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THE WRITER’S DESK BOOK


      *      *      *      *      *      *

OTHER BOOKS BY MR. ORCUTT

 GOOD OLD DORCHESTER. _A Narrative History_

 PRINCESS KALLISTO, _and other Tales of the Fairies_

 ROBERT CAVELIER. _A Novel_

 THE FLOWER OF DESTINY. _A Novel_

 THE SPELL. _A Novel_

 THE LEVER. _A Novel_

 THE MOTH. _A Novel_

      *      *      *      *      *      *


The Writer’s Desk Book

_Being a reference volume upon questions of_ PUNCTUATION ·
CAPITALIZATION · SPELLING · DIVISION OF WORDS · INDENTION · SPACING
ITALICS · ABBREVIATIONS ACCENTS · NUMERALS · FAULTY DICTION · LETTER
WRITING POSTAL REGULATIONS · _Etc_ · _Etc_

_By_ WILLIAM DANA ORCUTT
_for many years Head of The University Press · Cambridge · Now
associated with_ THE PLIMPTON PRESS · _Norwood Mass._







New York · FREDERICK·A·STOKES COMPANY · Publishers · MCMXIII

Copyright, 1912, by
Frederick A. Stokes Co.

Second Edition

[Illustration: FAS Co. _September, 1912_]

The · Plimpton · Press
[W · D · O]
Norwood · Mass · U · S · A




CONTENTS


                                                    PAGE

 PUNCTUATION                                          1

  Importance of correct punctuation — punctuation
  marks and accents — the comma — the semicolon — the
  colon — the period — the dash — the exclamation —
  the interrogation — quotation-marks — parentheses —
  brackets — the apostrophe — the hyphen

 CAPITALIZATION                                      20

  Of religious terms — of proper names — of titles — of
  institutional terms — of references — of ordinals —
  in general — use of small capitals

 SPELLING                                            31

  Importance of adopting an authority — basic rules for
  numbers and diphthongs — simple rules of orthography
  — accented words — participles — variable endings —
  list of variable spellings

 COMPOUND WORDS                                      45

  General theory — changes in modern uses — rules and
  examples

 DIVISION OF WORDS                                   52

  Rules and examples

 INDENTION AND PARAGRAPHING                          55

  Various forms used in display — en échelon —
  irregular — hanging — reverse — lozenge — blocked —
  definition of the paragraph — its value — kinds of
  paragraphs — length of paragraph

 SPACING                                             59

  General principles — kerned letters — examples of
  varying spaces

 ITALIC                                              62

  Its origin — its uses — when required and when not

 ABBREVIATIONS                                       65

  Of dates — of proper names — of titles — commercial
  — of given names — geographical — miscellaneous —
  scriptural — monetary signs — mathematical signs —
  medical signs

 NUMERALS                                            93

  History of their evolution — lists

 CORRECT AND FAULTY DICTION                          99

  Dr. Campbell’s canons — good usage — list of words
  and phrases commonly misused

 LETTER WRITING                                     114

  Its importance — business, informal, formal — the
  heading — the address — the salutation — the text
  — the complimentary close — the signature — the
  envelope — postal cards — in general — examples

 POSTAL INFORMATION                                 129

  Classes of mail — parcel post — wrapping of mail
  matter — forwarding mail matter — what cannot be
  mailed — concealed matter — domestic rates — foreign
  rates — exceptions — foreign parcels post — money
  order fees — registered mail — special delivery
  system — postal distances and time from New York City

 APPENDIX                                           142

  Standard time — values of foreign coins — comparative
  thermometers — weights and measures — British weights
  and measures

 INDEX                                              163

{ 1}




THE WRITER’S DESK BOOK

{2}

PUNCTUATION MARKS, ACCENTS, ETC.


 ,     Comma
 ;     Semicolon
 :     Colon
 .     Period
 ?     Interrogation
 !     Exclamation
 ()    Parentheses
 []    Brackets
 ’     Apostrophe
 -     Hyphen
 ´     Acute accent
 `     Grave accent
 ^     Circumflex accent
 ~     Circumflex or tilde
 ̄     Long or macron
 ˘     Short or breve
 ¨     Dieresis
 ç     Cedilla
 ‸     Caret
 “ ”   Quotation-marks
 {}    Brace
 * * *  Ellipsis
 . . .  Ellipsis, leaders
 *     Asterisk
 †     Dagger
 ‡     Double dagger
 §     Section
 ‖     Parallels
 ¶     Paragraph
 ☞     Index
 * * *   Asterisks

The Section-mark is derived from the first letters of the words _signum
sectionis_, meaning sign of the section, the old-fashioned _∫_ being
used. The paragraph mark ¶ is the roman letter P reversed, with black
and white interchanged.

{3}




PUNCTUATION


In early manuscripts the words followed one another without punctuation
points, thus making it difficult for readers to separate the ideas into
the same parts as originally intended by the authors. Later they were
separated by dots or other marks, which method obtained in the earliest
printed volumes. Aldus Manutius (Venice, 1490–1515) and his family
were the pioneers in establishing a basis for systematic punctuation.
From this chaotic condition definite rules have gradually been evolved
for general guidance, but judgment and taste must always be the final
guides to correct punctuation. Assistance may be obtained by observing
a few simple rules which are based upon the idea that the purpose of
every punctuation mark is to indicate to the eye the construction of
the sentence in which it occurs.

No one of the various punctuation marks should ever be used exclusively
or to excess, for each one has some specific duty which it can perform
better than any other. It is always wise to question why, in a given
case, a punctuation mark should be put in rather than why it should
be left out, for of the two evils an over-punctuated book is the more
objectionable. “Close punctuation,” {4} characterized by the use of
many commas, prevailed in the English of the eighteenth century and
is today the best French usage, but “open punctuation,” which avoids
the use of any point not clearly required by the construction, is now
favored by the best English writers.


THE COMMA

Dean Alford once wrote, in disgust, “The great enemies to understanding
anything in our language are the commas,” and prided himself that
in the course of editing the Greek text of the New Testament, he
destroyed more than a thousand of these “enemies.” The chief use of
this, the smallest degree of separation, is to define the particles
and minor clauses of a sentence. It should always be placed inside the
quotation-marks when used in connection with them.


The comma is required:

1. Before a conjunction when the preceding word is qualified by an
expression which is not intended to qualify the word following the
conjunction: e.g., _He suddenly started, and fell_.

2. Between adjectives and adverbs when not connected by a conjunction:
_He possessed a calm, exasperating manner_; but the comma may be
omitted between two adjectives when the idea is close: e.g., _A clear
cold day_. {5}

3. After adjectives and adverbs where three or more are used in
succession: e.g., _The man possessed a calm, cynical, exasperating
manner_.

4. In a succession of three or more words where the conjunctive _and_
is used before the last one: e.g., _He was tall, thin, and pale_.

5. When the word after the conjunction is followed by an expression
which qualifies that word alone: e.g.,

 _’Twas certain he could write, and cipher too._

6. After inverted phrases and clauses: e.g., _Discouraged by constant
opposition, he resigned his position_. Short phrases of similar nature
do not require the comma: e.g., _Of his intentions there could be no
doubt_.

7. To separate the adverbs _however_, _now_, _then_, _too_, _perhaps_,
and _indeed_ from the context when they are used as conjunctions: e.g.,
_This idea, however, had not occurred to him_. When these words are
used as adverbs, the comma is not required: e.g., _It must be done,
however contrary it may be to our present advantage_.

8. To separate parenthetical or intermediate expressions from the
context: e.g., _His intentions, though at first concealed, became
obvious_.

9. After the last word of a series composed of several words not
connected by conjunctions: e.g., _The men, the women, the children
even, were up in arms_. {6}

10. Between words or phrases in apposition with each other: e.g., _I
refer to Mr. Taylor, the father of Scientific Management_. But when
used as a single phrase or a compound name, no comma is required: e.g.,
_The poet Tennyson was born in 1809_.

11. Between the name of a person and his title or degree: e.g.,
_Charles W. Eliot, President Emeritus_; _Woodrow Wilson, LL.D._

12. Between two independent clauses connected by a conjunction: e.g.,
_The door was barricaded, but we managed to open it_.

13. Between relative clauses which are explanatory of an antecedent,
or which present an additional thought: e.g., _Her voice, which was
charming in her own drawing-room, was not powerful enough for a public
auditorium_. But relative clauses which limit the meaning of the
antecedent (called _restrictive_) do not require the comma: e.g., _He
did that which he was obliged to do_.

14. Between two clauses, one of which depends on the other, and usually
introduced by _if_, _when_, _unless_, _though_, _where_, _wherever_,
etc.: e.g., _If we stand together, success is assured_. If the clauses
are closely connected both in sense and construction, the comma is not
required: e.g., _William was ten years old when his father moved to
Boston_.

15. In compound sentences, to separate the co-ordinate clause when
closely related and simple in construction: e.g., _He was_ {7}
_courteous, not cringing, to superiors; affable, not familiar, to
equals; and kind, but not condescending, to inferiors_.

16. To indicate an ellipsis: e.g., _Price, seventy-five cents_.

17. To separate vocative words or expressions from the context: e.g.,
_I leave it, gentlemen, to your sense of right and wrong_.

18. Before _not_, when introducing an antithetical clause: e.g., _He
devoted his attention to the matter before him, not because he was
interested, but because he could not avoid the issue_.

19. To separate similar or identical words, even though not required
by the sense or grammatical construction: e.g., _I tell you, you are
wrong_.

20. To separate two numbers: e.g., _March 1, 1912_; _In 1911, 869 cases
were reported_.

21. To separate a quotation or similar brief expression from the
preceding part of the sentence: e.g., _To quote the proverb, “Look
before you leap.”_

22. Before the word _of_, connecting a proper name with residence or
position: e.g., _Senator Lodge, of Massachusetts_.

23. After the salutatory phrase at the beginning of a letter, when
informal: e.g., _My dear Mother_, but, when formal, _Gentlemen_:


The comma is not required:

1. Before or after conjunctions such as _and_, _or_, _nor_, _but_, and
_yet_ when employed to {8} connect two words belonging to the same
part of speech and in the same construction: e.g., _Sink or swim, live
or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote_.
When words are not in pairs, the comma must be used: e.g., _Sink, die,
or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote_.

2. Before or after conjunctions when they are employed to connect two
expressions in the same construction used as if belonging to the same
part of speech: e.g., _The new system of management guarantees accuracy
in getting orders under way and promptness in completing them_.

3. Before the conjunction _too_ when placed at the end of a sentence:
e.g., _I hope that you will come too_.

4. Where there are two or more words or phrases having a conjunction
between each two: e.g., _Lest he should be tempted and yield and thus
be false_.

5. After an adjective that describes or limits another adjective
together with the noun following: e.g., _He had on a pair of torn gray
corduroy breeches_.

6. When a pronoun is used with a noun for emphasis: e.g., _Lafcadio
Hearn himself could not have described the scene more vividly_.


THE SEMICOLON

The semicolon is used to indicate a pause or a degree of separation
next greater than {9} the comma. Caxton was the first to introduce into
English printing the Roman points of punctuation as used in Italy. The
comma replaced the unwieldly |, and the colon was an added refinement,
but for some unexplained reason he steadfastly opposed the introduction
of the semicolon. This mark should always be placed outside the
quotation-marks unless forming a part of the quotation itself.


Use the semicolon:

1. When the members of a compound sentence are complex in construction
or contain commas: e.g., _He was courteous, not cringing, to superiors;
affable, but not familiar, to equals; and kind, but not condescending,
to inferiors_.

2. To connect successive sentences: e.g., _His face never showed an
emotion other than that which he wished to have seen there; the mouth
was protected by his heavy mustache; his eyes penetrated the object on
which they fixed themselves_. Shorter sentences should be divided by
commas.

3. Between expressions in a series which have a common dependence upon
words at the beginning or end of a sentence: e.g., _The half-sick man
is a nuisance to his entire household: he is not ill enough to accept
restraint; he is too ill to be reasonable_.

4. To separate passages containing chapters in scriptural references:
e.g., _Matt. 1 : 4–8, 12, 16; chap. 3; 8 : 16_. {10}


THE COLON

The colon is used between clauses of compound sentences, additional
clauses without a conjunction, formal quotations, and particulars
in apposition with a general term, to mark the necessity of a pause
greater than that indicated by the semicolon and less than that
indicated by the period. The colon is much less used today than
formerly, as modern writers employ shorter and less formal sentences
than those of a century ago. It should always be placed outside the
quotation-marks unless included as a part of the quotation itself.


Use the colon:

1. Before _as_, _viz._, _that is_, _namely_, etc., when these words
introduce a series of simple particular terms in apposition with
a general term: e.g., _There are three genders in Latin: namely,
masculine, feminine, and neuter_.

2. Between two members of a sentence when one or both are made up of
two or more clauses divided by semicolons: e.g., _Vallie was nervous in
his temperment; the Captain was calm and self-contained: Vallie was the
product of the city; the Captain was the product of the world_.

3. Between a complete sentence and an additional clause enlarging upon
the same idea without a conjunction: e.g., _Imagination_ {11} _is
essential to business success: without imagination, plans for future
development cannot intelligently be made_.

4. Before particulars definitely stated: e.g., _These new duties of the
management are grouped under four heads: first, they develop a science
for each element of a man’s work_, etc.

5. Before formal quotations: e.g., _In a recent speech attributed to
you by the daily press, you are reported to have used these words:
“Good principles follow good habits.”_

6. After the formal salutatory phrase at the beginning of a letter:
e.g., _Gentlemen_:[1] When less formality is desired, the comma may be
used: e.g., _My dear Mother_,

 [1] See page 117, §§ 2, 3, 4.

7. Between the hours and minutes in indicating time: e.g., _11 : 30_
A.M.

8. Between the chapter and verse in scriptural references: e.g., _Matt.
1 : 4–8, 12, 16; chap. 3; 8 : 16_.

9. Between the city of publication and the name of publisher in
literary references: e.g., _“The Adventures of Tom Sawyer” (New York:
Harpers)_.


THE PERIOD

Always place the period inside the quotation-marks and inside the
parentheses when parenthetical matter forms an independent sentence and
is not a part of the preceding sentence. {12}


Use the period:

1. After every abbreviation.

2. To set off decimal numbers from whole numbers.

3. After every complete sentence unless the sentence is interrogative
or exclamatory.

4. To indicate an ellipsis, repeating the mark three or more times
separated by spaces: e.g., . . .


Do not use the period:

1. After running-heads.

2. After cut-in side-notes.

3. After centered head-lines.

4. After box-heads in tables.

5. After legends beneath illustrations.

6. After subheads set in separate lines.

7. After date-lines at the top of letters.

8. After signatures at the end of letters.

9. At end of lines in display composition, such as titles,[2] blocked
headings, etc.

10. After roman numerals, even though they possess the value of
ordinals: e.g., _Vol. VIII_; _George V is king of England_.

 [2] First adopted by William Pickering, the London publisher, about
 1850.


THE DASH

The dash is more misused and overused than any of the other punctuation
marks. The following rules define its proper use: {13}


Use the dash:

1. Whenever the construction or the sense is suddenly changed or
suspended: e.g., _You cannot believe — but I will not humiliate myself
by asking the question_.

2. To connect extreme dates in specifying periods of time: e.g.,
_1912–1918_.

3. When the sentence is abruptly terminated: e.g., “_If he is alive, I
can make him one from this time; and if — if —_”

4. To secure rhetorical emphasis: e.g., _We are ready — we are more
than ready to meet the issue_.

5. To define verse references in the Bible: e.g., _Matt. 1:4–8_; or to
indicate page references in a book: e.g., _See pp. 21–42_.

6. Between short, snappy sentences to increase the speed of the
discourse: e.g., _Hullo! ho! the whole world’s asleep! — bring out the
horses, — grease the wheels, — tie on the mail!_

7. Between the subject-matter and its authority.

8. To indicate the omission of letters: e.g., _Mrs. B——_.

9. At the end of a series of phrases which depend upon a concluding
clause: e.g., _Courtesy and attention, patience and judgment, accuracy
and carefulness — these are but a few of the elements which constitute
successful business relations_. {14}

10. To precede expressions which are added to an apparently completed
sentence, but which refer to some previous part of the sentence: e.g.,
_The question of hearing was seriously troubling the minister — they
probably had heard too much_.

       *       *       *       *       *

¶ Dashes may be substituted for commas or marks of parenthesis before
and after expressions having closer connection with the main sentence
than could be indicated by marks of parenthesis: e.g., _They might have
been talking for a quarter of an hour or more, when Monks — by which
name the Jew had designated the strange man — said_, etc.

¶ Use the dash preceded by the colon before a long quotation forming a
new paragraph. The dash is not otherwise used with other punctuation
marks unless demanded by clearness.

¶ In France, printers use the dash as a frequent substitute for
quotation-marks in dialogue, placing quotation-marks only at the
beginning and the end, even though extended over several pages.


THE EXCLAMATION

The proper use of the exclamation-point lends force and vigor to
language in expressing surprise or emotion, but when overused it
cheapens intended pathos and thus defeats the writer’s purpose. It
should always be placed {15} outside the quotation-marks unless it is
a part of the quotation itself. The mark is formed from the word Io,
signifying joy, written vertically ̥I.


The exclamation-point is required:

1. At the end of a word or sentence to express strong emotion: e.g.,
_God forbid! “Mind that, Fagin!”_

2. To indicate sarcasm or doubt on the part of the writer regarding the
authenticity of a statement: e.g., “_For Brutus is an honorable man!_”

3. After exclamatory words. If the same interjection is repeated use
the comma to separate the words, placing the exclamation-point only
at the end, unless the intention is to make each of the repeated
words emphatic: e.g., _“Oh! dear, dear, dear!” he exclaimed; “what an
unfortunate memory you have!”_

¶ Use great care in distinguishing between _Oh!_, an interjection
expressing pain or surprise, and the vocative _O_, expressing a wish or
an imprecation, which does not call for the exclamation-point: e.g.,
“_Oh! what damned minutes tells he o’er!_” and “_O that I had wings
like a dove!_”


THE INTERROGATION

The interrogation-point is formed from the first and last letters of
the Latin word _quaestio_ (_a question_) placed one over the other; as
{16} ̥Q. It should always be placed outside the quotation-marks unless
it is a part of the quotation itself.

1. Every sentence containing a direct question should close with an
interrogation-point: e.g., _When can this order be shipped? We have
received a letter which asks, “What date can you give us for shipping
these goods?”_

2. The interrogation-point is used to express doubt: e.g., _This volume
is said to be bound in real (?) morocco_.

3. Indirect questions do not take the interrogation-point: e.g., _He
inquired when it would be ready_.


QUOTATION-MARKS

1. Enclose every direct quotation in double quotation-marks: e.g., _“I
insist upon it,” he said; “there is no alternative.”_

2. When a quotation of a passage from an author in his own words is run
into the text it should be placed between quotation-marks.

3. Selections from different works by the same author, or from
different authors, following each other without intervening original
matter, or by reference to their sources, should be quoted.

4. When setting poetry the quotation-marks should overhang the
beginning of the line. This should also be done when prose display
matter is “blocked.”

5. Single quotes are used for quotations {17} within quotations;
double quotes for quotations within single quotations.

6. Quotations should always include the phrase _etc._, and other
ellipses whenever necessary to secure perfect clearness.

7. When a long quotation is made, including several paragraphs or
verses, the quotation-mark should appear at the beginning of each
paragraph, but at the end of the last one only.


Quote:

1. A phrase or a word which is accompanied by its definition: e.g.,
_“Roman quote” means to place the matter indicated between quotations
in roman type_.

2. Words or phrases in the text which are intended by the writer
to possess an unusual, technical, or ironical meaning: e.g., _Her
literary “salon” will long be remembered_; _This so-called “captain of
industry.”_

3. Titles of poems, books, etc.: e.g., _Longfellow’s “Belfry of
Bruges.”_

4. Serial titles: e.g., _the “Oriental Series,”_ _“Stories of Nations.”_

5. Words to which the writer desires to attract attention: e.g., _The
name of “Florence” immediately causes one to think of humanism._

6. The names of ships, unless directed to italicize them.

7. The titles of works of art: e.g., _Raphael’s “Sistine Madonna.”_
{18}


PARENTHESES

1. Marks of parenthesis are employed to separate from the rest of the
sentence enclosed expressions having no essential connection: e.g., _I
am unable to take this action (why do you urge me?) for reasons which I
cannot now give_.

2. Figures or letters used to mark divisions in enumerations should be
placed between parentheses: e.g., _There is a double reason for doing
this: (a) it is the simplest form; (b) it is clearer for the reader_.


BRACKETS

Use brackets:

1. To enclose explanations or notes which are entirely independent of
the balance of the sentence. Ordinarily these are comments, queries,
directions, corrections, or criticisms inserted by some person other
than the original writer: e.g., _Let them clamor to get them back again
[cheers]_.

2. Rather than parentheses, to enclose drop-folios (folios placed at
foot of page).

3. For enclosing parenthetical statements within parentheses.


THE APOSTROPHE

Use the apostrophe (or the apostrophe and the letter _s_):

1. To form the possessive case of common and proper nouns: e.g.,
_The nation’s {19} hope_; _For Jesus’ sake_; _James’s apple_; _For
appearance’ sake_; _The boys’ camp_.

2. To form the plural of numerals, but the apostrophe alone for the
plural of polysyllabic proper nouns ending in a sibilant: e.g., _They
passed by in two’s and four’s_; _She is one of those W.C.T.U.’s_;
_That came from Perkins’_. Add _es_ or _s_ for monosyllabic proper
nouns: e.g., _The Fosses_. In general, the pronunciation may be taken
as a guide: if it is necessary to add a syllable to pronounce the
possessive, use the double _s_: e.g., _Sickles’ corps_, not _Sickles’s_.

3. Use the apostrophe to indicate the omission of one or more letters
in a contracted word, or the omission of figures in a number: e.g.,
_That’s ’ow ’twas_; _The spirit of ’76_; _High o’er our heads_; _I’ll_
for _I will_; _Don’t_ for _do not_, _sha’n’t_, etc.

4. The custom of substituting the apostrophe for the letter _e_ in
poetry, at one time common, is now obsolete: e.g., _At ev’ry word a
reputation dies_. This rule is disregarded when the letter is omitted
for metrical reasons.


THE HYPHEN

The hyphen is employed to join words together which have not become
single words through general usage, and where words are necessarily
broken at the end of a line. It is also used to separate the syllables
of words, in showing the correct pronunciation. (See Compound Words.)
{20}




CAPITALIZATION


The original use of capitals in early manuscripts was for the purpose
of variety and ornamentation, and their position was naturally subject
to each writer’s individual taste. Good form now prescribes certain
definite rules of capitalization as follows:


RELIGIOUS TERMS


Capitalize:

1. Titles of parables: e.g., _the parable of the Prodigal Son_, etc.

2. The books and divisions of the Bible and of other sacred books:
e.g., _Old Testament_, _Book of Job_, etc.

3. Versions of the Bible: e.g., _King James Version_, _Revised
Version_, etc.

4. The names of monastic orders and their members: e.g., _the Jesuits_,
_the Black Friars_, etc.

5. The word _Church_ when it stands for the Church universal, or when
part of a name: e.g., _the Church_, _the First Congregational Church_,
_the Church of Rome_; but use lower case when referring to _church
history_.

6. The word _Gospel_ when it refers to a book of the Bible, as the
_Gospel of John_, or {21} the _Gospels_; but use lower case when
referring to the _gospel message_.

7. Pronouns referring to _God_ or _Christ_ when used in direct address,
or whenever the reference might otherwise be mistaken.

8. General biblical terms: e.g., _Priestly Code_, _Apostles’ Creed_,
_Lord’s Prayer_, _Lord’s Supper_, _The Prophets_, and _Major and Minor
Prophets_, when the collection of prophetical books is intended; but
use lower case for the adjectives _biblical_ and _scriptural_.

9. Names applied to the Evil One, except when used as an expletive, or
as a general name for any demon: e.g.,

 “When the Devil was sick, the Devil a monk would be;
 When the Devil was well, the devil a monk was he.”

10. The word _Holy_ in the _Holy place_ and the _Holy of holies_.

11. The title of a psalm: e.g., the _Twenty-fourth Psalm_.

12. Capitalize the following:

 Almighty
 Authorized Version
 Common Version
 Creator
 Deity
 Father
 God
 Holy Bible
 Holy Spirit
 Holy Writ
 Jehovah
 Jesus Christ
 King
 Logos
 Lord
 Messiahship
 Messiah
 Messianic
 Passover
 Pentecost
 Redeemer
 Revised Version
 Sabbath
 Saviour
 Scriptures
 Son of Man
 Son
 Spirit
 The Trinity
 The Virgin Mary
 Word

{22}


Do not capitalize:

1. Words like _epistle_, _book_ (as the _book of Ruth_), _psalm_, or
_psalms_ when not used distinctively, or _psalmist_ when the author of
a single psalm is intended.

2. Words like _heaven_, _heavenly_, _hell_.

3. The words _fatherhood_ and _sonship_, _god_ when a pagan deity is
referred to, _temple_.


PROPER NAMES


Capitalize:

1. Epithets employed as substitutes for or affixes to proper names:
e.g., _Peter the Great_, _the Pretender_, etc.

2. The words _Pilgrim Fathers_ and _Early Fathers_ (referring to the
Early Church), etc.

3. The word _Revolutionary_ when referring to the Revolution of 1776:
e.g., _a Revolutionary soldier_.

4. The words _river_, _creek_, _brook_, _mountain_, _mine_, _district_,
_county_, _channel_, when used as a part of a title: e.g., _Hudson
River_, _Clear Brook_, _Rocky Mountains_; but use lower case when
preceded by _the_: e.g., _the Hudson river_, etc.

5. Nouns designating definite geographical portions of the country or
divisions of the world: e.g., _the North_, _the South_, _the West_,
_the Old World_; and in the division of the Jewish Commonwealth,
_the Northern Kingdom_, _the Southern Kingdom_. Also capitalize the
adjectival nouns derived from them: e.g., _Northerner_, _Southerner_,
_Oriental_, {23} _Occidental_. Use lower case for adjectives: e.g.,
_He is now in southern California_, etc.

6. Abstract ideas or terms when personified; e.g., _Pride flaunts
herself_; _Nature gives willingly of her abundance_.

7. Names of streets, squares, parks, buildings, etc.: e.g., _Beacon
Street_, _Copley Square_, _Franklin Park_, _Tremont Building_, etc.

8. Abbreviations of names of corporations and firms: e.g., _N.Y.C._ &
_H.R.R.R._

9. The abbreviation _Co._ (_Company_) in firm or corporation names.

10. The scientific names of divisions, orders, families, and genera in
all botanical, geological, or zoölogical copy: e.g., _Ichneumon Fly_
(_Thalessa lunator_), _Reptilia_, _Vertebrata_, etc.

11. The days of the week and the months of the year, but use lower case
for the seasons, unless personified or referred to specifically: e.g.,
_It was a bright spring day_; but, _Spring, beautiful Spring_; _the
Spring of 1911_, etc.

12. The popular names of the bodies of the solar system (except _sun_,
_moon_, _stars_, _earth_): e.g., _the Dipper_, _the Milky Way_,
_Venus_, etc.

13. In botanical and zoölogical copy, the names of species if derived
from proper names or from generic names, but in geological and medical
matter use lower case for the names of species, even though derived
from proper names: e.g., _Clover-root Borer_, _Hylesinus trifolii_,
_Pterygomatopus schmidti_. {24}

14. Capitalize the following:

 Articles of Confederation
 Bill of Rights
 Commonwealth (Cromwell’s)
 Commune
 Constitution
 Crusades
 Hundred Years’ War
 Inquisition
 Magna Charta
 Middle Ages
 Reformation
 Renaissance
 Restoration
 Revolution of July
 Seven Years’ War
 Stone Age


Do not capitalize:

1. Words derived from proper names and their derivatives when
such words are so familiarly used as to lose the significance and
personality of their origin: e.g., _fletcherize_, _macadamize_,
_quixotic_, _italicize_, etc.

2. Nouns and adjectives when they merely fix a point of the compass:
e.g., _He came from the north_, _western New York_, _upper Canada_, etc.

3. The words _father_, _mother_, _mamma_, and all other family
appellations, except when used with the proper name of the person or
without a possessive pronoun: e.g., _I expect to meet my mother_, but,
_I have received a telegram from Mother_; _My aunt gave me this_, but,
_It is a present from Aunt Mary_.


TITLES


Capitalize:

1. The word _State_ when it refers to a political division of the
Union: e.g., _the State {25} of Massachusetts_; but use lower case
when the word is employed as an adjective.

2. The words _Federal_, _Government_, _Constitution_, _Cabinet_,
_Administration_ when they refer to United States Government, and
_President_ when referring to the President of the United States.

3. All titles of honor, nobility, and respect: e.g., _His Excellency_,
_Her Majesty_, _Father William_, _Mother Hubbard_, _Cousin John_,
_Deacon Smith_.

4. Civil and military titles when they are used specifically: e.g.,
_President Taft_, _King George_, the _Governor_, _General Grant_, etc.;
but do not capitalize the titles of offices actually existing when
following the name: e.g., _William H. Taft, president of the United
States_.

5. The names of societies: e.g., _Young People’s Society of Christian
Endeavor_, _Boston Congregational Club_, _Second Church Parish_.

6. Names of expositions, conventions, etc.: e.g., _Brockton Fair_,
_Congress of Physiology_, etc.

7. Abbreviations of degrees: e.g., _Ph.D._, _LL.D._, _Litt.D._,
omitting space between the letters.

8. Such titles as _von_, in German, _le_, _la_, _du_, _de_, or _d’_,
in French, _da_, _della_, _di_, or _de’_, etc., in Italian, when the
forename is not given: e.g., _Von Humboldt_, _Da Ponte_; but when the
article or preposition is preceded by {26} a forename the title should
not be capitalized: e.g., _Lorenzo de’ Medici_. _Van_ in Dutch is
always capitalized.

9. After _Whereas_ and _Resolved_, followed by a comma, begin the
first word with a capital; e.g., WHEREAS, _It has pleased Almighty
God_ . . .; _therefore be it_ Resolved, _That_ . . .

10. After a colon, capitalize the first word only when followed by a
complete independent sentence or passage or where preceded by such
introductory phrases as _namely_, _as follows_, _for instance_, _the
point is this_, _my conclusion is this_, etc.

11. In titles of books or essays all words except unimportant
adjectives, prepositions, and conjunctions: e.g., _The Fall of the
House of Usher_.


Do not capitalize:

1. Adjectives compounded with an inseparable prefix with proper names;
e.g., _transatlantic_, _unamerican_.

2. The words _apostle_, _pope_, _bishop_, _canon_, _rector_,
_chaplain_, _minister_, etc., when separated from names or used
descriptively: e.g., _the apostle Paul_; but in direct address they
should be capitalized: e.g., “_O Apostle Paul_.”


INSTITUTIONAL TERMS


Capitalize:

1. _Thanksgiving Day_, _Lord’s Day_, _New Year’s Day_, _the Fourth_
(referring to the {27} Fourth of July), _Children’s Day_, _Easter_,
_Founder’s Day_, etc.

2. The word _College_ or _University_ only when part of the title:
e.g., _Amherst College_, _Harvard University_.

3. Political alliances and terms which have acquired similar
significance: e.g., _the Dreibund_, _the Insurgents_.

4. Titles of treaties, laws, and acts: e.g., _the Treaty of
Portsmouth_, _the Declaration of Independence_, _the Edict of Nantes_.

5. Names of political parties: e.g., _Republican_, _Democrat_, etc.;
but use lower case for _republican form of government_, _a true
democrat_, etc., where reference is not made to members of political
parties.

6. Names and epithets of races, tribes, and peoples: e.g.,
_Hottentots_, _Celestials_, etc.; but use lower case for _negro_,
_colored people_, _the blacks_, _the whites_, _poor whites_, etc.

7. Generic parts of names of political divisions (_a_) when the term is
an organic part of the name, directly following the proper name: e.g.,
_the Russian Empire_, _Norfolk County_, etc.; (_b_) when it is used
with the preposition _of_ as an integral part of the name indicating
administrative subdivisions of the United States: e.g., _Commonwealth
of Massachusetts_; (_c_) when it is used singly as designation for a
specific division: e.g., _the Dominion_ (_of Canada_), _the Union_;
(_d_) when it is used as part of an appellation as though {28} a real
geographical name: e.g., _the Pine Tree State_, _the Promised Land_;
but use lower case for such terms when standing alone or preceding the
specific name: e.g., _the empire of Germany_, _the county of Norfolk_.

8. Numbered political divisions: e.g., _Ward Eleven_, _Fifth Precinct_,
_Eleventh Congressional District_, etc.


Do not capitalize:

1. The words _legislature_, _circuit court_, _district court_, _city
council_, _supreme court_, _senate_, and _house of representatives_
except when specifically applied: e.g., _the legislature of the State_,
_the circuit court_, etc.; but _Congress_, _the Circuit Court of
Suffolk County_, _the House of Representatives of the United States_.

2. The words _high school_, _grammar school_, except as part of title:
e.g., the _Dorchester High School_; but the _high school of Dorchester_.


REFERENCES


Capitalize:

1. Nouns followed by a capitalized roman numeral: e.g., _Act I_, _Vol.
VIII_, etc. In references the nouns and the roman numerals are often
lower-cased.


Do not capitalize:

1. Minor subdivisions and their abbreviations of literary references:
e.g., _line_, _verse_, _note_, _section_, _chapter_, _page_, etc. {29}



ORDINALS


Capitalize:

1. Sessions of Congress, dynasties, names of regiments, etc.: e.g.,
_the Fifty-fourth Congress_, _the Sixteenth Dynasty_, _the Forty-fourth
Massachusetts_.


IN GENERAL


Capitalize:

1. The first word of a sentence and the first word of each line of
poetry.

2. The words _I_ and _O_.

3. The first word after a colon when introducing a sentence having an
independent meaning: e.g., _My explanation is: Competition forces each
manufacturer to study economies_.

4. Words having special meanings: e.g., _the Referee’s decision_, _a
Bachelor’s degree_.

5. The first word of every direct quotation.

6. In side-heads capitalize only the first word and proper names.

7. In a letter, the first word after the address. In the address,
_sir_, _friend_, _father_, _brother_, _sister_, etc.


Do not capitalize:

1. Words used in forming parts of hyphenated compounds: e.g., _The
speed of the Twentieth-century Limited_, _West Twenty-third Street_,
etc.

2. Units of measurement and their {30} abbreviations: e.g., _second_,
_minute_, _hour_, _ounce_, _pound_, _foot_, _yard_, etc.

3. The first word of a quotation following a colon (_a_) if it is
closely connected with what precedes it; (_b_) if the phrase is
dependent upon the preceding clause; or (_c_) if the words following
the colon contain comment: e.g., _These explanations occur to me:
either the manufacturers are unaware of the situation, or they have
become indifferent_.

4. The definite article as a part of the title in mentioning newspapers
or magazines: e.g., _the Boston Herald_, _the Review of Reviews_.

       *       *       *       *       *

¶ When a date is at the end of a letter or paper, it is to be placed at
the left of page, using roman caps and lower case if above signature;
caps, small caps, and italic if below signature.

¶ On title-pages and in headings certain words may be capitalized which
in paragraphed matter would be made lower case: e.g., _Queen Maria
Sophia, a Forgotten Heroine_.

¶ In MS., two lines drawn underneath a word or words indicate SMALL
CAPITALS; three lines, CAPITALS.


SMALL CAPITALS

1. B.C. and A.D., A.M. and P.M. should be set in small caps, with no
spacing between the letters: e.g., B.C. _480_. {31}




SPELLING


The difficulties which a writer encounters who has not firmly anchored
himself to some recognized authority are many, and for those who have
found this refuge to remain consistent is almost an impossibility. To
the complications occasioned by variations in spelling certain words
given authority by the different recognized dictionaries, there has
been added more recently the bewilderment of the “reformed” spelling.
To lay down hard-and-fast rules, therefore, would be an act of folly,
but a safe guide to follow is to note that when two or more forms exist
in any good usage, including good minority usage, or recent usage among
bibliographers, scientists, and other systematic writers, the following
rules are observed:

 (_a_) Prefer the form most correct etymologically
 (_b_) Prefer the shortest and simplest
 (_c_) Prefer the more phonetic form
 (_d_) Prefer English spelling rather than foreign.

With this as a basis, the following rules may be formulated:


NUMBERS

1. Percentage should always take figures: e.g., _1/2 of 1 per cent_.
{32}

2. Spell out references to specific decades: e.g., _Back in the
eighties_.

3. Spell out years and months in stating ages: e.g., _Edward is five
years and four months old_.

4. Spell out numbers of centuries, dynasties, military bodies, streets
and thoroughfares, sessions of Congress.

5. In statistical or technical matter figures should be used: e.g.,
_The paper to be used is 33 × 44 inches, and weighs 120 pounds to the
ream._

6. Spell out, in ordinary reading matter, all numbers of less than
three digits: e.g., _We have twenty-five titles, amounting to 250,000
volumes in all_.

7. If, in a group of numbers, some consist of three digits and
others of less, use figures for all: e.g., _The packages contain,
respectively, 50, 85, and 128 sheets_, not _fifty, eighty-five, and
128_.

8. Spell out round numbers, but use figures for specific, even though
approximate statements: e.g., _The population of the United States is
about one hundred millions_; but, _The population of the United States
is 92,000,000_.

9. Always spell out a figure, whatever its size, when it begins a
sentence. If for any reason this is impracticable the sentence must be
reconstructed.

10. In ordinary reading matter spell out the time of day, but in
enumerations, and {33} always in connection with A.M. and P.M., use
figures, omitting the word _o’clock_: e.g., _The doors open at 7:30_
P.M.


DIPHTHONGS

1. Avoid all diphthongs, especially _æ_ and _œ_, but retain _æ_ and _œ_
in Latin words and in nominal English forms like _formulæ_ and other
plurals, _arbor vitæ_, etc. Established English words having now or
formerly the ligature _æ_ or _œ_ are generally written with the simple
_e_.


SIMPLE RULES OF ORTHOGRAPHY

1. Monosyllablic words which end in _f_, _l_, or _s_, when preceded
by a single vowel, double their final letter: e.g., _muff_, _still_,
_lass_. Exceptions: _clef_, _of_, _if_, _bul_, _nul_, _sal_, _sol_,
_as_, _gas_, _has_, _was_, _yes_, _gris_, _is_, _his_, _this_, _pus_,
_us_, _thus_.

2. Monosyllabic words which end in consonants other than _f_, _l_, or
_s_ do not double their final letter. Exceptions: _abb_, _add_, _ebb_,
_odd_, _mumm_, _inn_, _bunn_, _err_, _purr_, _burr_, _butt_, _mitt_,
_fizz_, _fuzz_, _buzz_.

3. Monosyllabic words ending in a consonant immediately following
a diphthong or a double vowel do not double their final letter.
Exception: _guess_.

4. In monosyllables and words accented on the final syllable ending
with a single consonant (excepting _h_ or _x_) preceded by a single
vowel, or by _qu_ and a vowel, the final consonant is doubled before
an added {34} termination beginning with a vowel, irrespective of
the addition of another syllable: e.g., _stop, stopped_; _regret,
regretting_. When, however, the place of the accent is changed by the
added termination, the final consonant is not doubled: e.g., _prefer´,
pref´erable_.

5. In monosyllables and words not accented on the last syllable, an
added termination does not double the final consonant when it is
preceded by a diphthong or by two vowels: e.g., _profit, profited_;
_cancel, canceled_; _benefit, benefited_; _equal, equality_, _novel,
novelist_, and all the derivatives of _parallel_.

6. Words which end in any double letters retain the double with
a termination not beginning with the same letter. This rule also
holds for derivatives formed by means of prefixes: e.g., _agreeing_,
_calling_, _recall_. Exceptions: _instalment_, _enrolment_, _skilful_,
_wilful_, _enthralment_, _pontific_, _withal_, _until_, and similar
derivatives.

7. Words ending in _-our_, the _u_ being unsounded, are spelled _-or_,
with the exception of Saviour and glamour. The English custom is to
retain the _-our_ in most words having this ending.

8. Words derived from words ending in silent _e_ after a consonant
retain the _e_ when the added termination begins with a consonant:
e.g., _state, statement, stately_; _pale, paleness_; _move, movement_.
Exceptions: _abridgment_, {35} _acknowledgment_, _judgment_,
_lodgment_, _nursling_, _wholly_, _wisdom_.

When another vowel (except _e_ or _i_) immediately precedes the final
_e_, the final _e_ is usually dropped before a consonant: e.g., _argue,
argument_; _awe, awful_; _true, truly_, etc. There are, however, many
exceptions to this rule: e.g., _eye_, _eyesight_, etc.

When the termination begins with a vowel, the final _e_ is omitted:
e.g., _sale, salable_; _bride, bridal_; _force, forcible_. Exceptions:
_mileage_, etc.

9. When words end in _ce_ or _ge_ the final _e_ is retained before
added terminations beginning with _a_ or _o_: e.g., _change,
changeable_; _courage, courageous_.

10. In participles the final _e_ is sometimes retained for the purpose
of distinguishing them from other words pronounced the same but having
a different meaning: e.g., _singe, singeing_, to distinguish from
_singing_; _dye, dyeing_, to distinguish from _dying_, etc. The _e_ is
also retained in _hoeing_, _toeing_, and _shoeing_.[3]

 [3] See list on page 37.

11. Words ending in _ie_ change their termination to _y_ upon adding
_ing_: e.g., _die, dying_; _vie, vying_.

12. Words ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant change the _y_ to
_i_ before any added termination not beginning with _i_: e.g., {36}
_merry_, _merriment_; _happy_, _happiness_. Exceptions: adjectives
of one syllable: e.g., _dry_, _dryly_; _sly_, _slyness_. Also except
derivatives formed by adding _ship_ and _hood_: e.g., _suretyship_,
_babyhood_; but _hardihood_.

When the final _y_ is preceded by a vowel, the _y_ is usually changed
to _i_: e.g., _gay_, _gaiety_; _day_, _daily_; _pay_, _paid_; _lay_,
_laid_, etc.

13. The French ending _-re_ in _theater_, _center_, _meager_,
_sepulcher_, etc., is not now generally considered good usage.

14. The possessive of proper nouns ending in _s_ or other sibilant is
formed by adding the apostrophe and _s_ if the word is of one syllable:
e.g., _James’s apple_; but add the apostrophe alone if the word is of
more than one syllable: e.g., For _Jesus’ sake_.[4]

15. Words which in their shortest form end in _-d_, _-de_, _-ge_,
_-mit_, _-rt_, _-se_, _-ss_ take the ending _-sion_: e.g., _abscind_,
_abscission_; _seclude_, _seclusion_; _emerge_, _emersion_; _admit_,
_admission_; _revert_, _reversion_; _confuse_, _confusion_; _impress_,
_impression_. Other words take the ending _-tion_.[5]

 [4] See page 19.

 [5] See list of irregular forms, and departures from rule on page 39.


ACCENTED WORDS

The following is a partial list of words in common use in which
accented letters occur: {37}

 attaché
 chargé d’affaires
 confrère
 coup d’état
 coup de grâce
 crèche
 débris
 en arrière
 en échelon
 en règle
 entrée
 entrepôt
 exposé
 façade
 faïence
 habitué
 lèse majesté
 matériel
 matinée
 mêlée
 née
 papier-maché
 procès verbal
 protégé
 régime
 résumé
 rôle
 señor
 soirée
 tête-à-tête
 vis-à-vis
 visé


PARTICIPLES

These participles should be spelled as follows:

 acknowledging
 agreeing
 awing
 bluing
 dyeing
 encouraging
 gluing
 grudging
 hieing
 hoeing
 icing
 judging
 owing
 shoeing
 singeing
 tingeing
 trudging
 truing


VARIABLE ENDINGS

1. The following words are spelled with the termination _ize_:

 aggrandize
 agonize
 analyze
 anatomize
 anglicize
 apologize
 apostrophize
 apprize (_to value_)
 authorize
 baptize
 brutalize
 canonize
 catechize
 catholicize
 cauterize
 centralize
 characterize
 christianize
 civilize
 colonize
 criticize
 crystallize
 demoralize
 dogmatize
 economize
 emphasize
 epitomize
 equalize
 eulogize
 evangelize
 extemporize
 familiarize
 fertilize {38}
 fossilize
 fraternize
 galvanize
 generalize
 gormandize
 harmonize
 immortalize
 italicize
 jeopardize
 legalize
 liberalize
 localize
 magnetize
 memorialize
 mesmerize
 metamorphize
 methodize
 minimize
 modernize
 monopolize
 moralize
 nationalize
 naturalize
 neutralize
 organize
 ostracize
 paralyze
 particularize
 pasteurize
 patronize
 philosophize
 plagiarize
 pulverize
 realize
 recognize
 reorganize
 revolutionize
 satirize
 scandalize
 scrutinize
 signalize
 solemnize
 soliloquize
 specialize
 spiritualize
 standardize
 stigmatize
 subsidize
 summarize
 syllogize
 symbolize
 sympathize
 tantalize
 temporize
 tranquilize
 tyrannize
 universalize
 utilize
 vaporize
 vitalize
 vocalize
 vulcanize
 vulgarize

2. The following words are spelled with the termination _ise_:

 advertise
 advise
 appraise
 apprise (_to inform_)
 arise
 chastise
 circumcise
 comprise
 compromise
 demise
 devise
 disfranchise
 disguise
 emprise
 enfranchise
 enterprise
 exercise
 exorcise
 franchise
 improvise
 incise
 manuprise
 merchandise
 premise
 reprise
 revise
 rise
 supervise
 surmise
 surprise

3. The following words have the termination _-ible_; words not included
in this list {39} end in _-able_[6], except a few words pronounced
similarly, but spelled differently.

 accessible
 admissible
 appetible
 apprehensible
 audible
 cessible
 coercible
 compatible
 competible
 comprehensible
 compressible
 conceptible
 contemptible
 contractible
 controvertible
 convertible
 convincible
 corrigible
 corrosible
 corruptible
 credible
 decoctible
 deducible
 defeasible
 defensible
 descendible
 destructible
 digestible
 discernible
 distensible
 divisible
 docible
 edible
 effectible
 eligible
 eludible
 enforcible
 evincible
 expansible
 expressible
 extendible
 extensible
 fallible
 feasible
 fencible
 flexible
 forcible
 francible
 fusible
 gullible
 horrible
 illegible
 immiscible
 impassible[7]
 intelligible
 irascible
 legible
 miscible
 negligible
 partible
 passible[7]
 perceptible
 permissible
 persuasible
 pervertible
 plausible
 possible
 productible
 reducible
 reflexible
 refrangible
 remissible
 reprehensible
 resistible
 responsible
 reversible
 revertible
 risible
 seductible
 sensible
 tangible
 terrible
 transmissible
 visible

 [6] RULE: Derivations of the first conjugation in Latin take _a_; those
 of the other conjugations, _i_.

 [7] See page 42.

4. These are the irregular forms of the endings _-sion_ and _-tion_.

 adhesion
 assertion
 attention
 coercion
 cohesion
 crucifixion {40}
 declension
 dimension
 dissension
 distortion
 divulsion
 expulsion
 impulsion
 insertion
 intention
 occasion
 propulsion
 recursion
 repulsion
 revulsion
 scansion
 suspicion
 tension
 version

5. The following words are pronounced similarly, but the meaning
changes with the spelling:

  Advice          counsel
  advise          to counsel
  albumen         white of egg
  albumin         viscous substance
  alegar          ale vinegar
  aleger          cheerful, sprightly
  ante            preceding
  anti            against
  apprise         to inform
  apprize         to value
  auger           tool
  augur           to predict by signs

  Base            bottom, vile
  bass            lowest tone
  bask            to lie in warmth
  basque          apparel
  berth           place to sleep
  birth           coming into life
  breach          gap
  breech          hinder part of a gun

  Cannon          gun
  canon           law or rule
  canyon          gorge
  cannot          denial of power
  can not         affirmation of power
  canvas          cloth {41}
  canvass         to solicit
  capital         chief, money, stock
  capitol         building
  caster          vial
  castor          rodent
  censer          incense-pan
  censor          critic
  cere            to wax
  sear            to burn the surface
  seer            prophet
  sere            dry, withered
  claimant        one who claims
  clamant         beseeching
  complement      fulness
  compliment      praise
  conveyer        one who conveys
  conveyor        contrivance for conveying objects
  coquet          to trifle in love
  coquette        flirt
  council         deliberative body
  counsel         to advise
  consular        pertaining to a counsel
  councilor       member of a council
  counselor       adviser
  corespondent    one who answers jointly with another
  correspondent   one who corresponds by letter

  Depositary      receiver
  depository      place of deposit
  discreet        prudent
  discrete        distinct
  dyeing          coloring
  dying           expiring

  Emigrant        one who moves out of a country
  immigrant       one who moves into a country
  emigration      moving out
  immigration     moving in
  empirical       experimentative
  empyrical       combustible principle of coal {42}

  Faker           cheat, swindler
  fakir           Oriental religious ascetic
  farther         as applied to distance
  further         signifying additional

  Galipot         resin or pitch
  gallipot        medicine pot
  gantlet         “running the gantlet”
  gauntlet        glove
  grisly          horrible
  grizzly         grayish

  Hoard           accumulate
  horde           troop

  Immanent        inherent
  imminent        impending
  impassible      incapable of emotion
  impassable      not passable
  incipient       commencing
  insipient       stupid, foolish
  indict          charge with crime
  indite          compose, write
  indiscreet      imprudent
  indiscrete      compact
  intension       stretching
  intention       determination

  Lessen          to reduce
  lesson          something to be studied

  Maize           corn
  maze            labyrinth
  marten          animal
  martin          bird
  meat            flesh
  meet            to join, proper
  mete            to measure
  miner           digger
  minor           under age
  mucous          slimy
  mucus           viscid fluid {43}

  O               wish, imprecation
  oh!             an exclamation

  Panel           sunken plane with raised margins
  pannel          rustic saddle
  parol           oral declaration
  parole          word of honor
  passable        admitting passage
  passible        unfeeling
  pendant         ornament
  pendent         hanging
  premices        first-fruits
  premises        property
  principal       adjective
  principle       noun
  prophecy        prediction
  prophesy        to foretell

  Rabbet          groove in edge of boards
  rabbit          small animal
  resin           semi-liquid exudation of the pine
  rosin           solid product of turpentine
  rigger          a fitter of ships’ rigging
  rigor           muscular rigidity
  riot            tumult
  ryot            tiller of the soil

  Saver           one who saves
  savor           flavor
  subtle          sly, artful
  suttle          net weight
  sheath          scabbard
  sheathe         to cover
  sleight         artful trick
  slight          small

  Theocracy       government by direction of God
  theocrasy       mixture of worship of different gods
  ton             measure of weight
  tun             large cask {44}

  Vertical        perpendicular
  verticle        axis, hinge

  Wheal           raised mark, a welt
  wheel           rotating disk

{45}




COMPOUND WORDS


The general theory of compounding is that when two words are used
together with but a single meaning, the hyphen is employed if the
emphasis of pronunciation falls upon the first word, but omitted if it
is the second word which requires the emphasis. Practice, however, has
shown that this theory is not sufficiently specific in its expression
to guide the student who is desirous of making consistent use of the
hyphen, and recourse to the various dictionaries adds to his confusion
because of the many variations. Good usage, therefore, becomes his only
refuge, and the rules which are formulated and collated here are based
wholly upon what appears to the present writer to come within this
definition. Many words originally compounded or written as two words
are now written as one; on the other hand, modern usage now compounds
or breaks into two words many words which were originally written as
one.

¶ In general, hyphens should always be omitted when the meaning can be
equally well expressed by using the same words separately. {46}


Use the hyphen:

1. With the prefix _mid_, except in cases of words in common use: e.g.,
_mid-channel_, but _midsummer_, _midday_, etc.

2. When two or more words (except proper names which form a unity in
themselves) are combined, preceding a noun: e.g., _the well-known
financier_, _up-to-date equipment_, _go-as-you-please race_; but _a
quaint old English tea-room_.

In applying this rule be careful not to hyphenate adjectives and
participles with adverbs which end in _ly_, nor with combinations such
as those referred to when following a noun or qualifying a predicate:
e.g., _possessed of highly developed intelligence_, _a lawyer well
thought of in his own city_.

3. In such words as _attorney-general_, _vice-president_,
_rear-admiral_, etc.; but not in _viceroy_, _vicegerent_, etc.

4. Compounds of color: e.g., _olive-green_, _silver-gray_,
_lemon-yellow_, _red-hot_, etc. But in simple cases of adjective and
noun, as _brownish yellow_ or _yellowish white_ the words are not
compounded.

5. In nouns which stand in objective relation to each other, one of
whose components is derived from a transitive verb: e.g., _I am your
well-wisher_, _He is a large property-holder_, _hero-worship_, but not
in _bookkeeper_, _bookmaker_, _copyholder_, _dressmaker_, _lawgiver_,
_proofreader_, {47} _taxpayer_, and similar common short compounds.[8]

 [8] See page 50, Sec. 5.

6. In compounds of fellow: e.g., _play-fellow_, _fellow-creatures_,
etc.; but _bedfellow_.

7. In compounds of _father_, _mother_, _brother_, _sister_, _daughter_,
_parent_, and _foster_: e.g., _father-feeling_, _mother-country_,
_brother-love_, _sister-empire_, _foster-father_, _great-grandfather_,
etc.; but _fatherland_, _fatherhead_, _grandfather_.

8. In compounds of _world_ and _life_: e.g., _life-story_,
_world-influence_, etc.; but _lifetime_.

9. In compounds of _master_: e.g., _master-painter_, etc.; but
_masterpiece_.

10. In compounds of _god_: e.g., _sun-god_, _rain-god_, etc.; but
_godson_.

11. When _half_ or _quarter_, etc., is combined with a noun: e.g.,
_half-circle_, _half-title_, _quarter-mile_, etc.; but _quartermaster_,
_headquarters_, etc.

12. In compounds of _self_: e.g., _self-esteem_, _self-respecting_,
etc., but not in _selfhood_, _selfish_, _selfsame_, or _oneself_.

13. In connecting _ex_, _vice_, _general_, _elect_, etc., constituting
parts of titles, with the chief noun: e.g., _ex-Governor Draper_,
_Governor-elect Wilson_, etc.

14. In compounds of _by_: e.g., _by-laws_, _by-products_, etc.

15. In connection with prefixes _co_, _pre_, and _re_ when followed by
words beginning with the same vowel as that in which they terminate,
but not when followed by a {48} different vowel or a consonant: e.g.,
_co-operation_, but _coeducation_; _pre-empted_, but _prearranged_;
_re-elected_, but _recast._ Exceptions: combinations with proper names,
long or unusual formations, and words where the hyphen defines the
meaning: e.g., _re-creation_ and _recreation_, _re-form_ and _reform_,
_re-collect_ and _recollect_, _pre-Raphaelite_.

16. In writing ordinal numbers when compounded with such words as
_first-rate_, _second-hand_, etc.

17. In connection with the word _quasi_ prefixed to a noun or to an
adjective: e.g., _quasi-corporation_, _quasi-compliant_, etc.

18. In connection with the Latin prepositions _extra_, _infra_, _semi_,
_supra_, and _ultra_: e.g., _extra-hazardous_ but _extraordinary_;
_ultra-conservative_ but _Ultramontane_.

19. In spelling out fractional numbers involving more than two words:
e.g., _The supply is three-quarters exhausted_; but, _This leaves
twenty-five hundredths_.

20. In compounding numerals of one syllable with self-explanatory words
of various meanings: e.g., _three-legged_, _four-footed_, _one-armed_,
etc.

Also in combining numerals with nouns, to form an adjective: e.g.
_twelve-inch rule_, _hundred-yard dash_, _two-horse team_, etc.

21. In compounding a noun in the possessive case with another noun:
e.g., _jews’-harp_, _crow’s-nest_, etc. {49}

22. In some compounds with _tree_: e.g., _apple-tree_; but
_whippletree_, _crosstree_, etc.

23. In compounding personal epithets: e.g., _hard-headed_,
_bow-legged_, etc.

24. Use the hyphen in the following words:

 after-years
 bas-relief
 birth-rate
 blood-feud
 blood-relations
 common-sense
 cross-examine
 cross-reference
 cross-section
 death-rate
 feast-day
 folk-song
 food-stuff
 fountain-head
 guinea-pig
 horse-power
 page-proof
 pay-roll
 poor-law
 post-office
 sea-level
 sense-perception
 son-in-law
 subject-matter
 man-of-war
 object-lesson
 thought-process
 title-page
 wave-length
 well-being
 well-nigh
 will-power


Do not use the hyphen:

1. When writing points of the compass: e.g., _northeast_, _southwest_;
but _north-northeast_, etc.

2. In words ending in _like_, unless compounded with nouns containing
more than one syllable (except when ending in _l_): e.g., _childlike_,
_lifelike_; but _business-like_, _bell-like_, etc.

3. In compounds ending with _man_ or _woman_: e.g., _workman_,
_needlewoman_, etc.

4. In phrases such as _by and by_, _by the bye_, _good morning_,
_attorney at law_, _coat of arms_, etc.

5. In words ending in _boat_, _house_, _look_, _room_, _side_, _yard_,
_shop_, _mill_, _field_, _work_, _chair_, _maker_, _holder_, _keeper_,
_skin_, _store_, _book_, _fold_, _score_, _penny_, _pence_ when the
prefixed noun {50} contains but a single syllable: e.g., _twofold_,
_schoolroom_, _handbook_, _windmill_, _bookkeeper_, _workshop_, etc.
Exceptions: _Court-house_ and _State House_.

When prefixed noun contains two syllables, use the hyphen: e.g.,
_bucket-shop_, _twenty-fold_, _ante-room_, _mason-work_, _paper-mill_,
etc.[9]

When prefixed noun contains three or more syllables write as two
separate words: e.g., _policy shop_.

6. In compounds of _bi_, _tri_, _semi_, or _demi_: e.g., _bimonthly_,
_tricolor_, _semiannual_, _demijohn._ Exceptions: long or unusual
formations: e.g., _bi-centennial_, etc.

7. In _today_,[10] _tonight_, _tomorrow_, _viewpoint_, or _standpoint_.

 [9] See page 47, Sec. 5.

 [10] _Cf._ the old English words _to-morn_, _to-year_, etc.

8. In connection with the negative prefixes _un_, _in_, and _a_: e.g.,
_unrepublican_, _inanimate_, etc., but the prefix _non_ requires the
hyphen except in words which have become common: e.g., _non-conductor_,
but _nonsense_.

9. In connection with the words _over_ and _under_ employed as
prefixes: e.g., _overestimate_, _undersecretary_; but _over-soul_,
_over-spiritual_, _under-man_.

10. In connection with the Latin prepositions _ante_, _anti_,
_inter_, _intra_, _post_, _sub_, and _super_: e.g., _antedate_,
_antidote_, _subtitle_, etc.; but _ante-room_, _anti-imperialistic_,
_intra-atomic_. {51}

11. In spelling out a series of fractions: e.g., _I can secure you one,
two, or three fifths_, not _one-_, _two-_, or _three-fifths_.

Nor in writing ordinary fractions: e.g., _one half_, _five eighths_,
etc.

But another class of fractions require the hyphen: e.g.,
_twenty-fifth_, _twenty-two one-hundredths_.

12. In compounds ending with _holder_ or _monger_: e.g., _stockholder_,
_ironmonger_.

13. In compounds beginning with _eye_: e.g., _eyeglass_, _eyebrow_,
_eyelash_, _eyewitness_, etc.

14. In compounds with the word _school_: e.g., _schoolmates_,
_schoolmaster_, etc. Exceptions: when made with a participle: e.g.,
_school-teaching_; or in combinations where separate words are more
clear: e.g., _school committee_, _school children_, etc.

15. In compounds with _deutero_, _electro_, _pseudo_, _sulpho_,
_thermo_, etc., unless the compound is unusual: e.g., _electrotype_,
_pseudonym_, etc.

16. In compound adverbs: e.g., _meantime_, _moreover_, _forever_,
_everywhere_, etc. But in phrases like _after a while_, _in the mean
time_, _for ever and ever_, the words should be separated.

17. In words like _anybody_, _anyhow_, _anything_, _anyway_,
_anywhere_, _somebody_, _somehow_, _something_, _sometime_, _somewhat_,
_somewhere._ But _any one_ and _some one_ are written as separate
words. {52}




DIVISION OF WORDS


The unnecessary division of a word should always be avoided. The whole
word should be carried over whenever possible.

2. A word should be divided in accordance with its natural division
in correct pronunciation, rather than according to derivation: e.g.,
_knowl-edge_, not _know-ledge_; but divide according to meaning and
derivation as far as is compatible with good spacing and pronunciation:
e.g., _dis-pleasure_, not _displeas-ure_.

3. A single consonant between two vowels should be joined with the
first vowel if short, but with the latter if long: e.g., _riv-er_,
_ri-val_; but avoid dividing words as short as these if possible.

4. When two consonants come together between two vowels the consonants
should be divided: e.g., _mil-lion_, _struc-ture_.

5. When three consonants come together between two vowels the first of
which is short, all which can be pronounced together go with the last
syllable: e.g., _han-dle_, _chil-dren_, _frus-trate_, etc.

6. Whenever practicable, and always when the pronunciation of a word is
peculiar, the division should come upon the vowel: e.g., _pro-duct_,
_colo-nel_, _sepa-rate_, _peo-ple_, _pro-gress_. {53}

Exceptions: words ending in _-able_ and _-ible_, which should carry the
vowel over into the next line.

7. The letters _c_ and _g_ must never be separated from the vowels _e_,
_i_, and _y_ upon which their soft sound depends: e.g., _re-li-gion_,
_ca-pa-ci-ty_, etc.

8. _X_ must never begin a syllable, _j_ must never end one, and _q_
must not be separated from _u_, which invariably follows it.

9. When used as terminations, _ing_, _en_, _ed_, _er_, _est_, and the
plural _es_ are considered as syllables, except when the preceding
consonant is doubled, or when they follow _c_ or _g_ soft: e.g.,
_speak-ing_, _tak-en_, _long-er_; but _lat-ter_, _for-cing_, _ran-ging_.

10. Two-letter divisions should always be avoided. These words should
never be divided: _eleven_, _heaven_, _power_, _faster_, _finer_,
_houses_, _given_, _flower_, _prayer_, _soften_, _liken_, _verses_,
_listen_, _often_, _voyage_, _nothing_, _even_, etc.

11. When a derivative word ends in _t_, the _t_ is carried over when
the accent changes: e.g., _instinc-tive_ (instinct); but not otherwise:
e.g., _construct-ive_ (construct).

12. More than two divisions in successive lines should be avoided.

13. A division at the end of the last full line of a paragraph should
be avoided.

14. A word of four letters is not divisible. Dividing words of five or
six letters should be avoided if possible. {54}

15. An amount that is stated in figures should not be divided.

16. A word in the past tense, pronounced as one syllable, should not be
divided: e.g., _beamed_.

17. The separation of two initials of a person’s name, or such
combination as B.C., A.M., should be avoided.

18. A divided word that will appear on the last line of one page and
the top line of the next page is to be avoided.

19. Separating a divisional mark (_a_) or (_b_) from the matter to
which it pertains should be avoided.

20. Adjectives ending in _-ical_ should be divided upon the _i_: e.g.,
_musi-cal_, not _music-al_ or _mu-sical_.

21. Word endings _-tion_, _-sion_, _-tial_, _-cial_, _-tive_, etc., are
treated as one syllable.

22. In compound words additional hyphens should be avoided: e.g.,
_music-lesson_, not _music-les-son_.

Keep prefixes, roots, suffixes, etc., as distinct as possible.

 NOTE. Division of words in French, Italian, German, and Spanish, may
 be found in De Vinne’s “Correct Composition,” pp. 434–446. {55}




INDENTION AND PARAGRAPHING


In prose manuscript, each paragraph should be written with _regular_
indention.

2. When paragraphs are numbered, the figure should be written where the
capital letter of the first word would otherwise be placed.

3. In poetry, lines which overrun should be written with _reverse_
indention.

4. When poetry is quoted in a prose composition, it should begin on a
new line. If the continuation of the prose writing does not call for a
new paragraph, the next line of prose text begins without indention.

5. When a prose quotation is introduced, it should be treated as in
Rule 4 if it contains more than a single sentence; otherwise it is “run
in,” with the proper quotation-marks and punctuation.

6. There are different forms of indention in typography which are used
for different purposes, viz.:

«Irregular indention.»— For this form of indention there are no
specified rules, and it is used principally in certain styles of poetry
and in display work. {56}

«En échelon indention» is largely used for display in posters and
advertisements. It consists in the diagonal arrangement of words, thus:

    CARPETS

        CHAIRS

            TABLES

                STOVES

«Hanging indention», which makes the first
  line of full width and indents all the
  following lines one or more ems on the
  left, as shown in these four lines.

 «Half-diamond indention» was used largely by
   early printers, particularly by Aldus,
     not only for title-pages, but also
      for chapter endings. It consists
         in  arranging  all  lines
             right  and   left
                   thus

«Lozenge indention» requires an arrangement of the lines in this manner:

            IT  IS ALWAYS A
          TROUBLESOME   THING
       TO ACCOMPLISH AS IT TAKES
          MUCH  EXPERIMENTING
            TO GAIN RESULTS

     BLOCKED  INDENTION CALLS  FOR
     AN  ARRANGEMENT OF THE  WORDS
     IN  SUCH A  MANNER  THAT  THE
     LINES ARE ALL OF EQUAL LENGTH

{57}




PARAGRAPHING

Indention and Display are the methods employed in typography to secure
clearness and to add distinction to the printed page, but clearness
in the body of the text is dependent upon the skill of the writer in
properly dividing his composition into paragraphs. Just as correct
punctuation assists the reader in his understanding of a sentence, so
does correct paragraphing add to the understanding of the composition
as a whole. The following rules may be formulated, based upon the
practice of the most careful writers:

1. A sentence which continues the topic of the sentence which precedes
it rather than introduces a new topic should never begin a paragraph.

2. Each paragraph should possess a single central topic, to which all
the statements in the paragraph should relate. The introduction of a
single statement not so related to the central topic violates the unity.

3. A sentence or short passage may be detached from the paragraph
to which it properly belongs if the writer wishes particularly to
emphasize it.

4. For ease in reading, a passage which exceeds three hundred words in
length may be broken into two paragraphs, even though no new topic has
been developed.

5. Any digression from the central topic, or any change in the
viewpoint in {58} considering the central topic, demands a new
paragraph.

6. Coherence in a paragraph requires a natural and logical order of
development.

7. Smoothness of diction in a paragraph calls for the intelligent use
of proper connective words between closely related sentences. A common
fault, however, is the incorrect use of such words as _and_ or _but_
between sentences which are not closely related.

8. In developing the paragraph, emphasis is secured by a careful
consideration of the relative values of the ideas expressed, giving
to each idea space proportionate to its importance to the whole. This
secures the proper climax.

9. The paragraph, like the composition itself, should possess
clearness, unity, coherence, and emphasis. It is a group of related
sentences, developing a central topic. Its length depends upon
the length of the composition and upon the number of topics to be
discussed. {59}




SPACING


Each line should be spaced evenly throughout.

2. The spaces in a line should never vary more than the difference
between a _three to em_ space and an _en_ quad.[11]

 [11] See page 60.

3. Uniformity in appearance shows excellence in printing. To have one
line thin-spaced and the next wide-spaced is in bad taste. Even in
narrow measure this inequality can be avoided with proper care.

4. In fonts of type where ends of hyphens and dashes touch the
adjoining letters, hair-spaces should be used. Also use hair-spaces
before colons, semicolons, interrogation-points, exclamation-marks, and
inside quotation-marks.

5. No space should be left between superior letters, or letters
indicating powers, and inferior figures or letters; or between letters
forming products.

6. No space should be left between the abbreviations A.D. and B.C.,
A.M. and P.M., between titles, such as _LL.D._, _Ph.D._, etc., or
between the abbreviations of States, such {60} as _N.Y._, _R.I._,
_N.H._, etc., except in a wide-spaced line.

7. Scripture references should be spaced as follows: _II Sam. 1 : 2–6;
2 : 8–12._

8. No space should be left between the symbols $ and £ and the
succeeding figures.

9. An indention of one or more ems should be allowed at the end of the
last line of a paragraph.

10. The same space should be left on each side of short words, such as
_a_, _an_, etc.

11. It is poor typography to thin-space or wide-space a line in order
to avoid a turn-over.

12. Beginning and ending a line with the same word in wide measure
should be avoided, but not at the expense of good spacing.

13. The kerned letters _f_ and _j_ require a hair-space before them
when they begin a line. When kerned letters end a line a hair-space is
necessary after them to prevent breaking off in printing.

14. Should wide spacing be necessary, it should occur where it will
be least noticed; viz., between words ending or beginning with tall
letters.

 15. This is an en dash: –
     This is an em dash: —
     This is a 2 em dash: ——
     This is a 3 em dash: ———

{61}

 16. This line is hair-spaced.
     This line is spaced with 5-em spaces.
     This line is spaced with 4-em spaces.
     This line is spaced with 3-em spaces.
     This line is spaced with en quads.
     This line is spaced with em quads.

{62}




ITALIC


The first italic types were designed and used by Aldus Manutius, the
celebrated Italian printer, of the fifteenth century. It is said that
the style was suggested by the handwriting of Petrarch. In the first
fonts only the lower case letters were italic, the capitals being
roman; but this irregularity soon gave way to the more regular style of
italic capitals and lower case.

1. Italic is not used for the text of a book, but it is permissible for
the preface, extracts, etc.

2. For poetry and other matter of a literary character italic has a
decorative effect.

3. Italic is used for emphasis in roman composition and vice versa.

4. Italic is used frequently for subheads, running-heads, and
side-heads, as well as for important paragraphs or extracts.

5. Italic is often used instead of roman-quoted for the titles of
books, magazines, newspapers, and names of ships.

6. Signatures or credits are often placed in italic at the end of an
article.

7. Foreign words and phrases are often required to be set in italic,
but there are many which are now so familiar to English readers {63}
that they are kept in the ordinary text. The following is a list of
the most familiar words:

 à propos
 ad valorem
 addenda
 aide-de-camp
 alias
 alibi
 alma mater
 anno domini
 ante-bellum
 beau idéal
 billet-doux
 bon-ton
 bona fide
 bravo
 café
 canto
 carte blanche
 chapeau
 chaperon
 chargé d’affaires
 chiaroscuro
 cicerone
 contra
 corrigenda
 data
 débris
 début
 depot
 diarrhœa
 diatum
 dilettante
 dramatis personæ
 ennui
 entrepôt
 erratum
 et cetera
 facsimile
 fête
 finis
 gratis
 hoi polloi
 imprimatur
 innuendo
 literati
 mandamus
 manœuvre
 mignonette
 naïve
 ollapodrida
 onus
 paterfamilias
 patois
 per annum
 per capita
 per cent.
 per centum
 per se
 post-mortem
 pro rata
 protégé
 quondam
 régime
 rendezvous
 rôle
 savant
 seraglio
 sobriquet
 ultimatum
 verbatim
 vice
 vice versa
 viva voce

8. The following expressions, which are not as a rule so well known,
should be italicized:

 _ab ovo_
 _ancien régime_
 _bête noire_
 _comme il faut_
 _de quoi vivre_
 _de trop_
 _en passant_
 _fait accompli_
 _grand monde_
 _hors de combat_
 _inter alia_
 _jeu d’esprit_
 _locum tenens_
 _mise en scène_
 _noblesse oblige_
 _raison d’être_
 _sans cérémonie_
 _tour de force_

{64}

9. Italic is used in the following words, phrases, and abbreviations
employed in literary and legal references: e.g., _ibid_, _idem_, _loc.
cit._, _op. cit._, _ad loc._, _s.v._, _supra_, _infra_, _passim_,
_vide_, _circa_ (_ca._). Exceptions: cf., i.e., e.g., v. (versus),
viz., etc., which are always roman.

10. Punctuation marks which are placed after italicized words should be
italic.


Italic is used:

1. For the names of plaintiff and defendant in the citation of legal
causes.

2. In algebraic, geometric, and similar matter to designate unknown
quantities, lines, etc.

3. For _s._ and _d._ (_shilling_ and _pence_) following the figures:
e.g., 1_s._ 6_d._

4. For specific names in Botany, Zoölogy, and Geology.

5. In medical matter roman is used instead of italic for scientific
terms.

6. For names of stars or constellations in astronomical matter.

7. In resolutions for the word _Resolved_.

In MS. one line drawn beneath a word or sentence signifies that it is
to be put in italic. {65}




ABBREVIATIONS


DATES

Dates are not usually abbreviated in writing or in regular text matter;
but when necessary the following rules may be followed:

1. Do not use _st_, _d_, _rd_, or _th_ after a date given in figures;
e.g., _June 3_, not _June 3d_ or _3rd_. If a date is spelled out, the
rule is as follows: e.g., _June the third_, not _June three_.

2. Do not use _ult._, _inst._, or _prox._, but always name the month:
e.g., _Oct. 25_, not _25th ult._, _Nov. 10_, not _10th inst._

3. Use generally accepted abbreviations for the names of months when
the day of the month is also given, and prefer dates in order of day,
month, and year: e.g., _7 Jan., 1912_. When the name of the month is
used alone or followed only by the year, do not abbreviate: e.g.,
_February, 1912_, not _Feb., 1912_.

4. For ordinary purposes use these as the generally accepted
abbreviations for the months and days of the week:

 Jan.
 Feb.
 Mar.
 Apr.
 May
 June
 July
 Aug.
 Sept.
 Oct.
 Nov.
 Dec.

 Sun.
 Mon.
 Tues.
 Wed.
 Thurs.
 Fri.
 Sat.

5. In tables and wherever matter must be _greatly_ condensed use the
Dewey dates, {66} which are the briefest possible without ambiguity,
in the order of (_a_) day of week, (_b_) day of month, (_c_) month,
(_d_) year. These abbreviations are not desirable except in tabular
matter.

 Ja.
 F.
 Mr.
 Ap.
 My.
 Je.
 Ju.
 Ag.
 S.
 O.
 N.
 D.

 Sn.
 M.
 Tu.
 W.
 Th.
 F.
 St.


PROPER NAMES

1. Abbreviate _company_ in firm names: e.g., _John Brown & Co._

2. Spell out names of companies, railroads, etc., using the ampersand
(&) only between proper names: e.g., _Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing
Company_; _Norfolk & Western Railroad_; but _American Smelting and
Refining Company_. If names of railroads are abbreviated, use no space
between the letters: e.g., _N.Y._, _N.H. & H.R.R._

3. Abbreviate _United States_ when immediately associated with the
name of an officer of the army or navy, as _Lieut. John Doe, U.S.A._;
when it is the name of an organization of the army or navy, as _First
Regiment U.S.V._; when preceding the name of a government vessel, as
_U.S.S. Brooklyn_.

4. In referring to plays, specify act, scene, and line, also part if
necessary: e.g., _2 Henry IV, I, ii, 1–7_.

5. Christian names should be spelled in full, as _John_, _George_,
_Charles_, except in an {67} original signature, or when following
copy in a quotation.

6. When necessary to abbreviate Christian names, use the forms _Dan._,
_Edw._, _Sam._, _Thos._, etc. _Alex_, _Ben_, _Ed_, and _Sam_ are not
always abbreviations, and copy should be followed as regards period.
Use the following list:

 Alex.       Alexander
 And.        Andrew
 Anth.       Anthony
 Ap.         Appius
 Arch.       Archibald
 Aug.        August, Augustus

 Benj.       Benjamin

 C.          Caesar
 Caes. Aug.  Caesar Augustus
 Cath.       Catherine
 Chas.       Charles

 Dan.        Daniel

 Eben.       Ebenezer
 Edm.        Edmund
 Edw.        Edward
 Eliz.       Elizabeth
 Esd.        Esdras
 Esth.       Esther
 Ez.         Ezra
 Ezek.       Ezekiel

 Ferd.       Ferdinand
 Fran.       Francis
 Fred.       Frederic, Frederick

 Geo.        George

 Herbt.      Herbert
 Hos.        Hosea {68}

 Jas.        James
 Jona.       Jonathan
 Jos.        Joseph
 Josh.       Joshua

 Matt.       Matthew

 Nath.       Nathaniel

 Pet.        Peter
 Phil.       Philip, Philander
 Philem.     Philemon

 Reg.        Reginald
 Richd.      Richard
 Robt.       Robert

 Sam.        Samuel

 Theo.       Theodore
 Thos.       Thomas
 Tim.        Timothy

 Wm.         William


TITLES

1. In ordinary body matter use generally accepted abbreviations of
titles when they are immediately prefixed to names.

2. Do not abbreviate a title used as part of a name: e.g., _Bishop
Lawrence_, not _Bp. Lawrence_.

3. Such titles as _Mr._, _Mrs._, _Messrs._, _Gen._, _Dr._, _Hon._,
_Rev._, when prefixed to names, may be abbreviated; but _Colonel_,
_Major_, _Professor_, _President_, _ex-President_, etc., are
better spelled in full. Compound titles, such as _Major-General_,
_Lieutenant-Colonel_, _Rear-Admiral_, etc., should also be spelled and
both {69} words capitalized. Where a person has been mentioned by name
and title, and is afterward mentioned by title only, the title should
be capitalized. Where initials of a name are used, abbreviate the
title: e.g., _Col. T. G. Benson, of the Second Illinois Regiment, has
returned from Havana. The Colonel’s friends gave him a warm reception_.

4. When the names of sovereigns of a country are mentioned only
occasionally, such names may be given in full: e.g., _George the
Fifth_, _Charles the First_. When such names occur frequently, they
may be printed with roman numerals without a period: e.g., _George V_,
_Charles I_

5. The following is a full list of the usual abbreviations:

 A.B. or B.A.     (_Artium Baccalaureus_) Bachelor of Arts
 Abp.             Archbishop
 A.C.             Archchancellor
 A.D.             Archduke
 A.D.C.           Aide-de-camp
 Adjt.            Adjutant
 Adm.             Admiral
 Admr.            Administrator
 Admx., Admrx.    Administratrix
 Adv.             Advocate
 Agt.             Agent
 Aldm.            Alderman
 A.M. or M.A.     (_Artium Magister_) Master of Arts
 Amb.             Ambassador
 A.P.A.           American Protective Association
 Asst.            Assistant
 A.T.             Archtreasurer
 Atty.            Attorney {70}

 B.A. or A.B.     Bachelor of Arts
 Bart.            Baronet
 B.C.L.           Bachelor of Civil Law
 B.D.             (_Baccalaureus Divinitatis_) Bachelor of Divinity
 B.LL.            (_Baccalaureus Legum_) Bachelor of Laws
 B.M.             (_Baccalaureus Medicinae_) Bachelor of Medicine
 Bp.              Bishop
 B.R.             (_Banco Regis_ or _Reginae_) the King’s or
                   Queen’s Bench
 Brig.-Gen.       Brigadier-General
 Bro(s).          Brother(s)
 B.S.             Bachelor of Science or Bachelor of Surgery
 B.V.             (_Beata Virgo_) Blessed Virgin

 Cantab.          (_Cantabrigia_) Cambridge
 Capt.            Captain
 Capt.-Gen.       Captain-General
 Cash.            Cashier
 C.B.             Companion of the Bath
 C.C.P.           Court of Common Pleas
 C.E.             Civil Engineer
 C.J.             Chief Justice
 C.M.G.           Companion of the Order of St. Michael and St. George
 Col.             Colonel
 Com.             Commander, Commodore
 Cor. Sec.        Corresponding Secretary
 Corp.            Corporal
 C.S.             Court of Sessions
 C.S.             (_Custos Sigilli_) Keeper of the Seal

 D.C.L.           Doctor of Civil Law
 D.D.             Doctor of Divinity
 D.D.S.           Doctor of Dental Surgery
 Dea.             Deacon
 Dep.             Deputy
 D.F.             Defender of the Faith
 D.M.             Doctor of Music {71}
 Dr.              Doctor
 D.Sc.            Doctor of Science
 D.T.             (_Doctor Theologiae_) Doctor of Divinity
 D.V.M. or M.D.V. Doctor of Veterinary Medicine
 E.               (_after titles_) Edinburgh
 Esq.             Esquire
 F.D.             (_Fidei Defensor_) Defender of the Faith
 F.G.S.           Fellow of the Geological Society
 Fr.              Father
 F.R.G.S.         Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society
 F.R.S.           Fellow of the Royal Society
 F.R.S.A.         Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts
 F.S.A.           Fellow of the Society of Arts

 G.C.B.           Knight of the Grand Cross of the Bath
 G.C.H.           Knight of the Grand Cross of Hanover
 G.C.M.G.         Knight of the Grand Cross, Order of St. Michael and St.
                   George
 Gen.             General
 Gov.             Governor
 Govt.            Government
 G.R.             (_Georgius Rex_) King George

 H.B.M.           His or Her Britannic Majesty
 H.M.             His or Her Majesty
 H.M.S.           His or Her Majesty’s Service
 Hon.             Honorable
 H.R.             House of Representatives
 H.R.E.           Holy Roman Emperor
 H.R.H.           His or Her Royal Highness
 H.S.H.           His or Her Serene Highness

 I.N.R.I.         (_Jesus Nazarenus Rex Judaeorum_) Jesus of Nazareth,
                   King of the Jews
 Insp.            Inspector
 Insp. Gen.       Inspector General
 I.O.O.F.         Independent Order of Odd Fellows {72}

 J.A.             Judge-Advocate
 J.P.             Justice of the Peace
 J. Prob.         Judge of the Probate
 Jr. or Jun.      Junior

 K.               King
 K.A.             Knight of St. Andrew, in Russia
 K.A.N.           Knight of Alexander Newski, in Russia
 K.B.             King’s Bench; Knight of the Bath
 K.B.A.           Knight of St. Bento d’Avis, in Portugal
 K.B.E.           Knight of the Black Eagle, in Prussia
 K.C.             King’s Council; Knight of the Crescent, in Turkey
 K.C.B.           Knight Commander of the Bath
 K.C.H.           Knight Commander of Hanover
 K.C.M.G.         Knight Commander of Order of St. Michael and St. George
 K.C.S.           Knight of Charles III, in Spain
 K.E.             Knight of the Elephant, in Denmark
 K.F.             Knight of Ferdinand of Spain
 K.F.M.           Knight of Ferdinand and Merit, in Sicily
 K.G.             Knight of the Garter
 K.G.C.           Knight of the Grand Cross
 K.G.C.B.         Knight of the Grand Cross of the Bath
 K.G.F.           Knight of the Golden Fleece
 K.G.H.           Knight of the Guelph of Hanover
 K.G.V.           Knight of Gustavus Vasa of Sweden
 K.H.             Knight of Hanover
 K.J.             Knight of St. Joachim
 K.L.H.           Knight of the Legion of Honor
 K.M.             Knight of Malta
 K. Mess.         King’s Messenger
 K.M.H.           Knight of Merit, in Holstein
 K.M.J.           Knight of Maximilian Joseph of Bavaria
 K.M.T.           Knight of Maria Theresa of Austria
 K.N.S.           Knight of the Royal North Star, in Sweden
 K.P.             Knight of St. Patrick {73}
 K.R.E.           Knight of the Red Eagle, in Prussia
 K.S.             Knight of the Sword, in Sweden
 K.S.A.           Knight of St. Anne of Russia
 K.S.E.           Knight of St. Esprit, in France
 K.S.F.           Knight of St. Fernando of Spain
 K.S.F.M.         Knight of St. Ferdinand and Merit, in Naples
 K.S.G.           Knight of St. George of Russia
 K.S.H.           Knight of St. Hubert of Bavaria
 K.S.J.           Knight of St. Janarius of Naples
 K.S.L.           Knight of the Sun and Lion, in Persia
 K.S.M. & S.G.    Knight of St. Michael and St. George of the Ionian Isles
 K.S.P.           Knight of St. Stanislaus of Poland
 K.S.S.           Knight of the Southern Star of the Brazils; Knight of
                    the Sword, in Sweden
 K.S.W.           Knight of St. Wladimir of Russia
 Kt.              Knight
 K.T.             Knight of the Thistle
 K.T.S.           Knight of the Tower and Sword, in Portugal
 K.W.             Knight of William of the Netherlands
 K.W.E.           Knight of the White Eagle, in Poland

 L.               (_after titles_) London
 L.C.             Lord Chancellor
 L.C.J.           Lord Chief Justice
 Leg.             Legate
 Legis.           Legislature
 Lieut.           Lieutenant
 Lieut.-Col.      Lieutenant-Colonel
 Lieut.-Gen.      Lieutenant-General
 Litt.D.          (_Litterarum Doctor_) Doctor of Literature
 LL.B.            (_Legum Baccalaureus_) Bachelor of Laws
 LL.D.            (_Legum Doctor_) Doctor of Laws

 M.               Monsieur
 M.A.             Master of Arts
 Maj.             Major
 Maj.-Gen.        Major-General {74}
 M.B.             (_Medicinae Baccalaureus_) Bachelor of Medicine;
                    (_Musicae Baccalaureus_) Bachelor of Music
 M.C.             Member of Congress
 M.D.             (_Medicinae Doctor_) Doctor of Medicine
 Messrs.          Messieurs
 Mgr.             Manager; Monsignor
 Min. Plen.       Minister Plenipotentiary
 Mlle.            Mademoiselle
 Mme.             Madame
 M.P.             Member of Parliament
 M.R.             Master of the Rolls
 Mr.              Mister or Master
 Mrs.             Mistress
 Mus. Doc.        Doctor of Music

 Oxon.            (_Oxonensis_) Oxford

 P.C.             (_Patres Conscripti_) Conscript Fathers; Senators;
                    Privy Counsellor
 Ph.D.            Doctor of Philosophy
 Ph.G.            Graduate in Pharmacy
 P.M.             Postmaster
 P.M.G.           Postmaster-General
 P.R.A.           President of the Royal Academy
 Pres.            President
 Prof.            Professor
 Prov.            Provost
 P.R.S.           President of the Royal Society

 Q.               Queen
 Q.M.             Quartermaster

 R.A.             Royal Academician
 R.E.             Royal Engineers
 Reg. Prof.       Regius Professor
 Rev.             Reverend
 R.M.             Royal Marines
 R.N.             Royal Navy
 R.N.O.           (_Riddare af Nordstjerneorden_) Knight of the
                    Order of Polar Star {75}
 R.S.S.           (_Regiae Societatis Socius_) Fellow of the Royal
                    Society
 Rt. Hon.         Right Honorable
 Rt. Rev.         Right Reverend
 Rt. Wpful.       Right Worshipful
 R.W.             Right Worthy
 R.W.O.           (_Riddare af Wasa Orden_) Knight of the Order of Wasa

 Sec.             Secretary
 Sec. Leg.        Secretary of Legation
 Serg.            Sergeant
 Serg.-Maj.       Sergeant-Major
 S.J.             Society of Jesus
 S.J.C.           Supreme Judicial Court
 Sol.             Solicitor
 Sol.-Gen.        Solicitor-General
 Sr., Sen.        Senior
 S.R.S.           (_Societatis Regiae Socius_) Fellow of the Royal
                    Society
 S.T.D.           (_Sacrae Theologiae Doctor_) Doctor of Divinity
 S.T.P.           (_Sacrae Theologiae Professor_) Professor of Divinity
 St.              Saint, Street
 Supt.            Superintendent

 Tr(s).           Trustee(s)
 Treas.           Treasurer

 U.J.C.           (_Utriusque Juris Doctor_) Doctor of both Laws

 V.C.             Vice-Chancellor
 V.D.M.           (_Verbi Dei Minister_) Preacher of the Word
 Vice-Pres.       Vice-President
 Visc.            Viscount

 W.S.             Writer to the Signet

{76}


6. COMMERCIAL ABBREVIATIONS

 A1            Highest class or grade
 Acct.         Account
 Advt., Ad.    Advertisement
 Agt.          Agent
 Amt.          Amount
 Anon.         Anonymous
 Ans.          Answer
 Art.          Article
 Av., Ave.     Avenue

 Bal.          Balance
 Bd.           Bound
 Bdl.          Bundle
 Bds.          Boards
 Bldg.         Building
 B.O.          Buyer’s Option
 Bro(s).       Brother; Brothers

 Chap.         Chapter
 C.I.F.        Cost, insurance, freight
 Co.           Company
 C.O.D.        Cash on Delivery
 Cr.           Creditor

 Dept.         Department
 Do.           Ditto, the same
 Dr.           Debtor

 E.E.          Errors excepted
 E.O.D.        Every other day
 E. & O.E.      Errors and omissions excepted
 Etc.          (_Et cetera_) and so forth
 Ex., Exch.    Exchange
 Exp.          Express

 Fgt.          Freight
 F.O.B.        Free on board

 H.            Hour
 H.P.          Half pay, horse-power {77}

 Incor.       Incorporated
 Ins.         Insurance

 K.D.         Knock down (_of furniture_, etc.)

 L.P.         Large paper

 Memo.        Memorandum
 Mfg.         Manufacturing
 Mfr.         Manufacturer
 Min.         Minute

 No.          (_numero_) number

 O.K.         All right

 Payt.        Payment
 Pd.          Paid
 Per an.      (_Per annum_) by the year
 Per cent.    (_Per centum_) by the hundred
 Pkg.         Package
 Pl.          Plate, plates
 Pref.        Preface

 Rd.          Road
 Rem.         Remarks
 Rep.         Reports
 R.R.         Railroad
 Ry.          Railway

 Ser.         Series
 Sq.          Square
 S.S.         Steamship, steamer

 T.F.         Till forbidden


7. GEOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS

 Ala.         Alabama
 Alaska       Alaska
 Ariz.        Arizona
 Ark.         Arkansas
 Austral.     Australasia {78}

 B.A.         British America
 Br. Col.     British Columbia

 Cal.         California
 Can.         Canada
 C.B.         Cape Breton
 Colo.        Colorado
 Conn.        Connecticut
 C.W.         Canada West (Ontario)

 D.C.         District of Columbia
 Del.         Delaware
 Den.         Denmark

 E.           East (London Postal District)
 East Isl.    Eastern Islands
 E.C.         East Central (London Postal District)
 E.I.         East Indies
 Eng.         England, English

 Fin.         Finland
 Fla.         Florida

 Ga.          Georgia
 G.B.         Great Britain
 Glas.        Glasgow

 H.I.         Hawaiian Islands

 Ia.          Iowa
 Idaho        Idaho
 Ill.         Illinois
 Ind.         Indiana
 Ind. Ter.    Indian Territory (_now Oklahoma_)
 Ire.         Ireland
 It.          Italy

 Jam.         Jamaica
 Jap.         Japan

 Kan.         Kansas
 Ky.          Kentucky

 La.          Louisiana
 L.C.         Lower Canada {79}

 Man.        Manitoba
 Mass.       Massachusetts
 Md.         Maryland
 Me.         Maine
 Mex.        Mexico
 Mich.       Michigan
 Minn.       Minnesota
 Miss.       Mississippi
 Mo.         Missouri
 Mont.       Montana

 N.          North (London Postal District)
 N.A.        North America
 N.B.        New Brunswick; North Britain (Scotland)
 N.C.        North Carolina
 N. Dak.     North Dakota
 N.E.        New England; Northeast (London Postal District)
 Neb.        Nebraska
 Neth.       Netherlands
 Nev.        Nevada
 N.F.        Newfoundland
 N.H.        New Hampshire
 N.J.        New Jersey
 N. Mex.     New Mexico
 N.S.        Nova Scotia
 N.W.        Northwest (London Postal District)
 N.Y.        New York
 N.Y.C.      New York City
 N. Zeal.    New Zealand

 O.          Ohio
 Okla.       Oklahoma
 Ont.        Ontario
 Ore.        Oregon

 Pa.         Pennsylvania
 Pal.        Palestine
 P.D.        Postal District (London) {80}
 P.E.I.       Prince Edward Island
 Per.         Persia
 Phila.       Philadelphia
 P.I.         Philippine Islands
 Port.        Portugal
 P.R.         Porto Rico
 Prus.        Prussia

 Que.         Quebec

 R.A.         Russian America (_now Alaska_)
 R.I.         Rhode Island
 Russ.        Russia

 S.           South (London Postal District)
 S.A.         South America
 S.C.         South Carolina
 Scot.        Scotland
 Sc. Pen.     Scandinavian Peninsula
 S. Dak.      South Dakota
 S. E.        Southeast (London Postal District)
 Sic.         Sicily
 S. Isl.      Sandwich Islands
 Soc. Isl.    Society Islands
 S. lat.      South latitude
 Sp.          Spain
 Sw.          Sweden
 Switz.       Switzerland
 Syr.         Syria

 Tenn.        Tennessee
 Tex.         Texas

 U.C.         Upper Canada (Ontario)
 U.K.         United Kingdom
 U.S.         United States
 U.S.A.       United States of America
 Utah         Utah

 V.           Victoria
 Va.          Virginia
 Vt.          Vermont {81}

 W.           Welsh, West; West (London Postal District)
 Wash.        Washington
 W.C.         West Central (London Postal District)
 W.I.         West Indies
 W. lon.      West longitude
 W. Va.       West Virginia
 Wis.         Wisconsin
 Wyo.         Wyoming


8. MISCELLANEOUS ABBREVIATIONS

 A.C.                 (_Ante Christum_) before Christ
 A.D.                 (_Anno Domini_) in the year of our Lord
 Ad lib.              (_Ad libitum_) at pleasure
 Adj.                 Adjective
 Adv.                 Adverb
 Aet.                 (_Aetatis_) of age, aged
 A.H.                 (_Anno Hegirae_) in the year of the Hegira
 Alt.                 Altitude
 A.M.                 (_Anno Mundi_) in the year of the world;
                          (_Ante Meridiem_) before noon
 An.                  (_Anno_) in the year
 An. A.C.             (_Anno ante Christum_) in the year before Christ
 Anat.                Anatomy
 Anc.                 Ancient
 Ang.-Sax.            Anglo-Saxon
 Anom.                Anomalous
 Anon.                Anonymous
 Ap.                  Apostle
 Apo.                 Apogee
 Apoc.                Apocalypse, Apocrypha
 A.R.                 (_Anno regni_) in the year of the reign
 Arch.                Architecture
 A.R.R.               (_Anno regni regis_) in the year of the reign
                          of the king
 Arr.                 Arrival
 Art.                 Article {82}
 Assoc., Assn.        Association
 Astrol.              Astrology
 Astron.              Astronomy
 A.U.C.               (_anno urbis conditae_) in the year of the
                          building of the city (Rome)
 Auth. Ver. or A.V.   Authorized Version (of the Bible)
 Av.                  Average
 Ave.                 Avenue

 B.                   (_Basso_) Bass; bay; born
 B.C.                 Before Christ
 Boul.                Boulevard
 B.V.                 (_Bene Vale_) Farewell

 C.                   Cape
 Caet. par.           (_Caeteris paribus_) other things being equal
 Cap.                 (_Caput_) Chapter
 C. or Cent.          Centigrade
 Cf.                  (_confer_) compare
 Ch.                  Child or children
 C.H.                 Court House
 Chap.                Chapter
 Circ.                Circle(s)
 Cit.                 Citizen
 Col.                 Column
 Coll.                College
 Comp.                Companion; comparative
 Cong.                Congress
 C.Q.D.               Marconi distress signal

 D.B.                 Domesday Book
 D.C.                 (_Da Capo_) From the beginning; again
 Dec.                 Declination
 Deg.                 Degree(s)
 Del.                 (_Delineavit_) he drew it
 Dem.                 Democrat
 D.G.                 (_Dei gratia_) by the grace of God; (_Deo
                          gratias_) thanks to God
 D.V.                 (_Deo volente_) God willing {83}

 E.                   East; Eagle(s)
 Ea.                  Each
 E.B.                 English Bible (common)
 Ed.                  Editor, Edition
 E.E.                 Errors excepted
 E.g.                 (_Exempli gratia_) by way of example
 Elec.                Electricity
 E.N.E.               East-northeast
 Ent.                 Entomology
 E.S.E.               East-southeast
 Et al.               (_Et alibi_) and elsewhere; (_et alii_)
                          and others
 Etc.                 (_Et caetera_) and so forth
 Et seq.              (_Et sequentia_) the following
 Ex.                  Example
 Exc.                 Exception

 F., Fahr.            Fahrenheit (thermometer)
 Fec.                 (_Fecit_) he made it
 Fem. or f.           Feminine
 Fig.(s)              Figure(s)
 Finn.                Finnish
 Fol. or f., ff.      Folio(s)
 For.                 Foreign
 Ft.                  Fort

 Gent.                Gentleman
 Ger.                 German
 Goth.                Gothic
 Gr.                  Greek

 H.                   Husband
 Hdkf.                Handkerchief
 H.e.                 (_Hoc est_) that is, or, this is
 Hist.                History, Historical
 H.J.S.               (_Hic jacet sepultus_) here lies buried
 H.M.P.               (_Hoc monumentum posuit_) erected this monument
 H.R.I.P.             (_Hic requiescit in pace_) here lies in peace
 H.S.                 (_Hic situs_) here lies {84}

 Ibid., Ib.           (_Ibidem_) in the same place
 Id.                  (_Idem_) the same
 I.e.                 (_Id est_) that is
 I.H.S.               First letters of ΙΗΣΟΥΣ, Greek for _Jesus_[12]
 Illus.               Illustrated
 Imp.                 Imperative (mood)
 Incog.               (_Incognito_) unknown
 Indef.               Indefinite
 Indic.               Indicative (mood)
 Infin.               Infinitive (mood)
 In lim.              (_In limine_) at the outset
 In loc.              (_In loco_) in the place
 Inst.                (_Instante_) the current month
 Int.                 Interest
 Interj.              Interjection
 In trans.            (_In transitu_) on the passage
 Ion.                 Ionic
 Ir.                  Irish
 Irreg.               Irregular
 Isl.                 Island
 Ital.                Italic
 Itin.                Itinerary

 J.H.S.               See I.H.S.
 Jour.                Journal

 Lat.                 Latin, latitude
 L.c.                 (_Loco citato_) in the place cited
 L.l.                 (_Loco laudato_) in the place quoted
 Lon. or Long.        Longitude
 L.S.                 (_Locus sigilli_) place of the seal
 LXX                  The Septuagint

 M.                   (_Meridies_) noon
 M.                   Married
 Mem.                 Memorandum, Memoranda
 Mgr.                 Manager
 Misc.                Miscellaneous
 Mo.(s)               Month, months {85}
 M.S.                 (_Memoriae sacrum_) sacred to the memory
 MS.                  (_Manuscriptum_) manuscript
 MSS.                 Manuscripts
 Mt.                  Mount, _Mont_
 Myth.                Mythology

 N.                   Noun; note(s)
 Nat.                 National
 Naut.                Nautical
 N.B.                 (_Nota Bene_) note well
 Nem. con. or         (_Nemine contradicente_ or _nemine
   nem. diss.             dissentiente_) none opposing
 N.l.                 (_Non liquet_) it does not appear
 N. lat.              North latitude
 N.N.E.               North-northeast
 N.N.W.               North-northwest
 Nom.                 Nominative
 Nol. pros.           (_Nolle prosequi_) indicates in law that a
                          complaint will not be prosecuted
 N.S.                 New Style (_after 1752_)
 N.T.                 New Testament
 N.u.                 name(s) unknown
 N.V.M.               Nativity of the Virgin Mary
 N.W.                 Northwest

 Ob.                  (_Obiit_) he or she died
 Obj.                 Objective (case)
 Obs.                 Obsolete
 O.F.                 Odd Fellow(s)
 Olym.                Olympiad
 O.H.M.S.             On His Majesty’s Service
 Op.                  Opposite
 O.S.                 Old Style (_before 1752_)
 O.T.                 Old Testament

 P. or pp.            Page or pages
 Par. or ¶            Paragraph
 Par. Pas.            Parallel Passage(s)
 Parl.                Parliament
 Part.                Participle {86}
 Partic.              Particle
 Pass.                Passive (voice)
 Pen.                 Peninsula
 Pent.                Pentecost
 Perf.                Perfect (tense)
 Pers.                Person
 Pers. pron.          Personal Pronoun
 Persp.               Perspective
 Phil.                Philosophy
 Pinx.                (_Pinxit_) he painted it
 Pl.                  Plate(s)
 Plur.                Plural
 Plup.                Pluperfect
 Plff.                Plaintiff
 P.M.                 (_Post meridiem_) afternoon to midnight
 P.O.                 Post-office
 Pop.                 Population
 Posit.               Positive
 P.p.                 Past participle
 P.P.C.               (_Pour prendre congé_) to take leave
 P. pr.               Participle present
 Pro tem.             (_Pro tempore_) for the time being
 P.R.                 (_Populus Romanus_) the Roman people
 Pret.                Preterite tense
 Pron.                Pronoun
 Pr. p.               Present participle
 Pref.                Preface
 P.S.                 Privy Seal
 P.T.O.               Please turn over
 Pt.                  Point
 Pub.                 Publisher
 Pub. Doc.            Public Document(s)

 Q.                   Question
 Q.B.                 Queen’s Bench
 Q.C.                 Queen’s College; Queen’s Council
 Q.d.                 (_Quasi dicat_) as if he should say; (_Quasi
                          dictum_) as if said; (_Quasi dixisset_)
                          as if he had said
 Q.E.                 (_Quod est_) which is {87}
 Q.E.D.               (_Quod erat demonstrandum_) which was to be
                          proved
 Q.E.F.               (_Quod erat faciendum_) which was to be done
 Q.l.                 (_Quantum libet_) as much as you please
 Q. Mess.             Queen’s Messenger
 Qm.                  (_Quomodo_) by what means, how
 Q.p. or q. pl.       (_Quantum placet_) as much as you please
 Qr.                  Quarter
 Q.s.                 (_Quantum sufficit_) a sufficient quantity
 Q.v.                 (_Quantum vis_) as much as you will
 Q.v.                 (_Quod vide_) which see
 Qy.                  Query

 R., Reaum            Reaumur (thermometer)
 R.                   (_Regina_) Queen; (_Rex_) King
 Rem.                 Remark(s)
 R.A.                 Royal Academy; Royal Academician; Royal Artillery
 R. E.                Royal Engineers
 Recd.                Received
 Rect.                Rector
 Ref.                 Reformation; Reformed
 Ref. Ch.             Reformed Church
 Ref.                 Reference
 Regr.                Registrar
 Regt.                Regiment
 Rel. pron.           Relative Pronoun
 Rep.                 Representative
 Repub.               Republican
 R.M.                 Royal Marines
 R.N.                 Royal Navy
 Ro.                  (_Recto_) right-hand page
 Rom. Cath.           Roman Catholic
 R.P.                 (_Res Publica_) Republic
 Ru.                  Runic

 S.                   Solo (_in Italian music_); South
 S. SS.               Section(s), Saint(s)
 S.a.                 (_Secundum artem_) according to art {88}
 Sax.                 Saxon
 S.C.                 (_Senatus consultum_) a decree of the Senate
 S.C                  (_in law_) same case
 Sch.                 Schooner(s)
 Schol.               (_Scholium_) a note
 Sci.                 Science
 Sculp.               (_Sculpsit_) he engraved
 S.E.                 Southeast
 Sen.                 Senate; Senator
 Seq. or sq.          (_Sequente_) and in what follows
 Seqq. or sqq.        (_Sequentibus_) and in the following (places)
 Ser.                 Series
 Shak.                Shakspere
 Sing.                Singular (number)
 S.J.C.               Supreme Judicial Court
 S. lat.              South latitude
 S.O.S.               Marconi distress signal
 S.P.                 (_Sine prole_) without issue
 Sp. gr.              Specific gravity
 S.P.Q.R.             (_Senatus Populusque Romanus_) the Senate and
                          the Roman People
 S.R.I.               (_Sacrum Romanum Imperium_) the Holy Roman
                          Empire
 S.R.S.               (_Societatis Regiae Socius_) Fellow of the
                          Royal Society
 S.S.                 Sunday School
 S.S.E.               South-southeast
 S.S.W.               South-southwest
 St.                  Saint; street
 Stat.                Statute(s)
 Ster.                Sterling
 Subj.                Subjunctive
 Subst.               Substantive
 Su.-Goth.            Suio-Gothic
 Super.               Superfine
 Superl.              Superlative
 S.W.                 Southwest {89}

 T.                   Tenor (_in music_); (_Tutti_) the whole
                          orchestra, after a solo
 Ter.                 Territory
 Term.                Termination
 Theor.               Theorem
 Tr.                  Translator; transpose

 Um.                  Unmarried
 Univ.                University
 U.S.A.               United States Army
 U.S.M.               United States Mail
 U.S.N.               United States Navy
 U.S.S.               United States Ship
 U.s.                 (_Ut supra_) as above

 Vat.                 Vatican
 V.a.                 Verb active
 V. aux.              Verb auxiliary
 V. def.              Verb defective
 V. dep.              Verb deponent
 Ven.                 Venerable
 V.g.                 (_Verbi gratiâ_) for example
 V. imp.              Verb impersonal
 V. in                Verb intransitive
 V. irr.              Verb irregular
 V. n.                Verb neuter
 Vo.                  (_Verso_) left-hand page
 Voc.                 Vocative
 Vol.                 Volume
 V. r.                Verb reflexive
 V. tr.               Verb transitive
 V.                   Vulgate (Version)

 W.                   West; wife
 W. lon.              West longitude
 W.N.W.               West-northwest
 W.S.W.               West-southwest

 Xmas                Christmas

 Zoöl.               Zoölogy

 [12] Erroneously _Jesus hominum Salvator_.

{90}


9. SCRIPTURAL ABBREVIATIONS

OLD TESTAMENT (O. T.)

 Gen.
 Exod.
 Lev.
 Num.
 Deut.
 Josh.
 Judg.
 Ruth
 I and II Sam.
 I and II Kings
 I and II Chron.
 Ezra
 Neh.
 Esth.
 Job
 Ps. (Pss.)
 Prov.
 Eccles.
 Song of Sol. (or Cant.)
 Isa.
 Jer.
 Lam.
 Ezek.
 Dan.
 Hos.
 Joel
 Amos
 Obad.
 Jonah
 Mic.
 Nah.
 Hab.
 Zeph.
 Hag.
 Zech.
 Mal.

NEW TESTAMENT (N. T.)

 Matt.
 Mark
 Luke
 John
 Acts
 Rom.
 I and II Cor.
 Gal.
 Eph.
 Phil.
 Col.
 I and II Thess.
 I and II Tim.
 Titus
 Philem.
 Heb.
 Jas.
 I and II Pet.
 I, II, and III John
 Jude
 Rev.

APOCRYPHA

 I and II Esd.
 Tob. = Tobit
 Jud. = Judith
 Rest of Esther
 Wisd. of Sol.
 Eccles.
 Bar.
 Song of Three Children
 Sus.
 Bel and Dragon
 Pr. of Man.
 I, II, II, and IV Macc.


10. MONETARY SIGNS

 $                 Dollar or dollars
 cts.              Cents
 gn.               Guinea
 £ (_English_)     Pound or pounds
 ∠ or s.           Shilling or shillings {91}
 d.                (_Denarius_) penny or pence
 fr.               Franc or francs
 c. (_French_)     Centime or centimes
 m.                Mark or marks
 pf.               Pfennig or pfennigs
 cr. (_Austrian_)  Crown or crowns
 hr.               Heller or hellers
 rub.              Ruble or rubles
 kop.              Kopec or kopecs
 kr. (_Danish_)    Crown or crowns
 öro, öre          Oro or öre
 £ (_Italian_)     Lira or lire
 c. (_Italian_)    Centesimo or centesimi


11. MATHEMATICAL SIGNS

 +              Plus
 −              Minus
 ±              Plus or minus
 ∓              Minus or plus
 ×              Multiplied by[13]
 ÷              Divided by
 =              Equal to
 ≠              Not equal to
 ≡              Identical with
 ≢              Not identical with
 ≅              Congruent to
 ＞              Greater than
 ＜              Less than
 ≏              The difference between
 ≎              Is equivalent to
 ∫              Integration
 ∶ and ∷        Proportion
 ∝              Varies as
 ≐              Approaches as a limit

 ∞              Infinity
 ∴              Therefore {92}
 ∵              Because
 ⋯              Continuation
 √              The radical sign
 ⊥              Perpendicular to
 [∟5]           Factorial sign
 ∥              Parallel
 ⌒              Arc of circle
 °              Degree of circle
 ′              Minute of circle
 ″              Second of circle
 ∠ ⦠            Angle
 ∟              Right angle
 □              Square
 ▭              Rectangle
 ▱              Parallelogram
 △              Triangle

 [13] This is also indicated algebraically by a dot, as, _a_ · _b_


12. MEDICAL SIGNS

 āā          (ἀνά) of each
 ℞           (_Recipe_) take
 ℥, ℥i       Ounce, one ounce
 ℥ss         Half an ounce
 ℥iss        One ounce and a half
 ℥ij         Two ounces
 Ʒ           Drachm
 ℈           Scruple
 ○           (_Octavius_) Pint
 ℥           Fluid ounce
 Ʒ           Fluid drachm
 _m._   Minim or drop

{93}




NUMERALS


According to Astle, the combination of Greek numerical characters was
not well known to the Latins before the thirteenth century, although
Greek numerical characters were frequently used in France and Germany
in episcopal letters, and continued to the eleventh century. But of all
the Greek ciphers the episemon βαῦ was most in use with the Latins; it
gradually assumed the form of _G_ with a tail, for so it appears in a
Latin inscription of the year 296. It is found to have been used in
the fifth century in Latin MSS. It was reckoned for 6, and this value
has been evinced by such a number of monumental proofs, that there is
no room to give it any other. Some of the learned, with even Mabillon,
have been mistaken in estimating it as 5, but in a posthumous work he
acknowledges his error.

Those authors were led into this error by the medals of the Emperor
Justinian having the episemon for 5; but it is a certain fact that the
coiners had been mistaken and confounded it with the tailed _U_, for
the episemon was still in use in the fourth century, and among the
Latins was estimated as 6, but {94} under a form somewhat different.
Whenever it appears in other monuments of the western nations of Europe
of that very century and the following, it is rarely used to express
any number except 5.

The Etruscans also used their letters for indicating numbers by writing
them from right to left, and the ancient Danes copied the example in
the application of their letters.

The Romans, when they borrowed arts and sciences from the Greeks,
learned also their method of using alphabetical numeration. This
custom, however, was not very ancient among them. Before writing was
yet current with them, they made use of nails for reckoning years, and
the method of driving those nails became in process of time a ceremony
of their religion. The first eight Roman numerals were composed of
the I and the V. The Roman ten was composed of the V proper and the V
inverted (Ʌ), which characters served to reckon as far as forty; but
when writing became more general, I, V, X, L, C, D, and M were the only
characters appropriated to the indication of numbers. The above seven
letters, in their most extensive combination, produce six hundred and
sixty-six thousand, ranged thus, DCLXVIM. Some, however, contend that
the Romans were strangers to any higher number than 100,000. The want
of ciphers obliged them to double, treble, and multiply {95} their
numerical characters four-fold, according as they had occasion to make
them express units, tens, hundreds, etc. For the sake of brevity they
had recourse to another expedient: by drawing a small line over any of
their numeral characters they made them stand for as many thousands as
they contained units. Thus a small line over Ī made it 1000, and over
̄X expressed 10,000, etc.

When the Romans wrote several units together in succession, the first
and last were longer than the rest IIIIII; thus _vir_ after those six
units signified _sex-vir_. D stood for 500, and the perpendicular line
of this letter was sometimes separated from the body thus (IↃ,) without
lessening its value. M, whether capital or uncial, expressed 1000. In
the uncial form it sometimes assumed that of one of those figures, CIↃ,
CD, ∞, ⅿ. The cumbent X was also used to signify a similar number.

In ancient MSS. 4 is written IIII and not IV, 9 thus VIIII and not IX,
etc. Instead of V five units, IIIII, were sometimes used in the eighth
century. Half was expressed by an S at the end of the figures, CIIS was
put 102 1/2. This S sometimes appeared in the form of our 5.

In some old MSS. those numerical figures LXL are used to express 90.
The Roman numeral letters were generally used both in England, France,
Italy, and Germany, from the earliest times to the middle of the
fifteenth century. {96}

The ancient people of Spain made use of the Roman ciphers. The X with
the top of the right-hand stroke in form of a semi-circle reckoned
for 40; it merits the more particular notice as it has misled many of
the learned. The Roman ciphers, however, were continued in use with
the Spaniards until the fifteenth century. The Germans used the Roman
ciphers for a long time, nearly in the same manner as the French.

The points after the Roman ciphers were exceedingly various, and
never rightly fixed. It is not known when the ancient custom was
first introduced of placing an O at top immediately after the Roman
characters, as Aº Mº Lº VIº etc.


NUMERAL LETTERS

                       _Roman_           _Arabic_
 Unus, a, um               I                         1
 Duo, ae, o                II                        2
 Tres, ia                  III                       3
 Quatuor                   IV [IIII]                 4
 Quinque                   V                         5
 Sex                       VI                        6
 Septem                    VII                       7
 Octo                      VIII                      8
 Novem                     IX                        9
 Decem                     X                        10
 Undecim                   XI                       11
 Duodecim                  XII                      12
 Tredecim                  XIII                     13
 Quatuordecim              XIV                      14
 Quindecim                 XV                       15
 Se(sex)decim              XVI                      16
 Septemdecim               XVII                     17 {97}
 Octodecim or              XVIII                    18
   Duodeviginti
 Novemdecim or             XIX                      19
   Undeviginti
 Viginti                   XX                       20
 Triginta                  XXX                      30
 Quadraginta               XL                       40
 Quinquaginta              L                        50
 Sexaginta                 LX                       60
 Septuaginta               LXX                      70
 Octoginta                 LXXX                     80
 Nonaginta                 XC                       90
 Centum                    C                       100
 Ducenti-ae-a              CC                      200
 Trecenti-ae-a             CCC                     300
 Quadringenti-ae-a         CCCC                    400
 Quingenti-ae-a            IↃ or D                 500
 Sexcenti-ae-a             DC                      600
 Septingenti-ae-a          DCC                     700
 Octingenti-ae-a           DCCC                    800
 Nongenti-ae-a             DCCCC or CM             900
 Mille                     M or CIↃ               1000
 Duo millia or             MM                     2000
   Bis mille
 Tria millia or            MMM                    3000
   Ter mille
 Quatuor millia or         MMMM                   4000
   Quater mille
 Quinque millia or         IↃↃ or ̄V               5000
   Quinquies mille
 Decem millia or           CCIↃↃ or ̄X           10,000
   Decies mille
 Quinquaginta millia or    IↃↃↃ or ̄L            50,000
   Quinquaquies mille
 Centum millia or          CCCIↃↃↃ or ̄C        100,000
    Centies mille
 Quingenta millia or       IↃↃↃↃ or ̄D          500,000
   Quingenties mille
 Decies centena millia     CCCCIↃↃↃↃ or ̄M    1,000,000

{98}

If the lesser number is placed before the greater, the lesser is to be
deducted from the greater; thus IV signifies one less than 5, i.e., 4;
IX, 9; XC, 90.

If the lesser number be placed after the greater, the lesser is to be
added to the greater; thus VI signifies one more than 5, i.e., 6; XI,
11; CX, 110.

A horizontal stroke over a numeral denotes a thousand; thus ̄V
signifies five thousand; ̄L, fifty thousand; ̄M, a thousand times a
thousand, or a million.

I, signifies _one_, because it is the smallest letter.

V, _five_, because it is sometimes used for U, the fifth vowel.

X, _ten_, because it represents two V’S.

L, _fifty_, from its resemblance to the lower half of C.

C, _a hundred_, centum.

IↃ or D, _five hundred_, the half of CIↃ.

M or CIↃ, _a thousand_, from _mille_. The latter figures joined at the
top, ⅿ, formed the ancient M. {99}




CORRECT AND FAULTY DICTION


Correctness is the primary requisite of spoken or written discourse.
Language must not be only understood, but it must convey all the
meaning which the writer intends to express. As a guide to those who
are bewildered by the many cases of divided usage, the following
adaptation of certain canons, framed by Dr. Campbell over a century ago
and used as a basis by every later writer on Rhetoric, are here given:

«Canon I.» — When, of two words or phrases in equally good use, one is
susceptible of two significations and the other of but one, preference
should be given to the latter: e.g., _admittance_ is better than
_admission_, as the latter word also means “confession”; _relative_ is
to be preferred to _relation_, as the latter also means the telling of
a story.

«Canon II.» — In doubtful cases regard should be given to the analogy
of the language: _might better_ should be preferred to _had better_,
and _would rather_ is better than _had rather_.

«Canon III.» — The simpler and briefer form should be preferred,
other things being equal: {100} e.g., omit the bracketed words in
expressions such as, _open_ [_up_], _meet_ [_together_], _follow_
[_after_], _examine_ [_into_], _trace_ [_out_], _bridge_ [_over_],
_crave_ [_for_], etc.

«Canon IV.» — Between two forms of expression in equally good use,
prefer the one which is more euphonious: e.g., _most beautiful_ is
better than _beautifullest_, and _more free_ is to be preferred to
_freer_.

«Canon V.» — In cases not covered by the four preceding canons, prefer
that which conforms to the older usage: e.g., _begin_ is better than
_commence_.

Familiarity with the writings of those authors whose style is accepted
as conforming to the standards of good usage is an essential to all
those who seek accuracy in correct expression, and the following
authors may be studied with this in mind: Addison, Matthew Arnold,
Burke, DeQuincey, George Eliot, Emerson, Hawthorne, Holmes, Irving,
Macaulay, John Stuart Mill, Newman, Poe, Ruskin, Stevenson, and
Thackeray.

The various standard dictionaries may be consulted regarding words
which are questionable when measured by good usage. The function of
the dictionary is to record all words in general use, but a careful
record is made as to the classes to which the various words belong.
Good usage, for instance, does not recognize the word _vim_, yet it
will be found in the Century Dictionary; but at {101} the end of
the definition an entry [_Colloq._] is placed, showing that it is
authorized only by colloquial use.

The following list of words and phrases which are most commonly misused
will be found useful. The correct words are added in brackets:

 «Accept», see «Except»

 «Admire», should not be used to express delight: e.g., _I should
 admire_ [be delighted] _to go to California_

 «Admit», see «Confess»

 ADVERBS: should usually be placed next to the words they modify. (See
 also «Infinitive»)

 «Affable», means “easy to speak to,” and should not be used for
 _agreeable_

 «Affect», should not be confused with _effect_: e.g., _She was deeply
 affected by the news_; or _The news had a serious effect upon her_; or
 _The effect of the news was serious_

 «Aggravate», should not be used for _annoy_ or _vex_. It means “to
 make worse”: e.g., _His cold was aggravated by the exposure_

 «Ain’t», is a contraction of _am not_. It is inelegant though
 grammatically correct to say, _I ain’t_, but it is absolutely wrong to
 say, _He ain’t_, etc.

 «All right», should never be written _alright_

 «Alternative», should not be used in speaking of one of more than two
 things

 «And», should not be placed before a relative pronoun in such a
 position as to interfere with the construction: e.g., _I acknowledge
 the receipt of your letter, (and) for which I send you my cordial
 thanks_. Omit the conjunction

 «Any place», should be written _anywhere_

 «Apparently», is used of what seems to be real, but may not be so;
 _evidently_ of that which both seems and is real {102}

 «Apt», means skilful and should not be used for _likely_. _He is apt
 to be here soon_ should be _He is likely to be here soon_; _He is an
 apt pupil_ is correct

 ARTICLES: when superfluous, are misleading and should be omitted; but
 it is more frequently the case that necessary articles are omitted:
 e.g., _The army and navy_ signifies a single organization. Insert _a_
 before _navy_

 «As», should not be used as a causal conjunction: e.g., _Do not expect
 me (as) I am too uncertain of my time_. The word _as_ stands here as
 a contraction of _inasmuch as_. Substitute a semicolon: e.g., _Do not
 expect me; I am too uncertain of my time_.

 «As . . . as», see «So . . . as»

 «At», is often incorrectly used for _in_: e.g., _They are living at_
 [in] _Florence_

 «At length», does not mean the same as _at last_. Say _At length he
 showed signs of relenting_, and _At last he relented_

 «Aught», is frequently confused with _naught_. It means “anything,”
 whereas the symbol 0 means “nothing”

 «Avail», should be used with _of_ only with some form of _be_;
 otherwise _to_ is the proper word: e.g., _He called lustily, but of_
 [to] _no avail_; or _He called lustily, but_ [_it was_] _of no avail_

 «Aware», is used in relation to things outside of ourselves;
 _conscious_ in relation to sensations or things within ourselves

 «Awful», should not be used loosely. It means “inspiring with awe.” To
 say _I had an awfully good time_ is as ridiculous as it is meaningless

 «Badly», should not be used for _very much_ or _a great deal_. The
 expression, _If you don’t care to do a thing very badly, do it very
 badly_, shows the absurdity. Do not confuse the adjective with the
 adverb. _He looks badly_ means “He makes a bad use of his eyes.” _He
 looks bad_ is correct

 «Bank on», a slang expression not recognized by good usage. Say _rely
 on_ or _trust in_ {103}

 «Beg», should never be used without the word _leave_, when asking
 permission. In correspondence one often sees the expressions, _I beg
 to state_, _I beg to differ_. One should say, _I beg leave to state_,
 _I beg leave to differ_

 «Bring», see «Take»

 «But», is sometimes used as a preposition, and when so used takes the
 objective case: e.g., _The invitation included all but him_ is correct

 «Can», denotes power, and should not be used for _may_, which denotes
 permission. The following sentence shows the correct use of both
 words: _He may do it if he can_

 «Cannot but», should not be used interchangeably with _can but_, as
 the two expressions differ in meaning: e.g., _I can but try_ means
 “All I can do is to try”; _I cannot but try_ means “I cannot help
 trying”

 «Can’t seem», should not be used for _seem unable_: e.g., _I can’t
 seem_ [seem unable] _to find it_

 CASE: the nominative is sometimes wrongly used for the objective case:
 e.g., _Let He_ [Him] _who made thee answer that_

 «Childlike», means that belonging to the child; _childish_, means the
 weakness of the child

 «Come», see «Go»

 «Common», see «Mutual»

 «Confess», should not be used in the sense of _admit_, in cases in
 which no idea of confession enters

 «Conscious», see «Aware»

 «Continual», meaning “frequently repeated acts,” should not be
 confused with _continuous_ meaning “uninterrupted action”: e.g.,
 _Continual nagging spoils the disposition_, and _The continuous
 flowing of a stream_

 «Deadly», which means “that which inflicts death,” should not be
 confused with _deathly_, which means “that which resembles death”:
 e.g., _A deadly poison_, and _A deathly pallor_ {104}

 «Decided», means “strong,” _decisive_ means “final.” _A decided
 opinion_ does not mean the same as _a decisive opinion_

 «Definite», means “well-defined”; _definitive_ means “final”

 «Demean», which signifies “to behave” oneself, should not be used for
 _degrade_ or _debase_

 «Different», should never be followed by the word _than_. Say,
 _Different from_

 «Directly», should not be used for _as soon as_: e.g., _Directly_ [as
 soon as] _he arrived_

 «Discover», is to find something which previously existed; _invent_ is
 to produce something for the first time

 «Don’t», is a contraction of _do not_. One may say, _I don’t_, but not
 _He don’t_. Say, _He doesn’t_

 «Each other», should not be misused for _one another_. One may say,
 _The two cousins were devoted to each other_; or _Many suggestions
 were made, following one another in rapid succession_

 «Effect», see «Affect»

 «Egoists», are those who made the _ego_ the basis of their philosophy;
 _egotists_ are those who worship themselves

 «Either», should not be used to designate more than two persons or
 things. To designate one of three or more, say _Any one_

 «Enormity», describes deeds of unusual horror; _enormousness_
 describes things of unusual size

 «Enthuse» (verb), is not recognized by good usage. _I became enthused_
 should be written _I became enthusiastic_

 «Every place», should be written _everywhere_

 «Excellent», should never be qualified as it is a superlative: e.g.,
 _most excellent_, _very excellent_, and the like are impossible. (See
 also «Superlatives»)

 «Except» (verb), signifies “to exclude”: e.g., _Present company
 excepted_. As a preposition it means “with the exception.” It should
 not be confused with _accept_, which signifies “to receive” {105}

 «Exceptional», describes a case outside the operation of a
 rule; _exceptionable_ is that which is open to criticism: e.g.,
 _Exceptionable_ conduct is that to which _exception_ can be taken

 «Expect», should not be used as a synonym for _think_ or _suppose_

 «Falseness» (of a person) is the opposite of _truthfulness_; _falsity_
 (of a thing) is the opposite of _truth_

 «Fix», should not be used in the sense of _repair_. It means “to
 attach”

 «Former», should not be used to designate one of more than two persons
 or things. If reference is made to one of three or more, say _The
 first_

 «Gentleman», should be used to designate only a person of refinement,
 and never as a mere designation of sex. The use of the word _man_ is
 never out of place

 «Gentleman friend», is an expression which should be avoided, owing to
 the use which has been made of it. Say _man friend_ or _man friends_,
 or _gentleman of my acquaintance_

 «Go», should not be confused with _come_: e.g., _I will come_ [go] _to
 you when you need me_

 «Got», is said to be the most misused word in the language. _I have
 got to go_ should be _I am obliged to go_. _Have you got time?_ should
 be _Have you time?_ etc. The verb means “to secure,” so it must be
 used only with this meaning: e.g., _I have got the contract_

 «Gotten», is an obsolete form. Say _got_

 «Guess», is loosely used for _suppose_, _expect_, or _intend_, but is
 avoided by the best writers

 «Hanged», see «Hung»

 «Hardly», should never be preceded by the negative: e.g., _That is not
 hardly enough_. Omit _not_

 «He», see «Him»

 «Healthful», means “health-giving,” as applied to articles of food;
 _healthy_ is the condition of the person {106}

 «Her», is often misused for _she_: e.g., _It is her_ [she]; _Such a
 woman as her_ [she]

 «Him», is often misused for _he_: e.g., _It is him_ [he]; _Let He_
 [Him] _who made thee answer that_; _A style that belongs to no other
 than he_ [him]

 «Hoi polloi», should not be written _the hoi polloi_. _Hoi_ is Greek
 for “the”

 «Honorable», should always be preceded by _the_: e.g., _The Honorable
 James Brown Smith_

 «How», should not be used for _what_: e.g., _How_ [what] _did you say_?

 «Hung», should be distinguished from _hanged_: e.g., _The man was
 hanged_, but _The flag was hung across the street_

 «I», see «Me»

 «If», should never be used in the sense of _whether_ or _that_: e.g.,
 _He is not sure if he remembers_ should be _He is not sure whether_
 [or _that_] _he remembers_

 «In», should not be used for _into_, when motion is implied: e.g., _He
 stepped in_ [into] _the boat_. See also «At»

 INFINITIVE: the verb should never be separated from _to_, the sign of
 the infinitive word, by an adverb: e.g., _It is not possible for me to
 absolutely promise_ should be _to promise absolutely_

 -ING: when using verbal nouns ending in _-ing_ be careful to
 distinguish them from participles having the same ending. A verbal
 noun must never be preceded by an adverb: e.g., _That proved of as
 little use as his afterward trying to explain his presence there_
 should be _as his trying afterward to explain_

 «Inside of», is a vulgarism when used in the sense of _within_: e.g.,
 _The snow will be gone inside of_ [within] _a week_

 «Invent», see «Discover»

 «Kind», is singular. The common expression _those kind_ is absolutely
 wrong. Say _this kind_ or _these kinds_, _that kind_ or _those kinds_

 «Kind of», should not be followed by the article _a_ or _an_. Say
 _What kind of man is he?_ not _What kind of a man is he?_ {107}

 «Lady», see «Gentleman»

 «Lady friend», see «Gentleman friend»

 «Last», should not be used for _latest_. “Have you read my last book?”
 asked the author. “I hope so,” was the frank reply

 «Latter», signifies one of two persons or things. In making reference
 to one of three or more, say _The last_

 «Lay», should not be confused with _lie_. Hens _lay_, men _lie_

 «Less», is a vulgarism when used for _fewer_: e.g., _There were less_
 [fewer] _accidents in football this season_

 «Liable», should not be used for _likely_: e.g., _It is liable_
 [likely] _to rain today_. Its proper sense is shown in the sentence,
 _He is liable to arrest_

 «Like», is a vulgarism when used for _as_ or _as if_: e.g., _I wish I
 could sing like_ [as] _you do_. See also «Love»

 «Likely», means “any probability”; _liable_ means an “unpleasant
 probability”

 «Loan», is not in accord with good usage when used as a verb: Say, _He
 lent me a dollar_, and _The loan was of real assistance_

 «Locate», is a vulgarism when used for _settle_. Say, _He settled in
 Boston_, and _He located his business in Cambridge_

 «Love», describes that which appeals to our affections; _like_, that
 which appeals to our taste, appetite or fancy

 «Luxuriant», means “superabundant”; _luxurious_ means “consequent upon
 luxury”

 «Mad», means “insane,” and is not a synonym for _angry_

 «Man», see «Gentleman»

 «May», see «Can»

 «Me», is often wrongly used for _I_: e.g., _Between you and I_ [me];
 _It is me_ [I]; _You know as well as me_ [I]

 «Means», may be either singular or plural. Say, _No other means was at
 hand_, or _Various means were suggested_

 «Most», should not be used for _almost_

 «Must», should not be used for _had to_ or _was obliged_: e.g., _The
 hour arrived when he must_ [had to] _decide_. In its proper use it
 refers to the present or future: e.g., _The hour will arrive when he
 must decide_ {108}

 «Mutual», should not be used in the sense of “shared in common,” as
 it means “reciprocal.” It can refer to but two persons or things.
 _Mutual_ friendship is that which exists between two friends; _common_
 friendship that which is shared by two friends for a third

 «Negligence», implies failure to conform to an established custom;
 _neglect_ means “a failure to act”

 «Neither», signifies one of two. In designating one of three or more,
 say _No one_

 «News», is singular in construction

 «Nice», should not be used loosely; as, _She was nice to us_. It
 means keenness in discrimination; as, _It was a fine point, nicely
 considered_. The incorrect use of this word is an Americanism
 especially offensive to the English. Oscar Wilde, when in America,
 remarked, “I think _nice_ is a nasty word,” to which his hearer
 retorted, “I don’t think _nasty_ is a nice word”

 «No place», should be written _nowhere_

 «Nor», see «Or»

 «Not . . . but», forms a double negative: e.g., _I have not asked you
 but once_ should be _I have asked you but once_

 «Notorious», is not a synonym for _celebrated_ or _famous_. It means
 “of bad repute”

 «Nowhere near», is a vulgarism for _not nearly_

 NUMBER: pronouns are often used which differ in number from their
 antecedents: e.g., _Nobody should feel that their_ [his] _interests
 have been neglected_; _Each of the ladies, like two excellent
 actresses, were_ [was] _perfect in their_ [her] _parts_ [part].
 Singular nouns are sometimes used with plural verbs, or the reverse:
 e.g., _None but the brave deserve_ [deserves] _the fair_; _There’s_
 [there are] _the boys_

 «Of», is sometimes wrongly used for _have_: e.g., _I shouldn’t of_
 [have] _come if I had known_

 «Or», should not be used with _neither_. Use _nor_ {109}

 «Ought», should never be combined with _had_: e.g., _You hadn’t ought
 to do that_ should be _You ought not to do that_

 «Out loud», should never be used for _aloud_

 «Partake of», should not be used in the sense of _eat_. It means “to
 share with others”

 «Party», should not be used for _person_

 «Per», should not be used with English words. Say _One dollar a year_,
 or _One dollar per annum_

 «Perception», means the inlet of all the materials of knowledge;
 _apperception_ means the knowledge that one possesses these materials.
 A man with _perception_ knows; a man with _apperception_ knows that he
 knows

 PLURALS: of foreign words should be carefully ascertained: e.g.,
 _cherubim_ is the plural of _cherub_; _memoranda_, of _memorandum_;
 _data_, of _datum_; _donne_, of _donna_; _strata_, of _stratum_;
 _addenda_, of _addendum_; _rubaiyat_, of _rubai_. Do not say, _A
 memoranda_

 «Pretty», should not be used in a modifying sense, nor as a synonym
 for _very_: e.g., _It is not as good as yours, but it is pretty_
 [fairly] _good_; _I didn’t hit it, but I came pretty_ [very] _close_

 «Propose», meaning “to offer,” should not be confused with _purpose_,
 meaning “to intend.” Say, _He proposed an amendment_, and _I have told
 you what I purpose_

 «Quite», should not be used in a modifying sense as if meaning
 “rather.” _It is not what I expected, but it is quite good_ is wrong.
 The word means “wholly”: e.g., _Not quite_ = not wholly; _quite
 satisfactory_ = wholly satisfactory

 «Raise», should not be used as a noun

 «Rarely ever», is a vulgarism for _rarely_ or _hardly ever_

 «Reference», should be used with _with_ rather than _in_. Say, _With
 reference to_ rather than _In reference to_ {110}

 «Regard», see «Reference»

 «Respect», see «Reference»

 «Reverend», should always be preceded by _the_: e.g., _The Reverend
 James Brown Smith_

 «Same», should not be used as a pronoun: e.g., _Your letter received,
 and in reply [to same] would say_. Omit bracketed words

 «Same as», should not be used for _just as_ or _in the same way_:
 e.g., _Treat him the same_ [just] _as you would wish to be treated_

 «Scarcely», see «Hardly»

 «Seldom ever», see «Rarely ever»

 «Sensible of», means “having perception”; _sensitive to_ means
 “affected by”

 «Set», should not be confused with _sit_. _To set_ means “to cause to
 sit”: e.g., _The bird sits upon the tree_, and _The waiter set two
 chairs for us_

 «Sewage», means the contents of sewers; _sewerage_ means the system

 «Shall», signifies simple expectancy in the first person, and _will_
 represents determination. This reverses with the second and third
 persons: e.g., EXPECTANCY, I shall (should), thou wilt (wouldst), he
 will (would), we shall (should), you will (would), they will (would).
 DETERMINATION, I will (would), thou shalt (shouldst), he shall
 (should), we will (would), you shall (should), they shall (should).
 This time-honored illustration of the misuse of these words is easily
 remembered: _I will drown, nobody shall save me_. In interrogative
 sentences, the forms of the future are the same as in a declarative
 sentence, and their proper use may be easily remembered by noting that
 the same auxiliary is used as is expected in the reply: e.g., _Shall
 you go?_ suggests merely future action, anticipating the reply, _I
 shall_ or _I shall not_; _Will you go?_ shows that the speaker expects
 a reply of determination, _I will_ or _I will not_

 «She», see «Her» {111}

 «Should», ought not to be used for _to_: e.g., _I want you should_
 [to] _do this_. (See also «Want».) As between _should_ and _would_,
 see «Shall». The same usage obtains, except that sometimes _should_
 is used in the sense of _ought_: e.g., _He should be here now_; and
 _would_ sometimes signifies habitual action: e.g., _Whenever the name
 was mentioned he would speak slightingly of him_

 «Show», should not be used for _play_: e.g., _I went to a show last
 evening_; nor in the sense of _chance_: e.g., _He has an excellent
 show of winning_

 «Show up», is a vulgarism when used for _expose_

 «Since», should not be used for _ago_. Say, _How long ago_ rather than
 _How long since_

 «Size up», is a vulgarism when used for _estimate_

 «So», should be used sparingly to modify an adjective: e.g., _I feel
 so unhappy_. It should not be used for _so that_: e.g., _I wrote him
 so_ [that] _he understood_

 «So . . . as», is required, rather than the correlatives _as . . . as_
 in negative statements: e.g., _James is not as_ [so] _clever as John_

 «Some», should not be used for _somewhat_: e.g., _The patient is
 some_[what] _better_

 «Some place», should be written _somewhere_

 «Sort», see «Kind»

 «Sort of», should not be used for _rather_: e.g., _I feel sort of
 tired_ is incorrect. See also «Kind of»

 «Splendid», should not be used for _fine_ or _skilful_. It implies
 “splendor”

 «Start», should not be used for _begin_: e.g., _He started_ [began]
 _to speak_

 «Stop», should not be used for _stay_: e.g., _I am stopping_ [staying]
 _with my uncle while in San Francisco_

 «Take», is superfluous in connection with other verbs: e.g., _Suppose
 we [take and] use the drawings we have_. It should not be confused
 with _bring_: e.g., _I will bring_ [take] _it home with me_; _I will
 take_ [bring] _the book to you tomorrow_ {112}

 «Take stock in», is a slang expression not recognized by good usage.
 Say _rely on_ or _trust in_

 TENSE: errors are often made by neglecting the principle that the
 time of the recorded action in the subordinate portion of a sentence
 is relative to the time of the principal clause. The tense of the
 dependent verb, therefore, is determined by its relation to the
 verb on which it depends: e.g., _I meant to have done it_ should
 be _I meant to do it_; _He expected to have told him_ should be
 _He expected to tell him_. A common mistake is made in replying to
 formal invitations: e.g., _Mr. Robert Gorham regrets that a previous
 engagement will prevent_ [prevents] _him from accepting_; _Mr. Gorham
 will be_ [is] _happy to accept_

 «That», see «Which»

 «Them», is often misused for _they_: e.g., _It is them_ [they]

 «They», see «Them»

 «This», should not be used as an adverb. Say, _Thus much is clear_
 rather than _This much is clear_, and _Having said thus much_ [or _as
 much as this_] . . . rather than _Having said this much_ . . .

 «Through», should not be used for _finished_. Say, _He has finished
 speaking_ rather than _He is through speaking_

 «Too», alone should not modify a past participle: e.g., _He was too_
 [much] _excited to reply_

 «Treat», should be followed by _of_ rather than _on_: e.g., _This
 volume treats of conditions in China_

 «Try», should be followed by _to_ rather than _and_: e.g., _I will try
 and_ [to] _get the information you desire_

 «Ugly», should not be used in the sense of _vicious_ or _malicious_.
 It means “repulsive to the eye.” A color may be _ugly_, but an
 ill-tempered dog is _vicious_

 VERBS: should not be omitted: e.g., _He could do it if he wished to_
 [do it]

 «Very», should be used sparingly. Foreigners say that America is a
 country of superlatives, — if anything is good, it is _very_ good,
 and if bad, it is _very_ bad. Too {113} much emphasis weakens
 conversation or writing and defeats its object

 «Visitor», is a human caller; _visitant_, a supernatural one

 «Vocation», means “calling” or “profession”; _avocation_, means an
 interest outside one’s profession

 «Want», should not be used in the sense of _wish_: e.g., _I want it_
 really means “I feel the want of it,” or “I lack it.” An example of
 the correct use of both words is, _China wishes the coöperation of the
 United States, — a coöperation which is at present wanting_

 «Way», should not be used for _away_

 «What», is often misused for _that_: e.g., _He has no doubt but what_
 [that] _he will succeed_

 «Whence», means “from where.” Do not say _from whence_

 «Which», should not be used with a clause as its antecedent: e.g., _He
 replied hotly, which was a mistake_ should be _He replied hotly; this
 was a mistake_. Do not use _which_ (a neuter pronoun) to represent a
 masculine or feminine noun. Say _whom_. Between _which_ and _that_,
 let euphony decide

 «Who», is often misused for _whom_ or _whose_: e.g., _Who_ [whom] _did
 you wish to see?_ _Washington, than whom_ [whose] _no greater name is
 recorded in American history._ Impersonal objects should be referred
 to by _which_ rather than _who_

 «Whom», see «Who» and «Which»

 «Will», see «Shall»

 «Woman», see «Gentleman»

 «Womanly», means “belonging to woman as woman”; _womanish_ means
 “effeminate”

 «Would», see «Should» {114}




LETTER WRITING


Although it is quite improbable that there will ever be a return to the
painstaking, literary art of letter writing, of which we have so many
admirable examples in the past, the value of the art as a medium of
expressing personality must always be recognized. The force of business
competition has introduced short-cuts in business correspondence which
are regrettable from a literary standpoint; the universal use of the
typewriter has altered conditions; the multiplicity of social demands
makes impossible the leisurely written and carefully considered letters
between friends which used to be a valued expression of friendship
itself. These changes in conditions have been inevitable, but they do
not explain the carelessness and the evidences of ignorance of even
simple rules of expression and arrangement which are too frequently
apparent in the letters even of those whose position in life demands
more, in this respect, than they seem able or willing to give. For this
reason the present writer does not hesitate to resort to elementary
outlines in making clear the basis upon which the art of letter writing
rests. {115}


THE HEADING

«I. Business.» — 1. The stationery of a business house invariably
contains in its printed heading the name of the house and the location
of the business, with a space for filling in the date. The arrangement,
therefore, is arbitrarily and usually correctly fixed. The name of the
city or town, with street address, if required, comes first, occupying
one or two lines, followed by the date, always at the right, either in
the same line or in a line by itself: e.g.,

                                         BOSTON, 12 March, 1912
                                             or
                    189 State St., Boston
                                                          12 March, 1912

2. If there is no punctuation at the ends of the printed lines, there
should be no point used after the date.

3. The number of the day should not be followed by _st_, _nd_, _rd_,
_d_, or _th_: e.g., _12 March_, not _12th March_.

«II. Informal.» — 1. There is considerable latitude in the heading in
informal or friendly letters. The address of the writer may be placed
at the beginning or the end of the letter, or omitted altogether if
well-known to the addressee.

2. The date may be at the beginning or the end, but should never be
omitted.

«III. Formal.» — 1. In formal letters the place and date should be
written at the end, on the left. {116}


THE ADDRESS

«I. Business.» — 1. The name and address of the addressee should
be placed at the beginning of every business letter, on the left,
immediately preceding the salutation. It should be in two or three
lines, the indention being either blocked[14] or _en échelon_[14]: e.g.,

 Messrs. Smith, Robinson & Co.
 713 Chestnut Street
 Philadelphia, Pa.                                      (_blocked_) _or_
 Messrs. Smith, Robinson & Co.                       (_en échelon_) _or_
                      Philadelphia, Pa.
 Messrs. Smith, Robinson & Co.
                  713 Chestnut Street                     (_en échelon_)
                      Philadelphia, Pa.

«II. Informal.» — 1. The same latitude is allowed here as in the matter
of the date. It is customary, however, to omit the address in informal
or friendly correspondence.

«III. Formal.» — 1. The address is always placed at the end in formal
letters, on the left, below the place and date. Its arrangement may
be blocked[15] or _en échelon_,[15] but this should be the same
arrangement as that adopted for the place and the address.

2. In making reply to formal invitations, the address of the addressee
is omitted.


THE SALUTATION

«I. Business.» — 1. The salutation should be so written as to line with
the first line of the address, on the left. {117}

 [14] See page 56.

 [15] See page 56.

2. Ordinarily it should occupy a line by itself, but when the address
requires three lines, the salutation may be made a part of the body of
the letter, being followed by a colon and a dash: e.g., _Gentlemen:―_

3. When the salutation is in a line by itself it calls for a comma if
the letter is informal, and for a colon if it is formal.

4. The proper form of the salutation is _Gentlemen_, _Dear Sir(s)_, _My
dear Sir_ (if the letter is signed by an individual name), _Dear Madam_
or _My dear Madam_ (to a married or single woman), _Ladies_.

5. The proper capitalization is here shown.

«II. Informal.» — 1. The salutation _Dear Sir_ is less formal than _My
dear Sir_, although in England the opposite opinion prevails.

2. The capitalization is the same as in business letters; i.e., the
first word and the word which stands in place of the person’s name are
capitalized: e.g., _My own dear Sister_, _My dear Aunt Mary_, or _Dear
John_, _My dear Friend_.

3. In an informal letter the comma is usually used after the salutation.

4. Do not use abbreviations in the salutation: e.g., write _Dear Doctor
Smith_, not _Dear Dr. Smith_.

5. Do not omit the salutatory phrase: _Friend James_, or _Mr. James
Smith_ is too abrupt.

«III. Formal.» — 1. A letter to the President of the United States or
to King George {118} should have the salutation _Sir_; to the Pope,
_Your Holiness_; to the Vice-President, _Mr. Vice-President, Sir_; to
a duke, _My Lord Duke_; to a baron, _My Lord_; to a cardinal, _Your
Eminence_; to an archbishop in England, _My Lord Archbishop_, in the
United States, _The Most Reverend ——, Sir_; to a bishop in England, _My
Lord Bishop_, in the United States, _Most Reverend Sir_; to a dean or
to an archdeacon, _Reverend Sir_; to a senator, congressman, mayor, or
judge, _Sir_ or _Dear Sir_; to an ambassador, _To the —— Ambassador,
Sir_.

2. A colon should follow the salutation in formal letters.


THE TEXT OF THE LETTER

«I. Business.»[16] — 1. The idea that curtness and brevity are
essential characteristics of a business letter exists now only in the
minds of the inexperienced, the ignorant, or the careless. One still
finds stock phrases and omitted articles to a surprising extent, — so
much so that a well-written business letter carries with it more
weight because of the contrast which it offers. The writers of the
best business letters today lose no time in getting to the point, but
they extend to their correspondent the courtesy of correct diction.
Arrangement, punctuation, spelling, and grammar reflect favorably or
otherwise upon the reputation of the house. {119}

 [16] See example 1 on page 126.

2. Avoid such monotonous expressions as the following: (_a_) _Yours_,
_your favor_, _your esteemed favor_; write _letter_. (_b_) _12th
inst._, _12th_, _recent date_; write _12 March_. (_c_) _I will say_,
_I would say_, _I can say_; write _Allow me to say_, or omit it
altogether. (_d_) _In reply would say_; write _In reply I would say_,
or _In reply allow me to say_. (_e_) _Same_, _the same_; write _it_ or
_they_. (_f_) _Please find enclosed_; write _I enclose_. (_g_) _Hoping
to hear soon_, _thanking you in advance_, _awaiting your response_,
and _oblige_ have all become hackneyed. Omit them unless bearing
specifically upon the text of the letter.

3. Do not omit _I_ or _We_ in such expressions as, _Beg[17] to
acknowledge_, _Have been awaiting your advice_.

4. Do not use the first person singular when the letter is signed by
the firm name.

5. Do not say _the writer_ in one portion of the letter and _I_ in
another.

6. In arrangement, the first line of the text should begin on the line
below the salutation, indented about one inch, and each paragraph
should be similarly indented.[18] Another style, particularly useful
when the letter covers several distinct subjects, is to use the reverse
indention, with subheads in capitals at the extreme left.[19] {120}

 [17] This should be Beg leave to acknowledge.

 [18] See example 1 on page 126.

 [19] See example 2 on page 126.

«II. Informal.»[20] — 1. However informal or friendly, a letter
should tell what it has to say in a straightforward, coherent manner.
Apologies for delay in writing, or for anything else except illness,
absence from town, or other cause which demands explanation, are
wasteful of paper, ink, and the time of two persons.

2. A general fault in informal letters is the paragraphing and
punctuation. The writer should remember that he is trying to express to
another mental ideas which have no opportunity to become crystallized
by the sound of the voice. He should take especial pains to assist
his correspondent in assimilating the thoughts which he expresses, by
not running different topics together, and by separating phrases and
sentences with their proper marks.

«III. Formal.» — 1. The expedient of writing in the third person is
adopted in formal social correspondence.[21] Notes of this kind should
have no heading, address, complimentary close, or signature. The date
alone, omitting the year, is used, being placed at the end on the left.
No abbreviations other than _Mr._, _Mrs._, _Messrs._, and _Dr._ should
be used. The date should be spelled out in full.

2. Notes written to tradespeople[22] conveying {121} orders or
instructions are also frequently written in the third person. In this
case, however, the address is always given at the end on the left, and
the date, using figures, is also employed. There is no signature.

 [20] See example 3 on page 127.

 [21] See example 4 on page 127.

 [22] See example 5 on page 128.


THE COMPLIMENTARY CLOSE

I. «Business.» — 1. The accepted forms of complimentary closes of
business letters are _Yours truly_, and _Yours very truly_. The forms
_Respectfully yours_, _Your obedient servant_, and _Faithfully yours_
are now regarded as too obsequious.

2. The complimentary close should begin in the middle of a line by
itself, below the concluding words of the text.

3. The first word alone should be capitalized.

4. A comma should be placed at end of the line.

5. Do not abbreviate any of the words in the complimentary close. Avoid
such contractions as _Y’rs_ for _Yours_.

6. Expressions used to introduce the complimentary close, such as
_With kind regards_, _I am_, _Believe me_, _Good-bye_, etc., should be
treated as part of the concluding line of the text only when closely
related to the final sentence; otherwise they occupy a separate line.

II. «Informal.» — 1. The nature of the complimentary close of informal
or friendly {122} letters depends upon the degree of intimacy which
exists between the correspondents. The usual forms are, _Yours
sincerely_, or _Yours very truly_, but they may properly be used as
expressions of affection, as _Your devoted husband_, or _Your loving
daughter_.

III. «Formal.» — 1. There is no complimentary close to formal notes
written in the third person.

2. The complimentary closes to formal letters addressed to persons in
high positions are as follows: to the President of the United States,
_I have the honor to be, Sir, your most obedient servant_; to King
George, _I have the honor to be, Sir, Your Majesty’s most obedient
servant_. This form is modified as the rank of the person addressed
becomes less important. To a congressman, for instance, one would say
no more than, _I have the honor to be_.


THE SIGNATURE

1. The signature should be written on a line by itself, a little to the
right of the complimentary close.

2. Women should always sign their full names or indicate in brackets
how they should be addressed. Any one of the following forms is proper:

 _a._ (Miss) M. L. Brown
 _b._ (Mrs.) Ellen M. Brown
 _c._ Ellen M. Brown
     (Mrs. J. H. Brown)

{123}

3. In letters to all except the family or intimate friends the
Christian name and the surname should be signed in full.


THE ENVELOPE

1. The arrangement of the address upon the envelope is largely a
matter of taste. It usually occupies three or four lines, written _en
échelon_,[23] but some writers prefer the blocked[24] formation.

2. In business letters the word street and the name of the state may be
abbreviated, but in formal and informal letters it is better form to
spell out in full.

3. Legibility is even more essential in the address than in the letter
itself.

4. It is good form to write the street and number or the postoffice box
in the lower left-hand corner.

5. The abbreviations _No._ and # before the figures in the street
address should be omitted.

6. _In care of_ should be written out in full.

7. The stamp should always be placed in the upper right-hand corner,
as a convenience to the postoffice officials. Care should be taken to
affix the stamp neatly, as carelessness in this respect reflects upon
the sender.

8. Punctuation may be omitted at the ends of the lines; otherwise use a
comma, except at the end of the last line. {124}

 [23] See page 56.

 [24] See page 56.

9. The title _Esq._ is more complimentary than _Mr._, and the former
should always be used when addressing men holding a college degree or
of social standing. In formal social addresses _Mr._ (or _Dr._, etc.)
is always used.

10. In addressing envelopes to persons in high positions the following
forms should be used: To the President of the United States, _The
President, Executive Mansion, Washington, D. C._; to King George, _His
Majesty, the King, London_ (omit _England_, as this is considered a
provincialism); to the Pope, _His Holiness, Pope Pius X., Rome_ (omit
_Italy_); to a member of the Cabinet, _To the Honorable the Secretary
of State_; to a duke, _His Grace, the Duke of ——_; to a baron, _The
Right Honorable, the Lord ——_; to a cardinal, _To His Eminence, William
Cardinal O’Connell_; to an archbishop in England, _The Most Reverend
—— His Grace the Lord Archbishop of ——_; to a bishop in England, _The
Right Reverend the Lord Bishop of ——_, in the United States, _The
Right Reverend_ (Christian and surname), adding honorary titles; to a
dean in England, _The Very Reverend the Dean of ——_; to an archdeacon
in England, _The Venerable the Archdeacon_ (surname); to a senator,
congressman, mayor, or judge, _Honorable_ (Christian and surname); to a
governor, _His Excellency, the Governor of ——_; to an ambassador, _His
Excellency the British Ambassador_. {125}


POSTAL CARDS

1. Postal cards have become much more common during the past few years,
the pictorial variety being particularly popular. The prejudice against
their use has largely disappeared.

2. Postal cards do not require salutation or complimentary close.


IN GENERAL

1. Use black ink and never use a pencil, even in friendly letters,
except in an emergency.

2. Do not practise economy of paper by writing in the margin.

3. Fold the letter so that when taken from the envelope it will open
right-side up.

4. Never omit the date from any note or letter, however unimportant.

5. In brief letters the first and fourth or first and third pages may
be written upon, leaving the others blank.

6. Avoid postscripts except in an emergency.

7. Unruled paper should be used for all correspondence.

8. Typewritten letters are permissible only in business correspondence,
and even in these the signature should be written by hand.

9. Any evidence of haste is a discourtesy. Never sign a letter, _Yours
in haste_.

10. Underscoring is permissible only in informal letters and should be
used sparingly. {126}


EXAMPLES OF CORRECT LETTER WRITING


1. BUSINESS LETTER I

                                                       NORWOOD, MASS.,
                                                          12 March, 1912
 MESSRS. FREDERICK A. STOKES CO.
        443 Fourth Ave.
                  New York, N.Y.

 GENTLEMEN:
    Your letter of 11 March is at hand, and we acknowledge
 receipt of the MS. of “The Writer’s Desk Book,” together
 with your detailed instructions. The MS. shall be put
 into type without delay, and galley proofs shall be sent to
 the author in accord with your advice. We expect to
 complete the typesetting within two weeks’ time.
    Thanking you for the order, we are
                             Yours very truly,
                                             THE PLIMPTON PRESS


2. BUSINESS LETTER II (reverse indention)

                               443 FOURTH AVE., NEW YORK, N. Y.
                                               25 March, 1912
 THE PLIMPTON PRESS
        Norwood, Mass.

 GENTLEMEN:
 We beg leave to take up with you the various details of
   manufacture relating to the various books in your
   hands, as follows:
 WRITER’S DESK BOOK: In addition to the proofs which
   you are now sending to the author, please send two
   additional sets of galley and page proof to us.
 MEISSONIER: The sample page which you submit is
   accepted. We shall require two sets of page-proof only.
 MAXIMS OF METHUSELAH: Please print an edition of
   5000 copies, using paper which you have in stock for us.

                        Yours very truly,
                                       FREDERICK A. STOKES CO.

{127}


3. INFORMAL OR FRIENDLY LETTER

                                                  NICE,
                                                August 28, 1857

 MY DEAR ENTHUSIAST,
    Again I request your kind offices by the enclosed note,
 in giving it or forwarding it to my brother. Charles and I
 have been much gratified in reading aloud — he reading
 to me while I work — the life of Shakespeare by Thomas
 Campbell. It is put together in a most pleasant spirit,
 which all the biographies are not. But a poet is sure to
 write well on a poet. Everything that Coleridge, for
 instance, says of our Idol is in charming taste; and also
 Barry Cornwall’s Memoir and Essay on Shakespeare and
 his Writings has the same delightful poetic charm. After
 reading the heap of inappreciative discussions on the subject,
 it is truly refreshing to go through the dissertations
 of such authors as these upon our poet of poets. They
 can best feel his merits, and can therefore most veneratingly
 and modestly treat the theme of his genius and
 greatness.
    With united kindest regards from Charles and myself
 to you and Mrs. Balmanno, believe me to be
                        Gratefully,
                                            _Mary Cowden Clarke_

 ROBERT BALMANNO, ESQ.
              NEW YORK, N. Y.


4. FORMAL SOCIAL NOTES

     Mr. and Mrs. Charles Winslow
     request the pleasure of Mr. James
     Gorham’s company at dinner on
     Thursday evening, January the
     twelfth, at half after seven o’clock.
 487 Beacon Street
     January the fourth[25]

 [25] While this form is commonly used, it is not grammatically correct.
 One may say George the Fourth, because three Georges have preceded him.
 Strictly speaking, one should write _The fourth of January_.

{128}

     Mr. James Gorham regrets that
     an engagement previously made
     prevents[26] him from accepting the
     kind invitation of Mr. and Mrs.
     Winslow for dinner on Thursday
     evening, January the twelfth.
 289 Commonwealth Avenue
     January the fifth


5. FORMAL NOTE TO TRADESMAN

          Mrs. Gorham desires Messrs. Smith
          & Robinson to send for her examination
          the electric ironing apparatus
          advertised in this morning’s “Herald.”
 312 Sigourney Street
     12 January, 1912

(_A note of this kind should always have the address._)

 [26] See under _Tense_ on page 112.

{129}




POSTAL REGULATIONS


CLASSES OF MAIL

Domestic matter is divided into four classes, governed as follows:

_First Class_ embraces letters, postal cards, post cards, all matter
wholly or partly in writing or sealed against inspection. Rate, 2 cents
for each ounce and fraction. Limit of weight, 4 pounds.

_Second Class_ applies to newspapers and periodicals in their
entirety bearing the printed statement “Entered at the post-office as
second-class matter,” etc., when they are mailed by the public. Parts
of publications are third-class matter. Additions may be made on the
wrapper or the matter itself; there may be written or printed the name
and address of the sender, preceded by the word “from”; the name and
address of the person to whom sent; the words “sample copy” or “marked
copy,” or both, as the case may be. On the matter itself the sender
may place all that is permitted on the wrapper; correct typographical
errors in the text; designate by marks, not by words, {130} a word or
passage in the text to which it is desired to call attention. Other
writing will subject the package to the first-class rate.

Rate 1 cent for each 4 ounces or fraction. Full prepayment required. No
limit of weight.

_Third Class_ includes unsealed books, newspapers and periodicals not
admitted to the second class, circulars, miscellaneous printed matter
on paper not having the nature of personal correspondence, and proof
sheets, corrected proof sheets, and manuscript copy accompanying the
same, engravings, lithographs, seeds, scions, cuttings, bulbs, roots,
and plants. Also facsimile copies made by a mechanical process such as
the printing press, electric pen, mimeograph, hektograph, copygraph,
etc., provided that they are mailed at the post-office window in the
minimum number of twenty identical copies separately addressed. If
mailed elsewhere or in less number, first-class postage is required.

A circular may have in writing therein the name of the addressee or
sender or date.

Corrections in proof sheets include the alteration of the text and
insertion of new matter, as well as the correction of typographical and
other errors. They include also marginal instructions to the printer
necessary to the correction of the matter or its proper appearance
in print. Part of an article may be entirely rewritten if that be
necessary for {131} correction. Corrections must be upon the margin
of or attached to the proof sheets. Manuscript of one article cannot
be inclosed with proof or corrected proof sheets of another except at
the first-class rate. Written designation of contents, such as “book,”
“printed matter,” “photo,” is permissible upon the wrapper of mail
matter of the third class.

A single card bearing the written name and address of the sender, or an
envelope bearing a written or printed name and address of the sender,
may be inclosed with a circular, catalogue, or other third-class matter
without affecting the classification thereof. Public library books,
otherwise mailable at the third-class rate, may bear any printed
or written mark which may reasonably be construed as a necessary
_inscription_ for the purpose of a permanent library record.

Rate 1 cent each 2 ounces or fraction. Limit of weight, 4 pounds,
except single books. Postage must be fully prepaid and great care
exercised not to add any written words or figures except such as are
permissible.

_Parcel Post_ includes all (unsealed) matter not embraced in the three
classes already enumerated, except seeds, cuttings, bulbs, roots,
scions, and plants, on which the rate is one-half cent per ounce.
Important changes are certain to be made from time to time during the
experimental period, so readers are urged to secure the {132} latest
information from their own post-office. The basic regulations at
present are as follows:

 SPECIAL STAMPS REQUIRED. Denominations 1, 2, 3, 4,
   5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50 and 75c. $1.
 WEIGHT LIMIT: Eleven (11) pounds.
 SIZE LIMIT: 72 inches, length and girth combined.
 PARCELS MAY BE INSURED up to $50.00 by paying a fee
   of 10 cents.
 RATES PER POUND: Depend on distance parcel is to be
   carried. See Table of Rates on page 162.
 MARKING: Parcels must bear name and address of sender,
   preceded by word “From.”
 MAILING: Parcels exceeding 4 ounces in weight must be
   mailed at post-office.


WRAPPING OF MAIL MATTER

All mail matter should be so wrapped as safely to bear transmission
without breaking, or injuring mail bags or the contents of mail bags
or the persons of those handling them. Second, third, and fourth-class
matter must be so wrapped or enveloped that the contents may be
examined easily by postal officials. When not so wrapped, or when
bearing or containing writing not authorized by law, the matter will be
treated as of the first class.


FORWARDING MAIL MATTER

Matter of the first class may be forwarded until it reaches the
addressee. All other classes require prepayment of the original postage
before forwarding.


WHAT CANNOT BE MAILED

All transient second-class matter and all matter of the third or fourth
class not wholly {133} prepaid, and letters and other first-class
matter not prepaid are full rate — 2 cents.

All matter weighing over 4 pounds, except second-class matter, single
books, and documents printed and circulated by authority of Congress.

Postal, post, or other cards mailed without wrappers and all matter
bearing upon the outside cover or wrapper any delineations, epithets,
terms, or language of an indecent, lewd, lascivious, obscene, libelous,
scurrilous, defamatory or threatening character, or calculated by the
terms of manner or style of display, and obviously intended to reflect
injuriously upon the character or conduct of another.

Post cards bearing particles of glass, metal, mica, sand, tinsel, etc.,
are unmailable.

All matter concerning any lottery, so-called gift concert, or other
enterprise of chance, or concerning schemes devised for the purpose of
obtaining money or property under false pretenses.


CONCEALED MATTER

For knowingly concealing or inclosing any matter of a higher class
in that of a lower class, and depositing or causing the same to be
deposited for conveyance by mail at a less rate than would be charged
for both such higher and lower class, the offender will be liable for
every such offense to a fine of $10. {134}


DOMESTIC RATES

The domestic rates apply to the United States, Porto Rico, Guam,
Philippine Islands, Shanghai (China), Tutuila, Cuba, Canada,[27]
Mexico,[27] Hawaii, Republic of Panama and the Panama Canal Zone.

 [27] See exceptions which follow.


FOREIGN RATES

Mail matter addressed to countries in the Universal Postal Union is
subject to the following rates: Letters and sealed packages, 5 cents
for one ounce or fraction thereof, and 3 cents for each additional
ounce or fraction thereof, if prepaid, and double that rate if not
prepaid, except Great Britain, and Germany (if sent by steamers sailing
for Germany direct), which is 2 cents per ounce.

Postal and private mail cards, 2 cents each.

Printed matter of every kind, commercial papers, samples of
merchandise, 1 cent each 2 ounces or fraction thereof, but at least 5
cents must be paid on each packet of commercial papers and 2 cents on
each packet of samples of merchandise.

Mail schedules showing the name of steamer, hour of closing of the mail
at the General Post-Office, etc., may be found in the corridors of the
General Post-Office or any of its stations. {135}

Exceptions for Cuba, Mexico, Canada, and Republic of Panama

Matter mailed in United States addressed to MEXICO is subject to the
same postage rates and conditions as that addressed in the United
States, except that articles of miscellaneous merchandise (fourth-class
matter) in unsealed packages not sent as bona fide trade samples are
required to be sent by “Parcels Post,” and that the following articles
are absolutely excluded from the mails:

All sealed packages other than letters in the usual form; all packages
(including packages of second-class matter which weigh more than 4
pounds 6 ounces), except such as are sent by parcels post; publications
which violate any copyright law of Mexico.

Samples of merchandise: Packages not in excess of 4 ounces, 2 cents.
Packages in excess of 4 ounces, for each 2 ounces or fraction thereof,
1 cent. Limit of weight, 12 ounces.

Mail matter in United States addressed to CANADA and CUBA is subject to
same postage rates and conditions as addressed for delivery in United
States, except that the following articles are absolutely excluded from
the mails:

All packages closed against inspection and not in usual form of a
letter; all packages, except single volumes of printed books, {136}
which weigh more than 4 pounds 6 ounces; publications which violate
any copyright law of Canada, Cuba, or Republic of Panama.

Unsealed packages of “commercial papers” are admitted to the mails
dispatched from this country to Mexico and Canada at the same rate and
subject to the same conditions as to weight and dimensions as apply to
commercial papers in mails dispatched to other countries of Universal
Postal Union.


FOREIGN PARCELS POST

Parcels Post conventions are in effect with the following countries,
the rate of postage being 12 cents a pound or fraction: Australia,[28]
Austria,[28] Bahamas, Barbadoes,[28] Belgium,[28] Bermuda, Bolivia,
British Guiana, British Honduras, Chili, certain places in China; Costa
Rica, Denmark.[28] Dutch Guiana — _Parcels cannot be registered_.
Ecuador — _Parcels must not exceed $50 in value_. France — _Parcels
cannot be registered and must not weigh over 4 pounds 6 ounces or
exceed $50 in value_. Germany. Great Britain and Ireland — _Parcels
cannot be registered_. Guatemala, Honduras, Hongkong,[28] Hungary,[28]
Jamaica, Japan.[28] Mexico — _Limit of size, 2 feet in length, 4
feet in girth_. Netherlands[28] — _Parcels cannot be registered_.
Newfoundland, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway,[28] Peru, Salvador,
Sweden,[28] Trinidad. {137} Uruguay — _Parcels cannot be registered_.
Venezuela, Windward Islands.

 [28] Parcels not to exceed $80 in value.

Parcels Post packages may be mailed only at the main post-office or at
branch carrier stations after each package has been examined and is
attached to a parcels post declaration.


MONEY ORDER FEES

Fees for money orders payable in the United States (which includes
Hawaii and Porto Rico) and its possessions comprising the Canal Zone
(Isthmus of Panama), Guam, the Philippines, and Tutuila, Samoa; also
for orders payable in Bahamas, Bermuda, British Guiana, British
Honduras, Canada, Cuba, Newfoundland, at the United States postal
agency at Shanghai (China), and in certain islands in the West Indies:

 Not exceeding $2.50    3c
 Over $2.50 to $5       5c
 Over $5   to  $10      8c
 Over $10  to  $20     10c
 Over $20  to  $30     12c
 Over $30  to  $40     15c
 Over $40  to  $50     18c
 Over $50  to  $60     20c
 Over $60  to  $75     25c
 Over $75  to  $100    30c


Fees for International Money Orders

When payable in Apia, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Chili, Costa Rica,
Denmark, Egypt, Germany, Hongkong, Japan, Liberia, Luxemburg, Mexico,
Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Orange River Colony, Peru, Portugal,
Sweden, Switzerland, and Transvaal: {138}

 Not exceeding $10     8c
 Over $10  to  $20    10c
 Over $20  to  $30    15c
 Over $30  to  $40    20c
 Over $40  to  $50    25c
 Over $50  to  $60    30c
 Over $60  to  $70    35c
 Over $70  to  $80    40c
 Over $80  to  $90    45c
 Over $90  to $100    50c

When payable in Cape Colony, France, Great Britain, Greece, Republic of
Honduras, Italy, New South Wales, Queensland, Russia, Salvador, South
Australia, Tasmania, and Victoria:

 Not exceeding $10    10c
 Over $10  to  $20    20c
 Over $20  to  $30    30c
 Over $30  to  $40    40c
 Over $40  to  $50    50c
 Over $50  to  $60    60c
 Over $60  to  $70    70c
 Over $70  to  $80    80c
 Over $80  to  $90    90c
 Over $90  to  $100    $1


REGISTERED MAIL


_Domestic_

Any article of the first, second, third, or fourth class mail matter
may be registered at any post-office in the United States. The fee on
registered matter, domestic or foreign, is 10 cents for each letter
or parcel, to be affixed in stamps, in addition to the postage. Full
prepayment of postage and fee is required. Two or more letters or
parcels addressed to, or intended for, the same person cannot be tied
or otherwise fastened together and registered as one.

A return receipt signed by the recipient and showing delivery is
returned to the sender of each domestic registered letter or parcel if
requested at the time of mailing. {139}

If it is desired that registered matter be delivered to the addressee
only, it should be endorsed “To be delivered to the addressee only.”

The postal authorities give an indemnity for domestic first-class
registered mail lost in transit up to $50.


_Foreign_

1. Any article of mail matter, except parcels post packages for France,
The Netherlands, Uruguay, Great Britain, Barbadoes, Dutch Guiana,
may be registered, provided that when presented for registration the
postage thereon be fully prepaid by postage stamps affixed, also the
registration fee, which is uniformly 10 cents.

2. Name and address of sender in full must be indorsed on or written
across the end of the letter or article before it can be registered.

3. The senders of registered articles may obtain assurance of their
receipt by persons addressed by indorsing them with the words, “Return
receipt requested.”


SPECIAL DELIVERY SYSTEM

A special 10 cent stamp, when attached to a letter or package (in
addition to the lawful postage), will entitle such to immediate
delivery at destination within the carrier limit of a free delivery
office between the hours of 7 A.M. and 11 P.M., and from 7 A.M. to
{140} 7 P.M. at all other offices, or until after the arrival of the
last mail at night, provided that be not later than 9 P.M. Special
delivery mail must be delivered on Sunday, as well as on other days, if
post-office is open on Sundays.

If special delivery matter fails of delivery because there is no person
at the place of address to receive it, the matter is returned to the
post-office and delivered in the ordinary mail.

Ten cents worth of ordinary stamps with “special delivery” written on
envelope serves the same purpose. Short-paid second, third, and fourth
class matter, to which is attached a special delivery stamp, cannot be
forwarded.


POSTAL DISTANCES AND TIME FROM NEW YORK CITY

SHORTEST ROUTES AND TIME IN TRANSIT BY FASTEST TRAINS

_Subject to alterations occasioned by changes in time tables and
connections_

 -------------------+------+---------
 Cities in U. S.    | Mls. | Hrs.
 -------------------+------+---------
 Albany, N. Y.      |  142 |   3 1/2
 Atlanta, Ga.       |  882 |  24 1/4
 Baltimore, Md.     |  138 |   6
 Bismarck, N. Dak.  | 1738 |  60 1/2
 Boise, Idaho       | 2736 |  92 1/2
 Boston, Mass.      |  217 |   6
 Buffalo, N. Y.     |  410 |   9 1/2
 Cape May, N. J.    |  172 |   5
 Carson City, Nev.  | 3036 | 109 1/4
 Charleston, S. C.  |  804 |  21 1/4
 Chattanooga, Ten.  |  853 |  32
 Cheyenne, Wyo.     | 1899 |  54
 Chicago, Ill.      |  900 |  23
 Cincinnati, O.     |  744 |  23
 Cleveland, O.      |  568 |  19 1/2
 Columbus, O.       |  624 |  20
 Concord, N. H.     |  292 |   9 1/2
 Deadwood, S. Dak.  | 1957 |  65 1/2
 Denver, Col.       | 1930 |  61 1/2
 Des Moines, Ia.    | 1257 |  37 1/2
 Detroit, Mich.     |  743 |  21
 Galveston, Tex.    | 1789 |  56 1/2
 Harrisburg, Pa.    |  182 |   6
 Hartford, Ct.      |  112 |   4
 Helena, Mont.      | 2423 |  89
 Hot Springs, Ark.  | 1367 |  55
 Indianapolis, Ind. |  808 |  23
 Jacksonville, Fla. | 1077 |  30     {141}
 Kansas City, Mo.   | 1302 |  38 1/4
 Louisville, Ky.    |  854 |  30
 Memphis, Tenn.     | 1163 |  40
 Milwaukee, Wis.    |  985 | 29 1/4
 Montgomery, Ala.   | 1057 |  26
 Montpelier, Vt.    |  327 |  10 1/4
 New Orleans, La.   | 1344 |  32
 Omaha, Neb.        | 1383 |  43
 Philadelphia, Pa.  |   90 |   3
 Pittsburgh, Pa.    |  431 |  13
 Portland, Me.      |  325 |  12
 Portland, Ore.     | 3181 | 141 1/2
 Prescott, Ariz.    | 2724 |  94
 Providence, R. I.  |  189 |   5
 Richmond, Va.      |  344 |  11 1/4
 St. Louis, Mo.     | 1048 |  29
 St. Paul, Minn.    | 1300 |  37
 Salt Lake City, U. | 2452 |  71 1/2
 San Francisco, Cal.| 3250 | 105
 Santa Fe, N. Mex.  | 2173 |  82
 Savannah, Ga.      |  905 |  26 1/4
 Tacoma, Wash.      | 3209 | 102
 Topeka, Kan.       | 1370 |  48
 Trenton, N. J.     |   57 |   2
 Vicksburgh, Miss.  | 1288 |  50
 Vinita, Ind. Ter.  | 1412 |  42
 Washington, D. C.  |  228 |   6
 Wheeling, W. Va.   |  496 |  14 1/4
 Wilmington, Del.   |  117 |   5
 Wilmington, N. C.  |  593 |  20
 -------------------+------+---------


FOREIGN CITIES FROM NEW YORK CITY

 ----------------------+-------+-----
 By Postal Route to    | Mls.  | D’s
 ----------------------+-------+-----
 Adelaide, v. Frisco   | 12845 | 34
 Alexandria, v. Lon.   |  6150 | 13
 Amsterdam, v. Lon.    |  3985 |  9
 Antwerp, v. London    |  4000 |  9
 Athens, v. Lon.       |  5655 | 12
 Bahia, Brazil         |  5870 | 21
 Bangkok, S. v. Frisco | 12990 | 43
 Batavia, J. v. Lon.   | 12800 | 34
 Berlin                |  4385 |  9
 Bombay, v. London     |  9765 | 24
 Bremen                |  4235 |  8
 Buenos Ayres          |  8045 | 29
 Calcutta, v. London   | 11120 | 26
 Cape Town, v. Lon.    | 11245 | 27
 Const’ople, v. Lon.   |  5810 | 11
 Florence, v. London   |  4800 | 10
 Glasgow               |  3370 | 10
 Greytown, v. N. O.    |  2815 |  7
 Halifax, N. S.        |   645 |  2
 Hamburg, direct       |  4820 |  9
 Havana                |  1366 |  3
 Hongkong, v. Fris.    | 10590 | 25
 Honolulu, v. Frisco   |  5645 | 13
 Liverpool             |  3540 |  8
 London                |  3740 |  8
 Madrid, v. London     |  4925 |  9
 Melbourne, v. Fris.   | 12265 | 26
 Mexico City (R.R.)    |  3750 |  5
 Panama                |  2355 |  6
 Paris                 |  4020 |  8
 Rio de Janeiro        |  6204 | 23
 Rome, v. London       |  5030 |  9
 Rotterdam, v. Lon.    |  3935 |  9
 St. Ptrsburg, v. Lon. |  5370 | 10
 Shanghai, v. Fris.    |  9920 | 25
 Stockholm, v. Lon.    |  4975 | 10
 Sydney, v. Frisco     | 11570 | 21
 Valparaiso, v. Pan.   |  4808 | 21
 Vienna                |  4740 | 10
 Yokohama, v. Fris.    |  7348 | 20
 ----------------------+-------+-----

{142}




APPENDIX


STANDARD TIME

By Standard Time is meant that the hour of each 15° of longitude
becomes the local mean time for the zone or belt extending 7 1/2°
on each side of the central meridian; though in practise the zone has
to be adapted to local circumstances, and so cannot conform to the
exact line or meridian, but is arranged to suit boundaries of States
or Provinces as may be most convenient. By way of illustration, it
may be noted that in the Province of Ontario, Canada, by Act of the
Legislature, the hour of 75° W. is Standard Time for the Province as
far as 87° W., and that the S.W. point, 83° W., extends westerly beyond
the eastern part of the State of Michigan, where the time of 90° W. is
used; so at Windsor, Ontario, it is noon while in Michigan — more to
the east — it is 11 A.M. The Standard Time as used in the chief cities
of Canada and the United States may be noted: at Quebec, Montreal, and
Toronto, at Boston, New York, and Washington, the time of 75° W., five
hours earlier than Greenwich, is used; at Winnipeg in Manitoba, and at
Detroit, Chicago, and New Orleans, the time of 90°, {143} six hours
earlier than Greenwich, is used; at Regina and Denver it is the time
of 105°, seven hours earlier than Greenwich; and in British Columbia
and at San Francisco the time of 120° W., eight hours earlier than
Greenwich, is used; and when 180° is reached another day begins in
Eastern Siberia, at the Fiji Islands, and a little to the east of New
Zealand.

The same rule applies to places east of Greenwich, where, of course,
noon is earlier than at Greenwich according to the longitude. Spain
adopted Standard — that is, Greenwich — Time early in the century. When
noon at Greenwich it is 2 P.M. in Egypt and South Africa; it is 5:30
P.M. in India, 82 1/2° E.; in Japan and Corea, 135° E., it is 9 P.M.;
and in Eastern Australia, 150° E., it is 10 P.M.

The question is often asked, “Where does a day begin?” — that is, any
special day, New Year’s Day or Easter Day — and the answer is that for
all peoples, nations, and languages, using maps with longitude East and
West from Greenwich, each day begins at the meridian of 180°, slightly
east of New Zealand in the South, and intersecting Eastern Siberia
in the North, and so the last day of the nineteenth century and the
first day of the twentieth were on the Earth together, not running
concurrently or side by side, north and south of the Equator, as has
been {144} supposed, erroneously, but the latter following the former
from 180° westerly to Greenwich, and on again to 180°, where it gave
place to January 2.


Twelve O’clock Noon Greenwich Mean Time

AS COMPARED WITH THE CLOCK IN THE FOLLOWING PLACES

                       H. M.
 Adelaide              9 14 P.M.
 Auckland (N.Z.)      11 39 P.M.
 Berlin                0 54 P.M.
 Berne                 0 30 P.M.
 Bombay                4 51 P.M.
 Boston, U.S.          7 16 A.M.
 Brisbane, Qnsland    10 12 P.M.
 Brussels              0 17 P.M.
 Calcutta              5 53 P.M.
 Cape of Good Hope     1 14 P.M.
 Chicago               6 10 A.M.
 Constantinople        1 56 P.M.
 Dublin               11 35 A.M.
 Edinburgh            11 47 A.M.
 Florence              0 45 P.M.
 Glasgow              11 43 A.M.
 Hobart, Tasmania      9 49 P.M.
 Jerusalem             2 21 P.M.
 Lisbon               11 23 A.M.
 Madras                5 21 P.M.
 Madrid               11 45 A.M.
 Malta                 0 58 P.M.
 Melbourne, Aus.       9 40 P.M.
 Moscow                2 30 P.M.
 Newfndland, S. Jns.   8 29 A.M.
 New York              7  4 A.M.
 Paris                 0  9 P.M.
 Pekin                 7 46 P.M.
 Penzance             11 37 A.M.
 Perth, W. Aus.        7 43 P.M.
 Philadelphia          6 59 A.M.
 Port Moresby         10  4 P.M.
 Prague                0 58 P.M.
 Quebec                7 15 A.M.
 Rome                  0 50 P.M.
 Rotterdam             0 18 P.M.
 San Francisco, Port   3 52 A.M.
 St. Petersburg        2  1 P.M.
 Stockholm             1 12 P.M.
 Suez                  2 10 P.M.
 Sydney               10  5 P.M.
 Toronto               6 42 A.M.
 Vancouver             3 38 A.M.
 Vienna                1  5 P.M.

{145}


FOREIGN COINS

WITH THEIR VALUE IN UNITED STATES MONEY AS PROCLAIMED BY THE SECRETARY
OF THE TREASURY

1 OCTOBER, 1910

 A = Standard
 B = Monetary Unit
 C = Val. in terms of U.S. gold dollar

 ------------------+------+---------+----------+------------------------------
 Country           |   A  |    B    |   C      |         Coins
 ------------------+------+---------+----------+------------------------------
 Argentine Republic|Gold  |Peso     |$0.965    | Gold — argentine ($4.824) and
                   |      |         |          |   1/2 argentine. Silver — peso
                   |      |         |          |   and divisions
 Austria-Hungary   |Gold  |Crown    |  .203    | Gold — 10 and 20 crowns.
                   |      |         |          |   Silver — 1 and 5 crowns
 Belgium           |Gold  |Franc    |  .193    | Gold — 10 and 20 francs.
                   |      |         |          |   Silver — 5 francs
 Bolivia           |Silver|Boliviano|  .389    | Silver boliviano and divisions
 Brazil            |Gold  |Milreis  |  .546    | Gold — 5, 10, 20 milreis.
                   |      |         |          |   Silver — 1/2, 1, 2 milreis
 British Honduras  |Gold  |Dollar   | 1.000    |
 Canada            |      |         |          |
   (except Nfd.)   |Gold  |Dollar   | 1.000    |
                   |      |         |          |
 Cent. Amer.       |      |         |          |
   States—         |      |         |          |
     Costa Rica    |Gold  |Colon    |  .465    | Gold — 2, 5, 10, and 20 colons
                   |      |         |          |   ($9.307). Silver — 5, 10, 25,
                   |      |         |          |   and 50 centimos
     Guatemala,    |      |         |          |
      Honduras,    |      |         |          |
      Nicaragua, & |      |         |          |
      Salvador     |Silver|Peso     |  .391    | Silver — peso and divisions
 Chili             |Gold  |Peso     |  .365    | Gold — escudo ($1.825),
                   |      |         |          |   doubloon($3.650), and condor
                   |      |         |          |   ($7.300).
                   |      |         |          |   Silver — peso and divisions
                   |      |[29]Tael:|          |
                   |      | Canton  |  .612    |
 China             |Silver| Haikwan |  .652    |
                   |      | Hongkong|  .421    |
                   |      |         |          |
 {146}             |      |         |          |
                   |      |         |          |
 China             |Silver|Dollar:  |          |
                   |      |  British|$0.421    |
                   |      |  Mexican|  .424    |
 Colombia          | Gold |Dollar   | 1.000    | Gold — condor ($9.647);
                   |      |         |          |   d’ble-condor. Silver — peso
 Denmark           | Gold |Crown    |  .268    | Gold — 10 and 20 crowns
 Ecuador           | Gold |Sucre    |  .487    | Gold — 10 sucres ($4.8665).
                   |      |         |          |   Silver — sucre and div.
 Egypt             | Gold |Pound    | 4.943    | Gold — pound (100 piasters),
                   |      | (100 pi-|          |   5, 10, 20, 50 piasters
                   |      | asters) |          |   Silver — 1, 2, 5, 10, 20
                   |      |         |          |   piasters
 Finland           | Gold |Mark     |  .193    | Gold — 20 marks ($3.859), 10
                   |      |         |          |   marks ($1.93)
 France            | Gold |Franc    |  .193    | Gold — 5, 10, 20, 50, 100
                   |      |         |          |   francs. Silver — 5 francs
 German Empire     | Gold |Mark     |  .238    | Gold — 5, 10, and 20 marks
 Great Britain     | Gold |Pound    |4.866 1/2 | Gold — sovereign (pound
                   |      | Sterling|          |   sterling), 1/2 sovereign
 Greece            | Gold |Drachma  | .193     | Gold — 5, 10, 20, 50, 100
                   |      |         |          |   drachmas. Sil. — 5 drachmas
 Haiti             | Gold |Gourde   | .965     | Gold — 1, 2, 5, 10 gourdes.
                   |      |         |          |   Silver — gourde and div.
 India (British)   | Gold |Pound    |4.866 1/2 | Gold — sovereign (pound
                   |      |  Sterl- |          |   sterling). Silver — rupee
                   |      | ing[30] |          |   and divisions
 Italy             | Gold |Lira     | .193     | Gold — 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100
                   |      |         |          |   lire. Silver — 5 lire
 Japan             | Gold |Yen      | .498     | Gold — 5, 10, and 20 yen.
                   |      |         |          |   Silver — 10, 20, and 50 yen
 Liberia           | Gold |Dollar   |1.000     |
 Mexico            | Gold |Peso[31] | .498     | Gold — 5, 10 pesos. Silver —
                   |      |         |          |   dollar (or peso) and div.
 Netherlands       | Gold |Florin   | .402     | Gold — 10 florins. Silver —
                   |      |         |          |   2 1/2. 1 florin and
                   |      |         |          |   divisions
 Newfoundland      | Gold |Dollar   |1.014     | Gold — 2 dollars ($2.028)
                   |      |         |          |
 {147}             |      |         |          |
                   |      |         |          |
 Norway            | Gold |Crown    | .268     | Gold — 10 and 20 crowns
 Panama            | Gold |Balboa   |1.000     | Gold — 1, 2 1/2, 5, 10, 20
                   |      |         |          |   balboas. Silver — peso and
                   |      |         |          |   div.
 Persia            |Silver|Kran     | .072     | Gold — 1/2, 1 and 2 tomans
                   |      |         |          |   ($3.409). Silver — 1/4, 1/2,
                   |      |         |          |   1, 2, and 5 krans
 Peru              | Gold |Libra    |4.866 1/2 | Gold — 1/2 and 1 libra.
                   |      |         |          |   Silver — sol and divisions
 Philippine Islands| Gold |Peso     | .500     | Silver peso — 10, 20 and 50
                   |      |         |          |   centavos
 Portugal          | Gold |Milreis  |1.080     | Gold — 1, 2, 5 and 10 milreis
 Russia            | Gold |Ruble    | .515     | Gold — 5, 7 1/2, 10, and 15
                   |      |         |          |   rubles. Silver — 5, 10, 15,
                   |      |         |          |   20, 25, 50, and 100 copeks
 Spain             | Gold |Peseta   | .193     | Gold — 25 pesetas. Silver — 5
                   |      |         |          |   pesetas
 Straits           | Gold |Pound    |4.866 1/2 | Gold — sovereign (pound
   Settlements     |      |  Sterl- |          |   sterling). Sil. — dol. and
                   |      | ing[32] |          |   div.
 Sweden            | Gold |Crown    | .268     | Gold — 10 and 20 crowns
 Switzerland       | Gold |Franc    | .193     | Gold — 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100
                   |      |         |          |   francs. Silver — 5 francs
 Turkey            | Gold |Piaster  | .044     | Gold — 25, 50, 100, 250, and
                   |      |         |          |   500 piasters
 Uruguay           | Gold |Peso     |1.034     | Gold — peso. Silver — peso and
                   |      |         |          |   divisions
 Venezuela         | Gold |Bolivar  | .193     | Gold — 5, 10, 20, 50, 100
                   |      |         |          |   bolivars. Silver — 5
                   |      |         |          |   bolivars
 ------------------+------+---------+----------+-------------------------------

 [29] Amoy, .641; Cheefoo, .613; Chin Kiang, .626; Fuchau, .593;
 Hankau, .599; Kiaochu, .621; Nanking, .634; Newchang, .601; Ningpo,
 .616; Peking, .625; Shanghai, .585; Swatow, .592; Takau, .645;
 Tientsin, .621.

 [30] The sovereign is the standard coin of India, but the rupee
 ($0.3244 1/2) is the current coin, valued at 15 to the sovereign.

 [31] Seventy-five centigrams fine gold.

 [32] The current coin of the Straits Settlements is the silver dollar
 issue on government account and which has been given a tentative value
 of $0.567758 1/3.

NOTE. — The coins of silver-standard countries are valued by their pure
silver contents at the average market price of silver for the three
months preceding the date of this table. (Courtesy _The World Almanac_.)

{148}


COMPARATIVE THERMOMETERS

 Réaumur  Centigrade  Fahrenheit
   80        100          212   Water boils at sea-level
   76         95          203
   72         90          194
   68         85          185
   63.1       78.9        174   Alcohol boils
   60         75          167
   56         70          158
   52         65          149   White of egg coagulates
   48         60          140
   44         55          131
   42.2       52.8        127
   40         50          122
   36         45          113   Tallow melts
   33.8       42.2        108
   32         40          104
   29.3       36.7         98   Blood heat
   28         35           95
   25.8       32.2         90
   24         30           86
   21.3       26.7         80
   20         25           77
   16         20           68   Temperate
   12.4       15.3         60
   10.2       12.8         55
    8         10           50
    5.8        7.2         45
    4          5           41
    1.3        1.7         35
    0          0           32   Water freezes
    0.9      - 1.1         30
    4        - 9           23
    5.3      - 6.7         20
    8        -10           14
    9.8      -12.2         10
   12        -15            5
   14.2      -17.8          0   Zero Fahr. {149}
   16        -20          - 4
   20        -25          -13
   24        -30          -22
   28        -35          -31
   32        -40          -40   Mercury freezes

_To change from centigrade to Fahrenheit multiply by 9, divide by 5,
and add 32. To change from Réaumur to Fahrenheit, multiply by 9, divide
by 4, and add 32._

 (Courtesy _The World Almanac_)


WEIGHTS AND MEASURES


THE METRIC SYSTEM

 Multiples which are used equally with all the principal units
   M (myria = 10000)
   K (kilo = 1000)
   H (hekto = 100)
   D (deka = 10)
                             (NOTE. These are Greek numerals)

 Divisions which are used equally with all the principle units
   d (deci = .1)
   c (centi = .01)
   m (milli = .001)
                             (NOTE. These are Latin numerals)

 +-------------+--------------------------+-----------------------------+
 | Kinds of    | Principal Units          | Definitions                 |
 | Quantities  |                          |                             |
 | Measured    |                          |                             |
 +-------------+--------------------------+-----------------------------+
  Length         m (meter)

  Area           sq. m (square meter)

                 a (Ar)                     1 sq. Dm.

  Volume         cu m (cubic meter)

                 s (ster)                   1 cu. m.

                 l (liter)                  1 cu. d m


  Weight         g (gram)                   Weight of 1 cu. cm. of
                                            pure water at 4° centigrade

NOTE. 1000 kg. is called t. (a metric ton.)

{150}


LINEAR MEASURE

 12 in.     = 1 foot
 3 ft.      = 1 yd.
 5 1/2 yds. = 1 rod
 320 rds.   = 1 mile
 5280 ft.   = 1 mile
 3 miles    = 1 league

The hand (4 in.) is used to measure the height of horses. The nautical
mile is 6086.44 ft. 1 knot is 1.1528 statute miles. 1 degree is 67.168
statute miles.


SQUARE MEASURE

 144 sq. in.     = 1 sq. ft.
 9 sq. ft.       = 1 sq. yd.
 30 1/4 sq. yds. = 1 sq. rod
 160 sq. rods    = 1 acre
 640 acres       = 1 sq. mile

The side of a square having an area of an acre is approximately
208 3/4 feet.


DRY MEASURE

 2 pints  = 1 quart
 8 quarts = 1 peck
 4 pecks  = 1 bushel


LIQUID MEASURE

 4 gills      = 1 pt.
 2 pts.       = 1 qt.
 4 qts.       = 1 gall.
 31 1/2 gall. = 1 barrel
 2 barrels    = 1 hogshead


APOTHECARIES’ WEIGHT

 20 grains  = 1 scruple
 3 scruples = 1 dram
 8 drams    = 1 ounce
 12 ounces  = 1 pound


AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT

 16 drams          = 1 ounce
 16 ounces         = 1 pound
 100 pounds        = 1 hundredweight
 20 hundredweights = 1 ton
 Long ton          = 2240 pounds, used mostly in Great Britain.


TROY WEIGHT

 24 grains                   = 1 pennyweight
 20 pennyweights             = 1 ounce
 12 ounces                   = 1 pound
 1 carat in diamond, measure = 3.2 Troy grains.

{151}


PAPER MEASURE

 24 sheets = 1 quire
 20 quires = 1 ream
 2 reams   = 1 bundle
 5 bundles = 1 bale


TIME MEASURE

 60 seconds             = 1 minute
 60 minutes             = 1 hour
 24 hours               = 1 day
 7 days                 = 1 week
 28, 29, 30, or 31 days = 1 calendar month (30 days = 1 month in
                          computing interest)
 365 days               = 1 year
 366 days               = 1 leap year


CIRCULAR MEASURE

 60 seconds  = 1 minute
 60 minutes  = 1 degree
 30 degrees  = 1 sign
 90 degrees  = 1 quadrant
 4 quadrants = 12 signs, or 360 degrees = 1 circle


CLOTH MEASURE

 2 1/4 inches = 1 nail
 4 nails      = 1 quarter
 4 quarters   = 1 yard


MARINERS’ MEASURE

 6 feet              = 1 fathom
 120 fathoms         = 1 cab. le’th.
 7 1/2 cable lengths = 1 mile
 5280 feet           = 1 stat. mile
 6085 feet           = 1 naut. mile


MISCELLANEOUS

 3 inches  = 1 palm
 4 inches  = 1 hand
 6 inches  = 1 span
 18 inches = 1 cubit
 21.8 in.  = 1 Bible cubit
 2 1/2 ft. = 1 military pace


SURVEYORS’ MEASURE

 7.92 inches                         = 1 link
 25 links                            = 1 rod
 4 rods                              = 1 chain
 10 square chains or 160 square rods = 1 acre
 640 acres                           = 1 sq. mile
 36 sq. miles (6 miles sq.)          = 1 township

{152}


CUBIC MEASURE

 1728 cubic in.       = 1 cub. ft.
 27 cubic ft.         = 1 cubic yd.
 128 c. ft.           = 1 cord (wood)
 40 cub. ft.          = 1 ton (shpg.)
 2150.42 cubic inches = 1 standard bushel
 268.8 cubic inches   = 1 standard gallon
 1 cubic foot         = about four-fifths of a bushel


METRIC EQUIVALENTS


_Linear Measure_

 1 centimeter = 0.3937 in.               1 in. = 2.54 centimeters
 1 decimeter = 3.937 in. = 0.328 feet    1 ft. = 3.048 decimeters
 1 meter = 39.37 in. = 1.0936 yards      1 yard = 0.9144 meter
 1 dekameter = 1.9884 rods               1 rod  = 0.5029 dekameter
 1 kilometer = 0.62137 mile              1 mile = 1.6093 kilometers


_Square Measure_

 1 sq. centimeter = 0.1550 sq. in.   1 sq. inch = 6452 square centimeters
 1 sq. decimeter = 0.1076 sq. ft.    1 sq. foot = 9.2903 square decimeters
 1 sq. meter = 1.196 sq. yd.         1 sq. yd. = 0.8361 sq. m’r.
 1 are = 3.954 sq. rd.               1 sq. rd. = 0.2529 are
 1 hektar = 2.47 acres               1 acre    = 0.4047 hektar
 1 sq. kilometer = 0.386 sq. m.      1 sq. m. = 2.59 sq. kilometers


_Measure of Volume_

 1 cu. centimeter = 0.061 cu. in.     1 cu. in. = 16.39 cu. centimeters
 1 cu. decimeter  = 0.0353 cu. ft.    1 cu. ft. = 28.317 cu. decimeters
 1 cu. mr.        = 1.308 cu. yd.     1 cu. yd. = 0.7646 cu. mr.
 1 cu. mr.        = 0.2759 cd.
 1 stere          = 1.308 cu. yd.     1 cord = 3.624 steres
 1 stere          = 0.2759 cd.
 1 liter          = 0.908 qt. dry     1 qt. dry = 1.101 liters
 1 liter          = 1.0567 qt. liq.   1 qt. liq. = 0.9463 liter
 1 dekaliter      = 2.6417 gal.       1 gal. = 0.3785 dekaliter
 1 dekaliter      =  .135 pks.        1 peck = 0.881 dekaliter
 1 hektoliter     = 2.8375 bush.      1 bus. = 0.3524 hektoliter

{153}


_Weights_

 1 gram. = 0.03527 ounce             1 ounce = 28.85 grams.
 1 kilogram = 2.2046 lbs.            1 lb. = 0.4536 kilogram
 1 metric ton = 1.1023 English ton   1 English ton = 0.9072 metric ton


British Weights and Measures

The British Weights and Measures Act of 1878, which superseded all
previous laws upon the subject, enacts the measures which may legally
be used in the United Kingdom. These are based upon the Standard Yard
and the Standard Pound.

Further Acts of Parliament were passed in 1889 and 1904 dealing with
the question of verification of weights and measures, and regulations
were issued by the Board of Trade in 1907 respecting the inspection and
stamping of weights and measures.

The Yard and the Pound are the only two independent standards for
weights and measures, as the Gallon, the standard of capacity, both
for dry and liquid measure, is not independent, but is based upon the
Pound. The Gallon is defined in the Act of 1878 as the volume of ten
Imperial Standard Pounds weight of distilled water weighed in air
against brass weights, with the water and air at the temperature of 62°
Fahrenheit and the barometer at 30 inches.

The multiples and subdivisions of the Standard Yard, Pound, and Gallon,
as laid {154} down in the Act of 1878, are as follows; the legal
abbreviations are given in brackets:


1. MEASURES OF LENGTH

 12 inches (_in._)  = 1 foot (_ft._)
  3 feet            = 1 YARD (_yd._)
  5 1/2 yards       = 1 rod, pole, or perch
  4 poles           = 1 chain or 100 links
 10 chains          = 1 furlong
  8 furlongs        = 1 mile


2. MEASURES OF WEIGHT

 7000 grains (_gr._)  = 1 POUND (_lb._)

Also

 16 drams (_dr._)     = 1 ounce (_oz._)
 16 ounces             = 1 POUND (_lb._)
 14 pounds             = 1 stone
  8 stone              = 1 hundredweight (_cwt._)
 20 hundredweights     = 1 ton


3. MEASURES OF CAPACITY

  4 gills     = 1 pint
  2 pints     = 1 quart
  4 quarts    = 1 GALLON
  2 gallons   = 1 peck
  4 pecks     = 1 bushel
  8 bushels   = 1 quarter
 36 bushels   = 1 chaldron


4. MEASURES OF LAND

 40 square perches  = 1 rood
  4 roods           = 1 acre

For certain special purposes, the following are also authorized by the
Act of 1878 or by Order in Council under the Act:

1. For weighing gold and silver and precious stones: {155}

 The Troy ounce, equal in weight to 480 grains. In dealing with
 quantities less than an ounce, the ounce is divided decimally, _not_
 into grains. Larger quantities than an ounce are stated in ounces.
 There is _no_ Troy pound.

2. For the use of apothecaries and for selling drugs retail:


(_a_) MEASURES OF WEIGHT

 20 grains   = 1 scruple (℈)
  3 scruples = 1 drachm (ʒ)
  8 drachms  = 1 Apothecaries’ ounce (_oz. Apoth._)


(_b_) MEASURES OF CAPACITY

 60 minims (_min._)   =   1 fluid drachm (_fl. dr._)
  8 fluid drachms          =   1 fluid ounce (_fl. oz._)

Of the Apothecaries’ measure of weight, the grain is the same as the
Imperial grain; and the Apothecaries’ ounce contains 480 grains, like
the Troy ounce. But, of the measures of capacity, the Apothecaries’
_drachm_ is not the same as the Imperial _dram_, and the two words are
spelt differently. A fluid ounce of distilled water at a temperature of
62° Fahrenheit is equal in weight to the Imperial ounce (437.5 grains),
and the _fluid drachm_ (54.6875 grains) is equal in weight to two
Imperial _drams_.


ELECTRICAL MEASURES

It is customary to express electrical measures in terms of the
centimeter, the gramme, and the second, and the value of the units
{156} has been fixed by international agreement. The principal units,
as described in the Order in Council of January 10, 1910, are as
follows:

The OHM, the unit of resistance, is the resistance offered to an
unvarying electric current by a column of mercury, at the temperature
of melting ice, 14.4521 grammes in mass, of a constant cross-sectional
area, and of a length of 106.3 centimeters.

The AMPERE, the unit of current, is the unvarying electric current
which, when passed through a solution of nitrate of silver in water,
deposits silver at the rate of 0.001118 of a gramme per second.

The VOLT, the unit of pressure, is the pressure which, when steadily
applied to a conductor whose resistance is one ohm, will produce a
current of one ampere.

The WATT, the unit of power, is 1/746 of one horse-power, the
horse-power being 33,000 lb. raised one foot in one minute. The Board
of Trade unit is 1000 Watt-hours.

In carbon lamps of 16-candle power (nominal) about four watts are
required per candle power to give good economical results for domestic
purposes. One Board of Trade unit will keep a 16-candle carbon lamp
alight for about 16 hours; metallic filament lamps require considerably
less. {157}


MEASURES FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES


_Builders’ Measurements_

 Stock or kiln bricks   8 3/4 inches × 4 1/4 × 2 3/4
 Welsh fire-bricks      9     inches × 4 1/2 × 2 3/4
 Paving bricks          9     inches × 4 1/2 × 1 3/4
 Square tiles           9 3/4 inches × 9 3/4 × 1
 Square tiles           6     inches × 6     × 1
 Dutch clinker bricks   9 1/4 inches × 3     × 1 1/2

A Rod of Brickwork 16 1/2 feet × 16 1/2 feet × 1 1/2 brick thick
= 306 cubic feet, or 11 1/3 cubic yards, and contains about 4500
bricks with about 75 cubic feet of mortar.

Ordinary bricks weigh about 7 lb. each; a load of 500 weighs about 1
ton 11 cwt. 1 qr.

A Piece of Wall Paper is 12 yd. long × 21 in. wide (English), and 9 yd.
× 18 in. (French).


_Timber and Wood_

 40 cubic feet rough, 50 cubic feet squared = 1 load
 50 cubic feet of planks = 1 load
 100 superficial feet = 1 square of flooring
 120 Deals = 100

Width of Battens, 7 inches; Deals, 9 inches; Planks are 2 to 4 inches
thick, and 10 or 11 inches wide. A Cord of Wood is 2 1/2 tons, or 128
cubic feet.


_Corn_

Wheat and other cereals are commonly sold by weight, the bushel being
thus reckoned:

 Wheat, English, 60 lb. Foreign, 62 lb.
 Barley, English, 50 lb. French, 52 1/2 lb. Mediterranean, 50 lb. {158}
 Oats, English, 39 lb. Foreign, 38 and 40 lb.
 Rye and Maize, 60 lb.
 Buckwheat, 52 lb.


_Hay and Straw_

 Truss of Straw, 36 lb. Truss of Old Hay, 56 lb.
 Truss of New Hay (to September 1), 60 lb.
 Load, 36 Trusses — Straw, 11 cwt. 2 qr. 8 lb.;
    Old Hay, 18 cwt.;
    New Hay, 19 cwt. 1 qr. 4 lb.


_Yard Measures_

_Cotton and Spun Silk Count._ — Thread = 1 1/2 yards; Lea, or Skein,
_skn._ = 120 yards; Hank, _hk_ = 7 Skeins, or Leas = 840 yards;
Spindle, _spdl._ = 18 Hanks; counts = the number of Hanks in 1 lb.;
Bundle Hanks, either of 5 lb. or 10 lb.; Reels of Cotton vary from 30
to 1760 yards; they must be marked correctly. Bundles of Cotton are
chiefly made up for export.

_Worsted Count._ — Wrap, 80 yards; Hank = 560 yards = 7 Wraps. Counts
or Numbers are the number of hanks in a lb.

_Linen Count._ — The Hank or Lea is 300 yards, and the number of these
in 1 lb. is the count of the yarn. A Spindle is 48 hanks; a Bundle is
200 hanks.

_West of England Count._ — The Hank is 320 yards, and the number of
hanks in 1 lb. is the count of the yarn. {159}

     _Size of Barrel_              Gals.
 Firkin or Quarter Barrel                 9
 Anker (10 gallons)                      10
 Kilderkin, Rundlet, or 1/2 Barrel       18
 Barrel                                  36
 Tierce (42 gallons)                     42
 Hogshead of Ale (1 1/2 barrels)         54
 Puncheon                                72
 Butt of Ale                            108


In the British Dependencies

The Imperial weights and measures are the legal standards in the
British Dominions and in India. In some Colonies the Metric system may
also be used. In certain Colonies and in India, the old local measures
are still employed to a considerable extent. Among these are the
following:


INDIAN WEIGHTS (_Bengal_)

 Tola, unit of postage = 180 grains
 Chittak = 5 Tolas; Seer (16 Chittaks) = 2 9/35 lb.
 Imperial or Indian Maund = 82 2/7 lb. = 40 seer


_Madras_

 Viss = 3.09 lbs., Maund = 25 lb., Candy = 500 lb.


SOUTH AFRICAN LAND MEASURES

 Cape Morgen  =  2.11654 English Acres
 Cape Feet    =  1.033   English Feet
 Cape Rood    = 12.396   English Feet

{160}


European Countries

The metric system of weights and measures has been adopted in the
following countries:

Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Norway,
Rumania, Servia, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland.

In _Russia_ the standard of length is the Sachine, which is equal to
seven British feet; the standard of weight is the Pound, equal to
nine-tenths of the British pound. The other measures are:


1. MEASURES OF LENGTH

  16 vershok    = 1 archine
   3 archine    = 1 sachine
 500 sachine    = 1 verst


2. MEASURES OF WEIGHT

  3 zolotnik  = 1 loth
 32 loth      = 1 pound
 40 pounds    = 1 pood
 10 poods     = 1 berkovatz

In _Turkey_ the weights and measures differ considerably in different
parts of the Empire, but the following are those used at Constantinople
and the neighborhood:


1. MEASURES OF LENGTH

 2 jeras = 1 rup
 8 rups  = 1 pek  = 26.77 British inches


2. MEASURES OF WEIGHT

 16 kirats = 1 dram
 400 drams = 1 oke  = 2.828 British pounds
 44 okes   = 1 kantar

{161}

The usual measure of capacity in Turkey is the Kileh, which is slightly
larger than the British bushel.


TIME AND WATCH ON BOARD SHIP

«Time.» — Time is kept by means of “Bells,” although there is but one
bell on the ship; and to strike the clapper properly against the bell
requires some skill.

First, two strokes of the clapper at the interval of a second, then an
interval of two seconds; then two more strokes with a second’s interval
apart, then a rest of two seconds, thus:

 Bell, one second; B., two secs.; B. s.; B. ss.;
 B. s.; B. ss.; B.

«Watch.» — For purposes of discipline, and to divide the work fairly,
the crew is mustered in two divisions: the Starboard (right side,
looking forward) and the Port (left). The day commences at noon, and is
thus divided:

 Afternoon Watch    noon  to 4 P.M.
 First Dog Watch   4 P.M. to 6 P.M.
 Second Dog Watch  6 P.M. to 8 P.M.
 First Watch       8 P.M. to midnight
 Middle Watch     12 A.M. to 4 A.M.
 Morning Watch     4 A.M. to 8 A.M.
 Forenoon Watch    8 A.M. to noon

This makes seven _Watches_, which enables the crew to keep them
alternately, as the _Watch_ which is on duty in the forenoon one {162}
day has the afternoon the next day, and the men who have only four
hours’ rest one night have eight hours the next. This is the reason for
having _Dog Watches_, which are made by dividing the hours between 4
P.M. and 8 P.M. into two _Watches_.


PARCEL POST — TABLE OF RATES

 --------+-------+---------+----------+-----------+------------
 WEIGHT  | Local | 1st zone|  2d zone |  3d zone  |  4th zone
   OF    |  Rate | up to 50| 50 to 150| 150 to 300| 300 to 600
 PARCEL  |       |  miles  |  miles   |  miles    |  miles
 --------+-------+---------+----------+-----------+------------
  1 lb.  | 0.05  |  0.05   |  0.06    |  0.07     |  0.08
  2 lbs. | 0.06  |   .08   |   .10    |   .12     |   .14
  3 lbs. | 0.07  |   .11   |   .14    |   .17     |   .20
  4 lbs. |  .08  |   .14   |   .18    |   .22     |   .26
  5 lbs. |  .09  |   .17   |   .22    |   .27     |   .32
  6 lbs. |  .10  |   .20   |   .26    |   .32     |   .38
  7 lbs. |  .11  |   .23   |   .30    |   .37     |   .44
  8 lbs. |  .12  |   .26   |   .34    |   .42     |   .50
  9 lbs. |  .13  |   .29   |   .38    |   .47     |   .56
 10 lbs. |  .14  |   .32   |   .42    |   .52     |   .62
 11 lbs. |  .15  |   .35   |   .46    |   .57     |   .68
 --------+-------+---------+----------+-----------+------------

 --------+-------+---------+----------+-----------+------------
 WEIGHT  |  5th zone  |  6th zone   |  7th zone   | 8th zone
   OF    | 600 to 1000| 1000 to 1400| 1400 to 1800| all over
 PARCEL  |    miles   |    miles    |    miles    | 1800 miles
 --------+-------+---------+----------+-----------+------------
  1 lb.  |   0.09     |    0.10     |    0.11     |   0.12
  2 lbs. |    .16     |     .19     |     .21     |    .24
  3 lbs. |    .23     |     .28     |     .31     |    .36
  4 lbs. |    .30     |     .37     |     .41     |    .48
  5 lbs. |    .37     |     .46     |     .51     |    .60
  6 lbs. |    .44     |     .55     |     .61     |    .72
  7 lbs. |    .51     |     .64     |     .71     |    .84
  8 lbs. |    .58     |     .73     |     .81     |    .96
  9 lbs. |    .65     |     .82     |     .91     |   1.08
 10 lbs. |    .72     |     .91     |    1.01     |   1.20
 11 lbs. |    .79     |    1.00     |    1.11     |   1.32
 --------+------------+-------------+-------------+------------

{163}




INDEX


 “A” and “an,” spacing of, 60.

 “a” (negative prefix), compounds of, 50.

 Abbreviations,
   use of period with, 12;
   of firms and corporations; capitalization of, 23;
   of degrees, capitalization of, 25;
   of titles and States, spacing of, 59–60;
   of italicized words in literary and legal references, 64;
   of dates and usages thereto, 65;
   of proper names, 66;
   of Christian names, 66–68;
   of titles, 68–75;
   of commercial terms, 76–77;
   of geographical terms, 77–81;
   miscellaneous, 81–89;
   scriptural, 90;
   of monetary signs, 90–91;
   of mathematical signs, 91–92;
   of medical signs, 92;
   not used in salutation of letters, 117.

 _-able_ and _-ible_,
   spelling of words terminating in, 38–39;
   in division of words, 53.

 Abstract ideas: capitalization of personified, 23.

 Accents:
   list of symbols, 2;
   list of accented words, 36–37;
   retention of, in foreign words used in English, 36–37.

 “Accept,” correct use of, 101.

 Acts, juridical, capitalization of, 27.

 A.D. (_anno Domini_):
   set in small caps, 30;
   spacing of, 59.

 “Addenda,” plural of _addendum_, 109.

 Address (of letters) the: business, formal, and informal, 116.

 Adjectival nouns, capitalization of, 24.

 Adjectives:
   use of comma with, 4, 5, 8;
   capitalization of, in titles of books and essays, 26;
   capitalization, with proper names, 26;
   compound, 46;
   ending in _-ical_, how to divide, 54.

 _ad loc._, italicized, 64.

 “Administration,” capitalization of, 25.

 “Admire,” correct use of, 101.

 “Admit,” correct use of, 101.

 “Admittance,” correct use of, 99.

 Adverbs:
   use of comma with, 4, 5;
   ending in “-ly” not to be hyphenated with adjectives and
       participles, 46;
   compound, treatment of, 51;
   position of, 101.

 _æ_, rules for use of, 33.

 “Affable,” correct use of, 101.

 “Affect,” correct use of, 101.

 Ages, to be spelled out, 32.

 “Aggravate,” correct use of, 101.

 “Ain’t,” correct use of, 101.

 Alford, Dean: on use of the comma, 4.

 Algebraic, unknown quantities italicized, 64.

 Alignment, of quotation marks, 16.

 Alliances, political, capitalization of names of, 27.

 “All right,” correct use of, 101.

 “Alternative,” correct use of, 101.

 A.M. (_ante meridiem_):
   set in small capitals, 30;
   spacing of, 59.

 Ampere. _See_ Electrical measures.

 Ampersand (&), the use of, 66.

 Analogy of language, influence in diction, 99.

 “And,”
   correct use of, 101;
   when to use comma before, 5.

 “Ante,” compounds with, 50.

 “Anti,” compounds with, 50.

 Antithetical clauses. _See_ Clauses.

 “Any place,” use of, 101.

 Apocrypha, list of abbreviations for, 90.

 Apostrophe:
   rules for use of, 18–19;
   in designating the possessive case, 18;
   in forming plurals of numerals, 19;
   in forming plurals of polysyllabic proper nouns ending in a
     sibilant, 19;
   in indicating omission of letters or figures, 19;
   in indicating omission of letters in contracted words, 19;
   omission of, in words contracted in poetry, 19.

 Apothecaries’ weight, table of, 150.

 “Apparently,” correct use of, 101.

 “Apt,” correct use of, 102.

 Art, titles of works of, to be quoted, 17.

 Articles:
   definite, not to be treated as part of title of magazines and
       newspapers, 30;
   correct use of, 102.

 “As,” correct use of, 102.

 Astronomical terms:
   capitalization of, 23;
   names of stars and constellations, italicized, 64.

 “At,” correct use of, 102.

 “At length,” correct use of, 102.

 “Aught,” correct use of, 102.

 “Avail,” correct use of, 102.

 Avoirdupois weight, table of, 150.

 “Aware,” correct use of, 102.

 “Awful,” correct use of, 102.

 “Badly,” correct use of, 102.

 “Bank on,” use of, 102.

 Barrels, measures of, in gallons, 159.

 B.C. (_before Christ_):
   set in small caps, 30;
   spacing of, 59.

 “Beg,” correct use of, 103.

 Bells, use of on board ship, 161.

 “Bi-,” compounds with, 50.

 Bible:
   capitalization of names of books, divisions and versions of, 20;
   abbreviations for books of, 90.

 Biblical:
   parables, capitalization of, 20;
   general terms, capitalization of, 21;
   capitalization of names and terms of, 20–21;
   books, abbreviations for, 90.

 Blocked indention:
   in general, 56;
   of address of letters, 116.

 Books:
   capitalization of titles, 26;
   italicizing of titles, 62;
   biblical abbreviations of, 90.

 Botanical terms:
   capitalization of, 23;
   names of genera and species, italicized, 64.

 Box-heads, omission of period after, 12.

 Brackets, rules for use of, 18.

 Break, or sudden change in sentence, indicated by dash, 13.

 Briefness of form preferred, 99.

 “Bring,” use of, 103.

 British Dependencies, weights and measures of, 159.

 British weights and measures, 153.

 “Brother,” compounds with, 47.

 Builders’ measures, table of, 157.

 Buildings, capitalization of names of, 23.

 Business letter. _See_ Letter.

 “But,” correct use of, 103.

 “By,” compounds with, 48.

 C, soft, do not divide on, 53.

 “Cabinet,” capitalization of, 25.

 Campbell, Dr. Thomas, canons of, 99–100.

 “Can,” distinguished from _may_, 103.

 Canada, postal rates to, 135.

 “Cannot but,” correct use of, 103.

 “Can’t seem,” correct use of, 103.

 Capitalization:
   of religious terms, 20–22;
   of proper names, 22–24;
   of titles, 24–26;
   of institutional terms, 26–28;
   of references, 28;
   of ordinals, 29;
   in general, 29–30;
   of abbreviation of academic degrees, 25;
   of abstract ideas personified, 23;
   of acts juridical, 27;
   of adjectives derived from proper nouns, 22;
   of adjectives and nouns designating definite geographical regions, 22;
   of astronomical terms, 23;
   of political alliances, 27;
   of books of the Bible, 20;
   of titles of books, 26;
   of botanical terms, 23;
   of buildings, 23;
   of “church,” 20;
   of civic titles, 25;
   of word following a colon, 26;
   of compound titles, 21;
   of hyphenated compounds, 29;
   of sessions of Congress, 29;
   of conventions, 25;
   of corporations — names and abbreviations, 23;
   of names of dynasties, 29;
   of ecclesiastical appellations, 26;
   of epithets used as proper names, 22;
   of titles of essays, 26;
   of “father,” 22;
   of “Fathers” — early church, 22;
   of foreign titles, as prefixes, 25–26;
   of geographical terms, 22–23;
   of geological terms, 23;
   of “gospel,” 20–21;
   of “government,” 25;
   of historical epochs, 22;
   of holidays, 26–27;
   of judiciary bodies, 28;
   of names of laws, 27;
   of names of legislative bodies, 28;
   of letters (correspondence), 29;
   of units of measurement, 29–30;
   of medical terms, 23;
   of military terms, 25;
   of monastic orders, 20;
   of “mother,” 24;
   of months of year, 23;
   of names for the Evil One, 21;
   names of political parties, 27;
   names of races, tribes, etc., 27;
   names of regiments, 29;
   of names of societies, 25;
   of popular names for the solar system, 23;
   of streets, parks, etc., 23;
   of titles of parables (biblical), 20;
   of titles of periodicals, 30;
   of “Pilgrim Fathers,” 22;
   of poetry, 29;
   of political alliances, 27;
   of political divisions, 28;
   of pronouns referring to the Deity, 21;
   of quotations, 29–30;
   of “revolutionary,” 22;
   of scientific terms, 23;
   of social organizations, 25;
   of side-heads, 29;
   of “State,” 24–25;
   of words on title-pages, 30;
   of names of treaties, 27;
   of “van” and “von” as prefixes, 25–26;
   of words with special meanings, 29;
   of zoölogical terms, 23;
   rules for, 20–30.

 Capitalized words, list of:
   religious, 21;
   proper, 24.

 Capitals:
   original use of, 20;
   rules for use of, 20–30;
   and small capitals, rules for use of, 28–30;
   how indicated in MS., 30.

 Cases: confusion of, 103.

 Caxton: his influence on punctuation, 9.

 Centered head-lines, omission of period after, 12.

 Centigrade. _See_ Thermometers.

 Centuries, numbers of, to be spelled out, 32.

 cf., to be set in roman, 64.

 “Cherubim,” plural of _cherub_, 109.

 “Childlike,” correct use of, 103.

 Christ, pronouns referring to, how capitalized, 21.

 Christian names, abbreviation of, 66–68.

 “Church,” when capitalized, 20.

 _Circa_ (_ca._), italicized, 64.

 Circular measure, table of, 151.

 Circulars, postal rates and regulations for, 130.

 Citation of legal causes:
   names of, italicized, 64;
   of author’s own words, quotation marks used, 16;
   of different works by same author or by different authors without
       intervening original matter, to be quoted, 16.

 Civil titles, capitalization of, 25.

 Classes of mail, rates, etc., 129–132.

 Clauses, use of comma with:
   inverted, 5;
   independent, 6;
   relative, 6;
   dependent, 6;
   parenthetical, 5;
   co-ordinate, 6;
   antithetical, 7;
   Use of dash before concluding clause, 13.

 Cloth measure, table of, 151.

 “Co-,” compounds with, 47–48.

 Coins, foreign: list of, showing comparative values, 145–147.

 “College,” capitalization of, 27.

 Colon:
   definition and use of, 10–11;
   capitalization, following use of, 26, 29, 30;
   use of in formal salutatory phrases beginning letters, 11, 117;
   in titles of literary references, 11;
   of names of publishers, 11;
   first word following, in quotation, capitalized, 11;
   use of, with quotation-marks, 11;
   before formal quotations, 11;
   separating chapter and verse in scriptural references, 11;
   in separating divisions of time, 11;
   use of hair-space before, 59;
   separating city of publication and publisher’s name, 11.

 “Colonel,” when spelled in full, and when abbreviated, 68–69.

 “Color,” hyphenization of compounds of, 46.

 “Come,” correct use of, 103.

 Comma:
   definition and use of, 4;
   when omitted, 7–8;
   omitted between two adjectives, 4;
   use of, with adverbs, 4, 5;
   with adjectives, 4, 5;
   before “but,” 6.
   With clauses:
     antithetical, 7;
     co-ordinate, 6, 7;
     dependent, 6;
     parenthetical, 5;
     and relative, 6.
   Use of:
     with conjunctions, 4–7;
     separating degrees from names of persons, 7;
     indicating ellipses, 7;
     separating numbers, 7;
     with quotation-marks, 4;
     with phrases, inverted and in opposition, 5–6;
     before “of” in connection with residence, 7;
     in salutatory phrase, 7, 117;
     in inverted sentences, 5;
     separating titles from names, 6;
     separating vocative words, 7;
     substitution of dashes for, 14;
     use of with exclamation point, 15;
     rules for use of, 4–8;
     omitted with pronouns used with nouns for emphasis, 8.

 Comments, notes of, inclosed in brackets, 18.

 Commercial terms, abbreviation of, 76–77.

 “Common,” correct use of, 103.

 “Company”:
   capitalization of, 23;
   abbreviation of, 66;
   use of (&) with, 66.

 Compass:
   capitalization of points of, 22, 23, 24;
   hyphenization of points of, 49.

 Complimentary close, of letters, 121.

 Compound:
   adjectives, 46;
   adverbs, 51.

 {168}

 Compound titles, spelling, abbreviation, and capitalization of, 68–96.

 Compound words:
   general theory of and rules for, 45–51;
   list of, 49;
   division of, to be avoided, 54.

 Compounds, hyphenated: capitalization of, 29.

 Compounds, with:
   “a-” (negative prefix), 50;
   “ante,” 50;
   “anti,” 50;
   “bi,” 50;
   “brother,” 47;
   “by,” 48;
   “co,” 47–48;
   “daughter,” 47;
   “demi,” 50;
   “deutero,” 51;
   “elect,” 47;
   “electro,” 51;
   “ex,” 47;
   “extra,” 48;
   “eye,” 51;
   “father,” 47;
   “fellow,” 47;
   “foster,” 47;
   “general,” 47;
   “god,” 47;
   “half,” 47;
   “holder,” 51;
   “in,” 50;
   “infra,” 48;
   “inter,” 50;
   “intra,” 50;
     (negative prefix), 50;
   “life,” 47;
   “like,” 49;
   “man,” 49;
   “master,” 47;
   “mid,” 46;
   “monger,” 51;
   “mother,” 47;
   “non-,” 50;
   “over,” 50;
   “parent,” 47;
   “post,” 50;
   “pre,” 47–48;
   “pseudo,” 51;
   “quarter,” 47;
   “quasi,” 48;
   “re,” 47–48;
   “school,” 51;
   “self,” 47;
   “semi,” 48, 50;
   “sister,” 47;
   “sub,” 50;
   “sulpho,” 51;
   “super,” 50;
   “supra,” 48;
   “thermo,” 51;
   “to,” 50;
   “tree,” 49;
   “tri,” 50;
   “ultra,” 48;
   “un” (negative prefix), 50;
   “under,” 50;
   “vice,” 46;
   “woman,” 49;
   “world,” 47.

 Concealed mail matter, law concerning, 133.

 “Confess,” use of, 103.

 Congress:
   sessions of, capitalization, 29;
   numbers of, spelled out, 32.

 Conjunctions:
   use of comma with, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8;
   capitalization of, in titles of books and essays, 26.

 “Conscious,” correct use of, 103.

 Consonants, construction of, rules for division of words, 52–53.

 Constellations, names of, italicized, 64.

 “Constitution,” capitalization of, 25.

 “Continual,” correct use of, 103.

 Contraction of word, use of apostrophe, 19.

 Conventions, capitalization of names of, 25.

 Co-ordinate clauses. _See_ Clauses.

 Corporations, capitalization of names, of abbreviations, and of
   “Co.,” 23.

 Corrections, indicated by use of brackets, 18.

 Correctness, a requisite of discourse, 99.

 Credits, italicizing of, 62.

 Criticisms, indicated by use of brackets, 18.

 Cuba, postal rates to, 135.

 Cubic measure, table of, 152.

 Cut-in side notes, omission of period after, 12.

 Dashes:
   use of, with changed construction, dates, abrupt terminations,
       rhetorical emphasis, verse and page references, short, snappy
       sentences, omitted letters, concluding clauses, 13;
   for separating subject-matter from its authority, 13;
   to precede addition to completed sentence, 14;
   substitution of, for commas or parenthesis, 14;
   with colon, to mark long quotation, 14;
   substitution of, for quotation-marks, 14;
   misuse of, 12;
   rules for, 13–14;
   use in France, 14;
   use of hair-space with, 59;
   examples of, 60;
   use of in salutatory phrases of letters, 117.

 “Data,” plural of _datum_, 109.

 Date-lines, omission of period after, 12.

 Dates:
   use of dash to connect, 13;
   abbreviation of, 65–66;
   _st_, _d_, _rd_, and _th_, to be omitted, 65;
   of letters, where placed, when capitalized and italicized, 30;
   _ult._, _inst._, and _prox._, not used, 65;
   the Dewey, 66;
   of letters, 115.

 “Daughter,” compounds with, 47.

 Days of week:
   capitalization of, 23;
   abbreviation of, 65–66.

 “Deadly,” correct use of, 103.

 Decades, specific references to, spelled out, 32.

 “Decided,” correct use of, 104.

 “Definite,” correct use of, 104.

 Degrees:
   capitalization and abbreviations of, 25;
   use of comma separating, from name of person, 6.

 “Demean,” correct use of, 104.

 “Demi,” compounds with, 50.

 Dependent clauses, use of comma, 6.

 Derivation, influence of, in division, 52, 53.

 “Deutero,” compounds with, 51.

 Devil. _See_ Evil One.

 Dewey abbreviations of dates, the, 66.

 Diction,
   correct and faulty, 99–113;
   Dr. Campbell’s canons, 99;
   use of standard authors, 100;
   list of words and phrases, 101–113.

 Dictionary, the function of, 100.

 “Different,” correct use of, 104.

 Diphthongs, general rules for, 33.

 Directions, use of brackets in indicating, 18.

 “Directly,” use of, 104.

 Disbelief, in statement, indicated by use of exclamation-point, 15.

 “Discover,” correct use of, 104.

 Display composition, use of period after, 12.

 Division of words:
   rules for, 52–54;
   avoid unnecessary, 52;
   on two letters to be avoided, 53.

 Divisional mark, avoid separating from matter it pertains to, 54.

 Dollars ($),
   no space between symbol and following figures, 60;
   table of monetary signs, 90–91.

 Domestic postal rates, 134.

 “Donne,” plural of _donna_, 109.

 “Don’t,” correct use of, 104.

 Drop-folios, enclosed by brackets, 18.

 Dry measure, table of, 150.

 Dynasties:
   capitalization of names, 29;
   numbers of, to be spelled out, 32.

 “Each other,” correct use of, 104.

 Ecclesiastical appellations, capitalization of, 26.

 “Effect,” correct use of, 104.

 e.g., set in roman, 64.

 “Egoists,” correct use of, 104.

 “Either,” correct use of, 104.

 “Elect,” compounds with, 47.

 Electrical measures, 155–156.

 “Electro,” compounds with, 51.

 Ellipses:
   comma indicating, 7;
   period indicating, 12;
   to be treated as part of quotation, 17.

 Emphasis, rhetorical:
   use of dash to secure, 13;
   of exclamation-point, 15;
   of paragraph, 57–58;
   of italics, 62.

 En échelon indention:
   described, 56;
   use of in addressing letters, 116;

 “Enormity,” correct use of, 104.

 “Enthuse,” (verb) correct use of, 104.

 Enumerations, use of parentheses in connection with letters or figures
       used to express subdivisions in, 18.

 Envelopes, rules for addressing, 123–124.

 Epithets:
   capitalized when used as proper names, 22;
   hyphenization of compound personal, 49.

 Essays, capitalization of titles, 26.

 etc., quotation-marks to include, 17.

 Euphony, authority of, 100.

 European countries, weights and measures of, 159–160.

 “Every place,” written _everywhere_, 104.

 Evil One, the capitalization of names for, 21.

 “ex-,” prefixed to titles, 47.

 “Excellent,” never qualified, 104.

 “Except” (verb), correct use of, 104.

 “Exceptional,” correct use of, 105.

 Exclamation-point:
   proper use of, 14–15;
   with quotation-marks, 14–15;
   origin, 15;
   expressing strong emotion, 15;
   sarcasm or doubt, 15;
   use of, with comma, 15;
   as distinguished from vocative, 15;
   use of hair-space preceding, 59.

 “Expect,” correct use of, 105.

 Expositions, capitalization of names of, 25.

 “Extra,” compounds with, 48.

 “Eye,” compounds with, 51.

 Fahrenheit. _See_ Thermometers.

 “Falseness,” correct use of, 105.

 Family names, capitalization of, 24.

 “Fathers”:
   capitalization of, 24;
   use of compounds with, 47.

 “Federal,” capitalization of, 25.

 “Fellow,” compounds of, 47.

 Figures:
   rules for use of, 31–33;
   use of apostrophe to indicate omission of, 19;
   used to mark divisions in enumerations, to be placed in
     parentheses, 18;
   percentage, figures always to be used, 31;
   use of, in statistics, 32;
   spacing of, 59;
   spacing between, and $, £, 60.

 “Fix,” correct use of, 105.

 Foreign languages:
   capitalization of titles, as _von_, _le_, _da_, etc., 25–26;
   spelling of words ending in _re_ (French), 36;
   words and phrases, when italicized, 62–63;
   list of italicized and not italicized words, 63;
   use of accents, 36–37.

 Foreign titles, capitalization of, 25–26.

 Foreign words, plurals of. _See_ Plurals.

 Formal letter. _See_ Letter.

 “Former,” correct use of, 105.

 Forwarding of mail matter, 132.

 “Foster,” compounds with, 47.

 Fractions, use of hyphens in spelling, 48.

 France, use of dash in, 14.

 French endings in _re_, not to be used, 36.

 G, soft, do not divide on, 53.

 “General,” compounds with, 47.

 “Gentleman,” correct use of, 105.

 “Gentleman friend,” to be avoided, 105.

 Geographical terms:
   capitalization of, 22;
   abbreviations of, 77–81.

 Geological terms:
   capitalization of, 23;
   italicized, 64.

 Geometric symbols, as unknown quantities, italics, 64.

 “Go,” correct use of, 105.

 God:
   pronouns referring to, capitalization of, 21;
   compounds with, 47.

 “Gospel,” when capitalized, 20–21.

 “Got,” correct use of, 105.

 “Gotten”:
   obsolete, 105;
   improper use of, 105.

 “Government,” capitalization of, 25.

 Governmental terms, capitalization of, 25.

 Grain and Hay, measures of, 157–158.

 “Guess,” correct use of, 105.

 Hair-space, use of, 59–61.

 “Half,” compounds with, 47.

 Half-diamond indention, 56.

 “Hanged,” distinguished from _hung_, 105.

 Hanging indention, described, 56.

 “Hardly,” never preceded by _not_, 105.

 “He,” correct use of, 105.

 Headings:
   capitalization of certain words, 30;
   of letters (correspondence), 115.

 Head-lines, omission of period after, 12.

 “Healthful,” correct use of, 105.

 “Her,” correct use of, 106.

 “Him,” correct use of, 106.

 Historical epochs, capitalization of appellation for, 24.

 “Hoi polloi,” never preceded by _the_, 106.

 “Holder,” compounds with, 51.

 Holidays, capitalization of names of, 26–27.

 “Holy,” capitalization of, 21.

 “Honorable,” correct use of, 106.

 Honorary titles, capitalization of, 25.

 “Hung,” distinguished from _hanged_, 106.

 Hyphenated compounds:
   capitalization of, 29;
   avoid division of, 54.

 Hyphenization, rules for, 45–51.

 Hyphens:
   list of hyphenated words, 49;
   rules for use of, 45–51;
   purpose of, 19;
   use of hair-space with, 59.
   _See_ Compounds.

 “I”:
   capitalization of word, 29.
   _See_ under _Me_.

 _Ibid._, italicized, 64.

 _-ible_ and _-able_. _See_ _-able_.

 _-ical_, in divisions, 54.

 _Idem_, italicized, 64.

 i.e., set in roman, 64.

 “If,” correct use of, 106.

 Illustrations, legends beneath, omission of period, 12.

 “In,” correct use of, 106.

 “In-” (negative prefix), compounds with, 50.

 Indention:
   rules for, 55–56;
   prose, each paragraph indented, 55;
   numbered paragraphs, treatment of, 55;
   of poetry, reverse indention, 55;
   of quotations, 55;
   different forms of, viz.: En échelon, Hanging, Half-diamond, Lozenge,
       Blocked, and Irregular, 55–56;
   use of in addressing letters, 116.

 Independent sentences, first word capitalized after colon, 29.

 Infinitive, the, never separated from _to_, 106.

 Informal letter. _See_ Letter.

 “Infra,”
   compounds with, 48;
   italicization of, 64.

 _-ing_: verbal nouns (ending in) distinguished from participles, 106.

 Initials, not to be divided, 54.

 “Inside of,” distinguished from _within_, 106.

 _Inst._, not used, 65.

 Institutional terms, capitalization of, 26–28.

 “Inter,” compounds with, 50.

 International money orders, fees for, 137.

 Interrogation-point:
   origin of, 15;
   use of, with quotations, 16;
   after direct questions, 16;
   to express doubt, 16;
   omission in indirect questions, 16;
   use of hair-space preceding, 59.

 “Intra,” compounds with, 50.

 “Invent,” distinguished from _discover_, 106.

 Ironical word or phrase, use of quotation marks for, 17.

 Irregular indention, described, 55.

 _-ise_ and _-ize_, spelling of words terminating in, 37–38.

 Italicizing:
   of abbreviations in literary and legal references, 64;
   of _ad loc._, 64;
   of algebraic unknown quantities, 64;
   of astronomical names, 64;
   of titles of books, 62;
   of names of botanical genera and species, 64;
   of names in citations of legal causes, 64;
   of _circa_ (_ca._), 64;
   of names of constellations, 64;
   of credits, at end of article, 62;
   for purpose of emphasis, 62;
   of names of geological subjects, 64;
   of geometric unknown quantities, 64;
   of _ibid._, 64;
   of _idem_, 64;
   of _infra_, 64;
   of _loc. cit._, 64;
   of literary references, 64;
   of names of scientific genera and species, 64;
   of stars, 64;
   of titles of newspapers and periodicals, 64;
   of _op. cit._, 64;
   of _passim_, 64;
   of poetry, 62;
   in prefaces, 62;
   of word “Resolved,” 64;
   in running heads, 62;
   of abbreviations of “shillings,” “pence,” 64;
   of names of ships, 62;
   of side-heads, 62;
   of signatures, 62;
   of _supra_, 64;
   of _s.v._, 64;
   of _vide_, 64;
   of zoölogical genera, 64;
   rules for, 62–64;
   lists of foreign words, italicized and not, 62–64;
   of dates in letters, 30.

 Italics:
   origin of, 62;
   rules for, 62–64;
   list of foreign words and phrases not italicized, 63;
   list of italicized words, 63;
   how to indicate in MS., 64;
   italic punctuation marks, following, 64.

 J, do not divide on, 53.

 Journals. _See_ Periodicals.

 Judiciary bodies, capitalization of names of, 28.

 Juridical acts, treaties, etc., capitalization of names of, 27.

 Kerned letters, spacing of, 60.

 “Kind,” correct use of, 106.

 “Kind of,” not followed by _a_ or _an_, 106.

 “Lady.” _See_ under _Gentleman_.

 “Lady friend.” _See_ under _Gentleman friend_.

 Language, must convey writer’s meaning, 99.

 “Last,” distinguished from _latest_, 107.

 “Latter,” correct use of, 107.

 Laws, capitalization of names of, 27.

 “Lay,” distinguished from _lie_, 107.

 Legal references, words, phrases, and abbreviations italicized, 64.

 Legends, omission of period after, 12.

 Legislative bodies, capitalization of names of, 28.

 “Less,” distinguished from _fewer_, 107.

 Letter, Business:
   heading, 115;
   address, 116;
   salutation, 116;
   text of, 118;
   complimentary close, 121;
   signature, 122;
   envelope, 123;
   correct example of, 126.

 Letter, Formal:
   heading, 115;
   address, 116;
   salutation, 117–118;
   text of, 120;
   complimentary close, 122;
   signature, 122;
   envelope, 123;
   correct examples of, 126–128.

 Letter, Informal:
   heading, 115;
   address, 116;
   salutation, 117;
   text of, 120;
   complimentary close, 121–122;
   signature, 122;
   envelope, 123;
   correct examples of, 126–128.

 Letter writing:
   introductory remarks on, 114;
   rules for, 115–125;
   examples of correct, 126–128;
   the signature, 122–123;
   envelope, 123–124;
   postal cards, 125;
   in general, 125;
   business, formal, informal, treatment of, 115–122.

 Letters (correspondence):
   capitalization, punctuation, etc., rules for, 11, 12, 29;
   dates, where placed and when capitalized, 30;
   postal regulations, 129–141.

 Letters:
   use of dash to indicate omission of, 13;
   use of apostrophe to indicate omission of, 19;
   used to mark divisions in enumerations, to be set in parentheses, 18;
   spacing of superior and inferior, 59.

 “Liable,” distinguished from _likely_, 107.

 “Life,” compounds with, 47.

 “Like,” compounds with, 49.

 “Likely,” correct use of, 107.

 Linear measure, table of, 150.

 Liquid measure, table of, 150.

 Literary references: minor subdivisions, not capitalized, 28.

 “Loan,” not used as a verb, 107.

 “Locate,” distinguished from _settle_, 107.

 _Loc. cit._, italicized, 64.

 “Love,” distinguished from _like_, 107.

 Lozenge indention, described, 56.

 “Luxuriant,” distinguished from _luxurious_, 107.

 “Mad,” distinguished from _angry_, 107.

 Magazines. _See_ Periodicals.

 Mail matter:
   first class, defined, 129;
   second class, 129;
   third class, 130;
   fourth class, 131;
   wrapping of, 132;
   forwarding of, 132;
   what cannot be mailed, 132;
   concealed matter, 133;
   domestic rates, 134;
   foreign rates, 134;
   rates for Cuba, Mexico, Canada, and Panama, 135;
   foreign parcels post, 136;
   money orders, 137;
   international money orders, 137;
   registered, domestic, and foreign, 138;
   special delivery, 139;
   postal distances and time from New York, 140.

 “Major,” when spelled in full, 68.

 “Man,”
   compounds with, 49.
   _See_ under _Gentleman_.

 Manuscript:
   how to indicate capitals in, 30;
   italics in, 64.

 Manutius, Aldus:
   relation to punctuation of, 3;
   designer of italic types, 62.

 Mariners’ measure, table of, 151.

 “Master,” compounds with, 47.

 Mathematical signs, list of, 91–92.

 “May.” _See_ under _Can_.

 “Me,” correct use of, 107.

 “Means,” either singular or plural, 107.

 Measures:
   tables of, and general rules for, 149–160;
   linear, 150;
   square, 150;
   dry, 150;
   liquid, 150;
   paper, 151;
   time, 151;
   circular, 151;
   cloth, 151;
   mariners’, 151;
   surveyors’, 151;
   cubic, 152;
   British, 152;
   electrical, 155;
   builders’, 157;
   of timber and wood, 157;
   grain, 157;
   hay, 158;
   yard, 158;
   of barrels, 159;
   in the British Dependencies, 159;
   in European countries, 159–160.

 Medical:
   signs, list of, 92;
   capitalization of, terms, 23.

 “Memoranda,” plural of _memorandum_, 109.

 Metric system:
   of weights and measures, 149;
   of equivalents, 152.

 Mexico, postal rates to, 135.

 “Mid,” compounds with, 46.

 Military bodies, numbers of, spelled out, 32.

 Miscellaneous measures, table of, 151.

 Miscellaneous terms, abbreviations of, 81–89.

 Monastic orders, capitalization of, 20.

 Monetary signs,
   abbreviations of, 90–91;
   spacing of, 60.

 Money order fees, 137.

 “Monger,” compounds with, 51.

 Months of year:
   capitalization of, 23;
   numbers preceding spelled out, 32;
   abbreviations of, 65–66.

 “Most,” avoid using for _almost_, 107.

 “Mother”:
   capitalization of, 24;
   compounds with, 47.

 “Must,” correct use of, 107.

 “Mutual,” distinguished from _common_, 108.

 Names:
   capitalization of proper, 22–24;
   of publishers, in literary references, use of colon, 11;
   of societies, expositions, and conventions, capitalization of, 25;
   of races, tribes, etc., capitalization of, 27;
   abbreviation of proper, 66;
   Christian, 66–68;
   of scientific genera and species, italicized, 64;
   of stars, italicized, 64.

 “Negligence,” distinguished from _neglect_, 108.

 “Neither,” correct use of, 108.

 “News,” is singular, 108.

 Newspapers:
   titles of, article not treated as part of, 30;
   titles of, italicized, 62;
   postal rates and regulations for, 129.

 New Testament, list of abbreviations for, 90.

 “Nice,” correct use of, 108.

 Nobility, capitalization of titles of, 25.

 “No place,” written _nowhere_, 108.

 “Non-,” compounds with, 50.

 “Nor.” _See_ under _Or_.

 “Not . . . but,” double negative, 108.

 Notes, use of brackets in enclosing, 18.

 “Notorious,” correct use of, 108.

 Nouns:
   capitalization of geographical, simple and compounded, 22;
   capitalization of, followed by capitalized roman numeral, 28;
   hyphenization of, standing in objective relation to each other, 46–47;
   formation of possessive case of common and proper, 18–19;
   plural of polysyllabic proper ending in sibilant, how formed, 19;
   verbal, ending in _-ing_, distinguished from participles, 106.

 “Nowhere near,” vulgarism for _not nearly_, 108.

 Number:
   pronouns must agree with their antecedents, 108;
   of nouns and verbs must agree, 108.

 Numbers:
   use of comma with, 7;
   when to spell out, 31–33;
   use of apostrophe to indicate omission of, 19;
   percentage, figures always used, 31;
   in statistics, figures used, 32;
   in ordinary matter, of less than three digits, to be spelled out, 32;
   in groups, varying in digits use figures, 32;
   round, treatment of, 32;
   commencing a sentence, spelled out, 32;
   expressed in figures, not to be divided, 54.

 Numerals:
   use of period, following roman, 12;
   of apostrophe in forming plural, 19;
   roman, origin and early use of, 93–96;
   list of roman and arabic, 96–97;
   rules for use of roman, 98.

 “O,” capitalization of word, 29.

 _œ_, rules for use of 33.

 “Of”:
  correct use of, 108;
   use of comma before, in connection with proper name, 7.

 Ohm. _See_ Electrical measures.

 _Op. cit._, italicized, 64.

 “Open punctuation,” favored by best usage, 3–4;
   and “close punctuation,” 3–4.

 “Or,” correct use of, 108.

 Orders, monastic, capitalization of, 20.

 Ordinals, capitalization of, 29.

 Orthography:
   rules of, 33–36;
   final _f_, _l_, or _s_, 33;
   final consonant following diphthong, 33;
   added terminations after final accented syllable, 33–34;
   after diphthong or two vowels, 34;
   after final syllable ending in two consonants, 34;
   after final silent _e_, 34–35;
   after _ce_ or _ge_, 35;
   after final _e_ in participles, 35;
   after final _ie_, 35;
   after final _y_, 35–36;
   of French endings in _-re_, 36;
   of possessives of proper nouns, 36;
   of _-sion_ and _-tion_, 36;
   of _-or_ and _-our_, 34.

 “Ought,” never combined with had, 109

 _-our_, words ending in, 34.

 “Out loud,” never used for _aloud_, 109.

 “Over” compounds with, 50.

 Panama, postal rates to, 135.

 Paper measure, table of, 151.

 Parables, biblical, capitalization of titles, 20.

 Paragraphs,
   explanation of, 57;
   rules for, 55–58;
   unity, 57;
   emphasis, 57, 58;
   length, 57;
    coherence, 57;
   connective words between related sentences, 58;
   space used proportional to importance, 58;
   length, 58;
   indention of, 55, 57, 58, 60.

 Parcel post, domestic, 131, 162;
   foreign, 136.

 “Parent,” compounds of, 47.

 Parentheses:
   substitution of dashes for, 14;
   use of, with interrogation-point, 16;
   placing of period with, 11;
   defined, 18;
   use of, in figures or letters to mark divisions in enumerations, 18;
   subdivided by brackets, 18.

 Parenthetical clauses. _See_ Clauses.

 Parks, capitalization of names of, 23.

 “Partake of,” never used for _eat_, 109.

 Participles:
   list of, how spelled, 37;
   not to be hyphenated with adverbs ending in “-ly,” 46;
   ending in _-ing_, distinguished from verbal nouns, 106.

 Particles, in French, German, Italian, and Dutch, capitalization
   of, 25–26.

 Parties, political, capitalization of names of, 27.

 “Party,” never used for _person_, 109.

 _Passim_, italicized, 64.

 Pence. _See_ Shillings.

 Peoples, capitalization of names or epithets of, 27.

 “Per,” correct use of, 109.

 Percentage, use of figures in, 31.

 “Perception,” correct use of, 109.

 Periodicals:
   titles of, definite article not to be treated as part of, 30;
   use of italics for, 62;
   postal rates, etc., 129.

 Periods:
   placing of, in connection with quotation-marks, 11;
   rules for use of, 11–12;
   omitted after running-heads, 12;
   after box-heads in tables, 12;
   after cut-in side notes, 12;
   after centered head-lines, 12;
   after legends, 12;
   after subheads, 12;
   after date-lines, 12;
   after signatures, 12;
   after titles, blocked headings, etc., 12;
   after roman numerals, 12;
   use of, after abbreviations, 12;
   after a complete sentence, 12;
   to indicate an ellipsis, 12.

 Personifications: abstract ideas, capitalization of, 23.

 Phrases:
   inverted, use of comma, 5;
   in apposition, use of comma, 6;
   salutatory, use of comma, 7;
   foreign, italicization of, 62–63.

 “Pilgrim Fathers,” capitalization of, 22.

 Plays, rule for references to, 66.

 Plurals, of foreign words: _cherub_, _memorandum_, _datum_,
       _donna_, _stratum_, _addendum_, and _rubai_, 109.

 P.M. (_post meridiem_):
   set in small capitals, 30;
   spacing of, 59.

 Poetry:
   rules for quotation alignment, in setting, 17;
   titles of poems, to be quoted, 17;
   omission of apostrophe in poems when word is contracted for meter, 19;
   capitalization of first word of each line, 29;
   indention of, 55;
   italicizing of, 62.

 Points of compass:
   capitalization of, 22, 23, 24;
   hyphenization, 49.

 Political alliances, parties, divisions, capitalization of names
   of, 27, 28.

 Political divisions, capitalization of, 28.

 Possessive case, how designated, 19.

 Possessives of proper nouns ending in _s_, how formed, 36.

 “Post,” compounds with, 50.

 Postal cards, use of, 125.

 Postal regulations, 129–141.

 Pounds (£), no space between symbol and preceding figures, 60.

 “Pre-,” compounds with, 47–48.

 Preface, use of italic in, 62.

 Prefixes, “co-,” “pre-,” and “re-,” hyphenization of, 47–48.

 Prepositions, capitalization of, in titles of books and essays, 26.

 “President,”
   capitalization of, 25;
   when spelled in full, 68.

 “Pretty,” correct use of, 109.

 “Professor,” when spelled in full, 68.

 Pronouns:
   used with noun for emphasis, comma omitted, 8;
   referring to Deity, capitalization of, 21.

 Pronunciation, correct, influence of, in division of words, 52–54.

 Proper names:
   capitalization, of, 22–24;
   abbreviation of, 66;
   derivatives from, familiarly used, not capitalized, 24.

 Proper nouns: formation of possessive, 36.

 “Propose,” distinguished from _purpose_, 109.

 _Prox._, not used, 65.

 Psalms:
   capitalization of titles of, 21;
   capitalization of, 22.

 “Pseudo,” compounds with, 51.

 Publications:
   use of colon in titles of literary references, 11;
   use of italics for, 62.

 Publishers: use of colon separating city of publication and name of, in
       literary references, 11.

 Punctuation:
   origin and purpose of, 3;
   rules for, 3–19;
   of headings of letters, 115;
   “open” and “close,” 3–4.

 Punctuation marks:
   list of, 2;
   after italics to be italic, 64.

 Q, inseparable from _u_, 53.

 “Quarter,” compounds with, 47.

 “Quasi,” compounds with, 48.

 Queries, when bracketed, 18.

 Question-mark. _See_ Interrogation-point.

 “Quite,” correct use of, 109.

 Quotation-marks:
   use of, 16–17;
   double and single, 16–17;
   in poetry, 16;
   in ellipses, 17;
   repetition in paragraph beginnings, 17;
   in titles of poems, books, etc., 17;
   serial titles, 17;
   names of ships, 17;
   titles of works of art, 17;
   words and phrases accompanied by definitions and specially emphasized,
       or intended to possess unusual, technical, or ironical meanings, 17;
   use of colon with, 10;
   substitution of dash for, 14;
   use of comma with, 7;
   use of colon and dash before, 14;
   use of exclamation-point with, 15;
   capitalization of first word in, 29;
   following colon, 30;
   use of hair-space inside, 59.

 Quotations: indention of, 55.

 Races, capitalization of names of, 27.

 “Railroad,” to be spelled out, 66.

 “Raise,” never used as noun, 109.

 “Rarely ever,” vulgarism for _rarely_, 109.

 Rates, postal, 129–132.

 “Re-,” compounds with, 47–48.

 _-re_, French ending not used, 36.

 Réaumur. _See_ Thermometers.

 “Reference,” used with _with_ not _in_, 109.

 References,
   capitalization of, nouns, 28;
   literary references, 28;
   use of colon in scriptural, 11;
   italics used in words, phrases, and abbreviations of literary and
     legal, 64.

 “Regard.” _See_ under _Reference_.

 Regiments, capitalization of names of, 29.

 Regions, or parts of the world, proper capitalization of, 22–23.

 Registered mail, domestic and foreign, regulations for, 138.

 “Relative,” use of the word, 99.

 Relative clauses, use of comma with, 6.

 Religious terms, capitalization of, 20–22, 26.

 Residence, use of comma before “of” in connection with, 7.

 Resolutions:
   word “Resolved” in, italicized, 64;
   word “Whereas,” 26.

 “Resolved,” in resolutions,
   word following, to be capitalized, 26;
   italicization of, 64.

 Respect, capitalization of titles of, 25.

 “Respect.” _See_ under _Reference_.

 “Reverend,” always preceded by _the_, 110.

 Reverse indention, 55.

 “Revolutionary,” capitalization of, 22.

 Roman:
   used in medical terms, 64;
   in certain words and phrases, literary and legal, 64.

 Roman numerals:
   use of period after, 12.
   _See_ Numerals.

 “Rubaiyat,” plural of _rubai_, 109.

 Running-heads, period not used following, 12.

 Salutatory phrase:
   of letters, business, formal and informal, 116–118;
   use of comma, 7.
   _See_ Phrase.

 “Same,” not used as pronoun, 110.

 “Same as,” distinguished from _just as_, 110.

 Sarcasm, indicated by use of exclamation-point, 15.

 “Scarcely.” _See_ under _Hardly_.

 “School,” compounds with, 51.

 Scientific terms,
   capitalization of, 23;
   italicizing of, 64.

 Scriptural terms, abbreviations of, 90.

 Scripture, punctuation of:
   comma, 9;
   colon, 11;
   dash, 13;
   spacing of, references, 60.

 Seasons, capitalization of, 23.

 “Seldom ever.” _See_ under _Rarely ever_.

 “Self,” compounds with, 47.

 “Semi,” compounds with, 48, 50.

 Semicolon:
   defined, 8, 9;
   compared with comma, 9;
   placing of, in connection with quotation-marks, 9;
   rules for use of, 9;
   dividing compound sentences, 9;
   separating passages in Scripture references containing chapters, 9;
   use of hair-space preceding, 59.

 “Sensible of,” distinguished from _sensitive to_, 110.

 Sentences:
   first word of, capitalized, 29;
   first word after colon capitalized in independent, 29;
   connection of, in paragraph, 58.

 Serial titles, to be quoted, 17.

 “Set,” distinguished from _sit_, 110.

 “Sewage,” correct use of, 110.

 “Shall,” correct use of, 110.

 “She.” _See_ under _Her_.

 Shillings and pence, abbreviations, _s._ and _d._, italics, 64.

 Ships:
   names of, quoted, 17;
   names of, italicized, 62;
   time and watch on board, 161.

 “Should,” correct use of, 111.

 “Show,” correct use of, 111.

 “Show up,” vulgarism for _expose_, 111.

 Side-heads:
   capitalization of, 29;
   italicizing of, 62.

 Signatures,
   omission of period after, 12;
   italicizing of, 62;
   general rules for, 122.

 “Since,” correct use of, 111.

 _-sion_ and _-tion_, spelling of words terminating in, 39–40.

 “Sister,” compounds with, 47.

 “Size up,” vulgarism for _estimate_, 111.

 Small capitals:
   how indicated in MS., 30;
   rules for, 30.

 “So,” correct use of, 111.

 Social organizations, capitalization of, 25.

 Solar system, capitalization of popular names of, 23.

 “Some,” correct use of, 111.

 “Some one,” not a compound word, 51

 “Some place,” written _somewhere_, 111.

 “Sort.” _See_ under _Kind_.

 “Sort of,” correct use of, 111.

 Sovereigns, abbreviation of names of, 69.

 Spaces, examples of, 61.

 Spacing:
   rules for, 59–61;
   uniformity of, 59;
   hair-spaces in connection with punctuation marks, 59;
   of abbreviated titles, 25, 59–60;
   of Scripture references, 60;
   of A.M., P.M., etc., 59;
   symbols and figures, 60;
   at end of paragraph, 60;
   in regard to turn-overs, 60;
   kerned letters, _f_ and _j_ require hair-spaces, 60;
   wide spacing, 60;
   examples, dashes and spaces, 60–61;
   of abbreviations of railroads, 66.

 Special delivery, mail system, 139.

 Species, scientific names of:
   use of capitals, 23;
   italicizing of, 64.

 Spelling:
   rules for, 31–34;
   difficulties and choice of usages, 31;
   of decades, ages, centuries, dynasties, 32;
   of numbers of military bodies, streets, sessions of Congress, 32;
   of numbers, 31–32;
   of time of day, 32–33;
   use of diphthongs, 33;
   rules of orthography, 33–36, _see_ Orthography;
   lists of words, — accented words, 37;
   participles, 37;
   variable endings, _-ize_, 37–38;
   ending in _-ise_, 38;
   ending in _-ible_ and _-able_, 39;
   ending in _-sion_ and _-tion_, 39–40;
   pronounced alike, but varying in meaning according to spelling, 40–44.

 “Splendid,” correct use of, 111.

 Square measure, table of, 150.

 Squares, capitalization of names of, 23.

 Standard time:
   meaning and explanation of, 142–144;
   table of, 144.

 Stars, names of, italicized, 64.

 “Start,” distinguished from _begin_, 111.

 “State,” capitalization of, 24–25.

 States:
   spacing of abbreviations of, 60–61;
   list of abbreviations of, 77–81.

 Statistics, treatment of numbers in, 32.

 “Stop,” distinguished from _stay_, 111.

 “Strata,” plural of _stratum_, 109.

 Streets:
   capitalization of names of, 23;
   numbers of, spelled out, 32.

 “Sub,” compounds with, 50.

 Subdivisions: in literary references, not capitalized, 28.

 Subheads,
   omission of period after, 12;
   italicizing of, 62.

 Subject-matter: separation of, by dash, from its authority, 13.

 “Sulpho,” compounds with, 51

 “Super,” compounds with, 50.

 “Supra,”
   compounds with, 48;
   italicized, 64.

 Surveyors’ measure, table of, 151.

 _s.v._, italicized, 64.

 Symbols:
   monetary, 90–91;
   mathematical, 91–92;
   medical, 93;
   spacing of monetary, 60.

 Tables: box-heads in, omission of period, 12.

 “Take,” correct use of, 111.

 “Take stock in,” slang expression, 112.

 Technical:
   use of figures in, matter, 32;
   words or phrases, use of quotation-marks for, 17.

 Tense, common errors of, 112.

 Text of letters: business, formal, and informal, 118–120.

 “That.” _See_ under _Which_.

 “The,” not part of title of magazines and papers, 30.

 “Them,” distinguished from _they_, 112.

 “Thermo,” compounds with, 51.

 Thermometers, comparative table: Réaumur, Centigrade, Fahrenheit, 148.

 “They.” _See_ under _Them_.

 “This,” not used as adverb, 112.

 Thoroughfares:
   capitalization of names of, 23;
   numbers of, spelled out, 32.

 “Through,” distinguished from _finished_, 112.

 Timber and wood, measures of, 157.

 Time:
   use of colon between hours and minutes, 11;
   of day, when spelled out, 32;
   standard, explanation of, 142–144;
   on board ship, 161.

 Time measure, table of, 151.

 _-tion_ and _-sion_. See _-sion_.

 Title-pages, capitalization of certain words, 30.

 Titles:
   capitalization of, 24–26;
   of poems, series, and works of art, to be quoted, 17;
   of parables (biblical), capitalization of, 20;
   of psalms, capitalization of, 20;
   use of colon in literary references, 10–11;
   capitalization of compounded, 22;
   use of comma separating, from names, 6;
   of honor, nobility, and respect, capitalization of, 25;
   civil and military, capitalization of, 25;
   foreign, capitalization of, 25–26;
   of books or essays, capitalization of, 26;
   of treaties, laws, and acts, capitalization of, 27;
   definite article not treated as part of, in newspapers or
     magazines, 30;
   “ex,” “vice,” “general,” “elect,” etc., use of hyphen in
     connecting, 47;
   italicizing of books, newspapers, and periodicals, 62;
   abbreviations of, with lists, 68–75;
   capitalize when used alone 68–69;
   of sovereigns, 69.

 “To,” compounds with, 50.

 “Too,” correct use of, 112.

 “Treat,” followed by _of_, 112.

 Treaties, capitalization of names of, 27.

 “Tree,” compounds with, 49.

 “Tri-,” compounds with, 50.

 Tribes, capitalization of names of, 27.

 Troy ounce, uses of the, 154–155.

 Troy weight, table of, 150.

 “Try,” followed by _to_, 112.

 Two-letter syllables, avoid division of, 53.

 “Ugly,” correct use of, 112.

 _Ult._, not used, 65.

 “Ultra,” compounds with, 48.

 “Un-” (negative prefix), compounds with, 50.

 “Under,” compounds with, 50.

 “United States,” when abbreviated, 66.

 Units of measure, not capitalized, 29–30.

 Unity of paragraphs, 57.

 “University,” capitalization of, 27.

 Unknown quantities: algebraic, geometric, etc., italicized, 64.

 v. (_versus_), set in roman, 64.

 “Van,” capitalization of, 25–26.

 Verbal nouns, ending in _-ing_, distinguished from participles, 106.

 Verbs, not to be omitted from sentence, 112.

 Versions of Bible, capitalization of, 20.

 “Very,” correct use of, 112.

 “Vice,” compounds with, 46.

 _Vide_, italicized, 64.

 “Visitor,” distinguished from _visitant_, 113.

 “viz.,” set in roman, 64.

 “Vocation,” distinguished from _avocation_, 113.

 Vocative words,
   comma separating, 7;
   “O” as distinguished from exclamatory “oh,” 15.

 Volt. _See_ Electrical measures.

 “Von,” capitalization of, 25–26.

 Vowels, rules for division of words based upon, 52–53.

 “Want,” correct use of, 113.

 Watch on board ship, the, 161.

 Watt. _See_ Electrical measures.

 “Way,” not to be used for _away_, 113.

 Week, days of:
   capitalization of, 23;
   abbreviation of, 65–66.

 Weights:
   metric system, table 149;
   apothecaries’, 150;
   avoirdupois, 150;
   British, 153;
   the Troy ounce, 155;
   Indian, 159;
   foreign, 160;
   and measures, tables and rules for, 149–160.

 “What,” distinguished from _that_, 113.

 “Whereas,” in resolutions, use of capital, 26.

 “Which,” correct use of, 113.

 “Who,” correct use of, 113.

 “Will.” _See_ under _Shall_.

 “Woman,”
   compounds with, 49;
   correct use of, _See_ _Gentleman_.

 “Womanly,” distinguished from _womanish_, 113.

 Words:
   accompanied by definition, to be quoted, 17;
   of unusual, technical, or ironical meanings, to be quoted, 17;
   specially desired to attract attention, to be quoted, 17;
   contraction of, omission indicated by apostrophe, 19;
   derived from proper names, capitalization of, 24;
   with special meaning, capitalization of, 29;
   accented, 37;
   pronounced alike, but varying in meaning, according to spelling, list
       of 40–44;
   foreign, italicizing of, 62–63.

 “World,” compounds with, 47.

 “Would.” _See_ under _Should_.

 Wrapping, of mail matter, 132.

 X, do not divide on, 53.

 Yard measures, table of, 158.

 Years, numbers preceding, spelled out, 32.

 Zoölogical terms:
   capitalization of, 23;
   italicizing of, 64.




      *      *      *      *      *      *




Transcriber’s note:

Original spelling and grammar have been generally retained, with some
exceptions noted below.

Footnotes have been relabeled 1–32.

Large curly brackets } used as graphic devices to combine information
over two or more lines of text have been eliminated, restructuring as
necessary to retain the original meaning.

There are many uncommon unicode characters in this book; specialized
fonts may be necessary to view them all in the simple text edition.
Images of many of them are substituted in the html and epub & mobi
editions. Examples―

 On page 91, the mathematical sign for “The difference between” is
 shown in the original book as a glyph like a tilde, reproduced in
 the html/epub/mobi editions as an image from the printed book.
 The text edition of this transcription uses ‘≏’ (U+224F DIFFERENCE
 BETWEEN).

 On page 92, the glyph for “Factorial sign” is shown in the original
 book as a right angle, roughly L shaped, with a “5” nestled into the
 angle (the printed example means specifically “factorial of 5”).
 This form is evidently obsolete, and the transcriber failed to find
 a Unicode method of representation. So in the text edition the code
 “[∟5]” is substituted, while in the html/epub/mobi editions, an image
 is used.

 In the phrase on page 95 "one of those figures, CIↃ, CD, ∞, ⅿ", the
 original book showed an uncial m where this simple text transcription
 edition has [U+217F SMALL ROMAN NUMERAL ONE THOUSAND]. This glyph
 recurs on page 98. As usual, an image is substituted in the
 html/epub/mobi editions.

Page 60. The second paragraph was printed so as to look approximately
like the following: “[ . . . ] _II Sam. 1 : 2–6; 2 : 8–12._”, namely,
with equal space on either side of the colon in the first instance and
unequal spaces in the second instance. This transcription makes it
equal spaces, U+200A (hair space).

Pages 65–92. The chapter titled ABBREVIATIONS contains several
sections: in order, “DATES”, “PROPER NAMES”, “TITLES”, “6. COMMERCIAL
ABBREVIATIONS”, “7. GEOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS”, &c. These are given
html heading level code “<h3>” in this transcription. Unfortunately,
there were no numbered headings corresponding to numbers 1–5 in the
original book, so these are missing from this transcription as well.
(There were and remain paragraphs numbered 1–5, with no headings, but
those all belong to the section “TITLES”)

Page 149. In the original table “Weights and Measures”, the first and
fifth columns are not directly related to the other three, and arguably
do not belong in the table. Therefore, these columns have been stripped
out of the table and recast as a nested list ahead of the table.

Page 152. The phrase “1 lite” was changed to “1 liter”.

Page 168, Index entry “Compounds, with:”; a pointer to page 50 was
added for subentry ‘ “in” ’.

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 54025 ***