred about the beginning of the seventeenth century. -Here they applied themselves to the exercise of arms, and became daily -more and more expert in the use of them. Their sachems, to remove the -dread of the Adirondacks, entertained by their people, and to inspire -them with some degree of confidence, first led them against the -Satanas, who then occupied what are now the central parts of the State -of New York. They subdued these, and drove them out of the country, to -the banks of the Mississippi. - -Having thus proved their courage, the Five Nations next successfully -withstood the whole force of the Adirondacks. They then carried the -war into the heart of their country, and forced them to leave it, and -fly towards Quebec. The Adirondacks were now joined by the French, -who had just commenced their settlements in Canada. The combatants -met at Corlaer’s Lake, since called, after the French commander, Lake -Champlain. The Five Nations had never seen fire-arms, and the French, -keeping themselves concealed till the Indians were engaged, rose -suddenly up and poured a deadly volley upon them. Panic-struck at the -fearful character and deadly effect of the attack, they fled, with -great loss, from the field. - -By the influence of the French, the Hurons and other neighbouring -nations now joined in the war against the Five Nations. The -Adirondacks, thus reinforced, and having been furnished with fire-arms, -proposed utterly to destroy their enemies. But their young men, fond of -adventure, and refusing obedience to their captains, often attacked the -foe rashly; and the latter, observing this, soon began to profit by it. -They sent out small parties, who, meeting greater numbers of the enemy, -retreated, while the Adirondacks pursued with fury, and carelessly -suffered themselves to be drawn into ambuscades. Thus many of them were -cut off with little loss to the victors. In this manner the Adirondacks -were wasted away, while the practice of the Five Nations, of adopting -into their tribes the prisoners taken from the Satanas, increased their -strength and numbers. - -The Five Nations appear to have delighted in stratagem, and amused -the Adirondacks, and the Hurons, their allies, by messages to the -French, pretending to wish for peace, and to have some priests come -among them. When, accordingly, some Jesuits came, they kept them as -hostages, in order to force the French to remain neutral in their wars -with the Adirondacks. They then attacked and defeated the latter within -two leagues of Quebec, and, had they known its weakness, might have -destroyed even the French colony. - -The allies of the Adirondacks, now struck with terror, fled in -different directions. Soon after, the Five Nations collected 1,000 or -1,200 men, and set out to pay a visit to the governor of Canada. On -their way, they met Piskaret, captured him, and, learning from him -that the Adirondacks were divided into two bodies, they fell upon them -and cut them to pieces. When the French first settled in Canada, the -Adirondacks had 1,500 warriors within a league of Quebec, but, after -this last battle, they never possessed any consequence as a nation. - -Piskaret, whom we have just mentioned, was a great warrior, and famous -for his exploits and stratagems. On one occasion, he set out for the -country of the Five Nations, about the time of the spring thaws. He -put the back part of his snow-shoes forward, and went along the ridges -and high grounds, where the snow was melted, so that he might leave -no track. Coming near a village of the Five Nations, he hid himself -till night. Then stealing into a wigwam, he murdered the whole family -while asleep, scalped them, and again hid himself. The next day, the -murderer was sought for in vain. At midnight, he came out and repeated -his bloody deed. The third night, a watch was kept. Piskaret bundled up -his scalps, and then stole on till he discovered an Indian asleep. Him -he despatched at a blow, but, being discovered, he was obliged to flee. -As he was the swiftest of all the Indians, he suffered his pursuers to -approach him, and then darted away. In the evening, he hid himself and -lay down; his pursuers also stopped and went to sleep. Piskaret turned -about, knocked them on the head, scalped them, and returned home. Such -were the bloody feats which secured renown among the Indians. - -The Five Nations having thus established their ascendency over the -adjacent tribes, rapidly advanced in power. Though checked by the -French, they still extended their sway in every direction, and -especially towards the south. They conquered the whole territory of the -Delawares, or Lenapes, and obliged them to put themselves under their -protection. They spread their victorious bands over all the remote -parts of Virginia, and down as far as the mouth of the Ohio, while they -subdued the nations eastward to Connecticut River. They often travelled -singly, or in small parties, three or four hundred miles, and lurked -about the villages of their enemies to shed blood, and revenge the -real or imputed wrongs of their friends. Their sway at length extended -to South Carolina on the south, and on the west to the Mississippi, -a tract of territory 1,200 miles in length, and 600 in breadth. In -1667, they formed a treaty with the governor of Maryland, which was -afterwards broken, and troubles, both with that colony and Virginia, -ensued. At last, Lord Howard, as agent of the latter, met the chiefs -of the tribes at Albany, and, after a long conference, a peace, which -was well observed on both sides, was entered into by the contracting -parties. - -In 1684, the French made great efforts to detach the Five Nations -from the English. They invited them to a conference at an appointed -place. The Onondagas complied, and sent one of their sachems and thirty -warriors; the Senecas and others refused. The French commander, after -reproaching the Indians, threatened them with vengeance, if they did -not conform to his views; but the sachem replied boldly, and avowed -his determination to preserve peace, and the Frenchman went home -disappointed and enraged. - -The Five Nations, soon after this, subdued the tribe of the Illinois, -who had fought against them, and then prepared to go against the -Miamis. The French determined to support their allies, and sent an -order to all the Indians around Michilimackinac to assemble at Niagara -and join them in an attack on the Senecas. The Potawatomies and others -assembled at the place of rendezvous; but here the Ottawas sought to -divert them from the enterprise, not being willing to lose a gainful -trade they now enjoyed with the English. After various preparations, -the French, with their Indian allies, marched toward the Seneca towns. -The warriors of the latter tribe were, however, on the alert. Five -hundred or more of them lay in ambush, while the French scouts passed -within pistol-shot, and, not seeing them, reported that they could not -find the enemy. The French pressed boldly forward, but, when they were -about a quarter of a league from their village, the Senecas suddenly -rose upon them with a discharge of their fire-arms, attended by the -appalling war-whoop. This threw the militia, as well as the regular -troops, into a fright, and such was the confusion, that they fired on -one another. The Senecas, perceiving their disorder, fell upon them, -till the French Indians, at last, rallied and repulsed them. This -action so dispirited the French commander, that he could not be induced -immediately to pursue his object; he halted till the next day, when he -marched forward to burn the village. But he now found that the Senecas -had already laid it in ashes and disappeared. After destroying two -other villages, and the corn he found there, he returned home to Canada. - -Instigated by new causes of dissatisfaction, the Five Nations invaded -Canada with a large force, and pushed the war with such vigor as to -take Montreal and lay it in ashes. One thousand of the French are said -to have been killed, and twenty-six taken prisoners, with the loss of -only three men on the part of the Indians, who got drunk and remained -behind. Had they understood the feeble condition of the French, and -been relieved from the influence of the priests that were among them, -especially the Oneidas, Onondagas, and Cayugas, the French settlements -in Canada would probably have been totally ruined. - -Influenced by the advice of an English officer, Colonel Dogan, in whom -they confided, the Five Nations, so far as they could, formed treaties -with the Western Indians. At this period, war between the English and -the French again broke out, and Count Frontenac, the new governor -of Canada, sent a message to the tribes by a sachem who had been a -prisoner and had been carried to France, but who had just returned with -the Count. The object of this mission was to invite the Five Nations -to a conference, for the purpose of making peace. After holding a -general council, consisting of eighty sachems, at Onondaga, on the 27th -of December, 1689, at which they requested the mayor of Albany to be -present, in order to advise them, they sent to Count Frontenac their -answer. This was quite characteristic. Its conclusion ran thus:-- - -“Yonondio,” (the name they always gave the French governor,) “you -desire to speak with us at Cadarackui. Don’t you know that your fire -there is extinguished? It is extinguished with blood. You must send -home the prisoners in the first place. - -“We let you know that we have made peace with the Wagunhas [probably -the Ottawas]. You are not to think that we have laid down the axe -because we return no answer; we intend no such thing. Our far-fighters -shall continue the war till our countrymen return. When our brother is -returned, then we will speak to you of peace.” - -The Five Nations were now engaged in frequent skirmishes with the -French, whom they annoyed greatly by their war-parties, killing some, -and carrying off others as prisoners, sometimes even from the vicinity -of Montreal. The Mohawks, however, not finding the English earnest -in furnishing them aid, as they had promised, began to incline to -make peace with the French. They accordingly despatched some of their -sachems to Count Frontenac for this purpose, and entered into a treaty -with him. The English, being made aware of this, renewed their covenant -with the other nations, and gave them presents. The Mohawks also -renewed their alliance with the English colonies, saying, “Though an -angry dog has endeavoured to bite the chain in pieces, we are resolved -to keep it firm, both in peace and in war. We now renew the old chain, -that so the tree of peace and prosperity may flourish and spread its -roots through all the country.” - -During the whole of this war, the Five Nations remained faithful to the -English colonies, notwithstanding the intrigues of the French to lure -them over to their side. They contributed essentially to the protection -of our frontiers, and greatly harassed the enemy along the whole -Canadian border. The contest drew forth many acts of extraordinary -skill and bravery, on both sides, as well as others of shocking -atrocity. The French seemed often to forget their civilization in their -fury against their savage foe. At last, the treaty of Ryswick, between -England and France, which terminated the war in other quarters, brought -peace also to the Indian tribes. - -During Queen Anne’s War, the Five Nations were prevailed on by the -French, as they refused their alliance, to stand neutral, for they -could not be induced to make war against the English. They were, -however, more or less engaged in incursions into Virginia, and -harassing the friendly Indians there. In 1712, they received into their -confederacy the Tuscaroras, who fled from North Carolina, as we have -related; so that, afterwards, they bore the title of the Six Nations. -The peace of Utrecht, in 1713, put an end to the hostilities between -the English and French. The Indians were now, for a number of years, -engaged in trade, both at Montreal and Albany. - -In 1743, several chiefs of the Six Nations met the English -commissioners at Philadelphia. They there made a cession of their lands -on both sides of the Susquehannah, in Pennsylvania, and, in view of -the expected war with the French, renewed their bond of alliance with -them. Similar meetings and treaties occurred in 1744, between the Six -Nations and the governors of Maryland and Virginia. The Delawares were -required by the Six Nations to remove to the west side of the River -Delaware, and not to sell lands hereafter, “as they were no better -than women.” A peace was made with the Cherokees, with whom they were -at war, but not with the Catawbas, whom they threatened with their -vengeance, because they did not come and join them at the council. In -the year 1746, they met the governor of New York and renewed their -alliances; and, from time to time, they sent out parties to harass the -French, in which they were joined by the Susquehannah Indians. - -Subsequently to this, the Six Nations, and especially the Mohawks, -were brought peculiarly under the influence of an English officer, -afterwards celebrated in history as Sir William Johnson. Hendrick, -the renowned king of the Mohawks, and his warriors, accompanied their -patron in his various military excursions against the French, which -terminated in the surrender of Canada to the English. The chief himself -sealed his fidelity with his blood, having fallen at the battle of Lake -George. Many instances of his sagacity are related. A council of war -having been called, on a certain occasion, and the proposition made to -send out a detachment to meet the enemy, Hendrick, being consulted, -said, “If they are to fight, they are too few; if they are to be -killed, too many.” Another proposition being made to send out three -parties, the old chief took three sticks and said, “Put these together, -and you cannot break them; one by one, you can do it easily.” His -sagacity was admitted, his advice followed, and the victory was won. - -It appears that this famous chief received the title of King; the -occasion is said to have been as follows. The Mohawks and the River -Indians, called Mohegans, had a contest which should have the honor of -naming their king. Both nations gathered in their strength, and met -at a place called Woton Island, in the Hudson River, to decide the -question. A pitched battle was fought, which lasted through the day. -Towards night, the Mohawks, fearing that the Mohegans were likely to -gain the victory, suddenly took to flight, and gained another island. -In the evening, they kindled a great number of fires, and spread their -blankets on some bushes, as though they had encamped beneath them. The -Mohegans, pursuing, landed on the island in the night, and, imagining -the Mohawks to be asleep, crept up as silently as possible, and poured -a heavy fire on the spot; they then rushed forward with their knives -and tomahawks, raising their yells, and cutting and slashing in every -direction. At this moment, the Mohawks, who lay flat on the ground, -rose from their ambush at a little distance, and poured in a murderous -fire on their foes, whom they could distinguish by the light of the -fires. Most of them were killed, or borne down and taken prisoners. A -treaty was then made, by which the Mohawks were to appoint the king, -and the Mohegans were to hold them in reverence, and call them “Uncle.” -Hendrick was the monarch first named by the Mohawks. He lived to a -great age, and was killed, as has been related, at the battle of Lake -George. - -The Six Nations were accustomed now to make temporary removals from -place to place, paying visits to the Miamis, Hurons, and Wyandots. -Some of them also resided on the Susquehannah, in Pennsylvania, -and received instruction from Count Zinzendorf and the Moravians. -To this party belonged the Cayuga chief, Shikellimus, the father of -Logan, the Mingo chief, whose sorrows and whose eloquence have become -so celebrated. The Mohawks accompanied Sir William Johnson in his -expedition to Niagara, in 1759, and contributed to the victory gained -over the French, when, after the death of General Prideaux, the command -devolved on Sir William. In this battle, their afterwards celebrated -chief, Brant, though but a youth, greatly distinguished himself. - -The Mohawks received Protestant missionaries among them, as the -Oneidas, Onondagas, and Cayugas had received the French Catholics. -They had churches built, and some of their young men were sent into -Connecticut, to be educated there under the care of Dr. Wheelock. - -In the fierce wars which broke out at the West, of which we have -elsewhere given an account, the Six Nations, in general, took no active -part, though some of the Cayugas, and the warriors on the banks of -the Susquehannah and Shamokin, occasionally became parties to them. -Still, the feelings of the Six Nations were considerably alienated -from the English, as well as those of the whole Indian race, unless -we may except the Oneidas. The reason of this probably was, that the -English did not take equal pains with the French to win them with -presents. Sir William Johnson’s influence with them, however, was -very great, and, so long as he lived, they looked up to him as their -protector and father. He died just before the commencement of the -American War of Independence. His sons, Sir John Johnson and Colonel -Guy Johnson,--the former of whom was the Indian agent for the British -government,--succeeded to his influence, and their interference was the -cause of many interruptions of the peace and happiness of the settlers -in New York and Pennsylvania during the great struggle for freedom. But -the account of these transactions, with the further history of the Six -Nations, must be reserved for another chapter. - -[Illustration] - - - - -THE SIX NATIONS. - - -On the breaking out of the War of Independence, the Six Nations were -in alliance with the British government, and under the influence of -Sir John and Colonel Guy Johnson. As before intimated, they were led -to take part in the hostilities against the colonies. The Indians were -now living on the extended tract of country up the Mohawk valley, -and reaching beyond the small lakes in the western part of the State -of New York. The Mohawks had their principal seat in the vicinity -of Johnstown; that of the Oneidas was near Lake Oneida, and called -Oneida Castle; the Onondagas dwelt in the country around the lake -which bears their name. Onondaga Castle, as it was called, was the -centre of the confederacy, and here was the grand council-house where -the council-fire was kept perpetually burning. The Cayugas were still -further west, near Lake Cayuga, and the Senecas beyond them. - -These nations had villages of well constructed huts, fine orchards, -and fruitful fields. Through the influence of the English, they had -considerably advanced in civilization, and had gathered round them many -comforts. The colonists felt a deep interest as to the part which -these nations were to take in the opening contest; and negotiations -were early entered into with them, to secure, if not their alliance -and friendship, at least their neutrality. This was, undoubtedly, -the wisest position for the Six Nations to take, and the Oneidas, -influenced by the persuasions of their good missionary, Kirkland, -agreed to adopt it. The other nations, no doubt, might have been -induced to do the same, had it not been for the great weight of Sir -John Johnson’s influence with them, enforced by the presents received -from the British governor of Canada, while the colonists were poor, -and unable to win them, by the same means, to their cause. The early -successes of the Americans, however, kept them quiet for a time, as -they were afraid to venture on open hostilities. The Mohawks met in -council, in 1775, at Guy Park, the seat of Colonel Guy Johnson, near -the Mohawk. Their principal speaker there was Little Abraham, the -brother of Hendrick. Delegates, also, from Albany and Tryon counties -attended. These expressed their desire to maintain friendship with -the inhabitants; but still the influence of Colonel Johnson operated -unfavorably for the interest of the colonies. - -The Oneidas and Tuscaroras, likewise, met at German Flats, with a -committee from the two counties, and the pledge of neutrality was -there given. Colonel Johnson convened another council soon after, -composed chiefly of the Cayugas and Senecas, the most numerous of the -Six Nations. At this meeting, the minds of the Indians were seriously -alienated from the Americans; still, they continued to receive -the various commissioners sent them by Congress, and professed a -determination to preserve a neutrality in the opening war. The Mohawk -leader, at this period, was Thayandaneca, or Joseph Brant,[9] so famous -in the history of the time. His first active participation in the -contest was in 1776, on the St. Lawrence, at the battle of the Cedars, -ten miles above Montreal. He appeared there, it is said, at the head -of 600 Indians, principally the Caughnawagas, and other tribes not -including the Six Nations. The fact was scarcely known at that time by -the Americans, who yet hoped to be able to preserve themselves from the -open attacks of so formidable a foe. - -The division of opinion and feeling among the tribes, on the subject of -the part to be taken in the war, was the cause of the dissolution, in -1777, of the confederacy of the Six Nations, which had so long existed, -and which had contributed so much to their strength and civilization. -The announcement of the rupture was made in a characteristic manner. -Addressing Colonel Elmore, the officer in command at Fort Stanwix, the -Oneida chiefs said, “Brother, we are sent here by the Oneida chiefs in -conjunction with the Onondagas. They arrived at our village yesterday. -They have brought us the melancholy news that the grand council-fire -at Onondaga is extinguished. We have lost out of their town ninety, -among whom are three principal sachems. We, the remaining part of -the Onondagas, do now inform our brethren that there is no longer a -council-fire at the capital of the Six Nations.” They then requested -that this intelligence should be forwarded to various American -officers, and also to the Mohawks. - -We cannot but feel a melancholy regret at thus witnessing the -dissolution of this ancient confederation, which had so long bound them -together like brethren, and under the influence of which they had made -a more rapid advance in improvement than any of the contemporaneous -nations of their race. Henceforth they appear as separate tribes, and -often in arms against each other. From this point may be dated their -degeneracy, which has at last left them but the recollection of their -former greatness, while they are scattered far from their ancient seats -of power and the graves of their sires. - -Our history, hereafter, is more especially concerned with the Mohawks, -Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas. A great council was held at Oswego, in -which these Indians, with Brant, as their now acknowledged leader, took -part with other tribes from the west. Engagements to aid the British -cause were entered into, and, consequently, Colonel St. Leger, about -the time that General Burgoyne began his invading expedition by way of -Lake Champlain, also set out with his force of British and Canadian -troops and Indian allies from Oswego, to coöperate with Burgoyne, by -passing down the Mohawk valley, and meeting him near Albany. As Fort -Schuyler lay in his way, it was besieged on the 3d of August, 1777. The -Indians, concealing themselves behind clumps of trees, greatly annoyed -the garrison with their fire, while throwing up parapets for their -defence. To relieve Fort Schuyler, thus assailed, General Herkimer was -sent forward from below. He apprised Colonel Gansevoort, the commander, -of his approach, and urged his coöperation. Measures for this purpose -were concerted, but delay prevented the union being effected before -the enemy made their appearance at Oriskany. Here a severe battle was -fought, and greatly to the disadvantage of the Americans in the outset, -though they were finally victorious. The Indians bore a prominent -part in this dreadful contest. It is said the Senecas were first -intoxicated, and in this condition lured into the battle, under the -idea that they were only to smoke their pipes, and see the British -whip the rebels. Their loss was great, many of them being killed and -wounded. It is supposed, that, on this occasion, a large force was led -on by Brant, consisting principally of Cayugas, Senecas, and Mohawks. - -On the 3d of December in the same year, Congress made another effort to -divert the Six Nations from the British service, but without effect. -The Indians now wholly threw off the mask, and sent out various parties -to attack the settlements. Severe skirmishes took place, among which -may be mentioned the battle of Cobelskill between a party of regular -troops and Schoharie militia, fifty-two in all, and a body of Indians -450 strong. The latter were victorious, and the Americans retreated, -with the loss of fourteen killed, eight wounded, and two missing. The -Indians then burned several houses, destroyed all the horses and cattle -which they could not drive away, and took considerable other plunder. -Strolling bands were continually prowling about the valley of Schoharie -and other exposed situations, and many persons were killed or carried -off as captives. - -Among the expeditions of this period, in which Brant and the Six -Nations, as they were still called, though embracing only four of the -tribes, were engaged, in alliance with the British, we may particularly -notice those which resulted in the destruction of the German Flats, -and the massacre at Cherry Valley. Yet the dreadful scenes at this -latter place, as they are recorded in history, are too shocking for -detail. Neither beauty, nor youth, nor innocence, nor age, nor piety, -formed the slightest protection against the ferocity of the savages and -their worse than savage instigators. Every dwelling and barn in the -village was set on fire, and thirty or forty prisoners, of all classes -and both sexes, were marched off, half-naked and shivering, through -the woods, to the distant post of Fort Niagara. On their return to -the Seneca country, the savages celebrated their exploits by a dance -of thanksgiving, sacrificing, as usual, a dog, and going through the -various ceremonies of the scalp-yell, while brandishing their knives, -and recounting their achievements in song. - -In the autumn of 1778, occurred the celebrated massacre in the -beautiful vale of Wyoming. This lovely spot was peopled with Germans -and emigrants from New England, who lived in a state of enviable peace, -comfort, and content. On the first of July, a force of 1,200 British -and tories, with 400 Indians, appeared on the Susquehannah, and began -their hostile operations. A brave resistance was made by the settlers, -but they were at last overcome, and the whole valley became a scene -of the most fearful desolation. These terrific events have acquired -immortality from the pen of Campbell, who has made them his theme in -the pathetic poem of “Wyoming.”[10] - -The year 1779, which was distinguished by the war of the Western -Indians, and the Shawanese and Delawares in the remote parts of -Virginia, was also marked by the project of Brant for a combined attack -on the friendly Oneidas. This led to an expedition to Onondaga, by the -Americans, against that hostile tribe. The Indians abandoned their -villages on the approach of the enemy, yet thirty-three of them were -taken prisoners, and a few slain. Three villages, consisting of nearly -fifty houses, were burned to the ground; a large amount of provisions -was destroyed; a hundred muskets and rifles, with a considerable -quantity of ammunition, constituted part of the booty. - -The Onondagas now breathed vengeance, and 300 of their warriors poured -down on the valley of the Schoharie, where they plundered and burnt -Cobelskill, which had been settled by some twenty families, since its -destruction a year or two previous. The Mohawks also burst suddenly on -the town of Minisink, and laid waste the settlement, burning, killing, -and plundering on every hand. A battle was fought between them and a -force sent from Goshen and its vicinity. It lasted from 11 o’clock, -A. M. till nightfall. The Americans, though superior in numbers, were -defeated, and forced to retreat, owing to a successful ambuscade formed -by the Indians, and the failure of ammunition. - -A vigorous effort was now made by the Americans against the Senecas, -the most numerous and ferocious of the Six Nations. General Sullivan, -at the head of a large force, penetrated into their country, and -destroyed forty towns and villages, some of them having fifty or a -hundred houses, and one as many as a hundred and twenty-eight. He -also destroyed 160,000 bushels of corn, and many extensive fields and -beautiful orchards of fruit, some of them containing 1,500 trees. -The lovely valley of the Genesee was thus transformed into a scene -of desolation, and the nation was left houseless and destitute to -encounter the severe winter of 1780. Previous to his reaching the -Seneca country, however, a severe battle took place at Chemung, in -which the Indians fought with determined bravery, though they were -defeated, and lost many of their warriors. In another engagement at -Newtown the whole force of the Senecas and the other Indians, variously -computed at from 800 to 1,500, was routed with great slaughter. A -tragic scene occurred at this period in the cruel death of Lieutenant -Boyd, belonging to General Sullivan’s army, who, with a small party of -men, was sent out on a scouting expedition. They were cut off by some -Indians, and, being captured, the lieutenant was put to death with -tortures too horrible to relate. - -The destruction of the Seneca towns was not, however, suffered to pass -without retaliation. The hostile Indians, aided by the British, in -1780, invaded the villages of the Oneidas, and entirely destroyed their -castle, church, and dwellings; the Oneidas were thus driven, in their -state of desolation, upon the white settlements for protection and -aid. The American government gave them support, fixing them, till the -close of the war, at Schenectady and its vicinity. - -Numerous incursions were made, in the same year, by the Indians, led on -by Brant, who burned Canajoharie, and took fifty-two prisoners, besides -killing seventeen persons. One hundred and forty houses and barns were -burned; twenty-four people killed, and seventy-three made prisoners. - -The towns of Johnstown and Caughnawaga had recently been visited with -the vengeance of the Indians, in connection with Sir John Johnson’s -invasion of the seat of his ancient residence. The Senecas, however, -were still unsated with revenge. Under Cornplanter, a famous chief of -that nation, joined by Brant and some British troops, they again made -their appearance in the valley of the Schoharie, with the intention -of completing the work of destruction there. Some severe skirmishes -ensued, but their purpose was in a great degree effected, and the whole -region was left desolate. The Mohawk valley became the scene of a -similar incursion. Here, however, the enemy was overtaken and defeated, -in the battle of Klock’s Farm, and compelled to seek safety in flight. - -In 1781, the Indians assisted at the battle of Durlagh, where, after a -spirited attack and resistance, they were routed, leaving nearly forty -dead on the field. In October, they were also present at the battle of -Johnstown, and fought from noon till sunset, when they were finally -forced to retreat; in the pursuit, Butler, the notorious leader in the -Cherry Valley massacre, was killed. This was the last expedition in -which they were engaged previous to the close of the American war. - -In the articles of peace between the mother country and her former -colonies, no provision had been made for the Indian allies of the -English. The Mohawks, who had left their own country, were invited by -the Senecas to take a tract of their territory; but they declined it, -choosing, as they said, to sink or swim with the English. The latter -then assigned them a domain on the north side of Lake Ontario, upon the -Bay of Quinte. Not satisfied, however, with this, another, by their -request, six miles on each side of the Grand River, from the mouth to -its source, about forty miles above the Falls of Niagara, was bestowed -on them. - -In the mean time, the sachems and warriors of the Six Nations held -a conference, in 1784, with the agents of the United States. There -were present representatives from the Mohawks, Senecas, Onondagas, -Cayugas, Oneidas, and Tuscaroras, and Seneca Abeal, or the Senecas of -Cornplanter’s clan, on the Alleghany. In the treaty that was concluded, -the Six Nations relinquished a portion of their territory, and were -to be secured in possession of that which they then occupied. The -treaty, however, did not satisfy the Indians, and both Red Jacket,[11] -the noted Seneca orator, and Brant, the Mohawk chief, were highly -displeased with its terms. A plan was laid by the latter for obtaining -assistance from the English, in the event of a general Indian war with -the United States, which he evidently had in contemplation. - -[Illustration: _Red Jacket._] - -Questions of boundary originated further difficulties between the new -republic and the Indians. In December, 1786, a grand council was held -at Huron village, attended by the Six Nations, the Hurons, Ottawas, -Miamis, Shawanese, Chippewas, Cherokees, Delawares, Potawatomies, -and Wabash confederates. An address to the United States was agreed -upon, pacific in its character, but it closed by suggesting, that, in -case their views were not concurred in, they should take the field to -assert their claim by arms. Another council was held in 1788, at which -Brant succeeded in making further advances toward hostilities; but -the purpose of the Mohawk chief was, for the present, defeated by the -treaties of General St. Clair with the Western Indians, at Fort Huron, -in 1789. - -In 1791, the Six Nations, after the defeat of General Harmar by the -Western Indians, joined with them in sending a deputation to the -British governor at Quebec, to inquire if British aid could be hoped -for in the further prosecution of the war. They received, however, -but little encouragement from him, and Cornplanter used his efforts -to prevent the warriors of the Six Nations from taking part in the -contest, and to persuade the Miamis to peace. These, and other efforts, -were but partially successful; for, in the battle which soon after took -place, resulting in the defeat of General St. Clair, it is said one -hundred and fifty Mohawks, with their leader, were engaged. - -Negotiations were carried on, however, during the early part of the -year 1792; and in the autumn, Cornplanter, with forty-eight chiefs of -the Six Nations, thirty chiefs and warriors of the Mohawks and Canada -Indians, with others from tribes beyond the Canadian territory, visited -the Miamis and held a council with a view to dissuade them from war. -They succeeded only so far as to make them agree to suspend hostilities -till spring, and then meet the United States in council for further -deliberation. - -The account of the transactions in Ohio, connected with these events, -will be found in the history given of the Western Indians. The Six -Nations desired, if possible, to bring about peace, and a number of -councils were held, at which they were present; but their efforts were -vain. In consequence of a claim being set up by Pennsylvania on Presque -Isle, the Six Nations were induced to assume a hostile attitude toward -the United States in 1794, and, probably, but for the interposition of -Washington, withholding Pennsylvania from prosecuting her design, a -collision would have been inevitable. The defeat of the Western Indians -by General Wayne effectually quieted the Six Nations, and Jay’s treaty -with Great Britain was soon followed by a general peace. - -The Six Nations continued to reside in their respective territories. -Missionaries were received among them, the Bible was translated into -their language, and numbers were converted to Christianity. The pacific -feelings of this period are indicated by the fact, that the Mohawks and -Senecas met by mutual challenge for athletic exercises, especially for -matches of ball and cricket, which they had learned from the whites, -and in which they had become remarkably expert. - -When the war between the United States and England broke out, in 1812, -the Mohawks, led by John Brant, youngest son of the great chief, took -part with the latter, and were present at a number of battles fought on -the frontiers. The Senecas, and other tribes residing in the State of -New York, were on the side of the Americans. More recently, numbers of -them have removed to the West. But a feeble remnant of the once mighty -confederacy is now to be found. They have, also, by repeated transfers, -become so intermingled with other tribes, that it is difficult to trace -them. By a recent report of the Indian Department, it appears, that, -west of the Mississippi, there are about 251 Senecas from Sandusky, and -211 Senecas and Shawanese; the whole number of the New York Indians -is estimated at 3,293. These probably include the Oneidas, Onondagas, -and Cayugas, with such relics of other tribes as may be found within -the limits of the State of New York. By repeated cessions and sales of -former reservations, they are dispossessing themselves of their ancient -abodes; and the time is not far distant when scarcely a solitary Indian -will be found where they once spread terror by their numbers and valor, -and excited admiration for their heroism and sagacity. - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[9] For an account of Brant, see “Lives of Famous American Indians.” - -[10] See Life of Brant, in “Lives of Famous American Indians.” - -[11] See “Lives of Famous Indians.” - - - - -WESTERN INDIANS EAST OF THE MISSISSIPPI. - - -The Shawanese, who were joined with the Delawares and other nations -in the Indian wars by which the western section of the United States -was disturbed, about the close of the Revolution, seem to have been -a Southern nation, and are said to have once resided on the River -Suwaney, in Florida. They have a tradition that their ancestors crossed -the sea. The Delawares were once numerous and powerful. Yet, as has -been mentioned, they were conquered by the great confederacy of the -Five Nations; so that, for a considerable period afterwards, they make -no great figure in history. - -At the grand council held at Philadelphia in 1742, by the chiefs and -warriors of the Six Nations and the Delawares, on the one part, and -the English, on the other, the governor of Pennsylvania alleged, -that William Penn, in his purchases, had bought certain lands of the -Delawares, which they still retained in their possession, while, at -the same time, the Six Nations claimed the ownership. He reminded the -chiefs of the Six Nations, that, as they required him to remove the -whites who intruded on their lands, the Six Nations were under a -similar obligation to remove the Indians from the lands of which the -English had acquired the right by purchase. - -The old chief, Canassatego, after rebuking the Delawares sharply for -their dishonesty and duplicity, in selling land they did not own -and still retaining it in their possession, taunted them for their -degradation in being conquered and made women of by the Six Nations; -and then pronounced it as the decision of the chiefs and warriors, that -they should leave the disputed territory, and remove to Wyoming or -Shamokin. The Delawares did not dare to disobey, and at once retired to -Wyoming. - -The Shawanese were already settled there; but, as they were in -friendship with the Six Nations, they made no attempt to molest them. -The Shawanese occupied, therefore, the west side of the river, while -the Delawares planted themselves on the eastern side, and built their -town. It was not long, however, before mutual jealousies arose, and, -on the breaking out of the old French War, the Shawanese favored the -French, while the Delawares, like the Six Nations, continued faithful -to the English. - -At first, there were no actual hostilities, but the following -incident is said to have brought on a desperate fight between these -rival neighbours. While the Delaware chiefs were one day engaged in -the chase, on the mountains, their women and children were occupied -in gathering fruit on the margin of the river below the town. Some -Shawanese women and children, seeing them thus employed, paddled -across the river, and joined them. They all engaged in sports; but, in -the course of the morning, a Shawanese child having caught a large -grasshopper, a quarrel arose as to the right of possession. The fight -among the young ones brought up the squaws, who took part with their -children respectively. From words they came to blows; the Delawares -said, the Shawanese had no right to cross the river, and come upon -their premises; and being the stronger party, after several had been -killed on both sides, they drove off the Shawanese, and compelled them -to recross the river to their homes. - -On the return of the warriors, they also entered into the contest. -The Shawanese invaded the territory of the Delawares, who met them on -the river’s brink, and fought them as they landed from their canoes. -Still, the Shawanese, after a smart struggle, were enabled to land, -when a fierce and bloody battle took place, in which several hundreds -were killed on both sides. The Shawanese were routed, and, after having -lost half their number, were compelled to return. They, therefore, -immediately left Wyoming, and joined the main body of their nation, -already settled on the Ohio. The Delawares remained. - -In 1761, a conference was held between several American governors and -the Six Nations, at which the Delawares, also, were present. Here a -warm dispute arose respecting some lands, of which the Delaware chief -complained that the English had taken possession, in consequence of a -fraudulent conveyance. The Indians being thus dissatisfied, the French -took care, by emissaries, to foment disturbances. The resentment of the -Shawanese and Delawares was further roused by the suspicion that the -English had concerted a plan for their extirpation. They therefore -united with the other tribes upon the Ohio, and the nations about -Detroit and along the Mississippi, for the purpose of making a sudden -and general attack on the frontiers, and at one blow to cut off the -inhabitants and their means of subsistence. This plot, in which the -celebrated Pontiac[12] was one of the master spirits, was matured with -great art and secrecy. - -In 1763, the storm, which had been long gathering, and of which the low -muttering had been heard, burst forth in its fury. The savages broke in -upon the settlements, massacred the inhabitants, and all the frontier -country of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Maryland, for twenty miles back, -was abandoned. The travelling merchants, who were among the Indians, -were murdered and plundered, and property to the amount of hundreds of -thousands of pounds was lost. So fierce and unexpected was the onset, -that several forts, as those of Le Bœuf, Venango, and Presque Isle, -were captured by the enemy. They next attempted Fort Pitt, Detroit, and -Niagara. The two former were invested at the same time, though about -three hundred miles apart. - -A strong detachment was despatched by the English to relieve these -posts. On reaching the neighbourhood of Fort Detroit, an attack on the -Indian camp, about three miles off, was determined on. But, before -the English approached, the Indians themselves began the attack, with -the utmost fury, and the troops were compelled to retreat to the -fort, with the loss of seventy killed and forty wounded. The Indians, -however, soon despairing of success in their scheme of reducing the -garrison, gave it up and withdrew. - -The war still waged with fury along the whole western frontier. The -siege of Fort Pitt was long continued, but after severe fighting, -in which the loss of the Indians was great, they were beaten. Fort -Niagara was also sharply assailed, but the enemy were finally driven -back. At last the savages began to feel the necessity of peace, which -was accordingly concluded in September, 1764, though the terms, being -dictated by the English, were unfavorable to the Indians. - -In the summer of 1774, hostilities again broke out. This war had its -immediate origin in the incursions and outrages of the whites. The -earlier stage of it is known in history as “Cresap’s War,” from the -murder, by one Cresap, of the family of Logan, the Mingo chief,[13] who -had settled among the Shawanese in Ohio. This base act of treachery -and cruelty, which occurred in the spring of 1774, was followed by -another atrocity, committed by a man named Greathouse, who invited -a large number of Indians to drink with him and his men, and, when -in a state of intoxication, fell upon them and massacred them. These -and other outrages had the effect to combine several tribes in a war, -which resulted in the desolation of many of the remote settlements. -The governor of Virginia, Lord Dunmore, sent a large body of troops -under General Andrew Lewis, who marched towards the junction of the -Kenhawa with the Ohio. Here, on the morning of the 10th of October, -just at sunrise, he was attacked by a body of Indians, estimated at -from eight to fifteen hundred, consisting of Shawanese, Delawares, -Mingoes, Wyandots, Cayugas, and other tribes, led on by Logan, aided by -Cornstalk, his son, and the Red Eagle. - -The Indians are said to have had the advantage of position, and in -the early part of the battle they compelled the Virginia regiments -to give way. But other troops being brought up, the Indians were, in -turn, forced to retreat, and fall back behind a breastwork of logs and -brushwood which they had erected. Here they made a valiant stand, and -defended themselves till night had nearly set in. Cornstalk cheered on -his men, crying out, “Be strong, be strong!” and he is said also to -have buried his tomahawk in the head of one who was seeking safety in -flight. The Indians, however, were at last outflanked by an unperceived -movement of a body of troops, who passed to their rear, and drove -them from their lines. Supposing that the Virginians had now received -reinforcements, they fled across the Ohio, and retreated to the Scioto. - -Pressed with difficulties and dangers, the inquiry arose among the -Indians, what was to be done. Cornstalk, who had been opposed to the -battle, but who had been overruled in the council, now spoke. “What -shall we do? The Long Knives are coming upon us by two routes. Shall -we turn out and fight them?” As no one answered, he next inquired, -“Shall we kill our squaws and children, and then fight until we are -all killed ourselves?” Every one was silent,--and Cornstalk struck his -tomahawk into the war-post, exclaiming, with stern emphasis, “Since you -are not for fight, I will go and make peace.” He accordingly repaired -to the English camp, where negotiations were opened, and a treaty -concluded. - -Logan was not present at the council, but a special messenger was -despatched to gain his assent. Cornstalk, as it appears, was even his -superior as an orator. An American officer, who was present at the -interview between this chief and Lord Dunmore, says, “I have heard the -first orators in Virginia, Patrick Henry and Richard Henry Lee, but -never have I heard one whose powers of delivery surpassed those of -Cornstalk.” - -On the breaking out of the Revolutionary War, the Delawares took part -with the colonists, owing greatly, it is said, to the influence of -the chief, White Eyes, who was a firm friend to the colonists, in -opposition to another chief, named Pipe. At a council held in Pittsburg -to deliberate on the question, he boldly declared that he would not -join in a war the object of which was to destroy a people born on the -same soil with himself. The Americans, he said, were his friends and -brothers, and no nation should dictate to him, or his tribe, the course -they should pursue. In the course of the war which followed, he also -sent a message to the Shawanese, with whom he had been allied, warning -them against taking part in it. The language is characteristic of the -Indian. “Grandchildren,” says he, “some days ago, a flock of birds, -that had come on from the east, lit at Goschochking, imposing a song -of theirs upon us, which song had well-nigh proved our ruin. Should -these birds, which, on leaving us, took their flight towards Scioto, -endeavour to impose a song on you likewise, do not listen to them, for -they lie.” - -Notwithstanding all the efforts of this chief, however, the Delawares, -as well as other Western Indians, eventually became hostile in -their feelings towards the Americans. In the spring of 1778, Pipe -nearly succeeded in involving them in the contest. Instigated by the -loyalists, he assembled a great number of warriors, and proclaimed -every one an enemy to his country, who should endeavour to persuade -them against fighting the Americans, and declared that all such ought -to be put to death. But White Eyes also collected his people, and -addressed them with great earnestness and pathos. Seeing that some of -them were preparing to take up the hatchet, he told them that such a -course was fraught with destruction to themselves. If, however, they -disbelieved him, and were resolved to go forth to the war, he would go -with them. “But,” he added, “it shall not be as when the hunter sets -his dogs on the bear to be torn in pieces by his paws, while he keeps -at a safe distance. No; I will lead you on to the thickest of the -fight; I will myself be in the front rank, and the first to fall. You -have now but to decide on your course. For my part, I am determined not -to survive my slaughtered and ruined nation. I will not spend the last -lingering of life in mourning over the doom of my people.” - -The chief was now seconded by the arrival of a message of peace from -the Americans, and the Indians determined to follow his advice. This -state of things, however, did not long continue. The Shawanese had been -for some time carrying on a warfare with Colonel Daniel Boone and the -pioneers of the western settlements, and various skirmishes took place. -In February, 1778, Boone was taken prisoner, and adopted into one of -the Shawanese families as a son. But shortly after, he found means to -escape, and returned home. - -During the summer of this year, Colonel Clarke and Captain Bowman -performed some brilliant exploits against the Indians at Kaskaskia -and St. Philip’s, in the territory of Illinois. In 1779, the Indians, -having suffered severe defeats, held a conference with Colonel Brodhead -at Fort Pitt. The chiefs of the Delawares, Wyandots, and Hurons, with -the king of the Maquichees, a branch of the Shawanese, were present. -A partial treaty was formed, but hostilities were still continued -along the frontier. In 1780, the Indians were severely chastised, and -portions of them were overawed for a time. In 1782, under the vigorous -operations of General Clarke, the war on the western border was brought -to a close. During this protracted struggle, most of the tribes, from -Michilimackinac to the mouth of the Ohio, were engaged against us, and -many events of deep interest occurred. The war was marked with those -acts of daring and atrocity which we might expect from exasperated -savages and woodsmen, little accustomed to emotions of fear or pity. - -A troubled and dubious peace continued for a time; but questions of -boundary, about which the Indians were always dull and confused, soon -became the occasion of irritation. Hostilities followed in the western -parts of the Ohio territory, and the Indians, being wrought upon by -English emissaries, were not appeased by all the efforts of General -Washington at negotiation. Strong measures became necessary, and -General Harmar was sent against them in September, 1790, with a force -of 1,450 men. On his approach, the Indians abandoned their principal -town, after setting it on fire, but, rallying again, made an attack on -a detachment of two hundred and ten men, thirty of whom were regulars. -The militia fled, and all but seven of the regulars were slain. The -next day, another bloody battle was fought, between three hundred and -sixty men and a large party of Indians, which resulted in the defeat of -the Americans, with the loss of several officers and one hundred and -eighty-three men. The Indians are said to have lost one hundred and -twenty warriors. The victory was claimed by the Americans, though they -retreated, and the consequences were, that the Indians became more bold -in their incursions on the frontier settlements. - -Various efforts were now made to effect a general peace, but, though -several councils were held, and the British governor and other officers -lent their influence to secure this object, the Indians still continued -hostile. - -In 1791, therefore, General St. Clair marched towards the country of -the Miamis. His army consisted of about two thousand men. The Indians -hung continually on his path, and, as he advanced, the militia began -to desert, till his whole force was reduced to about fifteen hundred. -Having approached within about fifteen miles of the Miami villages, -the army halted and encamped for the night beside a creek, the militia -passing over to encamp on the other side. Here the intention was to -throw up a temporary defence and await the return of a detachment which -had been sent back to guard the supplies. But the Indians had no idea -of permitting this junction; and about half an hour before sunrise they -attacked the militia, who were a quarter of a mile in advance. These -troops made no stand, but ran in the greatest confusion to the camp, -where they threw the whole force into disorder. The Indians fought -with the utmost fury, charging the artillery on all sides, and, though -driven back by the regulars at the point of the bayonet, they succeeded -in surrounding the Americans. By a furious charge our troops forced a -passage in the rear, and thus effected their retreat. Yet so great was -the terror inspired among the men, that many of them, in their flight, -threw away their arms and accoutrements, even after the pursuit had -ceased. - -In this famous engagement the Indians lost about one hundred and -fifty killed, besides the wounded; while of the Americans above five -hundred, including officers and men, were killed, and two hundred and -sixty wounded. They also lost their camp equipage and baggage, six -or eight field-pieces, and four hundred horses. The number of the -Indians engaged is differently estimated at from 1,000 to 1,500. Their -commander is said to have been Meshecunaqua, or the Little Turtle, a -chief of the Miamis. It is also asserted, that Brant, with about one -hundred and fifty Mohawks, had a large share in the action. - -For twelve months subsequent to this dreadful defeat, the frontiers -were exposed to more ferocious assaults than before. Numerous instances -are related of the boldness of the Indians in attacking the settlers, -and also of the bravery of those hardy pioneers of the West in -repelling the foe. In one case, a party attacked a dwelling-house and -wounded severely the husband, so that the defence devolved on the wife -and daughter. These succeeded in closing the door, so that the Indians -had to cut an opening by which to enter. On one of them thrusting in -his head, the valiant woman despatched him with an axe, and drew in -the body. Four others, one after another, supposing that the warriors -thus killed had made an entrance, suffered the same fate. Abandoning -this mode of attack, they next mounted the roof, and attempted to -come down the chimney; but the two heroines casting the contents of a -feather-bed on the fire, the enemy, descending, became suffocated, fell -down, and were beaten to death by the maimed husband with a billet of -wood. Another Indian still, on attempting the door again, was severely -wounded, and the party, discouraged at so obstinate a resistance, -and doubtless imagining the force within to be greater than it was, -withdrew. - -After some ineffectual attempts at negotiation, in various councils, -General Wayne, who had been appointed to succeed General St. Clair, -advanced into the Miami country. A sharp engagement took place at Fort -Recovery, which had been thrown up on the field of St. Clair’s defeat. -The Indians were led on by Little Turtle, who, having surprised a -detachment of the Americans, drove them into the fort. Pressing on, in -the hope of entering the fort in the pursuit, a heavy fire was opened -on the Indians, who were forced to retreat. They renewed the assault, -however, the next day, but were again driven off. - -On the 8th of August, 1794, General Wayne reached the confluence of -the Au Glaize and Miami of the Lakes, where were the principal Indian -villages. Thirty miles from this place, the Indian force, amounting -to nearly two thousand, was gathered close by the British fort. -Notwithstanding Wayne’s precautions, the Indian leader was aware of -his approach, and prepared for battle. An attempt at negotiation was -once more made by the American officers, but it proved unsuccessful. -The Indians were formed in three lines near the fort, within suitable -distance of each other. The attack commenced, and they attempted to -turn the left flank of the American army. Wayne’s disposition of his -forces was happily so made as to counteract the plans of the enemy. The -fight was severe, but the Indian forces were soon driven from their -position, leaving to the Americans a complete victory. - -Seven nations are said to have been engaged in this action,--the -Miamis, Wyandots, Potawatomies, Delawares, Shawanese, Chippewas, and -Ottawas. Every Wyandot chief present was killed, and many others also -fell. Little Turtle, it is said, was averse to fighting, believing -that Wayne was a more vigilant officer than those with whom they had -before contended. But Blue Jacket, a great warrior among the Shawanese, -prevailed in the council, and the engagement we have described, with -the consequent defeat, was the result. - -The whole Indian country, which was thickly peopled, was laid waste for -twenty miles around. “The margins of the rivers,” says Wayne, in his -despatches, “appeared like one continued village, and the fields of -corn were immense.” Yet these were made a scene of desolation. The year -after this, all hope of succour from the English being removed by Jay’s -treaty, the Indians became desirous of peace, and terms were proposed -and accepted on the 3d of August, 1795. - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[12] For the particulars of Pontiac’s life, see “Lives of Famous -American Indians.” - -[13] See “Lives of Famous American Indians.” - - - - -WESTERN AND SOUTHERN INDIANS. - - -The peace, noticed at the close of the last chapter, continued till -near the opening of the last war with England. At that period, the -famous Tecumseh entered upon his design of embodying the Western -Indians in a grand effort to check the advance of the American -settlements. A plan so extensive had never before been attempted by -an Indian chief. His brother, the Prophet, in his sacred character, -visited the distant tribes, even those beyond the Mississippi, and -poured out his stirring eloquence upon the warriors as far as the foot -of the Rocky Mountains. Had the confederacy been actually perfected, -the history of events had been written in bloodier lines than those -which portray the reality. - -While the Prophet was marshalling the West, Tecumseh, with burning -words, was rousing the fiery passions of the Southern Indians. Without -much difficulty, he succeeded in inspiring the Creek warriors with a -portion of his own fire, and the buried hatchet was once more lifted in -a fierce attack on the settlements within their reach. But a part of -the Creek nation, however, were engaged in these transactions; some -of them still remaining friendly to our people. The principal chiefs -bore the names of Weatherford, Big Warrior, and Little Warrior. The -great argument which Tecumseh held out to them was the prospect of an -approaching war between the United States and Great Britain, which, he -said, would afford to the Indians the opportunity of avenging their -wrongs and regaining their rights. - -The first onset was the well known attack and capture of Fort Mimms. -This was commanded by Major Beasley, with one hundred volunteers; -besides whom, a large number of the inhabitants, foreseeing the storm, -had gathered there for safety. Though warned of the contemplated -attack, the fort was surprised, about noon, on the 30th of August, -1812. The sentinel had scarcely time to announce the approach of the -Indians, when they rushed, with a terrific yell, towards the open -gate. The garrison was instantly under arms, and the commander, with -some of his men, flew towards the entrance to close it, and drive out -the enemy; but he fell mortally wounded. The conflict was desperate. -The gate, however, was at last closed, and the Indians, who had -taken possession of a blockhouse near, were finally expelled, after -much bloodshed. The assault continued for an hour, on the outside -of the pickets, and the portholes were several times carried by the -assailants, and retaken by the garrison. - -The Indians, for a short time, withdrew, apparently disheartened; but, -being urged on by their fiery leader, Weatherford, they returned to -the attack, cut away the gate with their axes, forced the pickets, and -got possession of the open space within, compelling the garrison to -retreat to the buildings. Here they met a gallant resistance, but the -Indians at length succeeded in setting fire to the roofs, and a scene -of carnage ensued. Women and children, the old and the young, were -all crowded together in these dwellings, and, in the spirit of savage -warfare, all were sacrificed. Scarcely a soul escaped from the terrific -scene, and nearly two hundred and sixty persons are said to have -perished. - -This catastrophe taught the inhabitants what they had to expect in the -contest thus opening upon them, and produced immediate efforts, both -in Tennessee and Georgia, to prepare for the crisis. It was determined -to carry the war at once into the enemy’s country. The command of the -expedition from Tennessee was committed to a man of prompt decision, -firm and unflinching purpose,--a conqueror in his nature,--General -Andrew Jackson. On marching to the Coosa, he despatched a detachment -to attack the Indian village of Littafutchee, on a branch of the -above-named river. The place was captured, with a number of prisoners. - -The Creeks now concentrated their forces at Tallushatches, also on -the Coosa. General Coffee was despatched, by General Jackson, with -nine hundred cavalry and mounted riflemen, against them. The Coosa was -forded, and, as he advanced, the Creeks struck their war-drum, sung -their war-songs, and, with terrific yells, sallied forth from their -village, boldly charging the troops. A fearful struggle followed, -and the Indians, in their fury, disdaining to receive quarter, were -slaughtered in great numbers. Two hundred of their warriors fell, and -the women and children were taken prisoners. In his official account, -General Coffee says that the enemy fought as long as they could stand -or sit, using chiefly the bow and arrow after the first fire, though -occasionally loading and discharging their guns. - -This bloody engagement was the first of a series bearing the same -general character. General Jackson soon moved forward to the relief of -the fort at Talladega, which was menaced with the fate of Fort Mimms. -The Creeks were found encamped within a quarter of a mile of that -place, and, as the lines of the American troops advanced, they were -attacked by the Indians, who were, however, compelled to retreat, with -the loss of two hundred and ninety left dead on the field, and many -more wounded. - -About the same time, General Floyd, with nine hundred and fifty of the -Georgia militia, and three or four hundred friendly Indians, met the -hostile Creeks of that region on the banks of the Tallapoosa River. An -engagement followed, in which the Indians presented themselves at every -point, and fought with desperate bravery. After a firm resistance, they -were beaten and driven from the plain, and the houses of their two -towns were wrapped in flames. - -Notwithstanding their ill success, the Indians were not yet prepared -for submission, and another battle was fought with the forces under -General Claiborne, on the Alabama. Their stronghold was taken, thirty -or forty warriors were slain, and two hundred dwellings burned. Another -town, also, of sixty houses, eight miles above, was destroyed, with -several distinguished chiefs, and all the boats owned by the Indians in -that vicinity. - -While these transactions were taking place on the Georgia side, General -Jackson was advancing from the west. Several fierce encounters took -place, but the great battle which broke the strength of the Indians -occurred at the Horseshoe, a bend in the Tallapoosa. Here a thousand -or more of the Creeks were gathered from their towns, and had strongly -fortified themselves. General Jackson, with a force of three or four -thousand men, attacked their position, having stationed a portion -of his troops so that the escape of the enemy might be cut off. The -fort was taken by storm, and the Indians were entirely defeated. Five -hundred and fifty-seven were left dead on the field, and a great number -were killed by the cavalry in attempting to cross the river. - -This was, indeed, a dreadful battle. The fighting continued to rage -for five hours. The Indians refused to surrender, answering the -propositions made them to this effect by volleys of fire-arms. Their -numbers were now greatly reduced, and the prophets, by whom they had -been urged on, had nearly all fallen. The humbled savages, at last, -felt it to be hopeless to continue the contest, and accordingly sued -for peace. A treaty was, therefore, concluded on the 10th of August, -1814, by which their territories were once more limited within such -boundaries as might prevent their disturbing the people of the United -States. - -The chief, Weatherford, who had led on some of the most daring attacks, -spoke on this occasion with great feeling. “I am in your power,” said -he to General Jackson, who had been appointed to treat with them; “do -with me as you please. I am a soldier. I have done the white people -all the harm I could. I fought them bravely. If I had an army, I -would yet fight, and contend to the last, but I have none; my people -are gone. I can now do no more than weep over the misfortunes of my -nation. Once I could animate my warriors to battle; but I cannot -rouse the dead. My warriors can no longer hear my voice. Their bones -are at Talladega, Tallushatches, Emuckfaw, and Tohopeka. I have not -surrendered myself thoughtlessly. Whilst there were chances of success, -I never left my post, nor supplicated for peace. But my people are -weakened, and I now ask it for my nation and myself. On the miseries -and misfortunes suffered by my country I look back with the deepest -sorrow, and wish to avert still greater calamities. If I had been left -to contend with the Georgia troops alone, I would have raised my corn -on one bank of the river, and fought them on the other; but you have -destroyed my nation. You are a brave man; I rely on your generosity. -You will exact no terms from a conquered people but such as they should -accept. Whatever they may be, it would now be madness and folly to -resist. You have told us where we might go and be safe. This is a good -talk; my nation ought to listen, and they shall listen.” - -After this speech, Big Warrior made an address, promising to abide -by the treaty. Since this time, the Creeks, as well as the Cherokees -and Choctaws, have remained at peace. A portion of this nation, who -bear the name of Seminoles, having driven out part of the Uchees from -Florida, incorporated the remnants of that tribe with themselves. -Here, in the Everglades and deep fastnesses, they have maintained -a long and bloody warfare with the United States, during which the -Americans expended millions of money, and lost great numbers of their -soldiers, either by battle or disease. The principal leaders of the -Seminoles were Micanopy, Philip, Creek Bill, and Osceola. The latter, -a half-breed, was the master spirit; but, being captured, he died a -prisoner to the Americans, at Fort Moultrie, in Charleston, South -Carolina, in the year 1838. After a protracted contest, the Seminoles -have been subdued, and the greater part of them, as well as of the -other Southern Indians, have been removed to the west side of the -Mississippi. Agriculture has advanced among the Creeks, and they yet -number some twenty thousand, or more, in the various divisions of their -nation. - -The war of the United States with Black Hawk,[14] and the Sacs, Foxes, -and Winnebagoes, in 1832, need not be detailed here. It is sufficient -to say, that it disturbed the northwestern frontier for a time, but -resulted in the entire defeat of the savages, and the surrender of the -chief. - -The red man is fast disappearing from the settled portions of the -United States; here and there a small community of Indians is found -east of the Mississippi. Every year has witnessed new aggressions on -their territory by the whites, who have continued to despoil them of -their property, and rob them of their lands. No one can doubt that -great injustice has often been done, and that they have frequently -been forced to yield to the arm of might rather than to the sense of -right. Yet there is one compensation;--the mild spirit of the gospel -has exerted itself among them, and Christian communities, with devoted -and faithful leaders, are found planted in the midst of them. We shall -advert more fully to some facts on this score in a subsequent page, -and now only observe, that the success which has recently attended the -benevolent efforts of the missionaries justifies the hope that some -remnants of these tribes may yet be preserved, and be able, hereafter, -to testify to a more humane policy on the part of their conquerors. - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTE: - -[14] See “Lives of Famous American Indians.” - - - - -VARIOUS TRIBES OF NORTHERN AND WESTERN INDIANS. - - -The vast territory, which lies outspread north of the great chain of -lakes which separate the British provinces from the United States, and -far in the west beyond the sources of the Missouri and Columbia Rivers, -is inhabited by numerous tribes of Indians. Among these, in the British -provinces, are the Chippewas, the Assinniboins, the Snake, Stone, -Beaver, Copper, and Hare Indians. These are wandering tribes, who have -no history deserving the name; though they are more or less involved, -from time to time, in wars with each other. The regions in which many -of them dwell are cold and barren, and they subsist almost entirely by -hunting and fishing, furnishing the traders with furs, and receiving -in exchange such articles as they need. Some of them are pensioners on -British bounty, on account of services rendered in former wars. - -Still further to the north, on the coasts of Labrador, we meet with -the Esquimaux, a singular race, who live, during the long winter which -reigns around them, shut up in their huts, and, at the opening of -their brief summer, go forth to provide the means of subsistence by -fishing and hunting. They seem to be a different race from the red -Indian, as they are generally low in stature, and of a complexion -approaching to white. In the interior, however, they are said to be -taller. They possess great skill in the management of their canoes or -boats, and the training of their dogs in sledges, which serve them as -the reindeer does its Lapland master. Their history is principally -comprised in the benevolent and successful efforts of the Moravians -to extend to them the blessings of the Christian religion. Some of -them, especially those in Labrador, have thus been civilized and -Christianized. The progress of missionary exertion among them has been -most interesting, and is fully recorded in the history of Moravian -missions. For a long period, these self-denying men toiled amid -hardships which might have discouraged others actuated by less exalted -motives. Year after year rolled by, and still the frigid hearts, like -the icy rocks of their native land, responded not to the warm appeals -of the Christian missionary; but at last the heart was melted, and they -were found anxious to learn yet more of the spiritual tidings which had -been brought to their frozen zone. - -The adventurous explorer of the far northern regions, by land or by -sea, occasionally meets the Esquimaux roaming over the ice-clad plains; -but there has been little, in that land of wintry barrenness, to tempt -the invasions of cupidity; and thus they have remained comparatively -at peace, except that some prowling bands of the northern tribes of -Indians have, now and then, assaulted them while on their hunting -expeditions. - -In the travels of Mackenzie, Hearne, Franklin, Back, and the voyages -of Ross and Parry, we find occasional notices of the different tribes -which roam over the extended territory towards the north pole. But as -they are mostly descriptions of individuals or families, they scarcely -claim a place in these pages. - -The Chippewas, who were formerly called Algonquins, are an extensive -though scattered band, and have heretofore been engaged in bloody wars -with other tribes, particularly the Otagamies and Saukies. These were -once much inferior to their adversaries both in numbers and strength; -but on a particular occasion, as related by Carver, they gained a great -advantage in war, which resulted, at last, in an enduring friendship -between the rival nations. - -Bordering on the Esquimaux on the west, and also near the Chippewas, -are the Knistenaux, or Cree Indians, who inhabit a wide space of -country. They are a well formed race, and their women are the -handsomest of the Indian females. They are said to be hospitable, -generous, and mild; not very careful of speaking the truth, but -otherwise honest, so that they are permitted to go about the trading -posts without restraint. They have carried on long and bloody wars -with the Blackfeet. These are more powerful in frame, as well as more -numerous; and though the Knistenaux warriors have been much reduced, -they have often proved themselves, by their superior agility, a full -match for their warlike foes. They are probably a portion of the -Chippewas, whom they are said much to resemble both in appearance and -language. - -The Assinniboins, or Stone Indians, though their appearance is -prepossessing, are represented as great thieves, stealing whatever they -can lay their hands on, especially horses. They are at perpetual war -with the Slave Indians, who live further west, and whom they resemble. -They are desperate and daring. The Assinniboins are supposed to have -belonged originally to the Sioux, as they are very much like them both -in their features and manners. - -The Chippewayans, being the same as the Chippewas in the United -States, are divided into many tribes. They differ from the Crees as to -hospitality, for they never give or receive with a good grace. Their -disputes are generally settled by wrestling, and the victor of the -match may carry off the wife of the vanquished as his prize. - -The powerful nation of the Sioux, or Dahcotahs, occupy in part the -region west of the Mississippi, near the Falls of St. Anthony, though -the main body of them are found on the Upper Missouri. These are the -same Indians whom Carver calls the Naudowessies, and have always been -great warriors. They are divided into numerous bands, each called after -the name of its chief, as the Black Dog’s band, the Red Wing’s band, -&c. They have ever been at war with the Chippewas, and are the mortal -foes of the Osages, whom they have greatly reduced, and who hold them -in great dread. They occupy a wide extent of country, and the main -object of their contention with the Chippewas, for two hundred years, -is stated to have been the territory from Rum River to the Rivière de -Corbeau, both parties claiming it as their own. They have conquered and -destroyed vast numbers of their red brethren, and have swept the whole -region extending from the banks of the Mississippi to the mouth of the -Great Platte, together with the plains that lie to the north, between -the Mississippi and the Black Hills. They form six distinct tribes, -comprising about 28,000 souls, subsisting chiefly on buffalo’s meat and -the wild fruits of the forest. They also use the native rice, of which -they gather many thousand bushels. A revolted band of this nation, -called the Osinpoilles, said to consist of 8,000 persons, live near the -Rocky Mountains. - -Catlin divides the Sioux nation into the Mississippi Sioux and the -Missouri Sioux. He says that they are separated into forty-two bands, -or families, each having a chief; these acknowledge a head chief, to -whom they are subordinate. - -The Mississippi branch, being near to the white settlements, are -somewhat advanced in civilization, yet form but an imperfect sample of -the nobler warriors who live on the banks of the Missouri, and roam -over the plains between that river and the Rocky Mountains. At the -time Catlin visited them, the head chief of the Sioux was Hawanjetah, -greatly renowned for his prowess in war and the chase. Of him we are -furnished with the following story. - -Hawanjetah had, in some way, been the accidental cause of the death -of his only son, a very fine youth; and so great was the anguish of -his mind, at times, that he became frantic and insane. In one of these -moods he mounted his favorite war-horse, with his bow and arrows in his -hand, and dashed off at full speed upon the prairies, repeating the -most solemn oath, “that he would slay the first living thing that fell -in his way, be it man or beast, friend or foe.” No one dared to follow -him, and after he had been absent an hour or two, his horse came back -to the village with two arrows in his body, and covered with blood! -Fears of the most serious kind were now entertained for the fate of the -chief, and a party of warriors immediately mounted their horses, and -retraced the animal’s tracks to the scene of the tragedy, where they -found the body of their chief horribly mangled and gored by a buffalo -bull, whose carcase was stretched by his side. - -A close examination of the ground was then made by the Indians, who -ascertained by the tracks, that their unfortunate chief, under his -unlucky resolve, had met a buffalo bull, in the season when the animal -is stubborn, and unwilling to run from any one, and had incensed the -creature by shooting a number of arrows into him, which thus brought -him into furious combat. The chief had then dismounted, and, turning -his horse loose, shot a couple of arrows into his body, which sent -him home at full speed. He had then thrown away his bow and quiver, -encountering the infuriated buffalo with his knife alone,--the -desperate battle resulting in the death of both. Many of the bones of -the chief were broken, as he was gored and stamped to death; and his -huge antagonist had laid his body by the side of him, weltering in -blood from a hundred wounds, made by the chief’s long and two-edged -knife. - -The Sacs, or Sauks, and Foxes, called Renards by the French, are said -to be among the most warlike of these northern savages. “No Indian -tribe, except the Sioux, has shown such daring intrepidity and such -implacable hatred towards other tribes. Their enmity, when once -excited, was never known to be appeased till the arrow or tomahawk had -for ever prostrated their foes. For centuries, the prairies of Illinois -and Iowa were the theatre of their exterminating prowess; and to them -is to be attributed the almost entire destruction of the Missouris, the -Illinois, Cahokias, Kaskaskias, and Peorias. They were, however, steady -and sincere in their friendship to the whites, and many is the honest -settler on the borders of their old dominion, who mentions, with the -warmest feelings, the respectful treatment he has received from them, -while he cut the logs for his cabin, and ploughed his potato-patch on -that lonely and unprotected frontier.” - -This tribe formerly owned a great part of the northern portion of -Illinois and much of the State of Missouri. Their friendly relations to -the United States were first broken in the year 1832. A treaty had been -formed between their chiefs and the commissioners of the United States, -by which they sold their lands north of the Rock River in the State -of Illinois. This portion of the country contained the old villages -and burial-places of the nation. Though their chiefs had seen fit to -dispose of this tract, yet the tribe could not, without a struggle, -yield up the loved and sacred places where every thing was associated -with their former history. Some of the chiefs, and among them Black -Hawk, declared that they had been deceived by the whites, and that -they had not consented to such a sale as was attempted to be enforced -upon them. They therefore took up the hatchet for redress; but the -contest terminated, as we have related, in their being driven across -the Mississippi, and the capture of that noted chief. - -Among them are still found some able chiefs, of whom Catlin has given -portraits and sketches. Keokuck, the head of the tribe, who is now -dead, was said to possess superior abilities, and will be recollected -by many persons who saw him on his visit to Washington and some of the -Atlantic cities in 1837. - -The Sacs and Foxes were formerly two distinct tribes, but have become -incorporated, in the course of years, into one nation. The following -account is given of them, by the commanding officer of Fort Armstrong, -in 1820. “Question to Masco, a Sauk chief. ‘What is the name of your -nation?’ Answer. ‘Since we can remember, we have never had any other -name than Saukie or Saukie-uck’ (Saukie is singular, Saukie-uck, -plural). Question. ‘What is its original name?’ Answer. ‘Since the -Great Spirit made us, we have had that name and no other.’ Question. -‘What is the name by which it has been known among Europeans?’ Answer. -‘The French called us by that name; but since then, the white people -have called us Sauks.’ - -“Question to Wahballo, principal chief of the Fox nation. ‘What is -the name of your nation?’ Answer. ‘Musquak-kie, or Musquak-kie-kuck.’ -Question. ‘What is its original name?’ Answer. ‘Since the Great Spirit -made us, we have had that name and no other.’ Question. ‘What are -the names by which it has been known among Europeans?’ Answer. ‘The -French called us Renards, and since, the white people have called -us Foxes.’ Question. ‘Are any portion of your tribes scattered in -other parts?’ Answer. ‘Yes.’ Question. ‘Where?’ Answer. ‘There are -some of our people on the Missouri, some near Fort Edwards, and some -among the Potawatomies.’ Question. ‘To what nations are you related -by language?’ Answer. ‘The Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo are related by -language.’ Question. ‘By manners and customs?’ Answer. ‘The Sauk, -Fox, and Kickapoo’s manners and customs are alike, except those who -have intercourse with the whites.’ One of the chiefs added, that the -Shawanese descended from the Sauk nation. Question. ‘What tribes do -you call grandfather?’ Answer. ‘The Delawares call us and all other -Indians grandchildren, and we, in return, call them grandfather; but we -know of no relationship between them and us.’ Question. ‘What tribes -are grandchildren?’ Answer. ‘There are no tribes or nations we call -grandchildren.’ Question. ‘Where is the great council-fire for all the -tribes connected with your own tribes?’ Answer. ‘We have no particular -place; when we have any business to transact, it is done at some one of -our villages.’” - -The Otoe Indians consist in part of Missouri’s, to whom they became -united after the Sacs and Foxes had succeeded in dispersing that tribe. -When the French first came into the country, the Missouris were the -most numerous tribe in the vicinity of St. Louis. They are said to have -been an energetic race, till they were nearly all cut off by their -Indian foes and the small-pox. This disease has reduced and destroyed -many an Indian nation, and is still, from time to time, performing its -part in wasting them away. The site of the ancient village of the -Missouris is yet to be seen on the north bank of the river which bears -their name, just below the point at which the Grand River enters it. -Their territory is said to have embraced the fertile country lying a -considerable distance along the Missouri above their village, and down -to the mouth of the Osage, and thence to the Mississippi. - -One of the most celebrated chiefs of this tribe was Shongmunecuthe,[15] -or the Ietan. The following particulars relate to scenes which occurred -during a tour of the United States commissioner, in the year 1833. The -party were approaching the Otoe village. “The old warrior,” says the -narrator, “welcomed us cordially; then, turning round, he rode with -us in the direction of the village. While he was speaking with the -commissioner, several dusky forms clambered the high bluff before us, -and stood upon its dizzy verge, watching our movements. Suddenly the -Ietan galloped a few yards in front, and waved his arm, uttering a -long, shrill yell. It was answered by a whoop from those on the hill, -who instantly commenced whirling their blankets around their heads. -Then all was silent. - -“For a few moments, we were in doubt as to the meaning of the manœuvre; -but suddenly a loud roar rose from behind the bluff, and a dark troop -of wild horsemen burst round its base, and came pouring down upon us. -There must have been several hundred of them. Every man was naked, -but glaring with paint. They dashed onward, pealing out scream upon -scream, brandishing their spears, and whirling their tomahawks around -their heads. The old chief was unmoved, and sat like a statue upon his -horse. The soldiers who accompanied us, unaccustomed to such an Indian -welcome, began to prepare for action. The band had now approached -within a hundred yards. We could perceive the flashing eyes of the -straining horses, with the bare teeth, scowling brows, and starting -muscles of the riders. Bow clattered against bow, tomahawk clashed -against tomahawk, and voice was blended with voice, until the whole -din rose in the air, like the wild, tumultuous roar of a raging sea. -They were close upon us,--another moment, and it might seem that we -were lost; yet at that moment, at a signal from Ietan, the wild horde -separated, and, whirling round, were enveloped in a cloud of dust. - -“The old chief smiled, with an air of grim satisfaction, as he observed -the effect produced upon us by his warriors; then, raising his voice, -he joined in the wild _mêlée_ around us. Horse dashed against horse, as -the band swept onward in a large circle. Some were hurled from their -seats; others clung to the manes of the maddened horses. The strong -poured down upon the weak, and brushed them from their paths. Ever and -anon, some little pepper-spirited horse, vexed with the hustling, would -pause to discharge his heels into the ribs of his next neighbour; but -before it could be done, the crowd would pass on, and he would be borne -forward, in the rushing course of the whirlpool. No one regarded his -neighbour; each was under the influence of a mad excitement. A giant -Indian was dashing around, upon a horse as powerful as himself, at the -inner verge of the ring. In front of him was another, on a little nag, -who kept near the border for safety. Suddenly they came in contact. -The powerful steed swept onward as if he had met with no obstacle. The -little horse spun out of his path, and his rider threw a somerset in -the air, landing in the very midst of the throng. Fifty hoofs clattered -over his head; but he scrambled out, caught his horse, bounded on his -back with a whoop and a flourish of his tomahawk, and pursued his -course as if nothing had happened. - -“After this scene of hubbub and confusion had continued for about -fifteen minutes, the crowd gradually ceased its clamor, and formed in -a large circle round us, with their horses’ heads towards the party. -Presently the ring broke, and was extended in two lines, through which -a band of about thirty warriors slowly advanced, to a long, solemn -chant, sung by the whole troop, and accompanied by a kind of drum. This -band was formed of the flower of the Indian village. None were admitted -except those who could boast of having taken a certain number of -scalps, or of having performed an equally honorable service in stealing -a large number of horses.” In this manner was the commissioner welcomed -to the Indian village. - -A singular story is related by the writer of the above extract, -respecting one of the braves of the Otoes. “One squaw attracted our -attention, from her gigantic height. As we approached her, there was a -masculine coarseness in the features of her face, which rendered her -hideously ugly, and formed a contrast highly in favor of the group -around her. We afterwards learned that this strange being, though now -clad in the garb of a female, and performing the most menial of their -offices, was in reality a man, and had once ranked among the proudest -braves of the Otoe nation. His name had once stood foremost in war and -in council. He had led on many an expedition against their noble, but -bitter foes, the Osages. In the midst of his bright career, a change -came over him. The cause was this. He had been for several weeks absent -upon a war expedition against the enemies of his tribe. At a little -before sunset, on a fine afternoon, this band of Indians were seen -coming over the hills, returning towards their village. The troop of -way-worn warriors counted less than when they started; but their bundle -of scalps, and their fierce brows, declared that their lost comrades -had been avenged. In front of them strode the form of the giant brave. -He was wearied with toil and fasting, and, without staying to receive -the greetings of his fellow-townsmen, he hastened to his lodge and -threw himself upon one of the bear-skins which form an Indian bed. - -“He remained for the night. In the morning he arose from his couch; -but he was an altered man. A change, fearful and thrilling, had come -over him. His eye was quenched; his proud step wavered; and his -haughty frame seemed almost sinking beneath the pressure of some heavy -calamity. He collected his family around him. He told them that the -Great Spirit had visited him in a dream, and had said to him that he -had now reached the height of his fame; that no voice had more weight -at the council-fire than his; that no arm was heavier in battle; and -concluded by commanding him henceforth to relinquish all claim to -the rank of a warrior, and assume the dress and duties of a female. -The communication was listened to with deep sorrow, but with implicit -confidence. He then made known his determination to the nation. They, -too, listened gravely and sadly, but admitted the justness of his -views. He next returned to his lodge, took down his bow, broke it into -atoms, and threw them in the fire. He buried his tomahawk and rifle, -washed the war-paint from his face, and took out the eagle-plume from -his scalp-lock. After this, he was seen no more among the warriors, -and took no part in the councils; but, attired as a female, occupied -himself in the most servile and degrading employments, and lived -abject, neglected, and scorned by those who once gloried in being his -followers!” - -The Osages are said to have been formerly a brave and warlike people, -and in good circumstances. But disease, and the attacks of the Sioux, -of whom they were once the hardiest and fiercest enemies, have reduced -their tribe so that not more than 5,500 now remain. Treaties have been -made with them, and various efforts have been used, but with small -success, to civilize and teach them. They have secured to them, for the -education of their tribe, by an arrangement for the sale of their lands -to the United States, about seventy thousand dollars. Stipulations have -also been entered into to teach them agricultural pursuits. - -This tribe are still distinguished for their tall, fine forms, though -they have lost their fame as warriors. They have repeatedly moved -and jostled along from the head-waters of the White River, and even -from the banks of the Mississippi, to the Indian territory bordering -on the Creeks, where they now are. The Kansas, formerly a portion of -this nation, have seceded from them, and thus impaired their strength. -They have been, till recently, engaged in war with the Pawnees and -Camanches, and, though thereby reduced, they have a number of able men -as chiefs and warriors. - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTE: - -[15] See “Lives of Famous American Indians.” - - - - -THE INDIANS WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI. - - -The Omahaws are said to have formerly been a much larger tribe than -they are at present, and a terror to their neighbours, being able -to muster not less than a thousand warriors. But in the year 1802, -they were attacked by the small-pox, and the tribe was reduced to -about three hundred souls. The survivors, unwilling to remain in a -place that had proved so fatal to them, burned their village, and -became, for a time, a wandering people. But they have since returned -to their country, north of the River Platte, and built a village on -the southwest bank of the Missouri. The Pancas, having been nearly -destroyed by the Sioux, after several removals from the Red River of -Lake Winnipeg, joined the Omahaws, and, for a time, were merged in that -tribe, but have now resumed their separate existence. These two tribes -are allied with the Pawnees, and, some twenty years since, their chiefs -accompanied some Pawnees and other Indian warriors to Washington, where -Big Elk, the Omahaw chief, thus addressed the President. - -“My great father, look at me! look at me, my father! My hands are -unstained with your blood; my people have never struck the whites, -and the whites have never struck them. It is not the case with other -red-skins. Mine is the only nation that has spared the Long Knives. I -am a chief, but not the only one in my nation; there are other chiefs -who raise their crests by my side. I have always been the friend of -the Long Knives, and, before this chief” (pointing to Major O’Fallon) -“came among us, I suffered much in support of the whites. I was often -reproached for being their friend; but when my father came among us, he -strengthened my arms, and I soon towered over the rest.” - -In reference to the proposition made him to have people come among them -to teach them the arts of agriculture, he said:--“The Great Spirit -made my skin red, and he made us to live as we do now; and I believe, -that, when the Great Spirit placed us upon this earth, he consulted -our happiness. We love our country, we love our customs and habits. I -wish that you would permit us to enjoy them as long as I live. When -we become hungry and naked; when the game of the country becomes -exhausted, and misery encompasses our families; then, and not till -then, do I want those good people among us. Then they may lend us a -helping hand; then show us the wealth of the earth; the advantages and -sustenance to be derived from its culture.” - -In the recent report of the Commissioner for Indian Affairs, he says, -“The agent states that the Omahaws waited on him, previous to their -starting on their summer hunt, and most earnestly begged for arms -and ammunition to enable them to defend themselves against their -enemies, declaring, ‘If our great father will now furnish us arms and -ammunition, we will defend ourselves.’ The agent remarks, further, ‘The -Sioux, from all that we can learn, are resolved on exterminating this -little band of Indians. Some few days after the visit of the Omahaws, -above spoken of, I was called on by an express from the Omahaw camp, -asking for the assistance of the troops to defend them against their -enemies, and to retake thirty-six horses, which the Sioux had taken in -a skirmish, a few days previous.’ He adds, that, ‘until the fierce and -bloody war now prosecuted by the Sioux shall subside, it will be in -vain to try to prosper the Omahaws in agricultural pursuits.--Owing to -the game receding, the Omahaws have to seek food in the more distant -prairies, which makes them the more accessible; and unless they can -be provided for in agricultural pursuits, where they will be more -remote from their harassing enemy, the same fierce and cruel war, in -all probability, will continue. The Omahaws have this season returned -to their old village, near the Missouri River, and, from present -appearances, they will have to abandon it again.’” - -The Pawnees own an extensive country on the Great Platte River, lying -west of the Otoes and Omahaws. They still retain their fondness for -savage life, and keep up among them many of their old customs. Various -treaties have been formed with them, but, as yet, they evince no -desire for civilization. They are divided into the Grand Pawnees, the -Tapage Pawnees, the Wolf Pawnees, or Pawnee Loups, and the Republican -Pawnees. They were formerly a numerous nation; but the small-pox being -introduced in 1832, by the fur-traders and whisky-sellers, swept off -ten thousand or more of them, in a few months, so that they do not now -number more than ten or twelve thousand. They are a warlike people, -and live in four villages, several miles apart, having their allies, -the Omahaws and Otoes, so near them, that they may act in concert in -case of invasion. The Pawnee chief who visited Washington, at the time -before alluded to, in company with Major O’Fallon, like the Omahaw -chief, declined the offer of teachers, on the ground that the Great -Spirit made them for the chase, and intended them “to go to war, to -take scalps, steal horses, and triumph over their enemies.” - -One of the delegation, at this time, was a Pawnee brave, of a noble -size, figure, and countenance. At the early age of twenty-one, his -heroic deeds acquired for him the rank of the “bravest of the braves.” -The following incident was related of him. An unfortunate female of -the Paduca nation, as the Camanches are called by them, having been -taken prisoner, was destined to torture. The fatal hour arrived; the -trembling victim, far from her home and her friends, was fastened to -the stake; the whole tribe was assembled on the surrounding plain to -witness the awful scene. Just when the funeral pile was to be kindled, -and the whole multitude of spectators were excited with expectation, -this young warrior, having prepared two fleet horses, with the -necessary provisions, sprang from his seat, rushed through the crowd, -liberated the victim, seized her in his arms, placed her on one of -the horses, mounted the other himself, and made the utmost speed -towards the nation and friends of the captive. The multitude, struck -dumb and nerveless by the boldness of the deed, made no effort to -rescue their intended victim from her deliverer. They viewed it as the -immediate act of the Great Spirit, submitted to it without a murmur, -and quietly retired to their village. The young chief accompanied -the released captive three days, through the wilderness, towards her -home. He then gave her the horse on which she rode, with sufficient -food for the remainder of the journey, and they parted. On his return -to the village, no inquiry was made into his conduct, and no censure -was passed on it. Since this transaction, no human sacrifice has been -offered in this or any other of the Pawnee tribes, and the practice has -been thus abandoned. - -On the occasion of the visit of this Pawnee chief to Washington, the -young ladies of a seminary in that city, having heard of the anecdote -just related, presented him a handsome silver medal, in token of -commendation of his noble act in rescuing one of their sex from a cruel -death, closing their address with these words:--“Brother, accept this -token of our esteem; always wear it for our sakes; and when again you -have the power to save a poor woman from death and torture, think of -this and of us, and fly to her relief and her rescue.” - -His reply was to this effect:--“Sisters, I am glad you have heard of -the good deed I have done. I did it partly in ignorance; but your gift -makes me feel happy, and enables me more fully to see that I did right. -I shall now be even more ready to listen to the words of the white -man, for they tell me what is good.” - -The following speech of a Pawnee chief was made at Fort Gibson in 1833, -and addressed to Mr. Ellsworth, the United States commissioner, on -taking leave of him to return home, after having accompanied him on a -part of his tour. - -“I have travelled with my grandfather many miles on foot. He came to -our village. We ran to meet him. We followed him here. We came through -many villages of hostile bands, whom we never have met before. All -treated us kindly, and peace is made. My heart is glad. I am a wild -man, and come naked to follow my grandfather; but I am not ashamed. A -bird hovers over her young, and takes care of them; so does our Great -Father pity and care for us. I feel now as though I was born again. I -used to worship the Great Spirit as my forefathers did; but now I will -worship him as the white men do. Every day, when I speak to you, I look -to the Great Spirit to help me speak the truth, and what I say is true. -I go out alone and speak to the Great Spirit, and ask his aid; but we -now look to him together. I am now going home. The wild Indians will be -glad to hear how we have been treated by our enemies, and how our great -father has spoken to us. Our ears are bored out, and nothing shall be -forgotten.” - -Mr. Murray, an English gentleman, who travelled among the Indians about -eight years since, gives us the following sketch. - -“Within twenty or thirty miles of Fort Leavenworth are settled a great -variety of Indian tribes, most of them emigrants from the country now -inhabited by the whites, especially from the States of Illinois and -Michigan. The nearest to the fort are the Kickapoos, who are settled in -a village distant from it about four miles. They are a weak and daily -decreasing tribe; their natural properties are much changed by constant -communication with the whites. There is a Methodist missionary resident -among them. - -“The fort is supplied with beef and other meat, chiefly by a farmer -who lives in the Great Bottom, immediately opposite to it. Among other -articles for the supply of the table, one of the most abundant to be -met with here, is the cat-fish. I found it somewhat coarse, but not -unpalatable eating. These fish are caught, of a most enormous size, and -in great quantities, by the settlers on the banks of the river; one of -whom told me that he caught four in the course of one morning, weighing -above fifty pounds each. - -“On the 4th of July, the usual commemoration took place, of firing -twenty-four guns; after which ceremony we adjourned to an excellent -dinner, and madeira and champagne were the order of the day. We had -spent an hour or two in the festivities of the table, when news was -brought in that a hundred and fifty Pawnees had arrived, under the -guidance of Mr. Dougherty, one of the principal Indian agents; and, -upon an invitation from the officers, twelve or fourteen of their chief -warriors came into the mess-room. I had already seen many Indians, -but none so wild and unsophisticated as these genuine children of the -wilderness. They entered the room with considerable ease and dignity, -shook hands with us all, and sat down comfortably to cigars and -madeira. I was quite astonished at the tact and self-possession of -these Indians, two thirds of whom had never been in a settlement of -white men before, nor had ever seen a fork, or table, or chair in their -lives; yet, without asking questions, or appearing to observe what was -passing, they caught the idea with intuitive readiness, and during the -whole dinner were not guilty of a single absurdity or breach of decorum. - -“The dress of these Indians consisted of a belt of deer-skin round the -middle, with a flap passing between the legs, and fastened again to the -belt behind. Their legs were covered with tight leggins of deer-skin, -and their feet by moccasins; while their shoulders were loosely and -gracefully covered, or half covered, by a blanket or buffalo-skin. -Most of them had ear-rings, bead-necklaces, and armlets; and the two -principal chiefs wore round their necks a large medal each, on which -was engraved the head of the late president of the United States. -The greater part of them were lusty, and a few even fat, giving no -outward evidence of the privations to which their mode of life renders -them so liable. Generally speaking, they were of middle height, with -fine chests, arms well proportioned, but not muscular, and remarkably -fine-shaped legs. I do not think there was a countenance among them -that could be pronounced handsome, though several were pleasing and -good-humored; but the prevalent character of their expression was -haughty, impenetrable reserve, easily distinguishable through the mask -of frank conciliation, which their present object rendered it expedient -for them to wear. - -“As we, in our mirth, sang one or two choral songs, we called upon -our red brethren. They rose all at once; and I never shall forget the -effect of that first Indian chorus which I ever heard. Each singer -began, by strange and uncouth sounds, to work his mind and lungs up -to the proper pitch of excitement; and when, at length, their shrill -and terrible cry rose to its full height, its effect was astounding, -and sufficient to deafen a delicate ear. Then, again, they would allow -their strain to fall into a monotonous cadence, to which they kept time -with inflections of the head and body, and again burst forth into full -chorus of mingled yell and howl.” - -During Mr. Murray’s stay among the Pawnees, he witnessed the following -scene. - -“While I was sitting near my packs of goods, like an Israelite in -Monmouth Street, an elderly chief approached, and signified his wish -to trade. Our squaws placed some meat before him, after which I gave -him the pipe; and, in the meantime, had desired my servant to search my -saddle-bags, and to add to the heap of salable articles every thing of -every kind beyond what was absolutely necessary for my covering on my -return. A spare shirt, handkerchief, and waistcoat were thus draughted; -and, among other things, was a kind of elastic flannel waistcoat, made -for wearing next to the skin, and to be drawn over the head, as it was -without buttons or any opening in front. It was too small for me, and -altogether so tight and uncomfortable, although elastic, that I had -determined to part with it. - -“To this last article my new customer took a great fancy; and he -made me describe to him the method of putting it on, and the warmth -and comfort of it when on. Be it remembered that he was a very large, -corpulent man, probably weighing sixteen stone. I knew him to be very -good-natured, as I had hunted once with his son; and, on returning -to his lodge, the father had feasted me, chatted with me by signs, -and taught me some of that most extraordinary Indian method of -communication. He said he should like to try on the jacket; and as he -threw the buffalo-robe off his huge shoulders, I could scarcely keep -my gravity, when I compared their dimensions with the garment into -which we were about to attempt their introduction. However, by dint of -great industry and care, we contrived to get him into it. In the body, -it was a foot too short, and fitted him so close that every thread -was stretched to the uttermost; the sleeves reached a very little way -below his elbow. However, he looked upon his arms and person with great -complacency, and elicited many smiles from the squaws at the drollery -of his attire; but, as the weather was very hot, he soon began to find -himself too warm and confined, and he wished to take it off again. He -moved his arms,--he pulled the sleeves,--he twisted and turned himself -in every direction, but in vain. The woollen jacket was an admirable -illustration of the _Inferno_ of Dante and Virgil, and of matrimony -as described by many poets; it was easy enough to get into it, _sed -revocare gradum_ was a difficult matter indeed. The old man exerted -himself till the drops of perspiration fell from his forehead; but had -I not been there, he must either have made some person cut it open, or -have sat in it until this minute. - -“For some time, I enjoyed this scene with malicious and demure gravity, -and then I showed him that he must try and pull it off over his head. -A lad, who stood by, then drew it till it enveloped his nose, eyes, -mouth, and ears; his arms were raised above his head, and for some -minutes he remained in that melancholy plight, blinded, choked, and -smothered, with his hands rendered useless for the time. He rolled -about, sneezing, sputtering, and struggling, until all around were -convulsed with laughter; and the squaws shrieked, in their ungovernable -mirth, in a manner that I had never before witnessed. At length -I slit a piece of the edge, and released the old fellow from his -straight-waistcoat confinement. He turned it round often in his hands, -and made a kind of comic-grave address to it, of which I could only -gather a few words. I believe the import of them was, that it would be -a ‘good creature in the ice-month at the village.’ I was so pleased -with his good humor, that I gave it to him, and told him to warm his -squaw with it in the ice-month.” - -Mr. Murray gives us, also, the following sketch. - -“On the 6th, I rode out with Captain Hunter to the Kickapoo village, -which is about five miles from the fort. The Kickapoos are a branch of -the great northern nation of Indians, which includes the Potawatomies, -the Chippewas, and other numerous tribes. Their former territory has -been bought by the United States, and this tract of country, along the -southern bank of the Missouri, allotted in its stead; beside which, -the United States engaged to supply them, for a certain time, with a -stipulated quantity of provisions, clothes, &c. Living so near the -settlements, they have lost most of the traits of their original -character, and are a reduced, debased race; nevertheless, they are -now interesting in a religious point of view. A miniature Mahomet -has arisen among them, and the tribe is divided into two sects, the -religious and irreligious; these are pretty equal in number, and -the former acknowledge and obey, as secular chief, the prophet who -teaches the new creed. This man preaches very good and enlightened -morality. He pretends to have seen the Great Spirit in a vision, and -to have received his command to proclaim his truths and precepts to -the Indians. I should have been astonished at the excellence of his -doctrine, and the soundness of his religious views, if I had not -learned from a gentleman, long resident among them, the fountain from -which he drew his knowledge. It appears, that, when very young, he -learned the English language thoroughly, and, in remote parts of the -State of Illinois, attended many Christian meetings. He thus became -acquainted with the outlines of the Christian scheme, and with the -morality which the Bible inculcates; and afterward grafting the -knowledge thus acquired upon his Indian prejudices and superstitions, -he has used it as an engine of personal aggrandizement, and become -priest, prophet, and chief of half his nation. - -“I attended a preaching, which was held under a large, open, -reed-thatched shed. The meeting was conducted with the greatest -decorum; all the men under or near the shed stood uncovered; but in -this, as in all the Christian churches that I have seen in any country, -the greater part of the assembly were females. Each was supplied with a -flat board, on which were carved symbols, which answered the purpose -of letters, and enabled them to chime in with the prayer or hymn of the -preacher. - -“I regretted to find that the officiating preacher was not the ‘great -prophet himself,’ but one of his favorite disciples. He was a man of -middle age, with a quiet and earnest expression of countenance, and a -voice capable of much modulation and variety of tone; he spoke without -the slightest hesitation. I placed myself within hearing, and, keeping -at my elbow the half-breed French interpreter, took down in pencil -the following scraps from his lecture:--‘Look up at the heavens! look -around you at the earth fertile with fruit, and the animals given for -our use. All these show the goodness of the Great Spirit. If he were -not good, much better than any of us, he would be angry with us, for we -are all bad, and disobey him; he would punish, and not forgive us. But -if we are good and obey him, we are happier and more flourishing here; -all goes well with us. We are but half-taught children; we are poor -Indians. It is only a few years since we learned his will and commands, -through his prophet; but if we ask him, and obey him, we shall daily -grow wiser and happier’;--and so on in a similar strain. After this -sermon, a hymn was sung. It was a low, melancholy, and not unmusical -air, and was rendered wild and peculiar by the closing of each verse in -the minor key. I left the scene with strong emotions of interest and -compassion, and must own that I entertain hopes, though but faint ones, -that this twilight may be the forerunner of the sunrise of the gospel -among them.” - -There is another tribe of Indians, called Pawnee Picts, who live on -the banks of the Red River, in alliance with the Camanches, and are -sometimes reckoned as belonging to the Pawnees, though a thousand miles -from them. Catlin asserts that “there is no family resemblance, nor any -similarity in their language and customs.” Their village is described -as being a large one, containing some five or six hundred wigwams. The -nation consists of from eight to ten thousand persons. At a council -held while Catlin was present, Colonel Dodge restored to them two -Pawnee girls, who had been purchased from their captors, the Osages, -and received in return a little boy, the son of Judge Martin, whose -family had been murdered on the False Washita. On this occasion, “the -heart of the venerable old chief seemed to melt at the evidence of the -white man’s friendship; he rose on his feet, and, taking Colonel Dodge -in his arms, and placing his left cheek against the left cheek of the -Colonel, held him for some minutes without saying a word, whilst tears -were flowing from his eyes. He then embraced each officer in turn, in -the same silent and affectionate manner.” The chief, with two others, -accompanied Colonel Dodge to Fort Gibson, and formed a treaty with the -United States. Their residence is among the Rocky Mountains. - -Close by the Pawnee Picts are the Kioways, who are described as being -a fine looking race of men, very tall, some of them being seven feet -high, and having a Roman outline of head. They are decidedly distinct -from the Pawnee Picts and the Camanches, and also differ from them in -language and customs. - -The Camanches are supposed to be at least twenty thousand strong. -Catlin even estimates them as high as thirty or forty thousand, and -says they are able to show some six or seven thousand warriors, well -mounted and well armed. They are a very warlike tribe, traversing the -immense space of country extending far north and south, and east and -west, from the Red River to the Pacific Ocean. They were long the -dreaded enemy of the Spaniards, as they now are of the Mexicans, on -whom they make frequent incursions, and bear off prisoners, especially -female children, whom they adopt and marry. About sixty years ago, -the daughter of the governor-general of Chihuahua was stolen by them. -The father, by an agent, some weeks after, was allowed to ransom her. -But she refused to return to her parents, and sent them word that -the Indians had tattooed her face, and given her to be the wife of a -young man of their tribe; that her husband treated her well, and had -reconciled her to his mode of life. In her present circumstances, -therefore, she preferred remaining where she was. She continued in the -nation, and raised a family of children. - -The Camanches have fought many a bloody battle with their enemies, -and have always succeeded in preserving their independence. They -particularly excel in catching and taming for use the wild horses of -the plains, and form a terrible cavalry in war, particularly as they -are able, in a moment, to throw themselves over to the opposite side of -the horse, so as to be screened from their enemy, while they can shoot -their arrows, either over or under the horse’s neck, with such force as -to pierce through a buffalo. They also carry, in war, a shield, and -a lance of fourteen feet in length, which they use with great effect. -Numerous instances of their intrepidity are on record. The following -incident is related by Farnham in his travels. About the middle of -June, 1839, a band of fifty or sixty crossed the river in the night, -and concealed themselves near where the animals of the establishment -were feeding during the day. As they concealed themselves in the -bushes, they were not perceived by the Mexican horse-guard, who, after -having driven out his charge within reach of the guns of the fort, took -his station, as usual, beyond them, holding his horse by a long rope, -and suffering him to graze around him. While here on duty, the Indians -suddenly rose, and ran towards the animals with horrible yells, seeking -to drive them across the river. “The guard, however, nothing daunted, -mounted quickly, and drove his horse at full speed among them. The -mules and horses, hearing his voice amidst the frightening yells of the -savages, immediately started at a lively pace for the fort; but the -Indians were on all sides, and bewildered them. The guard still pressed -them onward and called for help, and on they rushed, despite of the -Indians to the contrary. The battlements were covered with men. They -shouted encouragement to the brave guard, ‘Onward, onward!’ and the -injunction was obeyed. He spurred his horse to his greatest speed from -side to side, and whipped the hindermost of the band with his leading -rope. He had saved every animal; he was within twenty yards of the -open gate, when he fell; three arrows from the bows of the Camanches -had cloven his heart. And, relieved of him, the lords of the quiver -gathered their prey, and drove them to the borders of Texas, without -injury to life or limb. Thus forty or fifty mules, and their best -servant’s life, were lost to the Messieurs Bents in a single day.” - -The Appachees are a numerous tribe of Indians, estimated at 20,000, -who inhabit the country lower down than the Camanches. But little is -known of them. The Eutaws, estimated at 19,200, dwell in the midst of -the Rocky Mountains, occupying alternately both sides of the Eutaw or -Anahuac range. They are continually migrating from one side to the -other, still holding the superstitions of their fathers, though a few -of them, principally half-breeds, have embraced the Catholic faith. - -The Arrapahoes reside on the western side of the Rocky Mountains, -and are said to number about 3,000 souls. They wander, in the winter -season, around the head-waters of one branch of the Colorado of the -West, and in summer hunt the buffalo farther east. They are said to be -a brave, thrifty, and hospitable people. They derive their name, which -signifies _dog-eaters_, from fattening and eating that animal. They -admit whites, who desire it, to the privilege of citizenship on certain -conditions. - -The Shoshonies, or Snakes, reside north of the Arrapahoes, and are -also a wandering tribe, who inhabit that part of the Rocky Mountains -which lies on the Grand and Green River branches of the Colorado of -the West, the valley of the Great Bear River, the habitable shores of -the Great Salt Lake, and a tract of country on the Snake River. Some -of them subsist principally on roots; while others live on fish. -They are said to own many horses, and, from their first acquaintance -with the whites, to have been averse to war and cruelty. They have, -however, been obliged to fight with the Blackfeet, Crows, Sioux, and -Eutaws, to defend portions of their territory; and these tribes have -formerly been much accustomed to send parties to rob them of their -horses. They are described as being an intelligent race, possessing -many domestic comforts, and opposed to immorality. They refuse the use -of intoxicating liquor, saying, “It unmans us for the hunt and for -defending ourselves against our enemies; it causes unnatural divisions -among ourselves; it makes the chief less than his Indian; and by its -use, imbecility and ruin would come upon the Shoshonie tribe.” - -The Nezpercés and Chinnooks, or Flatheads, with the Skyuse Indians, are -found near the mouth and branches of the Columbia River. Catlin thinks -the Chinnooks are related to the Choctaws, and tells a tradition of -the latter which seems to favor this opinion. The Nezpercés excited -much interest a few years ago, in consequence of a delegation which -came from them across the Rocky Mountains, saying they had heard from a -white man that the religion of the whites was better than theirs, and -they would be lost if they did not embrace it, and they came to inquire -for teachers. Missionaries were sent among them, who are said to be in -some measure successful in their efforts. - -The code of laws existing among this tribe, as given in the last report -of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, is very strict, and exhibits -a determination on the part of the people to have justice truly -administered. Murder and arson are punished with death; the burning -of an outbuilding with six months’ imprisonment, fifty lashes, and the -payment of all damages. Careless burning of a house subjects the person -doing it to the payment of damages. - -The Chiens are a small tribe, about 3,000 in number, neighbours to -the Sioux on the west. They are a fine race of men, scarcely a man in -the tribe being less than six feet in height. They are said to be the -richest in horses of any tribe on the continent, living, as they do, -where the greatest herds are grazing on the prairies; these they catch -in great numbers, and vend to the Sioux, Mandans, and other tribes, as -well as to the fur-traders. They are described as dexterous horsemen -and fierce warriors, having carried on an unceasing contest with the -Pawnees and the Blackfeet. - -The Crows are a wandering tribe, usually found in the upper plains -around the head-waters of the Great Platte, Snake, and Yellowstone -Rivers. They are variously estimated at from 5,500 to 7,000. The -general opinion seems to be, that they are the most arrant rascals -among the western mountains. The traders say, “They have never been -known to keep a promise, or do an honorable act.” No white man or -Indian trusts them. Murder and robbery are their principal employments. -Catlin is disposed to modify this view of the tribe, though he admits -that such is their reputation. He says they are distinguished for their -elegant lodges, and their beautiful skin dresses. They are always at -war with the Blackfeet, in consequence of which they suffer greatly in -battle. - -The Blackfeet are a well known numerous and warlike tribe of Indians -residing on the branches of the Missouri above the Great Falls. Various -estimates have been made of their numbers. Catlin supposes that -they may reckon as many as 40,000 or 50,000. In the year 1828, they -suffered very severely by the small-pox, which was introduced among -them in consequence of their stealing a blanket from the steamboat of -the American Fur Company on the Yellowstone, which had belonged to a -man who had died of that disease. The infected article, being carried -to their encampment upon the left fork of the Missouri, spread the -dreadful infection among the whole tribe. They were amazed at the -appearance of the disease. The red blotch, the bile, the congestion -of the lungs, liver, and brain, were all new to their medicine-men; -and the corpse, falling in pieces while they buried it, struck horror -into every heart. In their frenzy and ignorance, they increased the -number of their sweat-ovens upon the banks of the stream; and whether -the burning fever or the want of nervous action prevailed, whether -frantic with pain, or tottering in death, they were placed in them, -sweated profusely, and plunged into the snowy waters of the river. The -mortality which followed this treatment was like that of the great -plague in London. They endeavoured for a time to bury the dead, but -these were soon more numerous than the living. Mad with superstition -and fear, brother forsook sister; father his son; mother her sucking -child. They fled to the elevated vales among the western heights, where -the influences of the climate, operating on the already well-spent -energies of the disease, restored the remainder of the tribe to -health. To this hour do the bones of seven or eight thousand Blackfeet -lie unburied among the decaying lodges of their deserted village on the -banks of the Yellowstone. - -The Blackfeet are a ferocious tribe, numbering among their enemies -all the nations within their reach. They roam about, seeking their -foes wherever they are to be found. To show the hostility of the other -tribes to the Blackfeet, Catlin relates the following event as having -occurred when he was present. A party of Knistenaux came from the -north for the purpose of making their summer’s trade at the station -of one of the fur companies; and whilst there, a party of Blackfeet -came from the west, also to trade. They encamped on opposite sides of -the fort, and spent some weeks together in apparent good-fellowship, -their arms, according to the regulation at the fort, being locked up -in the arsenal. The Knistenaux had completed their trade, yet loitered -about the premises, until all, both Indians and white men, were getting -tired of their company, and wished them quietly away. When they were -ready to start, with their goods packed on their backs, their arms -were given them, and they started, bidding every body, both friends -and foes, a hearty farewell. They went out of the fort, and though the -party gradually moved off, one of them, undiscovered, loitered about, -until he got an opportunity to poke the muzzle of his gun between the -pickets. He then fired it at one of the chiefs of the Blackfeet, who -stood within a few paces, talking with Mr. McKenzie, and shot him with -two musket-bullets through his body! The Blackfeet and the Frenchmen -in the fort ran forth with their arms, and, after several shots were -exchanged, drove off the Knistenaux, they having lost one man, and -having several others wounded. - -The Blackfeet are described as of a Herculean make, though of middling -stature; they have broad shoulders, and great expansion of chest. They -probably acquired their name from the black leggins or moccasins which -they wear. They are divided into four bands or families, the Pe-a-gans, -of five hundred lodges, the Blackfoot band, of 450 lodges, the Blood -band, of 450 lodges, and the Small Robes, of 250 lodges. These four -bands comprise about 1,650 lodges, and, probably averaging ten to a -lodge, amount to about 16,500 souls. There are also, in the vicinity, -the Grosventres des Prairies, 430 lodges; Circees, of 220 lodges; and -Cotornés, of 250 lodges. These have languages distinct from each other -and from the Blackfeet, yet they seem to be their confederates, and -hunt, eat, fight, and intermarry with them. - -The Minetarees, a small tribe of about 1,500 souls, reside in three -villages, consisting of earth-covered lodges, on the banks of the Knife -River, a branch of the Missouri. This people are supposed to be a -part of the Crows, who, at some remote period, being cut off by their -enemies, and unable to return, threw themselves upon the hospitality of -the Mandans, with whom they became, in a measure, joined. In language -and customs they are said much to resemble the Crows, though they have -also become somewhat assimilated to the Mandans. They have a tradition -to the following effect. They came to the vicinity of the Mandans, -poor, and without wigwams or horses. They were nearly all women, as -their warriors had been killed off in fight; the Mandans would not take -them into their village, nor let them come nearer than where they are -now living, but they assisted them to build wigwams. - -Their chief, Black Moccasin, who treated Lewis and Clarke with great -kindness, when they crossed the Rocky Mountains, in 1819, was still -living when Catlin was among them, though probably more than a hundred -years old. Lewis and Clarke constituted him chief of the tribe, and -such has he been ever since. He remembered and inquired very earnestly -after Red Hair and Long Knife, as he called those officers, from -the fact that one had red hair and the other wore a broadsword. The -Minetarees are a bold and daring tribe, often carrying war into their -enemies’ country, and thus greatly diminishing their numbers. - -Mr. Catlin gives an account of the following scene which occurred while -he was with this tribe. “The sensation I created,” says he, “among the -Minetarees, while on the Upper Missouri, by taking from amongst my -painting apparatus an old number of the New York Commercial Advertiser, -edited by my kind and tried friend, Colonel Stone, was extraordinary. -The Minetarees thought that I was mad, when they saw me, for hours -together, with my eyes fixed upon its pages. They had different and -various conjectures about it; the most current of which was, that -I was looking at it to cure my sore eyes, and they called it ‘the -medicine-cloth for sore eyes.’ I, at length, put an end to this and -several equally ignorant conjectures, by reading passages in it, which -were interpreted to them, and the object of the paper fully explained; -after which, it was looked upon as a much greater mystery than before, -and several liberal offers were made me for it, which I was obliged to -refuse, having already received a beautifully garnished robe for it -from the hands of a young son of Esculapius, who told me, if he could -employ a good interpreter to explain every thing in it, he could travel -amongst the Minetarees, and Mandans, and Sioux, and exhibit it after I -was gone, getting rich with presents, and adding greatly to his list -of medicines, as it would make him a great medicine-man. I left with -the poor fellow his painted robe and the newspaper; and just before I -departed, I saw him unfold it to show some of his friends, when he took -from around it some eight or ten folds of birch-bark and deer-skins, -all of which were carefully enclosed in a sack made of the skin of a -polecat, and undoubtedly destined to become, and to be called, his -mystery or medicine-bag.” - -The Ricarees are esteemed a part of the tribe of the Pawnees, as their -language is nearly the same. They received Lewis and Clarke with great -cordiality; but, owing to the abuses which they have suffered from the -traders, they now harbour the most inveterate feelings of hostility -towards the whole civilized race. - -We come now to the Mandans, a tribe, a few years since, numbering about -two thousand, but who are said to be now extinct. They appear to have -been a remarkable and peculiar people, differing greatly from most -other Indians. The impression has prevailed among many individuals -who became acquainted with them, that they were the descendants of -Madoc, the Welsh chief, who is supposed to have landed on the coast -with a colony. This opinion is sustained by Mr. Catlin, who has given -a full and interesting account of the peculiarities of the nation. -He claims to have traced them up from the banks of the Ohio to their -last residence, where he found them. In support of his views, he urges -that there is a diversity of complexion among them, some being dark, -and some light; that blue and gray eyes are often met with; and that -striking resemblances to the Welsh, in language, manners, and customs, -are to be found. - -[Illustration: _The Four Bears._] - -Dr. Morse, in his Indian Report, tells us that he was informed by a -French priest at Detroit, that, in 1793, he was told at Fort Chartres, -that twelve years before, Captain Lord, who commanded at this post, -had heard some of the old people observe, that the Mandan Indians, who -visited the post, could converse intelligibly with some Welsh soldiers -in the British army. It is to be regretted that more attention was not -devoted to the solution of this interesting question, before the last -remnant of this people had become extinct. The account which Mr. Catlin -gives of their warriors shows that there were many valiant men among -them. The robe of one of their chiefs, called Mah-to-toh-pa, or the -Four Bears, by means of its pictured records, set forth that he had -been engaged in numerous encounters with the Sioux, Chiens, Ricarees, -and Assinniboins. The following is the substance of his adventures. -His brother having been killed by a noted Ricaree brave, whose spear -was found in his body, he drew out the lance and kept it four years, -with the blood dried on its blade. He then, according to an oath he -had taken, prepared to avenge his brother’s death, with the spear by -which he had fallen. Sallying forth, he brandished the weapon through -the village, uttering these words:--“Let every Mandan be silent! Let -no one sound the name of Mah-to-toh-pa; let no one ask for him, nor -where he is gone, until you hear him sound the war-cry in front of the -village; he will then enter it, and show you the blood of Won-ga-tap. -The blade of this lance shall drink the heart’s blood of Won-ga-tap, or -Mah-to-toh-pa shall mingle his shadow with that of his brother!” - -He then directed his course toward the Ricaree village. When he -approached it, he loitered about the wigwam of his destined victim, -and, looking through the chinks, observed him smoking his last pipe. He -saw him retire to bed. The village was silent, and wrapt in darkness. -He now crept softly into the lodge, and seated himself by the fire, -where he satisfied his appetite from the contents of a pot hanging -over it; he then lighted his pipe, after which, stirring up the embers -until he clearly saw his way, with lance in hand, he rose and drove it -through the body of his enemy. Snatching his scalp from his head, he -now darted from the lodge, and hurried across the prairie. The whole -village was roused, but no one knew who had dealt the blow. He ran all -night, and lay by during the day. On the sixth morning, at sunrise, he -entered his village, showing the blood of his victim dried upon his -spear, over that of his brother, while the scalp was suspended from the -handle of the weapon. - -On a certain occasion, a band of one hundred and fifty Chien warriors -made an assault on the Mandan village at early dawn, drove off a -number of horses, and took one scalp. Mah-to-toh-pa, though a young -man, yet, as one of the most valiant of his tribe, pursued with a -party of fifty. About noon of the second day, they came in sight of -the enemy. Finding them more numerous than was imagined, the Mandans -were about to return, when their young leader galloped out in front, -and, after wheeling in a circuit, plunged his lance into the ground. -The blade was driven up to the hilt. He then made another circuit, tore -from his breast his red sash, and hung it on the lance as a flag. He -now called out to the retreating Mandans, “What! have we come to this? -Have we dogged the enemy three days, and found them, now to go back -like cowards? Mah-to-toh-pa’s lance, which is red with the blood of -brave men, has led you to the sight of your enemy; it now stands firm -in the ground, where the earth will drink its owner’s blood; you may -all go back, and Mah-to-toh-pa will fight these warriors alone.” - -The Chiens had now turned back to give the Mandans battle, and their -leader, admiring the gallant conduct of Mah-lo-toh-pa, galloped forward -within hailing distance, and demanded who it was that had thus stuck -down his lance, and alone defied his enemies? The answer was, “I am -Mah-to-toh-pa, the second in command of the brave and valiant Mandans!” -The Chien chief then said, “I have heard often of Mah-to-toh-pa; he is -a great warrior. Dares he come forward and fight with me alone, while -our warriors look on?” “Is he a chief who speaks to Mah-to-toh-pa?“ was -the reply. The Chien answered, “My scalps you see hanging to my horse’s -bits; and here is my lance, with the ermine-skins and the war-eagle’s -tail.” “It is enough,” said Mah-to-toh-pa. - -The Chien chief, mounted on a fierce white horse, now made a circuit at -full gallop, and stuck his lance into the ground, leaving it standing -by the side of Mah-to-toh-pa’s, and with a red flag also waving from -it. They now drew near each other, and discharged their guns. They then -passed each other, and, as they wheeled, Mah-to-toh-pa held up his -powder-horn, and showed his antagonist that a bullet had shattered it -in pieces. He then threw aside his firelock, drew out his bow and an -arrow, and hung his shield on his left arm. The Chien did the same, and -both dashed on, sending their whizzing shafts at each other in quick -succession. Mah-to-toh-pa’s horse received an arrow through the heart, -and fell to the ground. The rider sprang to his feet, and was instantly -prepared for his antagonist. The Chien dismounted, drove back his -horse, and presented his shield, inviting the Mandan to come on. After -a few shots from the bow, the Chien held up his empty quiver, and, -dashing it with his bow and shield to the ground, drew his knife, and -brandished it aloft in air. “Yes!” cried out Mah-to-toh-pa, exultingly, -throwing away also his quiver and shield; but, on feeling for his -blade, it was missing,--he had not brought it in his belt! He had only -his bow in hand, but with this he parried the blows of his assailant, -and at last struck him to the ground. After a desperate struggle -for the knife, in which the blade was several times drawn through -Mah-to-toh-pa’s right hand, he gained possession of it, and plunged it -into the heart of the Chien. Holding it up, the Mandan claimed it as -his own, and, taking the scalp of his valiant enemy, he departed in -triumph. - -Such are some of the feats of the Four Bears. But he and his tribe are -now no more. In the summer of 1838, the small-pox, that curse of the -red race, was introduced among them by the fur-traders. The Mandans -were then surrounded by several war-parties of the Sioux, so that they -could not scatter into the plains, but were confined to their village. -The disease became so malignant, that, after a person was attacked, -death ensued in a few hours. Despair and madness seemed to seize upon -the people, and a large number destroyed themselves with knives and -guns, or by dashing out their brains in leaping headlong from a ledge -of rocks in front of their village. None thought of burying their dead, -and whole families were left in ghastly heaps in the wigwams. - -Mr. Catlin gives the following account of the melancholy fate of -Mah-to-toh-pa. “He sat in his wigwam and saw every one of his family -die about him,--his wives and his little children. He was attacked -with the disease himself, but he recovered. He then walked out, and, -passing around the village, wept over the destruction of his tribe. His -braves and warriors, whose sinewy arms once seemed to defy danger, were -now but as heaps of clay. He came back to his lodge, and covered the -bodies of his family in a pile with a number of robes; he threw another -around himself, and went out upon a hill at a little distance and sat -down. Despite the entreaties of some traders who chanced to be there, -he utterly refused to eat. He remained on the earth till the sixth -day, when, faint and exhausted, he staggered back to the village, and -entered the horrid gloom of his own wigwam. Laying his body down beside -the group of his sleeping wife and children, he drew his robe over his -face, and, lingering for three days, at last died.” - -Thus, in the course of two months, the whole tribe of Mandans perished, -with the exception of some thirty or forty, that were taken as slaves -by the Ricarees, who moved from their own abodes and took possession -of the Mandan village. This remnant of the valiant Mandans could not -endure a state of bondage. Some months after they had been reduced to -captivity, when the Ricarees were attacked by their enemies, the Sioux, -they ran out together upon the prairie, calling to the Sioux to kill -them. “We are Ricaree dogs!” said they. “Our friends are dead,--our -warriors are no more,--our villages are in the hands of strangers. We -will not, we cannot live!” Then, brandishing their weapons in a manner -to provoke the enemy, they were all cut in pieces. Not one escaped, and -the Mandans are no more. Where is there a sadder page of history than -this? - - - - -PRESENT CONDITION OF THE WESTERN INDIANS IN THE UNITED STATES. - - -From our previous pages it will be seen that numerous causes have -contributed to reduce the number of the aboriginal inhabitants of -this country, so that but a remnant are now found in the States -and Territories of this republic. By the most recent report of the -Commissioner of Indian Affairs to Congress, the following is the -estimated number of Indians in the United States. Of tribes indigenous -to the country west of the Mississippi River, 168,909; of those -removed, 82,594; present western population of the tribes wholly or -partially removed, 89,288; remaining east of the Mississippi, 22,846. - -From this it seems that there were but about 300,000 of the various -tribes specified yet remaining. But this includes only a small portion -of some of the most numerous native tribes, as, for instance, the -Blackfeet and others. - -The evils attending the proximity of the whites to the Indians, while -the latter remained within the bounds of the States, have induced the -general government to adopt the policy of their removal to an extensive -country west of the Mississippi. The measure was one which was, -indeed, attended by great present inconvenience and injustice to those -tribes which had become, in a degree, somewhat civilized, as they were -forcibly torn from their loved homes, and compelled to commence their -journey to an untried country, where they must, as it were, begin life -anew. Many perished during their march, from fatigue and disease. But -resistance was hopeless, and the only chance that remained of their -preservation, as distinct tribes, was in their consent to go; and so -they obeyed the mandate, and departed far from their ancient seats of -power, and the burial-places of their fathers. They left behind them, -in many instances, good houses, well cultivated fields, and various -improvements, which were the fruit of the labor of years; and, to the -great disgrace of the whites, they were subjected, in some cases, to -outrage and rapine, dispossessed of their property, and even wounded, -or put to death, while defending it. - -The Indian Territory, as it is called, is a tract of country bounded -on the south by the Red River, east by the States of Arkansas and -Missouri, on the north and northeast by the Missouri and Punch Rivers, -and west by the western limit of habitable country on this side of the -Rocky Mountains. This has been purchased, at various prices, of the -indigenous tribes. The soil is said to be most excellent, abounding in -fine water, timber, mines of coal, iron, and lead; at the same time, it -is the resort of numerous buffaloes, so that it seems well adapted for -the purposes to which it is destined. - -The plan adopted by the government has been by purchase to extinguish -the Indian title to those lands which they leave, give them others -within the new territory, transport them thither, and erect a portion -of their dwellings, plough and fence a part of their fields, furnish -them teachers in agriculture, and tools, horses, cattle, &c., build -school-houses and provide instructors, and make arrangements for the -support of those who have not the means at hand, at the outset, for -this purpose. - -By treaty, the lands are perpetually guarantied to them, and -stipulations have been entered into, by which they receive annual sums -of money, and other sums are also to be expended in useful articles, -and for the purposes of education. Agents are stationed among them, -who, as well as the teachers provided for them, make annual reports to -the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, who includes these documents in -his own annual report to Congress. Governments, properly constituted -by themselves, are also guarantied to them, and it is understood to -be the design to lead them to establish elective governments in each -tribe, similar to our own State governments; all to be united in a kind -of federal republic. Some of the tribes have adopted the preliminary -measure, and have already made important advances towards civilization. - -The relative position of the various tribes is as follows. Immediately -on the Red River, beginning at the south, are the Chickasaws; then -follow, in order, towards the north, the Choctaws, Seminoles, Creeks, -Cherokees, Shawanese, Senecas, Quapaws, Oneidas and Tuscaroras, -Piankeshaws and Weahs, Peorias and Kaskaskias-Shawanese, Kansas, -Delawares, Kickapoos; then, north of these, the Omahaws and Otoes, -Missouris, Pancas, and Pawnees; north of the Missouri, the Sacs and -Foxes; and west of the Peorias and Oneidas are the Osages. - -The Chickasaws have become, in a great degree, merged in the Choctaws. -Their district, called the Chickasaw District, they purchased of the -Choctaws for $530,000. By the treaty of 24th of May, 1834, it is -provided, that $3,000 shall annually, for fifteen years, be expended, -under the direction of the Secretary of War, for the education of -the Chickasaws. They are a wealthy people, having invested nearly -$2,000,000, from which they will soon receive interest; they have also -a large fund for various objects, $10,000 of which is, at the present -time, applied to the purposes of civilization. - -The Choctaw country embraces 19,200,000 acres of good soil, and some -6,000,000 more of a poorer quality. This people are said now to be -improving in civilization and comfort. They have many large farms, -and much live stock, three flouring mills, ten or twelve cotton-gins, -eighty-eight looms, and two hundred and twenty spinning-wheels. - -The Choctaw nation has adopted a written constitution, similar to that -of the United States. Their legislative body is said to transact its -business with great decorum and propriety. Their journals are kept in -the English language, but, in the progress of business, are also read -off in the Choctaw. They have four judicial districts, and the usual -officers of justice. They are likewise, says the agent among them, fast -approaching to the division of lands, and carefully seize and destroy -whisky illegally introduced among them. By the treaty of 1830, forty -Choctaw youths are to be kept at school, under the direction of the -president of the United States, for the term of twenty years. Also, the -sum of $2,500 is to be applied for the support of three teachers of -schools among them, for the same number of years. They have, likewise, -a balance of $25,000 of unexpended annuities, which is to be applied to -the support of schools at twelve different places; and, by the treaty -of 1825, they have a further annuity of $6,000, for the support of -schools. - -There are among them, as appears from the last report of the -Commissioner of Indian Affairs, fifteen teachers and four hundred -and five scholars. The missions there are under the direction of the -American Board of Commissioners at Boston, and in their last report -they state that the churches have all been enlarged, the aggregate -increase having been somewhat more than one hundred. The whole number -now connected with five churches is four hundred and seventy-one. The -number of Choctaws able to read is steadily increasing, and the demand -for books is becoming greater every year. - -The Creeks are not so well organized, in respect to their government, -as the Choctaws or Cherokees. There are two bands or parties, one under -McIntosh, the other under Little Doctor. The first of these brought -from their former home their old laws; the latter have framed theirs -since their removal. Both of them have their general councils, who -combine the legislative, executive, and judicial departments in one. -They own salt-springs, cultivate the ground, and follow other pursuits -of civilization. Many of them, also, are said to have large stocks of -cattle. Before the crops of 1837 had been gathered, it is stated that -they had sold corn to the amount of upwards of $39,000, and that vast -quantities then remained unsold; and even the emigrants, who arrived -in the country during the winter and spring previous to the harvest -of that year, broke the turf, fenced their fields, raised their crops -for the first time, and sold their surplus of corn for $10,000. By the -treaty of the 6th of March, 1832, it is stipulated that an annuity of -$3,000 shall be expended by the United States, under the direction of -the president, for twenty years, in the education of their children. -Besides this, $1,000, by the treaty of the 14th of February, 1833, is -to be annually expended, during the pleasure of Congress, for the same -object. A great number of the Creeks, and of the Seminoles who are now -merged in that tribe, died on the way, or shortly after their removal -to the Indian Territory. - -The Cherokees have probably made the greatest advances in civilization -of any of the Indian nations on our western border. They own numerous -salt-springs, which are worked by themselves, and in which they -manufacture, it is said, one hundred bushels of salt, daily. They -also own two lead-mines. The eastern portion of their country, which -embraces the settlements, contains about 2,500,000 acres. They have a -large stock of cattle, wagons, ploughs, looms, and spinning-wheels; -their lands are well inclosed with rail-fences; and they have -comfortable log-houses, with stone chimneys and plank floors, which are -well furnished. They have, likewise, seven native merchants, and one -regular physician. - -Their settled country is divided into four districts, each of which, -every two years, elects two members of the national council, which is -called “The General Council of the Cherokee Nation.” They have three -chiefs, whose approval is necessary for the passage of a law; though -an act, notwithstanding their veto, may be passed by a vote of two -thirds of the council. They have, also, judicial, and other appropriate -officers. By the treaty of the 6th of May, 1823, it is stipulated that -the United States shall pay, annually, $2,000 for ten years, to be -expended, under the direction of the president, in the education of -their children, in their own country, in letters and the mechanic arts; -also, $1,000 towards the purchase of a printing-press and types. By -the treaty of December 29, 1835, the sum of $150,000 is provided for -the support of common schools, and such a literary institution, of a -higher order, as may be established in the Indian country. To this is -also added an education fund of $50,000, making, in all, a permanent -school-fund of $200,000, only the interest of which is used. - -From the last report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, it -appears that the Cherokees are steadily advancing in knowledge and -civilization. Many of them are said to be men of decided talents and -learning. The constitution and laws of the nation are printed and -circulated among the people. Education is popular among them, and it -is probable that they will adopt the suggestion of the agent in their -territory, and divide their lands into farms, as individual property. -Some unhappy feuds have existed, and, to a certain degree, still -exist among them, which have resulted in the death of two or three of -their prominent men, especially John Ridge and Elias Boudinot. Their -principal chief is John Ross, a man of fine appearance, of considerable -ability, and a gentleman. - -According to the last report of the American Board of Commissioners, -the mission among the Cherokees consists of eighteen persons. There are -five churches, comprising two hundred and thirty members, twenty-six -of whom have been added within a few months. The temperance society -organized there reckons among its members at least 1,560 Cherokees. - -One of the most remarkable events in the history of this people is the -invention of a Cherokee alphabet, by George Guess, a native Cherokee. -In the account of the mission, this alphabet is said to furnish, -probably, the most perfect orthography in the world. There has been -a paper published in the Cherokee nation, partly in the English, -and partly in the native language, and edited with considerable -ability. Three presses are employed by the mission in printing books, -principally for this tribe, though some are struck off in other -languages. Since 1835, besides the Gospels of John and Matthew, and the -Epistles of John, there have been printed, at one press, not less than -thirty-two different works, nearly all of which were above twenty pages -each, making an aggregate of upwards of 2,000,000 pages. The whole -number of pages printed among the Cherokees since 1828, as appears by -the last report of the American Board, is 4,725,000. - -Five schools, under the care of the mission, contain about one hundred -and sixty Cherokee children. - -Some interesting cases of improvement have occurred among this nation, -on which, were there space for it, it would be pleasing to dwell. -The Cherokees bid fair, if no untoward events occur, to realize the -most sanguine expectations of their friends. Much sympathy has been -excited for them, at various periods, during the last thirty years, -and especially when they were driven from their loved homes, and the -territory guarantied to them by so many treaties; and words of burning -eloquence were called forth from some of the most eloquent speakers -in the halls of Congress, in depicting the injustice and cruelty with -which they have been treated. It is to be hoped that the experiment -they are now making may be permitted to go on to its completion, -without any further invasions of their rights and happiness. - -Besides these principal tribes, who are deriving benefit from -missionaries and schools among them, there are missionary stations -among the Pawnees, the Sioux, Shawanese, Ottawas, Potawatomies, and -other tribes. By treaty, large portions of land, or annual sums, have -been set apart for the purposes of education, agriculture, and such -other aids to their civilization as appear most desirable. The aversion -to labor among some of these nations is said to be gradually wearing -off, and idolatry and superstition are becoming eradicated. They still -retain their ancient forms of government by chiefs. - -The Stockbridge Indians, within the limits of Wisconsin, have recently -been admitted to the rights of citizenship, and during the last winter -(1843-44) the Ottawas within the State of Michigan have petitioned -the legislature of that State for the same privilege. Many interesting -particulars respecting the state of the schools and missions among the -several Indian tribes, and their present prospects, may be found in -the reports of the various missionaries and agents of government, some -of which are also appended to the report of the Commissioner of Indian -Affairs, annually submitted to Congress. - -From all these sources we derive the hope, that a more successful -experiment is to be made respecting the aborigines of our country than -has ever before been attempted, and that the time may soon arrive when -they shall be allowed to form a State of this vast republic. The wrongs -they have suffered demand the best reparation which a Christian nation -can make; and the prayer of many a pious and sympathizing heart is -daily breathed forth, that they may henceforth be permitted, without -molestation, to learn and practise the virtues of peace, cheered and -encouraged in every honest endeavour to do well. - -Such, then, as we have attempted to sketch it, is the history of the -aborigines of America. It is sad to reflect that so many pages of it -have been written, as it were, in blood, and that such multitudes have -perished in the vain attempt to resist outrage and oppression. - - - - -THE PROSPECTS OF THE WESTERN TRIBES. - - -Columbus, speaking of the American Indians, said:--“I swear to your -Majesties that there is not a better people in the world; they love -their neighbours as themselves; their language is the sweetest, -softest, and most cheerful, for they always speak smiling; and, -although they go naked, let your Majesties believe me, their customs -are very becoming; and their king, who is served with great majesty, -has such engaging manners, that it gives great pleasure to see him; and -also to consider the great retentive faculty of that people, and their -desire of knowledge, which incites them to ask the causes and effects -of things.” - -After the dark and bloody account we have given of the history of the -Indians,--especially those within the compass of our own country,--we -may smile at the flattering picture presented by the discoverer of the -New World. But we must consider that the natives of the West Indies, -of whom Columbus speaks, were the mildest portion of the great Indian -family; and, besides, at the time to which he refers, they had not -become exasperated by the repeated and cruel wrongs of the Europeans. - -In estimating the native capacities of the aborigines, and especially -their fitness for civilization, we must take into consideration the -long train of influences which has been moulding them, for centuries, -into their present condition. The history of Peru, as well as that of -Mexico, abundantly proves that a portion of them had an aptitude for -improvement, evinced by the progress they made in various arts; and -it may be added, that, under the instructions of Eliot and Mayhew, -even the tribes of New England, regarded as among the most savage and -irredeemable, made rapid strides in Christianity and the peaceful arts -of civilized life. - -If, therefore, in our picture of these Northern nations, we have been -called upon to delineate them chiefly as warriors, revelling in blood, -and delighting in the terrific scenes of slaughter, pillage, and -conflagration, it must not be inferred that such is their intrinsic and -necessary character. An experiment is, indeed, now making, on a large -scale, and under favorable auspices, having for its object to bring -them into the family of civilized man; and in our view of the present -condition of the Indians in the United States, we have exhibited the -hopeful advances already made by some of the tribes in refinement and -the Christian virtues. - -The question, then, as to the possibility of civilizing the Indians -within our borders, seems, at first view, to be favorably determined. -The subject is one of deep interest, and claims the attention of -enlightened minds throughout our republic. Our ancestors have inflicted -fearful wrongs upon this race; for centuries, their blood has cried -to heaven for vengeance. Nor is our own generation free from similar -guilt, or similar accountability. But besides the deep debt thus -incurred, and which, in this age of light, we should be earnest to -discharge in behalf of the remnants of these people, their numbers are -still considerable, and, from their own importance in this point of -view, they may well claim the attention of the philanthropist. - -And there is still another aspect in which this subject becomes one -of deep interest. The tribes within the Indian Territory can now -muster fifty thousand warriors. They have a fine country, and, in the -aggregate, possess a considerable amount of property. Stretching along -our defenceless western frontier, they may render themselves indeed -formidable, whenever they choose to combine against us. They have -horses in abundance, and can transfer themselves, with the fleetness -of the Arab, from one point to another. They have fire-arms, in -addition to the spear, the bow and arrow, and the tomahawk. They have, -contiguous to them, the Camanches on the south, and numerous other -tribes on the north and west. These can easily be made their allies, in -case of need. - -The position of these tribes is, therefore, one of great strength. Let -us now consider that their minds must be full of bitter remembrances -towards our people. The story of Philip, Sassacus, and Logan may -not have descended in their traditions to the present day, but the -general story of their race is familiar to them all. When Keokuck -replied to Governor Everett in the State-house in Boston, in 1837, he -said he had been told by the old men of his tribe, that the ancestors -of the Indians once owned and occupied the lands to the shores of -the Atlantic. It must be a familiar fact to the Indians, from the -Mississippi to the borders of the Pacific, that they were lords of -this continent, and that the white man has dispossessed them of their -inheritance. They must not only know this general truth, but they must -also know and deeply feel the violence and injustice of that process by -which their nations have been wasted, and the inheritance, which God, -and nature, and their ancestors had bequeathed to them, was wrenched -from their hands. - -The particular experience of many of them must also contribute to -increase their store of bitter recollections. The fate of Tecumseh is -familiar to many of them, for those still live who fought by his side. -The story of the Everglades, and the doom of Osceola, must be often -repeated by those who participated in the scenes of the late Florida -war. The bloodhounds, imported from Cuba to hunt them down in the -thickets, will be introduced to give effective coloring to the picture -of suffering, to embitter the feeling of indignation, and, if need be, -to rouse the soul to acts of retribution. - -While, therefore, the tribes are now placed by treaty within the Indian -territory, and are adopting, by degrees, the arts of civilization, -under the auspices of the United States, it must be remembered that -they are there not willingly, and that they have carried with them the -long accumulated remembrances of their painful history. - -“I yield,” said Weatherford to General Jackson, “by necessity, not by -choice. My warriors are dead; my people slain; it is vain to resist; -but if I had an army, I would still be in the field against you.” It -is with such a feeling that many of the tribes have retired to their -present abodes; and can we doubt that there is many a daring and -independent soul among them, that would rejoice in the opportunity -to balance the heavy reckoning which stands summed up in their minds -against us? - -It has often happened that the wrath of man has been made to work out -the will of Providence. Who can tell that the time is not yet to come, -in which these Indian tribes shall wreak signal vengeance upon us, -and furnish another lesson to the world, in assurance of the fact, -that, in the history of nations, great crimes are usually followed, -sooner or later, by adequate retribution? It seems evident that this -concentration of the Indian tribes in the West must issue in great -events,--either in their civilization, and their final accession, as -citizens, to our republic, or in future struggles, in which their power -will be made the instrument of chastising our country for its former -course of injustice. - -In this case, there is but one line of conduct for us to pursue, and -that is alike dictated by policy and right feeling. Let us do all in -our power to bestow upon these three hundred thousand Indians the -benefits of our own religion and civilization, and prepare them, as -speedily as may be, to come within the fold of our own government, -as members of the Union. Let us do this in atonement for former -aggression, as a measure of future safety, and as the obvious dictate -of common philanthropy. - -Let us not permit the common suggestion, that the Indian is incapable -of receiving the benefits of civilization, to hinder us from adopting -this course. Upon what basis does this idea of Indian character rest? -Upon no better foundation, we apprehend, than prejudice,--and a -prejudice, too, inculcated, if not engendered, by the desire of finding -apologies for the harsh and desolating policy which has been pursued -toward the race. The Indians are incorrigible,--therefore let them be -swept away. This is the ready logic of those who wish to possess their -lands, or who desire to excuse acts of plunder and aggression. - -Let us not adopt conclusions too hastily in this important matter. If, -hitherto, many of the efforts to civilize the Indians have failed, -we must not thence infer that they have a nature which excludes them -for ever from the fold of civilization. May there not be some defect -in the means, some error in the mode, adopted to instruct them? and -cannot we better account for failure in this way, than by resorting to -a supposition which seems to impugn the wisdom and benevolence of the -Creator? - -In considering the possibility of civilizing the Indians, the author -of the splendid work on “The History of the North American Tribes -of Indians,” &c., makes the following just and appropriate remarks: -“We consider the question to be, not whether the Indian intellect is -endowed with the capacity to receive civilization, but whether his -savage nature can be so far conciliated, as to make him a fair subject -of the benevolent effort. The question is, not as to the possibility -of eradicating his ferocity, or giving steadiness to his erratic -habits, but as to the practicability of bringing to bear upon him the -influences by which his evil propensities and his waywardness must -be subdued. The wild ass may be tamed into the most docile of the -servants of man; the difficulty is in catching him, in placing him -under the influence of the process of training. Whenever the bridle -is placed upon his head, the work is done; all the rest follows with -the certainty of cause and effect; in the contest between the man and -the brute, between intellect and instinct, the latter must submit. So -it is between the civilized and savage man. The difficulties to be -overcome are the distance by which the races are separated, and the -repulsion which impedes their approach. There is no sympathy between -the refinement of the civilized man and the habits of the savage; -nor any neutral ground, upon which they can meet and compromise away -their points of difference. They are so widely separated in the scale -of being, as to have no common tastes, habits, or opinions; they -meet in jealousy and distrust; disgust and contempt attend all their -intercourse, and the result of their contact is oppression and war. -And why? The repulsive principle is never overcome; the attraction -of sympathy is never established. The parties do not gaze upon each -other patiently and long enough to be reconciled to their mutual -peculiarities, and sit together in peace until they become acquainted. -The habit of enduring each other’s manners is not established, nor the -good-fellowship which results from pacific intercourse, even between -those who are widely separated by character and station.” - -Here the great obstacle to the instruction of the Indian tribes is -clearly stated; let this be removed, and we have little doubt that -we shall soon have to regard the current opinion of their obduracy -as founded in error. The circumstances in which these people are now -placed,--large bodies of them having made considerable advances in many -of the arts of civilized life, having adopted regular governments, -holding pacific intercourse with the United States, and enjoying the -ministration of zealous and faithful missionaries among them,--are -favorable to the making of one more experiment for their redemption, -and this, too, with the important advantage of a good understanding -between them and their teachers. - -As to the capacity of the aborigines for civilization, we have little -doubt. We have already hinted at the successes of Eliot, Mayhew, and -the Moravians, in Christianizing some of the most savage tribes; and -it would be easy to add other facts of the same nature, and tending to -the same point. We could also set before the reader numerous incidents, -which show that the Indian character is by no means destitute of the -finest elements which belong to human nature. - -The affecting story of Totapia, a Choctaw mother, known to the whites -by the name of Jenny, related by the Rev. Dr. Morse in his Report, -exhibits a touching example of the strength and sensibility of maternal -affection in the Indian woman, which, in a Roman or Grecian matron, -would have been rendered immortal by the poet and historian. She was -the widow of a Choctaw, who, having slain one of his own tribe, was -pursued by the relatives of the deceased, and put to death, according -to the Indian law. After the death of her husband, she settled near -St. Francisville, in Louisiana, where she lived reputably, with four or -five children, of whom Hoctanlubbie, or Soue, her son, was the eldest. - -At the age of twenty-five, her son murdered an old Indian, for which -act, according to the unalterable law of the nation, his life was -demanded, and he was sentenced to die. The day of his execution was -fixed and had arrived, and the relatives and friends of the murdered, -with others, a mingled throng, were assembled after their usual manner, -and all things were ready for inflicting the sentence of the law. At -this moment of strong and mingled feeling, Jenny, the mother, pressed -through the crowd to the spot where her son stood by the instruments -prepared to take from him his life. She then addressed the chiefs and -the company, demanding the life of her son, and offering in its stead -her own. Her plea was this: “He is young; he has a wife, children, -brothers, and sisters, all looking to him for counsel and support. I am -old; I have only a few days to live, at most; I can do but little more -for my family. Nor is it strictly just, it is rather a shame, _to take -a new chief for an old one_.” - -The magnanimous offer of the devoted mother was accepted, and a few -hours were allowed her to prepare for death. She repaired immediately -to the house of a lady, Mrs. T., who had been her kind and liberal -friend, and, without divulging what had occurred, said she came to beg -a winding-sheet and coffin for her son. Not suspecting the arrangement -of Totapia to preserve her son, the lady acceded to her request. When -asked in relation to the length of the coffin and grave-clothes, the -Choctaw mother replied, “Make them to suit my size, and they will -answer for my son.” - -Soon after Jenny had left Mrs. T. for the camp, where all things were -ready for her execution, a messenger arrived in haste, and informed -Mrs. T. of what was passing in the camp, and that Jenny was immediately -to die. She hastened to the scene, with the intention of rescuing -her; but Jenny, the moment she saw her carriage coming at a distance, -imagining, doubtless, what her object was, standing in her grave, -caught the muzzle of the gun, the prepared instrument of her death, -and, pointing it to her heart, entreated the executioner to do his -duty. He obeyed, and she fell dead! - -We are not told how it happened that the son suffered his mother to die -for him, or whether he could have prevented it. It seems, however, that -he was despised for permitting it, and that his own conscience goaded -him. The friends of the old man whom he had murdered taunted him, “You -coward, you let your mother die for you; you are afraid to die.” Unable -to endure all this, he stabbed a son of his former victim, but not -until five years had elapsed since the death of his mother. - -He returned home with indications of triumph, brandishing his bloody -knife, and, without waiting for inquiry, confessed what he had done. He -told his Indian friends that he would not live to be called a coward. -“I have been told,” he said, “that I fear to die. Now you shall see -that I can die like a man.” A wealthy planter, whose house he passed, -he invited to see how he could die. This was on Sunday. Monday, at -twelve o’clock, was the day he appointed for his self-immolation. -Here a scene was presented which baffles all description. Soue walked -forward and backward again, still keeping in his hand the bloody -knife. With all his efforts to conceal it, he discovered marks of an -agitated mind. The sad group present consisted of about ten men and as -many females; the latter with sorrowful countenances were employed in -making an overshirt for Soue’s burial. The men, all except two of his -brothers, were smoking their pipes with apparent unconcern. Several -times, Soue examined his gun, and remained silent. His grave had been -dug the day before, and he had laid himself down in it, to see if it -suited as to length and breadth. - -No one had demanded his death; for all who were interested, and felt -their honor concerned in it, resided at a distance of thirty or forty -miles. The death-song was repeated, as was also the shaking of hands. -Both were again repeated the third and last time. Immediately after, -Soue stepped up to his wife, a young woman of eighteen, with an infant -in her arms, and another little child, two or three years old, standing -by her side, and presented to her the bloody knife, which, till now, he -had kept in his hand. She averted her face to conceal a falling tear, -but, recovering herself, with a forced smile, took it. His sister was -sitting by the side of his wife, wholly absorbed in grief, apparently -insensible to what was passing, her eyes vacant, and fixed on some -distant object. His pipe he gave to a young brother, who struggled hard -to conceal his emotions. He then drank a little whisky and water, -dashed the bottle on the ground, sung a few words in the Choctaw -language, and, with a jumping, dancing step, hurried to his grave. His -gun was so fixed by the side of a young sapling as to enable him to -take his own life. No one, he had declared, should take it from him. - -These preparations and ceremonies being now complete, he gave the -necessary touch to the apparatus, the gun was discharged, and its -contents passed through his heart. He instantly fell dead to the earth. -The females sprang to the lifeless body. Some held his head, others -his hands and feet, and others knelt at his side. He had charged them -to show no signs of grief, while he lived, lest it should shake his -resolution; as far as possible, they obeyed. Their grief was restrained -until he was dead; it then burst forth in a torrent, and their shrieks -and lamentations were loud and undissembled. - -In the midst of the unnumbered wrongs which the Southern Indians have -received at our hands, it gives us pleasure to record an act of justice -toward an interesting Choctaw girl; while, at the same time, the -incident which led to it is pertinent to our present purpose, which is, -to show the amiable qualities which belong to the savages even in the -untutored state. - -“The Committee on Indian Affairs, in the late House of Representatives, -reported a bill allowing a pension for life to Milly, an Indian woman -of the Creek tribe, daughter of the celebrated prophet and chief, -Francis, who was executed by order of General Jackson, in the Seminole -war of 1817-18. The subject was brought to the notice of the Committee -by the Secretary of War, at the instance of Lieutenant-colonel -Hitchcock, who communicated the particulars of the incident upon which -the recommendation to the favor of the government was founded. - -“Milly, at the age of sixteen, when her nation was at war with -the United States, and her father was one of the most decided and -indefatigable enemies of the white people, saved the life of an -American citizen, who had been taken prisoner by her tribe. The captive -was bound to a tree, and the savage warriors, with their rifles, were -dancing around him, preparatory to putting him to death. The young -Indian girl, filled with pity for the devoted prisoner, besought her -father to spare him; but the chief declined to interfere, saying, -that the life of the prisoner was in the hands of his captors, whose -right it was to put him to death. She then turned to the warriors, and -implored them to forbear their deadly purpose; but she was repulsed, -and one of them, much enraged, told her that he had lost two sisters -in the war, and that the prisoner must die. Her intercession, however, -continued; she persevered in entreaties, and used all the arts of -persuasion which her woman’s nature suggested; and she finally -succeeded in saving his life, on condition that the young white man -should adopt the Indian dress, and become one of the tribe. - -“It appears from the information communicated by Colonel Hitchcock, -that, some time after this event, the white man sought his benefactress -in marriage, but she declined, and subsequently married one of her own -people. Her husband is now dead. Her father was put to death in the -war of 1817-18, and her mother and sister have since died. She is now -friendless and poor, residing among her people in their new country, -near the Verdigris River. She has three children, a boy and two girls, -all too young to provide for themselves, and, consequently, dependent -upon their mother for support. - -“The Committee thought that the occasion presented by this case was -a suitable one, not only to reward a meritorious act, but also to -show to the Indian tribes how mercy and humanity are appreciated by -the government. The grant of a pension, with a clear exposition of -the grounds of its allowance, would have a salutary influence, it -was believed, upon savage customs in future. A bill was accordingly -reported, to allow to Milly a pension of ninety-six dollars _per -annum_, or eight dollars a month, for life.” - -In connection with this detail, we may remind the reader of Pocahontas, -who, with proper education, had doubtless proved an ornament to the -most exalted station; and we may also relate, at length, the story of -Attakullakulla and Captain Stewart, to which we have adverted in the -preceding pages. - -Fort Loudon, on the River Tennessee, was situated five hundred miles -from Charleston, and there were few towns between. It was built in -1756, for the purpose of preventing the encroachments of the French, -who used to steal down from Canada, and annoy the white English -inhabitants, who were forming settlements in that part of the country. -At the same time, it was a safeguard against the Indians, numerous -tribes of whom lived round about. These Indians, at all times savage -and cruel, were particularly hostile to the whites, and the more so as -they perceived them forming establishments in their neighbourhood. - -In the abovementioned fort, at the time our account commences, there -were but few soldiers. This fact the Indians by some means discovered, -and they determined to make an attack upon it, and, if possible, to -massacre the garrison. - -The plan was conducted, as usual, with much secrecy and cunning, and, -before the soldiers were aware, the fort was surrounded by a large -number of savages, thirsting for their blood. The fort was strong, -however, the gates were shut, and the Indians found it impossible to -enter. But they could watch it. They might, perhaps, in time, force the -garrison to surrender, because their provisions could not last always. -A guard was, therefore, constantly kept round about, and so vigilant -were they, that not a single white man durst venture abroad, nor could -any come to their assistance. - -For a time, the provisions in the fort held out; but, at length, the -soldiers were obliged to resort to the flesh of their horses and dogs, -which, by reason of scanty food, had dwindled away nearly to skeletons. -For two long months, they bore up under the pressure of confinement -and stinted fare. The enemy that surrounded them, they well knew, were -at all times ferocious; but they would be doubly so now, having become -exasperated by watching for so long a period. - -The soldiers had stout hearts and good courage; but, at length, they -told the officers that they could hold out no longer. Upon this, the -latter came together, and, after due consultation, it was agreed -to surrender, and to obtain the best terms of capitulation from the -Indians they were able. - -There was one man among them whom the Indians esteemed,--Captain -Stewart. He was accordingly selected to inform the enemy that they had -held out sufficiently long, and were willing to surrender, provided -they could make suitable terms. The Indians replied, that they might -march out with their guns and a little powder and shot, but that -the fort must be surrendered that very day; adding, that they would -accompany them to Fort George, where their white brethren lived. - -As these were better terms than they expected, the English officers did -not hesitate to accept them. They marched out accordingly, and speedily -set out upon their journey for Fort George. It was noon when they left -the fort, and night before they halted. - -Wearied with their toilsome march, they soon laid themselves down to -rest. Just as they were doing this, they perceived that the whole -body of Indians were leaving them. The object of this movement they -were unable to explain; but, well knowing the cunning and artifice of -the savage warriors, they could sleep no more. A few, perhaps more -weary than the others, dozed occasionally for a few minutes; but the -painful state of anxiety, in which they were, made their sleep short -and unrefreshing. Several hours passed in this state of suspense; but, -as no Indians came near them, they began to indulge the hope that the -enemy had left them, to return no more. They, therefore, generally laid -themselves down, and one after another, sunk into a sound sleep. - -About the dawn of day, one of the men, who had been placed as a guard, -came running in great haste to inform them that a large body of Indians -were secretly approaching. The alarm was instantly given, and the men -were ordered to stand to their arms. The summons, however, was so -sudden, and the terror so universal, that not a single soldier had his -gun loaded when the tremendous war-whoop broke upon them. The onset of -the savages upon this comparatively feeble and unprepared band was so -furious that resistance was vain. Some were killed, and the rest were -taken prisoners. Captain Stewart had his hands tied behind him, and, at -the head of the others, was led back to the fort. - -On their arrival, an Indian chief, taking Captain Stewart by the hand, -conducted him to his own hut, unbound his arms, and fed him from his -own bowl. This was Attakullakulla. A few days after, the Indians held -a great council as to the disposal of the prisoners. The chiefs were -all present, and, though some differed for a time from others, they -finally agreed to send for Captain Stewart, and inform him that they -were about to attack Fort George. “You and your men,” said they to -him, “will accompany us. You will fight with us. This is the result of -our talk. You must do more,” added they. “Write to the captain of Fort -George; tell him of our coming; tell him, that, if he surrenders the -fort peaceably, it is well; if not, we will strip his friend Captain -Stewart, and burn him before his eyes!” - -Captain Stewart, finding no alternative, sat down, and, in the presence -of the savages, wrote the letter required; but he thought within -himself, that, before he would fight against his brethren, he would -undergo the pains even of savage torture. On returning home, he said to -Attakullakulla, “You are my friend; you have shown your friendship in -the hour of danger and of trial. Now can you show it again? I cannot -fight my brethren. I must escape, or I must die.” - -Attakullakulla replied, “I have been your friend once; I will be so -again. You must not fight your brethren. The red men must not kill you. -Come with me, and I will take you far from the reach of the bloody -tomahawk.” - -Before the next morning, Attakullakulla and Captain Stewart were far on -their journey in the depths of the wilderness. By day, they travelled -with great expedition, and at night slept upon the open ground. The -sun and moon served as guides to the sagacious Indian chief; and as -they kept on, over hills and mountains, valleys and rivers, Captain -Stewart wondered where their journey would end. On the fourteenth day, -they saw fires at a distance, and they knew men were near. They soon -met a party of soldiers, who informed them that they were in Virginia, -and that this was the camp of Colonel Bird. They told them to go on -further, where they would see the colonel himself. When they came up -with this officer, Captain Stewart introduced himself and his Indian -friend to him. He was delighted to hear of the captain’s escape, and -was much pleased with the friendship which the Indian had shown to the -white man. “This,” said he, “is true friendship, which shows itself in -action, not in words.” - -When Attakullakulla said he must depart that night, the two officers -begged him to remain with them for a few days. But the old man said, -“No.” Finding that he could not be persuaded, they loaded him with -presents of all kinds, and, bidding him farewell, saw him depart for -his home. On his return to his tribe, he met some soldiers, who told -him they had been sent from Fort George, the place which the Indians -were going to attack. They said that the captain of Fort George had -received their letter, and had heard that they were coming to fight -him. But he desired Attakullakulla to inform his brethren that they -must not come to Fort George, for there was much powder and ball buried -in holes around the fort, to blow up any enemies who might venture too -near; and that, if they dared to approach, they would certainly be -blown in pieces. - -Attakullakulla promised the soldiers that he would tell the Indians -of this, and again proceeded on his way. On reaching Fort Loudon, he -called the chiefs together, and told them of the message the white man -had sent to them. They were much frightened when they heard of the -powder and shot, and blessed the Good Spirit that he had not permitted -them to attack the fort, as they must all have been killed. - -But to return to Captain Stewart. Now that he had himself escaped, he -began to think of the poor soldiers whom he had left in captivity. For -a time, he could hear nothing of their fate, and was in doubt whether -his escape might not have led to the massacre of them all. But, at -length, he had the pleasure to know, by means of one who had escaped -like himself, that they were alive, though still in captivity. Upon -this intelligence, he collected such articles as he thought would -be acceptable to the Indians, beads, buttons, red belts, &c., and -begged him to divide them among the chiefs, and to ask that their -white prisoners might be sent to him in return. The presents proved -acceptable to the Indians, and, in the fulness of their joy, they -said they must send something in return to their friend, Captain -Stewart; but for an appropriate present they were quite at a loss. -Attakullakulla told them he could help them out of their difficulty, -and now informed them of the request of Captain Stewart. To this they -unanimously assented, and forthwith communicated to their prisoners -that they were at liberty. - -The joy of the prisoners need not be told. Under the guidance of -the man whom Captain Stewart had sent with the presents, they were -conducted in safety to Fort George, where they had the pleasure to -meet, once more, their friend and benefactor, Captain Stewart himself, -and to thank him, in person, for his kind remembrance of them in the -land of their captivity. - -These, and numerous other instances that might be cited, show that -boldness and cunning are not the only qualities of the Indian, but -that, in possessing the nobler attributes of kindness, generosity, and -friendship, he may often challenge our respect and admiration. Of the -capacity of the Western tribes for civilization, it indeed seems that -there can be no reasonable doubt. - -What, then, is to be done, to aid them in taking advantage of their -present condition for improvement? Let our government pursue toward -them a conciliating policy; and, while maintaining their present -relations, do all in their power to secure the confidence and good -will of these tribes. - -One of the greatest difficulties lies in conquering the love of war -and the chase, a passion, which, once indulged, is apt to engross the -whole soul. The tame pursuits of agriculture seem tasteless, if not -revolting, to those who have been accustomed to mingle in the stormy -excitements of savage life. But this difficulty may still be overcome. -Let the master spirits of the tribe be taught that the war-path is -no longer the road to distinction, and they will soon seek it in -some other way. To use the words of the author before quoted on this -subject,--“The season for political competition not having yet arrived, -the only means of distinction would be wealth; and the glory of -accumulating the bloody trophies of the battle-field would be exchanged -for the boast of broad fields and numerous herds. The few, possessed -of prudence and foresight, or desiring eminence, would see at once the -advantages of agriculture, and would become farmers. The example would -be salutary, and one after another would desire to possess the comforts -and independence which crown the labors of the husbandman. The best -and most influential men would be the first to lead the way in this -reformation; and every man who became a farmer would be a powerful -advocate of the cause, because it would be his interest to diminish the -number of the idle and non-producing, who must depend on the public for -subsistence, or disturb the peace by crime and violence. - -“To hasten this result, to hold out a reward for industry, and to -provide for a more advanced civilization than that which we have been -contemplating, it should be provided, that, whenever an Indian should -have actually become a farmer, and should, for a specified number of -years, have tilled the soil, a tract of land should be granted to -him, the title to which should be a life-estate to himself, and a fee -simple to his descendants. By this provision, portions of land would be -converted into private property, and the remainder might be vested in -the nation, whenever they should have a government capable of properly -disposing of it. - -“In this way, the Indian might be allured by his interest, and led to -self-elevation. We would deprive him of his natural liberty only so -long as should be necessary to bring about that lucid interval in which -he would become sensible of his true condition, and apprized of the -means held out for his redemption; and we would leave it to himself to -seek out his own further advancement in his own way. In this, we should -pursue the plan of Nature. The primitive nations were not precociously -instructed by their Creator in the whole circle of human knowledge; -but it was left for them and their descendants to discover gradually -the wealth and resources of the world beneficently given them, and to -increase in learning by an easy and healthful gradation. - -“The attempt to civilize the roving bands by reason, by the mere -force of truth, or by any abstract sense of duty, has always been, -and will continue to be, abortive. The physical impediments must -first be removed. Among white men, Christianity, literature, and the -arts have never flourished during a period of anarchy or civil war. -In those countries where the peasantry are oppressed, and have no -rights, property, or education, they are degraded and ferocious; and -if the passions of their savage nature are not developed in deeds of -courage, it is because they are bridled by the strong arm of power. If -we trace the nations of Europe from their former state of barbarism to -their present moral elevation, we shall find the same causes to have -always operated. The first step has always been the acquisition of -permanent habitations, and the consequent love of country and of home. -Domestic comforts warmed into life the social virtues. The possession -of property followed, and then personal and civil rights, one after -another, were conceived. Then emancipation from their chiefs ensued, -and political rights began to be demanded. The state of war became -inconvenient. It was now the interest of the honest and industrious -to protect themselves against plunder and violence; and the deeds -of murder and robbery ceased to be heroic. Commerce between nations -softened prejudice, produced the interchange of commodities, encouraged -the arts, and enlarged the stock of knowledge. And lastly, hand in -hand, came education and religion. - -“The ministers of the gospel and the schoolmaster have been powerful -agents in these changes, but they have never marched in the van. They -form an efficient corps in the main body; but their business is, to -secure and improve the acquisitions which bone and muscle, and skill -and courage have obtained. As the rifle and the axe must first subdue -the forest, before the husbandman can cultivate the soil, so must the -strong arm of the government produce peace, enforce obedience, and -organize a system of civil rights and restraints, before the mild -precepts of the gospel, and the fructifying streams of knowledge, can -be made to pervade the wilderness, and teach the desert to blossom as -the rose.” - -With these suggestions we dismiss this subject, in the hope that it -will attract the serious attention, not only of the government, but of -the people of the United States; and that a course will be pursued, in -respect to these remnants of the American tribes, alike dictated by -prudence, justice, and general benevolence. - -[Illustration] - - - - - * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber’s note: - -Original spellings, including any variations (i.e. skillful and -skilful), have been retained, except in the cases of the following -typographical errors. - -Page 23, “firmanent” changed to “firmament.” (had sailed out of the -crystal firmament) - -Page 25, “spices” changed to “species.” (abounding with species and -odoriferous trees) - -Page 92, “no” changed to “not.” (not part of Pizarro’s plan) - -Page 98, “divsions” changed to “divisions.” (Each of these great -divisions) - -Page 105, “moistture” changed to “moisture.” (his men from the extreme -moisture) - -Page 145, “earnage” changed to “carnage.” (fearful scene of blood and -carnage) - -Page 162, “Apalachians” changed to “Appalachians.” (Cherokees, -Appalachians, Catawbas) - -Page 163, “souththern” changed to “southern.” ( desolating the southern -frontiers) - -Page 210, “skocking” changed to “shocking.” (are too shocking for -detail) - -Page 238, “everglades” changed to “Everglades.” (Here, in the -Everglades) - -Page 259, “ove” changed to “over.” (and triumph over their enemies) - -Page 259, “throngh” changed to “through.” (rushed through the crowd) - -Page 289, “instructers” changed to “instructors.” (build school-houses -and provide instructors) - -Page 298, “vengeace” changed to “vengeance.” (cried to heaven for -vengeance) - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE INDIANS, OF NORTH AND -SOUTH AMERICA*** - - -******* This file should be named 54266-0.txt or 54266-0.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/5/4/2/6/54266 - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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