diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/54208-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/54208-0.txt | 1199 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 1199 deletions
diff --git a/old/54208-0.txt b/old/54208-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 8f7fd9f..0000000 --- a/old/54208-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1199 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Standard Measures of United States, Great -Britain and France, by Arthur S. C. Wurtele - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Standard Measures of United States, Great Britain and France - History and actual comparisons with appendix on introduction - of the mètre - -Author: Arthur S. C. Wurtele - -Release Date: February 19, 2017 [EBook #54208] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STANDARD MEASURES OF US, GB, FRANCE *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - - STANDARD MEASURES - OF - UNITED STATES, - GREAT BRITAIN, AND FRANCE. - - HISTORY AND ACTUAL COMPARISONS. - - WITH - APPENDIX ON INTRODUCTION OF THE MÈTRE. - - BY - ARTHUR S. C. WURTELE, - ASS’T ENG., N. Y. C. & H. R. R. - - [Illustration] - - E. & F. N. SPON, - NEW YORK: 44 MURRAY STREET. - LONDON: 16 CHARING CROSS. - 1882. - - COPYRIGHT, 1882, BY ARTHUR S. C. WURTELE. - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -During the preparation of this investigation of Standard Measures a large -number of authorities were examined, including the following: Kelly’s -“Universal Cambist,” Maunder’s “Weights and Measures,” “Encyclopædia -Britannica,” “Chambers’ Encyclopædia,” Williams’ “Geodesy,” Hymer’s -works, “Smithsonian Reports,” “Coast Survey Reports,” Herschel’s -“Astronomy,” etc. The only concise and clear statement I found was J. E. -Hilgard’s report to the Coast Survey on standards in 1876, which I was -gratified to find coincides with my deductions. - - ARTHUR S. C. WURTELE. - -ALBANY, November 26, 1881. - - - - -STANDARD MEASURES. - - -A standard measure of length at first sight appears to be very -simple--merely a bar of metal of any length, according to the unit of any -country; and comparisons of different standards do not seem to present -any difficulty. But on looking further into the thing, we find that -standards are referred to some natural invariable length, and we are at -once confronted with a mass of scientific reductions giving different -values to the same thing, according to successively improved means of -observation. We find, also, that comparisons of one standard with another -differ, as given by reductions carried to great apparent exactness. - -Every author appears to assume the right of using his own judgment as to -what reduction is to be considered the most exact, and the result is a -very confusing difference in apparently exact figures, with nothing to -show how these differences arise. - -I have endeavored to indicate what may be the cause of this confusion by -giving the figures of actually observed comparisons and reductions; in a -manner, the roots of the figures used as statements of length. - -Sir Joseph Whitworth gives 1/40000 of an inch as the smallest length that -can be measured with certainty, with an ultimate possibility of 1/1000000 -of an inch; but imperceptible variations of temperature affect these -infinitesimal lengths to such an extent that he believes the limit can -only be reached at a standard temperature of 85° F., to avoid the effect -of heat of the body. - -It appears to me that comparisons should be made of double yards and -mètres with the old French toise, as the limit of exactness would be -thereby doubled. - -Another great defect in statements of relative values is the omission -of necessary facts--the material of which the bars or standards are -made, the temperature at which comparison was made, and the standard -temperatures used as to the final reduction, with the coefficient of -expansion adopted. - -Again, bars of different metals appear in time to sensibly change their -relative length. - - -ENGLISH STANDARDS OF LENGTH. - -The first establishment of a uniform standard appears to have been made -in 1101 by Henry I., who is said to have fixed the ulna (now the yard) -at the length of his arm; but nothing definite was done till 1736, when -the Royal Society took steps toward securing a general standard, and -in 1742 they had a standard yard made by Graham from a comparison of -various yards and ells of Henry VII. and Elizabeth, that were kept in the -Exchequer. - -Two copies of the Royal Society standard yard were made by Bird in -1758 for a committee of Parliament, one of which was marked “standard -of 1758,” and the other 1760. But no exact legal standard was yet -established, as shown by comparisons in 1802 of the various standard -measures in use which Pictet, of Geneva, made with an accurate scale by -Troughton, using means exact to the ten thousandth part of an inch, with -the following results at the temperature of 62° F.: - - Troughton Scale 36·00000 inches. - Parliamentary Standard (1758, Bird) 36·00023 “ - Royal Society “ (1760, “ ) 35·99955 “ - “ “ (Graham) 36·00130 “ - Exchequer “ 35·99330 “ - Tower “ 36·00400 “ - Gen. Roy “ (Trig. Survey) 36·00036 “ - -Parliament finally undertook to reform the measures of England, and -appointed a commission in 1818, under whose authority Capt. Kater -compared the standard yards then in use with the following results, as -referred to the Indian Survey standard: - - Col. Lambton Standard (Indian Survey) 36·000000 inches. - Bird’s Standard (1760) 36·000659 “ - Sir Geo. Schuckburgh’s Standard 36·000642 “ - Ramsden’s Bar. Ordnance Survey 36·003147 “ - Gen. Roy’s Scale 36·001537 “ - Royal Society Standard 36·002007 “ - -The commission reported in favor of adopting Bird’s standard of 1760, as -it differed so slightly from Sir George Schuckburgh’s standard (which -had been used in deducing the value of the French mètre) that those -values could be assumed as correct. They also established the length of -the seconds pendulum at level of sea in London and in vacuo as 39·13929 -inches. The seconds pendulum had been previously fixed by Wollaston and -Playfair in 1814 as 39·13047 inches. - -On this report, an Act of Parliament in 1823 declared the only standard -measure of length for the United Kingdom to be the yard as given by the -distance at 32° F. between two points in gold studs on the brass bar, -made by Bird, and marked “Standard of 1760,” and in the keeping of the -Clerk of the House of Commons; also it referred this standard yard to the -natural standard of a pendulum vibrating seconds of mean solar time at -the level of the sea, in vacuo at London and temperature of 32° F., as -in the proportion of 36 to 39·13929; so that a pendulum 36 inches long -ought to make 90088·42 vibrations in 24 hours. - -The Royal Society had a copy of the legal standard made by Bailey in -1834; and in the same year the Parliamentary standard was destroyed by -fire at the burning of the Houses of Parliament, leaving the kingdom -again without a legal standard. - -All attempts made by a commission consisting of Airy, Bailey, Herschel, -Lubbock, and Sheepshanks, to restore the standard by means of the seconds -pendulum failed in exactness, on account of the many conditions of a -vibrating pendulum, and recourse was had to the Royal Society standard, -which had been carefully compared by Captain Kater in 1818, and from this -in 1838 Bailey and Sheepshanks made six bronze bars, one inch square, and -38 inches long, which in 1855 were legalized by Act of Parliament, and -the English standard of length defined as follows: - -“That the straight line on distance between the centres of the transverse -lines in the two gold plugs on the bronze bar deposited in the Exchequer -shall be the genuine standard yard at the temperature of 62° Fahrenheit; -and if lost, it shall be replaced by means of its copies.” - -The French metrical system was made legal permissively in 1864, at the -length established by Captain Kater, referred to in Act of Parliament of -1823, of 1 mètre equal to 39·37079 inches, or 3·28089916 feet. - -These are the standards now in use in the United Kingdom. - - -UNITED STATES. - -By the Constitution of the United States Congress is charged with fixing -the standard of measures (Art. 1, sec. 8); but as no enactment has been -made by Congress, the standard yard in England, which was legal previous -to 1776 in the Colonies, is the standard yard of the United States, and -does not differ with the English standard yard. - -Under resolution of Congress in 1830, Mr. Hassler was employed to examine -the standards in use. - -Considerable discrepancies were found, but the mean of all examined -corresponded very nearly with the English standard, and in 1832 the -recommendation of Mr. Hassler was adopted, and the standard yard defined -as the distance between the 27th and 63d inch marks, at the temperature -of 62° F., on the brass scale 82 inches long, being an exact copy of Sir -George Schuckburgh’s standard, made by Troughton, of London, for the -Coast Survey, and deposited in the Office of Weights and Measures at -Washington. - -In 1836 an Act of Congress ordered standards to be sent to each Governor -of a State, and the work was done under direction of Mr. Hassler. - -In 1856, two copies of the English standard yard, as restored after -destruction of the original standard by fire in 1834, No. 11 of bronze, -and No. 57 of Low Moor wrought iron, were presented to the United States -by Airy. - -The United States Troughton standard bar being compared with No. 11 -was found to be longer by 0·00085 inch, or in proportion of 1 to -1·0000237216, about 1½ inches in a mile, according to Report of Secretary -of Treasury in 1857. - -Later comparisons made by J. E. Hilgard, of the Coast Survey, at the -British Standards Office, between No. 11 and the standard imperial yard, -give No. 11 as 0·000088 inch shorter, or it would be of standard length -at temperature of 62·25° F. - -We may infer that the Troughton standard is too long by 0·000762 inch, or -would be standard length at temperature 59·77° F. instead of at 62° by -making expansion reduction with Airy’s coefficient for the bronze of the -imperial standards, 0·000342 inch per yard for 1° F. - -The mètre was made a legal standard permissively in 1866; the United -States mètre standard being one of the 12 iron mètre bars made and -verified for the French Government in 1799 on the adoption of the -metrical system, and brought to America by Mr. Hassler in 1800, the -relative value being fixed by Act of Congress at 39·37 inches. - -The relative value of 39·36850154 United States inches, as obtained by -Mr. Hassler, corrected to 62° F., was used by the Coast Survey till -1868, when it was found advisable to use the relative value of 39·3704 -as deduced by Clarke. Since 1800 several standard mètre bars were sent -to the United States by the French Government, and on comparison, there -appearing to be a slight discrepancy, the original iron standard mètre -bar was sent to Dr. F. A. P. Barnard in Paris, and in 1867 it was -compared with the French platinum standard, which is only used once in -ten years to verify other standards. - -A difference was found by this comparison of only ·00017 millimètre -or 1/160000 inch, which being only 1/100 of an inch in a mile is -inappreciable. - - -FRANCE. - -The standard of length of the système ancient was the toise of 6 pieds, -divided into 12 pouces of 12 lignes each. - -The origin of the toise is not known, but it was probably legally -established by Philip Le Bel, about 1300, as he first appears to have -taken steps toward a uniform system of measures in France. In the 13th -century the toise is mentioned by Ch. Le Rains. In the 14th century -Menongier writes that, in marching, the sight should strike the ground 4 -toises in front. In the fifteenth century Pereforest brings in the toise, -and in the sixteenth century the Contume de Berry says, “We use in this -country two toises; one for carpenters of 5 pieds and a half, the other -for masons of 6 pieds.” - -Picard used the toise in his measurement of an arc of meridian from -Malvoisin to London in 1669. - -The meridians measured by the Academy in 1735 to settle the question of -the figure of the earth were made by means of two standard toises, known -as the “Toise du Nord,” and the “Toise du Sud.” - -The first, used by Maupertuis, Clairault, and Le Monnier, in Lapland, was -destroyed by immersion in sea-water, when their ship was wrecked on the -return voyage. - -The second, with which La Condamine, Bourgner, and Godin operated in -Peru, was the original of the toise Canivet made in 1768, and of the -standards used in determining the mètre. - -The commencement of the move for a scientific standard of length in -France which resulted in the mètre was in 1790, when the revolutionary -government proposed to England the formation of a commission of equal -numbers from the English Royal Society and the French Academy, for the -purpose of fixing the length of the seconds pendulum at latitude 45° as -the basis of a new system of measures. This proposal was not favorably -received, and the Academy, at the request of government, appointed as -a commission Borda, Lagrange, Laplace, Monge, and Condorcet, to decide -whether the seconds pendulum, the quarter of the equator, or the quarter -of a meridian, should be used as the natural standard for the new system -of measures. They settled on the last as best for the purpose, and -resolved that the ten millionth of the meridian quadrant, or distance -from equator to pole, measured at sea level, be taken for basis of the -new system, and be called a mètre. - -Delambre and Mechin were at once charged with re-measurement of the -meridian surveyed in 1739 by La Caille and Cassini, from Dunkirk to -Perpignan, and its extension to Barcelona. - -Operations were commenced in 1792, and carried on with great accuracy -to completion in 1799; Delambre working between Dunkirk and Paris, and -Mechin between Paris and Barcelona. - -The distance measured from Dunkirk to Barcelona was 9° 40´ 24·24´´ of -arc, or 1,075,059 mètres, as reduced to the new standard. - -The “toise de Peru” was the standard used in the work at a temperature of -13° R. - -Two base-lines were measured with Borda’s compensating bars of brass and -platinum; one at Melun, near Paris, 6076 toises long, and the second at -Perpignan, 6028 toises long, and though over 900,000 mètres apart, the -calculated length differed by only 10 pouces. - -This meridian was afterward, in 1806, extended by Gen. Roy to Greenwich, -on the north, and by Biot and Arago to Formentera, on the south. The -results, as given by Laplace in centesimal degrees and mètres, are as -follows: - - Greenwich 57·19753° ·0 mètres. - Pantheon, Paris 54·27431° 292,719·3 “ - Formentera 42·96178° 1,423,636·1 “ - -The middle of the arc being 50·079655° Cent., or 45° 4´ 18·0822´´ Sexa., -and the middle degree centesimal being very nearly 100,000 mètres. - -The determination of the final result of these geodetic measurements was -referred to a committee of 20 members; 9 named by the French Government, -and the others by the governments of Holland, Savoy, Denmark, Spain, -Tuscany, and of the Cisalpine, Ligurian, and Swiss republics, on the -invitation of France. - -This committee established the meridian quadrant at 5,130,740 toises; -making the mètre 0·513074 of the toise, or 36·9413 pouces, or 443·296 -lignes, and the toise 1·94903659 mètres. - -Iron standard mètre bars, 12 in number were made by Borda, also 2 of -platinum and 4 standard toise bars. - -The 12 standard iron mètre bars were sent to different countries, after -being verified by the French Government, and on the 2d of November, 1801, -the mètrical système was legalized by France, and the standard unit of -length declared to be the ten millionth part of a meridian quadrant of -the earth, as defined by the distance at a temperature of 0° Centigrade -(32° F.) between two points on a platinum bar in the keeping of the -Academy of Science at Paris. This standard bar is used only once every -ten years for exact comparisons, as stated by Dr. F. A. P. Barnard. - -About 1837 Bessel, by a combination of 11 measured arcs of meridian, -deduced the quadrant of meridian as 5,131,179·81 toises instead -of 5,130,740 toises, as fixed by law. This would make to quadrant -10,000,565·278 legal mètres, or would increase the mètre length from -443·296 lignes to 443·334 lignes, agreeing very nearly with result -obtained by Airy in 1830, from a combination of 13 measured arcs. - -The following are the measured arcs used by Bessel and Airy; the -combinations being indicated by initial letters, A and B. - - _Measurer._ _Mid. Lat._ _Arc._ _Length._ - B.--Svanberg, Sweden +66° 20´ 10·0´´ 1° 37´ 19·6´´ 593,277 feet - A.--Maupertuis, Sweden +66° 19´ 37·0´´ 0° 57´ 30·4´´ 351,832 “ - A.--Struve, Russia +58° 17´ 37·0´´ 3° 35´ 5·2´´ 1,309,742 “ - B.--Struve and Tenner, - Russia +56° 3´ 55·5´´ 8° 2´ 28·9´´ 2,937,439 “ - B.--Bessel and Bayer, - Prussia +54° 58´ 26·0´´ 1° 30´ 29·0´´ 551,073 “ - B.--Schumacher, Denmark +54° 8´ 13·7´´ 1° 31´ 53·3´´ 559,121 “ - A, B.--Ganss, Hanover +52° 32´ 16·6´´ 2° 0´ 57·4´´ 736,425 “ - A.--Roy and Kater, England +52° 35´ 45·0´´ 3° 57´ 13·1´´ 1,442,953 “ - B.-- “ “ “ +52° 2´ 19·0´´ 2° 50´ 23·5´´ 1,036,409 “ - A.--Lacaille and Cassini, - France +46° 52´ 2·0´´ 8° 20´ 0·3´´ 3,040,605 “ - A, B.--Delambre and Mechin, - France +44° 51´ 2·5´´ 12° 22´ 12·7´´ 4,509,832 “ - A.--Boscovich, Rome +42° 59´ ·0´´ 2° 9´ 47·0´´ 787,919 “ - A.--Mason and Dixon, - America +39° 12´ ·0´´ 1° 28´ 45·0´´ 538,100 “ - A, B.--Lambton, India +16° 8´ 21·5´´ 15° 57´ 40·7´´ 5,794,598 “ - A, B.--Lambton and Everest, - India +12° 32´ 20·8´´ 1° 34´ 56·4´´ 574,318 “ - A, B.--Lacondamine, Peru - 1° 31´ 0·4´´ 3° 7´ 3·5´´ 1,131,050 “ - A.--Lacaille, Cape Good - Hope -33° 18´ 30·0´´ 1° 13´ 17·5´´ 445,506 “ - B.--Maclear, “ “ -35° 43´ 20·0´´ 3° 34´ 34·7´´ 1,301,993 “ - A.--Plana and Cartessi, - Piedmont -------------- 1° 7´ 31·1´´ ------------ - -The following different lengths of the mètre have been obtained: - - As adopted by France, 1801 443·296 lignes. - According to Delambre 443·264 “ - “ Bessel 443·33394 “ - “ Airy 443·32387 “ - “ Clarke 443·36146 “ - From Peru Meridian 443·440 “ - -The length of a pendulum vibrating 100,000 times in a mean solar day was -determined in numerous careful experiments by Biot, Arago, and Mathieu, -in mètres of 443·296 lignes, as follows: - - Dunkirk 56·67 lat. Cent. 0 above sea 0·7419076 mètres. - Paris 54·26 “ 65 “ 0·7418870 “ - “ by Borda 54·26 “ 0 “ 0·7416274 “ - Bordeau 49·82 “ 0 “ 0·7412615 “ - Formentera 42·96 “ 196 “ 0·7412061 “ - -Borda also determined the length of the seconds pendulum at Paris, in -vacuo: - - First result 440·5595 lignes = 0·9938267 mètre. - Second result “ “ = 0·9938460 “ - As given by Ganot “ “ = 0·9935 “ - -In 1812 the système usuelle was established, of which the unit was one -third of the mètre, with the old name of pied, and duodecimally divided -into pouces and lignes. - -This system continued in use till 1840, when it was abolished by law, and -the names of pied, pouce, and ligne forbidden under penalties. So the -mètre, decimally divided, remains the only legal measure of length in -France. - - -COMPARISONS OF UNITED STATES AND ENGLISH STANDARDS. - -In 1832, under resolution of Congress, Mr. Hassler compared the different -standard yards in America, with the following results, using the yard -between the twenty-seventh and sixty-third inches on the scale made of -bronze by Troughton, of London, for the United States Coast Survey, as -the reference, that being identical with Sir George Schuckburg’s standard: - - Troughton Scale, mid. yard 36·0000000 inches. - “ “ between platinum points 35·9989758 “ - Jones yard in State Department 35·9990285 “ - Iron yard in Engineer Department 35·9987760 “ - Brass yard, Albany, Sec. of State 36·0002465 “ - Gilbert yard, University of Virginia 35·9952318 “ - -In 1856 the Troughton standard bronze scale was compared with the bronze -standard yard No. 11, which was sent over by Airy as a copy of the -English imperial standard, as restored after destruction of the original -standard by fire in 1834, and the United States standard was found to be -longer by 0·00085 inch. - -Later comparisons by J. E. Hilgard, of the Coast Survey, of the bronze -standard No. 11 with the imperial standard yard, at the British Standards -Office, gave No. 11 as 0·000088 shorter than the imperial standard. - -Hassler’s reduction of the mètre, as deduced by Beach at 62° F., -39·36850154, compared with the English reduction of the mètre, 39·37079 -inches, gives an excess to the United States Standard of 0·002029 inch. - -The following reductions have been given for the United States yard in -English inches: - - Report of Sec. of Treas., 1857 36·00087 = 1·00002416 - Chambers’ Encyclopædia, 1872 36·00087 - “ “ “ 36·0020892 = 1·0000580334 - Trautwine 36·0020894 = 1·000058038 - Mathewson, U. S. surveyor 36·00208944 = 1·00005804 - Hassler and Beach 36·002092 = 1·00005811 - J. E. Hilgard, Coast Survey 36·00076 = 1·000021 - -To Mr. Hassler’s reduction the name of United States inch has been -applied; but his reduction is not correct, as he used a rate of expansion -for brass deduced by himself of 0·0003783 inch in one yard for 1° F., -and later experiments show that the smaller rate of 0·000342, deduced by -Airy, is more correct. - -By correcting Hassler’s reduction with the later rate of expansion, J. E. -Hilgard shows that the difference would be very small, or only 36·0002286 -= 1·00000635, or about ⅖ of an inch in a mile. - -In Coast Survey report for 1876, J. E. Hilgard calls attention to another -difficulty in the matter of extreme accuracy, in the uncertainty with -regard to the permanence in the length of a bar, and states that the -bronze standard bar No. 11 and the Low Moor iron standard bar No. 57, -presented to the United States by Great Britain, are found to have -changed their relative length by 0·00025 inch in 25 years; the bronze bar -being now relatively shorter by that amount. This subject, he states, is -undergoing further investigation. - - -COMPARISON OF UNITED STATES AND FRENCH STANDARDS. - -In 1817 Mr. Hassler examined the French standards in America, for the -Coast Survey, using the Troughton bronze standard scale, which is -identical with Sir George Schuckburg’s standard, as the reference, with -the following results, all being reduced to temperature of 32° F. - - Original Iron Mètre, 1799 39·381022708 inches. - Lenoir Iron Mètre, Coast Survey 39·37972015 “ - “ Brass “ “ 39·380247972 “ - “ “ “ Eng. Dept. 39·38052739 “ - Canivet Iron Toise, 1768 76·74334472 “ - Lenoir “ “ 76·74192710 “ - -In 1814 Troughton had compared with his own scale in London two of the -above. - - Lenoir Iron Mètre, C. S. 39·3802506 inches. - “ Brass “ “ 39·3803333 “ - -In 1832, under resolution of Congress, Hassler again compared the French -standards in the United States, using as before the Troughton scale, and -reducing all to temperature of 32° F. as follows: - - Original Iron Mètre, 1799 39·3808643 inches. - Lenoir “ “ C. S. 39·3799120 “ - “ Brass Mètre C. S. 39·380447 “ - “ “ Eng. Dept. 39·3801714 “ - “ “ “ in 1829 39·3807095 “ - Fortin “ State Dept. 39·3796084 “ - “ Treas. “ 39·3795983 “ - Iron Mètre “ “ 39·3807827 “ - Gilbert “ Univ. of Virg. 39·365408 “ - Platinum Mètre 39·3803278 “ - “ (Nicollet) 39·380511 “ - Canivet Iron Toise, 1768 76·74290511 “ - Lenoir “ 1799 76·74047599 “ - -From the mean of his comparisons between the United States brass -Troughton standard yard and the authentic French standard mètres used by -the Coast Survey, Hassler, in 1832, deduced the value of the mètre at -39·3809172 inches, at 32° F., and by correction for expansion to United -States standard temperature of 62° F., he made the mètre at 32° equal to -39·36850154 inches at 62° F. - -The British imperial standard and the United States Troughton standard -differ by only 0·000762 inch, which applied to the English reduction -of 39·37079, would give 39·36996 as the relative value according to -Troughton standard. - -The difference between these reductions is probably to be attributed -to the use of different rates of expansion, in correcting for standard -temperatures, which vary considerably, according to high authority as -follows for brass at 1° F. - - Whitworth, 1876 0·00000956 = 0·00034416 in. per yard. - Borda, 1799 0·000009913 = 0·00035687 “ - Smeaton, 1750 0·000010417 = 0·00037501 “ - Hassler 0·000010508 = 0·0003783 “ - Ramsden, 1760 0·000010516 = 0·0003786 “ - Faraday, 1830 0·00001059 = 0·00038124 “ - -And for the bronze of which the British imperial standards are made: - - Airy and Sheepshanks 0·0000095 = 0·000342 in. per yard. - Fizeau 0·00000975 = 0·000351 “ - -The correction at Ramsden’s rate is nearly identical with Hassler’s, -and gives 39·3684933; at Whitworth’s rate it would give 39·36962, very -nearly the same as deduced from the difference between the British -Imperial standard and the United States Troughton standard. The results -of Sir Joseph Whitworth were obtained by use of all late improvements for -scientific precision, and they must be accepted as most reliable. - -It would appear preferable to give comparisons at the same temperature in -connection with the corrected result, so that international comparisons -of scientific measurements may not be vitiated by accidental variations. - - -COMPARISON OF ENGLISH AND FRENCH STANDARDS. - -When the mètre standard was established in France, 1799, it was compared -with Sir George Schuckburg’s standard yard by Captain Kater. The -quadrant of 10,000,000 mètres, or 5,130,740 toises, was determined to -be 32,808,992 English feet, giving the mètre equal to 3·2808992 English -feet, or 39·37079 inches, and the toise equal to 6·3945925921 English -feet. - -In 1814 Wollaston and Playfair, by comparison with the platinum mètre -standard at 55° F., deduced the mètre as equal to 39·3828 English inches. - -During the geodetic operations of General Roy in 1802, who used 60° F. -as standard temperature, Pictet’s comparisons, using means capable of -measuring the 10,000th part of an inch, gave the mètre standard, which is -used at 32° F. as standard temperature, at 39·3828 English inches; this -corrected for temperature by Dr. Young, gave 39·371 English inches at 62° -F.; which result was confirmed by Bird, Maskelyne and Laudale. - -In 1823, by Act of Parliament on report of committee, the mètre is fixed -as 39·37079 English inches. - -In 1800 the Royal Society, by comparison with two toise standards sent by -Lalande to Maskelyne, deduced the mètre as 39·3702 English inches. - -Later comparisons by Clarke in the Ordnance Survey Office at Southampton, -in 1866, give the mètre as 39·37043 inches. - -The French Academy of Sciences by comparison with Sir George Schuckburg’s -standard at temperature of 32° F., deduced the mètre as 39·3824 English -inches, which reduced to standard temperature of 62° F., would be -39·3711, or slightly in excess of the value deduced by Dr. Young from -Pictet’s comparisons. - -The legal value in England is one mètre equal to 39·37079, and the latest -reduction is 39·37043 inches by Clarke in 1866, which is probably the -most exact reduction. - -DIFFERENT REDUCTIONS OF THE FRENCH TOISE INTO ENGLISH FEET. - - Captain Kater, 1799 6·3945925921 feet. - Hassler, 1832 6·3951409 “ - Chambers’ Encyclopædia 6·39456 “ - “ Mathematics 6·394662 “ - Wallace 6·39462 “ - Nystrom 6·39625 “ - Alexander 6·39435 “ - Dana 6·3946 “ - -The following table of reductions as used shows clearly how great a -confusion exists in the matter of comparisons: - -MÈTRE IN INCHES. - - Phœnixville Hand-book 39·368 inches. - Hassler 39·36850154 “ - “ 39·370788 “ - “ 39·3809172 “ - Trautwine 39·368505 “ - “ 39·37079 “ - Silliman 39·368505 “ - “ 39·37079 “ - Chambers’ Encyclopædia 39·36850535 “ - “ “ 39·3707904 “ - Act of United States Congress, 1866 39·37 “ - Smithsonian Report 39·37 “ - Youmans 39·37 “ - Davies 39·37 “ - Homan’s Encyclopædia 39·37008 “ - Weale 39·3702 “ - Ordnance Survey (England, 1866) 39·37043 “ - Clerk Maxwell 39·37043 “ - Capt. Clarke 39·3704316 “ - J. M. Rankine (1870) 39·3704316 “ - “ (1866) 39·3707904 “ - Alexander (weights and measures) 39·37068 “ - Ganot 39·370788 “ - Vose 39·370788 “ - Act of British Parliament, 1823 39·37079 “ - Encyclopædia Britannica 39·37079 “ - Hymer 39·37079 “ - Davies and Peck 39·37079 “ - J. W. Clarke 39·37079 “ - Dana 39·37079 “ - Whittaker 39·37079 “ - Sommerville 39·3707904 “ - Chambers’ Mathematics 39·3707904 “ - Gwilt’s Encyclopædia 39·3707904 “ - Gillespie 39·3707904 “ - Capt. Kater 39·3708 “ - Appleton’s Encyclopædia 39·37079 “ - Van Nostrand 39·3708 “ - D’Aubuisson 39·3708 “ - Johnson (draftsman) 39·3708 “ - Encyclopædia Americana 39·371 “ - Jameson’s Dictionary 39·371 “ - Herbert’s Encyclopædia 39·371 “ - Popular “ 39·371 “ - Molesworth 39·371 “ - Dr. Young (1802) 39·371 “ - Wallace (engineer) 39·371 “ - Nystrom 39·38091 “ - Hencke 39·3809172 “ - Act of Canadian Parliament, 1873 39·3819 “ - Paris Academy 39·3824 “ - -LENGTH OF THE SECONDS PENDULUM AS GIVEN BY DIFFERENT WRITERS. - - NEW YORK.--Hencke 39·1012 inches. - Bartlet 39·11256 “ - Nystrom 39·1017 “ - Ganot 39·1012 “ - Byrne 39·10153 “ - Wallace 39·10153 “ - - LONDON.--Hencke 39·13908 “ - Gillespie 39·13929 “ - Chambers’ Encyclopædia 39·13929 “ - Williams’ Geodesy 39·13929 “ - Act of Parliament, 1823 39·13929 “ - Wallace (engineer) 39·1393 “ - Chambers’ Mathematics 39·1393 “ - Hymer Astronomy 39·13734 “ - Bartlet 39·13908 “ - Vose 39·1393 “ - Sommerville 39·1393 “ - Nystrom 39·1393 “ - Davies and Peck 39·13908 “ - Ganot 39·1398 “ - Wollaston (1814) 39·13047 “ - Galbraith 39·139 “ - Byrne 39·1393 “ - Capt. Kater 39·13829 “ - - PARIS.--Hencke 39·12843 “ - Ganot 39·1285 “ - Galbraith 39·128 “ - Byrne 39·12843 “ - Wallace 39·12843 “ - - - - -APPENDIX. - - -Having shown in the preceding pages that in the point of view of -scientific accuracy the yard, mètre, and toise standards are on a -common level, and that in the matter of comparisons there is no extreme -accuracy, I will now refer to the proposed change of our standard from -the yard to the mètre. - -Theoretically the mètre is the 10,000,000th part of the earth’s quadrant, -and the yard the 36/39·13929th part of a seconds pendulum at London. -Practically, neither the mètre nor yard could be recovered with exactness -from their natural basis. The legal French mètre differs from the -latest reduction enough to give an excess of over three miles to the -circumference of the earth. In fact, the mètre and yard are only the -lengths of bars of metal kept in certain offices, from which copies are -made. Decimally considered, it is as easy to divide one as the other into -tenths, hundredths, etc., and the yard standard is often so divided. - -As to nomenclature, the metrical system is overloaded with Greek and -Latin prefixes, which are in no way so easy and convenient in expression -as the short, sharp Anglo-Saxon words yard, foot, inch. - -In all sciences Latin and Greek names are given for easier purposes -of classification; but the different peoples invariably keep their -own household names for daily purposes, leaving prefix and affix to -specialists, probably with advantage to both parties. - -The units used for different purposes are entirely distinct from the -base of any system, and though always referable to such base, are not -practically so referred. It therefore seems useless to burden the people -with long scientific names in the ordinary transactions of daily life. - -For long distances the units in the yard and metrical systems are -respectively the mile and the kilomètre. - -The mile has a definite meaning in our minds, being associated, from the -days of youth, with the measured distances in race-courses, speed in -walking, railway and steamer travel, length of surveyed lots--the same -being in use among about 100,000,000 people. - -For mechanical structures, the units are respectively the foot and the -mètre. The foot is used instead of the yard, as being the most convenient -in practice, and is fixed in the minds of the people by constant -association with length of foot-rules, size of buildings, doors, windows, -etc., all of which are always before us. - -For commercial purposes the units are respectively the yard and the -mètre. The yard is associated with length of yard-sticks, distance -between brass nails on counters, so many finger-lengths by ladies. -Probably three fourths of the business of the world is conducted on the -yard standard. - -For machine and shop work the English unit is the inch and fractions, -and countries having the metrical standard have universally adopted the -millimètre. - -The inch is well fixed in the minds of all mechanics by constant use, and -the ease with which the fractions are had by halving only renders the -system very convenient. - -As more figures must be used to indicate a size by millimètres than by -inches and fractions, it appears that the metrical system cannot shorten -the work of arithmetical computation in shop work, and is therefore of no -advantage to the mechanic or draftsman, but rather the reverse. This is -the opinion of Coleman Sellers, the distinguished Philadelphia engineer -and manufacturer, who, after a trial of the millimètre in his shops for -some years, returned to the use of the inch, and writes in _Engineering -News_: “The loss from the use of a small unit requiring many figures -to express what is needed, takes away from the other advantages of the -system when considered from a labor-saving point of view.” - -In France itself the metrical system is not wholly decimal in actual -practice, as we find the following measures in use in addition to the -decimal divisions: double decamètre, demi-decamètre, double mètre, -demi-mètre, and double decimètre. - -The metrical system has been adopted in the following countries: France -and colonies, Holland and colonies, Belgium, Spain and colonies, -Portugal, Italy, Germany, Greece, Roumania, British India, Mexico, -New Granada, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Uruguay, Argentine Confederacy, -Chili, Venezuela; and partially in Wurtemburg, Bavaria, Baden, Hesse, -Switzerland, Denmark, Austria, and Turkey. - -In the past centuries all the work and records of English-speaking -peoples--now numbering about 100,000,000, and increasing and progressing -faster than all other nationalities, as well as being closely connected -by descent and business--have been done and recorded under the yard -standard, and any change now would inevitably render necessary continual -reductions, to the great detriment and inconvenience of the mass of our -people, and with little or no practical benefit, except perhaps to a -small class of scientific and pseudo-scientific men, who can and do amuse -themselves with the fancied uniformity of the mètre. - -All our numerous text-books and tables, mechanical and scientific, would -be rendered entirely useless by the change, and this is a serious final -consideration. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Standard Measures of United States, -Great Britain and France, by Arthur S. C. Wurtele - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STANDARD MEASURES OF US, GB, FRANCE *** - -***** This file should be named 54208-0.txt or 54208-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/4/2/0/54208/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive -specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this -eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook -for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, -performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given -away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks -not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the -trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country outside the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you - are located before using this ebook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The -Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the -mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its -volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous -locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt -Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to -date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and -official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - |