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diff --git a/old/54090-8.txt b/old/54090-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index e450575..0000000 --- a/old/54090-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1490 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Bamboo, Considered as a Paper-making -Material, by Thomas Routledge - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Bamboo, Considered as a Paper-making Material - With remarks upon its cultivation and treatment. - -Author: Thomas Routledge - -Release Date: February 2, 2017 [EBook #54090] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BAMBOO *** - - - - -Produced by Iris Schröder-Gehring, Chris Curnow and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - BAMBOO, - - CONSIDERED - AS A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL. - - - WITH - - - REMARKS UPON ITS CULTIVATION AND TREATMENT. - - - SUPPLEMENTED BY - A CONSIDERATION OF THE PRESENT POSITION OF THE PAPER - TRADE IN RELATION TO THE SUPPLY OF RAW MATERIAL. - - - - BY - THOMAS ROUTLEDGE. - - - [Illustration: logo] - - - LONDON: - E. & F. N. SPON, 48, CHARING CROSS, - - NEW YORK: - 446, BROOME STREET. - 1875. - - - - -This Pamphlet is printed on Paper made by the Author from Bamboo. - - - - -BAMBOO, - -CONSIDERED AS A MATERIAL FOR PAPER - - -REMARKS UPON ITS CULTIVATION AND TREATMENT. - -Of all the fibre-yielding plants known to botanical science there -is not one so well calculated to meet the pressing requirements of -the Paper-trade as "BAMBOO," both as regards facility and economy -of production, as well as the quality of the "_Paper-Stock_" which -can be manufactured therefrom: grown under favourable conditions of -climate and soil, there is no plant which will give so heavy a crop of -available fibre to the acre, no plant which requires so little care for -its cultivation and continuous production. - -The rapidity of the growth of "BAMBOO" is unequalled. At Gehzireh, -the gardens of the Khedive of Egypt at Cairo, it has been known -to grow nine inches in a single night. At Syon House, the Duke of -Northumberland's, stems of "_Bambusa Gigantea_" have attained the -height of 60 feet in 12 weeks; and I have made "_Paper-Stock_" from a -stem of "_Bambusa Vulgaris_," sent me by Dr. Hooker, from the Royal -Botanical Gardens at Kew, which, as measured by the gardener in the -Palm-house, grew at the rate of three feet in a single week; at -Chatsworth, the Duke of Devonshire's, this same variety (the "_Bambusa -Vulgaris_") has attained the height of 40 feet in 40 days. - -Throughout the East Indies the "Bamboo" flourishes, forming indeed -in many districts impenetrable jungles. It grows abundantly also in -the West Indies, in Central and South America, the Brazils, in Africa -and Asia; in China especially, and in Japan, the plant is indigenous, -and the natives cultivate it carefully, employing it for almost every -article of convenience and luxury; in fact, wherever heat and moisture -exist, some species of the "Bamboo" will be found, or may be readily -cultivated. - -Attempts have from time to time been made in England, and elsewhere, -to obtain from the "BAMBOO" "_Half-stuff_" or "_Pulp_" suitable for -the manufacture of paper, and paper indeed has been made therefrom, -but hitherto these attempts have neither industrially nor commercially -attained successful results, and for the following reasons. - -Hitherto the "BAMBOO" has been collected and treated in a condition -more or less of maturity, or without regard to its age; and when the -plant has attained its full growth the woody fibre is extremely dense -and indurated; when old, indeed, the exterior portion of the stem of -many varieties of the plant becomes so hard and silicious that it will, -like flint, strike fire with steel. - -Owing to the presence of this large quantity of silica, and the extreme -hardness of the stem when developed and matured, it has been found by -all those who have hitherto experimentally treated "BAMBOO" that the -only possible means of converting it into _Pulp_ for Paper-making, has -been to subject it to long-continued boiling, or digesting, in very -strong solutions of caustic alkali, at an elevated temperature--in -other words, at or under a pressure of ten to eleven atmospheres -(150 to 160 lb. pressure per square inch)--by which means a _Pulp_ -has certainly been produced, but at a great cost, and the danger and -practical difficulties of working under such high pressure, have -deterred further progress in this direction. - -I have found that when the stems of "Bamboo," are cut down at an early -stage of their growth, when the plant is full of sap, and before the -cellulose or cellular tissue, and the lignine have become indurated, -and silica deposited; while, in fact, so to speak, the plant may be -termed a succulent vegetable, and before it has become converted into -wood, that a very mild system of treatment in successive weak alkaline -baths, at atmospheric pressure only, suffices to decompose and render -soluble the mucilaginous and other extractive compounds combined -naturally with the fibrous tissue of the plant, so that they may be -readily eliminated, or separated therefrom, by subsequent washing, -leaving the residuary fibres pure and free. - -A comparative illustration of the transitional stage of growth above -referred to, showing the conversion of succulent vegetable fibrous -tissue, into harsh woody fibre, may be remarked with "Asparagus," -the young and green stems of which, are used as a delicacy for the -table, a few weeks further growth converting them into hard woody -fibre, which no amount of boiling would, or could, render palatable; -the "Asparagus," indeed, has its parallel in the "_Bambusa Edulis_," a -variety of "BAMBOO," the young stems of which are eaten and considered -very nourishing. - -The "BAMBOO," being an _endogenous_ plant, (that is to say, growing -from inside) composed mainly of fibrous tissue, combined with the -ordinary sappy and other extractive matter common to all vegetable -growth, the stems do not require the elaborate preparatory manipulation -which is necessary to separate the fibrous, from the extraneous and -woody matter, which in _exogenous_ plants (i. e. growing from, or on -the outside) must be removed, as it is only the true fibre which is -useable for Textile Manufactures. - -Such plants known to commerce as "FLAX," "HEMP," "JUTE," "RHEA," &c. -&c., after having become mature, and being dried, have to undergo a -process of retting, or steeping, followed by scutching and heckling, in -order to separate the ultimate fibres from the woody stem and bark to -which, while in their normal condition, they are attached. - -The cost therefore, of producing merchantable fibre from this class of -plants is very considerable, and the produce or yield of fibre, to the -plant cultivated, very small, that of "FLAX" being computed at from 5 -to 6 cwt., "HEMP" 7 cwt., and "JUTE" 5 to 6 cwt. per acre, "COTTON" -being much less; "BAMBOO," as I will presently show, producing tons as -compared with cwts. of the foregoing, and, be it noted, with far less -cost for cultivation, and the subsequent preparation of the fibre. - -The stems of the "BAMBOO," cut young, as I propose to use them, -contain from 60 to 75 per cent. of moisture; it will be obvious, -therefore, that to ensure a regular and continuous supply, under -economical conditions, to a central factory for the manufacture of -"_Paper-Stock_," plantations would have to be formed contiguous -thereto, as practised with "SUGAR CANE," or in a similar manner to -Osier beds, in England. - -I have mentioned the latter, as in order to stimulate a rapid, aqueous, -and sappy growth, as also to provide for the dry seasons common to hot -countries, a system of irrigation would be necessary, such a system -indeed being at present practised with the SUGAR CANE, in Egypt, Spain, -and elsewhere. - -With plantations of "Sugar Cane," to which plant the "BAMBOO" somewhat -assimilates in character and growth, it is necessary, in order to -ripen the canes and develop saccharine, to allow free ventilation to -the growing plant, and thus the ground is not fully occupied; this -would not be the case with "BAMBOO," which should be planted and grown -closely together to favour the stems shooting upwards, as practised -with "HEMP" and "FLAX," where fine staple of fibre is desired. - -By following such a system, the stools or roots once established, a -systematical and regular cropping, or cutting, would ensue, the stems -being all cut down simultaneously, by sections or beds, in regular -succession, numerous croppings annually would thus be obtained, and -when necessary, fresh beds would be formed, the older growth being -available for fuel for the manufactory. - -The Sugar Cane from the time of planting, to cutting, takes from nine -to twelve months to grow and mature; but even thus grown, the produce -of canes (ready dressed for the mill) generally ranges from 30 to 35 -tons to the acre, it sometimes exceeds 40 tons; allowing several crops -or cuttings annually for the "BAMBOO," it may fairly be assumed that at -least this latter quantity would be obtained per acre. - -Allowing 208 feet square to represent one acre; divided into twelve -beds, each 96 × 26 feet, with twelve paths 96´ × 8´ 8´´ wide, and one -intersecting road 208 × 16 feet wide, leaves a space for planting equal -to 2496 feet, or 29,952 feet in the twelve beds; allowing the stems to -be 2 feet apart, and say only 12 feet high, we have 7488 stems, which -at 12 lb. each = 40 tons per acre. - -The stem of the "_Bambusa Vulgaris_" before mentioned, grown in -the Palm-house at Kew, was of an average size, 10 to 11 inches -circumference, and weighed green 1-1/2 lb. per foot run; and although -no doubt by denser growth, induced by frequent cropping, the stems -even of the larger varieties of "BAMBOO" would decrease in size, still -an equal tonnage to the acre would be produced, with longer joints or -internodes, and a finer staple of fibre. - -The stems of the "BAMBOO" (_taken as dry_) treated by my process, will -yield 60 per cent. of unbleached _Fibrous_ "_Paper-Stock_," baled up -in merchantable condition; assuming therefore an annual cropping of 40 -tons, green stems, which will lose 75 per cent. moisture in drying, we -have 10 tons dry stems per acre; these at 60 per cent. yield, will give -6 tons per acre of "_Paper-Stock_," an enormous product as compared -with any other fibrous material with which I am acquainted. - -Allowing the plantation to be credited at the rate of 5_s._ per ton, -for the green stems, delivered to the central factory, and 40 tons to -be produced per acre, we have the sum of 10_l._ per acre to cover all -charges; once, however, the plantation formed, but little cost in the -way of cultivation need be incurred. The main outlay would be for rent, -irrigation, and cutting, and carrying to the manufactory. - -I may here remark that I propose where possible, to return to the -_Plantation_, mixed with the water employed for irrigation, the -mucilaginous and other extractive constituents, or matters, (amounting -to 40 per cent.) abstracted from the stems during the process of -manufacturing the "_Paper-Stock_," as Manure, thus maintaining -fertilization to the growing plant. - - -DETAILS OF MY SYSTEM OF TREATING "BAMBOO" FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF -FIBROUS "_Paper-Stock_." - -An essential point in my system for treating "BAMBOO" to produce -therefrom fibrous "_Paper-Stock_," consists in operating upon the stems -of the plant when young, and preferably when fresh, as, and when, cut -and collected. - -Brought therefore to a central factory in this condition, the stems -are passed through heavy crushing rolls, in order to split and flatten -them, and at the same time crush, or smash, the knots, or nodes. The -stems thus flattened, are then passed through a second series of -rolls, which are channelled, or grooved, in order further to split, or -partially divide them longitudinally into strips, or ribbons; these -being cut transversely, into convenient lengths by a guillotine knife -or shears, are delivered by a carrier, or automatic feeder, direct to -the boiling pans, or elsewhere, as desired. - -As the stems when fresh and green, contain from 60 to 75 per cent. -of sappy and mucilaginous matter, much of this is expressed by the -crushing, while at the same time the fibrous mass, being partially -disintegrated, is thus more readily acted upon in the succeeding -processes. - -If desired, the crushed stems may be dried and stored; such drying, -however, must be very carefully conducted and watched to avoid -destructive fermentation. - -I have in the preceding "Remarks" referred to "FLAX," "HEMP," -"JUTE," and similar FIBRES known to commerce, such fibres being -imported into this country in their prepared condition, suitable for -Textile purposes. They have, in fact, passed through a process of -semi-manufacture, such process, as I have explained, being required -to separate the ultimate fibres from the interior woody stem to which -when growing they are attached; and it is obvious that it would not be -(economically) possible to import any of these fibrous plants as grown -or produced, owing to their enormous bulk in that condition. - -Now although the stems of the "BAMBOO," after cutting and crushing, -may, as I have shown, be dried (and will when dried give a yield of -60 per cent. of fibre), still their bulk and extreme lightness would -preclude importing them to this country in their _raw_ condition, not -merely from their heavy cost for carriage, but from their liability -to damage from fermentation. For these economical considerations, -therefore, I propose to reduce the "BAMBOO" into "_Fibrous-Stock_" -where grown or produced. - -It may be well, before entering into details of the process, briefly -to explain the ordinary system employed for preparing fibres, or -fibrous materials, as also rags, for Paper-making. This consists in -sorting, cutting, cleaning, and, if need be, roughly opening them, -followed by boiling in alkaline leys, after which they are well washed -until cleansed from impurities in what is technically termed the rag -or breaker engine, during which operation they are disintegrated or -reduced into "_Half-stuff_," or _semi-pulp_, this being subsequently -bleached and converted into pulp and paper. - -As the object of my process is to produce a fibrous or tow-like -_Stock_, retaining as far as possible the normal or natural condition -of the fibre, and not "_Half-stuff_" or "_Pulp_," my system of -treatment differs materially from the foregoing, more especially in the -boiling and washing processes. - -Both of these processes I conduct in a battery, or series of vessels -(16, 20, or more in number), such vessels being connected together -by pipes, or channels, furnished with valves, or cocks, so that -communication between the individual vessels may be maintained, -disconnected, and regulated as desired, in such manner that the -vessels, being methodically charged in succession with the material to -be operated upon, the heated leys (composed of caustic alkali) can be -progressively conducted from vessel to vessel of the series, passing -over and through the material placed therein. - -The leys are thus used again and again, (each successive change, -or charge of ley, carrying forward the extractive matters it has -dissolved from the fibre with which it has been in contact) until -exhausted or neutralized, (when they are discharged), fresh leys -being methodically, and successively, supplied, until by degrees, the -extractive matters combined with the fibre or fibrous material have -been rendered sufficiently soluble, when hot water for washing, or -rinsing, is in the same continuous manner run successively from vessel -to vessel, over, and through, the material contained therein, until -the extractive matters rendered soluble by the previous alkaline baths -have been carried forward and discharged, leaving the residuary fibre -sufficiently cleansed. - -By this system of boiling in continuity, until all the effective -alkali in the leys is exhausted or neutralized, I realize an economy -of from 30 per cent. to 40 per cent. of soda over the ordinary process -of boiling, and by the subsequent washing, or rinsing, in the same -continuous manner, without removing the material from the vessels, the -normal structure of the fibre is in a great measure retained, waste is -minimized, and thus, while being thoroughly cleansed and freed from -extraneous matter, the strength and staple of the fibre are preserved; -a considerable saving of fuel results from the heated liquors being -used again and again, less steam being required, as also less water, -while at the same time economy of both labour and power is effected -over the ordinary system. - -Assuming the boiling and succeeding washing processes to be concluded, -and the material ("BAMBOO") in one of the vessels of the series in its -regular succession, to be found sufficiently treated and cleansed, a -final cooling water is run on and through the fibre, which is then -drained, and the contents of the vessel (disconnected for the time -being from the series) emptied into a waggon running on a railway, -by which it is conducted to a press or otherwise to abstract all the -remaining moisture possible. - -The dry, or semi-dry fibre, is then submitted to the action of a -willow, or devil, by means of which it is opened or teazed out, and -converted readily into a tow-like condition, when it is dried by a -current of heated air, induced by a fan-blast, and finally baled up for -storage or transport, in a similar manner to COTTON or JUTE. - -In this condition of "_Paper-Stock_," it may be kept an indefinite -length of time without injury, and when received by the -Paper-manufacturer requires merely soaking down and bleaching, to fit -it for making into paper, either by itself, or used as a blend with -other materials, as desired. - -The minuter details of my process for treating raw fibres, or fibrous -material, for the manufacture therefrom of _Fibrous_ "_Paper-Stock_," -are fully described in my several Patents, the only variation so far -as relates to "Bamboo" being the preliminary preparation of the young -stems, the other portions of the process being substantially the same -as in daily operation at the Ford Works, Sunderland, for the treatment -of "Esparto," and other "_raw fibres_." - -I have only now further to remark that the "Plant" required to -manufacture "_Paper-Stock_" from "Bamboo" on an economical and -practical working scale, would consist of a battery of boiling pans, -with the other necessary adjuncts and machinery, steam engines -and steam boilers, such "Plant" being on a scale adequate to the -manufacture of 100 tons "Bamboo" weekly, producing therefrom say 60 -tons merchantable "_Paper-Stock_." - -As the above scale of operations, viz. the Manufacture of 100 tons -("BAMBOO") weekly into "_Paper-Stock_," may appear somewhat large, it -is necessary I should explain that owing to the nature of the Process, -the desired effect being produced by the reiterated and continuous -action of repeated _weak_ Alkaline Baths or Leys, in a Series of -Vessels, such an operation involves the treatment of a large quantity -of "_Raw Material_," at one time, and cannot either conveniently or -economically be conducted upon a much smaller scale. - -The cost of the "Plant" and Machinery required for such a Factory -would amount to about ***, packed ready for shipment in England, to -which would have to be added the carriage and cost of erection, with -the necessary buildings, which, however, would be of a very simple and -inexpensive character. - -I do not feel myself competent to determine what quantity of Land -would be required for a plantation to supply such a factory, which -would absorb 100 tons dry, say 400 tons green, "Bamboo" stems weekly, -but assuming 40 tons produce to the acre, with only once annual -cropping, 500 acres should be ample. This calculation doubtless would -be influenced by the varying conditions of climate and soil, as also by -the variety of "Bamboo" cultivated. - -It may be expected that I should in these "REMARKS" include some -reference to the "_Variety_" of "BAMBOO" which could be most -economically and profitably cultivated for the supply of such a -Factory, on the scale I propose. - -In respect to this portion of my subject I experience some difficulty, -inasmuch as the _Varieties_ of "Bamboo" are so numerous, and so widely -distributed. - -A Monograph by Colonel (now General) Munro, C.B., published in the -'Transactions of the Linnean Society,' affords the most elaborate and -comprehensive description of the "Bamboo:" in this paper upwards of 170 -species are described. - -The "_Bambusa Vulgaris_," as its name indeed denotes, appears to be the -most generally distributed, as it is found in both Hemispheres, General -Munro being in considerable doubt as to which it is a native of. - -I quote from his Monograph: "I have seen it collected by Wallich, in -Silhet, by Hooker, in Chittagong (both North-east India), from Ceylon -wild, in the Mauritius cultivated abundantly, in the West Indies -naturalized, and cultivated in several parts of South America, this is -the only thoroughly cosmopolitan species." - -Bambusa "_Gigantea_," growing to the height of 120 feet and from -25 to 30 inches circumference; B. "_Edulis_," or edible Bamboo; B. -"_Arundinacea_;" B. "_Balcooa_;" B. "_Brandisii_," &c., all varying in -growth to from 60 to 70, to 120 feet high, abound throughout India, and -all our Asiatic Dependencies. In the West Indies also, where not now -indigenous, doubtless any variety selected could readily be introduced -and cultivated. - -To conclude, it would appear that with the "_Raw Material_" "Bamboo," -we have under our control "an embarrassment of riches," and I have only -further to add that I know of no other that can at all approach it in -economy of production, and I believe very few if any in the quality of -the "_Stock_" produced therefrom suitable for Paper-making purposes. - - - - -BAMBOO, - -CONSIDERED AS A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL. - - -THE PRESENT POSITION OF THE PAPER TRADE IN RELATION TO THE SUPPLY OF -RAW MATERIAL. - -"The deficient supply of, and the increasing price for, the materials -for making paper and the prospect of a still greater consumption has -for some time excited the attention of manufacturers and the public." - -The above REMARKS prefacing a MEMORANDUM drawn up by Dr. Forbes -Royle, reporting for "THE COMMISSIONERS FOR THE AFFAIRS OF INDIA," -at the desire of "THE LORDS OF HER MAJESTY'S TREASURY," and of "THE -LORDS OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE PRIVY COUNCIL FOR TRADE," in 1854, and -subsequently published in his valuable work, "THE FIBROUS PLANTS OF -INDIA," in 1855--twenty years ago--truly represent the position of the -Paper-Trade at the present time. - -The extension of education and literature, the necessity for cheap -newspapers and serial publications, the increased demand for paper for -writing, as also for manufacturing and commercial purposes generally, -have greatly stimulated consumption, and it is believed that since the -abolition of the Excise duty in 1861, the annual production of paper -has more than doubled. - -Previous to 1861, raw fibrous material, with the exception perhaps of -Straw, was but little used in paper-making, the waste of cotton, flax, -hemp, and jute mills, having undergone a process of semi-manufacture, -being comprised under the generic term of--Rags. - -The American war, immediately following the repeal of the paper duty, -threatening a cotton famine, the Paper-makers gladly availed themselves -of a new material, "Esparto," which I had for some time previously been -ineffectually endeavouring to introduce, and adopting my process for -its treatment, this material entered speedily into consumption, and -has tended more than anything else to promote the development of the -Paper-trade by enabling the manufacturers to keep pace with the rapidly -increasing demand. - -The importations of "ESPARTO," which did not amount to 1000 tons in -the year 1860 (indeed up to that date I was the only manufacturer -using it[A]), rose to upwards of 50,000 tons in the year 1865, and by -1871--ten years only from its introduction--the annual imports had -attained the large total of 140,000 tons. - -"ESPARTO" being a wild grass (or, botanically speaking, a sedge) -growing on waste lands, in Spain and Africa, owing to the greed of -the native collectors--who, while gathering the plant, pluck it up -recklessly, roots and all--is being gradually but surely exterminated. - -The complete exhaustion of the plant is proceeding very rapidly in -Spain; and as it is estimated by the best informed authorities that it -will take, even with the greatest care and under the most favourable -conditions, at least fifteen years to reproduce it from seed (a system -not very likely to be pursued in that country,) at no very remote -period this valuable paper-making material appears doomed to extinction. - -During the last few years a large and increasing supply of "ESPARTO," -or as it is there called "_Alfa_," has been received from Africa; -and although the quality of African Esparto is not valued by the -paper-trade as high as the Spanish, still it meets with a ready sale, -being used to mix with, or in substitution of the latter. - -As much as 60,000 tons were imported last year (1874) from Algeria, -and great inducements by concessions and otherwise, are offered by the -French Government to induce railway communication with the interior -districts of that country, where the plant is said to abound on some of -the mountainous plateaux, and thus for some little time the market may -be supplied, but the difficulty of procuring labour, and the cost of -railway carriage for such long distances, will add considerably to the -present charges of transit to this country. - -Within the last two or three years, the Belgian and American -Paper-makers have commenced using "Esparto," and so latterly have the -French, and as our main sources of supply will now be Algeria, (a -French colony,) any material reduction in prices can hardly be looked -for. - -"ESPARTO," like other commercial products, is amenable to the law -of supply and demand; and thus, as the demand is, and is likely to -continue in excess of the supply, its cost has enormously increased, -the price it now commands in the market being nearly double that, -at which I sold many thousand tons during the early years of its -introduction. - -The Paper-manufacturers are thus again experiencing the same difficulty -recognized by THE LORDS OF THE TREASURY, and by THE BOARD OF TRADE in -1854, and which more recently was considered of sufficient importance -to induce the appointment of a SELECT COMMITTEE ordered by THE HOUSE OF -COMMONS in 1861: - -"To inquire into the DUTIES OR PROHIBITIONS in FOREIGN COUNTRIES on the -EXPORT OF RAGS used in the MANUFACTURE OF PAPER in the UNITED KINGDOM, -and their effect upon that MANUFACTURE." - -The COMMITTEE REPORTED: "That the production of paper in this country -is in excess of the supply of the material of which it is made, and -the paper manufacture is in consequence dependent for a large portion -of its supplies on foreign Rags, amounting to about 15,000 tons per -annum, which is by estimation a fifth of the whole quantity of Rags -used for the manufacture of white paper in this country, on nearly the -whole of which heavy export duties are paid." - -Another paragraph of the COMMITTEE'S "REPORT" states: "That the -Committee have directed their especial attention to inquiring as to the -possibility of applying any _New Fibre_ as a substitute for the refuse -material now in use for Paper-making purposes, and find that great -efforts have been made to discover some material of this nature, but as -yet with little success; and although they see no reason to doubt that -Straw and other fibrous substances may form a supplementary part of the -material for paper-making, the great comparative expense of chemically -reducing these _Raw Fibres_ presents difficulties to their becoming a -substitute for the refuse material now used." - -Since the above "REPORT" was published, the position of the Trade has -materially altered. The export duties in some countries have been -abolished, in others reduced; Rag material has increased in quantity -and diminished in price; "the difficulties of chemically reducing _Raw -Fibres_" no longer exist; and the "15,000 _tons_ of Rags" estimated -by the "COMMITTEE" as the requirements of the Trade have been more -than "substituted" by the 150,000 _tons of_ "ESPARTO" _and other Raw -material_, now annually imported, while the development of the chemical -trade keeping pace with the introduction of "RAW FIBRES" has materially -facilitated their employment. - -Caustic soda, but little known in 1861, is now extensively -manufactured, and Weldon's new process has greatly increased the power -of production and diminished the cost of manufacturing bleaching -powder; thus "the comparative expense of chemically reducing _Raw -Fibres_" is no longer an obstacle to progress. - -The manufacturer of the present day will, in fact, undertake to make -paper from any raw fibre, or fibrous substance that may be submitted to -him. - -He has, however, several questions to consider before he will commit -himself to purchase or contract for any new fibrous material, these -being: its cost, not merely as a raw material, but in the details -of manufacture, and the quality of the paper that can economically -be made from such fibre, either alone, or introducing it as a blend -with the material he at present employs; then, assuming these points -satisfactorily determined, he would desire to know the quantity of such -material annually available, with some guarantee for continuous and -reliable supply at a price not liable to erratic fluctuations. - -The value of "ESPARTO" as a Paper-making material having been -recognized, and its employment almost universally adopted in the Trade, -naturally led to various attempts to introduce other "_new material_," -which hitherto, however, have met with only partial success: the -"DWARF PALM," _Chamoerops humilis_, and "DISS," as well as some -other materials from North Africa, have been tried and abandoned as -unsuitable: "JUTE" also has latterly attracted considerable attention; -"Butts" or "Cuttings," as they are termed, the refuse from the -preparation of the long clean fibre now so largely used as a Textile, -have entered extensively into consumption, being imported from India -specially for paper-makers' use, packed in hydraulic-pressed bales; -but this fibre is difficult and costly to bleach perfectly, and is -only employed for the lower class of "News" and "Common printing," or -unbleached, for "Brown" and "Wrapping" papers; but as it has long been -familiar to the trade in the form of Waste, Gunny-bagging, and Rope, it -can hardly be termed a "_New Material_." - -Two or three other excellent fibrous materials may be mentioned, small -parcels of which are occasionally to be met with, that are, or more -correctly speaking would be, much prized by Paper-manufacturers if -obtainable at reasonable rates, such as "ADANSONIA BARK," "NEW ZEALAND -FLAX," "MANILLA HEMP," "SUNN," and other INDIAN, HEMP-LIKE FIBRES, -all of which will bleach well and make paper of superior quality; but -unfortunately the quantity available is so small, and the supply so -irregular and uncertain, that they can hardly be relied upon as "_Raw -Material_." - -"WOOD," both chemically and mechanically prepared, has been, and indeed -is now, used to a very considerable extent; but the latter, produced -by grinding down "billets" from the tree as cut down, on a grindstone -to a pulp, with water, or without water, to the condition of flour, -contains but little fibre, and that fibre with very little "felting" -property (an essential for a good sheet of paper); thus it can only be -used as a "filler-up" for "cheap News" and common papers, like "clay" -(facetiously called in the trade Devonshire linen), or any other adulterant -which the necessities of the Paper-maker, to meet the market, (_or in other -words deficient supply of good and cheap suitable material_) compel -him to use. - -"WOOD," chemically prepared, is costly in production, as it is only -possible to reduce it into _Pulp_, by boiling under very high pressure, -with strong caustic alkali; several mills established both in England -and Scotland, to carry out this manufacture, have abandoned it, and -such _Pulp_ as is now used in the Trade is derived exclusively from the -countries where the wood is grown. The _Pulp_ thus produced, although -somewhat hard and harsh, if the wood is carefully selected, and -properly prepared, will, blended with other material, produce a fair -quality of paper. - -The use of "STRAW," from the "_Cereals_," WHEAT, OATS, and RYE, has -of late years greatly extended, both in this country and throughout -the continent of Europe, as well as in the United States of America, -either alone or as an admixture with rags and other material, for -all classes of paper, as these countries equally with England suffer -from a deficient supply of _Raw Material_; but in England, owing to -the increased consumption for agricultural and feeding purposes, and -influenced also by the scarcity and high prices lately ruling for -"ESPARTO" in many districts, "STRAW" has become very difficult to -obtain, and considerable quantities have in consequence been imported -from Holland and Belgium, both raw, and as bleached _Pulp_. - -I may here mention two other fibrous substances, which have from time -to time attracted considerable attention, viz. "MAIZE LEAVES" and "RICE -STRAW," both of them _raw materials_, from which a fair quality of -paper is produced in the countries where these plants are cultivated; -but, as in their natural condition after being harvested they are far -too bulky to permit of transport to this country, they would have to be -reduced to a portable form where they grow, and even then, owing to the -small yield of "_true fibre_," their economical conversion is somewhat -doubtful, unless under favourable conditions. - -The daily increasing demand for PAPER being recognized, and the -impending if not immediate scarcity of _Raw Material_ available for its -manufacture, up to the present time, having been shown, to what quarter -must the Trade look for an extended supply? - -This it must be admitted has become an important question for -consideration, it being evident that unless some "_New Material_" -suitable for the purpose is speedily introduced, the "PAPER TRADE," -one of the most important in the UNITED KINGDOM, will be seriously -crippled; meanwhile of necessity high prices are maintained, and as a -natural consequence the consumer suffers. - - -FIBRE-PRODUCING PLANTS--SOURCES OF SUPPLY. - -The high value of land precludes the cultivation of any fibrous -material exclusively for paper-making in England, even if this climate -was suitable for its growth; with the exception indeed of "FLAX" and -"HEMP," it would appear that northern latitudes are not favourable for -the production of fibre-producing plants, and therefore it is to warm -or _tropical countries_ alone any reliable supply of "NEW MATERIAL" can -be looked for. - -In the _East_, and _West Indies_, in her _Colonies_ and _Dependencies_, -England possesses an inexhaustible supply of fibre-producing plants; in -India especially, almost every plant abounds more or less in fibre. - -In China and Japan, as also in India, from the earliest times, paper -has been made exclusively from _raw indigenous virgin fibres_, and the -paper produced in these countries is in consequence generally extremely -strong and tough, and although unbleached, and not made in a fashion -adapted to European requirements, affords ample and conclusive evidence -of the valuable supply of material at our disposal. - -VEGETABLE FIBROUS, or FIBRE-PRODUCING PLANTS, are divided by BOTANISTS -into two distinct CLASSES or DIVISIONS: ENDOGENS, or inside growers; -EXOGENS, or outside growers. - -From the former are obtained the fibres known as "MANILLA HEMP" or -"ABACA" (from the _Musa textilis_ or _Plantain_), the "ALOE," "AGAVÉ" -(or "_Pita_ _Fibre_"), the "YUCCA," "BROMELIA PENGUIN," "SISAL HEMP" -(or _Hannequin_); "PINA FIBRE" from the "PINE APPLE" (_Ananassa -sativa_), "MAROOL or MOORVA" (_Sanseveira Zeylanica_), "NEW ZEALAND -FLAX" (_Phormium tenax_), &c.; "MAIZE" (or _Indian Corn_), "RICE," -and other "CEREAL STRAWS," "ESPARTO," "DISS," and various "Sedges," -"Reeds," and "Grasses," the latter including "BAMBOO," and "SUGAR -CANE," are also comprised in this Class. - -The FIBRES, or FIBROUS TISSUE enveloping the _Stems_ of _Herbaceous -Plants_, known as "HEMP," "FLAX," "JUTE," "HIBISCUS," (_Gombo_ or -_Okhro_), "RHEA," or "CHINA-GRASS" (_Urtica nivea_), "SUNN HEMP" -(_Cratolaria juncea_), &c., as also the LACE BARKS (so called), such -as the "ADANSONIA DIGITATAS" (from the _Baobab_ tree), the "NEPAL -PAPER PLANT" (_Daphne cannabina_), the "PAPER MULBERRY" (_Broussonetia -papyrifera_), &c., constitute the latter Class. - -I have confined myself to recapitulating _a few only_ of the _fibres_ -in either class, best known to commerce; this list, indeed, might be -extended almost indefinitely, as may be seen by reference to the work -before alluded to, 'The Fibrous Plants of India,' by Dr. Forbes Royle, -as also to the elaborate Paper on the same subject, read at the meeting -of the Society of Arts, May 9, 1860, by Dr. J. Forbes Watson, Reporter -on the Products of India, Dr. Royle's able successor. - -With some few exceptions (notably "Esparto" and some of the Cereal -straws and grasses), the resulting or ultimate fibres from vegetable -fibrous plants, before they can be utilized either for Textile -purposes, or for the manufacture of Paper, must be freed from the -extraneous substances with which during their growth they are more or -less combined. - -In the case of _Endogens_, the fibres are imbedded or enveloped in -succulent, fleshy, or pulpy stems, or leaves; and in the case of -_Exogens_, the fibre is combined with, and attaching to, wood, or woody -matter, such extraneous substances or matters constituting, more or -less, a considerable portion both of the weight and bulk of the plant -even when matured. - - -TREATMENT OF FIBRE-PRODUCING PLANTS. - -From all, or nearly all, _Endogenous_ plants the fibres are extracted -by hand labour, no machinery having been hitherto invented by which -this operation can be performed in an economical and satisfactory -manner. - -The fleshy stems, or leaves, of this class of plants are crushed and -beaten, macerated in water, scraped and roughly combed, to separate the -fibrous from the vascular, or pulpy portion of the plant; sometimes -the plants are buried in wet sand, or mud, leaving them to soak, or -rot, for many days, then beaten on a stone, scraped, and combed; but by -this system the fibres generally lose colour and strength. The yield of -fibre from this class of _Endogens_ ranges from 6 to 12 per cent., and -it is only where native labour is exceedingly cheap and abundant that -such a laborious and tedious process could be carried on. - -The majority of the fibres from _Exogenous_ plants are also, in -somewhat a similar manner obtained solely by manual labour; the -herbaceous, or woody stems of such plants, being first steeped, or -retted, to induce partial fermentation, and facilitate the separation -of the corticular fibres, from the woody stem. - -When produced in Europe, Flax and Hemp form an exception, being -generally dried before steeping, which process is also more -systematically and regularly conducted, and the subsequent separation -of the ultimate fibres effected by breaking, scutching, and heckling; -these operations being as far as possible carried out mechanically. - -When the cost of cultivation, of carriage, freight to this country, -charges and merchants' profit, are added to the outlay involved -in producing clean fibres by the laborious and tedious processes -described, even with the exceedingly cheap labour of _tropical -countries_, it will readily be understood that they cannot be sold at a -cheap rate. - -When the above outlay has been incurred, and clean merchantable fibre -results, such fibre will generally secure a high price in the market -for Spinning, Roping, and other Textile purposes, far beyond the -Paper-maker's limits, who therefore can only avail himself of damaged -parcels, or such as, being of low or inferior quality, have been -rejected by the "Spinner," and, even then, has to come into competition -with the maker of low-class goods, the common "sacking and mat-maker," -as any fibre of fair strength, long enough to spin into a coarse yarn, -commands good value in the market. - -It will be obvious from the preceding remarks that the -Paper-manufacturer, for an extended supply of _Material_, must look -to a _fibre_ or fibrous substance which, either like "Esparto," can -be utilized direct, without having to pass through this process of -semi-manufacture, or to some other "_New Material_," which, from the -peculiarity either of its production or growth, and to the simplicity -and economy of its treatment, can be imported into this country, in a -condition suitable for his requirements. - -Knowing from personal observation the peculiarities of the growth, -production, and collection of the "ESPARTO" plant, and believing -the time would come when the supply would be unequal to the demand -(although I must admit, owing to the rapid extension of the -Paper-trade, that time has arrived sooner than I anticipated), I -have long and continuously kept my attention directed to any "_New -Material_" which appeared likely to become available for Paper-making -purposes. - -For many years past, I have devoted much time to the investigation of -_Fibres_, during which period I have, I believe, tested both chemically -and practically as a Paper-maker, nearly every _fibrous material_ -introduced into the market, with, as may naturally be supposed, -extremely variable results. - -Before any "_New Material_" will be favourably received by the -Paper-manufacturer, it is clear that certain conditions must be -fulfilled; these being that such "_Material_" shall favourably compare, -so far as regards quality and cost, with those he now employs, -and that he shall feel satisfied he may rely upon a continuity of -supply, not subject to violent fluctuations in price. - -Once assured on these points, there can be no doubt that, especially -under existing circumstances (viz. deficient supply and high prices), -the Paper-trade would gladly welcome the advent of any "_New Material_" -calculated to relieve the present, or apprehended scarcity. - - -NEW MATERIALS. - -Fortunately for the Paper-trade, and its supply of materials in the -future, two _raw fibrous substances_ exist, to which I now desire -to direct special attention, as I believe it would be difficult, if -not impossible, to meet with any others to compare with them in the -essential points, of reliable supply at extremely low cost combined -with quality. - -With this conviction I have devoted much attention to perfecting a -simple and economical system of treating them, in order to produce a -fibrous "_Paper-Stock_," considering _that_ to be the most practicable -and best form in which they can be introduced into the Market. - -One of these materials, "MEGASSE," or "BEGASSE," fulfils the main -conditions which would be looked for by the Paper-manufacturer, -inasmuch as vast quantities are available at a low cost, and owing to -the peculiarity of its production being the necessary by-product of -a large and widely spread staple industry--Sugar--not subject to the -ordinary irregularity of supply. - -"MEGASSE," the fibrous residue of the Sugar-Cane (after it has been -crushed to extract the juice), properly prepared, affords a strong, -nervous fibre, or "_Fibrous Stock_," which bleaches well, and possesses -all the characteristics of a first-class Paper-making material. - -"MEGASSE" however, as it comes from the crushing rolls, and even when -dried after crushing, is so exceedingly bulky, that (being produced -almost exclusively in tropical countries) the cost of carriage added -to its great liability to damage from fermentation, precludes the -possibility of its being imported to England in its crude state; -moreover, the true fibrous portion of "Megasse" does not amount to -more than 40 per cent., the remainder being constituted of CELLULOSE, -combined with glutenous and other compounds, which of themselves are -useless for Paper-making, and which consequently must be separated from -the residuary or ultimate fibre. - -It follows, therefore, that "MEGASSE" must be converted into a _Fibrous -Stock_ at, or near, the Sugar factory where it is produced, then dried, -and put up in hydraulic-pressed bales for economical transport. - -The present value of "MEGASSE" (in its crude condition as produced) -is relatively to that of fuel, as, unless it is returned to the soil -as manure (which is the practice in some countries), it is employed -in the Sugar factories, for raising steam, for motive power, and for -evaporating the Cane juice. - -As the value of "Megasse" thus considered is very low, factories -established in connection with existing sugar mills for the manufacture -of "_Paper-Stock_," where sufficient quantities of so bulky a material -could be concentrated, and where other favourable conditions exist (of -which an abundant supply of water is an essential), would yield a large -profit to the planter or sugar manufacturer, as the "_Paper-Stock_" -he would produce would meet with a ready sale at prices at least -equivalent to "ESPARTO," reduced to the same condition. - -Having made "_Paper-Stock_," and "_Paper_" of good quality from -"MEGASSE," and determined the profitable result of such a manufacture -beyond dispute, I look forward at no very distant date to see the -Paper-trade of this country receiving, at least, a portion of its -_raw material_ from some of our own _Colonies_ and _Dependencies_ (in -most of which Sugar is produced), instead of, as now, being entirely -dependent on Foreign Countries for supply. - -It is estimated that the consumption of sugar in England amounts -annually to upwards of 800,000 tons, or about 57 lb. per head of the -population; and as it may be assumed that for each ton of sugar 1 ton -of "Megasse" at least is produced, it will be seen that a large reserve -of _Fibrous Material_ is available, awaiting the enterprise of either -the Sugar or the Paper-manufacturer or a combination of both. - -It is now my object to show to the _Two parties_ mainly interested, the -PRODUCER and the CONSUMER, how closely their interests are coincident, -and how both would be benefited by the creation and development of a -new INDUSTRY. - -The PRODUCER, the Sugar-manufacturer, is, in point of fact -suffering from a similar competition to that experienced by the -Paper-manufacturer in 1861--handicapped by the _drawback_ allowed on -the export of FRENCH, AND BELGIAN, BEET-ROOT SUGAR, with which he is -unable to compete, in the same manner as the Paper-maker suffered from -the introduction of FRENCH, AND BELGIAN, PAPER--_free_, while the RAW -MATERIAL--RAGS, paid a heavy _export duty_. - -The CONSUMER, the Paper-manufacturer, is suffering from a lack of -suitable material, which the Producer is able to supply, and by so -supplying and utilizing a by-product, hitherto of little value to him, -places himself in a position to meet his competitors on equal, if not -better terms in the market. - -It is true, that this (to him) new system of utilizing what may now be -termed a waste, or by-product, would involve the outlay of additional -capital, by the Sugar-planter or manufacturer, which he may deem -foreign to his present business, but manufacturers now-a-days make -their profits mainly by utilizing by-products. - -A familiar instance of this may be cited in the Chemical trade; the -muriatic acid produced in the manufacture of soda, formerly run to -waste, being now employed for making bleaching powder; and, still more -recently, the by-products annaline, anthracene, ammonia, &c., which -formerly created a nuisance wherever Gas-Works existed, now constitute -a large portion of their profits. - -"BAMBOO," the other _Raw Material_ to which I have alluded, can hardly -be called "_New_," it being well known that both the Chinese and -Japanese have from time immemorial employed "Bamboo" for Paper-making -purposes; and I have shown in the preceding "Remarks" that attempts -have more recently been made, not hitherto affording successful -commercial results. - -It therefore would have been more correct had I, in directing -attention to "BAMBOO," described it as an "_Old material_" under -"_New treatment_." Such indeed was the case with "ESPARTO," an "_Old -material_," well known, and tried ineffectually by many, previous to -my process for converting it into paper being adopted, which, however, -did not take place until it had been fully tested and approved, leading -then to its speedy employment. - -I believe with my new system of treatment "BAMBOO" will prove to be as -superior to "Esparto," in every respect as "Esparto" was found to be -superior to "Straw," the only other "_raw material_" used when it was -introduced. - -"BAMBOO" differs from "MEGASSE," inasmuch as the latter is produced, as -it were, involuntarily, its maximum value as a "_raw product_" being -determined by its comparison with fuel; whereas "BAMBOO" would have to -be cultivated; but, as this plant will not only grow, but flourish, in -localities unsuitable for other cultivation, and is produced with such -extraordinary rapidity and abundance, it would appear that, as a _Raw -Product_, it would not cost much, if any, more than "MEGASSE." - -It is hardly my province to discuss here to which of the two materials, -"MEGASSE" or "BAMBOO," the preference should be given. Suffice it to -say that, with "_the admitted fact_" of the increasing scarcity of _Raw -Material_ for Paper-making, there is ample scope for both. I have only -to add that I shall be happy to advise with parties who may desire to -interest themselves in either question. - - -CONCLUSION. - -As I have broadly stated that "_Paper-Stock_" can be produced from both -"BAMBOO" and "MEGASSE," to show a good _Profit_, it may be well to -mention the present cost of "ESPARTO" reduced to the same condition (of -"_Paper-Stock_"), as it is with this _Material_ these _Fibres_ would -mainly have to compete, seeing that with its large consumption and -widely extended use for most classes of Paper it now rules the Market. - -The cost of good _Spanish_ "ESPARTO" at current rates, is, delivered -into a Mill (say), 10_l._ per ton; it is generally assumed in the -Paper-trade that about 2 tons of "Esparto" are required to make 1 ton -paper, the yield being from 48 to 50 per cent. - -At 50 per cent. yield therefore we have 20_l._ per ton for "_Raw -Material_." Add to this, for chemicals, boiling, fuel, and labour, -50_s._ × 2 tons, we arrive at 25_l._ for the cost of "Esparto" in the -same condition of _unbleached_ "_Stock_," sufficient for 1 ton paper. - -"ALFA" or "_African_" Esparto does not afford so good a yield, neither -will it bleach to so high a colour, nor make so good a quality of paper -as "_Spanish_"; its value therefore is proportionately lower in the -Market, say 8_l._ per ton as compared with 10_l._: the cost therefore -of "Alfa" reduced to a similar condition of "_Stock_" may be taken at -21_l._ - -"ALFA" (if carefully selected) so closely resembles "_Spanish_" -"ESPARTO," in its _raw condition_, that it is very difficult to -distinguish one from the other, and when the two are skilfully blended, -it is impossible to do so, until the bleaching process of manufacture -is reached; thus, it has happened, that during the past two or three -years many thousands of tons of "ALFA," having taken a "tour" through -"_Spain_," and being there naturalized, have found their way to England -and been sold to the unsophisticated English Paper-maker as "_Spanish_" -"ESPARTO," thus supplementing the rapid exhaustion of the indigenous -grass of that country. - -"WOOD" "_Pulp_" as I have mentioned, is imported, both mechanically -and chemically prepared, the latter (unbleached) finding a ready sale, -at 24_l._ to 25_l._ per ton; "STRAW" "_Pulp_" also (bleached) realizes -26_l._ to 27_l._ per ton, but neither of these materials are likely to -be introduced to any considerable extent. - -"_Paper-Stock_," resulting from either "BAMBOO" or "MEGASSE," will show -a very large margin of profit from the figures I have quoted, thus -allowing for any necessary reduction should prices fall from increased -supplies. - -In concluding my "_Remarks_," having in the preceding Pages suggested -the conversion of "_Raw Fibrous Substances_," notably, "BAMBOO" and -"MEGASSE," into Fibrous "_Paper-Stock_," I ought perhaps distinctly -to explain the difference between "_Half-Stuff_," or "_Pulp_," and -"_Paper-Stock_," and my reasons for expressing a preference for the -latter form of preparation,--a preference warranted, I believe, both by -practical, and economical considerations. - -Whatever "_Material_" the Paper-maker employs, be it Rags (of any -denomination) or any other "_Fibre_," or "_Fibrous_," substance, after -Boiling, he disintegrates, or comminutes it into "_Half-Stuff_," -before, or while bleaching. This process, carried a stage farther, -converts the "_Half-Stuff_" into "_Pulp_." Herein, not less than in -the proper selection of his "_Raw Material_," lies the skill of the -Paper-maker, as, however good his "_Material_" may be, in its _Raw_ -or normal condition, it may be very easily spoilt in either of the -processes of Boiling,--Bleaching,--or Pulping. - -For example, when Bread is once toasted, thereby becoming brown (and -the purer and whiter the greater the change), whereby its chemical and -mechanical character has become altered, no power can reconvert it into -its original condition; in like manner, however good a "_Raw Fibrous -Material_" may be, if that "_Material_" be either over-boiled, or -over-pulped, no power will restore its normal character. - -Moreover, a "_Fibrous_" substance once reduced to the condition of -"_Pulp_," it is difficult, if not impossible, even for a Microscopist, -to distinguish accurately the character or quality of the original -"_Fibre_,"--its strength,--or whether it has been properly or -improperly treated, and reduced to that condition--until, perhaps -too late, when he has bleached it, and converted it, or attempted to -convert it, into a sheet of Paper. - -With a Fibrous "_Paper-Stock_," however, these objections do not apply, -or certainly not to the same degree, as the Paper-maker could readily -examine and judge of the character and strength of the "_Fibre_" -whether it was clean and free from imperfections or adulterations--in -fact, could see what he was buying, or proposing to buy, which he could -not do with "_Half-Stuff_" or "_Pulp_." - -So far as the Producer is concerned, his outlay for the primary "Plant" -and the mechanical appliances, the cost of the subsequent treatment, -the drying, packing, and economical carriage and freight from a Foreign -country, would in all respects be less for "_Paper-Stock_" than for -"_Half-Stuff_" or "_Pulp_." - -Speaking from the experience of some years, during which I have -conducted the manufacture and sale of many thousand tons of -"_Half-Stuff_" prepared from "ESPARTO" and other "_Raw Fibres_," I -feel satisfied that in introducing a _New Semi-prepared Material_, -from a Foreign country, the preference would be given by the practical -Paper-maker to a "_Fibrous Paper-Stock_." - - THOMAS ROUTLEDGE. - - CLAXHEUGH, SUNDERLAND, - 1875. - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - - -[A] The Journal of the Society of Arts, 28th Nov., 1856, was printed -on paper made from Esparto, at Eynsham Mills, near Oxford, then in my -occupation. - - - - -Transcriber's Notes: - - -Passages in italics are indicated by _underscore_. - -Fractions are displayed as follows: 1/2 correlates with 1 half, 1-1/2 -correlates with 1 and a half.... - -On page 15 some text is missing it is marked as ***. - -Other than the corrections listed below, printer's inconsistencies -in spelling, punctuation, hyphenation, and ligature usage have been -retained. - -The following misprints have been corrected: - - changed "with "HEMP' and "FLAX," where" - into "with "HEMP" and "FLAX," where" - (page 8) - - changed "the "15,000 _tons_ of Rags estimated by" - into "the "15,000 _tons_ of Rags" estimated by" - (page 22) - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Bamboo, Considered as a Paper-making -Material, by Thomas Routledge - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BAMBOO *** - -***** This file should be named 54090-8.txt or 54090-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/4/0/9/54090/ - -Produced by Iris Schröder-Gehring, Chris Curnow and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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